Economic

Research

Service

Technical

Bulletin

Number 1925

March 2010

Anita Regmi

James L. Seale, Jr.

Cross-Price Elasticities of 

Demand Across 114 Countries

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture
www.ers.usda.gov

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Regmi, Anita.

 Cross-price elasticities of demand across 114 countries.

 (Technical bulletin (United States. Dept. of Agriculture); no. 1925)

 1. Cost and standard of living. 

 2. Prices. 

 3. Elasticity (Economics)

 I. Seale, James L. 

 II. United States. Dept. of Agriculture. Economic Research Service.

 III. Title.

HD6978

Photo credit: Thinkstock.
United States

Department

of Agriculture

www.ers.usda.gov

A Report from the Economic Research Service

Abstract

This report presents a simple methodology for calculating cross-price elasticities across 

countries, using the Frisch own-price elasticity. Cross-price elasticities are calculated 

for 9 major consumption categories from the 1996 International Comparison Program 

data across 114 countries. The consumption categories are: food, beverage, and tobacco; 

clothing and footwear; education; gross rent, fuel, and power; house furnishings and 

operations; medical care; recreation; transport and communications; and “other” items. 

Additionally, cross-price elasticities are calculated and reported for a two-good demand 

system of food and nonfood. The elasticity estimates from this report are the only available consistent cross-country cross-price elasticity estimates across such a large number 

of countries and consumption categories. 

Keywords: Cross-country demand analysis, cross-price elasticities, 1996 ICP data, 

Florida Model, Frisch elasticity, complete demand analysis, food demand

About the Authors

Anita Regmi is an agricultural economist with the Economic Research Service, USDA, in 

the Market and Trade Economics Division. James L. Seale, Jr., is a professor in the Food 

and Resource Economics Department, University of Florida, Gainesville.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Mathew Shane, Suchada Langley, Barry Krissoff, Margaret Andrews, and 

Carlos Arnade of the Economic Research Service, USDA; Terry Roe of the University of 

Minnesota; and Jeffrey Reimer of Oregon State University for their review comments. Special 

thanks are extended to the researchers whose incessant queries provided an inspiration to 

the authors to complete this report, and to the International Comparison Program Division 

of the World Bank for providing the data. Partial support for this project was provided by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture under Agreement No. 58-3000-7-0104 and the International 

Agriculture Trade Center, IFAS, University of Florida. The authors thank Courtney Knauth 

for editorial advice and Wynnice Pointer-Napper for fi nal document layout and charts.

Anita Regmi, aregmi@ers.usda.gov

James L. Seale, Jr.

Cross-Price Elasticities of 

Demand Across 114 Countries

Technical

Bulletin 

Number 1925

March 2010
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Contents

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Three Types of Price Elasticities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Empirical Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

 Marginal Shares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

 Cross-Price Elasticities in a Two-Good Demand System . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

 Cross-Price Elasticities in a Nine-Good Demand System . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Appendix tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Recommended citation format for this publication:

Regmi, Anita, and James L. Seale, Jr. Cross-Price Elasticities 

of Demand Across 114 Countries. TB-1925. U.S. Department of 

Agriculture, Economic Research Service, March 2010. 
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Summary

The extent to which price fl uctuations in one good may affect the demand 

for other goods (that is, the cross-price elasticities) varies across goods and 

countries. This report estimates cross-price elasticities across 114 countries 

for 9 major consumption categories: food, beverage, and tobacco; clothing 

and footwear; education; gross rent, fuel, and power; house furnishings and 

operations; medical care; recreation; transport and communications; and 

“other” items. In addition, the analysis provides cross-price elasticities for a 

two-good demand system involving food and nonfood items. The estimates 

are based on 1996 price data from the International Comparison Program, a 

multinational statistical project that collects price data that can be compared 

internationally for a basket of goods and services. The elasticities presented 

here are the only consistent, cross-country, cross-price estimates available for 

such a large number of countries and consumption categories.

What Is the Issue?

Price increases in goods and services may induce consumers to substitute 

cheaper products for more expensive—but perhaps higher quality—products 

that they feel they can no longer afford. Price increases also reduce the real 

income of consumers, leaving less disposable income for other goods and 

services. At the global level, price increases may reverse gains made by poor 

nations toward improved nutrition and welfare for their populations. This 

study’s estimates of consumer response to rising and falling prices across 114 

countries can help policymakers assess future needs for goods and services, 

as well as for related transport and infrastructure. Awareness of demand and 

consumption trends across countries, essential for predicting shifts in demand 

for different products, can be a valuable tool for those in the agricultural, 

manufacturing, education, health, and energy sectors. 

What Did the Study Find?

 For each category of goods, the study estimated 2 sets of cross-price elasticities for 114 countries: (1) the compensated Slutsky elasticity, calculated 

assuming that the real level of income stays constant, compensated by an 

amount equivalent to the price rise of the good; and (2) the uncompensated 

Cournot elasticity, calculated assuming that the existing level of income 

stays constant, with no money added to cover the good’s increased price. 

Two-Good (Food-Nonfood) Elasticity Comparisons

In the two-good (food-nonfood) model, an increase in the price of the nonfood good, when accompanied with a compensating increase in income (the 

Slutsky elasticity), prompts increased food demand in all countries, but the 

middle-income countries experience the greatest increase in food demand.

By comparison, an increase in the price of a nonfood good, when not accompanied by a compensating increase in income (the Cournot elasticity), leads 

to increased food demand in the poorest countries and declining food demand 

in wealthier countries.
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Nine-Good Elasticity Comparisons

In the nine-good model, when price increases are offset by equivalent income 

increases (Slutsky elasticities), the model fi nds:

• A price increase for one good triggers increased demand for the other 

eight goods; that is, the Slutsky cross-price elasticities are positive. But 

the demand increases for the other goods are not equal. Demand for 

the more luxurious of the remaining eight goods, such as recreation, 

increases more than demand for a necessity, such as food or clothing. 

• When the price of a necessity (food or clothing) rises, the increases in 

demand for the other eight goods are greatest in the low-income countries 

and smallest in the high-income countries. That is, the Slutsky elasticities 

decrease as the income level trends upward across the 114 countries.

• When the price of a non-necessity rises, increases in demand for the 

other eight goods (except for food) are smaller in the low-income countries than in the high-income countries; that is, the Slutsky cross-price 

elasticities are lower in the low-income countries and higher in the highincome countries.

In the nine-good model, when there is no increase in income to offset the 

price increases (the Cournot elasticities), the model fi nds:

• When a price increases for a necessity, the demand for all the other goods 

declines; that is, the Cournot cross-price elasticities for food and clothing 

are negative. That is true for all countries: low-income, middle-income, 

and high-income.

• When a price increases for a non-necessity, the demand response 

varies, based on the country’s income level and the good in question. 

For example:

In all countries, when the price of recreation increases, the 

demand for other goods rises; that is, the Cournot cross-price 

elasticities are positive for recreation. 

On the other hand, when the price of transport and communications rises, the demand for other goods goes up in low-income 

countries, but declines in middle- and high-income countries. 

That is, the Cournot cross-price elasticity for transport and communications is positive in low-income countries and negative in 

high-income countries.

How Was the Study Conducted?

This study builds on the models and fi ndings from an earlier ERS report, 

International Evidence on Food Consumption Patterns (TB-1904, 2003), 

to derive a methodology that can be used to estimate cross-price relationships. That study estimated income and own-price elasticities for a 9-good 

system (that is, for 9 broad consumer consumption categories) across 114 

countries. Using the parameters and estimated income and own-price elasticities from the earlier ERS report, the present study describes a framework for estimating cross-price elasticities. The authors then calculate the 
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compensated and uncompensated cross-price elasticities for the same 9 consumer consumption categories as the earlier report, as well as for a 2-good, 

food-nonfood pairing, across the same 114 countries. Estimates from the 

earlier study have been widely used as input to economic models such as 

USDA’s Baseline model. The cross-country elasticity estimates from the 

present study should also provide valuable input for other economic models 

designed to forecast consumer demand when prices change. The methodology for obtaining the elasticities will aid future ERS efforts at estimating 

cross-price elasticities.

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Introduction

In an earlier ERS report, International Evidence on Food Consumption 

Patterns, Seale, Regmi, and Bernstein (2003) fi t a 2-stage demand system 

to 1996 International Comparison Program (ICP) data of 114 countries for 9 

aggregate consumer goods and 8 disaggregated food categories. In that report, 

the model’s parameters were estimated with maximum likelihood (ML), correcting for group heteroskedasticity. From the model’s parameters, Seale and 

his colleagues calculated income and three types of own-price elasticities of 

demand for all nine goods in the fi rst stage (Seale et al., tables 7-10). They 

reported income and Frisch own-price elasticities of demand for the eight food 

categories in the second stage (Seale et al., tables 11-12). However, the earlier 

study did not report or calculate cross-price elasticities of demand.

Other cross-country demand studies have calculated and reported income or 

own-price elasticities of demand, often on a country-by-country basis, but few 

have calculated and reported cross-price, cross-country elasticities of demand.1

Among studies based on 1996 International Comparison Program data, Theil, 

Chung, and Seale (1989) and Seale and Theil (1991) calculate and report crossprice elasticities of demand using the ICP data for a two-good demand system, 

food and nonfood, on a country-by-country basis.2 To date, however, no one 

has reported and calculated cross-price elasticities of demand for more than 

these same two goods across countries using the ICP data.

In this study, a simple method for calculating cross-country, cross-price elasticities of demand, based on the parameter estimates of the Florida model and 

real per capita income across a large and diverse set of countries, is used to 

calculate cross-price elasticities for a 2-good demand system (food and nonfood) in the 114 countries of the 1996 ICP. For the 41 countries that participated in both an earlier ICP survey (ICP data Phase IV, 1980) and the 1996 

ICP, the cross-price elasticity estimates calculated in this study are compared 

with those calculated by Theil, Chung, and Seale (1989, pp. 116-17). Next, 

cross-price elasticities are calculated and reported for 9 broad consumption 

categories: food, beverage, and tobacco; clothing and footwear; education; 

gross rent, fuel, and power; house furnishings and operations; medical care; 

recreation; transport and communications; and a category of other items 

across the same 114 countries. 

The cross-price elasticities of demand presented in this report complement the income and own-price elasticities calculated by Seale, Regmi, and 

Bernstein in 2003 and represent the only consistent set of cross-country, 

cross-price elasticities available for this large a number of countries and 

consumption categories. The estimates by Seale et al. of income and ownprice elasticities have been widely used as input in economic models, such as 

USDA’s Baseline model, the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model, 

the International Food Policy Research Institute’s IMPACT model, and others 

(see, for example, studies by Winters (2005); von Braun (2007); Hertel and 

Winters (2006); and Valenzuela, Anderson, and Hertel (2007)). The newly 

estimated cross-price elasticities presented in this report should prove equally 

valuable for future research.

1Goldberger and Gamaletsos (1970) 

report and compare cross-price elasticities of demand for 5 goods in 11 OECD 

countries, but they estimate these for 

each country separately and not as a 

cross-country demand system.

2Theil and Finke, 1985, (also in Theil, 

1987, table 2-10, p. 67) calculate crossprice elasticities of demand for food and 

nonfood for 13 real (1975) per capita 

income levels, expressed as a percentage of per capita income of the United 

States, basing their calculations on 

parameter estimates of Finke, Rosalsky, 

and Theil (1983), while Seale and Theil 

(1991) base theirs on parameter estimates of Fiebig, Seale, and Theil (1988).
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Background

Cross-country demand analysis for goods and services has come a long 

way since the pioneering work of Hendrik Houthakker in 1957. Much of the 

advancement in this important area of study has been made possible by the 

International Comparison Program (ICP) and the data that it has provided 

since the early 1970s.3 The fi rst authors to apply a cross-country demand 

system to ICP data were Clements and Theil (1979) and Suhm (1979), who 

fi t Working’s (1943) model to 1975 Phase II data of 15 countries for 4 and 8 

groups of consumer goods (hereafter “goods”), respectively.4

Working (1943) originally fi t his model to U.S. household data by assuming that all households face the same prices. Accordingly, Working’s model 

has an income term but no price term. The same is true for a cross-country 

Working’s model if one assumes that all consumers in all countries face the 

same set of prices. Clearly, this is a disadvantage, because consumers in different countries generally do face different sets of prices, and the question 

of how sensitive the quantities demanded of goods are to a price change of 

another good is an important one.

Partly to answer this question, Theil, Suhm, and Meisner (1980) applied the differential approach to consumption theory to the cross-country Working’s model 

and incorporated a price (substitution) term into it. Theil and colleagues then 

fi t the resulting model, with the added constraint of preference independence 

(additive utility) among goods, to the data of Suhm’s cross-country demand 

system and estimated its parameters with maximum likelihood. 

Others have successfully applied the Theil, Suhm, and Meisner (henceforth Theil et al.) model to ICP data. Finke, Rosalsky, and Theil (1983) 

fi t the Theil et al. model to Phase III (1975) ICP data of 30 countries for 

10 goods.5 Fiebig, Seale, and Theil (1987) disaggregated these data further into an 11-good system that additionally included energy. These same 

authors later (1988) applied the Theil et al. model individually to the data of 

15 countries in Phase II (1970), 30 countries in Phase III (1975), and 24 (of 

30) countries that participate in both Phases III and IV (1980). Fiebig and 

his colleagues also pooled the data of these 30 countries by linking country 

data from 1975 and 1970 and 1980 and 1975. Then, recognizing that these 

data are stochastically dependent across phases, Fiebig fi t the pooled data 

with an extension of the Theil et al. model, correcting for serial correlation 

across phases with an autoregressive process (AR(1)).6 

Seale and Theil (1987) extended the analysis of Fiebig et al. in three ways: (1) 

they increased Fiebig et al.’s sample size from 30 countries to 58 by adding 

the Phase IV (1980) data of 28 additional countries that did not participate 

in the ICP prior to Phase IV; (2) they noted that the size of the error covariance matrices, when the Theil et al. model was applied to the data of the 

newly included 28 countries, was about twice the size of the error covariance 

matrices of the Fiebig et al. groupings; and (3), in estimating the pooled-data 

parameters, they multiplied by two the error covariance matrix of the newly 

included 28 countries in the computations of the ML estimator as a means to 

correct for group heteroskedasticity. 

3ICP Phases I, II and III were conducted by Kravis et al. (1975, 1978a,b, 

1982), Phases IV and V by the United 

Nations Statistical Offi ce, and the 1996 

ICP data by a consortium coordinated 

by the World Bank. See Seale and 

Regmi (2006) for a more thorough discussion of the data and issues involved 

in using information from the various 

phases to estimate and model crosscountry demand systems.

4Working’s model is an Engel curve 

model that describes the budget shares 

of goods as (declining or increasing) 

linear functions of the log of total consumption expenditure (income).

6If the error term of, say, the food 

budget share is positive and large for 

country c in 1970 (Phase II), it is likely 

that this country will also have a positive 

error term for food in 1975 (Phase III). 

The AR(1) process is a simple method to 

account for stable but different preference structures across countries.

5Kravis, Heston, and Summers 

(1982) fi t the linear expenditure system 

(LES) to four broad categories of 

goods, but a careful reading of their 

footnote 47, p. 386, makes it clear that 

their LES analysis is independent of the 

ICP multilateral data. They do, however, fi t a double-log model to ICP Phase 

III data for 25 summary categories of 

goods and for 103 detailed categories 

of goods in 30 countries.
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Theil, Chung, and Seale (1989) modifi ed the Theil et al. model by using a different parameterization of the model. The resulting model, the Florida model, 

describes the budget share of a good as a function of a pure price term, in addition to its being a function of an income term and a substitution term.7 Theil, 

Chung, and Seale, using a 10-good classifi cation, fi t the Florida model to the 

ICP data of Phases II, III, and IV individually, and, after a series of tests, to the 

data pooled across time. They estimated all parameters of the model with ML, 

including autoregressive and heteroskedasticity parameters, by an iterative grid 

search. In a subsequent paper, Seale, Walker, and Kim (1991) fi t the Florida 

model to Theil, Chung, and Seale’s data disaggregated into an 11-good system, 

including energy, and estimated all parameters (including the autoregressive 

and heteroskedastic coeffi cients) with the ML scoring method (Kmenta, 1990, 

p. 320). More recently, Seale, Regmi, and Bernstein (2003) and Seale and 

Regmi (2006 and 2009) fi t the Florida model to the 1996 ICP data of 114 countries for 9 goods in the fi rst stage of a 2-stage demand system and estimated the 

parameters with a heteroskedastic-corrected ML estimator.8

The next section briefl y discusses the ICP and the 1996 ICP data. The Florida 

model is then described, followed by a section presenting three types of price 

elasticity measures and their formulation based on parameter estimates of the 

Florida model. Subsequent sections present cross-price elasticities of demand 

for a two-good system, food and nonfood, and of a nine-good system, focusing on income groupings. The appendix tables show the cross-price elasticities of demand for the 9-good system for each of the 114 countries for which 

these results were estimated. 

7Theil, Chung, and Seale originally 

referred to the model as the WorkingPI (Preference Independence) model 

(1989, p. 41). Seale, Walker and Kim 

(1991) were fi rst to refer to it as the 

Florida model, in the tradition of naming a demand-system model for its 

place of origin (e.g., Rotterdam model 

(Theil, 1966), the CBS model (Keller 

and van Driel, 1985), and the NBR 

model (Neves, 1987). In later writings, 

Theil also refers to it as the Florida 

model (Theil, 1996, pp. 3, 60; 1997)).

8To differentiate the preference 

structure in the two stages, these 

authors refer to the fi rst-stage (secondstage) model as the Florida-PI (Slutsky) 

model. In this paper, we forego this 

differentiation and simply refer to the 

preference-independent form as the 

Florida model.
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Data

The 1996 ICP data, fully described in Seale, Regmi, and Bernstein (2003) and 

Seale and Regmi (2006), are used in this study. The analysis is confi ned to the 

consumption component of the gross domestic product and, in particular, to 

nine consumption categories: food; clothing and footwear; gross rent, fuel, and 

power; house furnishings and operations; medical care; transport and communications; recreation; education; and other items. The food expenditure group 

includes food prepared and consumed at home plus beverages and tobacco. It 

does not include food consumed away from home. The nine consumption categories used in this analysis are the same categories analyzed in Seale, Regmi, 

and Bernstein’s fi rst stage of the two-stage complete demand model. 

The 114 countries in the 1996 ICP data are divided into low-, middle-, and 

high-income categories based on their real per capita income relative to that 

of the United States.9 Low-income countries represent those with real per 

capita income less than 15 percent of the U.S. level, middle-income countries 

represent those with real per capita income equal to or greater than 15 percent 

but less than 45 percent of the U.S. level, and high-income countries represent 

those with real per capita income equal to or greater than 45 percent of the 

U.S. level (table 1). This criterion for grouping indicates that the majority of 

Sub-Saharan African countries, poor transition economies such as Mongolia 

and Turkmenistan, and some low-income Middle Eastern and Asian countries 

such as Yemen and Nepal, fall within the low-income group. High-income 

countries include most Western European countries, Australia, New Zealand, 

Canada, and the United States. Middle-income countries include many Latin 

American countries, North African countries, and better-off transition economies such as Estonia, Hungary, and Slovenia.

9Note that this classifi cation is done 

merely to facilitate analysis and is not 

based on any generally accepted criteria 

for classifi cation. Since the classifi cation is based on the ICP data used in 

this analysis, some countries may be 

in a group with which they normally 

would not be associated.
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Table 1

Normalized per capita real income and food budget shares (from 1996 ICP)

 Per capita Food share Per capita Food share Per capita Food share

 real income of total real income of total real income of total

Country US=100 expenditure Country US=100 expenditure Country US=100 expenditure

 Percent Percent Percent

Low-income countries Middle-income countries High-income countries

Tanzania 2.04 73.24 Ukraine 15.28 45.03 Czech Republic 45.08 25.00

Nigeria 2.88 72.97 Philippines 16.32 48.35 Greece 48.48 21.17

Tajikistan 3.37 68.94 Peru 16.76 30.31 Korea 49.45 31.64

Zambia 3.46 60.81 Botswana 16.81 32.80 Portugal 50.54 23.23

Yemen 3.47 61.13 Thailand 17.03 28.56 Spain 50.84 17.52

Malawi 3.81 53.35 Morocco 17.56 45.61 Ireland 52.19 16.59

Madagascar 3.81 65.88 Venezuela 17.71 29.47 Singapore 53.64 13.04

Mali 3.91 53.27 Macedonia 18.51 34.73 Mauritius 55.77 28.12

Mongolia 3.94 58.74 Belize 18.55 31.17 Israel 57.73 17.70

Benin 4.88 55.40 Egypt 18.58 48.08 New Zealand 58.54 15.19

Kenya 5.35 45.82 St. Vincent & Grenadines 18.70 35.87 Finland 58.72 14.67

Sierra Leone 5.80 62.09 Swaziland 19.67 27.48 Bahamas 59.35 35.73

Nepal 5.81 57.88 Lebanon 20.07 39.33 Sweden 63.82 13.26

Turkmenistan 6.04 50.82 Belarus 20.25 50.45 Netherlands 64.58 13.29

Congo 6.51 46.92 Kazakhstan 20.33 51.82 France 68.20 15.34

Senegal 6.94 53.35 Dominica 20.33 38.27 United Kingdom 68.55 16.37

Vietnam 7.10 64.75 Latvia 21.43 41.76 Belgium 69.32 14.36

Bangladesh 7.16 56.05 St. Lucia 21.55 46.62 Norway 69.51 15.98

Pakistan 8.23 46.99 Brazil 21.68 22.71 Italy 70.07 16.59

Azerbaijan 8.76 73.51 Bulgaria 21.80 30.70 Austria 71.51 13.53

Côte d'Ivoire 8.99 44.32 Russia 22.47 34.35 Germany 71.79 13.09

Paraguay 9.14 27.27 Fiji 23.25 36.28 Australia 73.17 15.07

Uzbekistan 9.54 48.33 Grenada 23.26 40.99 Japan 74.12 14.88

Kyrgyzstan 9.57 47.15 Turkey 23.65 32.60 Canada 75.41 11.68

Cameroon 9.64 43.80 Lithuania 24.31 40.42 Bermuda 78.21 14.23

Moldova 9.65 43.45 Romania 24.80 45.26 Switzerland 79.36 14.57

Bolivia 10.10 42.52 Iran 25.80 32.55 Barbados 79.55 11.10

Ecuador 10.27 29.09 Mexico 26.31 26.63 Hong Kong 79.86 10.28

Armenia 10.74 69.66 Bahrain 26.91 28.55 Iceland 80.11 18.90

Sri Lanka 10.79 63.55 Chile 27.25 22.96 Denmark 80.85 14.02

Jordan 11.37 37.67 Antigua & Barbuda 27.34 36.12 Luxembourg 97.17 17.08

Albania 12.25 69.26 Poland 28.27 30.65 United States 100.00 9.73

Indonesia 12.56 50.62 Trinidad & Tobago 29.06 22.06 

Jamaica 12.63 34.78 Estonia 29.87 33.45 

Zimbabwe 12.71 25.58 Gabon 30.07 47.94 

Guinea 13.03 43.69 Tunisia 30.72 35.95 

Syria 13.79 47.92 St. Kitts & Nevis 31.11 36.33 

Georgia 13.92 47.39 Uruguay 31.38 25.25 

 Slovakia 31.87 32.06 

 Hungary 34.57 22.54 

 Argentina 38.49 32.79 

 Oman 40.26 24.14 

 Qatar 42.57 26.22 

 Slovenia 43.67 21.34 

Low-income average 0.080 52.58 Middle-income average 0.249 34.69 High-income average 0.674 16.97

Source: Seale and Regmi, 2009, table 12.2, pp. 158-59.
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Methodology

The Florida model, developed by Theil, Chung, and Seale (1989), was derived 

from Working’s (1943) model by incorporating prices. Theil et al.’s starting 

point was to rewrite Working’s model as a cross-country demand system, 

 (1)

where wic=Eic/Ec is the budget share of good i (= 1, ..., n) in country c (=1, 

..., N), Eic is expenditure on good i in c, 1

n E E c i ic = ∑ = is total nominal consumption expenditure, Qc is real per capita income (volume) in country c, 

ic is a random error term, and i and i are parameters to be estimated. The 

budget shares, summed across all n goods, equal 1, and the s and s are 

thus subject to the adding-up conditions, 

 (2)

for a given country c, since wi

 = Ei/E, Ei= wiE. Substituting equation 1 for wi, 

we obtain Ei = i

E + iE log E, which, when differentiated with respect to E

and using equation 1, gives the marginal budget share, i

,

 (3)

Both the budget and marginal shares are functions of income such that, when 

income changes, wi

 and i change.10

Let pic and pid be the domestic currency price of good i in country c and in 

country d, respectively, where c≠d. As domestic currency prices have different dimensions in different countries, the absolute prices pic and pid from 

countries c and d will have different dimensions. However, for cross-country 

analyses, one needs to have prices for all countries in the same dimension. 

The solution is to use relative instead of absolute prices. Also note that the 

price ratio pic/pjc depends on country c and implies that different countries 

have different sets of prices. To extend equation 1 to include prices and still 

have fi xed parameters (i.e., i

 and i), one must select a particular set of relative prices. Theil, Chung, and Seale chose to defl ate the absolute price of i in 

c by the geometric mean price11 of i across all N countries, that is, 

 (4)

The model that emerges has the budget share on the left and is polynomial in 

the parameters:

wic = LINEAR + QUADRATIC + CUBIC + ic, where (5)

 LINEAR = Real-income term,

 = i + i

qc , (5a)

 QUADRATIC = Pure-price term, 

 (5b)

10The exception to this is when a 

good has unitary elasticity; as incomes 

increase, expenditure on the good increases in the same proportion, so that 

wic is unchanged.

