|FREEDOM PAPERS                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 | Back
Freedom Paper No. 2

TEACHING DEMOCRACY
By Matthew Gandal and Chester E. Finn, Jr.IntroductionTaking RootEducation for DemocracyWhat Is Democracy?Democracy Education in the SchoolsDemocracy Education Outside the SchoolsConclusionAustralian Parliament "Packs"Kids VotingDemocracy Through Economic EnterpriseModel United NationsConciencia ArgentinaNicaraguan Education ReformSources of Further InformationAbout the Author | TEACHING DEMOCRACY
By Matthew Gandal and Chester E. Finn, Jr.IntroductionTaking RootEducation for DemocracyWhat Is Democracy?Democracy Education in the SchoolsDemocracy Education Outside the SchoolsConclusionAustralian Parliament "Packs"Kids VotingDemocracy Through Economic EnterpriseModel United NationsConciencia ArgentinaNicaraguan Education ReformSources of Further InformationAbout the Author
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|TEACHING DEMOCRACY
By Matthew Gandal and Chester E. Finn, Jr.IntroductionTaking RootEducation for DemocracyWhat Is Democracy?Democracy Education in the SchoolsDemocracy Education Outside the SchoolsConclusionAustralian Parliament "Packs"Kids VotingDemocracy Through Economic EnterpriseModel United NationsConciencia ArgentinaNicaraguan Education ReformSources of Further InformationAbout the Author

Democracy is in demand around the world. It even seems
contagious.  The collapse of totalitarian rule in Eastern Europe;
the victorious struggle against apartheid in South Africa; the
courageous freedom movements in China and Burma; the fight for
free elections in numerous countries where dictatorship was the
norm; and, of course, the dramatic breakup of the Soviet
Union--all demonstrate an innate and universal yearning for
liberty and political freedom.

Taking Root

As newly formed democratic societies attempt to rebuild
their countries politically, economically, and socially, and to
extend to their citizens the rights and freedoms they deserve,
one thing is apparent: their long-term success will depend in
large measure on how quickly and deeply the principles and
institutions of democracy take root in the hearts and minds of
their citizens.  If the ideals that fueled the popular struggles
against oppression are to be realized and remain secure over
time, people must come to understand and appreciate what
democracy is, what life in a free society means, and what
institutional arrangements and personal behaviors are necessary
for such a society to endure and prosper.  They must develop the
habits, attitudes, and values that make democracy possible, and
the commitment and enthusiasm necessary to nurture and sustain
it.  Only if each generation comes to understand and appreciate
democracy will this form of governance prove to be stable and
successful.

This does not apply only to emerging democracies.  Education
for democracy is just as important in mature democracies, but it
is often taken for granted or ignored.  People grow complacent
about their political system if it is working well, and they may
question whether democracy even needs to be studied and learned. 
Some bend so far in the direction of relativism or self-criticism
that they lose their zeal for and confidence in democracy.  The
result is that democracy gets very little attention; sometimes,
it is even denounced.

Education for Democracy

Although the desire for freedom may be innate, knowledge of
how democracy functions must be taught and learned.  Any society
that wishes to remain free needs to ensure that its citizens are
well educated in the theory and practice of democracy.  Part of
the responsibility for such education lies with the schools,
which may teach children not only through the formal curriculum,
but also through the conduct of their institutional affairs and
through various extracurricular activities.  Yet, formal
schooling is not the only educational influence in a free
society.  Informal sources--courses and workshops for adults,
programs on television and radio, articles in newspapers and
magazines, activities organized by community groups--can also
help citizens of all ages learn about democracy.

Anyone who doubts the political importance of education
would do well to note how vigorously totalitarian and
authoritarian governments work to control the information that is
passed through the schools, media, and other sources.  Those who
have successfully struggled to overcome such regimes detest this
practice of indoctrination and want to avoid it in the future.

But the absence of a totalitarian government does not
magically give rise to a strong, stable, and effective democracy.
Democracy does not teach itself.  If the strengths, benefits, and
responsibilities of democracy are not made clear to the citizens,
they will be ill-equipped to defend it.  Education for democracy,
therefore, must be approached in a conscious and serious manner.

What makes democracy education different from the
indoctrination practiced by totalitarians?  Primarily the habits
of mind and discourse that democracy education confers, at least
when properly done.  A focus on democracy does not preclude the
open study of other doctrines or systems of government.  Nor does
it seek to hide democracy's flaws.  Democracies, in contrast to
other governments, are honest about their own shortcomings and
truthful about those of other countries.  If students are taught
about the institutions, values, promises, and problems that have
historically characterized democracy, and those that have
characterized alternate forms of government, there is little
doubt that they will come to appreciate and cherish the
democratic political system.  They will not necessarily regard it
as perfect.  It seldom is.  But they will realize that it is the
best system of government yet tried--and perhaps the most
difficult to maintain.

Children in emerging democracies, having previously attended
schools dedicated to ensuring that democratic ideas did not take
root, can be expected to understand and prize democracy only if
their education system is rapidly and thoroughly transformed. 
Yet where teachers and principals have not themselves lived in
democracy, nor even been allowed to study it, and where textbooks
and other instructional materials have been designed to suppress
and undermine democratic ideas, such a transformation is an
immense undertaking.

Much work thus lies ahead for those tending to the education
systems of aspiring democracies.  Fortunately, they need not
start from scratch.  Democracy education has been practiced
successfully in many lands, including a number of the newer
democracies, and the purpose of this paper is to highlight some
noteworthy examples.  We do not attempt to provide a step-by-step
manual for education reform.  Such prescription is neither
possible nor desirable.  In a sense, it would not even be
democratic.  Instead, we offer a broad array of examples which
may be adapted elsewhere to suit local cultures and conditions.

What Is Democracy?

Any effort at democracy education must begin with a clear
picture of what is to be taught and learned.  It is, therefore,
crucial that those designing education programs, and those who
will be teaching in them, possess an informed understanding of
democracy.

Unfortunately, despite its current vogue, "democracy" is a
term that is often misunderstood and misused.  Totalitarian and
military regimes, for example, may call themselves  democratic
republics  and showcase constitutions promising rights and
freedoms that are, in reality, nonexistent.  Furthermore, in
countries emerging from totalitarianism, where oppression has
been the norm for decades, there may be a tendency to view
democracy simplistically, as a guarantee of individual freedom,
even license, rather than as a complex interplay of ideas,
institutions, obligations, rights, and actions.

Democracy is a system of self-government where the citizens
are equal and political decisions are made by majority rule, but
always with the protection of minority rights.  In its purest
form, democracy affords citizens the opportunity to participate
directly in the decision-making process.  This is called direct
democracy.  But given the size and complexity of today's
societies, it is generally more practical for citizens to elect
representatives who will govern and make decisions on their
behalf.  Representative democracy relies on regular, free, fair,
and competitive elections to hold the government accountable to
the people.

In a democracy, the government exists to serve the people,
not the other way around.  Since democratic government derives
its authority from the consent of the governed, the people have
the capacity to change the government peacefully when they lose
confidence in it.  And they need not fear a bullet if they try.

While majority rule is the bedrock principle upon which
democracy rests, simple majoritarianism has its own drawbacks. 
Hence it usually operates within a constitutional framework that
limits the power of government and safeguards individual and
minority rights.  In such constitutional democracies, all
citizens possess certain fundamental rights, and the exercise of
those rights by minorities does not depend upon the goodwill of
the majority.

Such rights are guaranteed through mechanisms that are
extremely difficult to alter.  In the United States, for example,
the Constitution lists freedom of speech, freedom of religion,
freedom of assembly, and the right to a fair trial as inalienable
rights of all citizens.  The state and national governments are
forbidden from passing any law that denies or erodes these
rights.

Also fundamental to democratic government are the checks and
balances that block any institution, group, or individual from
becoming too powerful.  It is important, for example, to have an
independent judiciary that can prevent the executive and
legislative branches from overstepping their bounds.  In the
United States, the executive and the Congress operate separately
to provide further checks on each other.  In this way, no one
person or even a single branch of government can amass enough
power to threaten or violate citizens' rights.  Although
parliamentary and presidential systems differ in how they divide
the powers of government, they all provide some mechanisms to
limit the power of any branch.

But just as democracy can fail if the government has too
much power, it can also fail if government does not have enough
power.  The democratic process is a formula for fairness, not
passivity or anarchy.  Leadership is accordingly necessary for
the success of democratic government, and citizens must abide by
decisions of their elected leaders and obey the laws of the
society (provided they do not violate any fundamental rights).

