U.S. METRIC STUDY

INTERIM REPORT

EDUCATION
U.S. METRIC SUBSTUDY REPORTS

The results of substudies of the U.S. Metric Study, while being evaluated

for the preparation of a comprehensive report to the Congress, are being

published in the interim as a series of NBS Special Publications. The titles of the individual reports are listed below.

REPORTS ON SUBSTUDIES

NBS SP345-1:

NBS SP345-2:

NBS SP345-3:

NBS SP345-4:

NBS SP345-5

NBS SP345-6

NBS SP345-7

NBS SP345-8

NBS SP345-9

NBS SP345-10:

NBS SP345-1 1:

NBS SP345-12:

International Standards (issued December 1970, SD

Catalog No. C 1 3. 10:345- 1 , Price $1.25)

Federal Government: Civilian Agencies (issued

July 1971, SD Catalog No. C13. 10:345-2, price

$2.25)

Commercial Weights and Measures (issued July

1971, SD Catalog No. C13. 10:345-3, price $1.00)

The Manufacturing Industry (issued July 1971, SD

Catalog No. C 1 3. 10:345-4, price $ 1 .25)

Nonmanufacturing Businesses (in press)

Education (this publication)

The Consumer (in press)

International Trade (in press)

Department of Defense (issued July 1 97 1 , SD Catalog No. C13. 10:345-9, price $1.25)

A History of the Metric System Controversy in the

United States (in press)

Engineering Standards (issued July 1971, SD Catalog No. CI 3. 10:345-1 1 , price $2.00)

Testimony of Nationally Representative Groups

(issued July 1971, SD Catalog No. C13. 10:345-12,

price $1.50)

COMPREHENSIVE REPORT ON THE U.S. METRIC STUDY

NBS SP345: To be published in August 1971

Those publications with catalog numbers have already been issued, and

may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 for the prices indicated. Add onefourth of the purchase price if the publication ordered is to be sent to a

foreign address. Be sure to include the SD Catalog number with your order.
U.S. METRIC STUDY

INTERIM REPORT

EDUCATION

Sixth in a series of reports prepared

for the Congress

U.S. METRIC STUDY

Daniel V. De Simone, Director

, National Bureau of Standards

Special Publication 345-6

-' \

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Maurice H. Stans, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Lewis M. Branscomb, Dirccior

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 345-6, 216 pages (July 1971)

CODEN: XNBSA

Issued July 1971

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 20402

(Order by SD Catalog No. C 1 3. 10;345-6). Price $1.75 Stock Number 0303-0858
I

11
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

THE HONORABLE PRESIDENT OF THE SENATE

THE HONORABLE SPEAKER OFTHE HOUSE OF

REPRESENTATIVES

SIRS:

I have the honor to present the sixth in the series of interim reports

stemming from the U.S. Metric Study, prepared by the National Bureau of

Standards.

This Study was authorized by Public Law 90-472 to reduce the many uncertainties concerning the metric issue and to provide a better basis upon

which the Congress may evaluate and resolve it.

I shall make a final report to the Congress on this Study in August 1971.

In the meantime, the data and opinions contained in this interim report are being evaluated by the Study team at the National Bureau of Standards. My

final report to you will reflect this evaluation.

Respectfully submitted.

Secretary of Commerce

Enclosure

ni
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Honorable Maurice H. Starts Secretary of Commerce

Dear Mr. Secretary:

I have the honor to transmit to you another interim report of the U.S. Metric Study, which is being conducted at the National Bureau of Standards at your request and in accordance with the Metric Study Act of 1968.

The Study is exploring the subjects assigned to it with great care. We have

tried to reach every relevant sector of the society to elicit their views on the

metric issue and their estimates of the costs and benefits called for in the

Metric Study Act. Moreover, all of these sectors were given an opportunity

to testify in the extensive series of Metric Study Conferences that were held

last year. On the basis of all that we have been able to learn from these conferences,

as well as the numerous surveys and investigations, a final report will be

made to you before August 1971 for your evaluation and decision as to any

recommendations that you may wish to make to the Congress.

The attached interim report includes data and other opinions that are still being evaluated by us to determine their relationship and significance to all of the other information that has been elicited by the Study. All of these

evaluations will be reflected in the final report.

Sincerely,

Lewis M. Brdnscomh, Director

National Bureau of Standards

Enclosure

iv
FOREWORD

This report concerns the U.S. educational system. No other sector is so

nearly unanimous in its endorsement of the metric system than is education.

This report examines the role that education would play, as well as the

problems and opportunities it would experience, in a national change to metric.Reports covering other substudies of the U.S. Metric Study are listed on

the inside front cover. All of these, including this report, are under evaluation. Hence, they are published without prejudice to the comprehensive re- port on the entire U.S. Metric Study, which will be sent to the Congress by

the Secretary of Commerce in August of 1 97 1

.

This report was prepared by the Education Development Center (EDO

of Newton, Massachusetts. The project at EDC was directed by Dr. Berol

L. Robinson, under the general guidance of a steering committee composed

of Dr. Jerrold R. Zacharias, Acting President of EDC; Kevin H. Smith, Executive Vice President of EDC; Dr. Charles Brown of the Ford Foundation;

and Dr. Bobby J. Woodruff, Ridgewood, New Jersey, High School. Profes- sor N. H. Frank of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Carlyle

E. Maw, Jr., of Harvard University and the University of Chicago served as senior consultants to the project. Others who assisted in the project were

Mrs. Cheryl Doyle, Mrs. Wendy Baron and Miss Kathleen Ennis of the

Education Development Center, and Mr. Bruce D. Rothrock of the National Bureau of Standards.

In addition, many educational institutions and organizations were visited to gather data for this report, and well over a hundred persons made contributions to the work of the Education Development Center, for which it is grateful. In this as in all aspects of the U.S. Metric Study, the program has

benefited from the independent judgment and thoughtful counsel of its advisory panel and the many other organizations, groups, and committees that have participated in the Study.

Daniel V. De Simone, Director

U.S. Metric Study

V
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Letters of Transmittal iii. iv Foreword v

Executive Summary 1

Chapter I - 5

Introduction 5

Summary of Current Usage and Trends in Use 7

Educational Advantages and Disadvantages of the Customary 8

and Metric Systems of Measurement

Chapter II 10

Bilingualism in Measurement Language 10

The "Costs" of Not Going Metric and Recommendations 1

1

Costs and Benefits of Going Metric and Recommendations 1

3

Chapter III — Some General Considerations 17 Methods 17 Metrication in Education in the United Kingdom 1

8

Occupational Education 20

Chapter IV — Present Status and Problems of Transition 2

1

A. Curriculum, Materials, and Testing 21

Textbooks 2

1

Publishing and Purchasing Patterns 2

1

Elementary Mathematics 23

Secondary School and College Mathematics 29

Vocational Mathematics 30

Elementary Science 31

Intermediate Science 36

Secondary and College Science 37

Going Metric in the Social Sciences 40

Books for Use in Occupational Education, Secondary 41

and Post-Secondary

School Libraries, Works of Reference, and Encyclopedias 42

Nonprint Materials 43

Testing 44

B. Teacher Training— Preservice and I nservice 45

Preservice Training and Teacher Qualification 45

I nservice Training for Teachers 48

Teacher "Conversion" in Engineering Education 54

vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

Page C. Instructional Equipment 54

Elementary Science 54

Secondary and Post-Secondary Academic Equipment 55

Equipment in Occupational Education 56

Projections for Occupational Education 60

D. Adult Education and Workers on the Job 63

Adult Education 63

The Training of Workers on the Job 64

E. Some Concerns of Education That Are Not Truly Educational 66

Chapter V — A Program for Metric Conversion in Education 69

Chapter VI — Education andaTHINK METRIC Campaign 73

Appendix I Program of the Education Conference 76

Appendix II Report of the National Education Association at the 78

Education Conference

Appendix III Report of the National Science Teachers Association 99

at the Education Conference

Appendix IV Some Education Statistics 1 1

1

Appendix V Curriculum Changes for School Mathematics — A 113

Recommendation

Appendix VI I nservice Training Programs 116

Appendix VII Equipment Lists for Occupational Education 186

Appendix VIII Some Prospects for Technical Occupational Educa- 191

tion and Engineering Education

List of Contributors 193

Glossary 198

Bibliographies 200

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This report is another in the series being prepared on the numerous in- vestigations comprising the U.S. Metric Study, being carried out by the U.S.

National Bureau of Standards pursuant to the U.S. Metric Study Act (Public

Law 90-472). This report concerns the effects of increasing worldwide use

of the metric system on education in the United States. Its purpose is to attempt

to present the educational advantages and disadvantages of both

the metric and the customary systems of units; to determine the current usage of metric measurements in schools, and trends in that usage;

to find the ways in which education would have to change as the

U.S. accommodates to increased worldwide use of the metric

system, under a planned national program or without such a pro- gram; and to estimate the costs of the changes; and

to make recommendations for ways in which to take best advantage of the changes.

We present here capsule conclusions and key them to the body of the report

for support and expansion.

The chief inherent educational advantage of the customary system is its familiarity and the fact that it is embedded in a thousand years of postAnglo-Saxon culture. Other educational advantages become apparent when

the customary system is compared with the metric system — the customary

units are body-related and finger-sized, while metric units are either too large or too small for very young children to handle easily. The disadvantages of

the customary system are the many unrelated units, the arbitrary and various

conversion factors, the need to perform longer and more complex calculations, and a nomenclature that is confusing to say the least. The chief educa1
2 EDUCATION

tional advantages of the metric system lie in simplifying the teaching and

learning of measurement, in relieving the educational burden of teaching two

systems of measurement and in concentrating upon the simpler and more

easily understood one. The only educational disadvantage of the metric

system is that it is totally unfamiliar to most people and. at present, almost

totally absent from the surroundings. The educational advantages and disadvantages of both the metric and customary systems of units are outlined in chapter I. Despite the enthusiastic and long-term support of organized education,

the current usage of metric measurement in elementary science and mathematics is very limited; and, indeed, measurement itself is hardly taught well

at all. Increases in the use of metric units of measure are confined to the new

science curricula, which now reach about 10 percent of the students in grades K-9. Forty percent of 11th graders encounter the metric system (cgs)

in chemistry. This conclusion is expanded in chapter I, and supported in detail in chapter IV.

If the U.S. "goes metric," our chief educational needs will be for new in- structional materials, for some training of teachers already serving, and for

the replacement and modification of some instructional equipment. A

minimum time scale is dictated by textbook replacement patterns; most local school districts replace textbooks on about a 5 -year cycle. In addition, the

publishing industry should be provided with a lead time of about 3 years for the preparation of new materials, because substantial curriculum changes

will be necessary, especially to suit elementary school mathematics for the

instruction of students for a metric world. If we were to have a 10-year conversion period, together with national guidance for publishers and school

boards, then we should be able to replace most textbooks (and library books

and encyclopedias) at essentially no added cost over normal operations

either to local school districts or to textbook publishers, (ch. IV. A.)

In order to make the necessary curriculum changes within a scheduled

conversion period, they would have to be recommended by an authoritative

national body and widely accepted by both publishers and educators. This

report contains a mathematics educator's recommendation for curriculum

change (app. V), and a recommendation for the composition and responsibilities of a national coordinating body for education which might provide

the authoritative support for the changes needed for metric conversion, (ch.

V.)

We briefly summarize here the "costs" of not going metric, that is, of not having a national program of metric conversion, and the disadvantages of

having too long a period of metric conversion. They differ only in degree — in either case there would be a loss or dilution of a sense of purpose and a delay

in realizing the curriculum improvements which may be expected to flow

from metric conversion. In a practical sense, teachers and students would

continue to spend time on unnecessary drills in fractions and percent — time

which would, upon metric conversion, become available for other important

studies, (ch. 11.) The inservice training of about a million elementary school teachers is a major concern. Because of the relative uniformity of their preparation and
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3

teaching tasks, a small number of exemplary training programs could serve

as models for the local construction of inservice training programs for metric

conversion. It is estimated that teachers should spend from 8 to 15 hours in learning the metric system and some teaching tactics: many school districts have existing inservice training programs of this extent, and in this context

there would be no extra cost. In school districts which have no regular inser- vice training programs, it may be necessary to organize some. The rethinking

of purpose and obligation which might accompany such a change should be

considered a benefit of metric conversion rather than a cost. The emphasis of inservice training for elementary school teachers should

lie in the demonstration of teaching strategies and tactics. Inservice training

should be strongly activity-based, because teachers teach as they are taught.

A system-wide view of inservice training is given in chapter IV, together

with an outline of a program for implementing it based upon the use of educational television; both are described in appendix VI, parts a and b. A

recommendation for a workshop-based teacher training program to in- troduce the metric system and new ways of teaching and learning measure- ment appears in chapter IV, with further details in appendix VI, parts c and

d. The implementation of the latter recommendation would lead to a "tree" of workshops. Widely used, this program for the training of the teachers

might cost as much as $6 million, but it would teach not only metric units but

also new ways of teaching and learning measurement.

Educational equipment is found mainly in the shops, laboratories, workrooms, and field gear of occupational educadon. Changes in occupational

curricula and needs for equipment changes are linked to changes in the occupations themselves. We have examined about a hundred equipment lists for

occupational education curricula, and we have found that the cost of modifying and replacing equipment would not be great. It amounts at most to the

equivalent of a year's depreciation, which need not be taken all at once; and

in many curricula the cost would be almost negligible, that is, less than a

year's attrition and supplies budget.

In case there should be no national program of going metric, several

recommendations can be made for the simplification of the customary

system in education and in living. These include the decimal-inch proposal

and an analogous decimal-pound proposal, and the increased availability of

measuring devices with usable dual calibrations. The elementary mathematics curriculum reforms mentioned above and outlined in detail in the re- port should be implemented anyhow; but in the absence of a national pur- pose, they may not be realized for more than a decade, to judge by past experience. For a discussion of these recommendations, see chapter II. It has

been suggested, and even resolved by national organizations, that, regardless

of national action, education take the lead in promoting the metric system as the primary system of units in the U.S. This would be inadvisable, for we

have evidence that the exclusive use of metric units in science study only can lead to a cultural isolation of science reminiscent of C. P. Snow's two

cultures, (ch. IV.) On the other hand, the metric system should be given full equality with the customary system.
4 EDUCATION

Much is to be learned from the United Kingdom's experience in education, but the forces driving metrication and the structure of education in the

U.K. are significantly different from ours. There, the national inspectorate

of education is very effective at the primary level and serves as a source of

inservice training as well; national examinations for college and university

admission are effective in controlling the secondary curriculum; and the national industrial training boards are strongly influential in occupational education. Unless we have some strong national direction, coordination, and

guidance in education, the U.S. may anticipate delays and difficulties,

particularly in elementary education. With the help of the test makers,

secondary education will take care of itself and the problem of going metric

in occupational education is largely the problem of the occupations

themselves.

In conclusion, we have found that the advantages of going metric in education are significant but not overwhelming; and, on the other hand, that the

costs are not prohibitive and can be met largely out of normal expenditures.

A conversion period of 10 years seems to be close to the optimum, but we

would need a national leadership and sense of purpose to completely benefit

from metric conversion.
CHAPTER I

Introduction

The Congress has for generations heard arguments on the advantages and

disadvantages of making the metric system the primary system of weights

and measures in this country. The issue for the United States will soon become critical as the customary system disappears from international

usage; that is, as the other English-speaking nations go metric. The United

Kingdom is now in the midst of a 10-year program of conversion from the

Imperial system of measurement (pints and pounds, yards and miles) to the

metric system (liters, kilograms, and meters): their national program is proceeding under the coordination of a widely representative Metrication

Board at the same time that the decimalization of coinage is proceeding

under the guidance of a Decimalization Board.' India undertook in 1956, in the political climate of independence and with the support of Nehru, the double task of going over to a decimal coinage and the metric system of measurement. Many other members of the British Commonwealth of nations

have made commitments to change to the metric system.

The Secretary of Commerce has been directed by the Congress (Public

Law 90-472, 8 August 1968) to report to them on the impact of this increasing worldwide usage of the metric system on the United States. The National Bureau of Standards has been assigned the task of carrying out a study

of the questions raised by the Congress and of preparing a report.

The U.S. Metric Study has been developed by the National Bureau of

Standards in the form of 14 components, which are described in the first

• On 15 February 1971, the United Kingdom officially converted to a decimal coinage with

the introduction of V2, 1 , and 2 new pence coins. A month later it was described as the "nonevent of the century."

5
6 EDUCATION

U.S. Metric Study Report, "International Standards." - It includes a number

of surveys and investigations of a wide range of topics and a series of conferences, including a conference on education. * Perhaps the most important

single contribution to the Education Conference was the comprehensive

position paper of the National Education Association (NEA). It covers the

history of the support of organized education for the metric system, and

summarizes usage, educational advantages, adjustments to be expected, and

costs; and offers a tentative schedule for going metric. This paper is reprinted as appendix II of this report.

Another valuable contribution was the report of the National Science

Teachers Association (NSTA) to the Education Conference. It addresses it- self to the question* '^f classroom activities and instruction, possible fu- ture effects of going metric, and submits the official position of the Association on this issue and the opinion of its leaders. This report appears as appendix III. Education Development Center (EDO was asked to undertake a study of

the effects of going metric upon education in the U.S., and to determine:

( 1 ) The current usage of the metric system and trends in its usage, and

the advantages and disadvantages of current practice.

(2) The consequences of increased international usage in the event that no national program is undertaken.

(3) The problems which would have to be faced in implementing a positive national policy and program over a 10-year period of conversion

or over some "optimum" period.

EDC was asked also to develop recommendations and guidelines for

minimizing the difficulties of the transition and for best realizing the longterm benefits. In the course of this Study it has become clear that in the area of education

there will be difficulties associated with the transition but they would not be

great. On the other hand, it seems clear that the advantages to be gained are

significant but not overwhelming. The major problems to be faced in education are the replacement of textbooks and other instructional materials, the

modification or replacement of equipment, and teacher training (quite aside

from a national THINK METRIC campaign, see ch. VI). The chief subsidi- ary advantage to be gained, aside from the simplification of teaching and

learning measurement, appears to lie in the opportunity to make curriculum

reforms, particularly in elementary mathematics.

The task of the Education Development Center is to assay the extent of

the problems and implications of a change to SI units,^ and to develop the in- formation upon which guidelines and recommendations can be based.

- National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 345-1, Washington, D.C., (December

1970); pp. 43-45. Hereafter we shall refer to this report as "Internationa! Standards." Held at the National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg. Maryland, 14 and 15 October

1 970. Hereafter we shall refer to this Conference as "the Education Conference." The program

is included as app. I.

* A glossary will be found on p. 198.
CHAPTER I 7

Summary of Current Usage and Trends

in Use

Organized education has long been enthusiastic about the metric system,

and they have been on record in favor of it for many generations. With the

introduction of the metric system they have seen essential simplificanons ot teaching and learning tasks. At this time, in a planned period of going metric, they see, in addition, a chance for another round of curriculum reform.

However, the current usage of the metric system in education in the

United States is limited, and students do not learn to think metric because

they are living in a totally nonmetric environment. Only about 10 percent of

elementary and intermediate school students are exposed to the new science

curricula in which metric units of measure are used in substantial amounts.

The trend toward increase in the usage of the metric system is small but

noticeable; it appears mainly in the new science curriculum developments,

but the commitment of these new science curricula to metric measurement

appears to be at the peril of introducing a language barrier between science

and the real world. In contrast, conventional science texts for the elementary

and intermediate grades do not use significant amounts of metric measurement, nor is there promise of any appreciable increase.

At all levels of mathematics instruction, the metric system has a low priority. In the typical elementary mathematics curriculum, little time is spent on measurement, and of that, at most 20 percent is spent on the metric

system When the metric system "s introduced, it is taught as a second measurement language, and students learn it by translation with no cnance to develop an instinctive use.*^ In high school, the teaching of measurement is not a mathematics topic, and it is left to the science courses. The metric system is used to an appreciable extent only in the chemistry

and physics courses taught in high school and college. Small increases in metric usage are noticeable in high school physics, but so long as engineering

colleges expect their students to learn about pounds force and pounds mass

and Btu's, many college physics teachers will feel obliged to teach in those

units. Chemistry is completely metric (cgs) and has for generations reflected

the practice of that profession.

Conclusion: Despite the enthusiastic support of organized education, the current usage of metric measurement in elementary science and mathematics is very limited. Its increase is confined to the new science curricula

which now reach about 10 percent of the students in grades K-9. Forty per- cent of 1 1th graders see the metric system (cgs mainly) in chemistry.

In the classrooms, laboratories, and workshops of occupational education,

both the instruction and usage of measurement are tightly linked to the practices of the occupations for which they train. Leaders in occupational educa-

^ See app. II, for a history of the National Education Association's support from 1870 to 1970, and app. Ill for the National Science Teachers Association's statement. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, presentation at the Education Conference.
8 EDUCATION

tion generally are not in favor of having education take the lead in metric

conversion until there is evidence that the country as a whole is converting.