11Theil and Seale (1987) justify the 

above choice of converting the absolute 

prices into relative prices through 

dividing each absolute price by the 

geometric mean price by proving that 

the geometric mean price point across 

countries has a minimum mean-squared 

distance property.

w lnQ ic i i c ic =+ + αβ ε

1 1

1 and 0 n n

i i

i i

α β

= =

∑ ∑ = =

( ) 1 i

i ii ii

dE log E w . dE θ αβ β = =+ + =+

1

1 N

i ic c

log p log p . N == ∑

( ) ( ) 1

ic n jc

i ic j jc j

i j

p p q log q log , p p =

⎡ ⎤ = α +β − α +β ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ∑
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 CUBIC = Substitution term, 

 (5c)

and qc

 is the natural logarithm of Qc (real per capita income), 1 c c ic q q ,p * = +

is the price of good i in c, pi is the geometric mean price of good i across all 

countries such that 

1

1 log log 

N

i ic c

p p N == ∑ , i , i and  (representing income

fl exibility (the inverse of the income elasticity of the marginal utility of 

income))12 are parameters to be estimated, and i

 is a random error term. As 

before, the budget shares, summed across all n goods, equal 1, and the s 

and s are subject to the adding-up conditions 

1 1

1 and 0 

n n

i i

i i = =

∑ ∑ α= β= . 

Homogeneity may be imposed by subtracting the nth relative price from all 

other n-1 relative prices, that is, log log ic nc

ic

i n

p p

x

p p = - , and replacing the 

relative price terms in equation 5 with xic. 

The Florida model, under the condition of preference independence, has 

Slutsky price terms as follows,

ijc = ic (1ic) i = j (6a)

 =icjc i ≠ j (6b)

with ic and  defi ned as above. Symmetry of the Slutsky coeffi cients is readily seen as

ijc = jic =ic jc i ≠ j . (7)

The linear term in the model, equation 5a, represents the effect of a change 

in real (per capita) income (i.e., the per capita volume of total consumption 

expenditure) on the budget share. In the case where all countries face the 

same set of prices, the quadratic and cubic terms vanish, leaving the linear 

term.13 It is also the budget share of the Florida model evaluated at geometric 

mean prices, 

 (8)

The quadratic term, equation 5b (quadratic because it contains products of 

the s and the s), is the pure-price term and shows how an increase in 

price pic results in a higher budget share on good i, even if the volume of total 

expenditure stays the same. The cubic term, equation 5c (cubic because it 

involves  as well as the s and s), is the substitution term and recognizes 

that consumers will not consume the same quantities, but will react to the 

higher price by substitution away from good i toward other (now) relatively 

cheaper goods. The expressions in brackets in both 5b and 5c are defl ated 

logarithmic price ratios, with the defl ators being weighted means of those 

logarithmic ratios. The weights, however, differ in 5b and 5c. In 5b, the 

weights are budget shares ic i i c (w q = + α β ) of equation 8, while the weights

 in 5c are marginal shares( ) *

i ic α β + q , 

12Frisch (1932, p.15) refers to the 

reciprocal of , that is, 1 d E

dE

μ

μ

φ- = ,

where  represents the marginal utility 

of money, as the fl exibility of the marginal utility of money, or, shortened, as 

money fl exibility.

13Deaton and Muellbauer’s (1980) 

model has the same income term as the 

Florida model, and its price terms vanish if all countries (households) face the 

same price vector.

( ) ( ) 1

* * ic n jc

i ic j jc j

i j

p p q log q log , p p =

⎡ ⎤ =φ α +β − α +β ⎢ ⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ∑

 . w q ic i i c = + α β
8

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

 (9)

both evaluated at geometric mean price p . 

These defl ators may be related to the Divisia price index, 

 (10)

and the Frisch price index, 

 (11)

by substituting log p j − log p for d p j log into equations 10 and 11. The 

Divisia price index weights the logarithmic price changes by the budget 

shares, while the Frisch price index weights the logarithmic price changes by 

the marginal shares. Since j

 > wj for luxury goods and j < wj for necessities, the Frisch price index gives a larger (smaller) weight to luxuries (necessities) than does the Divisia price index.

( ) , *

ic i i c θ αβ = + q

 log , DP w d p =∑j j j

 log DP* d p , = θ ∑j j j
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Three Types of Price Elasticities

A price elasticity is the measure of the percent change in the quantity 

demanded of good i from a 1-percent change in the price of good j. When i is 

equal (not equal) to j, the price elasticity is referred to as an own-price (crossprice) elasticity of demand. Three prominent types of price elasticities are the 

Frisch, Slutsky, and Cournot price elasticities, and these three measures differ depending upon assumptions concerning income after a price change. The 

Frisch price elasticity is the result of compensating the consumer’s income after 

a price change in such a way that the consumer’s marginal utility of income is 

constant; the Slutsky price elasticity results from compensating the consumer’s 

income after a price change so that the consumer’s real income is constant, and 

the Cournot price elasticity is based on constraining the consumer’s nominal 

income to remain unchanged after a change in price.14 To calculate any of these 

elasticities based on the Florida model, one starts with the model’s estimated 

parameters (s, s, and ) and real per capita income in all countries relative to 

that of the United States normalized to equal 1.15 When evaluated at geometric 

mean prices, p , the budget share of good i in country c, written in terms of the 

parameters of the Florida model, is

 (12)

while the marginal share for good i in country c is 

 (13)

and the income elasticity of demand for good i in country c is 

 (14)

Equations 12, 13, and 14 demonstrate that budget shares, marginal shares, 

and income elasticities are functions of income; when income changes, these 

values change.16

The Frisch price elasticity, written in terms of the Florida model’s parameters, is

 i = j (15a)

 = 0 i ≠ j . (15b)

The Frisch own-price elasticity, Fiic, exists, but Frisch cross-price elasticities 

vanish because of the assumption of preference independence (Theil, Chung, 

and Seale, p. 117). However, as we will see in equations 17a and 17b, the 

Slutsky and Cournot own- and cross-price elasticities of demand may be written in terms of the Frisch own-price elasticity.

Although the Slutsky price parameters are not directly estimated by the 

Florida model when preferences are independent, they may be calculated 

from the estimated Florida parameters for each country using equations 16a 

and 16b, that is, 

14Two methods of estimating 

price elasticities, the Slutsky and the 

Hicksian, are referred to as compensated price elasticities. Although each 

method compensates the consumer and 

keeps real income constant after a price 

change, the manner in which the compensation is assumed varies between 

the two (Friedman, 1976, pp. 50-54). 

The Slutsky method assumes that the 

amount necessary to allow the consumer to continue consuming the same 

bundle of goods is used for compensation, while the Hicksian method allows 

the consumer to consume a different 

bundle of goods as long as the bundle 

remains on the same indifference curve 

that existed prior to the price change. 

For this study, we use only Slutsky 

compensated elasticities. Conversely, 

the Cournot price elasticity is sometimes referred to as the uncompensated 

or ordinary price elasticity that is derived from the ordinary or Marshallian 

demand curve.

15See Theil, Chung, and Seale (1989, 

pp. 110-11) for the derivation of the 

three types of own-price elasticities.

16The exception to this is when a 

good has unitary elasticity, meaning 

that the proportional change in the 

quantity demanded of the good is equal 

to the proportional change in income so 

that and wic ic θ are unchanged.

 , w q ic i i c =α +β

 , ic ic

ic ic i i i c c

(p q )

w q Q

∗ ∂ θ = = +β =α +β ∂

 . ic c ic ic i i c

ic

c ic c ic i ic

q Q (logq ) q

Q q (logQ ) w q

∗ ∂ ∂ θ α +β

η= = = = ∂ ∂ α +β

*

ic ic i i i c

ijc

ic ic i ic

w q F

w w q

θ +β α +β ⎛ ⎞

=φ =φ =φ⎜ ⎟

⎝ ⎠ α +β
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Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

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 i = j (16a)

 i ≠ j . (16b)

The Slutsky price elasticity for a given good i with respect to a price change 

in good j in country c can be stated as the ratio of the coeffi cient of the 

Slutsky matrix and the corresponding budget share (Frisch, 1959; Theil, 

Chung, and Seale, 1989, p. 155). Written in terms of parameters of the Florida 

model and the Frisch own-price elasticity, the Slutsky price elasticity is: 

 i = j (17a)

 i ≠ j . (17b)

The Cournot price elasticity may be written in terms of the Florida model’s 

parameters and the Frisch own-price elasticity or in terms of its own parameters:

 i = j (18a)

 i  j , (18b)

or in terms of the Slutsky price elasticity,

 i = j (19a)

 i ≠ j . (19b)

As seen in equations 17a and b and 18a and b, the Cournot price elasticity is 

equal to the substitution effect of the Slutsky price elasticity and, additionally, 

an income term. Accordingly, the Cournot own-price elasticity is larger absolutely than the Slutsky own-price elasticity. Under preference independence, 

all Slutsky cross-price elasticities are positive. If the income effect is greater 

(less) than the substitution effect, the Cournot cross-price elasticities will be 

negative (positive); if the effects are equal, the elasticities will equal zero.

( ) 1 * *

ijc i i c i i c π =φ α +β − α +β ( q) ( q)

( ) * *

i ic j jc =−φ α + β α + β ( q) q

( ) 1 1( ) ( ) *

ijc iic ic iic i i c SF F q = −θ = − α +β

( ) * =− θ = α + β FF q iic jc iic j j c

( ) ( ) ( )

( )

1 1 

 

*

ijc iic ic ic iic i i c

*

i ic

CF F q

q

= −θ −θ = − α +β

− α +β

( )

( )( )

( )

 

 

ic jc *

iic jc iic j j c

ic

*

i ic j jc

i ic

w

F Fq w

q q

q

θ

=− θ − = α + β

α +β α +β − α +β

( ) *

iic i i c = − α +β S q

( )( )

( )

*

i ic j jc

ijc

i ic

q q

S

q

α +β α +β = − α +β
11

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Empirical Results

Seale et al. (2003) calculated income and three types of own-price elasticities 

of demand for 9 goods in 114 countries participating in the 1996 International 

Comparison Program. They did not report marginal shares for the 114 countries or their cross-price elasticities of demand. In this section, we extend their 

analyses by calculating and reporting marginal shares in the 114 countries for 

the 9 goods. Next, we examine a two-good demand system, food and nonfood, 

calculate the cross-price elasticities for the system using the Seale parameter 

estimates, and compare our results with those of Theil et al. (1989). Finally, we 

calculate and report Slutsky and Cournot cross-price elasticities of demand for 

the 9-good system across 114 countries using equations 18a through19b. The 

minimal requirements for these calculations are parameter estimates from the 

Florida model and the natural log of real per capita incomes of the 114 countries relative to that of the United States (normalized to equal 1). The parameters are those estimated by Seale et al. (2003, table 5, p. 24). All marginal 

shares and elasticities are calculated at geometric mean prices.

Marginal Shares

A marginal share, ic, measures how consumers would allocate, say, an additional dollar of income across consumption goods, in our case, across nine 

broad categories of goods. Since these values can be used in other research 

and may be used to calculate income and price elasticities, we calculate and 

present them for each country in appendix table 1. They are also plotted in 

fi gure 1, which illustrates how the calculated marginal shares for the aggregate consumption categories vary across countries based on country income 

levels. The pattern is quite striking, with low-income countries allocating an 

additional unit of income for necessities (luxuries) at a higher (lower) relative 

share than high- and middle-income countries. For example, if incomes go 

up by $1 across all countries, the expenditures on food would increase by 54 

cents in Tanzania and by 2 cents in the United States. 

Figure 1

Distribution of additional $1 of income across 114 countries1

Dollars

1Countries arranged in ascending order of affluence.

Source: Author’s calculation using the 1996 ICP data.

Tanzania United States

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

1.0

0.8

Food

Clothing & footwear

Rent, fuel & power

House operations

Medical care

Education

Transport & communication

Recreation

Other

Low-income countries Middle-income countries High-income countries
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In further contrast, an additional $1 of income in Tanzania would increase 

expenditures on other, recreation, and medical care by 5 cents, 3 cents, and 

4 cents, respectively, while the same additional dollar in the United States 

would increase expenditure on these three goods by 18 cents, 9 cents, and 13 

cents, respectively (a difference in magnitude of 3 to 4 times). The difference 

in the magnitude of marginal spending by consumers in the two countries is 

about double for clothing and footwear, gross rent, fuel and power, housing 

operations, and transportation, while it is only about 1.3 times for education. 

Cross-Price Elasticities in a 

Two-Good Demand System

In a two-good demand system, the cross-price terms of the two goods are 

equal to the negative of the corresponding own-price terms. The Slutsky 

own-price elasticities are also equal to the negative of the corresponding 

Slutsky cross-price elasticities, but will differ for Cournot price elasticities. 

Calculations are based on  and  of food and  from Seale et al. (2003, table 

5, p. 24). The alpha and beta for nonfood are just 1 minus the alpha of food 

and the negative of the beta of food. This result is directly obtained from the 

adding-up conditions of equation 2. 

The calculated cross-price elasticities of the 114 countries in the food and 

nonfood demand system (table 2) indicate that the Slutsky cross-price elasticity for food demand with respect to change in a nonfood price is higher in 

the middle-income countries than in the low- and high-income countries. For 

example, this cross-price elasticity increases from .296 in Tanzania to .393 in 

Swaziland, before decreasing thereafter to only .082 in the United States. As 

for the Slutsky cross-price elasticity of demand for nonfood with respect to 

a change in the price of food, it decreases from .623 for Tanzania to .218 for 

Brazil before declining to .015 for the United States. 

It is interesting that the Slutsky food cross-price elasticities with respect to a 

price change in nonfood are larger than those for nonfood in countries with a 

real per capita income level less than that of Pakistan. Starting with Pakistan, 

and continuing upward in country income levels, the Slutsky food-nonfood 

cross-price elasticity is greater than the corresponding nonfood-food elasticity. Further, quantities demanded for food and nonfood are signifi cantly more 

sensitive in low- and middle-income countries to compensated cross-price 

changes than in high-income ones. The group averages for the low- and middle-income countries are approximately 1.5 times the average for the highincome countries for food with respect to a nonfood price change, while they 

are 5.7 and 3.0 times larger for nonfood with respect to a food price change. 

Most striking, consumer behavior, on a per capita basis, is approximately 

4 and 42 times more sensitive to food and nonfood cross-price changes in 

Tanzania than in the United States. 

The calculated Cournot cross-price elasticities that take into account the 

income effect of a price change are markedly different from the corresponding 

Slutsky ones. For low-income countries with real per capita income levels of 

about 13 percent or less than that of the United States, these Cournot crossprice elasticities are positive, indicating that the income effect is smaller than 

the substitution effect. In these countries, when nonfood price rises, expenditures on food are expected to increase. For countries with a relative real per 
13

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Table 2

Cross-price elasticities in a two-good demand system, across 114 countries from 1996 ICP

 Food Nonfood Food Nonfood

Country Slutsky Cournot Slutsky Cournot Country Slutsky Cournot Slutsky Cournot

Low-income countries: Middle-income countries:

Tanzania 0.296 0.038 0.623 -0.340 Ukraine 0.393 -0.003 0.268 -0.230

Nigeria 0.320 0.030 0.548 -0.315 Philippines 0.394 -0.004 0.258 -0.227

Tajikistan 0.330 0.027 0.517 -0.305 Peru 0.394 -0.004 0.255 -0.226

Zambia 0.332 0.026 0.512 -0.303 Botswana 0.394 -0.004 0.254 -0.226

Yemen 0.332 0.026 0.512 -0.303 Thailand 0.394 -0.004 0.252 -0.225

Malawi 0.338 0.024 0.494 -0.297 Morocco 0.393 -0.005 0.248 -0.224

Madagascar 0.338 0.024 0.494 -0.297 Venezuela 0.393 -0.005 0.247 -0.224

Mali 0.340 0.024 0.489 -0.296 Macedonia 0.393 -0.006 0.240 -0.222

Mongolia 0.340 0.024 0.488 -0.295 Belize 0.393 -0.006 0.240 -0.222

Benin 0.353 0.019 0.449 -0.283 Egypt 0.393 -0.006 0.240 -0.222

Kenya 0.358 0.017 0.433 -0.278 St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.393 -0.006 0.239 -0.221

Sierra Leone 0.362 0.015 0.419 -0.274 Swaziland 0.393 -0.007 0.232 -0.219

Nepal 0.362 0.016 0.419 -0.274 Lebanon 0.392 -0.007 0.229 -0.219

Turkmenistan 0.364 0.015 0.412 -0.272 Belarus 0.392 -0.007 0.228 -0.218

Congo 0.368 0.013 0.400 -0.268 Kazakhstan 0.392 -0.007 0.227 -0.218

Senegal 0.371 0.012 0.389 -0.265 Dominica 0.392 -0.008 0.227 -0.218

Vietnam 0.372 0.011 0.386 -0.264 Latvia 0.391 -0.008 0.220 -0.216

Bangladesh 0.372 0.011 0.384 -0.264 St. Lucia 0.391 -0.008 0.219 -0.216

Pakistan 0.378 0.009 0.362 -0.257 Brazil 0.391 -0.008 0.218 -0.216

Azerbaijan 0.380 0.007 0.352 -0.254 Bulgaria 0.391 -0.008 0.217 -0.215

Côte d'Ivoire 0.381 0.007 0.348 -0.253 Russia 0.390 -0.009 0.213 -0.214

Paraguay 0.382 0.006 0.345 -0.252 Fiji 0.389 -0.010 0.208 -0.213

Uzbekistan 0.383 0.006 0.339 -0.250 Grenada 0.389 -0.009 0.208 -0.213

Kyrgyzstan 0.383 0.006 0.338 -0.250 Turkey 0.389 -0.010 0.206 -0.212

Cameroon 0.384 0.005 0.337 -0.250 Lithuania 0.388 -0.010 0.202 -0.211

Moldova 0.384 0.006 0.337 -0.250 Romania 0.387 -0.010 0.199 -0.210

Bolivia 0.385 0.004 0.330 -0.247 Iran 0.385 -0.011 0.194 -0.209

Ecuador 0.386 0.004 0.327 -0.247 Mexico 0.385 -0.011 0.191 -0.208

Armenia 0.387 0.003 0.320 -0.245 Bahrain 0.384 -0.011 0.188 -0.207

Sri Lanka 0.387 0.003 0.320 -0.245 Chile 0.383 -0.011 0.186 -0.207

Jordan 0.388 0.002 0.312 -0.242 Antigua & Barbuda 0.383 -0.011 0.186 -0.207

Albania 0.390 0.001 0.301 -0.239 Poland 0.381 -0.012 0.181 -0.205

Indonesia 0.391 0.001 0.297 -0.238 Trinidad & Tobago 0.380 -0.012 0.177 -0.204

Jamaica 0.391 0.000 0.296 -0.238 Estonia 0.378 -0.013 0.174 -0.203

Zimbabwe 0.391 0.001 0.295 -0.237 Gabon 0.378 -0.012 0.173 -0.203

Guinea 0.391 0.000 0.291 -0.236 Tunisia 0.376 -0.012 0.170 -0.202

Syria 0.392 -0.001 0.283 -0.234 St.Kitts & Nevis 0.376 -0.013 0.168 -0.202

Georgia 0.392 -0.001 0.282 -0.234 Uruguay 0.375 -0.013 0.167 -0.201

 Slovakia 0.374 -0.013 0.165 -0.201

 Hungary 0.368 -0.014 0.154 -0.198

 Argentina 0.357 -0.015 0.139 -0.194

 Oman 0.353 -0.015 0.133 -0.192

 Qatar 0.346 -0.015 0.126 -0.190

 Slovenia 0.342 -0.016 0.122 -0.189

Average 0.368 0.012 0.389 -0.266 Average 0.384 -0.009 0.204 -0.212

—Continued
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capita income greater than 13 percent, income effects are larger than the substitution effects, and the elasticities are negative. However, the estimated Cournot 

elasticities are very small in magnitude, ranging on average from 0.012 for lowincome countries to -0.009 for middle-income countries and -0.014 for highincome countries. Considering that food is a necessity, the relatively inelastic 

cross-price elasticity estimates are consistent with our expectations.

The pattern is different for the nonfood consumption category—in the aggregate, luxury goods—in terms of the price effects of a change in food price. 

Unlike the Slutsky cross-price elasticities, the Cournot elasticities are negative. Starting with the poorest country, Tanzania, and traveling toward the 

richer ones, the Cournot cross-price elasticities gradually decline, down to 

the United States, which has the smallest absolute value. These elasticity estimates range from -0.34 for Tanzania to -0.216 for Brazil, and to -0.16 for the 

United States.

Table 2

Cross-price elasticities in a two-good demand system, across 114 

countries from 1996 ICP—Continued

 Food Nonfood

Country Slutsky Cournot Slutsky Cournot

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.338 -0.015 0.118 -0.188

Greece 0.327 -0.015 0.108 -0.185

Korea 0.324 -0.015 0.106 -0.185

Portugal 0.320 -0.016 0.103 -0.184

Spain 0.319 -0.016 0.102 -0.184

Ireland 0.314 -0.016 0.099 -0.183

Singapore 0.309 -0.016 0.095 -0.182

Mauritius 0.301 -0.015 0.090 -0.181

Israel 0.294 -0.015 0.085 -0.179

New Zealand 0.291 -0.015 0.084 -0.179

Finland 0.290 -0.015 0.083 -0.179

Bahamas 0.288 -0.015 0.082 -0.178

Sweden 0.269 -0.015 0.072 -0.176

Netherlands 0.266 -0.015 0.071 -0.175

France 0.251 -0.014 0.064 -0.173

United Kingdom 0.249 -0.014 0.063 -0.173

Belgium 0.246 -0.014 0.062 -0.173

Norway 0.245 -0.014 0.061 -0.173

Italy 0.242 -0.014 0.060 -0.173

Austria 0.236 -0.014 0.058 -0.172

Germany 0.235 -0.014 0.057 -0.172

Australia 0.228 -0.014 0.055 -0.171

Japan 0.224 -0.013 0.053 -0.171

Canada 0.218 -0.013 0.051 -0.170

Bermuda 0.204 -0.012 0.046 -0.169

Switzerland 0.198 -0.012 0.044 -0.168

Barbados 0.197 -0.012 0.044 -0.168

Hong Kong 0.196 -0.012 0.043 -0.168

Iceland 0.194 -0.012 0.043 -0.168

Denmark 0.191 -0.012 0.042 -0.168

Luxembourg 0.100 -0.007 0.018 -0.161

United States 0.082 -0.005 0.015 -0.160

Average 0.250 -0.014 0.068 -0.175

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
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Our results are compared pair-wise with those of Theil et al. (1989) for the 41 

countries present in both the 1980 and 1996 ICP. The comparison of the two 

ICP datasets (table 1 in this report compared with tables 5-8, pp. 116-17, of 

Theil) indicate that, during this period, real per capita income relative to that 

of the United States in the same year declined among the poorest countries 

in the sample. For example, the 1980 real per capita income relative to that of 

the United States was 3 percent for Tanzania, 6.7 percent for Nigeria and 6.5 

percent for Madagascar. The 1996 real per capita income relative to that of 

the United States was 2 percent for Tanzania, 2.9 percent for Nigeria, and 3.8 

percent for Madagascar. 

Comparisons between the studies of the Slutsky and Cournot food-nonfood 

cross-price elasticities indicate similar patterns in the two sets of estimated 

elasticities (fi g. 2), with the lower-income countries in both sets having greater 

cross-price elasticities (absolutely) than the high-income countries. With the 

exception of Slutsky elasticity for a few very low-income countries that experienced a decline in 1996 real per capita income relative to the 1980 real level, 

Slutsky cross-price elasticities for most countries are smaller absolutely in 

magnitude in 1996 than in 1980. This is a reasonable fi nding, since income levels for most countries increased between 1980 and 1996, and as income levels 

increase, we expect price elasticities to become less elastic (Timmer, 1981). 

Although the patterns in the estimated Slutsky and Cournot cross-price 

elasticities for the quantity demanded for food in reaction to nonfood price 

changes were generally similar in 1980 and 1996, certain differences existed 

(fi g. 3). The values of the 1996 Slutsky cross-price elasticity were larger than 

the 1980 estimates for most countries in the lower income half of the sample. 

This again is related to the real per capita income level in these countries 

relative to that of the United States in the same year. Countries in the lower 

income grouping experienced little or no increase in income levels during 

this period. For example, the point at which the 1996 Slutsky elasticity line in 

fi gure 3 dips below the 1980 Slutsky elasticity line occurs between Argentina 

and Greece. In 1980, relative per capita income was 0.361 in Argentina and 

0.413 in Greece (Theil et al., 1989); in 1996 it was 0.380 in Argentina, while 

Figure 2

Nonfood cross-price elasticity with food price change

Percent

Note: Forty-one countries are listed in order of increasing affluence.

Source: 1996 estimation by authors, 1980 from Theil, Chung, and Seale,1989.

Tanzania United States

-0.5

-0.3

-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5

0.7

Slutsky 1980

Slutsky 1996

Cournot 1980

Cournot 1996
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Greece experienced a greater increase, to a relative real per capita income of 

0.485. Countries preceding Argentina in the chart—Hungary, Poland, Chile, 

and Brazil—all had lower relative real per capita income in 1996 than in 

1980. In contrast, countries following Greece (South Korea, Portugal, and 

others) registered signifi cant increases in relative real per capita income levels 

between 1980 and 1996. 

The corresponding Cournot cross-price elasticities for food demand with 

respect to nonfood price changes were generally much smaller in absolute 

value in 1996 than in 1980. As with Slutsky calculations, the exception is for 

some of the lowest income countries, where the 1996 elasticities are positive 

and larger absolutely than the smaller negative values in 1980. Despite the 

differences noted between the 1996 and 1980 elasticities, the cross-price elasticities for a two-good demand system estimated with the 1996 ICP appear 

reasonable and offer suffi cient support for estimating cross-price elasticities 

for the nine-good demand system.

Cross-Price Elasticities in a 

Nine-Good Demand System

The Slutsky and Cournot cross-price elasticities for each of the 9 aggregate 

goods with respect to a price change in each of the 8 other goods are presented for the 114 countries in appendix tables 2-19. Simple averages of the 

estimated elasticities for low-, middle-, and high-income country groupings 

are presented in tables 3 and 4. Within a country grouping, the Slutsky crossprice elasticities for the nine-good demand system are larger in magnitude for 

luxury items such as recreation than for the two necessities, food and clothing/footwear (table 3). When relative prices change with respect to these two 

necessities, the Slutsky cross-price elasticities for the other seven goods are 

greatest among low-income countries and decrease in magnitude as countries become wealthier. However, when relative prices change with respect to 

goods other than food and clothing/footwear, the Slutsky cross-price elasticities (except for food) are smaller in the low-income group and greatest for the 

wealthiest countries. In the case of food (with some exceptions), the Slutsky 

cross-price elasticities of demand with respect to a change in the price 

Figure 3

Food cross-price elasticity with nonfood price change

Percent

Note: Forty-one countries are listed in order of increasing affluence.