Contrary to some perceptions, a healthy democratic society
is not simply an arena where individuals pursue their private
agendas.  It may be the promise of freedom and opportunity that
makes democracy so attractive, but just as important to its
success--and all too often ignored--are the responsibilities and
habits of mind that must accompany life in a democratic society.

Democratic citizens are, for example, expected to
participate in the political life of their society and to lend
their influence to the public debate.  They may do this in many
ways, including: by choosing representatives to the government;
joining political parties, labor unions, and other voluntary
organizations; serving on juries in civil or criminal trials;
even running for public office themselves.  To participate
effectively, people must inform themselves about the issues
affecting society and be able to weigh self-interest and
factional interest against concern for the public good.  They
must be tolerant of dissenting views and able to cooperate and
compromise.  They must exhibit respect for law and legitimate
authority as well as for privacy and property.

Democracy is thus more than a system of government.  It is
a way of living and working together.  And it is only when the
manifold responsibilities of democratic life are taken seriously
by citizens that its rights and rewards will be meaningful.

Democracy Education in the Schools

In order for people to understand and appreciate their
opportunities and responsibilities as democratic citizens, they
must receive a sound education.  Such an education seeks not only
to familiarize people with the precepts and practices of
democracy, but also to produce citizens who are principled,
independent, inquisitive, and analytic in their outlook and
committed to democracy.

Education for democracy should not be viewed as an isolated
subject, taught for a short time each day and otherwise ignored. 
It is linked to nearly everything else that students learn in
school--whether it be history, civics, ethics, or economics--and
to much that goes on outside of school.  In short, good democracy
education is part of good education in general.

Education for democracy occurs in a variety of venues.  The
most common environment is the schools, which, in a democracy,
are not controlled by government alone.  Democratic governments
do provide schooling for their citizens--which must be equally
accessible to all, and not be used as a vehicle for government
propaganda--but democracy allows for alternatives as well.
Churches and other religious groups are free to create religious
schools; private citizens may organize independent schools; and
parents may even choose to teach their children at home.  This
pluralism is part of democracy; it is healthy for the society. 
It may also result in better education.

Curriculum.  School-based democracy education can take
many forms. Within the school curriculum, the history,
principles, and practice of democracy may be treated as a
distinct course of study or worked into a number of other
disciplines (including history, geography, economics, literature,
and social studies).  Alternatively, these ideas may be viewed as
a theme around which an entire history/social studies curriculum
can be organized.  However the curriculum is structured, it must
cover four fundamental areas if students are to have a sufficient
understanding of and appreciation for democracy.

First, adequate attention must be paid to the roots and
branches of the democratic idea as well as to the history of its
expansion throughout the world.  Students must learn where and
how the principles of democracy were born, paying close attention
to the circumstances in which they emerged.  Democracy should be
traced from its various strands in the classical world of the
Greeks and Romans and in the ethical thought of biblical Jews and
early Christians, through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and
the Reformation, the English Revolution, the Enlightenment, and
the American and French revolutions.  This course of study
includes the examination of important historical documents such
as the Magna Carta; the United States Declaration of
Independence, Constitution, and Bill of Rights; and the French
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.  Students
should also be familiar with the history of 20th century struggle
for democracy against Fascism, Communism, and other forms of
dictatorship.

Second, the curriculum must help students explore how the
ideas of democracy have been translated into institutions and
practices around the world and through the ages.  Examples of the
growth and development of democratic societies of the past and
present should be introduced and questions raised:



- Where has democracy flourished, where has it failed, and why?
- What political, economic, social, and cultural conditions
have helped shape democratic societies?
- What conditions have hindered democratic development?
- Who has defended democracy and who has sought its undoing?
- How have democratic governments been organized to allow for
majority rule?  To protect individual and minority rights?  To
provide law and order without suppressing freedom and
individualism?
- What types of non-governmental bodies have influenced the
political process?
- How have legal systems been structured to limit government
control and ensure that all people have the right to a fair
trial?
- How have the mass media functioned?

In answering questions such as these, students will be exposed to
many practical elements of a functioning democracy.  They will
learn how democracy works in reality--and how reality does and
does not keep faith with theory.

Third, the curriculum must explore the history of democracy
in the students  own nations, so that they may answer questions
such as: What forms of government have existed in my country in
the past?  Have we ever tried democracy before?  If so, why did
it fail?  What led to the establishment of our present democratic
government?  How are the circumstances we now face similar to
those faced by democratic societies in the past?  How are they
different?  What lessons can we learn from failed attempts at
democracy in our own society and in others?

Fourth, students need to understand the current condition of
democracy in the world.  They must know where it exists, where it
is being fought for, and what its alternatives are.  They need to
recognize that democracy has taken different forms in different
countries, and they should understand how and why this occurs. 
How is Costa Rican democracy different from Australian democracy?
How are they similar?  What are the barriers to democracy in
countries such as China, Cuba, and Iraq?  What has enabled so
many other nations recently to overcome these impediments?  What
dangers and choices lie ahead for aspiring democracies, and how
can they work together--and with other, more established
democratic nations--to achieve success?  (One useful resource for
measuring the spread of democracy around the world is the annual
Freedom in the World series, published by Freedom House, a
human rights organization.  See "Sources of Further
Information.")

Curriculum and instruction can be approached in myriad ways,
but these four elements are essential for any strong democracy
education program.

Even in established democracies, most schools pay too little
attention to the history and principles of democracy.  As a
result, generations of schoolchildren do not fully understand or
appreciate the political system in which they live.  They have
come to take democracy for granted.  Recently, however, some U.S.
school systems have begun to adopt curriculum frameworks that
offer guidelines on how better to integrate the study of
democratic ideas into the educational system, and their
experiences can be instructive for new democracies.  A curriculum
framework is not designed for classroom use.  Rather, it serves
as a foundation upon which classroom materials, lesson plans,
teacher guides, assessment mechanisms, and teacher training
programs can be built.

For example, in 1987 the State of California adopted a new
curriculum framework designed to strengthen the teaching of
history and social science in its elementary and secondary
schools.  The framework is an excellent illustration of how
democratic content may be built into the formal school
curriculum.  The introduction to the framework states what types
of knowledge and intellectual qualities students in a democratic
society--and the United States in particular--need to acquire. 
They must perceive the complexity of social, economic, and
political problems.  They should know their rights and
responsibilities as citizens and understand the Constitution as a
social contract that defines democratic government and guarantees
individual rights.  They must respect the right of others to
disagree with them.  They must be active citizens, and know how
to work for peaceful change in society.  They ought to understand
the importance and the fragility of democratic institutions. 
They should recognize the conditions that encourage democracy to
prosper and those that work against it.  Finally, they should
develop a keen sense of ethics and citizenship and care deeply
about the quality of life in their community, their nation, and
their world.  In their final year of high school, students take a
course that focuses specifically on the principles of American
democracy.

Likewise, the Center for Civic Education, a private U.S.
organization, recently published a curriculum framework for civic
education in an attempt to make it a more prominent part of the
curriculum in secondary schools throughout the country.  Civitas,
as the framework is called, features an interdisciplinary
approach and focuses on the nature and politics of democratic
government and the fundamental values, rights, and
responsibilities of citizenship.  A diverse and distinguished
array of American historians, political scientists, and educators
contributed to Civitas, and their hope is that it will provide
the basis for some very dynamic textbooks and other curriculum
materials.

Recently, the Center--working with numerous U.S. and
international educators, professional organizations, civic
leaders, community groups and others--has completed the National
Standards for Civics and Government.  These voluntary standards
for students in kindergarten through grade 12 (K-12), are
intended to help schools develop competent and responsible
citizens who possess a reasoned commitment to the fundamental
values and principles that are essential to the preservation and
improvement of American constitutional democracy.  It is expected
that this document will provide guidance in the development of
U.S. civic education programs for years to come.

Methods for Teaching Democracy.  Education for democracy
can be approached in a manner appropriate to students at the
elementary, secondary, or post-secondary levels.  Whatever the
age of the student, pedagogy is naturally most effective when it
captures his or her imagination.  Teaching democracy lends itself
well to such creativity and excitement.  Students can read
textbooks, monographs, biographies, autobiographies, heroic
tales, poetry, and other works discussing and illuminating
aspects of democracy. They may study primary documents, such as
democratic charters and constitutions.  They may put on plays or
skits dealing with important issues or events.  They may even
play games, solve puzzles, and hold contests.

One useful way to inform students about their government and
the democratic political system is to invite government
officials, critics, and analysts to visit the classroom and
answer students  questions.  This will not only teach children
how government works, but it will also help bring it to life.