In each occupation, there will be a reluctance to teach metric units of measurement until it is clear that that occupation is about to go metric. When the

time comes to introduce metric units into an occupational curriculum, a

transition period will be needed during which both metric and English

systems will be used in the schools. Occupational educators feel that such a

bilingual stage and a coordinated and orderly transition would neither

produce confusion nor require expensive alterations in present instructional

equipment.

Educational Advantages and

Disadvantages of the Customary and

Metric Systems of Measurement

The chief educational advantage of the customary system of measure- ments is that it is familiar. Its other advantages are seldom recognized — the

units are body-related and finger-sized. Young fingers can easily manipulate

one-inch tiles and cubes and ounce weights, but millimeters, centimeters,

grams and cubic centimeters are just too small and the kilogram is too large.

Young minds have difficulty in comprehending numbers as large as 300.*^ And in general there is a loss associated with the rejection of the measurement-related parts of a thousand year<i of post-Anglo-Saxon culture, as epitomized in the last verse of Robert Frost's famous "Stopping by Woods

on a Snowy Evening" —

The woods are lovely, dark and deep.

But I have promises to keep.

And miles to go before I sleep.

And miles to go before I sleep.

The disadvantages of the customary system are that there are many unrelated units, that the conversion factors from unit to unit are arbitrary and

various, that the same names are used for different units (for example, dry

and liquid quarts, ounces of weight and capacity), and that similar units have

entirely different names (for example, minim, dram, ounce, gill, [cup-'] , pint,

quart, [pottle'"], and gallon). The present style of measurement is to work

mainly with common fractions and mixed numbers, so that computations are complex and lengthy.

' School experience in the UK has led to preferences for 5- and 10-gram plastic weights and

larger-than-centimeter blocks and tiles.

" 300 mm= I foot. In education at least, the "nonpreferred" centimeter must be used as a unit of length.

" A cupful is half a pint -a kitchen measure but not a legal one.

"' "two quarts make a pottle; two pottles make a gallon." A Dictionary of English Weif;hts and Measures from Anglo-Saxon Times to the Nineteenth Century, R. E. Zupko, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison ( 1 968), p. 132.
CHAPTER I 9

The chief educational advantage of using the metric system lies in the simplification of teaching and learning how to measure. This advantage arises

from the simple interrelations of units mainly based on multiplication by 10,

and from the ease of computing with decimal fractions and whole numbers.

An obvious educational advantage would be that the educational system

would no longer be burdened with teaching two systems of measurement,

and would be able to concentrate on the one which is simpler and more easily understood. Time saved due to teaching a simpler system could be used

for the introduction of valuable new materials. Another advantage of metric

usage is that the teaching of decimal fractions, now much delayed, must

occur earlier. (It is remarkable that the first nation to adopt a decimal

coinage should after 180 years still not teach decimal fractions in the early

elementary years.) At the same time, much of the customary drill in fractions

could be reduced, although we should of course retain an easy familiarity

with halves, thirds, quarters, and fifths (and perhaps sixths and eighths).

The only disadvantage of teaching the metric system is that it is totally unfamiliar to most people, and metric measurement is almost totally absent

from the surroundings at present. In spite of the fact that the U.S. has a decimal coinage, its decimal-fraction nature is not related to measurement:

decimal fractions are used only in very special contexts. For example,

machine shop practice uses the decimal inch notation, and surveyors measure to the nearest hundredth of a foot. More commonly, gasoline is measured in tenths of gallons (but nobody ever notices because the computing

pump permits you to buy by the dollar's worth or by the "fiU'erup").

426-013 0 - 71 -2
CHAPTER li

Bilingualism in Measurement Language

The rest of the world is or soon will be metric. Those countries that have

decided upon a course of metric conversion are not likely to reverse it, re- gardless of an action by the U.S., and indeed the U.S. Metric Study has ex- cluded from its consideration the possibility that the U.S. could arrange some mandated action to reverse the trend toward metrication in favor

of a return to more complete use of "customary" hardware and

software.'

Therefore, it should be recognized that there will be an increase in bilingualism in measurement language whether the U.S. goes metric or not. In case there is a national program of metric conversion, the increase will be a steady and coordinated one, in which all will be involved over a short

period of time. If there is no national program, the most obvious impact of

the increasing international use of SI will be the obligation of students and

teachers at all levels (and indeed for others in all walks of life who are in- volved with any sort of measurement) to deal increasingly and over a long

period of time with a real world in which two measurement languages are used. One may expect the increase in bilingualism to be slow and sporadic,

with larger steps as major industries convert. This course is regarded by some as the natural way in which metric conversion is bound to come about.

They say that to interfere with that slow process would be too great a shock,

especially for industry. One might ask such people whether they would take

language lessons if they were obliged to go to live in another country, or just

' "International Standards," p. 42.

10
CHAPTER 11 11

limp along with whatever they could pick up in the course of their stay, or indeed behave like the caricature of the Englishman abroad, who feels that anyone can understand English if only it is shouted loudly enough.

The "Costs" of Not Going Metric and

Recommendations

Bilinguality would be an inconvenience and a source of confusion and some small expense, but the real "cost" in education of not going metric on

a coordinated national time scale must be expressed in terms of benefits

foregone. Perhaps the most significant is the delay in realizing the next stage

in the reform of the mathematics curriculum in the elementary grades. At

present an inordinate amount of time is devoted to common fractions and

percent problems, while the study of decimal fractions and place value is much delayed. The inertia which preserves such practices can be overcome

by a national program of change, but it seems likely that little innovation will occur otherwise. The loss of time is quantitatively estimated at a year to a

year-and-a-half in grades 1-8;- that is, about 15 percent of the instruction

time in mathematics is absorbed by drill in fractions and percent, time which

might otherwise be devoted to the introduction of important new materials.^

Second only to elementary mathematics is the cost in time and learning ef- fort for science students and teachers, of learning and teaching the metric

system as a second measurement language. Both students and teachers have

virtually no use for metric measurement outside their science classes, and

emphasis on the metric system in science alone tends to create a language

barrier between science and the rest of the world of learning and living. This

would continue until the balance is tipped in favor of metric units. Furthermore, it is widely believed that measurement concepts and operations are hard to teach and are jll-taught at present, in a milieu of one

overwhelmingly predominant measurement language. One may reasonably

expect these difficulties to increase as a second language comes more into use in the U.S., and to continue until the metric conversion becomes more or

less complete.

In case there should be no national program for going metric, several

recommendations can be made for the simplification of the customary

system of weights and measures in education and in the "real world." The

use of binary fractions of inches should be discouraged in favor of decimal

2 See app. II, and app. V.

' One is tempted to make an estimate of the dollar value of the time involved. We note that elementary and secondary education costs about $40 billion per year (app. IV), of which almost 70 percent is directly attributed to the cost of instruction (Digest, p. 53). Thus we may compute

the cost of instruction for grades 1-8: it is about two-thirds of 70 percent of $40 billion, or about

$ 1 8 billion per year. Let us now suppose that 20 percent of the curriculum is mathematics, and we have just said that about 15 percent of that time is wasted because we don't use the metric system. Now 15 percent of 20 percent of $18 billion is about $500 million; so, in these terms,

the costs of not going metric is the continuation of this $500 million waste of time each year.
12 EDUCATION

fractions,^ and whole-inch measure should be encouraged in place of foot- inch measure.'^ Rulers and tape measures should be inscribed in both inches

and centimeters in parallel and not anti-parallel as is the custom with present

day school rulers (fig. 1 ). The use of decimal fractions of a pound should be

encouraged in retail trade. Decimal fractions should be introduced earlier in the arithmetic curriculum, and the extensive drill in common fractions,

which occupies so much of elementary arithmetic, should be much reduced.

In fact all the recommendations of this report for elementary mathematics

curriculum reform are valid and should be implemented whether there is a

metric conversion or not: those related to measurement and the early teaching of decimal fractions must necessarily accompany a metric conversion.

Finally, the education sector should encourage the trend toward increasing use of SI in the U.S. by giving it ///// equality with the customary measure- ment language in the elementary grades.

FkjURe I a. Inch-centimeter ruler ruled in parallel Figure IB. Inch-centimeter ruler ruled in anti-parallel

* P. G. Belitsos in Systems of Units. AAAS Symposium, 29-30 December 1958, Carl F. Kayan, ed.. Publication No. 57 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

Washington, D.C. (1959), pages 203-216. (We shall henceforth refer to this symposium report simply as "Systems.")

^ In whole-inch measure a distance of 4 feet 8!/2 inches would be written 54.5 inches. One

would convert to this figure before calculating with this measured quantity: it seems logical to measure it directly and thus save time and eliminate the possibility of an error in conversion.
CHAPTER II 13

Recommendation: In case there should be no national program of going

metric, several recommendations can be made for the simplification of the

customary system in education and in living. These include the decimal-inch

proposal and an analogous decimal-pound proposal, and the availability of

measuring devices with dual calibrations. The elementary mathematics cur- riculum reforms outlined here should be implemented anyhow, but in the

absence of a national purpose it may take decades to get it done.

Costs and Benefits of Going Metric and

Recommendations

It is easy to make very rough estimates of the dollar costs of going metric

in the education sector, but precise data are very hard to secure because of

the diversity of education in the U.S. We shall make a rough estimate of the cost of "instantaneous" metric conversion, and we shall find that even such an event would not be prohibitively expensive. We shall then demonstrate

that these costs can be driven nearly to zero by an orderly and planned national program of conversion over a period of about 10 years. In view of

these results, it seems hardly worth the effort to secure the data to support more precise calculations of either cost. Finally, we have indicated above that there are disadvantages and losses,

if not dollar costs, associated with a long drawn-out conversion.

On the other hand, it must be pointed out that the benefits cannot by any

stretch of the imagination be given a dollar value. This contrast is in part due

to the fact that the costly items can be readily enumerated, even if they can- not be evaluated; while the educational benefits can be described only in a

relative way: "the metric system is easier to learn and understand and

manipulate," and in terms of new opportunities: "the time that would be

saved in teaching and learning certain concepts and skills can be devoted to other important concepts and skills." As in all other aspects of going metric, the costs are one-time costs, while

the benefits are cumulative in time, so that their total worth increases in- definitely as time goes on. In short, one is comparing a one-time cost with a continuing benefit.

It is the experience of the U.K. Metrication Board that the costs and

benefits of metrication in industrial operations are intimately mixed with the costs and benefits of other changes, for the change to new measurement

units typically affords the opportunity to reassess an entire operation. In in- dustry, only the most sophisticated accounting procedures would be able to distinguish one cost from another, and it seems hardly worthwhile to do

so; ^ the same may be expected in education.

In education, curriculum, materials, and methods can be looked at in a

fresh and criUcal light. In particular, we shall have the opportunity for

" Gordon Bowen, "Going Metric in the United Kingdom," a talk before the General Conference of the National Metric Study Conferences, 16 November 1970.
14 EDUCATION

another round of curriculum reform, especially in science and elementary

mathematics. It is in such opportunities that the greatest gains of going metric can be realized in education, but they will not flow spontaneously — we

shall have to work and plan for them.

Benefits that would be a direct consequence of metric conversion are: the

obvious educational advantages of the metric system, that is, the simplification of units with consequent reduction of complex calculations, and the ease

in teaching and learning measurement, as outlined above, and the recovery

of a large block of teaching time currently spent on fractions and percent.

Certain long-overdue curriculum changes, such as the teaching of decimal

fractions in grades 2 and 3, must accompany a metric conversion. This and

other changes should be undertaken regardless of whether we go metric, but

they will be a long time coming without the national sense of purpose and at- mosphere of change.

Before we proceed to make some dollar estimates, let us point out that the

United States is spending about $70 billion on its formal education establishment in the 1970-71 school year.'' In this setting, let us make a few simple

manipulations.

Instructional materials include textbooks, library books and reference

materials, and nonprint materials, such as audiovisual aids and manipulative

materials. Textbooks are by far the major fraction of this category. Let us consider the replacement of textbooks, for this would seem to be a relatively

simple computation to make. There are about 50 million students in our primary and secondary schools, most of whom are furnished textbooks at public expense. Suppose that going metric would require the "instantaneous" replacement of four textbooks for each student (mathematics, science,

social studies, and one other), and suppose that each book costs $5 (these

figures are deliberately chosen to be on the high side, among other reasons

to include the cost of "instantaneous" curriculum revision). The total "in- stantaneous" replacement cost appears to be about a billion dollars: -

50 million 4 textbooks $5 ..... X 5 X ; 5- = $1 billion. students student textbook

But most textbooks are replaced regularly with new editions after 4 to 6

years of use. Indeed, the continuing expenses for textbooks, library books

and other library materials, and other instructional materials are estimated

' The $70 billion education budget for this year includes about $40 billion for primary and

secondary education, about $21 billion for post-secondary education, and about $9 billion for

capital expenditures, (app. IV.) Education has grown from about 5.4 percent of the Gross National Product in 1960 to about

7 percent in 1 970. ( Digest, pp. 17,18.) App. IV is a brief summary of education statistics. Some other sources of general statistical information used in the Report are listed in the Bibliography.

s To make this astronomical number more tangible, let us reduce it to a per-student cost. The

average cost of primary and secondary schooling comes out to be about $800 per student per

year, (see app. IV) of which $40 (5%) is spent on books and other materials. In comparison to

this annual cost, we have estimated that the one-time cost of textbooks suitable for instruction

in a metric world is about $20 per student.
CHAPTER 11 15

at 5 percent of the total expenditures for primary and secondary education,^

which are now running at the rate of $40 biUion dollars per year. Thus we now spend about $2 billion dollars per year for instructional materials. If the

replacement of textbooks for going metric were spread over a period of 3 to

5 years, then the cost would be easily absorbed in the usual replacement

process. If in addition editors and publishers were given a lead time to prepare new materials, then the cost of curriculum revision would be

minimized and unit prices not increased.

Too long a conversion period or a long drawn out drift toward metric conversion might dilute or sacrifice the sense of purpose and change and it would of course continue the need to teach two measurement languages, and

delay the curriculum changes which we believe would save much time and

effort in elementary mathematics.

Conclusion: Considering textbook replacement alone, it is clear that a 5- year period of metric conversion borders on being too short, and that a 10- year period would be easily accommodated. A 10-year period might include a lead time of 2 or 3 years for the preparation of new curriculum materials.

Textbook replacement is a good example of the way in which the costs of

conversion become inseparable from the opportunities that conversion

might bring. The need for completely new textbooks and for the earlier in- troduction of decimal fractions in elementary mathematics affords us a new

chance to revise that curriculum.'" One cannot distribute the cost of such

progress between going metric and the curriculum reform undertaken at this time.

The costs for replacing and modifying instructional equipment are more

concrete, since much instructional equipment has a longer lifetime than any

proposed period for metric conversion. This is particularly true of the equipment which is used in the shops, kitchens, laboratories, and workrooms of

occupational education. These costs can, in principle, be computed by determining the cost for each kind of shop and multiplying the figure by the number of shops. (This subject is discussed in some detail in ch. IV. C.) We have

come, after considerable investigation, to the conclusion that short of a doorto-door census, no more than the roughest approximation can be made for the cost of metric conversion. There is a wide variety of equipment in shops

of any given type, and the classification of shops is in itself a problem.

Furthermore, one must take into account not only the shops of existing pro- grams but also those programs that would be started in a period of metric

conversion. In light of the growth and development of the entire field of oc- cupational education, presently available data and the trends of the recent

past are of relatively little use in making predictions in this field for the next decade or two. Recent legislation" is already encouraging changes in present

" National Education Association Research Division, "Cost of conversion to the metric system," (September 1970). A detailed recommendation on curriculum changes for school mathematics has been obtained and appears in app. V of this report. " Principally the Vocational Education Act of 1963, Amendments of 1968, and the Higher

Education Facilities Act of 1963.
16 EDUCATION

patterns of occupational education, and pending and proposed legislation

may be expected to produce still more changes. Meanwhile, our nation is getting new perspectives on its manpower needs and on the ways in which

formal schooling can satisfy them.

In general, occupational education practices are closely linked, on a oneto-one basis, with the practices of the occupations for which the students are prepared. The educational benefits of going metric are not much greater than

the benefits would be for the occupations and industries involved. In addition, much more is learned in occupational education than how to measure,

and the value of that learning is not particularly dependent upon a measure- ment system. Many occupational educators say there would be no great

pressure to replace or modify equipment, and others look forward to earlier retirement of existing equipment. Nevertheless, care and planning will be

required in each occupational education program to achieve a metric conversion at minimal cost in parallel with the conversion of occupational practices. Using various models, calculations can be made of the costs of the teacher

retraining that would be required by going metric, either "instantaneously"

or in a planned way. We shall show that in a planned and orderly metric conversion, this cost could be largely but perhaps not totally ahsorb<^d in exist- ing programs of inservice training, since many teachers already participate

in regular programs of various kinds. The current status and problems of in- service teacher training are discussed in chapter IVB; and a general view of

the problem and detailed proposals for inservice training appear in appendix

VI.
CHAPTER III -SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Methods

The education component of the Metric Study was carried out through a campaign of visits, interviews, and telephone conversations with a wide

variety of people in education. Some were identified to us as experts in their

respective fields by the steering committee and by the senior consultants,

and others hold positions of responsibility in national organizations. The

Education Conference of the National Metric Study provided a number of

contacts and a wealth of authoritative information; and a small conference of

occupational educators was held to validate progress on that issue. This

method does not provide statistically valid data in the classical sense, but one may expect to secure representative information which, by the agree- ment of various subjects with each other and by the agreement of subjects

with different views of the same question, will permit conclusions to be

drawn and recommendations to be developed. For example, both the editors

of textbook publishing concerns and the state officers who are responsible

for selecting and purchasing large numbers of textbooks in some state education departments agree that no serious difficulties should be expected in providing adequate metric texts and in getting them into the classrooms in accordance with any reasonable schedule of going metric. Indeed, both

agree that very little is likely to be done unless there is an organized and

coordinated national program of metric conversion or some evidence of national direction on the part of the national educational leadership if no such

program should be undertaken.

Our interviews have been with publishers, suppliers of other educational

materials, officers of state education agencies and city school departments,

curriculum development people (including those charged with the prolifera17
18 EDUCATION

tion of new materials), supervisors, principals, and teachers. In various parts

of the country we have visited elementary and secondary schools, vocational

and technical schools, centers for the development of new materials, and

centers of leadership and coordination in the proliferation of new curricula.

Toward the end of the study a visit was made to the United Kingdom to ob- serve British experience with metrication in education which was just begun

this year on a large scale after several years of preliminary thought and

preparation.

We have examined conventional and innovative instructional materials in the subjects which may be expected to be most affected by our going metric,

in order to determine the extent of the changes needed in them. In addition, we have secured expert advice concerning the extent of curriculum modifications, particularly in elementary mathematics, which ought to accompany

or follow shortly upon any metric conversion.

For a variety of reasons, the education component was not undertaken via a system of questionnaires, as were several other components of the U.S.

Metric Study. An important factor was the time constraint: it seemed unrealistic to consider the mounting of a field-tested and Office-of-Management-and-Budget-approved questionnaire in the limited time available. An

equally important concern was the impracticality of preparing a single

questionnaire that would be adequate for the variety of issues which confronted this Study and for the variegated audience we expected to seek out. Finally, we decided that a mailed questionnaire would be likely to get only a meager response from an overworked audience which might well view the

matter as a relatively frivolous one in comparison to the other issues which

face education today.

Metrication in Education in the United

Kingdom

The U.S. Metric Study has been carried out in an atmosphere so different

from that in which the United Kingdom approached metrication that many

of the lessons learned there are not applicable to the problems of the United

States. In the U.K.. the manufacturing industries came to the national

government with a proposal embodying the need which they perceived for

going metric soon. Under the pressure of foreign trade with metric countries,

they asked the government to adopt their plan as a national program and to provide the coordination necessary to see it through. Such a proposal is not

likely to arise from U.S. industry, and the reason can be clearly seen in the

relative unimportance of foreign trade in the U.S. as compared to the U.K.

In the U.K.. nearly 20 percent of the gross national product lies in export

trade, while in the U.S. it is only 4 percent (and over a fifth of that is export to Canada). The difference is amplified by the character of the exports (the U.S. exports relatively more in the way of bulk-measured commodifies: chemicals, crude materials, food and live animals), by the negative

balance of trade in the U.K. (imports exceed exports), by the geographical
CHAPTER III 19

closeness to the continent, by the conviction that the U.K. must in the end

be admitted to the Common Market, and by the need and intention of the

U.K. to find trading partners in Eastern Europe and on the China mainland,

all metric countries. In these circumstances, industry is leading, and education can afford to follow; as it did with a time lag of some 2 1/2 years

between the Government's commitment to the metric system as the primary

system of weights and measures and the beginning of activity in education

with conferences called by the Royal Society.