Source: 1996 estimation by authors, 1980 from Theil, Chung, and Seale, 1989.

Slutsky 1980

Slutsky 1996

Cournot 1980

Cournot 1996

Tanzania United States

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
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(individually) of one of the other eight goods is lowest in the high-income 

group and highest in the middle-income group.

Cournot cross-price elasticities for the nine goods and three country groupings are presented in table 4 for relative price changes that are not compensated by equivalent income changes. Relative price changes for the two 

necessities, food and clothing, result in large income effects that overwhelm 

the substitution effects and lead to negative Cournot cross-price elasticities 

for all goods across the three income-level groupings. The same is true for a 

change in the price of education. For changes in gross rent, fuel, and power; 

housing operations; and transportation and communications, the substitution 

effects outweigh the income effect for many of the low-income group, but 

for the other two income groupings the opposite is true. For medical care 

and other, the substitution effects are larger than the income effect except 

for a few of the wealthiest countries, so the cross-price elasticities are almost 

Table 3

Slutsky (compensated) cross-price elasticities for a nine-good demand system

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation Other

 Percent change in demand

One-percent price change in:

Low-income countries:

Food, beverage, & tobacco 0.278 0.381 0.379 0.509 0.327 0.388 0.631 0.493

Clothing & footwear 0.041 0.070 0.070 0.092 0.060 0.071 0.114 0.089

Gross rent, fuel, & power 0.079 0.100 0.136 0.175 0.118 0.139 0.219 0.171

House operations 0.034 0.043 0.059 0.076 0.051 0.060 0.095 0.074

Medical care 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.058 0.068 0.107 0.084

Education 0.039 0.049 0.067 0.066 0.087 0.068 0.108 0.084

Transport & communication 0.058 0.073 0.100 0.099 0.128 0.125 0.160 0.125

Recreation 0.024 0.031 0.042 0.042 0.053 0.036 0.043 0.052

Other 0.055 0.070 0.094 0.094 0.120 0.082 0.096 0.150

Middle-income countries:

Food, beverage, & tobacco 0.154 0.202 0.201 0.227 0.182 0.204 0.245 0.225

Clothing & footwear 0.030 0.060 0.060 0.067 0.054 0.060 0.072 0.066

Gross rent, fuel, & power 0.081 0.124 0.161 0.181 0.145 0.163 0.195 0.179

House operations 0.035 0.053 0.070 0.078 0.063 0.070 0.084 0.077

Medical care 0.046 0.071 0.092 0.092 0.083 0.093 0.111 0.103

Education 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.070 0.083 0.077

Transport & communication 0.060 0.092 0.120 0.119 0.134 0.133 0.144 0.133

Recreation 0.032 0.049 0.063 0.063 0.071 0.057 0.064 0.070

Other 0.064 0.098 0.128 0.128 0.143 0.115 0.129 0.154

High-income countries:

Food, beverage, & tobacco 0.053 0.068 0.067 0.073 0.062 0.068 0.076 0.072

Clothing & footwear 0.015 0.053 0.052 0.057 0.048 0.053 0.059 0.056

Gross rent, fuel, & power 0.052 0.143 0.183 0.197 0.168 0.184 0.205 0.196

House operations 0.023 0.061 0.079 0.085 0.073 0.079 0.088 0.084

Medical care 0.032 0.088 0.113 0.113 0.104 0.114 0.126 0.121

Education 0.021 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Transport & communication 0.039 0.107 0.137 0.136 0.147 0.146 0.153 0.146

Recreation 0.023 0.063 0.081 0.081 0.087 0.074 0.081 0.086

Other 0.044 0.121 0.155 0.155 0.167 0.143 0.157 0.174

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
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all positive. For recreation, all cross-price elasticities are positive across all 

groups. The values of these elasticities for all goods generally tend to be 

largest for the poorest countries and to decrease in magnitude as countries 

become wealthier. 

Relative price changes with respect to goods other than necessities lead to 

cross-price elasticities that vary across goods and country groupings. When a 

relative price change occurs with respect to gross rent/fuel/power, the effects 

on other consumption categories are more positive for low-income countries 

than for the other two groups. In contrast, the effect of a relative price change 

with respect to house furnishings and operations on the demand for all other 

eight goods is negative across the middle- and high-income country groupings. A relative price change with respect to three luxury items—medical 

care, recreation, and other—leads to increased demand for all other goods, as 

indicated by the positive Cournot elasticity.

Table 4

Cournot (uncompensated) cross-price elasticities for a nine-good demand system

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation Other

 Percent change in demand

One-percent price change in:

Low-income countries:

Food, beverage, & tobacco -0.191 -0.260 -0.259 -0.343 -0.224 -0.265 -0.426 -0.332

Clothing & footwear -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.031 -0.021 -0.024 -0.039 -0.030

Gross rent, fuel, & power 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.004 0.003

House operations 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001

Medical care 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.012 0.015 0.024 0.019

Education -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.015 -0.012

Transport & communication 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.004

Recreation 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.013 0.015 0.019

Other 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.018 0.025 0.019 0.031 0.016

Middle-income countries:

Food, beverage, & tobacco -0.160 -0.209 -0.209 -0.235 -0.188 -0.212 -0.253 -0.233

Clothing & footwear -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Gross rent, fuel, & power -0.003 -0.004 -0.006 -0.007 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006

House operations -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Medical care 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.008

Education -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Transport & communication -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Recreation 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Other 0.004 0.006 0.009 0.008 0.010 0.009 0.010 0.008

High-income countries:

Food, beverage, & tobacco -0.135 -0.173 -0.173 -0.187 -0.159 -0.175 -0.194 -0.186

Clothing & footwear -0.006 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.021

Gross rent, fuel, & power -0.003 -0.009 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.013 -0.013

House operations -0.001 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Medical care 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Education -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Transport & communication -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.008

Recreation 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

Other 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
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Conclusions

This report articulates a simple method for calculating cross-country, crossprice elasticities of demand. Using this method, the authors calculate two sets 

of cross-price elasticities, Slutsky and Cournot, for 2-good and 9-good demand 

systems from the 1996 International Comparison Program data across 114 

countries. The compensated Slutsky elasticity is calculated assuming that the 

real income level remains unchanged, while the uncompensated Cournot elasticity is calculated assuming that the nominal income remains unchanged. 

Comparisons of the elasticities from the two-good demand system with elasticities estimated with the 1980 ICP data by Theil, Chung, and Seale (1989) 

provide affi rmation that the 1996 elasticity estimates in the present report 

are reasonable. In general, consumer demand in the higher income countries, 

where income levels had grown over this period, had become less elastic in 

1996 with respect to relative price changes. However, in the poorest countries 

in the sample, where there was little or no real income growth during the 

period, relative price changes sometimes led to cross-price elasticities in 1996 

greater than those calculated in 1980.

The elasticity estimates from this report represent the only available consistent cross-country cross-price elasticity estimates across this number of countries and consumption categories. Past estimates of income and own-price 

elasticities, calculated using the 1996 ICP data (Seale, Regmi, and Bernstein, 

2003), have been widely used as input in economic models such as USDA’s 

Baseline, the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model, the International 

Food Research Policy Institute (IFPRI) IMPACT model, and others. The 

newly estimated cross-price elasticities presented in this report should prove 

to be equally valuable. Users need to bear in mind that these elasticities are 

calculated based on ICP data, which can be considered broadly representative for a country, but which may not be a good measure for different socioeconomic groups within that country. Finally, having been based on broad 

aggregates, the elasticity estimates may be biased somewhat downwards.

The methodology presented in this report may be generalized to other demand 

systems. For example, several authors (e.g., Reimer and Hertel, 2003, 2004; 

Cranfield et al., 1998, 2003; Cranfield et al. 2000, 2004) have successfully fi t 

the 1985 and 1996 ICP data with the AIDADS model developed by Rimmer 

and Powell (1996, 2001). Based upon these authors’ estimated parameters, it 

is possible to calculate marginal shares and cross-price elasticities across the 

countries in the study, as has been done in this report. One could also fi t an 

Almost-Ideal Demand System (AIDS) model (Deaton and Muellbauer, 1980) 

to ICP data, estimate the parameters, and use these to calculate marginal shares 

and cross-price elasticities individually for all countries in the sample. However, 

as discussed by Seale and Regmi (2006), not all demand systems are suitable 

for cross-country demand analyses. For example, models with constant marginal shares such as the linear expenditure system are not suitable for estimating cross-price elasticities across individual countries.

The methodology may also be generalized to out-of-sample data sets. For 

example, Cox and Alm (2007) calculated income and own-price elasticities 

of demand for a set of countries by using the parameter estimates of Seale 
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and Regmi (2006) and applying them to a real per capita income series that 

linked real income in 1996 to that of 2006. The method presented in this 

report could be applied to calculate those cross-price elasticities. Further, this 

study’s methodology should prove useful in estimating a new set of crossprice elasticities with the 2005 ICP data, which covers 147 countries.
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Appendix table 1

Distribution of additional one unit of income across expenditure categories, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.54 0.08 0.10 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.05

Nigeria 0.50 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.06

Tajikistan 0.47 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.07

Zambia 0.47 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.07

Yemen 0.47 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.03 0.07

Malawi 0.46 0.07 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.03 0.07

Madagascar 0.46 0.07 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.03 0.07

Mali 0.45 0.07 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.03 0.07

Mongolia 0.45 0.07 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.03 0.07

Benin 0.42 0.07 0.12 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.03 0.08

Kenya 0.41 0.07 0.13 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.08

Sierra Leone 0.40 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.09

Nepal 0.40 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.09

Turkmenistan 0.40 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.04 0.09

Congo 0.39 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.09

Senegal 0.38 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.09

Vietnam 0.37 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.09

Bangladesh 0.37 0.07 0.13 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.09

Pakistan 0.35 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.04 0.10

Azerbaijan 0.35 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.10

Côte d'Ivoire 0.34 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.10

Paraguay 0.34 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.10

Uzbekistan 0.33 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.10

Kyrgyzstan 0.33 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.10

Cameroon 0.33 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.10

Moldova 0.33 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.05 0.10

Bolivia 0.33 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.10

Ecuador 0.32 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Armenia 0.32 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Sri Lanka 0.32 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Jordan 0.31 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Albania 0.30 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Indonesia 0.30 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Jamaica 0.30 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Zimbabwe 0.29 0.07 0.15 0.06 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Guinea 0.29 0.07 0.15 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Syria 0.28 0.07 0.15 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Georgia 0.28 0.06 0.15 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.05 0.11

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.27 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.06 0.12

Philippines 0.26 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

Peru 0.26 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

Botswana 0.26 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

Thailand 0.26 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

Morocco 0.25 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

Venezuela 0.25 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

Macedonia 0.24 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

Belize 0.24 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

—Continued
26

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 1

Distribution of additional one unit of income across expenditure categories, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.24 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.24 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.12

Swaziland 0.24 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Lebanon 0.23 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Belarus 0.23 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Kazakhstan 0.23 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Dominica 0.23 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Latvia 0.22 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

St. Lucia 0.22 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Brazil 0.22 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Bulgaria 0.22 0.06 0.16 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Russia 0.22 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.13

Fiji 0.21 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.13

Grenada 0.21 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.13

Turkey 0.21 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.13

Lithuania 0.21 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.13

Romania 0.20 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.12 0.07 0.13

Iran 0.20 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.13

Mexico 0.20 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Bahrain 0.19 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Chile 0.19 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Antigua & Barbuda 0.19 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Poland 0.19 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Trinidad & Tobago 0.18 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Estonia 0.18 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Gabon 0.18 0.06 0.17 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Tunisia 0.18 0.06 0.17 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.17 0.06 0.17 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Uruguay 0.17 0.06 0.17 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Slovakia 0.17 0.06 0.17 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Hungary 0.16 0.06 0.18 0.08 0.10 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.14

Argentina 0.14 0.06 0.18 0.08 0.11 0.07 0.13 0.08 0.15

Oman 0.14 0.06 0.18 0.08 0.11 0.07 0.14 0.08 0.15

Qatar 0.13 0.06 0.18 0.08 0.11 0.07 0.14 0.08 0.15

Slovenia 0.13 0.06 0.18 0.08 0.11 0.07 0.14 0.08 0.15

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.12 0.06 0.18 0.08 0.11 0.07 0.14 0.08 0.15

Greece 0.11 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Korea 0.11 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Portugal 0.11 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Spain 0.11 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Ireland 0.10 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Singapore 0.10 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Mauritius 0.09 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Israel 0.09 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

New Zealand 0.09 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

—Continued
27

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 1

Distribution of additional one unit of income across expenditure categories, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.09 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Bahamas 0.09 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.16

Sweden 0.08 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.14 0.09 0.16

Netherlands 0.07 0.06 0.19 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.16

France 0.07 0.06 0.20 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

United Kingdom 0.07 0.06 0.20 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Belgium 0.07 0.06 0.20 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Norway 0.06 0.06 0.20 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Italy 0.06 0.06 0.20 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Austria 0.06 0.06 0.20 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Germany 0.06 0.06 0.20 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Australia 0.06 0.06 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Japan 0.06 0.06 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Canada 0.05 0.06 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Bermuda 0.05 0.05 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Switzerland 0.05 0.05 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Barbados 0.05 0.05 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Hong Kong 0.05 0.05 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Iceland 0.05 0.05 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Denmark 0.04 0.05 0.20 0.09 0.12 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.17

Luxembourg 0.02 0.05 0.21 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.18

United States 0.02 0.05 0.21 0.09 0.13 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.18

Low-income average 0.373 0.069 0.134 0.058 0.067 0.066 0.098 0.042 0.093

Middle-income average 0.209 0.062 0.167 0.072 0.096 0.072 0.124 0.066 0.133

High-income average 0.072 0.056 0.195 0.084 0.120 0.077 0.146 0.086 0.166

Note: These calculations are based on the the marginal shares expressed in equation 3.

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
28

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 2

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with change in food prices, 114 countries in 19961

 Clothing Gross Transport & 

 & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.408 0.601 0.596 1.294 0.479 0.621 1.149

Nigeria 0.372 0.533 0.529 0.869 0.437 0.547 2.622 0.818

Tajikistan 0.356 0.504 0.501 0.763 0.417 0.516 1.524 0.727

Zambia 0.353 0.499 0.496 0.747 0.414 0.511 1.427 0.713

Yemen 0.353 0.498 0.495 0.746 0.414 0.510 1.421 0.712

Malawi 0.343 0.482 0.479 0.696 0.402 0.493 1.176 0.669

Madagascar 0.343 0.481 0.479 0.695 0.402 0.492 1.172 0.668

Mali 0.340 0.477 0.474 0.683 0.399 0.488 1.121 0.657

Mongolia 0.340 0.476 0.473 0.680 0.398 0.486 1.109 0.654

Benin 0.317 0.439 0.437 0.591 0.372 0.448 0.828 0.574

Kenya 0.308 0.424 0.422 0.559 0.361 0.432 0.750 0.544

Sierra Leone 0.299 0.411 0.409 0.532 0.351 0.418 0.692 0.519

Nepal 0.299 0.410 0.408 0.532 0.351 0.418 0.691 0.519

Turkmenistan 0.295 0.404 0.402 0.520 0.346 0.411 0.667 0.508

Congo 0.288 0.392 0.391 0.498 0.337 0.399 0.624 0.487

Senegal 0.281 0.382 0.381 0.480 0.330 0.389 0.592 0.470

Vietnam 0.279 0.379 0.377 0.474 0.327 0.385 0.581 0.464

Bangladesh 0.278 0.377 0.376 0.472 0.326 0.383 0.577 0.462

Pakistan 0.264 0.356 0.354 0.436 0.309 0.361 0.519 0.428

Azerbaijan 0.257 0.346 0.345 0.421 0.302 0.351 0.495 0.414

Côte d'Ivoire 0.255 0.342 0.341 0.415 0.299 0.347 0.486 0.408

Paraguay 0.253 0.340 0.339 0.411 0.297 0.345 0.480 0.404

Uzbekistan 0.248 0.333 0.332 0.401 0.291 0.338 0.466 0.395

Kyrgyzstan 0.248 0.333 0.332 0.401 0.291 0.338 0.465 0.394

Cameroon 0.247 0.332 0.331 0.399 0.290 0.337 0.462 0.392

Moldova 0.247 0.332 0.330 0.399 0.290 0.336 0.462 0.392

Bolivia 0.243 0.325 0.324 0.388 0.285 0.329 0.447 0.383

Ecuador 0.241 0.322 0.321 0.385 0.283 0.327 0.442 0.379

Armenia 0.236 0.316 0.315 0.375 0.277 0.320 0.428 0.370

Sri Lanka 0.236 0.315 0.314 0.374 0.277 0.319 0.427 0.369

Jordan 0.230 0.307 0.306 0.363 0.270 0.311 0.412 0.358

Albania 0.223 0.296 0.295 0.348 0.261 0.300 0.391 0.343

Indonesia 0.220 0.293 0.292 0.343 0.259 0.296 0.385 0.338

Jamaica 0.220 0.292 0.291 0.341 0.258 0.296 0.383 0.337

Zimbabwe 0.219 0.291 0.290 0.340 0.257 0.295 0.382 0.336

Guinea 0.217 0.287 0.286 0.335 0.254 0.291 0.375 0.331

Syria 0.211 0.279 0.278 0.324 0.247 0.283 0.361 0.320

Georgia 0.210 0.278 0.277 0.322 0.246 0.281 0.359 0.319

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.200 0.265 0.264 0.305 0.235 0.268 0.336 0.301

Philippines 0.194 0.255 0.254 0.293 0.227 0.258 0.321 0.289

Peru 0.191 0.251 0.251 0.288 0.224 0.254 0.315 0.285

Botswana 0.191 0.251 0.250 0.287 0.224 0.254 0.315 0.284

Thailand 0.189 0.249 0.248 0.285 0.222 0.252 0.312 0.282

Morocco 0.186 0.245 0.244 0.279 0.219 0.248 0.305 0.276

Venezuela 0.185 0.244 0.243 0.278 0.218 0.246 0.303 0.275

Macedonia 0.181 0.237 0.237 0.270 0.212 0.240 0.294 0.267

Belize 0.181 0.237 0.236 0.270 0.212 0.240 0.294 0.267

—Continued
29

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 2

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with change in food prices, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Clothing Gross Transport & 

 & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.180 0.237 0.236 0.269 0.212 0.240 0.293 0.267

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.180 0.236 0.235 0.268 0.211 0.239 0.292 0.265

Swaziland 0.175 0.229 0.228 0.259 0.205 0.231 0.281 0.257

Lebanon 0.173 0.226 0.226 0.256 0.203 0.229 0.277 0.253

Belarus 0.172 0.225 0.224 0.254 0.202 0.227 0.275 0.252

Kazakhstan 0.171 0.224 0.224 0.254 0.201 0.227 0.275 0.251

Dominica 0.171 0.224 0.224 0.254 0.201 0.227 0.275 0.251

Latvia 0.166 0.217 0.217 0.245 0.195 0.219 0.264 0.242

St. Lucia 0.165 0.216 0.216 0.244 0.194 0.219 0.263 0.241

Brazil 0.165 0.215 0.215 0.243 0.193 0.218 0.262 0.240

Bulgaria 0.164 0.215 0.214 0.242 0.193 0.217 0.261 0.239

Russia 0.161 0.211 0.210 0.237 0.189 0.213 0.255 0.234

Fiji 0.158 0.206 0.205 0.231 0.185 0.208 0.248 0.229

Grenada 0.158 0.206 0.205 0.231 0.185 0.208 0.248 0.229

Turkey 0.156 0.204 0.203 0.228 0.183 0.206 0.245 0.226

Lithuania 0.153 0.200 0.199 0.223 0.180 0.202 0.240 0.222

Romania 0.151 0.197 0.197 0.220 0.178 0.199 0.236 0.218

Iran 0.147 0.192 0.191 0.214 0.173 0.193 0.229 0.212

Mexico 0.145 0.189 0.188 0.210 0.171 0.191 0.225 0.209

Bahrain 0.143 0.186 0.185 0.207 0.168 0.188 0.221 0.205

Chile 0.142 0.184 0.184 0.205 0.166 0.186 0.219 0.203

Antigua & Barbuda 0.141 0.184 0.183 0.204 0.166 0.185 0.218 0.203

Poland 0.138 0.179 0.179 0.199 0.162 0.181 0.212 0.197

Trinidad & Tobago 0.135 0.176 0.175 0.195 0.159 0.177 0.207 0.193

Estonia 0.132 0.172 0.171 0.190 0.156 0.173 0.202 0.189

Gabon 0.132 0.171 0.170 0.189 0.155 0.172 0.201 0.188

Tunisia 0.129 0.168 0.168 0.186 0.152 0.170 0.198 0.184

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.128 0.166 0.166 0.184 0.151 0.168 0.195 0.182

Uruguay 0.127 0.165 0.165 0.182 0.150 0.167 0.194 0.181

Slovakia 0.126 0.163 0.163 0.180 0.148 0.165 0.191 0.179

Hungary 0.118 0.152 0.152 0.167 0.138 0.154 0.177 0.166

Argentina 0.107 0.138 0.138 0.151 0.126 0.139 0.159 0.150

Oman 0.102 0.132 0.132 0.144 0.120 0.133 0.152 0.143

Qatar 0.097 0.125 0.124 0.136 0.114 0.126 0.143 0.135

Slovenia 0.094 0.121 0.121 0.132 0.111 0.122 0.139 0.131

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.091 0.117 0.117 0.128 0.107 0.118 0.134 0.127

Greece 0.083 0.108 0.107 0.117 0.098 0.108 0.122 0.116

Korea 0.082 0.105 0.105 0.114 0.096 0.106 0.119 0.113

Portugal 0.079 0.102 0.102 0.111 0.093 0.103 0.116 0.110

Spain 0.079 0.101 0.101 0.110 0.093 0.102 0.115 0.109

Ireland 0.076 0.098 0.098 0.106 0.090 0.099 0.111 0.106

Singapore 0.073 0.094 0.094 0.102 0.086 0.095 0.107 0.102

Mauritius 0.069 0.089 0.089 0.097 0.082 0.090 0.101 0.096

Israel 0.066 0.085 0.085 0.092 0.078 0.085 0.096 0.091

New Zealand 0.065 0.083 0.083 0.090 0.076 0.084 0.094 0.089

—Continued
30

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 2

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with change in food prices, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Clothing Gross Transport & 

 & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.064 0.083 0.082 0.089 0.076 0.083 0.093 0.089

Bahamas 0.063 0.081 0.081 0.088 0.075 0.082 0.091 0.087

Sweden 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.077 0.066 0.072 0.081 0.077

Netherlands 0.055 0.070 0.070 0.076 0.065 0.071 0.079 0.075

France 0.049 0.063 0.063 0.068 0.058 0.064 0.071 0.068

United Kingdom 0.049 0.063 0.063 0.067 0.058 0.063 0.070 0.067

Belgium 0.048 0.061 0.061 0.066 0.056 0.062 0.068 0.065

Norway 0.047 0.061 0.061 0.065 0.056 0.061 0.068 0.065

Italy 0.047 0.060 0.060 0.064 0.055 0.060 0.067 0.064

Austria 0.045 0.057 0.057 0.061 0.053 0.058 0.064 0.061

Germany 0.044 0.057 0.057 0.061 0.052 0.057 0.063 0.061

Australia 0.042 0.054 0.054 0.058 0.050 0.055 0.061 0.058

Japan 0.041 0.053 0.053 0.056 0.049 0.053 0.059 0.056

Canada 0.039 0.050 0.050 0.054 0.046 0.051 0.056 0.054

Bermuda 0.036 0.046 0.046 0.049 0.042 0.046 0.051 0.049

Switzerland 0.034 0.044 0.044 0.047 0.041 0.044 0.049 0.047

Barbados 0.034 0.044 0.043 0.047 0.040 0.044 0.048 0.046

Hong Kong 0.034 0.043 0.043 0.046 0.040 0.043 0.048 0.046

Iceland 0.033 0.043 0.043 0.046 0.039 0.043 0.047 0.045

Denmark 0.032 0.042 0.041 0.044 0.038 0.042 0.046 0.044

Luxembourg 0.014 0.018 0.018 0.019 0.017 0.018 0.020 0.019

United States 0.011 0.015 0.014 0.015 0.013 0.015 0.016 0.015

Low-income average 0.278 0.381 0.379 0.509 0.327 0.388 0.708 0.493

Middle-income average 0.154 0.202 0.201 0.227 0.182 0.204 0.245 0.225

High-income average 0.053 0.068 0.067 0.073 0.062 0.068 0.076 0.072

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
31

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 3

Cournot cross-price elasticity with change in food prices, 114 countries in 19961

 Clothing Gross Transport & 

 & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania -0.222 -0.328 -0.325 -0.706 -0.261 -0.339 -0.626