Another way to make democracy vivid for students is to
incorporate it into everyday classroom activities.  Give students
some say in matters affecting the class.  Let them vote on
certain issues.  Allow them to work in teams, teach other
children, allocate resources, make presentations, and lead class
discussions.  All these activities require skills vital to
democratic life, skills that are often best learned through
experience rather than didactically.

Teachers may encourage democratic behavior through their
classroom techniques as well.  Lecturing to a class is not always
the best way to reach students.  Students should be involved in
discussions and encouraged to ask questions.  If they are timid
or cannot seem to come up with any questions or comments, the
teacher must ask questions and stimulate discussion.  This is one
of the most difficult things for students--and teachers--in newly
free societies to get used to, but it is an essential element of
democracy education.  Questioning is the beginning of wisdom.

Education for Democracy and Extracurricular Activities. 
Schools may provide a forum for democratic activities and
learning outside the classroom.  Extracurricular activities such
as athletic teams, clubs, and youth groups give students
opportunities to work together toward a common goal, and often
require them to select leaders and make important decisions. 
Students interested in theater, dance, photography, computers,
and other hobbies may organize clubs for these activities, where
democratic norms can be put into practice.  Particularly
effective at imparting democratic knowledge and skills are debate
clubs, which encourage students to take an active interest in
public affairs, express their opinions, and respect the views of
others.  Student newspapers are also an effective and popular way
to involve students in important societal issues while educating
them about the role of the media.

In the United States, countrywide student competitions help
promote civic knowledge.  The Close Up Foundation, a civic
organization with a history of successful education programs,
launched the Citizen Bee competition in 1985 to encourage U.S.
secondary-school students to increase their understanding of
government, history, geography, economics, and current events. 
(This competition is modeled on the traditional spelling bee, in
which students are tested on their spelling and are eliminated
from competition as they make mistakes.)  To prepare for the
annual contest, students work with a kit of classroom-based
activities and a study guide provided by Close Up.  They are also
expected to keep abreast of current events.

The competition itself has two parts.  The first is a
written examination.  The second is an oral portion in which
students respond to four questions.  The contest begins at the
school level, with the top students moving on to regional and
state competitions.  The winners from each state are brought to
Washington, D.C., to compete in the national finals for such
prizes as college scholarships.

The U.S. Department of Education and the Center for Civic
Education co-sponsor a similar democracy education contest, but
this one involves competition among school classes, not
individuals.  Its focus is limited to the U.S. Constitution and
Bill of Rights.  Classes participating in this "We the People..."
competition study specially prepared units on the history and
principles of the Constitution, and then compete as teams at the
district, regional, state, and national levels.

Students can also learn democratic methods by creating a
model of the democratic process.  One of the most effective such
models is student government, where students from each grade
level are elected by classmates to represent them in resolving
important school-related issues.  Through their involvement in
campaigns, elections, and the day-to-day operations of
government, students learn first-hand about the democratic
process.  In addition, student councils provide students with a
voice in school administration--a means of influencing decisions
that will affect them directly.

Making the School Environment More Democratic.  One
important way to make the education system and school environment
more democratic is to decentralize the process of school
governance--and to engage more people in decision-making.  Just
as students should have a say in important decisions affecting
them inside and outside the classroom, so should principals,
teachers, parents, and others with clear interests in the
policies and practices of individual schools.  This objective can
be accomplished in various ways.  Schools may form
administrator-teacher committees to make decisions on such issues
as class scheduling, student testing, and classroom discipline. 
Parent-teacher associations may make recommendations on
curriculum or school budgets.  And broader governing bodies,
perhaps including administrators, teachers, and parents, may
oversee these and other important issues.  In each case,
elections can be held to determine who will serve, and meetings
and forums may be called to engage a wider constituency in the
issues under consideration.

In 1988, the City of Chicago embarked upon an ambitious
plan to improve its school system, which had been regarded as one
of the nation's most troubled.  Based on the widely held belief
that the city's highly centralized school system was not
adequately meeting the needs of children or community, the
Chicago School Reform Act provided for every public school in the
city to elect a Local School Council (LSC) consisting of two
teachers, six parents, two other community members, and the
principal.

The LSC, which makes its decisions via majority rule, is
responsible for many decisions previously made by the central
administration and Board of Education.  Each LSC now has
substantial control over its school's budget, academic program,
and internal organization and priority-setting.  Perhaps most
significant, the LSC has the power to hire and fire the
principal.

Chicago has a long way to go before these changes in
structure and governance show a clear impact on student
performance.  Nonetheless, more than 6,000 citizens are engaged
in the processes of democratic school governance: running for
office, usually in contested elections; learning the procedures
of orderly decision-making for a public enterprise; grappling
with difficult issues and problems; and living with the
consequences of their decisions.  By bringing many such decisions
closer to the parents, children, and teachers directly affected
by them, the Chicago program also illustrates one approach to
more participatory governance in an area that had long been
entrusted to distant bureaucracies and politicians.

It is important to recognize that decentralization of
school decision-making does not automatically make the process
more democratic.  Individual school heads may function in an
authoritarian fashion, too.  But decentralization at least
creates an opportunity for sharing of authority and
responsibility, for introducing more democratic forms of school
governance, and for the active participation of teachers and
parents.  Students observing these examples of democracy in
action are also apt to get a clearer understanding of how it
works than those whose schools are just cogs in a vast
bureaucratic wheel.  Sometimes the students even participate
directly.  In Chicago, for example, in each high school a student
representative is chosen to serve on the LSC.

Democracy Education Outside the Schools

Schools are not the only settings for democracy education. 
In fact, it is often through informal, community-based programs
that many members of the population--especially adults--are
reached.  In countries emerging from totalitarianism, today's
adults are products of schools that strove to denigrate
democracy.  Now mostly beyond the reach of the schools, these
adults must rely on other means--continuing-education courses,
employment-related programs, workshops, leadership seminars,
radio and television, newspapers, posters, brochures, unions, and
various voluntary associations--to acquaint them with democratic
principles and practice.

Even where schools are involved in teaching democracy,
informal programs serve as an important supplement for young
people as well as adults.  Understanding democracy entails more
than just learning about it.  It requires action.  People of all
ages must work to inform themselves about important issues,
participate in the political process, and become involved in the
affairs of their communities.  Community-based programs can
provide citizens with these opportunities.

In addition, whereas the school-based version is usually in
the hands of the state (which runs most of the schools), one of
the virtues of informal democracy education is that it can come
from a variety of sources under many different auspices.

Courses, Workshops, and Seminars.  The most direct
community-based approach to democracy education is adult or
continuing education.  There is no substitute for a well-taught
course on democratic government, politics, history, and
citizenship, one that adequately covers democratic tradition and
practice inside and outside the particular country and that makes
use of some of the democratic teaching methods described earlier.

Adult education is an important function in democracies,
where responsible citizenship goes hand in hand with lifelong
learning.  In some countries, courses for adults are offered by
many different organizations, including national or local
governments, public or private schools and universities, civic
and community groups, churches, libraries, businesses, labor
unions.  These courses may be most useful when scheduled at night
or on weekends to allow people with regular jobs to attend.

Interactive workshops offer a more hands-on approach to
democracy education.  People may be brought together in small
groups to discuss current events and issues associated with life
in a democracy.  Group leaders or instructors may be chosen to
direct the discussion, but one advantage of working in small
groups is that everyone can participate in the dialogue.  Some
workshops may focus on specific democratic values or skills, such
as leadership or tolerance.  Others may involve the study of
particular institutions, such as the media or the legal system. 
Perhaps a judge, lawyer, or journalist could be invited to
participate.

Other useful educational tools--often effective in promoting
community action as well--are seminars and public forums, where
members of the community can be brought together to discuss
current issues and problems in front of a larger audience.  If a
community is having problems with crime, for example, local
politicians, lawyers, judges, educators, parents, and
representatives of the police force can be brought together to
work on ways to keep neighborhoods safe.  The general public may
be invited to attend the meeting and be given a chance to raise
points or ask questions.  This is an efficient way to galvanize a
community around certain issues and to promote discussion,
compromise, strategy, and action.  Though perhaps less obvious to
participants, such meetings offer good practical lessons in
democracy.

Dissemination of Materials.  Perhaps the best way to get a
message out, whether it be information about candidates in an
upcoming election in particular or about democratic citizenship
in general, is through the dissemination of educational materials
such as books, pamphlets, brochures, leaflets, and posters.  For
example, the distribution of brochures describing the candidates
running for an upcoming election and emphasizing the importance
of voting can mean a big difference in voter turnout.