By contrast, most firms questioned in the Manufacturing Industry Survey

of the U.S. Metric Study stated that increased r"<-tric usage is in the national

interest; yet very few are prepared to expose themselves to competitive dis- advantage by stepping out in the lead of their industry. Indeed, in the

absence of a national program it might be unwise for them to do so, although

the pharmaceutical industry stands as a counter-example.' In addition, some

American industries tend to react to competitive imports by restricting

foreign trade, as exemplified by the proceedings of the 91st Congress in which a major tariff war was only narrowly averted (if indeed it has not merely been postponed). In this situation, it seems clear that education could

play a much different role; and if a nationally coordinated program of going

metric were to be undertaken in the U.S., then it would be appropriate for

education to lead. The "political" differences outlined above, including the potential availability of a lead for education to prepare for conversion, and the structural dif- ferences between education in the U.K. and the U.S. to be described below,

tell us clearly that we shall have to do things differently in the U.S. Yet the

careful thought given to educational problems of metrication in the U.K. can

provide significant guidance.

In general, education in the U.K. is much more uniform and nationally

controlled than in the U.S., but with considerable local freedom in administration and especially in the individual schools and classrooms. Coordination

is provided by a number of national official agencies. The national inspectorate of education is very effective at the primary level; national examinations for college and university admission are effective in controlling the

secondary curriculum; and the City and Guilds of London Institute and

joint committees for national certificates and diplomas have long been

influential in occupational education. There is little in the U.S. that can be

said to be analogous to these national bodies. Unless we have some strong

national direction, coordination, and guidance in going metric in education,

the U.S. may anticipate delays and difficulties. A recommendation appears

below, chapter V, for the appointment of a national coordinating body, sug- gesting its constitution, and outlining its responsibilities.

A brief bibliography, mainly consisting of pamphlets produced in the U.K.

for widespread distribution there, appears on page 200. It is important to note

the range of interest of the pamphlets and the variety of originating agencies.

' R. W. Ernsbergerin Systems, pp. 249-258.
20 EDUCATION

Occupational Education

Early in this study, we found that certain parts of the broad spectrum of

occupational education would be sensitive to metric conversion, and we

have, therefore, concerned ourselves quite extensively with occupational

education.

The major fraction, by far, of the educational equipment to be replaced or modified on account of metric conversion is found in the shops, laboratories,

workrooms, kitchens, and field equipment of the occupational education

programs. The students engaged in occupational studies are a large fraction

of those who will go out into the world of work to make real measurements

on real objects. These students also will work during the (extended) period

of transition beside older workers who will retain patterns of thought and

work habits based on the customary system of units. Instructional materials

in occupational education are also very diverse, and the qualification of

teachers is quite different from that of academic teachers. For these reasons, we have paid special attention to this part of education.

Occupational education covers several hundred different fields of work,

and each curriculum is tightly linked in its practices to the occupation for which it trains. The practices of those occupations are not the concern of this Study, except that they would be reflected in education in the cost of equipment modification and replacement. However, new occupational practices

may give rise to new ways of teaching and learning which would in turn be

reflected in teaching materials and teacher qualifications, and we should be

alert to these subsidiary effects.

' In defining "occupational education," one must first distinguish among the various levels of education and useful skills that a student might be helped to develop. One facet of education is

its concern witn the development of the individual as a cultured and educated person, while another deals with preparing him to function as a contributing member of society. In a general and unfocused education, teachers hope to teach and students to learn the fundamental cognitive and manipulative skills basic to any civilized enterprise. Broadly, these include communication and language, the use of numbers, a sense of the history of mankind, an understanding of

the natural world in which human life is embedded, and an appreciation for the structure of human relationships and organizations.

In finer focus, but still quite blurred, education pays some attention to the preparation of the

individual for a number of vocations, occupations, and professions, without foreclosing the options among them. For example, a health sciences program should prepare students in a quite

general way for further specialization in the health career ladder, which may run from ward

management to X-ray technician to nurse to physician to medical scientist. Other broad categories of this type would include the law. government service, and the mechanical and energy-related occupations.

A sharply focused curriculum prepares its students for specific work with a breadth of skills and knowledge which is successively greater as one progresses from manpower training (teaching mainly current skills) to occupational education (skills and a base of knowledge and

understanding upon which to broaden them), to professional education (broad and deep enough

to support independent work and the development of new enterprises). It is this definition of oc- cupational education at a secondary and post-secondary school level that we use here.
CHAPTER IV -PRESENT STATUS AND PROBLEMS OF

TRANSITION

In this chapter, we shall present our findings on the present use of metric

measurement in instructional materials, on the patterns of teacher qualification and retraining, on the use of equipment particularly in occupational education, and .on several other concerns of education. In addition, for each

category we shall outline the problems that would have to be faced in metric

conversion.

A. Curnculum, Materials, and Testing

TEXTBOOKS

Publishing and Purchasing Patterns

Conversations and interviews with editors have revealed that very few dif- ficulties may be expected in the revision of textbooks, workbooks, and

teachers' guides. In order to meet the requirements of state and large-city

school systems which approve or adopt and purchase textbooks on a state- wide or system-wide basis, most publishers revise their elementary and

secondary texts every 3 or 4 years. In order to qualify for copyright as "revised" rather than as a "new printing with corrections," a book must

have changes on at least 20 percent of its pages. Many of these "copyright

revisions" or "adoption revisions" in the textbook industry are made with

the further limitation that there be no change in the page numbering of the

21
22 EDUCATION

unrevised pages.' Thus many metric revisions could be accommodated

within the scope of existing revision patterns.

The adopting agencies may have a different view of the time scale. Per- haps an extreme case is the state of California: up to 4 years may elapse

between the appointment of a state-wide committee to design a "framework" or course of study for a given subject for grades K-8 and the

appearance of the new texts in the classrooms of the state. During that time

the framework is written and approved, criteria are established forjudging

the submitted textbooks against the course of study, bids are invited, contracts are let, the books are printed in the state printing office and distributed

to the schools, and teachers may be trained in the use of the new curriculum.

On this account, it would take a longer time to get metric textbooks into the

hands of California school children if the phasing turned out to be just

wrong.

Among others, we spoke about the problems of educational publishing to Dr. James R. Squire, the chairman of the research committee of the school

division of the Association of American Publishers, the book publishers'

trade organization. Dr. Squire discussed the matter with his committee and

in describing their views of the problems they would face in going metric, he

wrote:No one anticipates that major problems for educational publishing will result if this change accrues over an extended period — say, 10 years

as in the United Kingdom. The normal revision cycle and pattern of new introductions for school and teacher education programs will al- most ensure adequate attention to the metric system in schools and

colleges. Indeed, an increase in attention to metrics is apparent in many school programs currently in preparation, and a large number

of college books already are based on the metric system.

Individuals assume, of course, that we shall see instruction in dual

systems for many years. They note further that even if 1 0 years is al- lowed for conversion, some school districts may require financial

support to purchase new instructional materials at the end of the

period. Despite the estimated 5-year average adoption cycle, a number of districts cannot, or will not, purchase new books. Even

today, despite a decade of new mathematics, we know of schools

using mathematics programs published during the 1950's. The impact of going metric upon textbook replacement may be lessened

somewhat by the trend away from the adoption and use of hard-covered

textbooks and textbook series. States which once required textbooks to be

' We have examined two popular and widely adopted sequences for science for grades 1 through 6, including the series adopted by the State of California and provided by the State to all students. We discovered that all use of foot-pound-gallon measure can be converted to meterkilogram-liter measure well within the above 20 percent limitation for the series. Other desirable revisions which should immediately accompany a change of units (such as the increased and

earlier use of decimal fractions, powers-of-ten notation, approximate calculations, and new

treatments of weight and mass) will not increase, to any significant degree, the number of pages

to be revised. These textbooks are described in more detail in the following section.
CHAPTER IV 23

used "as the principal medium of instruction" now permit the use of such

nontext courses of study as the American Association for the Advancement

of Science's "Science — A Process Approach," which is based mainly upon

kits of manipulative materials and a teacher's guide. Some school systems

are quite dissatisfied with monolithic textbook series and design their curricula around paperbound booklets to a considerable extent.

Conclusion: In the course of normal reprinting and revision practice,

many textbooks could undergo metric conversion in a period of 5 years or

less. If a lead time of 2 or 3 years were provided for editorial changes, and if the people who select and buy textbooks were advised that changes were in process, and if they adjusted their replacement and renewal schedules ac- cordingly, then new materials would reach students promptly after the

beginning of a metric conversion period.

Publishers and school officials have expressed their opinions to us that supplementary metric pamphlets on metric usage or units on the metric

system might be used together with the texts already in their schools, or that such materials could be adopted together with revised texts for an interim

period. Such an approach must be made with extreme caution. In a textbook

series with very little measurement and very few "classroom-laboratory" in- structions, it may be adequate; however, it appears to us that many textbook

sequences ought not to be patched up that way, and in particular, that the

revisions and reordering of subject matter called for in the elementary

mathematics curriculum are so extensive that such an approach would fail completely, as we shall show in the next section.

Finally, it is our view, which we shall expound in some detail in dealing

below with inservice training of teachers, page 45 and appendix VI-c, page

121, that teaching and learning metric units must be combined with better

ways of teaching and learning measurement, and that these must be strongly

based in activities. This conviction is based in part upon the experience of

curriculum innovation projects which use exclusively the metric system in laboratory work. They have found that it is best if students and teachers

alike learn to use metric units by measuring familiar things in metric units

only and, by this total immersion method, develop a familiarity with their use. In particular, they warn against any attempt to teach metric equivalents

and conversion from English to metric units.

Elementary Mathematics

In examining elementary mathematics texts, we looked for ways in which

metric measurement is introduced and tried to see how these texts might

have to be revised to serve the needs of a metric world. We carefully ex- amined one of the more popular elementary mathematics sequences,- and

believe it is fairly typical of the better elementary mathematics curricula. We

found rather little mention of metric units, and that was primarily in tables of

2 Modern School Mathematics — Structure and Use, Duncan et al., Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston (1967).
24 EDUCATION

conversion factors given in slightly different form each year and followed on

each occasion by a page of conversion or other manipulative exercises.

The metric system is introduced for the first time in the 3d grade:

In many countries another unit of length is used. It is a little smaller than

half an inch. It is called a centimeter.

This is followed by two exercises in measuring line lengths with a centimeter

scale, constructed by the student himself, and a few more measurements in the next lesson. All this accompanies similar exercises with an inch ruler. Decimal fractions with one figure after the decimal point (tenths) are in- troduced in the 4th grade, two figures (hundredths) at the end of the 5th

grade, and three figures (thousandths) at the end of the 6th grade.

Although money is introduced at the end of the 2d grade and at the

beginning of the 3d, no attempt is made to introduce a decimal notation

there. The students learn that two green oblongs, a quarter "worth 25

cents," and two pennies have a total worth of 227 cents. Toward the end of

the 3d grade the "separating point" is introduced as a notational device to separate dollars and cents, and the teacher's guide has the warning:

It should be referred to simply as "the point." Later, in working with

fractions in decimal form, the students will use the point in a dif- ferent way. At that stage the decimal point introduces tenths, hundredths, and so on. A considerable amount of work is devoted to common fractions — they are introduced early as fractions of areas and of sets, and then each year there

are exercises in addition and other manipulations. In grade 7, the students

learn the four arithmetic operations on fractions together with the conversion of decimals and fractions, and ratio, proportion, and percent; and in grade 8, the four arithmetic operations on decimal fractions.

By the 6th grade we find: The most widely used system of measures in the world is the metric

system. This system has the advantage that it has a base of 10 like our system of numeration, (emphasis added)

This is followed by a table of approximate equivalents ("one centimeter is about 2/5 inch") and half a page of exercises on approximate conversions.

In the 8th grade, there is a unit on the metric system sandwiched between

a unit on exponents and "scientific" (power-of-IO) notation and one on the

arithmetic of decimal fractions. The chapter entitled "The Metric System"

presents in a tabular form all units of measure, both metric and English, and

the conversion factors for length and area, capacity and volume, and weight

and mass. It then offers many exercises in converting from one system to the

other: English to metric, metric to English, metric to metric. The prototype

question is "How many s are there in a ?" Pattern and Structures,^ another of the elementary mathematics

sequences we examined, is a series of eight textbooks designed for a basic 8-

^ Patlerns and Structures, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., New York (1966).
CHAPTER IV 25

year course, and was quite popular when it first appeared. In this series, the

student gets very limited experience in actually making measurements.

There is little development of an understanding or appreciation of measure- ment and its use. The approach to measurement is to learn to read the correct unit from a ruler, scale or cup; to learn the formulas and tables for weights and measures, and to work conversion problems.

Book I has a lesson on liquid measurement in customary units. The stu- dents are taught the relationships — "2 cups measure the same as 1 pint," etc. The lesson on weight, in customary units, consists of exercises in reading a

scale printed in the text; students do not weigh anything themselves. There

are four lessons on linear measurement, all in customary units. Students are shown how to make an inch ruler, and how to read from a picture of a ruler,

and how to use it(!) to measure objects and line segments pictured below it. There is no "hands-on" work.

Book II devotes about a week's time to measurement: The lessons are of

the same type; that is, in the lesson on liquid measure, the emphasis is on

learning the words for the units of capacity, and the rules for the relationships between them— "write the word cup on the board. . . write the sen- tence '1 pint measures the same as 2 cups.' " The lesson on weight now has

the students read a pictured scale to the nearest ounce, and read a Fahrenheit thermometer in the lesson on temperature. Although the base- 10

Hindu-Arabic system appears in Book I, it is not related to decimals until Book IV, when decimal fractions are introduced in a 2- or 3-week unit. A

knowledge of fractional numbers is the basis for understanding decimals, and

the text reminds us that "decimals help in keeping track of money."

Book III has a 2-week unit on measurement. The metric system is not in- troduced; however, we do get "measures of long ago," the cubit, pace, and

the ell. The absence of manipulative experience continues.

A metric unit appears for the first time as a supplementary topic in the last chapter of Book IV. In the two lessons on linear measure, students learn that a meter is "3 inches longer than a yard"; meters and yards, centimeters and

inches are compared and there are exercises in converting from one to the

other. In Book V, the metric system makes a full-fledged appearance in the main

body of the text in a chapter on measurement. There is a lesson on the metric

system of linear measures — the meter, decimeter and centimeter. The metric

system is introduced to the teachers as "the system used extensively in science." Students don't see a metric ruler or make any metric measurements, but merely compute conversions. In Book V, 10 weeks are spent on

fractions and 5 weeks on decimals.

In Book VI, students at last read that "most countries of the world use a

different system of measurement, the metric system." The teacher's edition

states that the United Kingdom is now shifting to the metric system over a 9- year period. There are five lessons on the metric system. The units for linear measure are given, together with the relationships between them and a comparison to ours. Again, no measurements are made with a metric ruler. There

are lessons in adding and subtracting metric measures: 5m7dm+2m9dm=?

and multiplying and dividing them and regrouping them to the greater unit

426-013 0 - 71 -3
26 EDUCATION

of measure, as if they were used like inches and feet. The gram is introduced,

and there are exercises adding kilograms and grams; answers are not in decimal form, but in "so many kg plus so many g." There are a few problems

in finding area and volume in both customary and metric units; however, the

operation involved is numerical (multiplication), not measurement. The

general treatment of measurement is as an arithmetic skill, not as a measure- ment skill at all. There are no metric units in Books VII or VIII. Elementary School Mathematics and its sequelae"* is a widely used ele- mentary mathematics sequence. This series consists of students' texts, teachers' editions, students' workbooks, and teachers' workbooks for grades

K-6. The series stresses concepts rather than the mere mastery of skills, and

offers enrichment exercises for "more advanced children." Centimeters are introduced in the 1st grade, and the series attempts to deal throughout with

metric, customary and arbitrary units on an equal basis. The emphasis is on

learning to measure with whatever unit is given. On the other hand, most

computation and story problems are posed in customary units of feet, miles

and pounds. This logically follows from the series' goal of relating numerical,

arithmetic work to the child's practical experiences in the real world. Liquid measure is customary throughout. Conversion exercises from metric to customary units for weight and linear measure are included only for en- richment.

Half the units in Book 1 have lessons on coins, money problems and

priced objects. Children handle real or play coins in many classroom activities, and manipulate money earned and spent in real life situations; the concepts of place value, addition, and subtraction are emphasized. The last unit

is "Money, Fractions and Measurement." This 2-week unit includes two les- sons on linear measurement and one lesson on liquid measurement. It in- troduces the idea of linear measure by using both inches and centimeters as

units of measure. The centimeter scale was chosen for two reasons:

(1) to give the children the feeling that there is a certain arbitrariness

concerning the choice of scale in linear measure;

(2) to provide an early introduction to the centimeter as an important

unit of measure.

Students may cut out the centimeter-inch ruler from the book to measure

various pictured objects. The ruler is color-keyed, centimeters in red, inches

in black, and determination of which scale to use is made according to the

color of the printed ink in each exercise. Gradually, the terms "centimeter"

and "inch" are introduced. The lesson on liquid measure introduces the

customary cups, quarts, and pints. Book II also gives bilingual treatment to linear measure for two lessons, and customary units for liquid measure in one lesson.

^ Elementary School Mathematics. 2d Edition, Addison- Wesley Publishing Co.. grades K-6

(c. 1968). School Mathematics I and School Mathematics II for grades 7 and 8, Addison-Wesley

Publishing Co. (c. 1968).
CHAPTER IV 27

Book III has a 3-week unit on measurement. Introductory lessons use the

line segment, the square and the cube as common measuring units for length,

area, and volume. This is followed by a lesson on using the appropriate unit (inch, foot, yard or mile) and then a lesson on measuring with inch and centimeter rulers. If centimeter rulers are not available, the teacher's guide suggests the children make their own, and directions are given. A "Follow Up"

activity for the "more capable children" is to explore the metric system.

Two lessons on estimation use primarily customary units. In two lessons on

area, the square centimeter is favored for counting and estimating, possibly

because it is a handy size and more exercises can be fit on a page.^ Cubic

inches, cubic centimeters and cubic arbitrary units are all used in the lesson on volume. Customary units are used for liquid measure. Book IV has a 2-week unit on measurement, which reinforces the concepts of Book III. There is a "buried treasure map," for which the scale is given as "each centimeter means one mile." Again, area and volume are treated in centimeters, inches, and arbitrary units; perimeter is given metric

treatment. The conversion exercises at the end of the chapter deal with find- ing the greatest number of the larger (customary) unit. A 1 -month unit on decimals appears in Book VI, and money is briefly re- lated to decimal notation there. The metric system of measurement appears

again as "enrichment." A table of comparative lengths in metric and custo- mary units is pictured, and the children may study the table and then find the

missing conversions. Further on, we find a "possible activity" — to interest

"the more capable children in extending the metric system to weight, since

this system is used for most scientific work." A table of metric weights and

customary equivalents is shown, and students may complete the missing

conversions. Another "possible activity" for "some space-minded children"

is to convert space orbital data from miles to kilometers, and a table with

conversion problems is shown.

School Mathematics I, for the 7th grade, and School Mathematics II, for the 8th grade, again use customary units, many nondimensioned units, and

a sprinkling of metric units (centimeters) in the geometry sections. The rest of the text uses either nondimensioned units or the customary units for word

problems.

Our observations on these sequences of elementary mathematics text- books are consonant with the conclusion of a major publisher who made a metric study early in 1 968: ... in mathematics we find very little evidence of . . . systematic

development of an understanding and use of the metric system at any level. There are separate units on the metric system and some

exercises on converting from one system to the other, but no

evidence of continuous development of a facility to use and work

with the metric system.*^

A square inch is rather gross but a linear inch is "just right."

8 D. C. Heath Division of Raytheon Corporation, memo of 3 June 1968 from H. R. Mutzfeid

to F. S. Fox.
28 EDUCATION

The relatively low priority of the study of the metric system in elementary

schools is indicated in the following:

Measurement units are taught and used at every elementary grade level

at least up through grade 8. Measurement is one of the major strands

of elementary school mathematics. At the present time, the metric

system does appear briefly in all arithmetic series. The percent of

time spent on it as compared to the total time spent on measurement

would be very low, not over 20 percent. When the metric system,

especially linear measures, is introduced, it is introduced as a new

system used by much of the world. Good teachers do use visual aids,

and many elementary children become familiar with measuring to the nearest centimeter, for example. Pupils also encounter the need

for metric units in their science classes. It is the great need in junior

high school science that has led to much of the expansion of work on

the metric system in arithmetic books. Other reasons for teaching

the metric system include its connection with the decimal system pupils are learning, the cultural value, and the fact that it has been a popular enrichment topic for some time J (emphasis added)

It is not hard to understand the experience of the Intermediate Science

Curriculum Study (ISCS) Group. They pretested students early in the 7th

grade on their facility with metric units to see if they need remedial work in this area before entering seriously upon the work of that curriculum:

Our experience using this method (a test) of introducing measuring

lengths with metric units suggests that many elementary science and

mathematics courses are not getting students to handle the metric

system efficiently. More than half of the 7th graders who took the

test on using a meter stick that occurred early in our 7th grade

materials were not successful with it.** One may optimistically conclude from this statement that nearly half the

students were able to make a metric measurement — we choose to interpret

otherwise and to say that many 7th graders cannot make the simplest measurement in a decimal system, and that this betrays the failure of elementary

mathematics to teach them either decimal concepts or measurement or the use of metric units. The deficiencies in teaching measurement and related

materials which we have uncovered here, and the need to rearrange the ele- mentary mathematics curriculum so as to teach decimal fractions earlier,

etc., imply that substantial curriculum changes must accompany metric conversion. These would be comparable to the mathematics curriculum changes

of the early 1960's, the so-called "new math," and ought to fiow from the

agreement of authoritative mathematics educators.^

' Charles R. Hucka, Associate Executive Secretary, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, in a paper presented at the Education Conference, p. 2.