Nigeria -0.214 -0.306 -0.304 -0.499 -0.251 -0.314 -1.506 -0.469

Tajikistan -0.210 -0.297 -0.295 -0.449 -0.246 -0.304 -0.898 -0.428

Zambia -0.209 -0.295 -0.293 -0.442 -0.245 -0.302 -0.845 -0.422

Yemen -0.209 -0.295 -0.293 -0.442 -0.245 -0.302 -0.841 -0.422

Malawi -0.207 -0.290 -0.288 -0.419 -0.242 -0.297 -0.708 -0.403

Madagascar -0.206 -0.290 -0.288 -0.419 -0.242 -0.296 -0.706 -0.402

Mali -0.206 -0.289 -0.287 -0.413 -0.241 -0.295 -0.678 -0.397

Mongolia -0.206 -0.288 -0.287 -0.412 -0.241 -0.295 -0.672 -0.396

Benin -0.200 -0.277 -0.276 -0.373 -0.235 -0.283 -0.522 -0.362

Kenya -0.198 -0.273 -0.271 -0.359 -0.232 -0.278 -0.482 -0.350

Sierra Leone -0.196 -0.269 -0.267 -0.348 -0.230 -0.274 -0.453 -0.340

Nepal -0.196 -0.269 -0.267 -0.348 -0.230 -0.273 -0.452 -0.339

Turkmenistan -0.195 -0.267 -0.265 -0.343 -0.229 -0.271 -0.440 -0.335

Congo -0.193 -0.263 -0.262 -0.334 -0.226 -0.268 -0.419 -0.327

Senegal -0.191 -0.260 -0.259 -0.327 -0.224 -0.265 -0.403 -0.320

Vietnam -0.191 -0.259 -0.258 -0.324 -0.224 -0.263 -0.398 -0.318

Bangladesh -0.191 -0.259 -0.258 -0.323 -0.224 -0.263 -0.396 -0.317

Pakistan -0.187 -0.253 -0.252 -0.309 -0.219 -0.256 -0.368 -0.304

Azerbaijan -0.186 -0.250 -0.249 -0.304 -0.218 -0.254 -0.357 -0.298

Côte d'Ivoire -0.185 -0.249 -0.248 -0.301 -0.217 -0.252 -0.353 -0.296

Paraguay -0.184 -0.248 -0.247 -0.300 -0.216 -0.252 -0.350 -0.295

Uzbekistan -0.183 -0.246 -0.245 -0.296 -0.215 -0.250 -0.344 -0.291

Kyrgyzstan -0.183 -0.246 -0.245 -0.296 -0.215 -0.250 -0.343 -0.291

Cameroon -0.183 -0.246 -0.245 -0.295 -0.215 -0.249 -0.342 -0.291

Moldova -0.183 -0.246 -0.245 -0.295 -0.215 -0.249 -0.342 -0.291

Bolivia -0.182 -0.244 -0.243 -0.291 -0.214 -0.247 -0.336 -0.287

Ecuador -0.182 -0.243 -0.242 -0.290 -0.213 -0.246 -0.333 -0.286

Armenia -0.180 -0.241 -0.240 -0.286 -0.212 -0.244 -0.327 -0.282

Sri Lanka -0.180 -0.241 -0.240 -0.286 -0.212 -0.244 -0.327 -0.282

Jordan -0.179 -0.239 -0.238 -0.282 -0.210 -0.242 -0.320 -0.278

Albania -0.177 -0.236 -0.235 -0.276 -0.208 -0.239 -0.311 -0.273

Indonesia -0.176 -0.235 -0.234 -0.275 -0.207 -0.238 -0.308 -0.271

Jamaica -0.176 -0.234 -0.234 -0.274 -0.207 -0.237 -0.308 -0.271

Zimbabwe -0.176 -0.234 -0.233 -0.274 -0.207 -0.237 -0.307 -0.270

Guinea -0.176 -0.233 -0.232 -0.272 -0.206 -0.236 -0.304 -0.268

Syria -0.174 -0.231 -0.230 -0.268 -0.204 -0.234 -0.298 -0.265

Georgia -0.174 -0.230 -0.230 -0.267 -0.204 -0.233 -0.297 -0.264

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine -0.172 -0.227 -0.226 -0.261 -0.201 -0.229 -0.288 -0.258

Philippines -0.170 -0.224 -0.223 -0.257 -0.200 -0.227 -0.282 -0.254

Peru -0.169 -0.223 -0.222 -0.255 -0.199 -0.226 -0.280 -0.252

Botswana -0.169 -0.223 -0.222 -0.255 -0.199 -0.225 -0.279 -0.252

Thailand -0.169 -0.222 -0.222 -0.254 -0.198 -0.225 -0.278 -0.251

Morocco -0.168 -0.221 -0.221 -0.252 -0.197 -0.224 -0.276 -0.250

Venezuela -0.168 -0.221 -0.220 -0.252 -0.197 -0.223 -0.275 -0.249

Macedonia -0.167 -0.219 -0.218 -0.249 -0.196 -0.222 -0.271 -0.247

Belize -0.167 -0.219 -0.218 -0.249 -0.196 -0.221 -0.271 -0.246

—Continued
32

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 3

Cournot cross-price elasticity with change in food prices, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Clothing Gross Transport & 

 & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt -0.167 -0.219 -0.218 -0.249 -0.196 -0.221 -0.271 -0.246

St. Vincent & Grenadines -0.167 -0.219 -0.218 -0.248 -0.196 -0.221 -0.270 -0.246

Swaziland -0.165 -0.217 -0.216 -0.245 -0.194 -0.219 -0.266 -0.243

Lebanon -0.165 -0.216 -0.215 -0.244 -0.194 -0.218 -0.265 -0.242

Belarus -0.165 -0.216 -0.215 -0.244 -0.193 -0.218 -0.264 -0.241

Kazakhstan -0.164 -0.216 -0.215 -0.244 -0.193 -0.218 -0.264 -0.241

Dominica -0.164 -0.216 -0.215 -0.244 -0.193 -0.218 -0.264 -0.241

Latvia -0.163 -0.214 -0.213 -0.240 -0.192 -0.216 -0.260 -0.238

St. Lucia -0.163 -0.213 -0.213 -0.240 -0.191 -0.216 -0.259 -0.238

Brazil -0.163 -0.213 -0.212 -0.240 -0.191 -0.215 -0.259 -0.238

Bulgaria -0.163 -0.213 -0.212 -0.240 -0.191 -0.215 -0.258 -0.237

Russia -0.162 -0.212 -0.211 -0.238 -0.190 -0.214 -0.256 -0.236

Fiji -0.161 -0.210 -0.210 -0.236 -0.189 -0.213 -0.254 -0.234

Grenada -0.161 -0.210 -0.210 -0.236 -0.189 -0.213 -0.254 -0.234

Turkey -0.161 -0.210 -0.209 -0.235 -0.189 -0.212 -0.253 -0.233

Lithuania -0.160 -0.209 -0.208 -0.234 -0.188 -0.211 -0.251 -0.232

Romania -0.159 -0.208 -0.207 -0.232 -0.187 -0.210 -0.249 -0.230

Iran -0.158 -0.207 -0.206 -0.230 -0.186 -0.209 -0.247 -0.228

Mexico -0.158 -0.206 -0.205 -0.229 -0.186 -0.208 -0.245 -0.227

Bahrain -0.157 -0.205 -0.204 -0.228 -0.185 -0.207 -0.244 -0.226

Chile -0.157 -0.205 -0.204 -0.227 -0.185 -0.206 -0.243 -0.226

Antigua & Barbuda -0.157 -0.204 -0.204 -0.227 -0.185 -0.206 -0.243 -0.225

Poland -0.156 -0.203 -0.203 -0.226 -0.184 -0.205 -0.240 -0.224

Trinidad & Tobago -0.156 -0.202 -0.202 -0.224 -0.183 -0.204 -0.239 -0.222

Estonia -0.155 -0.201 -0.201 -0.223 -0.182 -0.203 -0.237 -0.221

Gabon -0.155 -0.201 -0.200 -0.222 -0.182 -0.203 -0.237 -0.221

Tunisia -0.154 -0.200 -0.200 -0.221 -0.181 -0.202 -0.235 -0.220

St. Kitts & Nevis -0.154 -0.200 -0.199 -0.221 -0.181 -0.201 -0.234 -0.219

Uruguay -0.154 -0.199 -0.199 -0.220 -0.181 -0.201 -0.234 -0.219

Slovakia -0.153 -0.199 -0.198 -0.219 -0.180 -0.201 -0.233 -0.218

Hungary -0.151 -0.196 -0.195 -0.216 -0.178 -0.198 -0.228 -0.214

Argentina -0.149 -0.192 -0.192 -0.210 -0.175 -0.194 -0.222 -0.209

Oman -0.147 -0.190 -0.190 -0.208 -0.174 -0.192 -0.219 -0.207

Qatar -0.146 -0.188 -0.188 -0.206 -0.172 -0.190 -0.216 -0.204

Slovenia -0.145 -0.188 -0.187 -0.205 -0.171 -0.189 -0.215 -0.203

High-income countries:

Czech Republic -0.145 -0.186 -0.186 -0.203 -0.170 -0.188 -0.213 -0.202

Greece -0.143 -0.184 -0.183 -0.200 -0.168 -0.185 -0.209 -0.199

Korea -0.142 -0.183 -0.183 -0.199 -0.168 -0.185 -0.208 -0.198

Portugal -0.142 -0.182 -0.182 -0.198 -0.167 -0.184 -0.207 -0.197

Spain -0.142 -0.182 -0.182 -0.198 -0.167 -0.184 -0.207 -0.197

Ireland -0.141 -0.181 -0.181 -0.197 -0.166 -0.183 -0.206 -0.195

Singapore -0.140 -0.180 -0.180 -0.195 -0.165 -0.182 -0.204 -0.194

Mauritius -0.139 -0.179 -0.179 -0.194 -0.164 -0.180 -0.202 -0.193

Israel -0.138 -0.178 -0.177 -0.192 -0.163 -0.179 -0.201 -0.191

New Zealand -0.138 -0.177 -0.177 -0.192 -0.163 -0.179 -0.200 -0.191

—Continued
33

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 3

Cournot cross-price elasticity with change in food prices, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Clothing Gross Transport & 

 & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland -0.138 -0.177 -0.177 -0.191 -0.163 -0.179 -0.200 -0.190

Bahamas -0.138 -0.177 -0.177 -0.191 -0.162 -0.178 -0.199 -0.190

Sweden -0.136 -0.174 -0.174 -0.188 -0.160 -0.176 -0.196 -0.187

Netherlands -0.136 -0.174 -0.174 -0.187 -0.160 -0.175 -0.195 -0.186

France -0.134 -0.172 -0.172 -0.185 -0.159 -0.173 -0.193 -0.184

United Kingdom -0.134 -0.172 -0.172 -0.185 -0.158 -0.173 -0.192 -0.184

Belgium -0.134 -0.172 -0.171 -0.184 -0.158 -0.173 -0.192 -0.184

Norway -0.134 -0.172 -0.171 -0.184 -0.158 -0.173 -0.192 -0.183

Italy -0.134 -0.171 -0.171 -0.184 -0.158 -0.172 -0.191 -0.183

Austria -0.133 -0.171 -0.170 -0.183 -0.157 -0.172 -0.190 -0.182

Germany -0.133 -0.170 -0.170 -0.183 -0.157 -0.172 -0.190 -0.182

Australia -0.133 -0.170 -0.169 -0.182 -0.157 -0.171 -0.189 -0.181

Japan -0.132 -0.169 -0.169 -0.182 -0.156 -0.170 -0.189 -0.181

Canada -0.132 -0.169 -0.168 -0.181 -0.156 -0.170 -0.188 -0.180

Bermuda -0.131 -0.168 -0.167 -0.180 -0.155 -0.169 -0.186 -0.179

Switzerland -0.131 -0.167 -0.167 -0.179 -0.154 -0.168 -0.186 -0.178

Barbados -0.131 -0.167 -0.167 -0.179 -0.154 -0.168 -0.186 -0.178

Hong Kong -0.130 -0.167 -0.167 -0.179 -0.154 -0.168 -0.185 -0.178

Iceland -0.130 -0.167 -0.166 -0.179 -0.154 -0.168 -0.185 -0.178

Denmark -0.130 -0.166 -0.166 -0.178 -0.154 -0.168 -0.185 -0.177

Luxembourg -0.126 -0.160 -0.160 -0.171 -0.149 -0.161 -0.177 -0.170

United States -0.125 -0.159 -0.159 -0.170 -0.148 -0.160 -0.175 -0.169

Low-income average -0.191 -0.260 -0.259 -0.343 -0.224 -0.265 -0.470 -0.332

Middle-income average -0.160 -0.209 -0.209 -0.235 -0.188 -0.212 -0.253 -0.233

High-income average -0.135 -0.173 -0.173 -0.187 -0.159 -0.175 -0.194 -0.186

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
34

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 4

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with changes in price for clothing and footwear, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Gross Transport & 

 beverage, rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.049 0.084 0.084 0.182 0.067 0.087 0.161

Nigeria 0.047 0.080 0.079 0.130 0.065 0.082 0.392 0.122

Tajikistan 0.046 0.078 0.077 0.118 0.064 0.080 0.235 0.112

Zambia 0.046 0.077 0.077 0.116 0.064 0.079 0.221 0.111

Yemen 0.046 0.077 0.077 0.116 0.064 0.079 0.220 0.110

Malawi 0.045 0.076 0.076 0.110 0.064 0.078 0.186 0.106

Madagascar 0.045 0.076 0.076 0.110 0.064 0.078 0.186 0.106

Mali 0.045 0.076 0.075 0.109 0.064 0.078 0.178 0.105

Mongolia 0.045 0.076 0.075 0.108 0.063 0.078 0.177 0.104

Benin 0.044 0.074 0.073 0.099 0.062 0.075 0.139 0.096

Kenya 0.043 0.073 0.072 0.096 0.062 0.074 0.128 0.093

Sierra Leone 0.042 0.072 0.071 0.093 0.061 0.073 0.121 0.091

Nepal 0.042 0.072 0.071 0.093 0.061 0.073 0.121 0.091

Turkmenistan 0.042 0.071 0.071 0.092 0.061 0.073 0.118 0.090

Congo 0.042 0.071 0.070 0.090 0.061 0.072 0.112 0.088

Senegal 0.041 0.070 0.070 0.088 0.060 0.071 0.108 0.086

Vietnam 0.041 0.070 0.069 0.087 0.060 0.071 0.107 0.086

Bangladesh 0.041 0.070 0.069 0.087 0.060 0.071 0.107 0.085

Pakistan 0.040 0.068 0.068 0.084 0.059 0.069 0.100 0.082

Azerbaijan 0.039 0.068 0.068 0.082 0.059 0.069 0.097 0.081

Côte d'Ivoire 0.039 0.068 0.067 0.082 0.059 0.069 0.096 0.081

Paraguay 0.039 0.067 0.067 0.082 0.059 0.068 0.095 0.080

Uzbekistan 0.039 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.059 0.068 0.094 0.079

Kyrgyzstan 0.039 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.059 0.068 0.094 0.079

Cameroon 0.039 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.059 0.068 0.093 0.079

Moldova 0.039 0.067 0.067 0.080 0.059 0.068 0.093 0.079

Bolivia 0.038 0.067 0.066 0.080 0.058 0.068 0.092 0.078

Ecuador 0.038 0.066 0.066 0.079 0.058 0.067 0.091 0.078

Armenia 0.038 0.066 0.066 0.078 0.058 0.067 0.090 0.077

Sri Lanka 0.038 0.066 0.066 0.078 0.058 0.067 0.089 0.077

Jordan 0.037 0.066 0.065 0.077 0.058 0.066 0.088 0.076

Albania 0.037 0.065 0.065 0.076 0.057 0.066 0.086 0.075

Indonesia 0.036 0.065 0.065 0.076 0.057 0.066 0.085 0.075

Jamaica 0.036 0.065 0.064 0.076 0.057 0.066 0.085 0.075

Zimbabwe 0.036 0.065 0.064 0.076 0.057 0.065 0.085 0.075

Guinea 0.036 0.064 0.064 0.075 0.057 0.065 0.084 0.074

Syria 0.036 0.064 0.064 0.074 0.057 0.065 0.083 0.073

Georgia 0.036 0.064 0.064 0.074 0.057 0.065 0.082 0.073

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.035 0.063 0.063 0.073 0.056 0.064 0.080 0.072

Philippines 0.034 0.063 0.062 0.072 0.056 0.063 0.079 0.071

Peru 0.034 0.062 0.062 0.071 0.056 0.063 0.078 0.071

Botswana 0.034 0.062 0.062 0.071 0.056 0.063 0.078 0.071

Thailand 0.034 0.062 0.062 0.071 0.056 0.063 0.078 0.070

Morocco 0.033 0.062 0.062 0.071 0.055 0.063 0.077 0.070

Venezuela 0.033 0.062 0.062 0.071 0.055 0.063 0.077 0.070

Macedonia 0.033 0.062 0.061 0.070 0.055 0.062 0.076 0.069

Belize 0.033 0.062 0.061 0.070 0.055 0.062 0.076 0.069

—Continued
35

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 4

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with changes in price for clothing and footwear, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Gross Transport & 

 beverage, rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.033 0.062 0.061 0.070 0.055 0.062 0.076 0.069

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.033 0.062 0.061 0.070 0.055 0.062 0.076 0.069

Swaziland 0.032 0.061 0.061 0.069 0.055 0.062 0.075 0.069

Lebanon 0.032 0.061 0.061 0.069 0.055 0.062 0.075 0.068

Belarus 0.032 0.061 0.061 0.069 0.055 0.062 0.075 0.068

Kazakhstan 0.032 0.061 0.061 0.069 0.055 0.062 0.075 0.068

Dominica 0.032 0.061 0.061 0.069 0.055 0.062 0.075 0.068

Latvia 0.031 0.060 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.074 0.068

St. Lucia 0.031 0.060 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.073 0.067

Brazil 0.031 0.060 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.073 0.067

Bulgaria 0.031 0.060 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.073 0.067

Russia 0.031 0.060 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.073 0.067

Fiji 0.031 0.060 0.060 0.067 0.054 0.060 0.072 0.067

Grenada 0.031 0.060 0.060 0.067 0.054 0.060 0.072 0.067

Turkey 0.030 0.060 0.060 0.067 0.054 0.060 0.072 0.066

Lithuania 0.030 0.060 0.059 0.067 0.054 0.060 0.071 0.066

Romania 0.030 0.059 0.059 0.066 0.054 0.060 0.071 0.066

Iran 0.030 0.059 0.059 0.066 0.053 0.060 0.071 0.065

Mexico 0.029 0.059 0.059 0.066 0.053 0.060 0.070 0.065

Bahrain 0.029 0.059 0.059 0.065 0.053 0.059 0.070 0.065

Chile 0.029 0.059 0.059 0.065 0.053 0.059 0.070 0.065

Antigua & Barbuda 0.029 0.059 0.059 0.065 0.053 0.059 0.070 0.065

Poland 0.029 0.058 0.058 0.065 0.053 0.059 0.069 0.064

Trinidad & Tobago 0.028 0.058 0.058 0.065 0.053 0.059 0.069 0.064

Estonia 0.028 0.058 0.058 0.064 0.053 0.059 0.068 0.064

Gabon 0.028 0.058 0.058 0.064 0.053 0.059 0.068 0.064

Tunisia 0.028 0.058 0.058 0.064 0.052 0.058 0.068 0.063

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.027 0.058 0.058 0.064 0.052 0.058 0.068 0.063

Uruguay 0.027 0.058 0.058 0.064 0.052 0.058 0.068 0.063

Slovakia 0.027 0.058 0.057 0.064 0.052 0.058 0.067 0.063

Hungary 0.026 0.057 0.057 0.063 0.052 0.057 0.066 0.062

Argentina 0.025 0.056 0.056 0.062 0.051 0.057 0.065 0.061

Oman 0.024 0.056 0.056 0.061 0.051 0.056 0.064 0.061

Qatar 0.023 0.056 0.055 0.061 0.051 0.056 0.064 0.060

Slovenia 0.023 0.055 0.055 0.060 0.051 0.056 0.063 0.060

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.022 0.055 0.055 0.060 0.050 0.056 0.063 0.060

Greece 0.021 0.055 0.055 0.059 0.050 0.055 0.062 0.059

Korea 0.021 0.054 0.054 0.059 0.050 0.055 0.062 0.059

Portugal 0.021 0.054 0.054 0.059 0.050 0.055 0.062 0.059

Spain 0.021 0.054 0.054 0.059 0.050 0.055 0.062 0.059

Ireland 0.020 0.054 0.054 0.059 0.050 0.055 0.061 0.058

Singapore 0.020 0.054 0.054 0.058 0.049 0.054 0.061 0.058

Mauritius 0.019 0.054 0.054 0.058 0.049 0.054 0.061 0.058

Israel 0.018 0.053 0.053 0.058 0.049 0.054 0.060 0.057

New Zealand 0.018 0.053 0.053 0.058 0.049 0.054 0.060 0.057

—Continued
36

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 4

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with changes in price for clothing and footwear, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Gross Transport & 

 beverage, rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.018 0.053 0.053 0.058 0.049 0.054 0.060 0.057

Bahamas 0.018 0.053 0.053 0.058 0.049 0.054 0.060 0.057

Sweden 0.016 0.053 0.053 0.057 0.049 0.053 0.059 0.057

Netherlands 0.016 0.053 0.053 0.057 0.048 0.053 0.059 0.056

France 0.015 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.053 0.059 0.056

United Kingdom 0.015 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.053 0.059 0.056

Belgium 0.015 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.053 0.058 0.056

Norway 0.015 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.053 0.058 0.056

Italy 0.014 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.053 0.058 0.056

Austria 0.014 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.052 0.058 0.056

Germany 0.014 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.052 0.058 0.056

Australia 0.013 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.052 0.058 0.055

Japan 0.013 0.052 0.052 0.056 0.048 0.052 0.058 0.055

Canada 0.013 0.052 0.052 0.055 0.048 0.052 0.058 0.055

Bermuda 0.012 0.051 0.051 0.055 0.047 0.052 0.057 0.055

Switzerland 0.011 0.051 0.051 0.055 0.047 0.052 0.057 0.055

Barbados 0.011 0.051 0.051 0.055 0.047 0.052 0.057 0.055

Hong Kong 0.011 0.051 0.051 0.055 0.047 0.052 0.057 0.055

Iceland 0.011 0.051 0.051 0.055 0.047 0.052 0.057 0.055

Denmark 0.011 0.051 0.051 0.055 0.047 0.052 0.057 0.055

Luxembourg 0.005 0.050 0.050 0.053 0.046 0.050 0.055 0.053

United States 0.004 0.050 0.050 0.053 0.046 0.050 0.055 0.053

Low-income average 0.041 0.070 0.070 0.092 0.060 0.071 0.126 0.089

Middle-income average 0.030 0.060 0.060 0.067 0.054 0.060 0.072 0.066

High-income average 0.015 0.053 0.052 0.057 0.048 0.053 0.059 0.056

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
37

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 5

Cournot cross-price elasticity with changes in price for clothing and footwear, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Gross Transport & 

 beverage, rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania -0.016 -0.028 -0.028 -0.060 -0.022 -0.029 -0.053

Nigeria -0.016 -0.027 -0.026 -0.043 -0.022 -0.027 -0.131 -0.041

Tajikistan -0.015 -0.026 -0.026 -0.039 -0.022 -0.027 -0.079 -0.037

Zambia -0.015 -0.026 -0.026 -0.039 -0.021 -0.027 -0.074 -0.037

Yemen -0.015 -0.026 -0.026 -0.039 -0.021 -0.026 -0.074 -0.037

Malawi -0.015 -0.026 -0.025 -0.037 -0.021 -0.026 -0.062 -0.035

Madagascar -0.015 -0.026 -0.025 -0.037 -0.021 -0.026 -0.062 -0.035

Mali -0.015 -0.025 -0.025 -0.036 -0.021 -0.026 -0.060 -0.035

Mongolia -0.015 -0.025 -0.025 -0.036 -0.021 -0.026 -0.059 -0.035

Benin -0.015 -0.025 -0.025 -0.033 -0.021 -0.025 -0.047 -0.032

Kenya -0.015 -0.025 -0.024 -0.032 -0.021 -0.025 -0.043 -0.031

Sierra Leone -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.032 -0.021 -0.025 -0.041 -0.031

Nepal -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.031 -0.021 -0.025 -0.041 -0.031

Turkmenistan -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.031 -0.021 -0.025 -0.040 -0.030

Congo -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.030 -0.021 -0.024 -0.038 -0.030

Senegal -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.030 -0.021 -0.024 -0.037 -0.029

Vietnam -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.030 -0.021 -0.024 -0.036 -0.029

Bangladesh -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.030 -0.021 -0.024 -0.036 -0.029

Pakistan -0.014 -0.023 -0.023 -0.029 -0.020 -0.024 -0.034 -0.028

Azerbaijan -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.028 -0.020 -0.024 -0.033 -0.028

Côte d'Ivoire -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.028 -0.020 -0.024 -0.033 -0.028

Paraguay -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.028 -0.020 -0.023 -0.033 -0.028

Uzbekistan -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.028 -0.020 -0.023 -0.032 -0.027

Kyrgyzstan -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.028 -0.020 -0.023 -0.032 -0.027

Cameroon -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.028 -0.020 -0.023 -0.032 -0.027

Moldova -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.028 -0.020 -0.023 -0.032 -0.027

Bolivia -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.027 -0.020 -0.023 -0.032 -0.027

Ecuador -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.027 -0.020 -0.023 -0.031 -0.027

Armenia -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.027 -0.020 -0.023 -0.031 -0.027

Sri Lanka -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.027 -0.020 -0.023 -0.031 -0.027

Jordan -0.013 -0.023 -0.023 -0.027 -0.020 -0.023 -0.030 -0.026

Albania -0.013 -0.022 -0.022 -0.026 -0.020 -0.023 -0.030 -0.026

Indonesia -0.013 -0.022 -0.022 -0.026 -0.020 -0.023 -0.029 -0.026

Jamaica -0.013 -0.022 -0.022 -0.026 -0.020 -0.023 -0.029 -0.026

Zimbabwe -0.013 -0.022 -0.022 -0.026 -0.020 -0.023 -0.029 -0.026

Guinea -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.026 -0.020 -0.023 -0.029 -0.026

Syria -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.026 -0.020 -0.022 -0.029 -0.025

Georgia -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.026 -0.020 -0.022 -0.029 -0.025

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.025 -0.020 -0.022 -0.028 -0.025

Philippines -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.025 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.025

Peru -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.025 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.025

Botswana -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.025 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.025

Thailand -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.025 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.025

Morocco -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.025 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.024

Venezuela -0.012 -0.022 -0.022 -0.025 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.024

Macedonia -0.012 -0.022 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.024

Belize -0.012 -0.022 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.024

—Continued
38

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 5

Cournot cross-price elasticity with changes in price for clothing and footwear, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Gross Transport & 

 beverage, rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt -0.012 -0.022 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.024