Libraries play an important role in a free society.  By
serving as a resource center and providing citizens with ready
access to information on a variety of subjects, usually at little
or no cost to the reader, libraries can be effective means of
democracy education.

One tried and true way to learn about democracy is to read
classic democratic texts--books that have significantly
contributed to democratic movements throughout history.  In
Central America, a civic organization called Libro Libre has been
making such works available in Spanish for years.  Published in a
series called Classics of Democracy, the group has
presented the writings of de Tocqueville, Montesquieu, Kant,
Jefferson, Madison, Lincoln, Thomas Paine, Adam Smith, Lord
Acton, and Ortega y Gasset.  Libro Libre has also created a
series called Democracy Today, which focuses on more
contemporary issues.

Use of the Media.  The news media are among the most
influential institutions in modern societies.  Nothing reaches
more people than radio, television, newspapers, and magazines,
and these can be potent educational vehicles.  Authoritarian and
totalitarian governments understand this well and go to great
lengths to control and censor their press.  In democratic
societies, however, the media operate free of government control;
they provide coverage of important issues both in and out of the
political arena and serve as a watchdog over government and other
powerful institutions.

Panama's Center for Democracy, formed in 1987 to help
restore democracy, operates a number of excellent programs that
harness the power of the media for purposes of civic education. 
In conjunction with three commercial television stations, the
Center has produced a series of 30-second advertisements designed
to publicize its work and to convey important educational
messages regarding democracy.  One such spot, for example,
focuses on the role of the family in a democracy--in raising
responsible democratic citizens.  Another reinforces the concept
of community service.  The Center is also working to create
monthly television programs that will speak to pertinent issues
and foster a better understanding of democratic institutions and
principles.

The Center has conducted similar advertising campaigns by
radio, which, in most cases, is less expensive and less
complicated than television.  The Center also conducts a weekly,
hour-long radio program on topics related to the promotion of
democratic values and issues of national interest.  Subjects have
ranged from "culture and democracy" to "community development" to
"democratic education."

The most successful piece of the Center's media campaign is
a monthly newspaper supplement.  Inserted inside one of the
leading national newspapers, this supplement serves as an
advertisement for the Center and its programs and contains
articles promoting democratic principles and values.  Each month,
the supplement focuses on a different topic, such as the history
of Panama's judiciary, citizen participation in a democracy, and
civic voluntarism.

Community Involvement.  Central to any functioning
democracy are the many private organizations that offer people
avenues of political engagement in issues affecting their lives,
their communities, and the nation at large.  By joining groups
such as political parties, labor unions, neighborhood
associations, and religious groups, citizens are exercising their
fundamental right of free association.  Whatever their
affiliation or focus, such organizations can serve as mediating
structures between individuals and the government and give people
greater leverage in their efforts to improve the life of their
community.

Civic groups and others involved in democracy education can
help facilitate the creation of such community groups where they
do not already exist.  Citizens may organize labor unions and
employer groups to look out for the interests of specific
occupational groups, organizations to address issues such as
environmental pollution or cruelty to animals, or consumer groups
to protect the public from unfair practices or unsafe products. 
They can create organizations to deal with such issues as public
safety, services for the elderly, or the maintenance of gardens
and parks.  There may be a group working to improve local
libraries, an organization interested in preserving a community's
historical sites, or an association dedicated to finding a cure
for cancer, AIDS, or other diseases.  Whatever their focus, such
organizations empower citizens to take responsibility for their
communities and provide them with constructive avenues of
involvement.

To the extent that they participate in interest groups and
community organizations, citizens are also engaged in informal
democracy education.  They are learning firsthand about the role
of private associations in a democracy and are seeing the
democratic process itself being modeled within the governance of
each organization.

Conclusion

The situations facing governments in emerging democracies
today are similar in many ways to those Japan and Germany faced
after World War II.  The need to rethink the way schools are
governed, to make quality education available to all, to retrain
teachers, and to replace politicized curricula and teaching
habits--these are common concerns in countries recovering from
years of oppression.  Japan and Germany have shown that it is
possible to adopt education for democracy on a nationwide basis. 
The distinct advantage that modern aspiring democracies have is
that they have chosen democracy freely and of their own will. 
They are taking reforms into their own hands.

This is not to say that success will come easily.  Education
for democracy is no quick fix.  Creating the educational
infrastructure and the sorts of formal and informal programs
crucial to good democracy education will require hard work and a
long-term commitment on the part of the government and the
citizenry.

There will always be a need for civic education, no matter
how advanced a democratic society becomes.  The longer democracy
is in place in a country, the greater is the risk that citizens
will take its principles, institutions, and benefits  for
granted.  Today, some of the most innovative programs in civic
education are being carried out in emerging democracies.  These
programs, like the recent democratic revolutions that made them
possible, have helped to reawaken the interest in civic education
in the more established democracies.  We are now entering an
exciting period when, through the sharing of the type of
information contained in this document, all societies can develop
education programs that ensure the growth and continued health of
democracy.

AUSTRALIAN "PARLIAMENT PACKS"

Responding to students' lack of knowledge about the Australian
government and the history and characteristics of that country's
form of democracy, the Australian Parliament established a
Parliamentary Education Office in 1987, and charged it with
improving political literacy and historical awareness in the
schools.  That office has produced numerous materials on
democracy, including two packages of curriculum materials, one
for the elementary grades and one for secondary, and distributed
them to all Australian schools.

The "Parliament Packs," as they are called, have two
components, one dealing with Australian history, the other
focusing on the structure and process of Australian government.  
Each pack consists of a variety of teaching resources, including
reference booklets, student work-sheets, teachers' guides,
charts, videos, and games.  The teachers' guides offer detailed
instructional guidance and explain how the packs can be
integrated into different subject areas.

In addition to the "Parliament Packs," the Education Office
has produced a variety of other materials in recent years.  Among
these are "junior fact sheets" on Australian government, a
"Parliamentary Activity Book" for primary school students,
"Parliamentary Government in Australia:  A Student Guide to the
Commonwealth Parliament" and "Parliament:  A Two Way Street," a
multi-resource kit for investigating parliament's impact on the
life of young people.

KIDS VOTING

Since 1988, an impressive mock election program has been
operating in Arizona.  Modeled after a successful program in
Costa Rica, Kids Voting offers specially prepared curricula for
elementary and secondary schools designed to educate students
about important democratic principles and to instill in them
lifelong voting habits.  The program culminates with children
accompanying their parents to the polls on election day and
taking part in a simulated election while mom and dad participate
in the real one.

Within the Kids Voting curriculum, students explore many
important issues.  They learn about the structure of democratic
government and politics, including the roles of political
parties, interest groups and the media; the qualifications for
voting; the registration process; and the actual procedure that
takes place at the polls.  They also study the history of the
expansion of suffrage and examine factors that influence voter
choices and participation.  When focusing on a particular
election, the Kids Voting program describes the qualifications
for and responsibilities of specific offices, and discusses
individual candidates' views on major issues.

The most interesting aspect of the Kids Voting program is
that it actually involves students going to the polls with their
parents on election day and voting next to them.  This not only
allows children to experience how the process works, but also
motivates parents themselves to vote.

Kids Voting has been successful in Arizona and is being
replicated in other U.S states.  Ninety-five percent of Arizona s
elementary- and secondary-school students have been involved in
the program, and it is strongly supported by registered voters. 
In fact, 3 percent of Arizona voters said that Kids Voting was
the only reason they took part in the last election.  (This is a
significant number when one considers that three of the last
eight U.S. presidential elections were decided by a margin of
less than 3 percent!)

DEMOCRACY THROUGH ECONOMIC ENTERPRISE

In the 1930s, in the midst of the Great Depression, the Skokie
School, a public middle school (grades 6 8) in Winnetka,
Illinois, supported a group of successful student projects called
"economic enterprises."  Students, with the help of the faculty,
formed all kinds of "businesses."  These included the Biology
Bureau of Bees, which raised bees, studied their habits, and sold
honey for a profit; a bank and credit union, where students could
deposit and borrow money; a Greenhouse Committee that grew
flowers and vegetables and sold them for a profit; and an
insurance company that insured children against loss from such
mishaps as breaking dishes in the cafeteria.  These activities
permeated the whole school and gave both motive and application
to many of the children's other studies.

A Credit Union was set up at the beginning of each school
year by offering 500 shares to students at $1 each, thereby
getting the "capital" they needed to operate the business. 
Owning these shares made the participating students owners of the
business.  With that capital in hand, the students managing the
Credit Union would decide what interest rates to charge to
children who wanted to borrow money.