" "Experience of the ISCS Curriculum Group with the metric system," a report presented at the Education Conference, Burkman and Redfield, p. 4.

" These changes are needed whether we have a planned metric conversion or not, and

together with other curriculum changes they are being considered by a continuing study group

of the Conference Board of Mathematical Sciences.
CHAPTER IV 29

Recommendation: In case a national program of planned metric conversion is adopted, authoritative recommendations for curriculum change in ele- mentary mathematics should be endorsed by national organizations of

teachers and educational leaders, and used as the basis for the curriculum

embodied in the new metric textbooks. The substitution of metric for English measure, or the suppression of the latter, will simply not suffice. We

must not fall into the trap of making "mechanical" conversions of mathematics textbook sequences which do not come to grips with the question of

curriculum revision, lest we lose the opportunity that we have at this time for substantial curriculum reform in measurement and related areas. We have obtained an authoritative and detailed recommendation from

Professor S. Sternberg of Harvard University, which appears in appendix

III. This recommendation parallels, and reinforces and amplifies, the recom- mendation developed by a metric study committee of a major educational

publisher.'^

Secondary School and College Mathematics

... the college mathematics teacher assumes that his students are

fluent in the use of any system of units which he discusses. In fact,

he will bring a system of units into his discussion only when he has

been assured that his students have such a fluency. Often, perhaps

most often, his students are more fluent in the use of this system of

units than he is. He is a follower, rather than a leader in this respect.

It should be recognized that what I have said about college mathematics

teaching is not true of secondary school mathematics teaching. In high school, the mathematics teacher cooperates significantly

(emphasis added) in teaching the use of various systems of units for measurement. There are many reasons why this should be part of

the mathematics curriculum. Learning how to use various systems

of units for measurements fits very well with the building of

arithmetic skills, and the mathematics curriculum provides a natural

place to introduce some of these units some years before the student

begins significant study of science."

This task of teaching measurement in high school mathematics is ap- parently not accepted by textbook writers: the algebra, trigonometry,

analytic geometry and elementary calculus texts examined by this Study were found to have very little in the way of measurement units, except that they appear in various problems set in concrete terms — problems which stu- dents call "word problems." Since it is generally conceded that anything not

in the textbook is not likely to be taught, it seems likely that very little measurement is taught in high school mathematics. The high school mathematics

D. C. Heath Division of Raytheon Corporation, memo of 3 June 1 968 from H. R. Mutzfeid

to F. S. Fox. " Statement by Alfred B. Willcox, Executive Director for the Mathematical Association of America, at the Education Conference.
30 EDUCATION

teacher assumes that the focus of teaching measurement lies in the science

subjects in which measurement is used.

The key words in the passage quoted above are "cooperates significantly." The location of the responsibility for teaching secondary school stu- dents to handle real quantities appears to be the subject of some dispute

between mathematics and science teachers. In mathematics, students learn how to handle word problems, but they seem to be unable to transfer that

skill to their chemistry and physics courses. Perhaps the difference in the

teaching style between the two subjects blocks the transfer. Perhaps a paralysis sets in when a student comes face to face with quantities in a real-world

context, and with measurements that he has made himself. Failure to transfer may be related to ineffective teaching of estimation of real-world

quantities and how to relate them to measurements made by oneself. Some measurement is taught in the high school courses called "general

mathematics." These courses are offered to students in grades 10-12 of the

"general curriculum" — students who are not preparing for higher education

or, indeed, for occupations in which mathematics will be used.^^ Their content is approximately the same as that of mathematics for grades 7 and 8 of

the academic curriculum, and the texts used are grade 7 and 8 texts or

general mathematics texts with the same content. In the absence of measure- ment activities, students have as much difficulty in "general mathematics"

as they had in elementary mathematics.

Conclusion: In secondary school and college mathematics, measurement

is not taught. The chief need for revision would occur in general mathematics texts and courses: activity-based instruction should be the foundation

for the introduction of metric measurement at this level.

VocationGi Mathematics

The vocational mathematics texts we examined covered the spectrum

from a mere repetition (concise and in one volume) of the abstract mathematics customarily taught in secondary schools to the very practical manipulations of numbers in the context of shop problems. In the latter text, nearly

every problem is related to a dimensioned drawing of a realistic shop

"thing," and the book is profusely illustrated with halftones of shop tools and

shop operations.

An example of work-related mathematics is the high school Math Workbook—Food ServicelLodging^^ developed by the staff of Project FEAST, a

multidisciplinary curriculum offering a career ladder of studies for the

hospitality industry. The curriculum trains students for the industry and for

institutional housing and feeding; it is articulated among high school, junior

college, and 4-year college courses. The Math Workbook first covers the es- sentials of mathematics as remedial work, and then it presents calculation

exercises in a variety of business situations related to every facet of the oc-

'^See the next section, "Vocational mathematics." H. W. Crawford, M. C. McDowell, Math Workbook — Food ServicelLodging, Institutions Magazine, Chicago ( 1 970).
CHAPTER IV 31

cupation, ranging from wage scales and guest checks to income tax and busi- ness ownership.

These books use English units exclusively, of course, and have common

fractions everywhere, particularly binary fractions (halves, quarters, eighths,

etc.) in the books for shop mathematics.

Conclusion: Vocational mathematics texts would need to be revised

completely to be useful over the period of metric conversion. Besides

introducing metric units, decimal fractions would have to be introduced

earlier, and the extensive study of fractions now needed to handle English

units of measure and binary fractions could be largely dispensed with.

Recommendation: The revisions needed in vocational mathematics text- books should take place in two steps — the first step placing equal emphasis on metric and English units, and the second putting the English units in the

background, but of course not to the extent that metric units are now in the

background. The first revision would have to be prompt, and the second

might follow after 10 years or more; this is in keeping with the revision

schedules we observed in these texts.

Elementary Science

We examined two popular conventional science textbook series for grades

1-6, and some conventional general science texts for grades 7 and 8. In addition to describing the metric content of these books, we will summarize here

the information presented at the Education Conference and gathered else- where concerning several novel elementary and intermediate science curricula. We looked for the present usage of metric units and tried to estimate

the extent to which revision would be needed to make these materials suita- ble for use in a metric world.

The Concepts in Science sequence'^ consists of about 1 ,700 pages of stu- dent text in six volumes, and about 800 pages of teacher's guides and fore- word material. It may or may not be accompanied by the Classroom Laboratory sequence of teacher's manuals,''^ containing about 40 "investigations"

for each year. The Classroom Laboratory is designed to be used with or without the Concepts sequence of texts. The texts use only English units up to grade 5 , when a very few references

to metric units appear. The Classroom Laboratory is oriented toward the observation of the things children see around them, and simple manipulations.

It is practically devoid of measurement up to grade 5. In grade 6 there ap- pear a few investigations dealing with the conversion between English and

metric units.

It appears that about 600 pages of text and teacher's guide would need to be revised for a metric edition of Concepts. Many changes would have to be

made in the instructions for classroom manipulations, and they are trivial: "a

few inches," "a few feet," paper "1 inch wide and 6 inches long," "1 cup of

Brandwein, et ai, Concepts in Science, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc.. New York

(1966). Hy Ruchlis, Classroom Laboratory. Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc.. New York (1966).
32 EDUCATION

sand." These changes are relatively simple but one must present the following caution: Approximation should be preserved in making simple mechanical metric conversion. For example, "a piece of paper about 6 inches long"

should be replaced in a metric edition by "a piece of paper about 1 5 centimeters long" (and «or "about 15.24 centimeters"). . Each unit of instruction — and there are about eight each year— includes a

list of some 20 to 25 supplementary aids, films, film strips, extra reading,

etc., all of which would have to be reviewed by the authors or editors to see which items are in need of revision and how soon they might be revised.

A more serious problem is the distinction that should be made quite early

between mass and weight. This pedagogic issue is independent of the system

of units, of course; but it must be resolved sooner or later because the units

of mass and weight are different in SI, whereas they have the same name in other systems of units. The problem is essentially a cultural one and its resolution will depend upon the widespread acceptance of the distinction by more of the population, including teachers. A good way to begin would be to describe the contents of packages and cans as "net mass 500 grams" rather

than "net weight" as at present.'"

We examined a second popular primary science sequence for grades 1-8'^ and found that it has no mention whatsoever of the metric system of measurement. This series is oriented toward an explanation of things observed,

and toward simple demonstration experiments which are mainly qualitative

and seldom quantitative to any degree. There was only the faintest allusion

to another system of measurement in connection with the use of the ther- mometer, which is identified as "a Fahrenheit thermometer, which is the

kind of thermometer commonly used in this country."

We also examined part of the third edition (1965) of this sequence. There

is some increase in quantitative measurement in the new edition, but it is still a very minor part of the whole. Again, the units of measurement are entirely

English. The 1965 edition is a very complete revision of the 1961 edition,

with a total rearrangement of the subject matter and new illustrations on

every page. The 1 968 edition is a minimal revision to qualify for a new copyright. It has more color pictures and student activities, but no increase in quantitative measurement or metric usage. Compared to the 1965 revision,

the changes implied in producing a metric version are totally negligible: the

sequence has about 2,300 pages of student text in 8 grades and about half as many pages in teacher's guides, and changes to metric units would have to be

made on no more than 500 pages. However, the remarks made above about

supplementary reading for students and teachers, films and film strips, etc., apply here too. We were assured by the science editor of Holt, Rinehart and Winston that

their new science sequence,"^ which is entirely in English units, could be

totally converted to metric units in successive reprintings over the next 3

'""Metric Units in Primary Schools," The Royal Society (London) (1969), p. 13, " Herman and Nina Schneider, Heath Science Series. D. C. Heath and Company, Boston, 2d edition (1961).

Fishier, et al., Science: A Modern Approach, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York

(1971).
CHAPTER IV 33

years if it were deemed appropriate to do so. A revised edition is scheduled

to appear after 4 years, and it could easily be made metric.

The curriculum developed by the Commission on Science Education of

the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS),

Science— A Process Approach, is entirely metric and appears to enjoy a growing use.'" Xerox Learning Systems, the publisher of the teachers'

guides, believe that about 1.5 million students are exposed to this curriculum

in the current school year in grades K-4; grades 5 and 6 were published during the 1970-71 school year and it is not clear how many students it may

have reached. The impact of this curriculum may be somewhat limited

because the format of instruction does not include a textbook. In California, a constitutional amendment would be required to permit its adoption on a statewide basis, for the state constitution not only requires the state to furnish textbooks free to each student, but it further requires that the text- book be "the principal medium of instruction in every subject." Local districts may buy and use other materials, and indeed the wealthier districts do

so without hindrance from state authorities, but occasionally at the hazard of

harassment by local pressure groups. In Texas, on the other hand, the use of

nontext materials is now accepted; and the state program director for

science believes that Science— A Process Approach may reach as many as a third of the students in the state. The way in which Science— A Process Approach came to be entirely metric was described by Arthur H. Livermore at the Education Conference: -" From the beginning, the scientists who were involved in developing

Science— A Process Approach, insisted that the metric system

should be introduced early and be used throughout the program so

that children would use the system with facility, and so that they

would think in metric units. The teacher members of the writing

team were not so enthusiastic about using the metric system, un- doubtedly because they were not familiar with it and did not feel comfortable using it. As a result, a compromise was reached at the

first writing session in the summer 1963. British-American units were used for measurement in kindergarten and grades 1 and 2. The

metric system was introduced in grade 3. During the school year 1963-64 the new program was tried out in 12 school systems throughout the United States. Data were collected

from the teachers and were compiled for use by the writing team in making decisions about revising the materials in the summer of

1964. The information about the use of the metric system in the proThe distinctive features of this program are the use of instructional materials contained in booklets written for the teacher and used only by the teachers, and accompanying kits of materials designed to be used by both the teachers and the children ; the sampling of the various fields of science in the topics covered in the exercises; the statement of objectives to be achieved by

each exercise in the context of the basic processes of science; and the inclusion in the curricu- lum of methods for evaluating the pupils. This project has been supported by the National Science Foundation.

2" "The Elementary School Science Program of the AAAS," Arthur H. Livermore, presented

at the Education Conference.
34 EDUCATION

gram was quite favorable — the children accepted it and had little dif- ficulty with it. Perhaps because the teachers became more familiar with the metric

system through teaching it, some of the teachers in the try out schools began to question the need for including the British-American system in the new science program. A typical comment was, "We have to teach British-American units in other parts of the cur- riculum such as math and social studies. Why not use just the metric

system inScience—A Process Approach?"

Needless to say the scientists in the writing group accepted the sug- gestion immediately. The second experimental edition of the pro- gram which was prepared during the summer of 1964 had all references to British-American units removed.

In the second experimental edition the children were introduced to

linear measuring in kindergarten with arbitrary units. Sticks of varying lengths, which the children selected names for, were used as

units to measure various things in the classroom — tables, windows

and so on. Then the metric system was introduced in the first Measuring exercise in 1st grade. The children started this exercise

by again using stick units similar to the ones used in kindergarten.

They then discussed the need for using some sort of standard units

if the measurement made by one child were to be compared with

those made by another. And so the meter was introduced as the

standard unit of length.

The program went through several more years of tryout and revision,

but the commercial version retains the pattern set in 1 964 — arbitrary

stick units in kindergarten and metric units from 1 st grade on.

Since the program is completely metric, there is no need to be concerned

about whether children could convert between English and metric units. However, it is the experience of the innovation leadership in this program

that some teachers find it necessary to teach children to convert from one

system to the other, perhaps in response to the children's insistence on comparing metric units with English units. Our philosophy is that by continually using the metric system children

will learn to "think metric." The exercise. Estimations and Comparisons Using the Metric System, is an overt attempt to establish

the habit of thinking metric. Some teachers continually encourage

children to think metric by making estimations of lengths, volumes

and so on. But others do not, and the children come to think of the

metric system as the one to use when they are doing science and the

British-American system as the one to use for all their other activities, (emphasis added)-^

This report is noteworthy not only for the comments about the ease with

which the teacher members of the curriculum development team were able

to adapt to the use of only metric units in the curriculum, but also for the (be2' Ibid.
CHAPTER IV 35

lated) recognition by the development team of the language barrier which

grows up between science and other activities ("the real world") when metric units are used only for science (and only metric units are used in science)

in a world of experience which uses only English units. The scientists and science teachers who designed the Science Curriculum

Improvement Study (SCIS) curriculum-- began with quite a different view

from that of the AAAS on the use of metric units in elementary school. They

reasoned from the start that it is quite impractical to teach a totally metric

science curriculum in a world of English measurement. They use about equal

amounts of English and metric units in their SCIS materials and in their

teacher training programs, but the leadership believes that relatively little metric measure gets into the classroom and that whatever does get into the

classroom is mainly imposed by the equipment used, such as meter sticks

and graduated cylinders calibrated in milliliters. SCIS is estimated to reach

about 250,000 elementary students.

Elementary Science Study (ESS) is a highly individualized program for

grades K-8 in which the children have access to the materials for open-ended

rather than teacher- or textbook-directed investigations.--^ In the Match and

Measure unit for grades K-3, arbitrary units are used together with various

measuring devices for the measurement of length, area, volume, etc. Children use uncalibrated measuring devices to compare things, and arbitrarily

calibrated measuring devices, such as a wooden slat painted with blackboard

paint so that chalk marks can be made and removed easily. The children are asked to develop other measuring standards of their own, such as washers,

paper cups, etc. About a third of the 56 ESS units depend upon measurement. They range from Water Flow and Kitchen Physics to Mapping (with

simple simulations of surveying instruments). Lists of equipment include

things calibrated or dimensioned in both English and metric units. ESS is presently used by approximately 2 million students, according to the sales figures of the publisher, the Webster Division of McGraw-Hill

Book Company.

The Conceptually Oriented Program in Elementary Science (COPES) is a science curriculum for grades K-6 based upon selected "great ideas" or conceptual schemes in science.-^ The COPES curriculum is action-centered.

Almost all activities require exploration of a nonreading nature to be carried out by individuals or in small groups. Basic skills, including measuring, are

also developed. COPES is entirely metric.

^"^ SCIS is an ungraded sequential physical and life science program for the elementary

school, under development at the University of California at Berkeley. The program, in es- sence, turns the classroom into a laboratory. The teaching strategy is for the children to explore

selected science materials. They are encouraged to investigate, to discuss what they observe, and to ask questions. The teacher acts as an observer of the students" progress and as a guide.

The project has been supported by the National Science Foundation. The emphasis of ESS is to encourage students to work individually and independently, to devise experiments, and to direct their questions to the materials rather than to the teacher. There is little written material addressed directly to the children. Each unit has a teacher's guide and materials for the children to manipulate.

ESS has derived its principal support from the National Science Foundation. This project is supported by the U.S. Office of Education.
36 EDUCATION

Intermediate Science

We examined several sequences of conventional general science texts for the intermediate grades, including the California textbooks for grades 7 and

8.--^ The latter use a mixture of metric and English units rather erratically,

giving the wavelength of light in centimeters on one page, for example, and

the wavelength of x-rays in inches on the next. The mass of the earth is given

in power-of-10 notation in kilograms, and in pounds and tons using the

"string-of-zeros" notation and as "so many million billion tons." Temperature is given in degrees Fahrenheit in the 7th grade and Celsius in the 8th

grade, but instructions for carrying out chemical operations are given in milliliters in both. It appears that this sequence would require a rather thorough

revision to produce a metric version; but, in view of the revision which might

be undertaken to secure its place in a competitive market, a change to metric

units would probably not be a great burden.

The other intermediate science sequences can be characterized in the same way with regard to metric conversion.

The Intermediate Science Curriculum Study (ISCS) is a large-scale in- structional research and development project which is developing, testing,

and disseminating a comprehensive science program for grades 7-9 based on

a system of individualized instruction.-'' The unique feature of ISCS is that students have the opportunity to progress through the materials at different

rates, and the sequence and scope of topics can be varied according to the

students' interests, abilities and experience. The instructional package consists of printed text materials, specially designed laboratory apparatus, a self-assessment system with which the student can measure his own

progress, teacher orientation materials, and standardized tests. The content of the 3-year ISCS curriculum includes biological, physical,

and earth sciences. The instructional strategy has been to deal first with fundamental material and to study later the application of fundamentals to other

subjects. This leads to an inversion of the customary order in which subjects are taught and may give rise to some difficulty in the adoption of these

materials.

Metric units are used exclusively in the ISCS materials. As it becomes

necessary for the student to make a given measurement, he is taught to use

appropriate measuring instruments that are calibrated in metric units.-' Introductory Physical Science (IPS) and Physical Science II (PS II) are curriculum developments of the Physical Science Group of EDC,-" which is the successor to the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC). IPS is used

mainly in grades 8 and 9, and reaches about 20 percent of the students enrolled in those grades, while PS II is a sequel and is just emerging from pilot " Navarra, Zafforini. and Garone, Todciy's Basic Science — the Molecule and the Biosphere: and Navarra and Garone, Today's Basic Science — the Atom and the Earth. Harper and Row. New York (1 965). ISCS has been supported by the National Science Foundation and by the U.S. Office of Education. In its present developmental stage it already reaches about 70.000 students. "Experience of the ISCS curriculum group with the metric system," Burkman and

Redfield, a paper presented at the Education Conference.

2*" These projects have been supported primarily by the National Science Foundation.
CHAPTER IV 37

Stages. These courses emphasize the study of matter, the interrelationship of

matter and electric charge, and the different forms of energy and its conservation. Student laboratory work is of primary importance. To emphasize

this, the laboratory instructions are incorporated in the body of the text; the

results are not described. The philosophy of the Physical Science Group re- garding the use of the metric system applies equally to the physical science

courses, the high school and college physics courses, and the 4-year un- dergraduate curriculum in science and mathematics being developed to train physics and chemistry teachers:

From the very beginning of the development of the PSSC physics course in 1956, it was decided that after acquainting students with

the arbitrary nature of units of length, mass, and time, metric units

would be used almost universally throughout the.course and English

System units would be almost completely dispensed with. This policy has been closely adhered to in all our later courses . . . . [I]n

the current editions of IPS and PS II one must search carefully to find the few remaining uses of English units.-''

Conclusion: Conventional science texts for the elementary and inter- mediate grades have not used significant amounts of metric measurement,

nor is there any appreciable increase. Nonetheless, a small trend toward in- creased usage of the metric system in elementary and intermediate grades is discernible. It appears mainly in the new science curriculum developments,

such as those discussed above. Of the 20 million elementary students in grades K-6, it is estimated that at least 4 million study the new science curricula. Of the 10 million students in intermediate grades 7-9, a little more

than a million study these curricula.^"

Secondary and College Science Textbooks

High school chemistry is usually the first course in which students obtain

any serious acquaintance with the metric system. It is entirely metric and

has so reflected professional chemistry for many decades. The metric

system most frequently used is the cgs system, with the centimeter as the

unit of length and the gram as the unit of mass or weight.^' The cgs system,

Judson B. Cross,. "Use of the metric system in new science curricula developed by the Physical Science Group of Education Development Center," a paper presented to the Education Conference. Based on data provided by the National Science Foundation.