St. Vincent & Grenadines -0.011 -0.022 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.027 -0.024

Swaziland -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.026 -0.024

Lebanon -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.026 -0.024

Belarus -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.026 -0.024

Kazakhstan -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.026 -0.024

Dominica -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.022 -0.026 -0.024

Latvia -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.026 -0.024

St. Lucia -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.026 -0.024

Brazil -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.026 -0.024

Bulgaria -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.026 -0.024

Russia -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.026 -0.024

Fiji -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Grenada -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Turkey -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Lithuania -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Romania -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Iran -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Mexico -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Bahrain -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Chile -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Antigua & Barbuda -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Poland -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

Trinidad & Tobago -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.024 -0.023

Estonia -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.024 -0.023

Gabon -0.010 -0.021 -0.021 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.024 -0.023

Tunisia -0.010 -0.021 -0.020 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.024 -0.023

St. Kitts & Nevis -0.010 -0.021 -0.020 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.024 -0.023

Uruguay -0.010 -0.021 -0.020 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.024 -0.022

Slovakia -0.010 -0.020 -0.020 -0.023 -0.019 -0.021 -0.024 -0.022

Hungary -0.009 -0.020 -0.020 -0.022 -0.018 -0.021 -0.024 -0.022

Argentina -0.009 -0.020 -0.020 -0.022 -0.018 -0.020 -0.023 -0.022

Oman -0.009 -0.020 -0.020 -0.022 -0.018 -0.020 -0.023 -0.022

Qatar -0.008 -0.020 -0.020 -0.022 -0.018 -0.020 -0.023 -0.022

Slovenia -0.008 -0.020 -0.020 -0.022 -0.018 -0.020 -0.023 -0.022

High-income countries:

Czech Republic -0.008 -0.020 -0.020 -0.022 -0.018 -0.020 -0.023 -0.021

Greece -0.008 -0.020 -0.020 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

Korea -0.008 -0.020 -0.020 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

Portugal -0.007 -0.020 -0.020 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

Spain -0.007 -0.020 -0.020 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

Ireland -0.007 -0.020 -0.020 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

Singapore -0.007 -0.020 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

Mauritius -0.007 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

Israel -0.007 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

New Zealand -0.007 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

—Continued
39

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 5

Cournot cross-price elasticity with changes in price for clothing and footwear, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Gross Transport & 

 beverage, rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco & power operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland -0.007 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.020 -0.022 -0.021

Bahamas -0.006 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.022 -0.021

Sweden -0.006 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.022 -0.021

Netherlands -0.006 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.022 -0.021

France -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

United Kingdom -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Belgium -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Norway -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Italy -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Austria -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Germany -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Australia -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Japan -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Canada -0.005 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Bermuda -0.004 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Switzerland -0.004 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Barbados -0.004 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Hong Kong -0.004 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Iceland -0.004 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Denmark -0.004 -0.019 -0.019 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.021 -0.020

Luxembourg -0.002 -0.019 -0.018 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.020 -0.020

United States -0.002 -0.018 -0.018 -0.020 -0.017 -0.019 -0.020 -0.020

Low-income average -0.014 -0.024 -0.024 -0.031 -0.021 -0.024 -0.043 -0.030

Middle-income average -0.011 -0.021 -0.021 -0.024 -0.019 -0.021 -0.025 -0.023

High-income average -0.006 -0.019 -0.019 -0.021 -0.018 -0.019 -0.021 -0.021

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
40

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 6

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for gross rent/fuel/power, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Transport & 

 beverage, & House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.065 0.075 0.110 0.240 0.089 0.115 0.213

Nigeria 0.070 0.082 0.117 0.192 0.097 0.121 0.580 0.181

Tajikistan 0.072 0.085 0.120 0.183 0.100 0.124 0.366 0.175

Zambia 0.072 0.086 0.121 0.182 0.101 0.124 0.348 0.174

Yemen 0.072 0.086 0.121 0.182 0.101 0.124 0.346 0.174

Malawi 0.073 0.088 0.123 0.178 0.103 0.126 0.301 0.171

Madagascar 0.073 0.088 0.123 0.178 0.103 0.126 0.301 0.171

Mali 0.074 0.088 0.123 0.178 0.104 0.127 0.291 0.171

Mongolia 0.074 0.089 0.123 0.177 0.104 0.127 0.289 0.171

Benin 0.076 0.093 0.128 0.173 0.109 0.131 0.242 0.168

Kenya 0.077 0.095 0.130 0.172 0.111 0.133 0.230 0.167

Sierra Leone 0.078 0.096 0.131 0.171 0.113 0.134 0.222 0.167

Nepal 0.078 0.096 0.131 0.171 0.113 0.134 0.222 0.167

Turkmenistan 0.078 0.097 0.132 0.171 0.114 0.135 0.219 0.167

Congo 0.079 0.098 0.134 0.170 0.115 0.137 0.214 0.167

Senegal 0.080 0.100 0.135 0.170 0.117 0.138 0.210 0.167

Vietnam 0.080 0.100 0.135 0.170 0.117 0.138 0.209 0.167

Bangladesh 0.080 0.100 0.136 0.170 0.118 0.138 0.208 0.167

Pakistan 0.081 0.103 0.139 0.170 0.121 0.141 0.203 0.167

Azerbaijan 0.081 0.104 0.140 0.171 0.122 0.142 0.201 0.168

Côte d'Ivoire 0.081 0.105 0.140 0.171 0.123 0.143 0.200 0.168

Paraguay 0.082 0.105 0.141 0.171 0.123 0.143 0.200 0.168

Uzbekistan 0.082 0.106 0.142 0.171 0.124 0.144 0.199 0.168

Kyrgyzstan 0.082 0.106 0.142 0.171 0.124 0.144 0.198 0.168

Cameroon 0.082 0.106 0.142 0.171 0.124 0.144 0.198 0.168

Moldova 0.082 0.106 0.142 0.171 0.125 0.144 0.198 0.168

Bolivia 0.082 0.107 0.143 0.171 0.126 0.145 0.197 0.169

Ecuador 0.082 0.107 0.143 0.171 0.126 0.146 0.197 0.169

Armenia 0.082 0.108 0.144 0.172 0.127 0.147 0.196 0.169

Sri Lanka 0.083 0.108 0.144 0.172 0.127 0.147 0.196 0.169

Jordan 0.083 0.109 0.145 0.172 0.128 0.148 0.195 0.170

Albania 0.083 0.111 0.147 0.173 0.130 0.149 0.195 0.171

Indonesia 0.083 0.111 0.147 0.173 0.131 0.150 0.194 0.171

Jamaica 0.083 0.111 0.147 0.173 0.131 0.150 0.194 0.171

Zimbabwe 0.083 0.111 0.148 0.173 0.131 0.150 0.194 0.171

Guinea 0.083 0.112 0.148 0.173 0.131 0.150 0.194 0.171

Syria 0.083 0.113 0.149 0.174 0.133 0.152 0.194 0.172

Georgia 0.083 0.113 0.150 0.174 0.133 0.152 0.194 0.172

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.084 0.115 0.151 0.175 0.135 0.154 0.193 0.173

Philippines 0.084 0.116 0.153 0.176 0.137 0.155 0.193 0.174

Peru 0.083 0.117 0.153 0.176 0.137 0.156 0.193 0.174

Botswana 0.083 0.117 0.153 0.176 0.137 0.156 0.193 0.174

Thailand 0.083 0.117 0.154 0.176 0.138 0.156 0.193 0.174

Morocco 0.083 0.118 0.154 0.177 0.138 0.157 0.193 0.175

Venezuela 0.083 0.118 0.155 0.177 0.138 0.157 0.193 0.175

Macedonia 0.083 0.119 0.156 0.177 0.139 0.158 0.193 0.175

Belize 0.083 0.119 0.156 0.177 0.139 0.158 0.193 0.176

—Continued
41

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 6

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for gross rent/fuel/power, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Transport & 

 beverage, & House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.083 0.119 0.156 0.177 0.140 0.158 0.193 0.176

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.083 0.119 0.156 0.177 0.140 0.158 0.193 0.176

Swaziland 0.083 0.120 0.157 0.178 0.141 0.159 0.193 0.176

Lebanon 0.083 0.120 0.157 0.178 0.141 0.159 0.193 0.177

Belarus 0.083 0.120 0.157 0.178 0.141 0.160 0.193 0.177

Kazakhstan 0.083 0.121 0.157 0.178 0.142 0.160 0.193 0.177

Dominica 0.083 0.121 0.158 0.178 0.142 0.160 0.193 0.177

Latvia 0.083 0.122 0.159 0.179 0.143 0.161 0.193 0.178

St. Lucia 0.083 0.122 0.159 0.179 0.143 0.161 0.194 0.178

Brazil 0.083 0.122 0.159 0.179 0.143 0.161 0.194 0.178

Bulgaria 0.083 0.122 0.159 0.179 0.143 0.161 0.194 0.178

Russia 0.083 0.122 0.160 0.180 0.144 0.162 0.194 0.178

Fiji 0.082 0.123 0.160 0.180 0.145 0.162 0.194 0.179

Grenada 0.082 0.123 0.160 0.180 0.145 0.162 0.194 0.179

Turkey 0.082 0.123 0.161 0.180 0.145 0.163 0.194 0.179

Lithuania 0.082 0.124 0.161 0.181 0.146 0.163 0.194 0.179

Romania 0.082 0.124 0.162 0.181 0.146 0.164 0.194 0.180

Iran 0.081 0.125 0.163 0.182 0.147 0.165 0.195 0.180

Mexico 0.081 0.125 0.163 0.182 0.147 0.165 0.195 0.181

Bahrain 0.081 0.126 0.163 0.182 0.148 0.165 0.195 0.181

Chile 0.081 0.126 0.164 0.183 0.148 0.166 0.195 0.181

Antigua & Barbuda 0.081 0.126 0.164 0.183 0.148 0.166 0.195 0.181

Poland 0.080 0.127 0.164 0.183 0.149 0.166 0.195 0.182

Trinidad & Tobago 0.080 0.127 0.165 0.183 0.150 0.167 0.195 0.182

Estonia 0.080 0.128 0.166 0.184 0.150 0.168 0.196 0.182

Gabon 0.080 0.128 0.166 0.184 0.151 0.168 0.196 0.183

Tunisia 0.079 0.128 0.166 0.184 0.151 0.168 0.196 0.183

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.079 0.129 0.167 0.185 0.151 0.168 0.196 0.183

Uruguay 0.079 0.129 0.167 0.185 0.151 0.169 0.196 0.183

Slovakia 0.079 0.129 0.167 0.185 0.152 0.169 0.196 0.184

Hungary 0.077 0.131 0.169 0.186 0.154 0.171 0.197 0.185

Argentina 0.075 0.133 0.171 0.188 0.156 0.173 0.198 0.187

Oman 0.074 0.133 0.172 0.189 0.157 0.174 0.199 0.187

Qatar 0.073 0.135 0.173 0.189 0.158 0.175 0.199 0.188

Slovenia 0.072 0.135 0.174 0.190 0.159 0.176 0.200 0.189

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.071 0.136 0.174 0.190 0.160 0.176 0.200 0.189

Greece 0.069 0.137 0.176 0.192 0.161 0.178 0.201 0.190

Korea 0.068 0.137 0.176 0.192 0.162 0.178 0.201 0.191

Portugal 0.067 0.138 0.177 0.192 0.162 0.179 0.201 0.191

Spain 0.067 0.138 0.177 0.192 0.162 0.179 0.201 0.191

Ireland 0.066 0.138 0.178 0.193 0.163 0.179 0.202 0.192

Singapore 0.065 0.139 0.178 0.193 0.164 0.180 0.202 0.192

Mauritius 0.063 0.140 0.179 0.194 0.165 0.181 0.203 0.193

Israel 0.062 0.140 0.180 0.195 0.165 0.181 0.203 0.194

New Zealand 0.061 0.140 0.180 0.195 0.166 0.182 0.203 0.194

—Continued
42

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 6

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for gross rent/fuel/power, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Transport & 

 beverage, & House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.061 0.141 0.180 0.195 0.166 0.182 0.203 0.194

Bahamas 0.060 0.141 0.180 0.195 0.166 0.182 0.204 0.194

Sweden 0.057 0.142 0.182 0.196 0.168 0.184 0.205 0.195

Netherlands 0.056 0.142 0.182 0.197 0.168 0.184 0.205 0.196

France 0.053 0.143 0.183 0.198 0.169 0.185 0.205 0.197

United Kingdom 0.052 0.143 0.183 0.198 0.169 0.185 0.206 0.197

Belgium 0.052 0.144 0.184 0.198 0.169 0.185 0.206 0.197

Norway 0.051 0.144 0.184 0.198 0.170 0.185 0.206 0.197

Italy 0.051 0.144 0.184 0.198 0.170 0.185 0.206 0.197

Austria 0.049 0.144 0.184 0.198 0.170 0.186 0.206 0.197

Germany 0.049 0.144 0.184 0.198 0.170 0.186 0.206 0.197

Australia 0.048 0.145 0.185 0.199 0.171 0.186 0.206 0.198

Japan 0.047 0.145 0.185 0.199 0.171 0.187 0.207 0.198

Canada 0.046 0.145 0.185 0.199 0.171 0.187 0.207 0.198

Bermuda 0.043 0.146 0.186 0.200 0.172 0.188 0.207 0.199

Switzerland 0.042 0.146 0.187 0.200 0.173 0.188 0.208 0.199

Barbados 0.041 0.146 0.187 0.200 0.173 0.188 0.208 0.199

Hong Kong 0.041 0.146 0.187 0.200 0.173 0.188 0.208 0.199

Iceland 0.041 0.146 0.187 0.200 0.173 0.188 0.208 0.199

Denmark 0.040 0.146 0.187 0.201 0.173 0.189 0.208 0.200

Luxembourg 0.021 0.150 0.191 0.204 0.177 0.192 0.211 0.203

United States 0.017 0.150 0.191 0.204 0.178 0.193 0.211 0.204

Low-income average 0.079 0.100 0.136 0.175 0.118 0.139 0.236 0.171

Middle-income average 0.081 0.124 0.161 0.181 0.145 0.163 0.195 0.179

High-income average 0.052 0.143 0.183 0.197 0.168 0.184 0.205 0.196

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
43

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 7

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for gross rent/fuel/power, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Transport & 

 beverage, & House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.006 0.007 0.011 0.023 0.009 0.011 0.021

Nigeria 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.013 0.007 0.008 0.040 0.012

Tajikistan 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.011 0.006 0.007 0.021 0.010

Zambia 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.006 0.007 0.019 0.010

Yemen 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.006 0.007 0.019 0.010

Malawi 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.009 0.005 0.006 0.015 0.008

Madagascar 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.009 0.005 0.006 0.015 0.008

Mali 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.005 0.006 0.014 0.008

Mongolia 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.005 0.006 0.014 0.008

Benin 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.008 0.006

Kenya 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.003 0.004 0.007 0.005

Sierra Leone 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.005 0.004

Nepal 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.005 0.004

Turkmenistan 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.004

Congo 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.004 0.003

Senegal 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002

Vietnam 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002

Bangladesh 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.002

Pakistan 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Azerbaijan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000

Côte d'Ivoire 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Paraguay 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Uzbekistan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Kyrgyzstan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Cameroon 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Moldova 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Bolivia 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001

Ecuador 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Armenia -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Sri Lanka -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Jordan -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001

Albania -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Indonesia -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Jamaica -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

Zimbabwe -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

Guinea -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

Syria -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Georgia -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Philippines -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004

Peru -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004

Botswana -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004

Thailand -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004

Morocco -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004

Venezuela -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Macedonia -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Belize -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

—Continued
44

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 7

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for gross rent/fuel/power, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Transport & 

 beverage, & House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

St. Vincent & Grenadines -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Swaziland -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

Lebanon -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

Belarus -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

Kazakhstan -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

Dominica -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

Latvia -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

St. Lucia -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Brazil -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Bulgaria -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Russia -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.007 -0.006

Fiji -0.003 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006

Grenada -0.003 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006

Turkey -0.003 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006

Lithuania -0.003 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Romania -0.003 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Iran -0.003 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Mexico -0.003 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006 -0.008 -0.007

Bahrain -0.003 -0.005 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007

Chile -0.003 -0.005 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007

Antigua & Barbuda -0.003 -0.005 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007

Poland -0.003 -0.005 -0.007 -0.008 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008

Trinidad & Tobago -0.003 -0.005 -0.007 -0.008 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008

Estonia -0.003 -0.005 -0.007 -0.008 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008

Gabon -0.003 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008

Tunisia -0.003 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.009 -0.008

St. Kitts & Nevis -0.004 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007 -0.007 -0.009 -0.008

Uruguay -0.004 -0.006 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007 -0.008 -0.009 -0.008

Slovakia -0.004 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.007 -0.008 -0.009 -0.008

Hungary -0.004 -0.006 -0.008 -0.009 -0.007 -0.008 -0.009 -0.009

Argentina -0.004 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.008 -0.009 -0.010 -0.009

Oman -0.004 -0.007 -0.009 -0.010 -0.008 -0.009 -0.010 -0.010

Qatar -0.004 -0.007 -0.009 -0.010 -0.008 -0.009 -0.011 -0.010

Slovenia -0.004 -0.007 -0.009 -0.010 -0.009 -0.009 -0.011 -0.010

High-income countries:

Czech Republic -0.004 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.009 -0.010 -0.011 -0.010

Greece -0.004 -0.008 -0.010 -0.011 -0.009 -0.010 -0.011 -0.011

Korea -0.004 -0.008 -0.010 -0.011 -0.009 -0.010 -0.011 -0.011

Portugal -0.004 -0.008 -0.010 -0.011 -0.009 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011

Spain -0.004 -0.008 -0.010 -0.011 -0.009 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011

Ireland -0.004 -0.008 -0.010 -0.011 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011

Singapore -0.004 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.010 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011

Mauritius -0.004 -0.008 -0.011 -0.012 -0.010 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012

Israel -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.012 -0.010 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012

New Zealand -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.012 -0.010 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012

 —Continued
45

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 7

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for gross rent/fuel/power, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Transport & 

 beverage, & House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear operations care Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.012 -0.010 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Bahamas -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.012 -0.010 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Sweden -0.004 -0.009 -0.012 -0.012 -0.011 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

Netherlands -0.004 -0.009 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

France -0.003 -0.009 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.013 -0.013

United Kingdom -0.003 -0.009 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.013 -0.013

Belgium -0.003 -0.009 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.013 -0.013

Norway -0.003 -0.009 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.013 -0.013

Italy -0.003 -0.009 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.014 -0.013

Austria -0.003 -0.010 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.014 -0.013

Germany -0.003 -0.010 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.014 -0.013

Australia -0.003 -0.010 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.014 -0.013

Japan -0.003 -0.010 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.013 -0.014 -0.013

Canada -0.003 -0.010 -0.013 -0.013 -0.012 -0.013 -0.014 -0.013

Bermuda -0.003 -0.010 -0.013 -0.014 -0.012 -0.013 -0.014 -0.014

Switzerland -0.003 -0.010 -0.013 -0.014 -0.012 -0.013 -0.014 -0.014

Barbados -0.003 -0.010 -0.013 -0.014 -0.012 -0.013 -0.014 -0.014

Hong Kong -0.003 -0.010 -0.013 -0.014 -0.012 -0.013 -0.014 -0.014

Iceland -0.003 -0.010 -0.013 -0.014 -0.012 -0.013 -0.014 -0.014

Denmark -0.003 -0.010 -0.013 -0.014 -0.012 -0.013 -0.014 -0.014

Luxembourg -0.002 -0.011 -0.014 -0.015 -0.013 -0.014 -0.015 -0.015

United States -0.001 -0.011 -0.014 -0.015 -0.013 -0.014 -0.016 -0.015

Low-income average 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.005 0.003

Middle-income average -0.003 -0.004 -0.006 -0.007 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006

High-income average -0.003 -0.009 -0.012 -0.013 -0.011 -0.012 -0.013 -0.013

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
46

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 8

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for house furnishings and operations, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.028 0.033 0.048 0.104 0.039 0.050 0.093

Nigeria 0.030 0.036 0.051 0.084 0.042 0.053 0.252 0.079

Tajikistan 0.031 0.037 0.053 0.080 0.044 0.054 0.159 0.076

Zambia 0.031 0.037 0.053 0.079 0.044 0.054 0.151 0.076

Yemen 0.031 0.037 0.053 0.079 0.044 0.054 0.151 0.075

Malawi 0.032 0.038 0.054 0.077 0.045 0.055 0.131 0.074

Madagascar 0.032 0.038 0.054 0.077 0.045 0.055 0.131 0.074

Mali 0.032 0.038 0.054 0.077 0.045 0.055 0.127 0.074

Mongolia 0.032 0.038 0.054 0.077 0.045 0.055 0.126 0.074

Benin 0.033 0.040 0.056 0.075 0.047 0.057 0.105 0.073

Kenya 0.033 0.041 0.057 0.074 0.048 0.058 0.100 0.072

Sierra Leone 0.034 0.042 0.057 0.074 0.049 0.058 0.096 0.072

Nepal 0.034 0.042 0.057 0.074 0.049 0.058 0.096 0.072

Turkmenistan 0.034 0.042 0.058 0.074 0.049 0.059 0.095 0.072

Congo 0.034 0.043 0.058 0.074 0.050 0.059 0.093 0.072

Senegal 0.034 0.043 0.059 0.074 0.051 0.060 0.091 0.072

Vietnam 0.035 0.043 0.059 0.074 0.051 0.060 0.090 0.072

Bangladesh 0.035 0.043 0.059 0.074 0.051 0.060 0.090 0.072

Pakistan 0.035 0.045 0.060 0.074 0.052 0.061 0.088 0.072

Azerbaijan 0.035 0.045 0.061 0.074 0.053 0.062 0.087 0.073

Côte d'Ivoire 0.035 0.045 0.061 0.074 0.053 0.062 0.087 0.073

Paraguay 0.035 0.045 0.061 0.074 0.053 0.062 0.086 0.073

Uzbekistan 0.035 0.046 0.062 0.074 0.054 0.062 0.086 0.073

Kyrgyzstan 0.035 0.046 0.062 0.074 0.054 0.062 0.086 0.073

Cameroon 0.035 0.046 0.062 0.074 0.054 0.063 0.086 0.073

Moldova 0.035 0.046 0.062 0.074 0.054 0.063 0.086 0.073

Bolivia 0.036 0.046 0.062 0.074 0.054 0.063 0.085 0.073

Ecuador 0.036 0.046 0.062 0.074 0.055 0.063 0.085 0.073

Armenia 0.036 0.047 0.063 0.074 0.055 0.063 0.085 0.073

Sri Lanka 0.036 0.047 0.063 0.074 0.055 0.063 0.085 0.073

Jordan 0.036 0.047 0.063 0.074 0.056 0.064 0.085 0.073

Albania 0.036 0.048 0.064 0.075 0.056 0.065 0.084 0.074

Indonesia 0.036 0.048 0.064 0.075 0.056 0.065 0.084 0.074

Jamaica 0.036 0.048 0.064 0.075 0.057 0.065 0.084 0.074

Zimbabwe 0.036 0.048 0.064 0.075 0.057 0.065 0.084 0.074

Guinea 0.036 0.048 0.064 0.075 0.057 0.065 0.084 0.074

Syria 0.036 0.049 0.065 0.075 0.057 0.066 0.084 0.074

Georgia 0.036 0.049 0.065 0.075 0.057 0.066 0.084 0.074

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.036 0.050 0.066 0.076 0.058 0.066 0.084 0.075

Philippines 0.036 0.050 0.066 0.076 0.059 0.067 0.083 0.075

Peru 0.036 0.050 0.067 0.076 0.059 0.067 0.083 0.075

Botswana 0.036 0.051 0.067 0.076 0.059 0.067 0.083 0.075

Thailand 0.036 0.051 0.067 0.076 0.059 0.067 0.083 0.075

Morocco 0.036 0.051 0.067 0.076 0.060 0.068 0.083 0.076

Venezuela 0.036 0.051 0.067 0.076 0.060 0.068 0.083 0.076

Macedonia 0.036 0.051 0.067 0.077 0.060 0.068 0.083 0.076

Belize 0.036 0.051 0.067 0.077 0.060 0.068 0.083 0.076

—Continued
47

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 8

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for house furnishings and operations, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.036 0.051 0.067 0.077 0.060 0.068 0.083 0.076

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.036 0.051 0.067 0.077 0.060 0.068 0.083 0.076

Swaziland 0.036 0.052 0.068 0.077 0.061 0.069 0.083 0.076

Lebanon 0.036 0.052 0.068 0.077 0.061 0.069 0.083 0.076

Belarus 0.036 0.052 0.068 0.077 0.061 0.069 0.083 0.076

Kazakhstan 0.036 0.052 0.068 0.077 0.061 0.069 0.083 0.076

Dominica 0.036 0.052 0.068 0.077 0.061 0.069 0.083 0.076

Latvia 0.036 0.052 0.069 0.077 0.062 0.069 0.084 0.077

St. Lucia 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.077 0.062 0.069 0.084 0.077

Brazil 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.077 0.062 0.070 0.084 0.077

Bulgaria 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.077 0.062 0.070 0.084 0.077

Russia 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.078 0.062 0.070 0.084 0.077

Fiji 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.078 0.062 0.070 0.084 0.077

Grenada 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.078 0.062 0.070 0.084 0.077

Turkey 0.035 0.053 0.070 0.078 0.063 0.070 0.084 0.077

Lithuania 0.035 0.054 0.070 0.078 0.063 0.071 0.084 0.077

Romania 0.035 0.054 0.070 0.078 0.063 0.071 0.084 0.078

Iran 0.035 0.054 0.070 0.078 0.063 0.071 0.084 0.078

Mexico 0.035 0.054 0.071 0.079 0.064 0.071 0.084 0.078

Bahrain 0.035 0.054 0.071 0.079 0.064 0.071 0.084 0.078

Chile 0.035 0.054 0.071 0.079 0.064 0.072 0.084 0.078

Antigua & Barbuda 0.035 0.054 0.071 0.079 0.064 0.072 0.084 0.078

Poland 0.035 0.055 0.071 0.079 0.064 0.072 0.084 0.078

Trinidad & Tobago 0.035 0.055 0.071 0.079 0.065 0.072 0.084 0.079

Estonia 0.034 0.055 0.072 0.079 0.065 0.072 0.084 0.079

Gabon 0.034 0.055 0.072 0.079 0.065 0.072 0.084 0.079

Tunisia 0.034 0.055 0.072 0.080 0.065 0.073 0.085 0.079

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.034 0.056 0.072 0.080 0.065 0.073 0.085 0.079