Student managers were also responsible, with some help from
a faculty adviser, for doing the accounting for these financial
transactions.  A brisk business in financing cafeteria lunches
for students who had forgotten theirs, or bus fare for those
needing to get home, made the Credit Union's capital grow.  At
the year's end, the profits made by charging interest were
divided among the shareholders, and the company was dissolved, to
be started up again the next year.

Running the school newspaper was another source of economic
"know-how."  Students, in addition to serving as editors and
reporters and selling subscriptions, raised money for the paper
by going out into the community and soliciting advertisements
from local merchants.  The students also took trips to see how
professional newspapers were managed and published and came back
with ideas for improving their own.  The enterprise taught them
about the basics of newspaper financing, production, and
circulation.

The children participated in these groups with great
enthusiasm and pleasure, and were perhaps unaware of how much
they were absorbing the values and skills needed to live in a
democratic society.  Through these extracurricular activities,
the youngsters were learning both independence of thought and
cooperation with others.  They were learning tolerance,
compromise, responsibility, and initiative.  At the same time,
they were also learning about economic organization--primarily
about capitalism, the economic system that so often seems to be
wedded to successful democratic governments.

In the United States today, there are many organizations
dedicated to the development of effective programs of economic
education.  For example, the National Council on Economic
Education, founded in 1949, is an important source of teacher
training, educational materials, and curriculum reform.  The
National Council's program Economics America provides economic
education for over 120,000 teachers serving eight million
students each year.  Among other publications, the National
Council has developed "A Framework for Teaching Basic Economic
Concepts with Scope and Sequence Guidelines, K-12," which is
widely accepted by U.S. educators, educational policymakers,
administrators, and economists.

MODEL UNITED NATIONS

One exercise in democracy popular in a number of countries is the
Model United Nations program.  This activity asks students to
assume the roles of "ambassadors" from various countries to the
United Nations and debate current issues on the world agenda,
including the environment, economic development, conflict
resolution, disarmament, and human rights.  Operating within a
framework of diplomacy, negotiation, and parliamentary rules,
students in the Model U.N. program learn firsthand some important
lessons in democracy.

The program has two basic components.  First, students go
through an intensive preparation process, in which they research
the countries they will represent, prepare policy papers, draft
resolutions, and practice rules of procedure and skills of public
speaking.  Second, they take part in the simulation experience
itself, a process of formal debate and negotiation that can last
up to five days.

Model U.N. programs may take several forms.  The simplest
occurs within the classroom and involves 15 to 50 students. 
Groups of this size often simulate a particular U.N. body such as
the Security Council, rather than the General Assembly.  Another
form of Model U.N. is the school-wide program involving some or
all of the students.  In this case, the simulation can
concentrate on the General Assembly or other U.N. bodies.  A
third and more complex version is the interschool Model U.N.
conference, where hundreds or even thousands of students from
many schools come together.

In the United States, more than 60,000 students are involved
in the Model U.N. program, from the elementary through the
university levels.  United Nations Associations have also
operated Model U.N. programs in Austria, Australia, Canada,
Chile, China, Egypt, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, India,
Indonesia, Ireland, Japan, Kenya, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, the
Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, the Philippines, Poland,
Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tanzania, Ukraine,
and Venezuela.

CONCIENCIA ARGENTINA

Argentina is home to one of the most impressive civic
organizations dedicated to democracy education.  This is
Conciencia Argentina, founded in 1982 with the goal of
transforming a passive populace accustomed to authoritarian
governments into a mature, responsible citizenry, educated in the
principles of democracy.  It has developed a wide range of
programs, both formal and informal, that seek not only to educate
the public about democracy, but also to engage them in it.

Conciencia's initial efforts were directed toward informal
courses in democracy and citizenship, courses that continue to be
offered today.  The goal is to introduce people to the Argentine
system of government and explain how citizens can participate in
political life.  Courses examine the three branches of government
and try to relate each to the lives of citizens.  When examining
the legislative branch, for example, courses cover its structure
and operation and emphasize how people can remain informed about
legislative activities and communicate with representatives to
ensure that their concerns are heard.

Local government is also covered by these courses.  Citizens
are informed about services they have a right to expect from
municipal organizations and about steps they can take to make
themselves heard (such as community councils and petitions).  In
all such courses, Conciencia goes to great lengths to bring
students to the setting where government is taking place, whether
it is the national legislature or town hall.

To provide a more active learning environment, Conciencia
also offers many workshops focusing on particular democratic
principles or skills, such as leadership, tolerance, and
compromise.  People are placed in small groups where they learn
to express their opinions, respect those of others, and work
toward consensus.

Yet, too few people can be reached through courses and
workshops, so Conciencia has developed another approach--the
direct sales method.  By going door-to-door and organizing
meetings of six to eight people in homes, Conciencia
representatives are able to provide people with a basic
understanding of democratic government.  Two evenings are spent
with the same small group, introducing them to principles and
institutions of democracy and describing ways they can
participate in the political process.

In addition to these activities, Conciencia organizes
seminars and round tables focused on important national issues
and, near election time, goes to great lengths to educate
citizens about the importance of voting--and the significance of
the issues.  In 1989, for example, the Legislature of the
Province of Buenos Aires enacted changes in the provincial
constitution and called for a popular referendum to approve them.
Conciencia believed that the significance of the changes had not
been properly conveyed to the people or the media, so they
published a study that forecast the effects of the proposed
reform and distributed it to well-known journalists.  They also
made it available to political parties, associations, schools,
and the public.  Round tables were organized throughout the
province, and testimony that illustrated the widespread public
ignorance regarding the referendum was videotaped and aired on
cable television.

If success can be measured in terms of growth, Conciencia
has done well indeed.  Over the years, they have set up local
offices all over Argentina and have helped other Latin American
countries create Conciencia groups of their own.  The result of
these efforts has been the creation of the "Organizacion Civica
Panamericana" (Panamerican Civic Organization), a network of 17
civic associations throughout the Americas.  This organization,
in partnership with Conciencia Argentina and Partners of the
Americas, has recently published the first edition of
"Participacion Ciudadana" (Civic Participation), a resource guide
describing the civic education activities of 73 organizations in
19 countries in the Americas.

NICARAGUAN EDUCATION REFORM

Nicaragua is one example of a country that has made nationwide
reforms in teacher training and curricula.  When the
democratically elected government of Violeta Chamorro took office
in 1990, it inherited a politically corrupt and economically
drained nation.  The education system had been financially
deprived and completely politicized by the Sandinistas. 
Everything was seen through Sandinista eyes, and neither children
nor teachers were allowed to question this authority.  One
elementary math textbook, for example, taught students how to
count using pictures of Sandinista guns.

A comprehensive education for democracy effort has been
under way since 1992 that seeks to introduce democratic content
and teaching techniques into the tattered school system.  The
program is being developed at the request of the Nicaraguan
Ministry of Education by the American Federation of Teachers (a
U.S. teacher union) as part of its Education for
Democracy/International project and is supported by the U.S.
Agency for International Development through the National
Endowment for Democracy.

The reform program in Nicaragua has two main components:
teacher training and the development of a new teaching framework
and materials.  The materials will consist of an
elementary/secondary curriculum framework for democracy
education, and a supplemental handbook for teachers containing
background materials on democracy and ideas for classroom
activities.  A curriculum commission consisting of educators,
scholars, business and civic leaders, parents, and others
representing a cross section of Nicaraguan society was assembled
in 1992 to oversee the development of these materials.  The work
of the commission has been important in creating consensus on how
to portray and teach Nicaraguan history and democracy.  The
curriculum commission, in cooperation with a group of
international advisers, supported the efforts to develop
materials, which combine study of universal democratic principles
with the study of the particular history and culture of
Nicaragua.  Now complete, the materials are used by a corps of
teachers who have been trained by the project.

The teacher training process prepared 20 Nicaraguan
secondary-school social-studies teachers in both democratic
content and pedagogy.  The teachers who were trained in this
project are now "education for democracy specialists" training
other Nicaraguan secondary school teachers.  Over the course of
three years, every secondary-school social-studies teacher in the
country has been exposed to the training program.  As part of
their preparation, the teacher specialists have helped develop
lesson plans, activities, and other materials that are now part
of the secondary school civic education program.

The project, now entering its fourth year, is seeking to
consolidate its accomplishments through the creation of an
independent, non-profit, non-partisan civic education
association.  As well, a number of the original trainers are now
working in the Ministry of Education as technical experts in the
fields of civic education and teaching methodology.

SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION

Here is just a sample of the many resources available to help
people learn more about civic education programs.