^' Many chemists do not see any difference between mass and weight, and regularly and intui- tively refer to atomic weight and molecular weight. For example, CHEM Study, one of the new

chemistry curricula developed with the support of the National Science Foundation, used the chemical weight terminology. After several editions with a contracted publisher, it is now going

into a "limited public domain" with three publishers authorized to bring out different revised

editions: one of them will use the chemical mass terminology. It is estimated that CHEM Study

reaches about 500,000 students a year, that is, about 40 percent of the students taking chemistry in high school. The Chemical Bond Approach (CBA) is another new high school curriculum, developed with

the support of the National Science Foundation. It uses the molecular mass terminology.

The distinction between weight and mass is further confused by the free use of the term Atomic Mass Unit in some chemistry texts which use atomic and molecular weight

terminology.
38 EDUCATION

rather than SI, is the customary metric system of chemistry, and indeed the

mole rather than the kilomole, is the preferred unit of substance.•''^ Modern

textbooks use milliliter (ml) for the laboratory-sized unit of volume rather

than cubic centimeter (cc or cm''). Otherwise, the chief use of a non-SI unit

in chemistry is the calorie, which appears frequently in the form of

kilocalorielmole for the specific energies of reactions and in other similar contexts: changing this unit to the SI joulelmole or kilojoulelmole (or to the

physicists' non-SI but very useful electron-volt) will depend upon professional practice in chemistry.

The Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) is a curriculum

development supported by the National Science Foundation which

produced three versions of a modern high school course in biology for use in the 10th grade. Each version approaches biology from a distinctive point of

view: one uses a molecular-biochemical-evolutionary approach; the second

uses an ecological-evolutionary approach; while the third uses a cellular- biochemical-evolutionary approach. These three courses are now estimated

to reach 40 percent of the students enrolled in high school biology. Metric

units are used, but there is relatively sparing use of any dimensions: for ex- ample, most photomicrographs and electron microscope illustrations are given in the magnification notation, for example "X 2500," which prevents

students from thinking about the real sizes of things. In writing about very

large numbers or very small dimensions BSCS uses power-of-IO notation

but retains the string-of-zeros notation as well. We examined a laboratory manual-and-workbook in biology^^ for advanced high school students or first-year college students and found that

scientific observations were made in metric units. For example, the

microscope was to be calibrated with a metric stage micrometer, and, of

course, chemical operations of any precision were in metric units; but

laboratory instructions were in English units generally, such as "net a 2-inch

goldfish."

High school physics is less tightly bound to the preparation of students for other subjects than is college physics, and accordingly it is freer to adopt

the metric system. There are texts which do just that, and there are those

which attempt to teach as much as possible in both systems of units. We examined the still popular successor to the long popular Dull and

Metcalfe^^ and found that very nearly every mechanical concept is taught in both metric (absolute) units and English (gravitational) units, and indeed that

The formal definition proposed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

is "Mole: The mole is an amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary

units as there are carbon atoms in 0.012 kg (exactly) of the pure nuclide I2C. The elementary

unit must be specified and may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, a photon, etc. or a

specified group of such entities." The unit is not yet part of the International System although it is recognized by the l.S.O. Abramoff and Thomson, Investigation of Cells and Organisms, Prentice-Hall, Inc., En- glewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1968). Dull, Metcalfe, and Williams, Modern Physics, Holt, Rinehart and Winston (1964).
CHAPTER IV 39

Newton's second law. F = ma, is treated differently in the two systems of

units, and all on the same page.^^

A more modern book-'** begins with the description of motion (position,

speed and acceleration) in the familiar English system of units, but sup- presses them completely upon starting the study of dynamics and the second

law. When forces are introduced they are measured in newtons or dynes and

the whole issue of kilogram-mass versus kilogram-force (and pounds versus

slugs) is finessed. English units appear later from time to time, but only very

occasionally, and sometimes quaintly.

A recent conventional text'" begins mainly with English units and uses kilogram-weight and kilogram-force even after having introduced the newton

as a unit of force. The text is peculiar in that there is virtually equal use of

English and metric units in the text but almost every problem is set in metric

units. PSSC Physics^* was the pioneer science curriculum development program

of the National Science Foundation. It now reaches about 40 percent of the

high school students studying physics. The course is strongly oriented

toward laboratory experience, with all laboratory measurements made in metric units. However, since large units like kilometers are not encountered

directly in the laboratory, more familiar units — miles, miles per hour, and

miles per hour per second — were initially used in that size domain. In going

through successive revisions over the last decade, the course has become

more metric. We did not find a problem stated in English units in the third

edition.

College chemistry and biology courses reflect the rather complete use of

metric measurements in those professional fields. Geology still uses both

systems of units with roughly equal frequency, and, indeed, in geology text- books one finds on occasion the same quantity given in both units simultaneously or the alternate use of English and metric measurement in succeeding

chapters or even in the same chapter. This indicates of course that geologists

are equally at home with both systems and that they expect their students to be able to follow. It is perhaps worth remarking that geology or earth science

(or, more recently, earth-and-space science) is a notorious "gut" in colleges

and curricula which have a minimum science requirement for all degrees.

Thus many college students are exposed to these materials and this level of

the use of metric units. Most of the students who take college physics courses have other subjects

for their major interests for which some knowledge of physics is a

In an absolute system, such as SI, unit force (one newton) is defined as that effect which

produces unit acceleration (one meter per second per second) when acting upon unit mass (one

kilogram). In the customary gravitational system, unit force (one pound) is defined as the

gravitational attraction (at 45 degrees latitude) on a standard body, and unit mass (one slug) is that body which responds with unit acceleration (one foot per second per second) to a unit of applied force. Miller, Dillon, and Smith. Concepts in Physics. Harcourt, Brace and World (

1 969). " Kelly and Miner, Physics for Hi^ih School. Ginn and Company, Boston ( 1 967). The Physical Science Study Committee, Physics, D. C. Heath and Company (I960, 1965); Haber-Schaim, Cross, Dodge, and Walter, PSSC Physics, D. C. Heath and Company ( 1 97 1 ).
40 EDUCATION

prerequisite or a requirement, as shown in table 1. In recognition of the fact

that English units are used almost exclusively in the fields of engineering

mechanics and heat and thermodynamics, many introductory physics texts use English units to a greater or lesser extent in these parts of the course. There is a trend toward increasing use of the metric system and less usage of

the English system, but it is slow. A few texts are now beginning to appear in which the English system of units is distinctly subsidiary, but many recent

revisions and new texts present both systems on an equal footing.

Table L Bachelor's degrees conferred in 1967-68 in fields in which an introductory course in physics is usually a degree

requirement

Architecture 2,955

Biological sciences 31,826

Engineering 37,368

Mathematics 23,202

Physical sciences: Chemistry 10,783

Geology 1,689 Physics 5,038 Others 1,870

[Premedical and predental students usually earn bachelor's degrees in biological sciences or in chemistry.] (Data from Digest, p. 82.)

PSSC College Physics,^^ which was derived from the PSSC high school

physics course reflects the trend of that project toward the reduction in the use of English units as described above.

Conclusion: At secondary and post-secondary levels, the study of

chemistry is linked to the chemistry profession and uses mainly cgs rather

than SI metric units. The study of physics is linked to the engineering profession, which uses English units in mechanics and heat. Textbooks reflect these connections and will change in response to changes in professional

practice. Other sciences are bilingual.

Going Metric in the Social Sciences

The impact of going metric upon the social sciences will be indirect, but it

is worthwhile to take a brief look at the area. The social sciences comprise the disciplines of history, geography,

economics, anthropology, political science, sociology, and psychology. In grades K-8, these disciplines are not taught separately as disciplines but are used as tools for the understanding of the subject studied. For example,

when students study Japan, they look at a general picture of the country,

which includes its history, economy, government, and geography. In grades

9-12, the disciplines themselves are taught as separate courses. Economics

^" Physical Science Study Committee, College Physics, D. C. Heath and Company, Boston

(1968).
CHAPTER IV 41

would be the most affected by metrication because it includes the most measurement.

References to measurement in social science courses are minimal in grades K-3 and increases in grades 4-6, but measurement per se is not taught

in the social sciences. Therefore, students should become familiar with measurements early in their study of mathematics and science. References made

to measurements in a typical social science text include maps and quantities

of various materials produced and consumed, imported and exported. In the

curricula developed by national curriculum projects, such as Man: a Course

of Study students are asked to analyze raw data and to deal with more and more measured quantities. However, in contrast to the laboratory-oriented

natural science courses, social science courses, to the extent that they deal

with measurement, deal with large amounts of things, and the measurements

of these quantities are seldom crucial to the understanding of the material.

All measurements in social science courses are English. Even when studying a metric country, students deal with the country in the context of English

measurements; and many students actually feel that the entire world uses

English measurement. Social science teachers assume that their students are

familiar and facile with our measurement system (from their mathematics

courses), but many times the students are not. The teachers complain that the students have not learned measurement, but they rarely take the time to teach it — it's someone else's job to do that. Metric conversion would require that social science teachers, like all teachers, learn the metric system promptly through existing or specially

created inservice training mechanisms. Other changes in the social sciences

due to going metric would be minimal: text revision would be taken care of

in the normal scheme of periodic new editions.

Books for Use in Occupational Education, Secondary and PostSecondary

Textbooks and other instructional materials used in occupational education, like all other components of occupational education, reflect the practices of the occupations themselves. These materials would need to be

revised quite completely, and in each occupation in accord with the schedule

for metric conversion in that field. Like other instructional materials, commercially produced texts for occupational education are reprinted annually

and frequently revised.

A particular problem may arise in occupational programs for which cur- riculum materials are primarily produced in the schools in which they are used. The teachers who are the authors and editors of such materials may

need to be released from part of their teaching obligations in order to have

the time to make metric revisions of these materials. The early obsolescence

of stocks of such locally produced materials would be another cost of going

"' A I -year course of study for upper elementary grades organized about the question "What

is human about human beings?" It was developed by the Social Studies Curriculum Program of EDC, under grants from the National Science Foundation. The publisher is Curriculum

Development Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C.

426-013 0 - 71 -4
42 EDUCATION

metric, because it is economical to print 5- to 10-year supplies of these

materials and to hold them in stock against future needs, whereas most commercial publishing houses print only a year's supply at a time.

SCHOOL LIBRARIES, WORKS OF REFERENCE AND

ENCYCLOPEDIAS

Most schools have libraries of general reading, reference books, and en- cyclopedias, which supplement classroom texts and serve as a resource for

both students and teachers. A program of going metric in the United States would call for a revision of textbooks, and libraries would likewise have to replace their reference books and encyclopedias with metric editions. This

problem, like that of textbooks, would be handled in the normal revision and

replacement cycle.

A school library is a dynamic collection and its holdings are replaced as needed to keep up-to-date. Since shelf space is limited and since a school

library need not be comprehensive or historical, a book is discarded for every new book added. The life of a reference book is typically 10 years, and

school libraries usually replace their encyclopedias every 5 years. The

library is also responsive to changes in the curriculum. For example, when

the "new math" was introduced into the curriculum, appropriate reference

books were added to the libraries' mathematics collections to keep pace with

the change.

The funding patterns of school libraries cover a wide spectrum. Some

school systems regularly set aside funds for curriculum change and for keeping the library up-to-date on reference works and encyclopedias. The library

fund is usually under the control of the librarian, who may have the discretion to weight the expenditures according to her views of what the needs are. In such a case, rather heavy expenditures might be available at the ap- propriate time of a metric conversion.

We spoke to the editor of a very popular school encyclopedia."*'^ The en- cyclopedia has about 10,000 pages, and approximately a third of them are revised each year. In view of this large and continuing revision program, one may expect that metric conversion would be no great burden upon the editorial staff. National guidance might be appropriate concerning the question

of whether to have an intermediate stage of conversion, with English units

kept in parentheses, before going to a final stage in which English units do

not appear at all. The publishers of encyclopedias encourage replacement on a 5-year cycle

and offer trade-in allowances on old encyclopedias. Salesmen making sales

to individuals ("parent sales") also encourage early replacement by offering a half-price trade-in allowance for editions less than 10 years old.

^' Outdated encyclopedias usually find their way into classrooms, where they serve as ready

reference material.

^- Donald E. Lawson, Editor-in-Chief, F. E. Compton Company, Division of Encyclopedia

Britannica, Chicago, Illinois.
CHAPTER IV 43

Conclusion: Replacement of library books and encyclopedias would not be an obstacle, in light of usual replacement cycles and given the preparation

time proposed (below) to precede metric conversion in the schools.

Works of reference are frequently revised, and annual editions are not uncommon.*'' A realistic assessment of the problem was given by Dwight E.

Gray.*'' In considering the possibility of introducing SI units into the third

edition of the American Institute of Physics (AIP) Handbook, which is about to appear, he reported:

. . . The consensus of the Handbook editorial board was that in- sistence on 100 percent usage of SI units in the new edition, at worst, might wreck the project completely, and, at best, would

greatly delay publication. As a compromise, therefore, 3d edition

contributors have been urged to use SI units wherever feasible, but

have not been required to do so .... By contrast, the Optical

Society of America has in preparation an optics handbook. Since

this will be a brand new volume it is more nearly feasible to stan- dardize on SI units, and I believe they hope to make such a requirement.

Handbooks constitute a valuable source of ready information, and they are widely used and relied upon in certain occupations. It has been common ex- perience in the United Kingdom that handbooks cannot be revised quickly

enough, and authoritative guidance may be required for metric usage in each

field. Handbook revisions are seldom complete, and metric conversion

would be a burden and an expense in many cases.

NONPRINT MATERIALS

Nonprint materials constitute a relatively small part of the resources of

most schools, and relatively few of them need to be revised or replaced.

They include:

films, film loops, and film strips

tapes and records

picture files and picture packs

art objects and art reproductions

maps and globes

"realia," that is, models, games, puzzles and other manipulative

materials.

These materials turn over with a typical lifetime of less than a decade, for the

valuable ones are handled by the students and wear out. An instructional materials center (the successor to the school library) will also have typewriters, tape recorders, tape and record players, projection ap-

" The Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, Chemical Rubber Company. Cleveland. Ohio. "The Metric System and College Physics Education," a paper submitted by the American

Institute of Physics and the American Association of Physics Teachers at the Education Conference.
44 EDUCATION

paratus for the film materials, etc. Some of this equipment is similar to that found in home entertainment but is usually sturdier. These media are stan- dardized, and they are more likely to be affected by the introduction of new

media, such as super-8 in the place of standard 8mm film, than by metric

conversion.

Nonprint materials are tied to the real world from which they are drawn,

and to the extent that they have measurement in them they will reflect the

measurement system of that world.

TESTING

The role of testing as an instructional device is the subject of some controversy. The substantial gains shown in the first results of the performancecontracting mode of delivering educational services were clouded with indi- cations that the students were taught the text answers. Yet many competitive high schools engage in overt "SAT preparation" courses offered in the

weeks before those national tests are given; and, indeed, the very existence

of the PSAT (Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test), billed as a warm-up exercise, shows that the concept is not only widely accepted but even en- couraged by the test makers. Of course there is a difference between the "of- fense" charged to the performance contractors and the overt SAT cram ses- sions, but the difference is only one of degree.

There are purists in the testing field who insist that the role of testing is evaluation and assessment only and who feel that loading the test to en- courage, if not force the adoption of, new materials is an exploitation of

psychometrics. There are others who see testing as a motivating force — or

at least an accelerator — for desirable change, while admitting that coercion

of this sort is anathema to people charged with curriculum supervision and

development.

There are thus two sides to the coin of testing. One side says, "You will know that a topic has reached general acceptance in the curriculum when it appears in the tests." The other side admits the feasibility and even the advisability of accelerating the acceptance of a given topic into the curriculum

by pushing it in the tests. An example of the latter: it is generally conceded

that the implementation of the "new math" in the secondary school curriculum was encouraged more or less gently by the fact that the Educational

Testing Service was the employer of some of the main champions of the new

math recommendations of the Commission on Mathematics of the College

Entrance Examination Board and of the School Mathematics Study Group.

Both sides of the coin examined above are set forth with some slight

reservations in the position paper of the American Society of Engineering

Education:

The real test of commitment to SI will come when educators, and those

evaluating the results of education, begin to give examinations which

include understanding and ability to utilize SI . . .

''^ New York Times. 1 I January 1 97 I , p. 68. "Businesses as Teachers are Paid for Results."
CHAPTER IV 45

A further step would be to encourage the College Entrance Examination Board (CEEB) and the American College Testing (ACT) to in- clude SI in these aptitude examinations. This step would represent

the beginning of a firm requirement of SI in education. Introducing

SI into the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) used for graduate

school admission would be another step.

The Boards of Registration for Professional Engineers might introduce

SI gradually on an optional basis into license examinations. But as agencies of the individual states, these Boards could not legally

require SI until the actual degree of commitment of Engineering

practice gave clear indication that the need to be bilingual was closely related to the maintenance of public health, safety and welfare.-*" We inquired briefly about the possible impact of going metric on the

capital investment of the testing agencies in field-tested and proven

questions. We learned from Educational Testing Service (Princeton, New

Jersey) that the number of questions which might be affected was insignificant, and that there would be little effort involved in re-pretesting the

questions to validate them. However, the Iowa Test of Basic Skills is newly

revised this year in a form expected to be valid for 6 to 8 years. The test makers are in a position to supplement the standard form with a sequence of

arithmetic test booklets for the transition period, so that each school system

would be able to choose a test suitable for its own degree of metrication.

Conclusion: Testing as a component of the education industry is adaptable to changes of the sort one may expect will be involved in going metric,

and some test makers are not opposed to participating in accelerating in- novation by including new subject matter in their tests.

B. Teacher Training — Preservice and

Inservice

PRESERVICE TRAINING AND TEACHER QUALIFICATION

"There are nine and sixty ways

of constructing tribal lays,

and every single one of them is right." — Rudyard Kipling, In the Neolithic Age

We examined the certification requirements of the several states,^' and

found that many states do not require explicitly that their newly certified or

""^ "Going SI in Engineering Education," Cornelius Wandmacher, prepared for the Education

Conference.

E. H. Woellner and M. A. Wood, Requirements for Certificalion. 35th edition. University

of Chicago Press (1970).
46 EDUCATION

newly licensed elementary teachers have studied methods of science or mathematics teaching. In many states the entire mathematics requirement is a three-unit course in mathematics taken in college. The science requirement

is frequently submerged in the general education block of the bachelor's

degree, and the latter may be satisfied by a distribution of courses in which

it is possible to elude the study of science altogether. One may not expect

that science and mathematics teaching is done by specialist teachers in states with minimum requirements, for there is no such pattern in the use of specialist teachers. One may only hope that such deficiencies are recognized by

supervisors and principals and compensated for by inservice training, since one of the goals of inservice training is the orientation and training of new

teachers; but again there is no pattern.

The view of secondary school certification is more encouraging; most

states require that the secondary school teachers of a given subject have an

undergraduate major or a substantial minor in the field they are licensed to teach. A few states grant permanent licenses only upon the completion of a master's degree in subject matter, but most states grant a permanent secon- dary school certificate after the completion of a master's degree in education. Some, of course, grant permanent licenses to holders of B.A. degrees

with no more than a minor in the subject after some experience teaching it. These requirements are, to some extent, goals to be sought. The shortage

of qualified teachers in the last two decades has made the waiver of the

stated requirements commonplace, and emergency appointments have given

rise to certification based upon teaching experience rather than upon a for- mal exposure to subject matter. In secondary school science, the teaching of

physics is at a particular disadvantage in this regard, because very few high

schools need a full-time physics teacher; and, as a consequence, a teacher of

chemistry or mathematics is assigned to this task. A systematic attempt to remedy this situation is underway in the development at EDC of a college

curriculum for future high school chemistry and physics teachers. This pro- gram is being pilot-tested with several colleges. Like proerams are sponsored Dy the National Science Foundation m tne Kre-Service Teacher Education program (UPSTEP).