Uruguay 0.034 0.056 0.072 0.080 0.065 0.073 0.085 0.079

Slovakia 0.034 0.056 0.072 0.080 0.066 0.073 0.085 0.079

Hungary 0.033 0.056 0.073 0.080 0.066 0.074 0.085 0.080

Argentina 0.032 0.057 0.074 0.081 0.067 0.075 0.085 0.080

Oman 0.032 0.058 0.074 0.081 0.068 0.075 0.086 0.081

Qatar 0.031 0.058 0.075 0.082 0.068 0.075 0.086 0.081

Slovenia 0.031 0.058 0.075 0.082 0.069 0.076 0.086 0.081

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.031 0.058 0.075 0.082 0.069 0.076 0.086 0.082

Greece 0.030 0.059 0.076 0.083 0.070 0.077 0.087 0.082

Korea 0.029 0.059 0.076 0.083 0.070 0.077 0.087 0.082

Portugal 0.029 0.059 0.076 0.083 0.070 0.077 0.087 0.082

Spain 0.029 0.059 0.076 0.083 0.070 0.077 0.087 0.082

Ireland 0.028 0.060 0.077 0.083 0.070 0.077 0.087 0.083

Singapore 0.028 0.060 0.077 0.083 0.071 0.078 0.087 0.083

Mauritius 0.027 0.060 0.077 0.084 0.071 0.078 0.087 0.083

Israel 0.027 0.060 0.078 0.084 0.071 0.078 0.088 0.083

New Zealand 0.026 0.061 0.078 0.084 0.071 0.078 0.088 0.084

—Continued
48

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 8

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for house furnishings and operations, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power care Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.026 0.061 0.078 0.084 0.071 0.078 0.088 0.084

Bahamas 0.026 0.061 0.078 0.084 0.072 0.078 0.088 0.084

Sweden 0.024 0.061 0.079 0.085 0.072 0.079 0.088 0.084

Netherlands 0.024 0.061 0.079 0.085 0.072 0.079 0.088 0.084

France 0.023 0.062 0.079 0.085 0.073 0.080 0.089 0.085

United Kingdom 0.023 0.062 0.079 0.085 0.073 0.080 0.089 0.085

Belgium 0.022 0.062 0.079 0.085 0.073 0.080 0.089 0.085

Norway 0.022 0.062 0.079 0.085 0.073 0.080 0.089 0.085

Italy 0.022 0.062 0.079 0.085 0.073 0.080 0.089 0.085

Austria 0.021 0.062 0.080 0.085 0.073 0.080 0.089 0.085

Germany 0.021 0.062 0.080 0.085 0.073 0.080 0.089 0.085

Australia 0.021 0.062 0.080 0.086 0.074 0.080 0.089 0.085

Japan 0.020 0.062 0.080 0.086 0.074 0.080 0.089 0.085

Canada 0.020 0.063 0.080 0.086 0.074 0.081 0.089 0.085

Bermuda 0.018 0.063 0.080 0.086 0.074 0.081 0.089 0.086

Switzerland 0.018 0.063 0.081 0.086 0.074 0.081 0.089 0.086

Barbados 0.018 0.063 0.081 0.086 0.074 0.081 0.089 0.086

Hong Kong 0.018 0.063 0.081 0.086 0.074 0.081 0.090 0.086

Iceland 0.018 0.063 0.081 0.086 0.074 0.081 0.090 0.086

Denmark 0.017 0.063 0.081 0.086 0.075 0.081 0.090 0.086

Luxembourg 0.009 0.065 0.082 0.088 0.076 0.083 0.091 0.087

United States 0.007 0.065 0.083 0.088 0.077 0.083 0.091 0.088

Low-income average 0.034 0.043 0.059 0.076 0.051 0.060 0.102 0.074

Middle-income average 0.035 0.053 0.070 0.078 0.063 0.070 0.084 0.077

High-income average 0.023 0.061 0.079 0.085 0.073 0.079 0.088 0.084

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
49

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 9

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for house furnishings and operations, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.009 0.003 0.004 0.008

Nigeria 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.003 0.003 0.016 0.005

Tajikistan 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.008 0.004

Zambia 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.008 0.004

Yemen 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.003 0.007 0.004

Malawi 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.006 0.003

Madagascar 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.006 0.003

Mali 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.005 0.003

Mongolia 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.005 0.003

Benin 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.002

Kenya 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002

Sierra Leone 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001

Nepal 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001

Turkmenistan 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001

Congo 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Senegal 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Vietnam 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001

Bangladesh 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001

Pakistan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Azerbaijan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Côte d'Ivoire 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Paraguay 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Uzbekistan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Kyrgyzstan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Cameroon 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Moldova 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Bolivia 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001

Ecuador 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Armenia 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Sri Lanka 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Jordan 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Albania -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Indonesia -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Jamaica -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Zimbabwe -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Guinea -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Syria -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001

Georgia -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Philippines -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Peru -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Botswana -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Thailand -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Morocco -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Venezuela -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Macedonia -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

Belize -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

—Continued
50

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 9

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for house furnishings and operations, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power care Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

St. Vincent & Grenadines -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

Swaziland -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

Lebanon -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Belarus -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Kazakhstan -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Dominica -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Latvia -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

St. Lucia -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Brazil -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Bulgaria -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Russia -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Fiji -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Grenada -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Turkey -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Lithuania -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Romania -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Iran -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Mexico -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Bahrain -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Chile -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Antigua & Barbuda -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Poland -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Trinidad & Tobago -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Estonia -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Gabon -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Tunisia -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

St. Kitts & Nevis -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Uruguay -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Slovakia -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Hungary -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004

Argentina -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004

Oman -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004

Qatar -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Slovenia -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

High-income countries:

Czech Republic -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Greece -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005

Korea -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005

Portugal -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005

Spain -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005

Ireland -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005

Singapore -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005

Mauritius -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005

Israel -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

New Zealand -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

—Continued
51

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 9

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for house furnishings and operations, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power care Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

Bahamas -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005

Sweden -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Netherlands -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

France -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

United Kingdom -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Belgium -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Norway -0.001 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Italy -0.001 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Austria -0.001 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Germany -0.001 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Australia -0.001 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Japan -0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Canada -0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Bermuda -0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Switzerland -0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Barbados -0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Hong Kong -0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Iceland -0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Denmark -0.001 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006

Luxembourg -0.001 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

United States -0.001 -0.005 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Low-income average 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.001

Middle-income average -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

High-income average -0.001 -0.004 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
52

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 10

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for medical care, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.024 0.027 0.040 0.040 0.032 0.042 0.077

Nigeria 0.028 0.034 0.048 0.048 0.039 0.049 0.236 0.074

Tajikistan 0.030 0.036 0.051 0.051 0.043 0.053 0.156 0.074

Zambia 0.031 0.037 0.052 0.052 0.043 0.053 0.149 0.074

Yemen 0.031 0.037 0.052 0.052 0.043 0.053 0.148 0.074

Malawi 0.032 0.038 0.054 0.054 0.045 0.055 0.132 0.075

Madagascar 0.032 0.039 0.054 0.054 0.045 0.055 0.132 0.075

Mali 0.032 0.039 0.055 0.054 0.046 0.056 0.129 0.075

Mongolia 0.033 0.039 0.055 0.054 0.046 0.056 0.128 0.075

Benin 0.035 0.043 0.059 0.059 0.050 0.061 0.112 0.078

Kenya 0.036 0.045 0.061 0.061 0.052 0.062 0.108 0.079

Sierra Leone 0.037 0.046 0.063 0.063 0.054 0.064 0.106 0.080

Nepal 0.037 0.046 0.063 0.063 0.054 0.064 0.106 0.080

Turkmenistan 0.038 0.047 0.064 0.064 0.055 0.065 0.105 0.080

Congo 0.039 0.048 0.065 0.065 0.056 0.067 0.104 0.081

Senegal 0.039 0.049 0.067 0.067 0.058 0.068 0.103 0.082

Vietnam 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.058 0.068 0.103 0.082

Bangladesh 0.040 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.058 0.069 0.103 0.083

Pakistan 0.041 0.052 0.070 0.070 0.061 0.071 0.103 0.085

Azerbaijan 0.042 0.053 0.072 0.071 0.062 0.073 0.102 0.086

Côte d'Ivoire 0.042 0.054 0.072 0.072 0.063 0.073 0.102 0.086

Paraguay 0.042 0.054 0.073 0.072 0.063 0.074 0.103 0.086

Uzbekistan 0.042 0.055 0.073 0.073 0.064 0.075 0.103 0.087

Kyrgyzstan 0.042 0.055 0.074 0.073 0.064 0.075 0.103 0.087

Cameroon 0.042 0.055 0.074 0.073 0.064 0.075 0.103 0.087

Moldova 0.042 0.055 0.074 0.073 0.064 0.075 0.103 0.087

Bolivia 0.043 0.056 0.075 0.074 0.065 0.076 0.103 0.088

Ecuador 0.043 0.056 0.075 0.075 0.066 0.076 0.103 0.088

Armenia 0.043 0.057 0.076 0.076 0.067 0.077 0.103 0.089

Sri Lanka 0.043 0.057 0.076 0.076 0.067 0.077 0.103 0.089

Jordan 0.044 0.058 0.077 0.077 0.068 0.078 0.103 0.090

Albania 0.044 0.059 0.079 0.078 0.069 0.080 0.104 0.091

Indonesia 0.044 0.060 0.079 0.079 0.070 0.080 0.104 0.091

Jamaica 0.045 0.060 0.079 0.079 0.070 0.080 0.104 0.092

Zimbabwe 0.045 0.060 0.079 0.079 0.070 0.080 0.104 0.092

Guinea 0.045 0.060 0.080 0.080 0.071 0.081 0.104 0.092

Syria 0.045 0.061 0.081 0.081 0.072 0.082 0.105 0.093

Georgia 0.045 0.061 0.081 0.081 0.072 0.082 0.105 0.093

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.046 0.063 0.083 0.083 0.074 0.084 0.106 0.095

Philippines 0.046 0.064 0.085 0.084 0.075 0.085 0.106 0.096

Peru 0.046 0.065 0.085 0.085 0.076 0.086 0.107 0.096

Botswana 0.046 0.065 0.085 0.085 0.076 0.086 0.107 0.096

Thailand 0.046 0.065 0.085 0.085 0.076 0.086 0.107 0.097

Morocco 0.046 0.065 0.086 0.086 0.077 0.087 0.107 0.097

Venezuela 0.046 0.066 0.086 0.086 0.077 0.087 0.107 0.097

Macedonia 0.047 0.066 0.087 0.087 0.078 0.088 0.108 0.098

Belize 0.047 0.066 0.087 0.087 0.078 0.088 0.108 0.098

—Continued
53

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 10

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for medical care, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.047 0.066 0.087 0.087 0.078 0.088 0.108 0.098

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.047 0.066 0.087 0.087 0.078 0.088 0.108 0.098

Swaziland 0.047 0.067 0.088 0.088 0.079 0.089 0.109 0.099

Lebanon 0.047 0.068 0.089 0.088 0.080 0.090 0.109 0.099

Belarus 0.047 0.068 0.089 0.089 0.080 0.090 0.109 0.100

Kazakhstan 0.047 0.068 0.089 0.089 0.080 0.090 0.109 0.100

Dominica 0.047 0.068 0.089 0.089 0.080 0.090 0.109 0.100

Latvia 0.047 0.069 0.090 0.090 0.081 0.091 0.110 0.101

St. Lucia 0.047 0.069 0.090 0.090 0.081 0.091 0.110 0.101

Brazil 0.047 0.069 0.090 0.090 0.081 0.091 0.110 0.101

Bulgaria 0.047 0.069 0.090 0.090 0.081 0.091 0.110 0.101

Russia 0.047 0.070 0.091 0.091 0.082 0.092 0.110 0.101

Fiji 0.047 0.070 0.092 0.091 0.083 0.093 0.111 0.102

Grenada 0.047 0.070 0.092 0.091 0.083 0.093 0.111 0.102

Turkey 0.047 0.071 0.092 0.092 0.083 0.093 0.111 0.102

Lithuania 0.047 0.071 0.093 0.092 0.083 0.094 0.111 0.103

Romania 0.047 0.071 0.093 0.093 0.084 0.094 0.111 0.103

Iran 0.047 0.072 0.094 0.094 0.085 0.095 0.112 0.104

Mexico 0.047 0.072 0.094 0.094 0.085 0.095 0.112 0.104

Bahrain 0.047 0.073 0.095 0.094 0.086 0.096 0.113 0.105

Chile 0.047 0.073 0.095 0.095 0.086 0.096 0.113 0.105

Antigua & Barbuda 0.047 0.073 0.095 0.095 0.086 0.096 0.113 0.105

Poland 0.047 0.074 0.096 0.095 0.087 0.097 0.113 0.105

Trinidad & Tobago 0.047 0.074 0.096 0.096 0.087 0.097 0.114 0.106

Estonia 0.047 0.075 0.097 0.097 0.088 0.098 0.114 0.106

Gabon 0.046 0.075 0.097 0.097 0.088 0.098 0.114 0.107

Tunisia 0.046 0.075 0.097 0.097 0.088 0.098 0.114 0.107

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.046 0.075 0.098 0.097 0.088 0.099 0.115 0.107

Uruguay 0.046 0.075 0.098 0.098 0.089 0.099 0.115 0.107

Slovakia 0.046 0.076 0.098 0.098 0.089 0.099 0.115 0.108

Hungary 0.046 0.077 0.100 0.100 0.091 0.101 0.116 0.109

Argentina 0.045 0.079 0.102 0.102 0.093 0.103 0.118 0.111

Oman 0.044 0.080 0.103 0.103 0.094 0.104 0.118 0.112

Qatar 0.044 0.081 0.104 0.104 0.095 0.105 0.119 0.113

Slovenia 0.043 0.081 0.104 0.104 0.095 0.105 0.120 0.113

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.043 0.082 0.105 0.105 0.096 0.106 0.120 0.114

Greece 0.042 0.083 0.107 0.106 0.098 0.107 0.121 0.115

Korea 0.041 0.083 0.107 0.107 0.098 0.108 0.122 0.115

Portugal 0.041 0.083 0.107 0.107 0.098 0.108 0.122 0.116

Spain 0.041 0.084 0.108 0.107 0.098 0.108 0.122 0.116

Ireland 0.040 0.084 0.108 0.108 0.099 0.109 0.123 0.116

Singapore 0.040 0.084 0.109 0.108 0.100 0.109 0.123 0.117

Mauritius 0.039 0.085 0.109 0.109 0.100 0.110 0.124 0.118

Israel 0.038 0.086 0.110 0.110 0.101 0.111 0.124 0.118

New Zealand 0.037 0.086 0.110 0.110 0.101 0.111 0.124 0.119

—Continued
54

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 10

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for medical care, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.037 0.086 0.110 0.110 0.101 0.111 0.124 0.119

Bahamas 0.037 0.086 0.111 0.110 0.102 0.111 0.125 0.119

Sweden 0.035 0.087 0.112 0.112 0.103 0.113 0.126 0.120

Netherlands 0.034 0.088 0.112 0.112 0.103 0.113 0.126 0.120

France 0.032 0.089 0.113 0.113 0.104 0.114 0.127 0.121

United Kingdom 0.032 0.089 0.114 0.113 0.105 0.114 0.127 0.121

Belgium 0.032 0.089 0.114 0.114 0.105 0.115 0.127 0.122

Norway 0.032 0.089 0.114 0.114 0.105 0.115 0.127 0.122

Italy 0.031 0.089 0.114 0.114 0.105 0.115 0.127 0.122

Austria 0.031 0.089 0.114 0.114 0.105 0.115 0.128 0.122

Germany 0.030 0.089 0.114 0.114 0.106 0.115 0.128 0.122

Australia 0.030 0.090 0.115 0.115 0.106 0.116 0.128 0.123

Japan 0.029 0.090 0.115 0.115 0.106 0.116 0.128 0.123

Canada 0.028 0.090 0.115 0.115 0.107 0.116 0.129 0.123

Bermuda 0.027 0.091 0.116 0.116 0.107 0.117 0.129 0.124

Switzerland 0.026 0.091 0.116 0.116 0.108 0.117 0.129 0.124

Barbados 0.026 0.091 0.117 0.116 0.108 0.117 0.129 0.124

Hong Kong 0.026 0.091 0.117 0.116 0.108 0.117 0.130 0.124

Iceland 0.025 0.091 0.117 0.116 0.108 0.117 0.130 0.124

Denmark 0.025 0.091 0.117 0.117 0.108 0.118 0.130 0.125

Luxembourg 0.013 0.094 0.121 0.120 0.112 0.121 0.133 0.128

United States 0.011 0.095 0.121 0.121 0.112 0.122 0.133 0.128

Low-income average 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.058 0.068 0.114 0.084

Middle-income average 0.046 0.071 0.092 0.092 0.083 0.093 0.111 0.103

High-income average 0.032 0.088 0.113 0.113 0.104 0.114 0.126 0.121

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
55

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 11

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for medical care, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations Education tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.014 0.016 0.023 0.023 0.019 0.024 0.045

Nigeria 0.012 0.014 0.021 0.020 0.017 0.021 0.101 0.032

Tajikistan 0.012 0.014 0.019 0.019 0.016 0.020 0.059 0.028

Zambia 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.019 0.016 0.020 0.055 0.027

Yemen 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.019 0.016 0.020 0.055 0.027

Malawi 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.015 0.019 0.045 0.026

Madagascar 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.015 0.019 0.045 0.026

Mali 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.015 0.019 0.043 0.025

Mongolia 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.015 0.019 0.043 0.025

Benin 0.010 0.012 0.017 0.017 0.014 0.017 0.032 0.022

Kenya 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.014 0.016 0.028 0.021

Sierra Leone 0.009 0.011 0.016 0.015 0.013 0.016 0.026 0.020

Nepal 0.009 0.011 0.016 0.015 0.013 0.016 0.026 0.020

Turkmenistan 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.013 0.016 0.025 0.019

Congo 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.013 0.015 0.024 0.018

Senegal 0.008 0.011 0.014 0.014 0.012 0.015 0.022 0.018

Vietnam 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.012 0.014 0.022 0.017

Bangladesh 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.012 0.014 0.022 0.017

Pakistan 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.012 0.013 0.019 0.016

Azerbaijan 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.015

Côte d'Ivoire 0.007 0.009 0.013 0.013 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.015

Paraguay 0.007 0.009 0.013 0.013 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.015

Uzbekistan 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.013 0.017 0.015

Kyrgyzstan 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.013 0.017 0.015

Cameroon 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.012 0.017 0.015

Moldova 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.012 0.017 0.015

Bolivia 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.011 0.012 0.017 0.014

Ecuador 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.014

Armenia 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.014

Sri Lanka 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.014

Jordan 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.010 0.011 0.015 0.013

Albania 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.010 0.011 0.014 0.013

Indonesia 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.009 0.011 0.014 0.012

Jamaica 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.009 0.011 0.014 0.012

Zimbabwe 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.009 0.011 0.014 0.012

Guinea 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.009 0.011 0.014 0.012

Syria 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.009 0.010 0.013 0.012

Georgia 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.009 0.010 0.013 0.012

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.011

Philippines 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.010

Peru 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.010

Botswana 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.010

Thailand 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.010

Morocco 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.010

Venezuela 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.009 0.011 0.010

Macedonia 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

Belize 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

—Continued
56

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 11

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for medical care, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations Education tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

Swaziland 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

Lebanon 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

Belarus 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

Kazakhstan 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

Dominica 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.009

Latvia 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.008

St. Lucia 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.008

Brazil 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.008

Bulgaria 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.009 0.008

Russia 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.009 0.008

Fiji 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.008

Grenada 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.008

Turkey 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.008

Lithuania 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.008

Romania 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.007

Iran 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.007

Mexico 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.008 0.007

Bahrain 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007

Chile 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007

Antigua & Barbuda 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.007

Poland 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.007

Trinidad & Tobago 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.006

Estonia 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.006

Gabon 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.006

Tunisia 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006

Uruguay 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006

Slovakia 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.006

Hungary 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.005

Argentina 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.005

Oman 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.004

Qatar 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004

Slovenia 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004

Greece 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Korea 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Portugal 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003

Spain 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003

Ireland 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003

Singapore 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003

Mauritius 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Israel 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

New Zealand 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

—Continued
57

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 11

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for medical care, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations Education tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Bahamas 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Sweden 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002

Netherlands 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001

France 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

United Kingdom 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Belgium 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Norway 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Italy 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Austria 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Germany 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Australia 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Japan 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Canada 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Bermuda 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Switzerland 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Barbados 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Hong Kong 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Iceland 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Denmark 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Luxembourg 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

United States 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Low-income average 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.012 0.015 0.027 0.019

Middle-income average 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.008

High-income average 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
58

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

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Appendix table 12

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for education, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.038 0.045 0.066 0.065 0.142 0.068 0.126

Nigeria 0.039 0.046 0.066 0.065 0.107 0.067 0.323 0.101

Tajikistan 0.039 0.046 0.066 0.065 0.099 0.067 0.199 0.095

Zambia 0.039 0.046 0.066 0.065 0.098 0.067 0.188 0.094

Yemen 0.039 0.046 0.066 0.065 0.098 0.067 0.187 0.094

Malawi 0.039 0.047 0.066 0.065 0.095 0.067 0.161 0.091

Madagascar 0.039 0.047 0.066 0.065 0.095 0.067 0.160 0.091

Mali 0.039 0.047 0.066 0.065 0.094 0.067 0.155 0.091

Mongolia 0.039 0.047 0.066 0.065 0.094 0.067 0.153 0.090

Benin 0.039 0.048 0.066 0.066 0.089 0.067 0.124 0.086

Kenya 0.039 0.048 0.066 0.066 0.087 0.067 0.117 0.085

Sierra Leone 0.039 0.048 0.066 0.066 0.086 0.067 0.111 0.084

Nepal 0.039 0.048 0.066 0.066 0.086 0.067 0.111 0.084

Turkmenistan 0.039 0.048 0.066 0.066 0.085 0.067 0.109 0.083

Congo 0.039 0.049 0.066 0.066 0.084 0.067 0.106 0.082

Senegal 0.039 0.049 0.066 0.066 0.083 0.068 0.103 0.082

Vietnam 0.039 0.049 0.066 0.066 0.083 0.068 0.102 0.081

Bangladesh 0.039 0.049 0.067 0.066 0.083 0.068 0.102 0.081

Pakistan 0.039 0.049 0.067 0.066 0.082 0.068 0.097 0.080

Azerbaijan 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.068 0.096 0.080

Côte d'Ivoire 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.068 0.095 0.080

Paraguay 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.068 0.095 0.080

Uzbekistan 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.068 0.094 0.079

Kyrgyzstan 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.068 0.094 0.079

Cameroon 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.068 0.093 0.079

Moldova 0.039 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.081 0.068 0.093 0.079

Bolivia 0.038 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.080 0.068 0.092 0.079

Ecuador 0.038 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.080 0.068 0.092 0.079

Armenia 0.038 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.080 0.068 0.091 0.079

Sri Lanka 0.038 0.050 0.067 0.067 0.080 0.068 0.091 0.079

Jordan 0.038 0.051 0.067 0.067 0.080 0.068 0.090 0.078

Albania 0.038 0.051 0.068 0.067 0.079 0.068 0.089 0.078

Indonesia 0.038 0.051 0.068 0.067 0.079 0.068 0.089 0.078

Jamaica 0.038 0.051 0.068 0.067 0.079 0.068 0.089 0.078

Zimbabwe 0.038 0.051 0.068 0.067 0.079 0.068 0.089 0.078

Guinea 0.038 0.051 0.068 0.067 0.079 0.069 0.088 0.078

Syria 0.038 0.051 0.068 0.068 0.079 0.069 0.088 0.078

Georgia 0.038 0.051 0.068 0.068 0.079 0.069 0.088 0.078

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.037 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.086 0.077

Philippines 0.037 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.086 0.077

Peru 0.037 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.086 0.077

Botswana 0.037 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.086 0.077

Thailand 0.037 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.085 0.077

Morocco 0.037 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.085 0.077

Venezuela 0.037 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.085 0.077

Macedonia 0.037 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.085 0.077

Belize 0.037 0.052 0.069 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.085 0.077

—Continued
59

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 12

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for education, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.037 0.052 0.069 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.085 0.077

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.037 0.052 0.069 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.085 0.077

Swaziland 0.036 0.052 0.069 0.068 0.078 0.069 0.084 0.077

Lebanon 0.036 0.052 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.069 0.084 0.077

Belarus 0.036 0.052 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.069 0.084 0.077

Kazakhstan 0.036 0.052 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.069 0.084 0.077

Dominica 0.036 0.052 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.069 0.084 0.077

Latvia 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.070 0.084 0.077

St. Lucia 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.070 0.084 0.077

Brazil 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.070 0.084 0.077

Bulgaria 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.070 0.084 0.077

Russia 0.036 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Fiji 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Grenada 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Turkey 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Lithuania 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Romania 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Iran 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Mexico 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Bahrain 0.034 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Chile 0.034 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Antigua & Barbuda 0.034 0.053 0.070 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.083 0.077

Poland 0.034 0.054 0.070 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.082 0.077

Trinidad & Tobago 0.034 0.054 0.070 0.069 0.077 0.070 0.082 0.077

Estonia 0.034 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.070 0.082 0.077

Gabon 0.033 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.070 0.082 0.077

Tunisia 0.033 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.070 0.082 0.077

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.033 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.070 0.082 0.077

Uruguay 0.033 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.071 0.082 0.077

Slovakia 0.033 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.071 0.082 0.077

Hungary 0.032 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.071 0.082 0.077