Books and Educational Materials Mentioned in This Paper

Australian Parliament Packs
Parliamentary Education Office
Commonwealth Parliament
Department of the Senate
Parliament House
Canberra, ACT 2600
Australia
Phone:  06 277 3508  
Fax: 06 277 5775

California's History-Social Science Framework
California Department of Education
P.O. Box 271
Sacramento, California 95812 USA
Phone: (916) 657-2451

Civitas and National Standards for Civics and Government
Center for Civic Education
5146 Douglas Fir Road
Calabasas, California 91302 USA
Phone: (818) 591-9321
Fax:  (818) 591-9330

Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil
Liberties. Adrian Karatnycky, et. al. New York: Freedom
House, 1995.  Freedom House, a nonprofit human rights
organization, conducts an annual survey designed to measure and
monitor political rights and civil liberties in every country in
the world.  The results are published in the Freedom in the
World series, where countries are categorized as free, partly
free, or not free, and indicated as such on a world map.  Brief
discussions of the political and social conditions provide the
basis for each country's ranking.  The most recent volume may be
purchased from Freedom House, 120 Wall Street, New York, New York
10005 USA.
Phone: (212) 514-8040 
Fax: (212) 514-8045

Organizations Mentioned in This Paper

Center for Civic Education
5146 Douglas Fir Road
Calabasas, California 91302 USA
Phone: (818) 591-9321
Fax: (818) 591-9330

The Center for Civic Education designs and implements innovative
curriculum programs in civic education for elementary and
secondary schools throughout the United States.  It also
cosponsors, with the U.S. Department of Education, a student
competition called "We the People..."  Its programs have been
used in cooperation with educators and government officials in
Eastern and Western Europe and other countries.

Centro Pro Democracia
(Center for Democracy)
Apartado 55-1993
Patilla, Panama
Phone: (507) 64 7160 
Fax: (507) 64 6921

A coalition of business, labor, professional, civic, and rural
organizations, the Center was founded in 1987 to aid in the
restoration of democracy to a nation dominated for years by
dictatorship.  It operates educational programs, such as
workshops and seminars, and uses the media to promote democratic
ideas.

Close Up Foundation
44 Canal Center Plaza
Alexandria, Virginia 22314 USA
Phone: (703) 706-3300
Fax: (703) 706-0001

The Close Up Foundation is designed to help citizens of all ages
gain a practical understanding of how public policy affects their
lives and how individual and collective efforts affect public
policy.  Its many activities include the Citizen Bee, a
social-studies competition for students, and programs that bring
groups of citizens to Washington, D.C., to see the government in
action.

Conciencia Argentina
Florida 633,
3er. Piso1005
Buenos Aires, Argentina 
Phone: (54) (1) 393-7196
Fax: (54) (1) 393-7196

Conciencia Argentina is a civic organization designed to get the
citizens of Argentina involved in democracy.  It runs both formal
and informal programs to educate citizens about national, local,
and community government.

Education for Democracy/International Project
American Federation of Teachers
555 New Jersey Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20001 USA
Phone: (202) 393-7484
Fax: (202) 879-4502

In 1989, following the democratic revolutions in Central Europe,
the American Federation of Teachers initiated the Education for
Democracy/International Project to help educators, independent
teacher organizations, and newly elected government officials
build democratic education systems in emerging democracies.  The
project has held training workshops and conferences in Central
and Eastern Europe and the NIS.  It is currently helping the
Nicaraguan government introduce democratic ideas and techniques
into its education system.

Kids Voting USA, Inc.
398 South Mill Avenue, Suite 304
Tempe, Arizona 85281 USA
Phone: (602) 921-3727
Fax: (602) 921-4008

Kids Voting USA offers curricula designed to teach elementary-
and secondary-school students about democratic principles.  It
involves a mock election program in which students accompany
their parents to the polls and participate in a simulated
election.

Libro Libre
Apartado 1154-1250 Escazu
San Jose, Costa Rica
Phone (506) 282 2333
Fax: (506) 228 6028

Libro Libre makes classic democratic texts available to readers
in Spanish.

National Council on Economic Education
1140 Avenue of the Americas
New York, New York 10036 USA
Phone: (212) 730-7007
Fax: (212) 730-1793

United Nations Association of the United States of America
485 Fifth Avenue
New York, New York 10017-6104 USA
Phone: (212) 697-3232
Fax: (212) 682-9185

The United Nations Association of the USA (UNA-USA) has been the
national coordinator of Model United Nations programs in the
United States for 25 years.  It also serves as an international
clearinghouse, offering practical guides and other materials for
those interested in building programs in their own countries.

Additional Sources on Education for Democracy

1)  Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching
History in Schools.  The Bradley Commission on History in the
Schools.  Washington, D.C.: The Educational Excellence Network,
1988.

The Bradley Commission on History in the Schools was created in
1987 in response to widespread concern over the inadequacy of
history education in American elementary and secondary schools. 
This report summarizes the Commission's findings about the
purpose of history education; the content of history classes in
elementary, junior high, and high schools; and the place of
history in the curricula as a whole.  Also included are the
Bradley Commission's recommendations for improving history
education in a democratic school system.  Copies of this booklet
can be obtained from the National Council for History Education,
26915 Westwood Rd., Suite B2, Westlake, Ohio 44145 USA, Phone:
(216) 835-1776, Fax: (216) 835-1295.

2)  The Democracy Reader.  Diane Ravitch and Abigail
Thernstrom,
Eds. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1992.

This anthology of classic and modern speeches, essays, poems,
declarations, and documents on freedom provides an excellent
overview of the development of democratic thought and political
philosophy.  More than one-third of the book is devoted to the
democratic ideas of contemporary authors, leaders, and academics.
To purchase, contact: Special Markets Department, HarperCollins
Publishers, Inc., 10 East 53rd Street, New York, New York 10022
USA, Phone: (212) 207-7528, Fax: (212) 207-7222.

3)  The Democratic Revolution, Struggles for Freedom and
Pluralism in the Developing World.  Larry Diamond, Ed.  New
York:  Freedom House, 1992.

This book contains excellent examples of civic organizations in
Africa, Asia, and Latin America that are involved in democracy
education.  To purchase, contact: Freedom House, 120 Wall Street,
New York, NY 10005 USA, Phone: (212) 514-8040, Fax: (212)
514-8045.

4)  Lessons from History: Essential Understandings and
Historical Perspectives Students Should Acquire. Charlotte
Crabtree, Gary B. Nash, Paul Gagnon, and Scott Waugh, Eds.  The
National Center for History in the Schools.  Los Angeles,
California: University of California Press, 1992.

This work describes in detail what students across the United
States need to learn about American and world history and why the
subjects are so important.  It makes the case for a strong
history curriculum from the early grades through high school, and
stresses the importance of students' acquiring intellectual
skills and democratic "habits of mind" along with factual
knowledge.  Copies may be ordered from the National Center for
History in the Schools, University of California at Los Angeles,
405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, California 90024-1521 USA,
Phone:  (310) 825-4702, Fax: (310) 206-6293.

5) What is Democracy? Howard Cincotta.  Washington, D.C.:
United States Information Agency, 1991.

This 32-page primer, published by the United States Information
Agency, describes the complex system of principles, practices,
and institutions that is democracy.  The text begins with a look
at the status of democracy worldwide and then moves quickly into
a discussion of citizens' rights, the rule of law (due process,
constitutions, etc.), elections, culture (including education),
government, political participation (via associations, political
parties, etc.), the media, and economics.  The booklet has been
translated into more than 30 languages.  Copies may be obtained
by contacting local U.S. Information Service offices or American
embassies worldwide.

The following publications can be obtained from the Education
for Democracy/International Project at this address:

Education for Democracy/International Project
American Federation of Teachers
555 New Jersey Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20001 USA
Phone: (202) 393-7484
Fax: (202) 879-4502

1)  Education for Democracy:  A Statement of Principles. 
Washington, D.C.: The American Federation of Teachers, 1987.

This influential manifesto sets forth the proposition that the
teaching of democracy is important, has often been neglected and
ineffectual, and should be strengthened in the future.  Signed by
more than 150 prominent Americans of varied political views, this
concise booklet provides guidelines for strengthening the
teaching of democratic values and ideals in the United States.

2)  Democracy's Untold Story: What World History Textbooks
Neglect.  Paul Gagnon. Washington, D.C.: The American
Federation of Teachers, 1989.

This book reviews five world-history textbooks widely used in the
United States, and, in the process, details what knowledge
students should, but often fail to, learn in school.  Gagnon
suggests how world-history curricula should be developed to
educate for democracy.