We consulted a state-by-state outline of teacher qualifications for junior

colleges,^*^ which gives state requirements, state recommendations when

there are no requirements, and some general practices in states which have

neither requirements nor recommendations. For academic subjects, the

qualification for a certificate or license or initial appointment is usually a master's degree in subject matter, leading to the description of a junior col- lege education as "2 years before the masters." For appointments in occupational education, the requirements invariably include work experience in the

subject to be taught, ranging downward from 5 years; rarely a master's

degree, frequently a bachelor's degree, and, with about the same frequency,

state certification as a vocational educafion teacher. This part of junior col- lege and occupational education is in a state of change, and one of the more

"To Work in a Junior College," American Association of Junior Colleges (1966).
CHAPTER IV 47

Table II. Junior college teachers of science, engineering, and

technology, by field and highest degree, 1966-67

(In Percent)

Fields Total Doctorate Master's Bachelor's Other**

All fields surveyed* .... 100 9 74 11 6 Occupational fields: Agriculture 100 6 79 14 1 100 2 64 28 6 Health 100 1 64 14 21 Technology 100 1 45 30 24

* Agriculture, anthropology, biological sciences, education engineering, health, home economics,

library science, tnathematics, physical sciences (classified as general, chemistry, earth sciences, physics, other), psychology, general science, social sciences, technology, interdisciplines, and other disciplines. ** 3% professional degrees, 3% no degrees, including associates.

frequent notations was "changes are under consideration," or words to that

effect. A survey made by the National Science Foundation^'' confirms this characterization of junior college teachers. Although 74 percent of all the

teachers surveyed held the master's degree, the distribution is skewed for

the occupational fields as shown in table II. Occupational teachers have

fewer doctor's degrees and less in the way of formal education than the

average of the survey. Another characteristic is confirmed by the work ex- perience of these teachers during the last 1 1 years: engineering, health and

technology teachers have had much more "other" work experience in the recent past than the average — presumably their work was in the occupational field in which they were teaching. This data appears in table III.^' Previous teaching assignments of junior college teachers were also studied,

and the results show that many are "promoted" from high school teaching,

particularly in science and mathematics. However, in the occupational fields more come from outside the teaching profession (table IV).^^

Table III. Full time junior college teachers of science, engineering

and technology by field and type of work experience, since

1955

(In Percent)

Total Teaching

only

Teaching

and

research

Other experience, in addition to teaching

and /or research

All fields surveyed 100 54 8 38

Occupational fields: Agriculture 100 58 8 34

Engineering 100 40 3 57

Health 100 42 8 50 Technology 100 38 5 57

""^ Junior College Teachers of Science, Engineering, and Technology, National Science Foundation, Washington. D.C., NSF Publication 69-3.

°" Ibid. Extracted from table A-7, p. 34.

Ibid. Extracted from table A-1 2, p. 37.

Ibid. Extracted from table a- 14, p. 39.
48 EDUCATION

Table IV. Junior college teachers of science, engineering and

technology by field and level of previous teaching assignment

(In Percent)

Total Junior 4-year High

college college school Other None

All fields surveyed 100 16 4 27 9 44

Occupational fields: Agriculture 100 13 1 27 5 54

Engineering 100 14 2 15 6 63 Health 100 16 4 23 13 44

Technology 100 12 3 14 9 62

The doctorate is effectively the teacher's license for college teaching.

Anyone who has earned a doctor's degree should have no problem in going

metric.

INSERVICE TRAINING FOR TEACHERS

There are many patterns and formats of inservice training for teachers at work. The following are a number of examples of inservice training patterns

for elementary and secondary schools.

Some school systems expect their teachers to start their year in August,

2 weeks before the start of school in September, and devote part of

the time to inservice training.

Some ^i'-hool svstems have set aside 4 or 5 days each year as vacations

for the children and meeting days for the teaching staff— Michigan

used to have statewide or area meetings on such days, but they have

given them up because of poor attendance.

Newton, Massachusetts, a large suburb of Boston, gives its teachers

released time of a half-day each week for professional improvement.

A regional school district, Macomb (County) Intermediate School District (Michigan), organized to provide central services to the local school districts in the region, offers consultant services including in- service training programs of various kinds, offered mainly after school and on Saturdays.

Detroit offers a program of 5-hour workshops, either on Saturday or on two afternoons after school, typically a week apart. The teachers are paid a small stipend for attending.

In Texas, which has a statewide textbook adoption policy, workshops

are held by the Texas Education Agency for the introduction of

newly adopted materials. About a third of their elementary teachers

have participated in a 1-week summer workshop on the AAAS

science curriculum.

On the other hand, California, another "textbook" state, depends entirely upon the local school districts to provide inservice training in the use of new curriculum materials. The state department of educa-
CHAPTER IV 49

tion chooses textbooks for all subjects in grades K-8 and provides

them to the students; but the state does not have the financial resources to provide resource personnel or guidance for every new

textbook adoption.

Atlanta, Georgia, has an elaborate television instruction facility which

has been used in an imaginative way. A typical inservice course consists of a weekly after-school session with a lead teacher once a month for laboratory and discussion, and an all-day-Saturday ses- sion at the end of the year. The science supervisor told us that she

trained 400 teachers a year in this way.

The United Federation of Teachers in New York City offers courses of

various sorts, including "minicourses," which teachers may take to earn increments, to satisfy other requirements, and to update their

knowledge.

There are school systems in which no formal program of inservice train- ing exists, including some quite large ones. Inservice training may be concentrated on the orientation of new

teachers and on remedying deficiencies in their preparation, with lit- tle or no involvement of experienced teachers.

Evening, Saturday, and summer courses at colleges, universities, and extension centers must of course be mentioned here, but the choice of courses and

studies is usually not under the control of the teacher's supervisor and the courses chosen are often not related to specific curriculum needs.

In general, resource people for inservice training include supervisors, col- lege professors, leadership-trained teachers, and consultants from state, lo- cal, and other school administrative units. In a metric conversion program,

resource people ought to include, in addition to the above, some high school

chemistry and physics teachers who have been trained at brief workshops to be sensitive to the problems of elementary teaching.

Secondary school principals, teachers, supervisors and consultants are in accord that 8 to 15 hours of inservice training would suffice to prepare

teachers for going metric. ^'^ This training would be a small part of normal in- service programs in schools and school districts which have substantial pro- grams. Schools and systems with more modest inservice training programs

would have to use whatever time might be available and perhaps stretch out

the training over some months or even the entire year— this would be far from ideal. In school systems in which no formal program of inservice train- ing exists, one may hope that the need for such training for metric conversion may prompt the formation of a regular program. Although this might ap- pear to some to be a cost of going metric, the establishment of an inservice

training program should be deemed a fringe benefit. The Educational Research Service has surveyed 496 local school systems

for the length of the school year for pupils and the number of contract days

John F. Kourmadas, National Association of Secondary School Principals, in a paper

presented at the Education Conference.
50 EDUCATION

Table V. Number of days teachers are available before school

opens in the fall, for professional meetings, and for systemwide inservice meetings *

Size of school district Average number of days

lOOK or more students 5.1 50K to lOOK students 4.7 25K to 50K students 4.6 12K to 25K students 4.0 6K to 12K students 3.8 3K to 6K students 3.7 4.4

* Excluding days after school closes in the spring, paid holidays and other contract days. Some of

the latter may be used for inservice training, parent-teacher conferences, or a day or two between

terms.

for teachers. From their survey results we have extracted the information

which appears in table V.

In view of the housekeeping chores for school opening, the time available

for inservice training seems marginally small. Furthermore, the results shown in table V for school systems with fewer than 12,000 pupils is probably biased upward, because schools which subscribe to ERS are probably richer and better administered and better able to conduct inservice

programs and more aware of the necessity for them. A few districts responding to the ERS survey explicitly mentioned 6 to 10 additional half-days on which students are dismissed so that teachers may engage in inservice training.

It seems evident that much inservice training must occur in after-school

and Saturday sessions otherwise unidentified, and that much of the inservice

training needed for going metric would have to be organized to fit these opportunities.

Elementary school teachers will require the most intensive inservice training. In the transition period, the easiest conversion will be for pupils in the

early elementary years. These children will, upon leaving school, enter into a world largely metric, and will learn on their own whatever customary measurement they need. Therefore, early elementary teachers must be especially at home with the metric system, for it is important not to confuse

beginners with two systems of measurement. The problems of later elementary and intermediate school children, in grades 4-9, will be different. These

older children will have had some experience with the customary system of

weights and measures, both in school and outside; and they will have to learn the metric system as a second language. These different needs should be

borne in mind in designing inservice training programs.

Teachers in early grades reported that children learn the metric system

quickly and easily. Several commented that they believed the reason

School Year for Pupils and Teachers 1969-70, Educational Research Service, American

Association of School Administrators and NEA Research Division, Washington, D.C., ERS

circular no. 4 (1970). The ERS questionnaire was mailed to all systems enrolling 12,000 or more students, but only to smaller systems which subscribe to ERS.
CHAPTER IV 51

for this was that the children had had so little experience with

British-American units and so had little interference from that system in learning metric units. In the upper elementary grades

knowledge of the British-American system does seem to produce some interference. One evidence of this is the children's desire to convert from metric to British-American units after they have made

a measurement.^'^

Inservice training for going metric should be tightly structured, well or- ganized, and preferably condensed into a short span of time, ideally just before the teachers begin to teach new materials.

The training should be similar to that which we hope they will use with

their students, as teachers generally "teach as they are taught." We

should consider some basic guidelines concerning measurement before going on. To begin with, measurement should not and really

cannot be "taught" through a series of planned lessons. Learning to measure (especially in a relatively unfamiliar system) is a gradual

process related to each child's experiences. Until a child has had the

opportunity to experience in concrete, comparative terms what a gram and a kilogram, or a centimeter and a meter are, the term "five

centimeters plus seven centimeters" is meaningless to him. Again,

it is much like learning a new language. We have discovered that we

cannot teach a new language (which the metric system really is) by

teaching the vocabulary and grammar of this language. The most ef- fective way to learn the new language is to use it in meaningful,

everyday oral expressions. So too with the metric language, children

will learn it best if it is not "taught" but experienced and used in some activity in the context of situations in which a child is actively

involved (sewing, cooking, caring for animals, racing "hot wheels,"

comparing heights of roommates, etc.)^*' The systemwide view of inservice training outlined in appendix Vl-a must

be fleshed out with detailed courses of training. A few programs would be

adequate for the inservice training of all elementary teachers, because ele- mentary school curricula are quite uniform across the country, and because

most elementary classrooms operate as self-contained units with one teacher

teaching everything. In school systems with mathematics and science specialists, other elementary teachers should have some metric background pro- vided for them at the time that metric units are introduced in mathematics

and science.

One such program, using educational television in part, has been outlined

for us and appears in appendix Vl-b. It is based upon a supervisor's successArthur H. Livermore, paper presented at the Education Conference, p. 1 1

.

See Match and Measure, a working paper published by the Elementary Science Study of Education Development Center, Inc., Newton, Massachusetts, p. 3. (Match and Measure

appears in its entirety in app. V I-d. ) This passage is taken from a system-wide view of inservice

training for going metric which has been developed for this Study by G. J. Putz. The recommendation appears in full in app. Vl-a.
52 EDUCATION

ful experience with inservice training for the use of Science — A Process Approach. A typical session would include a 20 to 30 minute television broadcast of a demonstration lesson made in the school system the year before,

followed by about an hour of measurement activities for the teachers to carry out themselves. These sessions might be viewed by small groups of

teachers, but an instructor need not be present. About six such lessons in a 2-week period at the beginning of the school year, together with one or two

face-to-face sessions of about 20 teachers and an instructor, would suffice to impart the knowledge base of the metric system, some teaching tactics, and

the use of metric equipment. This intensive program might be followed by a year-long program of monthly broadcasts of videotaped demonstration les- sons on either of two subjects — on teaching measurement, or on teaching the new elementary mathematics introduced at the time that elementary schools

in that community go metric.

A rather more extensive inservice training program has been outlined for us and appears in appendix VI-c. It is based upon the conviction that ele- mentary mathematics, particularly elementary science, can and should be

liberated from their traditional foundation in textbooks, and be built instead

upon a free and flexible array of teaching units and materials. Over a 1 0-year

period Elementary Science Study (ESS) has developed 56 units of this nature ^' that have gained a wide acceptance among many different kinds of

schools, including traditionally organized schools that construct courses from ESS units, as well as nongraded and other unconventionally structured

schools that encourage highly individualized programs of learning.

The experience of the ESS staff in running workshops for the introduction

of these materials (and the concomitant changes in teaching style and ap- proach) serves as the basis for the recommendation of an inservice training

program to introduce the metric system and new ways of teaching measurement. Match and Measure is one of the ESS units which could serve as a foundation for this inservice training program. It is reproduced in appendix

Vl-d.

The recommendation might lead to a "tree" of workshops, beginning with

a (series of) summer institute(s) to bring together regional teams for an intensive period of work and study: the institute participants would return to their

homes and conduct similar regional workshops with the help of central staff

if necessary, and the participants in these latter workshops would become

the leaders for local workshop programs. Such workshops might involve explicit outlays of money for some staff salaries and particularly for travel for

the participants. The supervisors and lead teachers who participate in the

central workshops may well have year-round appointments in their own

school systems, but some token stipends may be indicated for those who do

not.^** One-month stipends for all 1 0,000 summer institute participants would

amount to about $3 million. Travel and the cost of operating institutes might

See page 54 for a brief description of ESS. The National Science Foundation offers $75 per week to science teachers participating in the summer institutes offered under its sponsorship. This level has remained unchanged for 13 years and there seems to be no lack of applicants to fill the positions annually made available in NSF summer institutes. ,
CHAPTER IV 53

double the sum. This one-time expense may be compared to the NSF

summer institute program which awarded grants totaling $19 million in 1969. These 10,000 supervisors and lead teachers would operate regional

workshops to train teachers to run local workshops — all this in the

framework of existing inservice training programs.

A workshop of this type might equally well be built around the AAAS ele- mentary science curriculum Science— A Process Approach.-^'' It could use

the units developed for the processes of Measuring, Using Numbers, and

Using SpacelTime Relationships. The AAAS curriculum is more highly

structured than that of ESS in terms of having specified objectives, tasks, appraisals and evaluations. The experience of the Texas Education Agency in introducing the AAAS curriculum might serve as a model.'"' Recommendation: Since the knowledge base for the metric system of

measurement is relatively meager, and since a THINK METRIC campaign

should create the atmosphere, the emphasis in inservice training should lie in the strategies and tactics for teaching measurement in early and later ele- mentary years, and in achieving at least the beginnings of an easy familiarity

with metric units. It should be strongly activity-based because teachers

generally "teach as they are taught."

A special problem of inservice training deserves to be mentioned: it concerns the small fraction of teachers (about 5%) who teach in school systems

with fewer than 600 students (see app. II) and presumably, fewer than 30

teachers. Some special effort may well be needed to reach those who are geographically isolated and who do not take part in regular inservice training

programs.

Secondary school teachers are highly specialized: teachers of science and

mathematics probably do not need any special inservice training, because

they are familiar with metric measurement already. Teachers of other subjects don't teach measurement at all, and so they will not need as much specialized training as those elementary teachers who teach in self-contained

classrooms. They are in somewhat the same category as elementary teachers

who teach together with science and mathematics specialists.

Inservice training for occupational education teachers is a much more

diverse problem than inservice training for elementary school teachers. For

the latter, a single strategy or a few similar strategies can be used to train about a million teachers. These teachers are normally "clumped together" in groups of six to 12 or more in a single building, and many school districts have hundreds of teachers under a single supervisory staff. By contrast, oc- cupational education teachers are highly specialized and could not be

reached effectively in such a manner.'^' In addition, each curriculum is inti- mately related to the occupation for which it trains and cannot go metric exSee page 21 for a description of this curriculum. C. S. Story, Texas Education Agency, Austin, Texas.

In vocational education, there is the concept of the itinerant teacher-of-teachers who is an

emissary of the state vocational education office. He may visit a district for several weeks and

see the teachers in the district on a formal or informal basis, and then travel on to another district. This is more prevalent in agricultural vocational education than in industrial.
54 EDUCATION

cept as that occupation does so. One solution to this problem is found in the

fact that many occupational education teachers regularly return to work in their occupations for the summer or for periods of a few months to a year:

this work constitutes a revalidation of their teaching credentials and, of

course, keeps them up to date in the practices of their occupations.

Many of these teachers are local leaders in their occupations and serve on

local apprenticeship, placement, or other advisory boards and, as such,

would be involved in teaching metric usage to people already at work as well as to students in schools.

The above considerations apply to a static occupational education

establishment. But occupational education is linked to industry and commerce, which are dynamic. We shall explore below the implications of these

changes.

TEACHER "CONVERSION^' IN ENGINEERING

EDUCATION

Education is perhaps the least part of the problem of going metric in engineering. Given a time scale for metric conversion which would pose no

major difficulties for industry, engineering education would be able to follow

and produce qualified engineering graduates fluent in both measurement lan- guages.

Perhaps the greatest difficulties will be experienced by the faculty members who teach engineering design, for they will be required to

acquire and transmit a whole new basis of judgment. The wise adpionition constantly given students to "look at the results of a calculation

and see that it 'looks right' " will take on much new meaning for the

teacher and student alike. Changes in engineering laboratory practice are discussed on page 56, and

changes foreseen in the structure of the engineering professions are discussed in appendix VIII: both appear to be much greater challenges to engineering education than going metric.

C. Instructional Equipment

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE

Science has come to play a more important part than ever before in the

curriculum of the elementary school. The central emphasis of most

of this new science has been that children should learn from nature,

from setting and carrying through their own investigations. Thus it

is laboratory work and field work, rather than the use of texts and

"Going SI in engineering education," Cornelius Wandmacher, a paper presented for the American Society for Engineering Education at the Education Conference.
CHAPTER IV 55

lectures, that dominates this new development. Teachers' guides are often accompanied by kits of apparatus, specially constructed for particular uses the curriculum designers had in mind. Such equipment has proved its usefulness, and through its use many teachers

have discovered that laboratory science in the classroom can be an

exciting educational adventure.

As schools tackle an ever wider range of science topics, however, the

collection of special kits does not really add up to a generally well- stocked, reasonably priced elementary school laboratory. As

teachers and children are liberated from set lines of study, moreover,

and develop the capacity to pursue investigations where interest and

opportunity lead, it becomes imperative that the school have a wide

range of simple equipment and materials to meet planned lesson

needs and for improvising new apparatus as unforeseen investigations are undertaken. The design of apparatus is not the least of the

scientist's skills. The ingenuity and manual skill which may be called

forth from children in producing apparatus to meet their own particular needs are likewise an important part of science in the class- room. The child who has built his own apparatus from familiar

materials is more likely to relate his findings to the everyday happenings in the real world outside than are those whose experience is limited to the "conjuring trick" atmosphere of the ready-made

science kit. These words are taken from the introduction to an inventory of the things

that some science educators think ought to be on hand in a classroom, or at least available in the school's stockroom.''-' The inventory ranges from

blocks and tiles to microscopes (about a third of the entire cost), assorted

tools, miscellaneous hardware, materials to be consumed during a school

year, and junk. The list of measuring equipment seemed to be about equally

divided between metric and English, with perhaps some slighting of the metric. Many of the items on the list, both materials and equipment, are "scroungeable," and any such cast-off equipment would use English measurement. The cost of the measuring apparatus is somewhat over $100; it is a small fraction of the total inventory cost of about $800. A school system

which is prepared to provide expendable supplies of this character would

have little difficulty in providing the modest additions needed for going

metric.

SECONDARY AND POST-SECONDARY ACADEMIC

EQUIPMENT

In this category we find biology, chemistry and physics laboratory and lec- ture-demonstration equipment, geology maps and field equipment, and the

equipment of engineering laboratories.

«3 "Science Equipment in the Elementary School," Elementary Science Advisory Center, David Hawkins, Director, University of Colorado, Boulder 80302 (March 1967).
56 EDUCATION

Measuring apparatus in chemistry and biology is mainly metric already,

reflecting the practice of the fields. The amount of measuring equipment that would have to be replaced in general physics laboratories is negligible, and,

at any rate, it undergoes a general replacement or renewal in a period of time

comparable to any proposed period of metric conversion.

Geological maps are usually given to scale — typically 1:24,000 for the

quadrangle maps of the United States Geological Survey on which

1 inch = 24,000 inches = 2 ,000 feet or 1 cm - 24,000 cm - 240 m.

(These maps have mile scales on them so that the user may avoid the tedium

of converting inches to miles.) Tapes and stadia rods for surveying are rela- tively inexpensive items and comprise a small fraction of the investment in equipment for geology field work.

The classical view of engineering laboratories is set forth in the following

passage:

Engineering schools typically have large investments in experimental

laboratory equipment, almost entirely in English units. It will take

many years to supplant or convert this commitment. Although much

engineering laboratory equipment is becoming more scientific, it is also becoming more expensive to replace."^

A contrary view held by others is based upon the observation that technology has become a domain of rapid change, and that in order to keep

academic engineering current and abreast of change, it must be adaptable to the changes as they occur. In this context, the investment in big and expensive permanent instructional equipment is a thing of the past. There is a movement in engineering education toward an exploratory laboratory which

can be assembled at much less expense than the conventional laboratory.

This notion calls for smaller items of equipment in the college laboratory and moves out of the college laboratory into the industrial shop or other en- gineering surroundings for students to gain experiences with large equipment

and practical problems. Movement in this direction might be encouraged by

the speedier obsolescence of laboratory gear calibrated in English units. "'^

EQUIPMENT IN OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION

An estimate of the total investment and conversion cost in shop, laboratory, kitchen, and field equipment in occupational education can in principle be

obtained by finding out how many "shops" there are of each kind and what

a typical inventory and conversion would cost for each kind of shop. One

should be able to arrive at a national total initial cost, and a conversion cost,

by combining these data. We shall see that only the very roughest estimate can be made.