Argentina 0.031 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.071 0.081 0.077

Oman 0.030 0.055 0.071 0.070 0.077 0.071 0.081 0.077

Qatar 0.030 0.055 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.071 0.081 0.077

Slovenia 0.029 0.055 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.071 0.081 0.077

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.029 0.055 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.071 0.081 0.077

Greece 0.028 0.055 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Korea 0.027 0.055 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Portugal 0.027 0.055 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Spain 0.027 0.055 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Ireland 0.026 0.055 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Singapore 0.026 0.056 0.071 0.071 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Mauritius 0.025 0.056 0.072 0.071 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Israel 0.025 0.056 0.072 0.071 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

New Zealand 0.024 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

—Continued
60

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 12

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for education, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.024 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Bahamas 0.024 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.077 0.072 0.081 0.077

Sweden 0.022 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.072 0.081 0.077

Netherlands 0.022 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.072 0.081 0.077

France 0.021 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

United Kingdom 0.021 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Belgium 0.020 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Norway 0.020 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Italy 0.020 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Austria 0.019 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Germany 0.019 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Australia 0.019 0.057 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Japan 0.018 0.057 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Canada 0.018 0.057 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Bermuda 0.017 0.057 0.073 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Switzerland 0.016 0.057 0.073 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Barbados 0.016 0.057 0.073 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Hong Kong 0.016 0.057 0.073 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Iceland 0.016 0.057 0.073 0.073 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Denmark 0.016 0.057 0.073 0.073 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

Luxembourg 0.008 0.057 0.073 0.073 0.078 0.074 0.081 0.078

United States 0.007 0.057 0.073 0.073 0.078 0.074 0.081 0.078

Low-income average 0.039 0.049 0.067 0.066 0.087 0.068 0.117 0.084

Middle-income average 0.035 0.053 0.069 0.069 0.078 0.070 0.083 0.077

High-income average 0.021 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.078 0.073 0.081 0.077

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
61

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 13

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for education, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care tion Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania -0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.009 -0.019 -0.009 -0.017

Nigeria -0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.009 -0.015 -0.009 -0.044 -0.014

Tajikistan -0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.009 -0.014 -0.009 -0.027 -0.013

Zambia -0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.009 -0.014 -0.009 -0.026 -0.013

Yemen -0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.009 -0.014 -0.009 -0.026 -0.013

Malawi -0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.009 -0.013 -0.009 -0.022 -0.013

Madagascar -0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.009 -0.013 -0.009 -0.022 -0.013

Mali -0.005 -0.006 -0.009 -0.009 -0.013 -0.009 -0.021 -0.013

Mongolia -0.005 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.013 -0.009 -0.021 -0.013

Benin -0.005 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.012 -0.009 -0.017 -0.012

Kenya -0.006 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.012 -0.009 -0.016 -0.012

Sierra Leone -0.006 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.016 -0.012

Nepal -0.006 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.016 -0.012

Turkmenistan -0.006 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.015 -0.012

Congo -0.006 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.015 -0.012

Senegal -0.006 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.015 -0.012

Vietnam -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.015 -0.012

Bangladesh -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.015 -0.012

Pakistan -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.014 -0.012

Azerbaijan -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.014 -0.012

Côte d'Ivoire -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.014 -0.012

Paraguay -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.014 -0.012

Uzbekistan -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.014 -0.012

Kyrgyzstan -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.014 -0.012

Cameroon -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.014 -0.012

Moldova -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.014 -0.012

Bolivia -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Ecuador -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Armenia -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Sri Lanka -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Jordan -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Albania -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Indonesia -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Jamaica -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Zimbabwe -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Guinea -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Syria -0.006 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Georgia -0.006 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine -0.006 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Philippines -0.006 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Peru -0.006 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Botswana -0.006 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Thailand -0.006 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Morocco -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Venezuela -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.011

Macedonia -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Belize -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

—Continued
62

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 13

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for education, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care tion Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

St. Vincent & Grenadines -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Swaziland -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Lebanon -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Belarus -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Kazakhstan -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Dominica -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Latvia -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

St. Lucia -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Brazil -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Bulgaria -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Russia -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.010 -0.013 -0.012

Fiji -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Grenada -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Turkey -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Lithuania -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Romania -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Iran -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Mexico -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Bahrain -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Chile -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Antigua & Barbuda -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Poland -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Trinidad & Tobago -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Estonia -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Gabon -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Tunisia -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

St. Kitts & Nevis -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012

Uruguay -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012

Slovakia -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012

Hungary -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012

Argentina -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Oman -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Qatar -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Slovenia -0.005 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

High-income countries:

Czech Republic -0.004 -0.008 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Greece -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Korea -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Portugal -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Spain -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Ireland -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Singapore -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Mauritius -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Israel -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

New Zealand -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

—Continued
63

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 13

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for education, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport & 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica- 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care tion Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Bahamas -0.004 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Sweden -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Netherlands -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

France -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

United Kingdom -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Belgium -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Norway -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Italy -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Austria -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Germany -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Australia -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Japan -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Canada -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Bermuda -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

Switzerland -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

Barbados -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

Hong Kong -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

Iceland -0.002 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

Denmark -0.002 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

Luxembourg -0.001 -0.009 -0.012 -0.012 -0.012 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

United States -0.001 -0.009 -0.012 -0.012 -0.012 -0.012 -0.013 -0.012

Low-income average -0.006 -0.007 -0.010 -0.009 -0.012 -0.010 -0.017 -0.012

Middle-income average -0.005 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

High-income average -0.003 -0.009 -0.011 -0.011 -0.012 -0.011 -0.013 -0.012

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
64

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 14

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for transport and communication, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.047 0.054 0.080 0.079 0.172 0.064 0.152

Nigeria 0.050 0.059 0.085 0.085 0.139 0.070 0.419 0.131

Tajikistan 0.052 0.062 0.088 0.087 0.133 0.073 0.265 0.126

Zambia 0.052 0.062 0.088 0.088 0.132 0.073 0.252 0.126

Yemen 0.052 0.062 0.088 0.088 0.132 0.073 0.251 0.126

Malawi 0.053 0.064 0.090 0.089 0.129 0.075 0.219 0.124

Madagascar 0.053 0.064 0.090 0.089 0.129 0.075 0.218 0.124

Mali 0.053 0.064 0.090 0.090 0.129 0.075 0.212 0.124

Mongolia 0.054 0.064 0.090 0.090 0.129 0.075 0.210 0.124

Benin 0.055 0.068 0.094 0.093 0.126 0.079 0.176 0.122

Kenya 0.056 0.069 0.095 0.095 0.125 0.081 0.168 0.122

Sierra Leone 0.057 0.070 0.096 0.096 0.125 0.082 0.162 0.122

Nepal 0.057 0.070 0.096 0.096 0.125 0.082 0.162 0.122

Turkmenistan 0.057 0.071 0.097 0.097 0.125 0.083 0.160 0.122

Congo 0.058 0.072 0.098 0.098 0.125 0.085 0.156 0.122

Senegal 0.058 0.073 0.099 0.099 0.125 0.086 0.154 0.122

Vietnam 0.058 0.073 0.100 0.099 0.125 0.086 0.153 0.122

Bangladesh 0.058 0.074 0.100 0.099 0.125 0.086 0.153 0.122

Pakistan 0.059 0.076 0.102 0.102 0.125 0.089 0.149 0.123

Azerbaijan 0.060 0.077 0.103 0.103 0.125 0.090 0.147 0.123

Côte d'Ivoire 0.060 0.077 0.104 0.103 0.125 0.090 0.147 0.123

Paraguay 0.060 0.077 0.104 0.103 0.126 0.091 0.147 0.123

Uzbekistan 0.060 0.078 0.105 0.104 0.126 0.091 0.146 0.124

Kyrgyzstan 0.060 0.078 0.105 0.104 0.126 0.091 0.146 0.124

Cameroon 0.060 0.078 0.105 0.104 0.126 0.092 0.146 0.124

Moldova 0.060 0.078 0.105 0.104 0.126 0.092 0.146 0.124

Bolivia 0.060 0.079 0.105 0.105 0.126 0.092 0.145 0.124

Ecuador 0.061 0.079 0.106 0.105 0.126 0.093 0.145 0.124

Armenia 0.061 0.080 0.106 0.106 0.126 0.094 0.144 0.125

Sri Lanka 0.061 0.080 0.107 0.106 0.127 0.094 0.144 0.125

Jordan 0.061 0.081 0.107 0.107 0.127 0.095 0.144 0.125

Albania 0.061 0.082 0.109 0.108 0.127 0.096 0.143 0.126

Indonesia 0.061 0.082 0.109 0.109 0.128 0.096 0.143 0.126

Jamaica 0.061 0.082 0.109 0.109 0.128 0.096 0.143 0.126

Zimbabwe 0.061 0.082 0.109 0.109 0.128 0.097 0.143 0.126

Guinea 0.061 0.083 0.110 0.109 0.128 0.097 0.143 0.126

Syria 0.062 0.083 0.111 0.110 0.128 0.098 0.143 0.127

Georgia 0.062 0.084 0.111 0.110 0.128 0.098 0.143 0.127

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.062 0.085 0.112 0.112 0.129 0.100 0.143 0.128

Philippines 0.062 0.086 0.113 0.113 0.130 0.101 0.143 0.129

Peru 0.062 0.086 0.114 0.113 0.130 0.101 0.143 0.129

Botswana 0.062 0.086 0.114 0.114 0.130 0.102 0.143 0.129

Thailand 0.062 0.087 0.114 0.114 0.130 0.102 0.143 0.129

Morocco 0.062 0.087 0.115 0.114 0.131 0.102 0.143 0.129

Venezuela 0.062 0.087 0.115 0.114 0.131 0.102 0.143 0.129

Macedonia 0.062 0.088 0.115 0.115 0.131 0.103 0.143 0.130

Belize 0.062 0.088 0.116 0.115 0.131 0.103 0.143 0.130

—Continued
65

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 14

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for transport and communication, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.062 0.088 0.116 0.115 0.131 0.103 0.143 0.130

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.062 0.088 0.116 0.115 0.131 0.103 0.143 0.130

Swaziland 0.062 0.089 0.116 0.116 0.132 0.104 0.143 0.131

Lebanon 0.062 0.089 0.117 0.116 0.132 0.105 0.143 0.131

Belarus 0.062 0.089 0.117 0.117 0.132 0.105 0.143 0.131

Kazakhstan 0.062 0.089 0.117 0.117 0.132 0.105 0.143 0.131

Dominica 0.062 0.089 0.117 0.117 0.132 0.105 0.143 0.131

Latvia 0.061 0.090 0.118 0.118 0.133 0.106 0.143 0.132

St. Lucia 0.061 0.090 0.118 0.118 0.133 0.106 0.143 0.132

Brazil 0.061 0.090 0.118 0.118 0.133 0.106 0.143 0.132

Bulgaria 0.061 0.090 0.118 0.118 0.133 0.106 0.144 0.132

Russia 0.061 0.091 0.119 0.118 0.133 0.107 0.144 0.132

Fiji 0.061 0.091 0.119 0.119 0.134 0.107 0.144 0.133

Grenada 0.061 0.091 0.119 0.119 0.134 0.107 0.144 0.133

Turkey 0.061 0.092 0.120 0.119 0.134 0.108 0.144 0.133

Lithuania 0.061 0.092 0.120 0.120 0.134 0.108 0.144 0.133

Romania 0.061 0.092 0.120 0.120 0.134 0.108 0.144 0.133

Iran 0.060 0.093 0.121 0.121 0.135 0.109 0.144 0.134

Mexico 0.060 0.093 0.121 0.121 0.135 0.109 0.145 0.134

Bahrain 0.060 0.093 0.122 0.121 0.135 0.110 0.145 0.134

Chile 0.060 0.094 0.122 0.122 0.136 0.110 0.145 0.134

Antigua & Barbuda 0.060 0.094 0.122 0.122 0.136 0.110 0.145 0.135

Poland 0.060 0.094 0.123 0.122 0.136 0.111 0.145 0.135

Trinidad & Tobago 0.060 0.095 0.123 0.123 0.136 0.111 0.145 0.135

Estonia 0.059 0.095 0.123 0.123 0.137 0.112 0.145 0.136

Gabon 0.059 0.095 0.124 0.123 0.137 0.112 0.145 0.136

Tunisia 0.059 0.095 0.124 0.124 0.137 0.112 0.146 0.136

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.059 0.096 0.124 0.124 0.137 0.112 0.146 0.136

Uruguay 0.059 0.096 0.124 0.124 0.137 0.113 0.146 0.136

Slovakia 0.059 0.096 0.125 0.124 0.137 0.113 0.146 0.136

Hungary 0.058 0.097 0.126 0.126 0.138 0.114 0.147 0.138

Argentina 0.056 0.099 0.128 0.127 0.140 0.116 0.148 0.139

Oman 0.055 0.099 0.128 0.128 0.140 0.117 0.148 0.140

Qatar 0.054 0.100 0.129 0.129 0.141 0.118 0.148 0.140

Slovenia 0.054 0.101 0.130 0.129 0.142 0.118 0.149 0.141

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.053 0.101 0.130 0.130 0.142 0.119 0.149 0.141

Greece 0.051 0.102 0.132 0.131 0.143 0.120 0.150 0.142

Korea 0.051 0.102 0.132 0.132 0.143 0.121 0.150 0.142

Portugal 0.050 0.103 0.132 0.132 0.143 0.121 0.150 0.143

Spain 0.050 0.103 0.132 0.132 0.144 0.121 0.150 0.143

Ireland 0.049 0.103 0.133 0.132 0.144 0.122 0.151 0.143

Singapore 0.048 0.104 0.133 0.133 0.144 0.122 0.151 0.143

Mauritius 0.047 0.104 0.134 0.134 0.145 0.123 0.151 0.144

Israel 0.046 0.105 0.134 0.134 0.145 0.123 0.152 0.144

New Zealand 0.046 0.105 0.135 0.134 0.145 0.124 0.152 0.145

—Continued
66

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 14

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for transport and communication, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.045 0.105 0.135 0.134 0.146 0.124 0.152 0.145

Bahamas 0.045 0.105 0.135 0.135 0.146 0.124 0.152 0.145

Sweden 0.042 0.106 0.136 0.136 0.147 0.125 0.153 0.146

Netherlands 0.042 0.106 0.136 0.136 0.147 0.125 0.153 0.146

France 0.039 0.107 0.137 0.137 0.148 0.126 0.154 0.147

United Kingdom 0.039 0.107 0.137 0.137 0.148 0.126 0.154 0.147

Belgium 0.039 0.107 0.138 0.137 0.148 0.127 0.154 0.147

Norway 0.038 0.107 0.138 0.137 0.148 0.127 0.154 0.147

Italy 0.038 0.107 0.138 0.137 0.148 0.127 0.154 0.147

Austria 0.037 0.108 0.138 0.138 0.148 0.127 0.154 0.148

Germany 0.037 0.108 0.138 0.138 0.148 0.127 0.154 0.148

Australia 0.036 0.108 0.138 0.138 0.149 0.128 0.154 0.148

Japan 0.035 0.108 0.139 0.138 0.149 0.128 0.155 0.148

Canada 0.034 0.109 0.139 0.139 0.149 0.128 0.155 0.148

Bermuda 0.032 0.109 0.140 0.139 0.150 0.129 0.155 0.149

Switzerland 0.031 0.109 0.140 0.140 0.150 0.129 0.155 0.149

Barbados 0.031 0.109 0.140 0.140 0.150 0.129 0.155 0.149

Hong Kong 0.031 0.109 0.140 0.140 0.150 0.129 0.155 0.149

Iceland 0.030 0.109 0.140 0.140 0.150 0.129 0.155 0.149

Denmark 0.030 0.110 0.140 0.140 0.150 0.129 0.156 0.149

Luxembourg 0.016 0.112 0.143 0.143 0.153 0.133 0.158 0.152

United States 0.013 0.113 0.144 0.143 0.153 0.133 0.158 0.152

Low-income average 0.058 0.073 0.100 0.099 0.128 0.086 0.173 0.125

Middle-income average 0.060 0.092 0.120 0.119 0.134 0.108 0.144 0.133

High-income average 0.039 0.107 0.137 0.136 0.147 0.126 0.153 0.146

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
67

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 15

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for transport/communication, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education Recreation2 Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.006 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.022 0.008 0.019

Nigeria 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.013 0.006 0.039 0.012

Tajikistan 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.011 0.006 0.021 0.010

Zambia 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.010 0.006 0.020 0.010

Yemen 0.004 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.010 0.006 0.019 0.010

Malawi 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.009 0.005 0.015 0.009

Madagascar 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.009 0.005 0.015 0.009

Mali 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.009 0.005 0.014 0.008

Mongolia 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.009 0.005 0.014 0.008

Benin 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.007 0.004 0.009 0.006

Kenya 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.006 0.004 0.008 0.006

Sierra Leone 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.003 0.007 0.005

Nepal 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.003 0.007 0.005

Turkmenistan 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.003 0.006 0.005

Congo 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.005 0.004

Senegal 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.005 0.004

Vietnam 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.004 0.004

Bangladesh 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.004 0.003

Pakistan 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.003

Azerbaijan 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002

Côte d'Ivoire 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002

Paraguay 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002

Uzbekistan 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002

Kyrgyzstan 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002

Cameroon 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002

Moldova 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.002

Bolivia 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.001

Ecuador 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Armenia 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Sri Lanka 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Jordan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.001

Albania 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Indonesia 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Jamaica 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Zimbabwe 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Guinea 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Syria 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 0.000 -0.001 -0.001

Georgia 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 -0.001 0.000 -0.001 -0.001

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001

Philippines -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001

Peru -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002

Botswana -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002

Thailand -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002

Morocco -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002

Venezuela -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002

Macedonia -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Belize -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

—Continued
68

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 15

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for transport/communication, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education Recreation2 Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

St. Vincent & Grenadines -0.001 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Swaziland -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002

Lebanon -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Belarus -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Kazakhstan -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Dominica -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Latvia -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

St. Lucia -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Brazil -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Bulgaria -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003

Russia -0.001 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003

Fiji -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Grenada -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Turkey -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

Lithuania -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Romania -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Iran -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Mexico -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Bahrain -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Chile -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Antigua & Barbuda -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004

Poland -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004

Trinidad & Tobago -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004

Estonia -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Gabon -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Tunisia -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

St. Kitts & Nevis -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Uruguay -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Slovakia -0.002 -0.003 -0.004 -0.004 -0.005 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005

Hungary -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.005 -0.004 -0.006 -0.005

Argentina -0.002 -0.004 -0.005 -0.005 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Oman -0.002 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006

Qatar -0.002 -0.004 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.007 -0.006

Slovenia -0.002 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.006 -0.005 -0.007 -0.006

High-income countries:

Czech Republic -0.002 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Greece -0.002 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Korea -0.002 -0.005 -0.006 -0.006 -0.007 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Portugal -0.002 -0.005 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Spain -0.002 -0.005 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007

Ireland -0.002 -0.005 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.008 -0.007

Singapore -0.002 -0.005 -0.007 -0.007 -0.007 -0.006 -0.008 -0.007

Mauritius -0.002 -0.005 -0.007 -0.007 -0.008 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008

Israel -0.002 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008

New Zealand -0.002 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008

—Continued
69

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 15

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for transport/communication, 114 countries 

in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross 

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical 

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education Recreation2 Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland -0.002 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008

Bahamas -0.002 -0.006 -0.007 -0.007 -0.008 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008

Sweden -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.008 -0.007 -0.009 -0.008

Netherlands -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.008 -0.007 -0.009 -0.008

France -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.007 -0.009 -0.008

United Kingdom -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009

Belgium -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009

Norway -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009

Italy -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009

Austria -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.008 -0.009 -0.009

Germany -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.008 -0.009 -0.009

Australia -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.008 -0.009 -0.009

Japan -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.008 -0.009 -0.009

Canada -0.002 -0.007 -0.008 -0.008 -0.009 -0.008 -0.009 -0.009

Bermuda -0.002 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.009 -0.008 -0.010 -0.009

Switzerland -0.002 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.009 -0.008 -0.010 -0.009

Barbados -0.002 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.009 -0.008 -0.010 -0.009

Hong Kong -0.002 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.009 -0.008 -0.010 -0.009

Iceland -0.002 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.009 -0.008 -0.010 -0.009

Denmark -0.002 -0.007 -0.009 -0.009 -0.009 -0.008 -0.010 -0.009

Luxembourg -0.001 -0.007 -0.010 -0.010 -0.010 -0.009 -0.010 -0.010

United States -0.001 -0.008 -0.010 -0.010 -0.010 -0.009 -0.011 -0.010

Low-income average 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.002 0.006 0.004

Middle-income average -0.002 -0.002 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.003 -0.004 -0.003

High-income average -0.002 -0.006 -0.008 -0.008 -0.008 -0.007 -0.009 -0.008

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
70

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 16

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for recreation, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.040 0.015 0.019 0.035

Nigeria 0.015 0.018 0.025 0.025 0.041 0.021 0.026 0.039

Tajikistan 0.017 0.020 0.028 0.028 0.043 0.023 0.029 0.041

Zambia 0.017 0.020 0.029 0.029 0.043 0.024 0.029 0.041

Yemen 0.017 0.020 0.029 0.029 0.043 0.024 0.029 0.041

Malawi 0.018 0.022 0.031 0.030 0.044 0.026 0.031 0.042

Madagascar 0.018 0.022 0.031 0.030 0.044 0.026 0.031 0.042

Mali 0.018 0.022 0.031 0.031 0.045 0.026 0.032 0.043

Mongolia 0.019 0.022 0.031 0.031 0.045 0.026 0.032 0.043

Benin 0.021 0.025 0.035 0.035 0.047 0.030 0.036 0.046

Kenya 0.022 0.027 0.037 0.037 0.049 0.031 0.038 0.047

Sierra Leone 0.023 0.028 0.038 0.038 0.050 0.033 0.039 0.049

Nepal 0.023 0.028 0.038 0.038 0.050 0.033 0.039 0.049

Turkmenistan 0.023 0.029 0.039 0.039 0.050 0.034 0.040 0.049

Congo 0.024 0.030 0.040 0.040 0.051 0.035 0.041 0.050

Senegal 0.024 0.031 0.042 0.041 0.052 0.036 0.042 0.051

Vietnam 0.025 0.031 0.042 0.042 0.053 0.036 0.043 0.052

Bangladesh 0.025 0.031 0.042 0.042 0.053 0.036 0.043 0.052

Pakistan 0.026 0.033 0.045 0.044 0.055 0.039 0.045 0.054

Azerbaijan 0.027 0.034 0.046 0.046 0.056 0.040 0.046 0.055

Côte d'Ivoire 0.027 0.034 0.046 0.046 0.056 0.040 0.047 0.055

Paraguay 0.027 0.035 0.047 0.046 0.056 0.041 0.047 0.055

Uzbekistan 0.027 0.035 0.047 0.047 0.057 0.041 0.048 0.056

Kyrgyzstan 0.027 0.035 0.047 0.047 0.057 0.041 0.048 0.056

Cameroon 0.027 0.035 0.048 0.047 0.057 0.042 0.048 0.056

Moldova 0.027 0.035 0.048 0.047 0.057 0.042 0.048 0.056

Bolivia 0.028 0.036 0.048 0.048 0.058 0.042 0.049 0.057

Ecuador 0.028 0.036 0.049 0.048 0.058 0.043 0.049 0.057

Armenia 0.028 0.037 0.049 0.049 0.059 0.043 0.050 0.058

Sri Lanka 0.028 0.037 0.050 0.049 0.059 0.043 0.050 0.058

Jordan 0.029 0.038 0.050 0.050 0.060 0.044 0.051 0.059

Albania 0.029 0.039 0.052 0.052 0.061 0.046 0.052 0.060

Indonesia 0.029 0.039 0.052 0.052 0.061 0.046 0.053 0.060

Jamaica 0.029 0.039 0.052 0.052 0.061 0.046 0.053 0.060

Zimbabwe 0.029 0.039 0.052 0.052 0.061 0.046 0.053 0.060

Guinea 0.030 0.040 0.053 0.053 0.062 0.047 0.053 0.061

Syria 0.030 0.041 0.054 0.054 0.062 0.048 0.054 0.062

Georgia 0.030 0.041 0.054 0.054 0.063 0.048 0.055 0.062

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.031 0.042 0.056 0.055 0.064 0.049 0.056 0.063

Philippines 0.031 0.043 0.057 0.057 0.065 0.051 0.057 0.064

Peru 0.031 0.043 0.057 0.057 0.065 0.051 0.058 0.065

Botswana 0.031 0.043 0.057 0.057 0.066 0.051 0.058 0.065

Thailand 0.031 0.044 0.057 0.057 0.066 0.051 0.058 0.065

Morocco 0.031 0.044 0.058 0.058 0.066 0.052 0.059 0.065

Venezuela 0.031 0.044 0.058 0.058 0.066 0.052 0.059 0.066

Macedonia 0.031 0.045 0.059 0.059 0.067 0.053 0.060 0.066

Belize 0.032 0.045 0.059 0.059 0.067 0.053 0.060 0.066

—Continued
71

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 16

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for recreation, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.032 0.045 0.059 0.059 0.067 0.053 0.060 0.066

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.032 0.045 0.059 0.059 0.067 0.053 0.060 0.066

Swaziland 0.032 0.046 0.060 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.067

Lebanon 0.032 0.046 0.060 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.068

Belarus 0.032 0.046 0.061 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.068

Kazakhstan 0.032 0.046 0.061 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.068