3)  The Free Society Papers (a series of five papers).
Washington, D.C.: The American Federation of Teachers, 1989.

The Economy in a Free Society.  Ezra Solomon
This paper details the relationship between free societies and
their economic systems, centering on the important aspects of a
free-market economy.  Topics examined include the role of prices;
the concepts of supply and demand; the role of the government in
the economy; inflation; taxes; and the impact of Smithian and
Keynesian economic theories.

Education in a Free Society.  Mary Butz
This paper describes the importance of education in a democracy,
paying close attention to democratic teaching methods.  It
includes examples of lesson plans used to teach about democracy.

Models of Democratic Government.  John P. Frank
This paper discusses essential characteristics of governments in
free societies.  The composition, powers, and limits on the
powers of a government with legislative, executive, and judicial
branches are defined.  The paper also examines the  process of
amending a national constitution; the fundamental right of
equality; the freedoms of speech, press, and religion; and the
just administration of criminal law.

Politics in a Free Society.  Chester E. Finn, Jr., John P.
Crisp, Jr., Matthew Gandal, Andrew Forsaith, and Theodor
Rebarber
This paper examines the politics of a free society, focusing on
four central themes: the role of the citizen; the role of
political parties and the conduct of election campaigns; the
politician as policymaker; and the functions of the media.

What is Democracy and How It Should Be Taught in the
Schools.  Diane Ravitch
This paper, presented to educators of the Ministry of National
Education and Teachers Solidarity in Poland in November 1989,
discusses both the major components of a democratic society and
the ways in which democracy education can be taught in schools in
emerging democracies.

4)  Teaching Democracy: Why and How It Must Be Taught in a
Democratic Society. Chester E. Finn, Jr.

Finn's remarks, which were presented at the June 1991 Nicaraguan
Civic Education Conference in Managua, Nicaragua, examine the
profound influence of schools in democratic societies, and
discuss the importance of democracy education in maintaining a
free society.

5) Teaching Democratic Citizenship: An International
Guide.

This document offers suggestions to civic educators around the
world on the development of indigenous education for democracy
programs.

Additional Organizations Involved in Education for
Democracy

Africa

Group for the Study and Research on Democracy and Economic and
Social Development (GERDDES)
1) B.P. 8212
Abidjan 01, Côte d Ivoire
Phone: 225 44 67 09
Fax: 225 44 63 05
2) B. P. 7083
Cotonou, Benin
Phone: 229-33-03-75

Based in Benin and the Côte d'Ivoire, GERDDES conducts
applied research to promote and monitor democracy in West Africa.
GERDDES's members provide training to local government and civic
organizations on election administration and monitoring in 15
countries.  GERDDES also holds conferences and forums enabling
opposition political groups to discuss issues and interact.

Law Association of Zambia
P. O. Box 23215
Kitwe, Zambia
Phone: 260 1 225 884
Fax: 260 1 225 049

The Law Association of Zambia assists in Zambia's transition to
multiparty democracy through a program of election monitoring and
civic and human rights education.  This group has published a
handbook detailing election laws, produced a series of television
shows on human rights and civic education, and inspected the
polls and ballot-counting during elections.

National Street Law Office
Private Bag x10
Dalbridge 4014, South Africa
Phone: 27-31-260-1291
Fax: 27-31-260-1540

Street Law provides practical law-related education to students
and the broader community.  Its services include curriculum
development, teacher training, and teaching assistance to
secondary schools and community organizations.  Street Law
produces books, pamphlets and posters on law-related education
and human rights.  Working in cooperation with other
organizations, including the National Institute for Citizen
Education in the Law, it recently published Democracy for All:
Education Towards a Democratic Culture, a textbook for South
African secondary-school students.

A-BU-GI-DA: Ethiopian Congress for Democracy
PO Box 7284, Higher 10 Kebele 04 H. No.220
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Phone:  251-1-121-781
Fax: 251-1-515-714

A-Bu-Gi-Da has undertaken a variety of adult education activities
intended to build democracy.  Among these programs is a
three-hour multi-media presentation on the fundamentals of
democracy, a poster series on democratic themes, monthly public
policy forums, and a planned series of radio plays on human
rights.  Many of these activities are carried out through
"democracy clubs" established throughout the country.

Central and Eastern Europe

Democracy Advancement Center (DAC)
Valnu iela 2, Room 513a
Riga LV-1098, Latvia
Phone: (371-8) 229-410
Fax: (371-8) 820-176

The DAC is leading civic education reform efforts in Latvia
through its delivery of in-service teacher training workshops and
the development of civics textbooks for secondary schools.

Education for Democratic Citizenship in Poland
1) Education for Democratic Citizenship in Poland Project
The Mershon Center
Ohio State University
1501 Neil Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA
Phone: (614) 292-1681
Fax: (614) 292-2407
2) Center for Citizenship Education
01-593 Warsaw, ul. Sierpecka 6 m. 32
Poland
Phone/Fax: (48-22) 33 0409

This project began as a cooperative effort by the Polish Ministry
of Education and the Mershon Center at Ohio State University to
promote democracy education in Polish schools.  A team of Polish
teachers, school administrators, and university professors worked
with American scholars to prepare curriculum guides that present
the rationale, instructional objectives, content outline, and
supplementary materials for civics courses in the 8th and 10th
grades.  The project also developed a two-semester college course
on the principles of democracy, established Centers for Civic and
Economic Education to provide in-service training for primary-
and secondary-school teachers, and produced a resource book on
constitutional democracy.

Foundation for Education for Democracy
Podwale 5, Suite 30
Warsaw, Poland
Phone/Fax: (48 22) 27 76 36

Since 1989, Poland's Foundation for Education for Democracy has
worked to educate the public on the principles and institutions
of democracy and free-market economics.  It offers courses for
educators on how to teach democracy in the schools, and for union
and youth leaders and local government officials on democratic
leadership and the art of negotiation.  The Foundation has held
international conferences and seminars on the history and
philosophy of democracy.  It has also published numerous books
and brochures on the politics and economics of a free society;
methods of running union meetings and negotiating; and the
teaching of history, literature, and the Polish and English
languages.

Foundation in Support of Local Democracy
Obywatelski Klub Parlamentarny
Krywickiego 9
Warsaw, Poland
Phone/Fax: 48 22 25 14 16

The Foundation educates citizens about effecting change through
participatory democracy in Poland.  Its activities include
organizing regional training for local mayors and government
officials, elected school officials, and local journalists in
democratic institutions and values and how to be responsive to
constituents.  The Foundation has centers around the country
providing resources to those involved in local democracy.

Institute for Democracy in Eastern Europe (IDEE)
1) 2000 P Street, N.W., Suite 400
Washington, D.C.  20036 USA
Phone: (202) 466-7105
Fax: (202) 466-7140
2) P.O. Box 311, 00-950
Warsaw, Poland
Phone: (48-22) 20 83 44
Phone/Fax 20 83 58

IDEE is an organization composed of former members of the Polish
Solidarity movement, Americans of East European descent, trade
unionists, and others who have assisted the democratic opposition
in Eastern Europe.  Since 1985, IDEE has administered grants for
programs in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Romania,
Slovakia,  Bulgaria, and former-Yugoslavia.  IDEE also assists
struggling independent publications in Central and Eastern
Europe, including the Baltic states, and aids independent student
organizations.

Jan Hus Educational Foundation
Radnicka 8, P.O.Box 735
663 35 Brno, Czech Republic
Phone: 42 5 422 1234
Fax: 42 5 422 12084

This foundation provides lectures, discussions, seminars, books,
articles, and periodicals to Czech citizens; supports the free
press in the country with grants and materials; and assists in
the rebuilding of cultural and educational institutions.  Through
its networking program, the Foundation links Western scholars
with Czech colleagues at universities, secondary schools,
government agencies, and civic organizations.

Comenius Center for Education and Democracy
Charles University
Myslikova 7, 110 00
Prague, Czech Republic
Phone: 42 2 2491 3898
Fax: 42 2 295 561

The Center is one of the leaders in the movement to reform and
improve civic education in the Czech Republic.  It cooperates
with numerous national and overseas civic education organizations
in order to provide in-service teacher training and develop new
materials for the teaching social sciences.

Association for Teaching Civics (ATC)
Feyer Gyorgy utca 10
Budapest-1053 Hungary
Phone/Fax: (36-1) 117-4526

ATC is a nongovernmental, nonpartisan organization dedicated to
the improvement of the teaching of democracy at the secondary
school level in Hungary.  The Association, building on its prior
involvement in the development of civic education curricula and
teaching materials is now engaged in a multi-year teacher
training project.