For a first try, we shall combine the numbers of teachers given in table VI,

with the equipment lists of appendix VII, under the assumption that each

'•^ "Going SI in Engineering Education," Cornelius Wandmacher, for the American Society

for Engineering Education, presented at the Education Conference. "^Newman A. Hall. Commission on Education. National Academy of Engineering.
CHAPTER IV 57

Table VI. Teachers and students in Federally aided vocational

education classes, by type of program, 1968

1 y UL pi all 1 Teachers* Students*

olUi-iCi 1 la/ teacher ifications**

Agriculture 12,278 851,158 69 8 Distributive 8,603 574,785 67 20

Health 6,508 140,987 22 19 Home economics 29,224 2,283,338 79 19

Office 31,405 1,735,997 55 11 Technical 10,318 269,832 26 28 Trades and industry 47,741 1,628,542 34 97

* Digest, pages 34, 37. *• Number of subclassifications for each type of program, as given in "Vocational Education Enrollment by OE Instructional Program," Planning and Evaluation Branch, USOE, 20 May 1970. (A

computer print-out of enrollment and completion statistics as reported by the states for FY 1969.)

teacher counted in the table has a laboratory or other instructional facility

equipped with some "average" inventory. The total investment can be esti- mated at $2 billion — this number may be wrong by a factor two, but it is probably not wrong by a factor 10. It is by far the major fraction of the in- structional equipment held by American education. We shall explore here

the questions of whether this estimate can be refined, whether a reliable esti- mate can be made for the cost of metric conversion, what replacements and

modifications would be needed in metric conversion, and what overall pat- terns of change can be foreseen for the next 1 5 or 20 years, which should en- compass any period of planned metric conversion.

Let us first ask: How many occupational education curriculum programs

of each kind are there?

Until 1969, data such as those in table VI have been reported to the U.S.

Office of Education (USOE) by the states, in summary form, by type of pro- gram only. The validity of these data and their usefulness to the leaders of

occupational education, who are responsible for planning and executing its programs, have been criticized by the National Advisory Council on Vocational Education and by others, including the Appalachian Regional Commission. The latter made a sweeping indictment:

There may be less reliable data systems for evaluating the expenditures

of over three-fourths of a billion dollars (each year) of Federal, State and Local funds, but if they exist, they are not obvious to an anxious

observer. '^'^

Recently, the USOE has been charged by law to secure more detailed

data, and these are now beginning to become available. The enrollments

within the seven types of programs are broken down for the academic year

1968-69, and the number of resulting subclassifications in that breakdown is shown in the last column of table VI. (We have noted significant omissions

in the "1969 printout," but presumably more refined data may be expected

to appear in the next few years.)

•^"^ "The Status of Secondary Vocational Education in Appalachia," Research Report No. 10, Appalachian Regional Commission, Washington, D.C. (October 1 968), p. 1

.

426-013 0 - 71 -5
58 EDUCATION

Before we leave the data of table VI, let us first note that the ratio of stu- dents to teachers depends upon the type of program, and that it varies by a

factor three. Then let us ask several questions of these data:

Is it fair to say that a typical curriculum involves n students (where n may

vary depending upon the type of program), and that the number of laboratories, etc., is therefore given by dividing the number of students by nl

Occupational education leaders say that's not a very good guess. May one say that each teacher has his own occupational education cur- riculum, and that the number of laboratories, etc., is equal to the number of

teachers?

They say that's not a very good guess either. Another sample of data may be found in the summary and tabulation of

the programs of the public community colleges of California.'*' In 1 967, there were 139 different occupational curricula taught in 81 colleges. Since then

12 new colleges have been opened. Some occupational curricula are taught

in almost every community college in California — for example, real estate,

general secretarial, vocational nursing, and police science — while agricultural inspection and laboratory animal technology are each taught in only one college.

The American Association of Junior Colleges (AAJC) has conducted a census of occupational education programs in 2-year post-secondary

schools. Questionnaires have been sent out and returned, and the data they

contain are being reduced by Professor Louis Wall of Western Illinois University, Macomb. The diversity of the programs reported has delayed

the completion of the analysis until accurate classifications can be made by

persons familiar with the programs themselves. Some preliminary analyses

will appear in the form of a report of the AAJC;"" while the raw data,

coded and available for further analysis, will remain with Professor Wall.

Presumably further surveys of this nature will be undertaken if this census

proves to be as useful as the AAJC expects it to be. Proprietary schools constitute a significant part of the occupational education resources of the nation. They are organized as profit-seeking, if not actually profit-making, activities. They are entirely dependent upon tuition

paid by their students, and their success lies in placing students who will satisfy their employers. Consequently, proprietary schools are characterized

by strong student motivation and efficient teaching of job skills. Recent

Federal legislation permits public school systems to send their students to proprietary schools with tuition paid in part by Federal vocational education

funds. Some proprietary schools seek regional or professional accreditation

"A Guide for California Public Community Colleges," Bureau of Vocational-Technical Education, The California Community Colleges, Sacramento, 4th edition (1968). Each college has transfer and other programs, in addition to the occupational curricula listed in this catalog. AAJC, I DuPont Circle, Washington, DC, is a coordinating and information-exchanging

body whose membership includes most of the nation's community colleges, junior colleges, and

technical institutes. The tentative title is, "A National Census of Occupational Programs in Junior Colleges."
CHAPTER IV 59

and the authority to grant associate and bachelor's degrees,'" while others

are concerned only with job skills and placement. In 1966, there were about

7,000 such schools with about 1.5 million students enrolled. A summary of

private vocational schools is given in appendix IV. Proprietary schools are very flexible in adapting to change: when a need for workers arises in a given

field, they can quickly staff and equip facilities and offer new curricula. They

have relatively small investments per student in plant and equipment, and

their teachers are untenured employees. Proprietary schools would have little trouble in following a metric conversion.

Equally elusive is the answer to the question: What are typical initial and

conversion costs for a shop of a given kind? There is simply no such thing as a typical inventory, because of the wide variety of occupational curricula

and the variability of the ways in which general principles (for example,

those of the internal combustion engine) are overlayed, in teaching, with oc- cupational needs and practices and local conditions. To continue the example, Diesel engine maintenance and repair may or may not be separated from

internal combustion engine maintenance and repair, and may be taught in curricula entitled —

Automotive mechanics,

Truck (or Diesel truck) maintenance.

Heavy equipment maintenance (cranes, bulldozers, and earth moving

equipment).

Stationary power plants,

Agricultural mechanics.

Marine technology, and others.

In any of these curricula, the local orientation may range from "keep 'em

running," to complete overhaul and rebuilding, to running under optimum

conditions tuned up by dynamometer and electronic measurements. The

equipment needs for these courses vary from the simplest hand tools to the

most sophisticated machinery and instruments. In addition, local conditions

may dictate a dependence upon surplus or excess equipment'' or upon in- dustrial gifts of used or new machinery, or the school may have the freedom

to purchase new equipment and to renew it frequently. With respect to metric conversion, these conditions, together with the philosophy of the faculty

and administration, may give rise to such responses as — We would modify our own machines — it would give the students some

meaningful projects to work on. (Blue Hills Regional Vocational

High School and Technical Institute, Canton, Massachusetts.)

It is not worthwhile to modify an old machine if modification should

cost as much as 10 percent of the price of a new one — we would

Proprietary technical schools are as concerned as conventional colleges of engineering about the changes foreseen in the structure of the engineering profession. They see it as a field of growth for their programs in technology. See app. VIII. " Made available by the Federal government to educational institutions through programs ad- ministered by the state departments of education. "Surplus" equipment is often just a little bit better than junk— "excess" equipment is usually usable.
60 EDUCATION

have to buy new machinery. (Milwaukee Area Technical College,

Milwaukee, Wisconsin.)

Even the question of simple hand tool replacement may give rise to widely

disparate answers in different shops in the same school. Here are responses

to a question about replacing fractional wrenches with metric wrenches in the course of normal attrition:

I expect a complete turnover in hand tools every 3 or 4 years, and my

budget provides for it. (Auto mechanics shop at Blue Hills.)

I haven't lost more than three or four wrenches in the last 3 years. (Auto

body shop at Blue Hills.)

In the face of this endless variety imposed by the availability of fu.ids, local needs, course structures and objectives, and teacher and student at- titudes, we secured the equipment lists compiled for over a hundred different

occupational curricula by the Division of Occupational Education of the

North Carolina Department of Community Colleges. The lists themselves

reflect local variations of the sort described above, but, nevertheless, we

have studied them and tabulated our results in appendix VH. The modification costs were typically the replacement of gauges, thermometers, and

linear scales as small components of larger systems; and the replacement of

lead screws and nuts, dials, gears, and other components of relatively costly

machines. Replacements and supplements include rulers and other measuring instruments, and small tools, such as fixed wrenches, drill bits, and taps

and dies. In only a few shops would the cost of metric conversion approach

5 percent of the total initial equipment cost, and in none is it as high as 10

percent.

In this context, it is appropriate to point out that shop machinery is depreciated over periods of 7 to 15 years, although a good deal of older

machinery is surely to be found in school shops. The need for modifications,

etc., discovered in this Study correspond to a year's depreciation at most: in a planned program of metric conversion that cost would not have to be taken

all at once, but could be spread over several years.

Conclusion: There are no adequate summary data on the numbers of

types of occupational education "shops" or on their equipment holdings.

Short of a door-to-door census and inventory, one can make only the

roughest estimates of the total cost of conversion in this domain. However,

the available fragmentary data indicate that the costs of going metric in occupational education would not be great: In atypical shop, it would amount, at most, to a year's depreciation, and in many curricula the cost would be

negligible, i.e. , less than a year's attrition and supplies budget.

PROJECTIONS FOR OCCUPATIONAL EDUCATION

We have discovered that only incomplete and marginally reliable information is available concerning our current programs in occupational education,

so we must expect even less reliability in any projection of the future, par-
CHAPTER IV 61

ticularly for a period of time long enough to cover a proposed metric conversion program.

Predictions for total enrollments in 2-year institutions of higher education

have been set down by the Carnegie Commission'^- under three different pro- jections for the next 30 years. These projections are accompanied by the

realistic reservation that they should be reviewed every 5 years. No breakdown is given in these projections for the distribution among transfer,

general, and occupational programs. Expected changes in the distribution,

the trend toward the enrollment of more older persons (older than 25 years,

say), and the availability of other forms of educational experience, such as a community service corps, an overseas volunteer corps, and the external

degree program," ' cast doubt upon the gross estimates of the Carnegie Commission's report.

A succinct statement was provided by a leader and planner in post-secondary occupational education.'^ In general, it appears that about 30 percent of

the students enrolled are engaged in occupational, work-oriented, job-entry

programs, taking into account national averages and recent trends in 2-year

post-secondary institutions. Many institutions and many state systems ex- pect this fraction to increase to 50 percent. The shift will not be at the ex- pense of current programs of general education or transfer, but will come

about as new funds and new building programs emphasize the occupational

curricula of the programs of 2-year colleges in order to bring their offerings

into greater accord with perceived national needs and students' desires. An

implication for metric conversion projections is to be found here: It is generally expected that new occupational programs are more likely to be

based in the behavioral sciences and health sciences, while existing pro- grams, which are based more in the physical sciences and are consequently more measurement-oriented, will expand, but at a slower rate than the

average.

A small conference of occupational educators was called with the (initial) intention of securing their views on the ways in which occupational education might be expected to develop in the next two decades, especially with

regard to any interaction with metric conversion. The conference did not, in fact, spend much time on these forecasts. It seemed clear that the improvement of existing programs and the laying of shorter-range plans were of more

concern, and that the problems of metric conversion in occupational education lie mainly elsewhere. However, information developed at that meeting

has been used throughout the body of this Report.

A new approach to this issue may lie in the establishment in the U.S.

Office of Education of a National Career Center for the Education ProThe Open-Door Colleges, the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, McGraw-Hill

Book Company (1970), p. 33 ff. The three projections all assume, state by state, the continuation of recent trends in the fraction of high school graduates going on to post-secondary study. One projection assumes the continuation of the national average of 29 percent of undergraduates in 2-year colleges; the second assumes that 60 percent of future growth will be in 2-year

colleges; and the third assumes that in each state the growth of 2-year colleges will follow the trend of recent years.

'' "External Degree A Hope For Millions,"" New York Times, 1 1 January 197 1 , p. 50. John Grede, City Colleges of Chicago, (formerly of University of Michigan).
62 EDUCATION

fessions.'^ In the face of the first numerical surplus of teachers in 40 years,

this Center will examine the nature of some of our outstanding educational

problems which we cannot expect to solve by sheer numbers of otherwise

undirected teachers. Among its concerns, this new Center may throw some

light upon needs for teachers in occupational education and, by implication,

upon the nature of the occupational education programs which are likely to be needed and established in the immediate and near future. It might, in time,

become the source of the type of detailed projections which we could have

used in this Study.

There is a deep-seated contradiction — some would say schizophrenia — in occupational education between the mobility of the individual in our country

and local responsibility for occupational education (and indeed for all education) in response to locally identified needs for trained workers. A recent study of the interaction between industry and occupational education deals

almost exclusively with the mechanisms for securing local industrial en- couragement and moral support for new programs to be financed by local, state, and federal funds. ^® While there are passages which refer to the need

for local surveys to determine demands for trained people, there appears to be little quantitative consideration to national needs, except for the en- couragement by national trade associations of programs to recruit young

people into their trades (which one might have expected in the manpower

shortages of the early I960's). It seems likely that similar interactions may

have to be developed between local governmental agencies and school

authorities for the programs of service to social and health needs which are expected to develop in the next decade or two.

In a somewhat different vein, occupational educators are concerned about

getting aspects of occupational education into the elementary schools. The

white-collar blue-collar distinction so strongly projected in elementary education and in advertising and television programming creates a set of mind

which directs secondary and post-secondary students into academic studies

to the detriment of perceived national needs for graduates of occupational

education curricula. (The last popular TV program with a worker for the

hero, or anti-hero, was "Car 54," which expired in 1963. The plumber and

electric lineman are always presented as friendly servants, while Daddy

wears a suit to work and carries a briefcase.) In reaction, organized occupational education seeks, to some extent, to create new images of different

kinds of careers as alternatives to white-collar careers based upon or following an academic education, and to project the images into education for the

youngest children. An explicit suggestion was made at a recent meeting on

vocational education —

that "occupational preparation specialists" might be attached to the

schools to see to it that the implications of education for occupation were attended to in all classes and at all levels and that all students were introduced to work skills, were given information about all

'^ Don Davies, "The teacher numbers game American Education (October 1970). TM Samuel M. Burt, Industry and Vocational-Technical Education, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York ( 1967).
CHAPTER IV 63

kinds of jobs, and some understanding of the world of work and

careers. Education of this sort — and especially a knowledge of the

world of work — should begin in the early grades of elementary

school and be continued through high school and beyond.

Conclusion: Theie are essentially no data upon which reliable projections can be made for occupational education. This is true at every level of

decision-making, whether it be local, state, regional or national. A commitment to set up any new curriculum is fraught with danger, for a sizable in- vestment in equipment, space, and staff must be made before a program can be offered; and if students don't enroll in it, then administrative embarrassment can be acute.'*

D. Adult Education and Workers on the Job

ADULT EDUCATION

To many Americans the words 'adult education' mean basket weaving

or Japanese ikebana. To others the words mean high school completion or learning to read or write on a 5th grade level. All are accurate. Adult education in the United States is an umbrella term for voluntary, usually part-time programs, the fourth force in education,

that level of nonacademic, often informal education beyond elementary, secondary, and university education.''^

A detailed classification of "continuing" education programs has been

given in an extensive study of the subject:

I. Traditional Programs

A. Adult Basic Education

B. High School Level and Equivalency Education

C. Adult Citizenship Education

D. Occupational Training

E. Avocational Education

II. Staff Training and Career Development for Government Personnel

A. General Needs

B. New Employees

C. Skill Updating and Management Training for Middle-Level

Career Employees

" E. G. Mesthene, Program on Technology and Society, Harvard University (report on a meeting on vocational education, 31 October 1968, p. 2). William M. Staerkel, "When Enrollments Give Technical Education Deans Nightmares,"

Technical Education. (May/June 1970) p. 1 1. "Adult Education and the Metric System," Richard W. Cortright, for the Adult Education

Service of the National Education Association, presented at the Education Conference. "Continuing Education," Melvin R. Levin and Joseph S. Slavet, D. C. Heath and Company, Lexington, Mass. (1970), p. 43. Part II of this classification is a reflection in continuing education of the trend in occupational education to train people for government service, a major

thrust of the study.
64 EDUCATION

D. The Federal In-Service Training Program: A Model for the State?

111. Citizen-CHent Education

A. Consumer Education

B. Driver Safety Education

C. Environmental Education

It is evident that many of the traditional programs in this classification fall under other sectors of this Study and need not be discussed separately.

However, one must be aware that the needs of adult learners are different

from those of children and that the adult learner will not respond to ap- proaches used for children. Teaching methods and materials must be ap- propriate for adult education.**' In formulating adult instruction in the traditional programs, one must explicitly take into account the fact that different individuals will start at dif- ferent places and that each is able to proceed at his own rate; and in particular, that they may have bits and pieces of knowledge for which adult education must fill in the gaps. and. on occasion, contradict what has been learned

in the past. Manpower training programs have carefully considered these

teaching problems.^'-

The THINK METRIC campaign might fall under part III, Citizen-Client

Education, of the classification given above, although one would hope it might be more effective than driver-safety education has been, recognizing

of course that there is an element of coercion and the learning task is easier

in changing one's way of buying butter to "Net Mass — 100 grams" than in learning to fasten the seat belt provided in one's new automobile.

THE TRAINING OF WORKERS ON THE JOB

We have not made any extensive study of the problems of providing train- ing for workers already on the job. Other components of the U.S. Metric

Study have been assigned the primary responsibility for this sector: ^-^ Component 2: the special cost analyses volunteered by over 1 50 manufacturing firms include personnel education among the cost factors

estimated;

Component 12: the analysis of the effects on labor, conducted in cooperation with organized labor, was designed to focus on workerowned tools and on employee education and retraining.

Nonetheless, we were able to secure the views of one large industry re- garding the magnitude of the on-the-job training effort they would need, and

As an example, see Hip Reader, Cecelia Pollack and Patrick R. Love. Book-Lab, Inc.. Brooklyn. N.Y. (1968). "Essentials for Planned Metrication in Manpower Training Programs for Adults." Donna

M. Seay. a paper presented for the New and Related Services Division of the American Vocational Association, at the Education Conference.

U.S. Metric Study Report. International Standards, National Bureau of Standards Publication. 345-1 (1970). pp. 43.45.
CHAPTER IV 65

we present them here to show that this component of education is substantial

but readily manageable, and that it will be no major obstacle from the point

of view of the employers.

At Ford Motor Company, the need for a variety of training programs has

been established. They range from a 1-hour training period for clerical and

administrative employees, much of which may be occupied by viewing a

film; to a 48-hour training program allotting equal time to theory and to practice for scientists, engineers, and workers in the skilled trades. Ford esti- mates that about 80,000 workers would have to be trained, at a total cost of

about $16 million, that is, at an average cost of about $200 per worker.

About 95 percent of the cost is accounted for by the salaries and wages paid

for the hours spent in (nonproductive) training.*^ General Motors has made

similar estimates and confirms the general picture, with perhaps a small

spread in the variety of programs and an explicit recognition of a period of

inefficiency."'^

It is worthwhile to put this cost item into perspective. The total cost of

going metric at Ford is estimated at about 4 percent of a year's gross sales. In terms of 1 969 sales of about $ 1 5 billion, this would be about $600 million. The cost of metric training, $16 million, would thus be only about 2.5 per- cent of the total metric conversion cost anticipated at Ford.

In making advance estimates of this character, it is virtually impossible to take into account the effects of a national THINK METRIC campaign. It seems reasonable to suppose that an early, imaginative, and widespread

THINK METRIC campaign could make industrial training tasks easier and

thus reduce the burden upon individual concerns. This would be an effective

way to transfer some costs of metric conversion from the private to the

public sector. However, the costs so transferred in heavy industry would be

only a very small fraction of the total cost of metric conversion.

On the other hand. Ford and other large industrial concerns and their trade associations expect to produce their own training aids for going metric.

One may expect these materials to be available at least to schools and per- haps to other segments of industry and to the public through industrial trade

associations and other coordinating bodies.

Recommendation: A system of cataloging and critical evaluation of in- dustrially produced instructional materials should be instituted as part of any

national program of coordination for education. Materials and particularly

films judged to be especially valuable ought to be widely disseminated, per- haps at the public expense, but at least with a public subsidy (it may be that the present reduced postage rate for educational films constitutes an

adequate subsidy for this purpose).

William K. Burton, Ford Motor Company, Dearborn. Michigan.