Dominica 0.032 0.046 0.061 0.060 0.068 0.054 0.061 0.068

Latvia 0.032 0.047 0.061 0.061 0.069 0.055 0.062 0.069

St. Lucia 0.032 0.047 0.062 0.061 0.069 0.055 0.062 0.069

Brazil 0.032 0.047 0.062 0.062 0.069 0.055 0.062 0.069

Bulgaria 0.032 0.047 0.062 0.062 0.070 0.055 0.062 0.069

Russia 0.032 0.048 0.062 0.062 0.070 0.056 0.063 0.069

Fiji 0.032 0.048 0.063 0.063 0.071 0.057 0.064 0.070

Grenada 0.032 0.048 0.063 0.063 0.071 0.057 0.064 0.070

Turkey 0.032 0.048 0.063 0.063 0.071 0.057 0.064 0.070

Lithuania 0.032 0.049 0.064 0.063 0.071 0.057 0.064 0.071

Romania 0.032 0.049 0.064 0.064 0.072 0.058 0.065 0.071

Iran 0.032 0.050 0.065 0.065 0.072 0.058 0.065 0.072

Mexico 0.032 0.050 0.065 0.065 0.072 0.059 0.066 0.072

Bahrain 0.032 0.050 0.065 0.065 0.073 0.059 0.066 0.072

Chile 0.032 0.050 0.066 0.065 0.073 0.059 0.066 0.072

Antigua & Barbuda 0.032 0.050 0.066 0.066 0.073 0.059 0.066 0.072

Poland 0.032 0.051 0.066 0.066 0.074 0.060 0.067 0.073

Trinidad & Tobago 0.032 0.051 0.067 0.067 0.074 0.060 0.067 0.073

Estonia 0.032 0.052 0.067 0.067 0.074 0.061 0.068 0.074

Gabon 0.032 0.052 0.067 0.067 0.075 0.061 0.068 0.074

Tunisia 0.032 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.075 0.061 0.068 0.074

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.032 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.075 0.062 0.069 0.074

Uruguay 0.032 0.052 0.068 0.068 0.075 0.062 0.069 0.075

Slovakia 0.032 0.053 0.068 0.068 0.075 0.062 0.069 0.075

Hungary 0.032 0.054 0.070 0.070 0.077 0.063 0.070 0.076

Argentina 0.031 0.055 0.072 0.071 0.078 0.065 0.072 0.078

Oman 0.031 0.056 0.072 0.072 0.079 0.066 0.073 0.079

Qatar 0.031 0.057 0.073 0.073 0.080 0.067 0.074 0.079

Slovenia 0.030 0.057 0.074 0.074 0.080 0.067 0.074 0.080

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.030 0.058 0.074 0.074 0.081 0.068 0.075 0.080

Greece 0.029 0.059 0.075 0.075 0.082 0.069 0.076 0.082

Korea 0.029 0.059 0.076 0.076 0.082 0.069 0.076 0.082

Portugal 0.029 0.059 0.076 0.076 0.083 0.070 0.077 0.082

Spain 0.029 0.059 0.076 0.076 0.083 0.070 0.077 0.082

Ireland 0.028 0.060 0.077 0.077 0.083 0.070 0.077 0.083

Singapore 0.028 0.060 0.077 0.077 0.084 0.071 0.078 0.083

Mauritius 0.027 0.061 0.078 0.078 0.084 0.071 0.078 0.084

Israel 0.027 0.061 0.078 0.078 0.085 0.072 0.079 0.084

New Zealand 0.027 0.061 0.079 0.078 0.085 0.072 0.079 0.084

—Continued
72

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 16

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for recreation, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Other

High-income countries:—Continued

Finland 0.027 0.061 0.079 0.079 0.085 0.072 0.079 0.085

Bahamas 0.026 0.061 0.079 0.079 0.085 0.072 0.079 0.085

Sweden 0.025 0.062 0.080 0.080 0.086 0.074 0.081 0.086

Netherlands 0.025 0.063 0.080 0.080 0.087 0.074 0.081 0.086

France 0.023 0.063 0.081 0.081 0.087 0.075 0.082 0.087

United Kingdom 0.023 0.063 0.081 0.081 0.087 0.075 0.082 0.087

Belgium 0.023 0.064 0.082 0.081 0.088 0.075 0.082 0.087

Norway 0.023 0.064 0.082 0.081 0.088 0.075 0.082 0.087

Italy 0.023 0.064 0.082 0.082 0.088 0.075 0.082 0.087

Austria 0.022 0.064 0.082 0.082 0.088 0.076 0.083 0.088

Germany 0.022 0.064 0.082 0.082 0.088 0.076 0.083 0.088

Australia 0.021 0.064 0.082 0.082 0.088 0.076 0.083 0.088

Japan 0.021 0.065 0.083 0.082 0.089 0.076 0.083 0.088

Canada 0.020 0.065 0.083 0.083 0.089 0.076 0.083 0.089

Bermuda 0.019 0.065 0.084 0.083 0.090 0.077 0.084 0.089

Switzerland 0.019 0.065 0.084 0.084 0.090 0.077 0.084 0.089

Barbados 0.019 0.066 0.084 0.084 0.090 0.077 0.084 0.089

Hong Kong 0.018 0.066 0.084 0.084 0.090 0.077 0.084 0.089

Iceland 0.018 0.066 0.084 0.084 0.090 0.078 0.084 0.089

Denmark 0.018 0.066 0.084 0.084 0.090 0.078 0.085 0.090

Luxembourg 0.010 0.068 0.087 0.087 0.093 0.081 0.088 0.093

United States 0.008 0.069 0.088 0.088 0.093 0.081 0.088 0.093

Low-income average 0.024 0.031 0.042 0.042 0.053 0.036 0.043 0.052

Middle-income average 0.032 0.049 0.063 0.063 0.071 0.057 0.064 0.070

High-income average 0.023 0.063 0.081 0.081 0.087 0.074 0.081 0.086

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
73

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 17

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for recreation, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Other

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.013 0.016 0.023 0.023 0.049 0.018 0.024 0.044

Nigeria 0.012 0.014 0.020 0.020 0.033 0.017 0.021 0.031

Tajikistan 0.012 0.014 0.019 0.019 0.029 0.016 0.020 0.028

Zambia 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.019 0.029 0.016 0.020 0.028

Yemen 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.019 0.029 0.016 0.020 0.028

Malawi 0.011 0.013 0.019 0.019 0.027 0.016 0.019 0.026

Madagascar 0.011 0.013 0.019 0.019 0.027 0.016 0.019 0.026

Mali 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.026 0.015 0.019 0.025

Mongolia 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.026 0.015 0.019 0.025

Benin 0.010 0.012 0.017 0.017 0.023 0.015 0.017 0.022

Kenya 0.010 0.012 0.017 0.017 0.022 0.014 0.017 0.021

Sierra Leone 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.021 0.014 0.016 0.020

Nepal 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.021 0.014 0.016 0.020

Turkmenistan 0.009 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.020 0.014 0.016 0.020

Congo 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.013 0.016 0.019

Senegal 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.019 0.013 0.015 0.019

Vietnam 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.019 0.013 0.015 0.018

Bangladesh 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.019 0.013 0.015 0.018

Pakistan 0.008 0.011 0.014 0.014 0.017 0.012 0.014 0.017

Azerbaijan 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.017 0.012 0.014 0.017

Côte d'Ivoire 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.017 0.012 0.014 0.016

Paraguay 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.016

Uzbekistan 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.016

Kyrgyzstan 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.016

Cameroon 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.016

Moldova 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.016

Bolivia 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.011 0.013 0.015

Ecuador 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.011 0.013 0.015

Armenia 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.015 0.011 0.013 0.015

Sri Lanka 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.015 0.011 0.013 0.015

Jordan 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.015 0.011 0.013 0.015

Albania 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.014 0.011 0.012 0.014

Indonesia 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.014 0.011 0.012 0.014

Jamaica 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.014 0.011 0.012 0.014

Zimbabwe 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.014 0.011 0.012 0.014

Guinea 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.014 0.010 0.012 0.014

Syria 0.006 0.009 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.010 0.012 0.013

Georgia 0.006 0.009 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.010 0.012 0.013

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.010 0.011 0.012

Philippines 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.009 0.011 0.012

Peru 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.011 0.012

Botswana 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.011 0.012

Thailand 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.011 0.012

Morocco 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.010 0.012

Venezuela 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.010 0.012

Macedonia 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

Belize 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

—Continued
74

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Appendix table 17

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for recreation, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Other

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

Swaziland 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

Lebanon 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

Belarus 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

Kazakhstan 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

Dominica 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.011

Latvia 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

St. Lucia 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Brazil 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Bulgaria 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Russia 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Fiji 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Grenada 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Turkey 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Lithuania 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Romania 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Iran 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.009

Mexico 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.009

Bahrain 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.009

Chile 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.009

Antigua & Barbuda 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.009

Poland 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.009

Trinidad & Tobago 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.009

Estonia 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.008

Gabon 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.008

Tunisia 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.008

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.008

Uruguay 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.008

Slovakia 0.003 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.008

Hungary 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.006 0.007 0.008

Argentina 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.007

Oman 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.007

Qatar 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.007

Slovenia 0.002 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.006

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.006

Greece 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.006

Korea 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.006

Portugal 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.006

Spain 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.006

Ireland 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.005 0.006

Singapore 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005

Mauritius 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.005

Israel 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.005

New Zealand 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.005

—Continued
75

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Appendix table 17

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for recreation, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Other

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.005

Bahamas 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.005

Sweden 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.004

Netherlands 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

France 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

United Kingdom 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

Belgium 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

Norway 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

Italy 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004

Austria 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004

Germany 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004

Australia 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004

Japan 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004

Canada 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.004

Bermuda 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.004

Switzerland 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Barbados 0.001 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Hong Kong 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Iceland 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Denmark 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Luxembourg 0.000 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

United States 0.000 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Low-income average 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.020 0.013 0.015 0.019

Middle-income average 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

High-income average 0.001 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
76

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

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Appendix table 18

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for other products, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.034 0.039 0.058 0.058 0.125 0.046 0.060 

Nigeria 0.041 0.048 0.068 0.068 0.112 0.056 0.070 0.337

Tajikistan 0.043 0.052 0.073 0.073 0.111 0.061 0.075 0.221

Zambia 0.044 0.052 0.074 0.073 0.111 0.061 0.076 0.211

Yemen 0.044 0.052 0.074 0.073 0.111 0.061 0.076 0.211

Malawi 0.045 0.055 0.077 0.076 0.111 0.064 0.078 0.187

Madagascar 0.045 0.055 0.077 0.076 0.111 0.064 0.078 0.187

Mali 0.046 0.055 0.077 0.077 0.111 0.065 0.079 0.182

Mongolia 0.046 0.055 0.078 0.077 0.111 0.065 0.079 0.181

Benin 0.050 0.060 0.084 0.083 0.113 0.071 0.085 0.158

Kenya 0.051 0.063 0.086 0.086 0.114 0.074 0.088 0.153

Sierra Leone 0.052 0.065 0.089 0.088 0.115 0.076 0.090 0.149

Nepal 0.052 0.065 0.089 0.088 0.115 0.076 0.090 0.149

Turkmenistan 0.053 0.066 0.090 0.089 0.115 0.077 0.091 0.148

Congo 0.054 0.067 0.092 0.091 0.117 0.079 0.093 0.146

Senegal 0.055 0.069 0.094 0.093 0.118 0.081 0.095 0.145

Vietnam 0.055 0.069 0.094 0.094 0.118 0.081 0.096 0.145

Bangladesh 0.055 0.070 0.095 0.094 0.118 0.082 0.096 0.145

Pakistan 0.057 0.073 0.098 0.098 0.121 0.086 0.100 0.143

Azerbaijan 0.058 0.074 0.100 0.100 0.122 0.087 0.102 0.143

Côte d'Ivoire 0.058 0.075 0.101 0.101 0.122 0.088 0.102 0.143

Paraguay 0.059 0.075 0.101 0.101 0.123 0.088 0.103 0.143

Uzbekistan 0.059 0.076 0.103 0.102 0.123 0.090 0.104 0.143

Kyrgyzstan 0.059 0.076 0.103 0.102 0.123 0.090 0.104 0.143

Cameroon 0.059 0.077 0.103 0.102 0.124 0.090 0.104 0.143

Moldova 0.059 0.077 0.103 0.102 0.124 0.090 0.104 0.143

Bolivia 0.060 0.078 0.104 0.104 0.125 0.091 0.106 0.143

Ecuador 0.060 0.078 0.105 0.104 0.125 0.092 0.106 0.143

Armenia 0.060 0.079 0.106 0.105 0.126 0.093 0.107 0.144

Sri Lanka 0.060 0.079 0.106 0.106 0.126 0.093 0.107 0.144

Jordan 0.061 0.081 0.107 0.107 0.127 0.095 0.109 0.144

Albania 0.062 0.082 0.110 0.109 0.128 0.097 0.111 0.145

Indonesia 0.062 0.083 0.110 0.110 0.129 0.097 0.112 0.145

Jamaica 0.062 0.083 0.110 0.110 0.129 0.097 0.112 0.145

Zimbabwe 0.062 0.083 0.111 0.110 0.129 0.098 0.112 0.145

Guinea 0.062 0.084 0.111 0.111 0.130 0.098 0.113 0.145

Syria 0.063 0.085 0.113 0.112 0.131 0.100 0.114 0.146

Georgia 0.063 0.085 0.113 0.113 0.131 0.100 0.114 0.146

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.064 0.088 0.116 0.115 0.133 0.103 0.117 0.147

Philippines 0.064 0.089 0.117 0.117 0.135 0.105 0.119 0.148

Peru 0.064 0.090 0.118 0.118 0.135 0.105 0.120 0.148

Botswana 0.064 0.090 0.118 0.118 0.135 0.105 0.120 0.148

Thailand 0.064 0.090 0.119 0.118 0.136 0.106 0.120 0.148

Morocco 0.064 0.091 0.119 0.119 0.136 0.107 0.121 0.149

Venezuela 0.064 0.091 0.120 0.119 0.136 0.107 0.121 0.149

Macedonia 0.065 0.092 0.121 0.121 0.137 0.108 0.122 0.150

Belize 0.065 0.092 0.121 0.121 0.137 0.108 0.122 0.150

—Continued
77

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Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 18

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for other products, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.065 0.092 0.121 0.121 0.137 0.108 0.122 0.150

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.065 0.092 0.121 0.121 0.138 0.108 0.122 0.150

Swaziland 0.065 0.093 0.123 0.122 0.139 0.110 0.124 0.151

Lebanon 0.065 0.094 0.123 0.123 0.139 0.110 0.124 0.151

Belarus 0.065 0.094 0.123 0.123 0.139 0.111 0.125 0.151

Kazakhstan 0.065 0.094 0.123 0.123 0.139 0.111 0.125 0.151

Dominica 0.065 0.094 0.123 0.123 0.139 0.111 0.125 0.151

Latvia 0.065 0.095 0.125 0.125 0.141 0.112 0.126 0.152

St. Lucia 0.065 0.096 0.125 0.125 0.141 0.112 0.126 0.152

Brazil 0.065 0.096 0.125 0.125 0.141 0.112 0.127 0.152

Bulgaria 0.065 0.096 0.125 0.125 0.141 0.113 0.127 0.152

Russia 0.065 0.097 0.126 0.126 0.142 0.113 0.127 0.153

Fiji 0.065 0.097 0.127 0.127 0.143 0.114 0.128 0.153

Grenada 0.065 0.097 0.127 0.127 0.143 0.114 0.128 0.153

Turkey 0.065 0.098 0.128 0.127 0.143 0.115 0.129 0.154

Lithuania 0.065 0.098 0.128 0.128 0.144 0.116 0.130 0.154

Romania 0.065 0.099 0.129 0.129 0.144 0.116 0.130 0.154

Iran 0.065 0.100 0.130 0.130 0.145 0.117 0.131 0.155

Mexico 0.065 0.100 0.131 0.130 0.145 0.118 0.132 0.156

Bahrain 0.065 0.101 0.131 0.131 0.146 0.118 0.132 0.156

Chile 0.065 0.101 0.131 0.131 0.146 0.119 0.133 0.156

Antigua & Barbuda 0.065 0.101 0.132 0.131 0.146 0.119 0.133 0.156

Poland 0.065 0.102 0.132 0.132 0.147 0.120 0.134 0.157

Trinidad & Tobago 0.065 0.102 0.133 0.133 0.148 0.121 0.134 0.157

Estonia 0.064 0.103 0.134 0.134 0.148 0.121 0.135 0.158

Gabon 0.064 0.103 0.134 0.134 0.149 0.121 0.135 0.158

Tunisia 0.064 0.104 0.135 0.134 0.149 0.122 0.136 0.158

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.064 0.104 0.135 0.135 0.149 0.122 0.136 0.159

Uruguay 0.064 0.104 0.135 0.135 0.150 0.123 0.137 0.159

Slovakia 0.064 0.105 0.136 0.135 0.150 0.123 0.137 0.159

Hungary 0.063 0.106 0.138 0.138 0.152 0.125 0.139 0.161

Argentina 0.062 0.109 0.141 0.141 0.154 0.128 0.142 0.163

Oman 0.061 0.110 0.142 0.142 0.155 0.130 0.143 0.164

Qatar 0.060 0.111 0.144 0.143 0.157 0.131 0.145 0.165

Slovenia 0.060 0.112 0.144 0.144 0.157 0.132 0.145 0.165

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.059 0.113 0.145 0.145 0.158 0.133 0.146 0.166

Greece 0.057 0.114 0.147 0.147 0.160 0.135 0.148 0.168

Korea 0.057 0.115 0.148 0.147 0.160 0.135 0.149 0.168

Portugal 0.056 0.115 0.148 0.148 0.161 0.136 0.149 0.168

Spain 0.056 0.115 0.148 0.148 0.161 0.136 0.150 0.169

Ireland 0.055 0.116 0.149 0.149 0.162 0.137 0.150 0.169

Singapore 0.055 0.117 0.150 0.150 0.162 0.137 0.151 0.170

Mauritius 0.053 0.117 0.151 0.151 0.163 0.138 0.152 0.171

Israel 0.052 0.118 0.152 0.152 0.164 0.139 0.153 0.171

New Zealand 0.052 0.119 0.152 0.152 0.164 0.140 0.153 0.172

—Continued
78

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 18

Slutsky cross-price elasticity with price change for other products, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.051 0.119 0.152 0.152 0.165 0.140 0.153 0.172

Bahamas 0.051 0.119 0.153 0.152 0.165 0.140 0.154 0.172

Sweden 0.048 0.121 0.155 0.154 0.167 0.142 0.156 0.173

Netherlands 0.047 0.121 0.155 0.155 0.167 0.143 0.156 0.174

France 0.045 0.122 0.156 0.156 0.168 0.144 0.157 0.175

United Kingdom 0.045 0.122 0.157 0.156 0.168 0.144 0.158 0.175

Belgium 0.044 0.122 0.157 0.157 0.169 0.144 0.158 0.175

Norway 0.044 0.122 0.157 0.157 0.169 0.145 0.158 0.175

Italy 0.043 0.123 0.157 0.157 0.169 0.145 0.158 0.176

Austria 0.042 0.123 0.158 0.157 0.169 0.145 0.159 0.176

Germany 0.042 0.123 0.158 0.157 0.169 0.145 0.159 0.176

Australia 0.041 0.124 0.158 0.158 0.170 0.146 0.159 0.177

Japan 0.040 0.124 0.159 0.158 0.170 0.146 0.160 0.177

Canada 0.039 0.124 0.159 0.159 0.171 0.147 0.160 0.177

Bermuda 0.037 0.125 0.160 0.160 0.172 0.148 0.161 0.178

Switzerland 0.036 0.125 0.160 0.160 0.172 0.148 0.162 0.178

Barbados 0.036 0.125 0.161 0.160 0.172 0.148 0.162 0.178

Hong Kong 0.035 0.126 0.161 0.160 0.172 0.148 0.162 0.178

Iceland 0.035 0.126 0.161 0.160 0.172 0.148 0.162 0.179

Denmark 0.034 0.126 0.161 0.161 0.172 0.149 0.162 0.179

Luxembourg 0.018 0.130 0.166 0.166 0.177 0.154 0.167 0.183

United States 0.015 0.131 0.167 0.166 0.178 0.154 0.168 0.184

Low-income average 0.055 0.070 0.094 0.094 0.120 0.082 0.096 0.160

Middle-income average 0.064 0.098 0.128 0.128 0.143 0.115 0.129 0.154

High-income average 0.044 0.121 0.155 0.155 0.167 0.143 0.157 0.174

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.
79

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 19

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for other products, 114 countries in 19961

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2

Low-income countries:

Tanzania 0.018 0.021 0.031 0.030 0.066 0.024 0.032 

Nigeria 0.016 0.019 0.027 0.027 0.044 0.022 0.028 0.133

Tajikistan 0.015 0.018 0.025 0.025 0.038 0.021 0.026 0.077

Zambia 0.015 0.018 0.025 0.025 0.038 0.021 0.026 0.072

Yemen 0.015 0.018 0.025 0.025 0.037 0.021 0.026 0.071

Malawi 0.014 0.017 0.024 0.024 0.035 0.020 0.025 0.059

Madagascar 0.014 0.017 0.024 0.024 0.035 0.020 0.025 0.059

Mali 0.014 0.017 0.024 0.024 0.034 0.020 0.024 0.056

Mongolia 0.014 0.017 0.024 0.024 0.034 0.020 0.024 0.055

Benin 0.013 0.016 0.022 0.022 0.029 0.018 0.022 0.041

Kenya 0.012 0.015 0.021 0.021 0.028 0.018 0.021 0.037

Sierra Leone 0.012 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.026 0.017 0.021 0.034

Nepal 0.012 0.015 0.020 0.020 0.026 0.017 0.021 0.034

Turkmenistan 0.012 0.014 0.020 0.020 0.025 0.017 0.020 0.033

Congo 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.019 0.024 0.016 0.019 0.030

Senegal 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.018 0.023 0.016 0.019 0.029

Vietnam 0.011 0.014 0.018 0.018 0.023 0.016 0.019 0.028

Bangladesh 0.011 0.013 0.018 0.018 0.023 0.016 0.019 0.028

Pakistan 0.010 0.013 0.017 0.017 0.021 0.015 0.017 0.025

Azerbaijan 0.010 0.012 0.017 0.017 0.020 0.014 0.017 0.024

Côte d'Ivoire 0.009 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.020 0.014 0.017 0.023

Paraguay 0.009 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.020 0.014 0.016 0.023

Uzbekistan 0.009 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.019 0.014 0.016 0.022

Kyrgyzstan 0.009 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.019 0.014 0.016 0.022

Cameroon 0.009 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.019 0.014 0.016 0.022

Moldova 0.009 0.012 0.016 0.016 0.019 0.014 0.016 0.022

Bolivia 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.018 0.013 0.016 0.021

Ecuador 0.009 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.018 0.013 0.015 0.021

Armenia 0.008 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.018 0.013 0.015 0.020

Sri Lanka 0.008 0.011 0.015 0.015 0.018 0.013 0.015 0.020

Jordan 0.008 0.011 0.014 0.014 0.017 0.013 0.015 0.019

Albania 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.018

Indonesia 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.014 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.018

Jamaica 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.013 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.018

Zimbabwe 0.008 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.012 0.014 0.018

Guinea 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.016 0.012 0.013 0.017

Syria 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.015 0.011 0.013 0.017

Georgia 0.007 0.010 0.013 0.013 0.015 0.011 0.013 0.016

Middle-income countries:

Ukraine 0.007 0.009 0.012 0.012 0.014 0.011 0.012 0.015

Philippines 0.006 0.009 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.010 0.012 0.014

Peru 0.006 0.009 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.010 0.011 0.014

Botswana 0.006 0.009 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.010 0.011 0.014

Thailand 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.013 0.010 0.011 0.014

Morocco 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.010 0.011 0.014

Venezuela 0.006 0.008 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.010 0.011 0.013

Macedonia 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.011 0.013

Belize 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.011 0.013

—Continued
80

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 19

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for other products, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2

Middle-income countries—Continued

Egypt 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.011 0.013

St. Vincent & Grenadines 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.012 0.009 0.011 0.013

Swaziland 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.012

Lebanon 0.005 0.008 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.012

Belarus 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.012

Kazakhstan 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.012

Dominica 0.005 0.007 0.010 0.010 0.011 0.009 0.010 0.012

Latvia 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.011 0.008 0.009 0.011

St. Lucia 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.011

Brazil 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.011

Bulgaria 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.011

Russia 0.005 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.011

Fiji 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.011

Grenada 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.011

Turkey 0.004 0.007 0.009 0.009 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

Lithuania 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.008 0.008 0.010

Romania 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.010

Iran 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.009

Mexico 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.009

Bahrain 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.009

Chile 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.009

Antigua & Barbuda 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.008 0.009

Poland 0.004 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.007 0.007 0.009

Trinidad & Tobago 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.006 0.007 0.008

Estonia 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.008 0.006 0.007 0.008

Gabon 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008

Tunisia 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008

St. Kitts & Nevis 0.003 0.005 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008

Uruguay 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.008

Slovakia 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.006 0.006 0.007

Hungary 0.003 0.004 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.007

Argentina 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.006

Oman 0.002 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.004 0.005 0.005

Qatar 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.005

Slovenia 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.005

High-income countries:

Czech Republic 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.004 0.004

Greece 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.004

Korea 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Portugal 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Spain 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003

Ireland 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.003 0.003

Singapore 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.003

Mauritius 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Israel 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

New Zealand 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

—Continued
81

Cross-Price Elasticities of Demand Across 114 Countries / TB-1925

Economic Research Service / USDA

Appendix table 19

Cournot cross-price elasticity with price change for other products, 114 countries in 19961—Continued

 Food, Clothing Gross Transport &

 beverage, & rent, fuel, House Medical communica-

 & tobacco footwear & power operations care Education tion Recreation2

High-income countries—Continued

Finland 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Bahamas 0.001 0.001 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002

Sweden 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Netherlands 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

France 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

United Kingdom 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Belgium 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Norway 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

Italy 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.001 0.001

Austria 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Germany 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Australia 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Japan 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Canada 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Bermuda 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Switzerland 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Barbados 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Hong Kong 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Iceland 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Denmark 0.000 0.000 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 0.000 -0.001 -0.001

Luxembourg 0.000 -0.001 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

United States 0.000 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002 -0.002

Low-income average 0.011 0.014 0.019 0.018 0.025 0.016 0.019 0.035

Middle-income average 0.004 0.006 0.009 0.008 0.010 0.008 0.009 0.010

High-income average 0.000 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

1Countries are reported based on ascending per capita real income levels.

2As the estimated budget share was negative for Tanzania we do not report the elasticity for this country.

Source: Authors' calculation using the 1996 ICP data.