Russia

Grazhdanin (Citizen) 
ul. Dovatora 5/9
Moscow 117312 Russia
Phone: (7-095) 144-6862

Grazhdanin is a Russian civic education network composed of over
20,000 members throughout the country.  Members deliver
in-service training workshops on teaching democracy during the
year and at annual summer institutes.  The organization has also
developed a series of civic education textbooks for children in
the "middle school" grades.

Uchitelskaja Gazeta (Teachers Newspaper) 
Vetoshny pereulok 13-15
Moscow 103012 Russia
Phone (7-095) 921-3025
Fax: (7-095) 928-8253

Uchitelskaja Gazeta is one of the major education-related
periodicals in Russia.  Its weekly issues regularly contain
materials on civic education.  It is also involved in the
initiative to create a national civic educators association.

Latin America

Movimiento Conciencia Colombia
Colombia, Cra. 5, #66-11
Bogota D.F. Colombia
Phone: 57-1-248-9511
Fax: 57-1-235-9245

This nonpartisan, nonprofit Colombian women's organization
provides democracy education and promotes citizen participation
in public affairs.  It organizes workshops and seminars for
adults and elementary- and secondary-school students fostering
democratic participation in political processes and nonviolent
methods of conflict resolution.

Participa
Participa, Almirante Simpson 014
Santiago, Chile
Phone: 56-2-222-5384 or 56-2-229-2251
Fax: 56-2-222-1374

Participa fosters broad citizen participation in the democratic
system through citizen education.  Special emphasis is placed on
reaching out to women and youth.  Participa researches and
disseminates information about the democratic electoral process,
conflict resolution, and leadership and decision-making, and
provides classes and workshops for politicians, trade unions,
civic organizations, businesses, and neighborhood groups. 
Seminars and forums are also conducted to engage people in issues
of national, regional, and local interest.

Organizacion Civica Panamericana (OCP)
Florida 633 3er.P (1005)
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Phone/Fax: (541) 314-5191 and 314-7196

OCP is a network of nongovernmental, nonpartisan civic education
organizations spanning 17 countries in the Americas.

Western Europe

Citizenship Foundation 
Weddel House
13 West Smithfield
London EC1A 9HY United Kingdom
Phone (071) 236-2171
Fax: (071) 329-3702

This British nonpartisan, nonprofit organization conducts a
variety of educational activities that encourage the young to
become more effective citizens by developing their capacity to
understand social, moral, and political issues and to make
critical judgments based on a concern for democracy, justice, and
the rights of others.  It publishes Citizenship, the only
journal in the world exclusively devoted to the promotion of
democratic citizenship through education.

Council of Europe (CE)
Directorate of Human Rights 
Council of Europe, F-67075
Strasbourg Cedex, France
Phone: 88 41 20 00
Fax: 88 41 27 81/82/83

The CE has a long-standing interest in promoting education for
human rights, including education for democratic values.  With
the opening up of membership of the organization in recent years
to countries of Central and Eastern Europe, it is now actively
engaged in human rights education programs throughout the region.

Netherlands Helsinki Council (NHK)
Jansveld 44
Utrech 3512 BH
The Netherlands
Phone: (31 30) 302535
Fax: (31 30) 302524

Over the past several years, the NHK has developed a number of
human rights education programs in partnership with organizations
throughout Central and Eastern Europe.  The NHK organizes teacher
training workshops, seminars, conferences, and other activities
that promote human rights and improved human rights education
programs.

United States

Constitutional Rights Foundation
601 South Kingsley Drive
Los Angeles, California 90005 USA
Phone: (213) 487-5590
Fax: (213) 386-0459

Since 1962, the Constitutional Rights Foundation (CRF) has
educated young people to be responsible citizens by offering
teacher training, student conferences, and publications in areas
such as law and government, ethics and decision-making, and civic
participation.  CRF runs many programs, including youth community
service programs involving at-risk students; the Lawyer in the
Classroom program, which places lawyers and judges in the
classroom as volunteers teaching about the U.S. justice system;
and the Mock Trial Program in California, which allows students
to participate in simulated court cases playing the roles of the
defense, prosecution, and witnesses.  In addition, CRF publishes
an excellent newsletter for teachers, The Bill of Rights in
Action, which provides ideas for lesson plans and resources
on constitutional issues.

ERIC/ChESS
Indiana University
2805 East Tenth Street, Suite 120
Bloomington, Indiana 47408-2698  USA 
Phone: (812) 855-3838
Fax: (812) 855-0455

ERIC/ChESS is the major clearinghouse on social studies/social
science education in the U.S.  Located at Indiana University's
Social Studies Development Center, ERIC/ChESS gathers,
catalogues, and publishes American and overseas information on
all aspects of civic education.

National Center for History in Schools
University of California-Los Angeles
Moore Hall 231
405 Hilgard Avenue
Los Angeles, California 90024-1521 USA
Phone:  (310) 825-4702 
Fax: (310) 206-6293

This organization develops history curriculum materials for
children and researches effective approaches in the teaching of
history.  It also heads the federally-funded effort to create
national standards in history for American schools.  The Center
has published a large volume, Lessons from History, which
is to serve as a major resource for national and state
standards-setting and assessment in history. Special curriculum
units on world and American history for grades 5-12 have also
been prepared.  Several emphasize the history of democracy and
the core values and institutions on which it depends.  These
units consist of collections of lessons about "dramatic moments"
in history, allowing an exploration of their wider historical
context.  In addition to selections from primary sources,
teachers are provided with background materials to help integrate
the unit into the curriculum; lesson plans, including a variety
of ideas and approaches to using the unit; student handouts; and
a bibliography for each unit.

National Council for History Education (NCHE)
26915 Westwood Rd., Suite B-2
Westlake, Ohio 44145-4656 USA
Phone: (216) 835-1776
Fax: (216) 835-1295

NCHE provides a communications network for all advocates of
history education in the United States, whether in schools,
colleges, museums, historical societies, humanities councils, or
community organizations.  Besides producing a monthly newsletter
detailing history activities and opportunities around the nation,
NCHE also conducts school staff development and teacher
in-service workshops, gives public testimony before hearings on
state and local curriculum, and reviews newly published
curriculum documents and guidelines.

National Institute for Citizenship Education in the Law
(NICEL)
711 G Street, S.E.
Washington, D.C.  20003 USA
Phone: (202) 546-6644
Fax: (202) 546-6649

This U.S.-based organization has been involved in law-related,
human rights and education for democracy programs in Africa,
Asia, Latin America, Eastern and Central Europe, and the NIS.  In
the United States, the organization runs a highly successful
"Street Law" program.  Working in partnership with South African
organizations, it has developed Human Rights for All and
Democracy for All.

About the Authors:  Matthew Gandal is a Senior Associate
in the Educational Issues Department of the American Federation
of Teachers (Washington, D.C.), where his responsibilities
include working with the AFT's Education for Democracy Project. 
He previously served as Assistant Director for International
Affairs of the Educational Excellence Network.  Chester E. Finn,
Jr., is a partner in the Edison Project of Whittle Schools, L.P. 
He is on leave from his position as Professor of Education and
Public Policy at Vanderbilt University (Nashville, Tennessee). 
He previously served as Director of the Educational Excellence
Network.

The authors wish to thank the former Educational Excellence
Network Deputy Director Jean Bathurst for her contributions and
Stanford University student Charles Hokanson, whose research and
dedication were particularly valuable in assembling materials for
this paper.  The authors are also grateful to student intern
Lewis Goldberg and the other members of the Network staff who
provided support for this project.

The Educational Excellence Network, associated with the Hudson
Institute (Indianapolis, Indiana), is an information exchange and
clearinghouse on educational improvement and school reform
servicing educators, policy-makers, journalists, business
leaders, parents, and other interested citizens.  The Network has
had a long-standing interest in education for democracy at home
and abroad, and this paper is a product of that interest.

_______________________

Project management and editing by the Institute for Contemporary
Studies (ICS)
Vice President -- Kenneth L. Adelman
Editor -- Heidi Fritschel
The mission of ICS is to promote the self-governing and
entrepreneurial way of life.  Through its imprint, ICS Press, ICS
publishes a wide range of books on public issues.  For a catalog
or more information, write: ICS, 243 Kearny Street, San
Francisco, California 94108 USA

Freedom Papers Series:
Editor:  Wayne Hall
Associate Editors:  Stephen Burant, Susan O'Sullivan
Design:  Thaddeus A. Miksinski, Jr.

October 1992
(Edited and revised by the staff of the International Affairs
Department, American Federation of Teachers, May 1995)

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