Roy P. Trowbridge, General Motors Technical Center, Warren, Michigan.
66 EDUCATION

E. Some Concerns of Education That Are

Not Truly Educational

In this Study we have tried to obey Bowen's dictum of concerning our- selves with our own business and not with other peoples'. In this regard we

recognize that many aspects of operating a school system are not properly

the subject of our inquiry and we relegate them elsewhere, but we admit that they may involve some cost to the school system. And because people al- ways ask about football, we cannot resist the temptation to make a few re- marks about athletics at the end of this section.

School building practices and maintenance procedures are the province of

the construction industry; size and substance of paper are the concern of the

paper and printing industry; and the measurement of fuel and food belong to those respective industries. Although clerical and administrative employees

of schools will have to learn to handle ordering and billing in metric units,

their training is part of the general problem of on-the-job training of business

employees; that too is outside the scope of this Study, except that the cost of

their training will be a charge upon the education system. Some arguments

about the cost of training nonteaching employees can be set down: The

number of people involved is probably closer to half a million than to a quarter million,^'' and the cost of training each should be somewhat less than

a hundred dollars.**** But very little of that would be an out-of-pocket expense

to school systems — most training could be carried out during working hours,

for the time of school employees is seldom as completely accounted for as

that of production workers. Using these assumptions and data, we may compute an upper limit to the one-time cost of training nonteaching employees,

and compare it with the annual noninstructional budget of U.S. education:

640,000 X $100 _ $64 M _ ,^

30% X $70 B ~ $21 B ~

Many schools have nurses in attendance who regularly weigh, measure

and examine students, and give first aid. Going metric in the nurse's office is properly the concern of the medical profession, of the scale and balance in-

"Going Metric in the United Kingdom," Gordon Bowen, Director of the Metrication Board, a paper presented at the General Conference of the National Metric Study Conferences.

Gaithersburg, Md., 16 November 1970, p. 3. An estimate of the number of people involved can be made as follows: about 70 percent of

the total current expenditures for the operation of public primary and secondary schools in a recent year was attributed to the cost of instruction (Digest — p. 53). This mainly pays the salaries of teachers. The remaining 30 percent must include large expenditures for fuel and other

supplies, and for contract work for maintenance, etc.; on this account one may expect that this fraction of the budget supports considerably fewer people in proportion, perhaps only half as many. If we apply the 70 percent to 30 percent distribution to all of education and to the 3 million teachers, then we may compute the number of nonteaching school employees.

'/2 X 3%o X 3,000,000 = 640,000 nonteaching school employees

Based upon Ford Motor Company's estimate of an average of $200 per person for 80,000

clerical, administrative, technical and scientific people. Most school employees would fall into the first two classes, for whom Ford has proposed shorter training programs. The cost will de- pend drastically upon the strategy and the timing of the THINK METRIC campaign.
CHAPTER IV 67

dustry, and of the thermometer industry. A beam balance costs $50 to

$ 150 — it is durable and could be modified at a cost of about 30 percent of the

cost new. Thermometers are fragile and expendable — at any rate, they cost only a dollar each.

Other general equipment needs on a one-per-school basis or on a one-perclassroom basis include metric wall charts, kits of metric manipulative

materials and other materials, the modification of paper-cutting boards with

pasted-on scales, etc. These are all comparable in cost to the nurse's scale

and thermometer.

We choose to make an exception here to Bowen's dictum, and to deal with

the question of that part of athletics which is based in educational institu- tions. Some games are played over precisely dimensioned fields (tennis courts and baseball infields), and others over fields specified to lie within

upper and lower limits (basketball courts), but most games are scored by

counting or by the tally of score points. Sometimes ratios of numbers are important. In track and field sports, achievement is measured in distance for jumps

and throws and in time over a fixed course for races. Small amounts of new

equipment would be needed in the form of tape measures and high-jump and

pole-vault standards. The layout of metric track distances should present no

difficulties, and American athletes regularly compete over metric distances

in international competition every 4 years. Let us take a moment to consider swimming and football, two sports that have precisely dimensioned facilities measured in yards.

Swimming is literally "cast in concrete." American swimming competition

is standardized on the 25-yard (short-course) pool and on the 50-meter (long- course or Olympic*^) pool. In general, the same people compete over both

courses and the same champions excel over both courses. Economics will surely dictate that schools and colleges will build only indoor short-course

pools for year-round use. and therefore competition will continue at this distance. There are only a few indoor long-course pools, notably in the

Payne Whitney gymnasium at Yale and at the military academies.

Football is the only mass spectator sport in which measurement plays a

central role. An argument can be set forth for keeping customary (yard) measure in football, based upon the observation that the game is played only in the U.S. and Canada.^" On the other hand, a change to meters would be an

important step in a THINK METRIC campaign, and it would open the field for new achievements and records. Putting aside the notion of playing on a 90-meter field^^ with stripes every 4 1/2 or 5 meters and a first down after 9

meters, one observes that the distance between goal lines has always been a hundred yards, but the location of the goal posts is not sacrosanct. In professional football the goal posts are now on the goal line, while in collegiate and

The term "Olympic pool" does not necessarily imply 50-meter length, and it frequently means just a large swimming pool. TM Discussion following the NCAA presentation at the Conference on Consumer-oriented In- dustry of the National Metric Study Conferences. Washington, D.C., 21-25 September 1970. (News report on the conference prepared by R. W. Carson, p. 10.) Ninety meters is 56 inches shorter than 100 yards.
68 EDUCATION

school football the goal posts are at the end of the endzone, that is, 10 yards

behind the goal line. Finally, we must ask whether space is available for larger football fields. Many school and college fields are inscribed in quarter-mile ovals used for track events.^- Jump pits and areas for other field events are often laid out

within the oval and beyond one endzone of the football field. By relocating

these facilities one can make room for a 100-meter field. However, much

professional football is played in baseball stadiums, most of which have

barely enough space for a 100-meter field, and some may not have enough

space. In addition, there may be a few football stadiums especially built for the 100-yard field. If these are the governing considerations, then football too is "cast in concrete."

One-quarter mile = 440 yards = 402.3 meters: 400 meters and multiples are common track distances for dashes, runs, and relays.
CHAPTER V- A PROGRAM FOR METRIC CONVERSION IN

EDUCATION

The program proposed here deals with a schedule for metric conversion in education, recommends a lead time for the preparation of new educational

materials, and suggests guidelines for making effective use of that lead time.

This proposal differs from the metrication program of the United Kingdom, which provided no such lead time. The reader may recall that in 1963

the British Standards Institute published the results of a wide consultation

with industry which showed a large majority in favor of changing to the metric system without delay, and that in 1965 the President of the Federation of

British Industries informed the government that its membership was in favor

of changing and that it sought government support for the principle and timing. Accordingly, in May 1965 the government announced its support in the

House of Commons and early in 1966 set up a committee to coordinate

government and industrial policies. In May 1969, it appointed the Metrication Board. The guiding principle of metrication in the U.K. has been that it

is voluntary and advantageous to all, and that any government agency would

have advisory powers only. All this from a standing start in 1965 to completion in 1975.

At the Education Conference and in our data-gathering efforts we have

frequently heard the opinion that very little could be expected to be done

spontaneously in the U.S., and that there seems to be a very small likelihood

that American industry will make requests or recommendations similar to those made by the Federation of British Industries. Indeed, we usually hear

that there will be reluctance to take any voluntary steps in the absence of a

national mandate, that is, a program sanctioned or perhaps even legislated by

the Congress. Therefore, in designing the program outlined below, we have

assumed that there would be a centrally directed (or coordinated) and

69
70 EDUCATION

universally accepted national program of sufficient strength to bring about

metric conversion according to a definite timetable, and we have further as- sumed a strong public relation campaign to THINK METRIC. - As a final prefatory remark, we would comment on the eagerness ex- pressed at the Education Conference and by the people we have interviewed

for the education sector to take a position of leadership in any national pro- gram of going metric. This implies that education be given a lead time of a few years and use it effectively, especially for the preparation of instructional materials and to implement a program to prepare the teachers of

teachers.

We consider next the principal components of our educational system

which would be affected by metric conversion: elementary school mathematics and science, secondary school science, undergraduate academic

science, and occupational education; and we shall take them up in reverse

order.

Occupational education, both secondary and post-secondary, is closely

linked on a one-to-one basis with the practices of the occupations for which

it trains its students; any schedule devised for the latter will perforce be appropriate for the former, and any other schedule devised for occupational

education would probably be unrealistic. The undergraduate academic science subjects are more or less metric al- ready, except for engineering and the physics taught in the preparation of en- gineering students. Engineering education, like occupational education, will follow practice.

On a time scale suitable for elementary school mathematics discussed

below, elementary and secondary school science would be accommodated

with little effort, for metric revisions of the conventional instructional

materials in these areas could be made on that time scale, while the new curricula are equally adaptable if not already metric.

Turning finally to elementary mathematics education, we find that it is quite independent of other sectors of the U.S. Metric Study. In our view, the

chief concerns in this area are intimately connected with the need for some

curriculum revision in elementary mathematics, and with the need to find

better ways of teaching and learning measurement, estimation, computation

with real numbers, and the practical use of the useful parts of mathematics

(as distinct from the intellectual and abstract parts of it). An orderly metric

conversion would require a lead time for the production of new curriculum

materials and for getting them into the classrooms. Three years would be a comfortable length of time. If local planning were to follow national

guidelines and adjust its schedules accordingly, then one might hope to achieve significant changes in the mathematics curriculum over a period of

2 or 3 years following the 2- or 3-year lead time.

The following recommendations assume the existence of a coordinating

body for education, nationally representative of organized education, which

can with authority set forth guidelines and recommendations for the effective use of the lead time.

The selection of this body is an exercise in educational politics. It should

reflect the concerns of "the big six":
CHAPTER V 71

National Education Association,

American Council on Education,

American Vocational Association,

National School Boards Association,

American Association of School Administrators,

Council of Chief State School Officers;

as well as the concerns of the education agencies of the federal government:

the U.S. Office of Education, the National Science Foundation; educational

publishing: the Education Division of the Association of American

Publishers; and others. For advice and implementation this coordinating

body should be able to call upon curriculum innovation organizations and

national educational organizations, such as the National Council of

Teachers of Mathematics, the National Science Teachers Association, and

the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Regarding textbooks and other instructional and curriculum materials, this body should do the following:

(1) Advise school boards and other textbook purchasers, such as city

and state agencies, to rearrange their schedules of new adoptions in order to be able to place metric books in the hands of students as soon as possible; and in particular, not to supplant currently held

texts other than with metric ones (except of course for the replacement of losses and small expansions already planned).

(2) Urge authors, editors, and publishers to make suitably metric

materials available as soon as possible, taking into account curriculum revision, as well as the mechanical conversion of customary

units to metric ones.

(3) Issue guidelines to authors and editors concerning correct SI usage,

and establish a clearinghouse for advice (a metric hot line, perhaps)

to authors, editors, publishers, and others; to answer questions immediately; or to secure authoritative opinions on short notice.

(4) Endorse authoritative recommendations for curriculum change, particularly in elementary mathematics.

(5) Promote the publication in the periodicals teachers read of articles on the proper use of SI, on what changes in going metric and what

does not change, on strategies and tactics for education in a world

going metric, on criteria forjudging instructional equipment, and on ways teachers may make their own equipment of free or inexpensive

materials.

(6) Encourage papers and discussion on metrication at conventions and

regional and local meetings of the National Council of Teachers of

Mathematics, the National Science Teachers Association, and other

teachers' organizations.

(7) Issue pamphlets and other short pieces of literature for teachers,

concerning the educational implications of the introduction of the

metric system, and encourage other organizations to do likewise in order to generate a diversity of styles and views. (A list of British
72 EDUCATION

publications, both national and local in origin, is included in the

Bibliography.)

In the field of teacher training' and retrainin(>, the central body should

develop teachers-of-teachers programs, including the identification of

problems to be faced in training elementary, secondary, and occupational

teachers, the production of whatever materials may be needed, and the

scheduling of workshops. Special attention should be paid to the problem of

reaching isolated teachers. It would be appropriate to call attention to the

deficiencies of preservice teacher training in mathematics and science education, and to seek ways to remedy them.

The central educational body should develop and proliferate equipment

modification schemes for existing equipment, mainly in the instructional

shops of occupational education. Plans should be provided for complete conversions to metric units, as well as for provisions for machinery to be useful

for both English and metric measurements.' Manufacturers should be en- couraged to make conversion kits available at minimum prices and to furnish

machine drawings to schools that might want to make their own conversions

as student projects. Local, regional, and state systems should be encouraged

to coordinate the purchase and redistribution of equipment, so that new

(metric) equipment may be placed in existing instructional shops and some

of the older (English) gear may be taken into new shops for the transition. The coordinating body should do the following:

(1) Establish a clearinghouse to identify and evaluate instructional

materials, particularly films and videotapes made for on-the-job

training, and to coordinate their use in schools.

(2) Establish a role for education in the THINK METRIC campaign.

Finally, the coordinating organization should make recommendations for

ways to meet any special costs of metric conversion in education. At the moment, we see such costs only in the domains of inservice training and handbook revision, but some other small costs may appear which we have not

identified here.

' See Machine Tools for Metric Production and Measure for Measure, both listed in Bibliography.
CHAPTER VI - EDUCATION AND A THINK METRIC

CAMPAIGN

. . . the tasks of teachers in schools and those engaged in industrial

training will be made easier when it is evident that the adoption of

metric measurement is not a classroom discipline but a major change

affecting every aspect of national life.'

Informing the public of specific measurement changes and the timing of

those changes is essential to the success of metric conversion. People must

feel that they are a part of the change: potential misunderstandings and ap- prehensions can be alleviated by a well publicized THINK METRIC campaign. Every sector of society will have a part to play in effecting the change,

but the mental hazards and educational "costs" in each sector could be

reduced by an effective and imaginative THINK METRIC campaign.

A complete campaign should include bus posters, billboards, radio, and

TV spots,- and long and short TV and film productions including "Sesame

Street"-like efforts and animated cartoons based upon the familiar figures of

the Roadrunner, the Pink Panther, and Mr. Magoo. It should enlist teacherfigures like Julia Child, the Galloping Gourmet, and Bill Cosby; and an ap- proach should be made to TV talk-show figures such as Joe Garagiola, Dick

Cavett, and Johnny Carson. Going metric should be carried as news and for

its intrinsic interest, and not as a public service gratuity.

' Goin^ Metric: the First 5 Years. 1965-69, the first report of the Metrication Board, 1970, London; Her Majesty's Stationery Office, p. 73.

- The Advertising Council is reported to have undertaken the design of a campaign based upon normal advertising strategy. They propose to survey the "market" and address the messages to the "consumers'" via public service advertising so that the only direct cost would be

that of production. ("Metrication, the Consumer and Advertising," Theodore F. Dunn, U.S. Metric Study Report. The Consumer, N BS SP 345-7.)

426-013 O - 71 - 6 73
74 EDUCATION

The creators of the popular comic strips, such as Li'l Abner and Peanuts,

might be persuaded to participate. How is it that the British creator of Andy

Capp has not been so engaged? Comic books seem to have become an ac- cepted mode of education, and even the classics of literature now reach a wide audience in this form.

The THINK METRIC campaign ought to have more rimes for THINK

than just one — perhaps some rimes for METRIC can be invented. The campaign should have some catchy tunes and jingles. Some imaginative thought

should be given to WEIGHT and MASS.

A THINK METRIC campaign should aim for the early conversion of

sporiscasters. Perhaps the easiest thing to do is to paint the outfield barriers

in baseball stadiums with their metric distances from home plate. Golf courses can be easily converted. Football was discussed above, and early and

serious attention should be given to that question. After the 1972 (or 1976)

Olympic Games, track and field events should be held over metric courses, with jumps and throws measured in meters. Commemorative postage stamps might be issued to mark the beginning of

a metric decade, and perhaps a new one could be issued each year to mark some special metric event, much as a Christmas stamp now appears each

winter.

The toy industry has suggested that special toys and games might be

developed to assist in consumer education.' In this connection, we have in- vented a "metric board" which is 1 centimeter thick, 1 decimeter wide, and

1 meter long. It is jointed and can be stacked up to form a cube 10 centimeters on the edge, that is, a liter; and the pieces are loaded to have a mass of

exactly 1 kilogram (figs. 1 and 2). Educators and scientists should be assured a role in the THINK METRIC campaign comparable to that of the media specialists in order to be sure

that the message that is delivered with punch is the right message.

Toy Manufacturers Association, U.S. Metric Study Report, "Testimony of Nationally

Representative Groups." NBS SP 345-12.
CHAPTER VI 75

Figure 1 . This is a meter-board. It is a centimeter thick, a decimeter wide, and a meter long.

It is scored all around each decimeter, and one end is scored in centimeters. The scores are

filled with blacking.

Figure 2. The meter-board can be disjointed and stacked up to make a liter-cube, or parts of one. The pieces are held together in the form of a board or cube by magnets or by dowel

pins. Note: Each piece of the meter-board/liter cube has its mass adjusted to exactly 100

grams, so that the whole has a mass of one kilogram. It is packaged in a clear plastic container which is graduated at 100-milliliter intervals, it is a most instructive experiment to measure out a liter of water and discover that its mass is one kilogram.
Appendix I

Program of the Education Conference

Contributions to the National Metric Study Conference on Education, National

Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, Maryland, 14 and 15 October 1970.

General Contributions

"Goals of the U.S. Metric Study"— Dr. Lewis M. Branscomb, Director,

National Bureau of Standards

"Metrication and Education"— Professor Jerrold R. Zacharias, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Curriculum Development

Intermediate Science Curriculum Study — Dr. Ernest Burkman

Education Development Center— Dr. Judson B. Cross

American Association for the Advancement of Science— Dr. Arthur Liver- more

Project QPS — Dr. Sherwood Githens, Jr., Duke University

Higher Education

American Society for Engineering Education— Dean Cornelius Wandmacher

American Chemical Society — Dr. Stephen T. Quigley

American Institute of Physics— Dr. Dwight E. Gray

Mathematical Association of America— Dr. Alfred B. Willcox

American Institute of Biological Sciences — Dr. John W. Thornton

American Geological Institute— Dr. F. D. Holland, Jr.

Support Activities

American Library Association— Mr. Don S. Culbertson

NEA Division of Adult Education Service — Dr. Richard W. Cortright

Association of American Publishers- Mr. Paul Millane

Elementary and Secondary Education

National Education Association - Mr. Allan West and Dr. I. A. Booker

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics— Mr. Charles Hucka

National Science Teachers Association— Dr. Bobby J. Woodruff

American Industrial Arts Association- Dr. Edward Kabakjian

Association for Educational Communications and Technology — Mr.

Richard G. Nibeck

Council for Exceptional Children — Mrs. Carol Fineblum

National Association of Secondary School Principals- Mr. John F. Kourmadas

76
APPENDIX I 77

Vocational and Technical Education

American Vocational Association:

Agricultural Education — William R. Jeffries Business Education— Dr. Harry Huffman

Distributive Education — Dr. Neal Vivian

Guidance Education — Mr. Charles G. Foster

Health Occupations — Mr. Dale F. Petersen

Home Economics Education — Dr. Alleene Cross

Industrial Arts Education— Dr. Orville Nelson

New & Related Services — Mrs. Donna Seay

Technical Education — Mr. Frank Juszli

Trade & Vocational Education — Mr. Lee W. Ralston

Summary and Evaluation

Dr. Berol L. Robinson, Education Development Center, Newton, Massachusetts; and Education Research Center, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Appendix II

Report of the National Education Association

at the Education Conference

A position paper concerning the impact on school programs of a planned

program of conversion to metric measurement, submitted by the National

Education Association of the U.S., 1201 16th St., N.W., Washington, D.C.

This paper was presented at the Education Conference of the National

Metric Study Conferences, held at the National Bureau of Standards,

Gaithersburg, Maryland, 14 and 15 October 1970. It documents the history

of the support of educational organizations for metric reform; and it provides

a clear and cogent statement of the advantages to be secured, of the adjustments to be made, and of experience elsewhere. Teaching aids are suggested

together with a schedule for going metric in education. Some estimates of

the costs are attempted.

It is reprinted here as a resource paper of this component of the U.S. Metric Study.

PREFACE

This paper presents the official position of the National Education Association, established by action of its Representative Assembly, and such in- formation as could be obtained within the limits of available time and

resources with respect to the Association's interest in, and consideration of, the metric system over a period of many years. We should note, however, that in a professional association of more than

a million members, whose responsibilities range over the entire gamut of

subject areas and cover all the learning age levels from nursery school

through the university, wide variation in point of view and degree of interest

is undoubtedly present with respect to the matter here under consideration.

In the preparation of this statement the NEA has had the helpful cooperation of many of its own staff units and also the collaboration of many of its departments, affiliated and associated organizations. In acknowledging their help, however, let it be emphasized that we do not presume to speak offi- cially for these groups. This statement may not in all cases correctly or adequately reflect the interests or policies of the cooperating units. Indeed some of them will present supplementary or comprehensive position state- ments of their own which may. in some particulars, convey somewhat divergent points of view. Nevertheless, we believe that by and large this state- ment reflects rather faithfully the prevailing sentiment on the part of the

teaching profession toward the adoption and use of the metric system in the

United States. Appreciation for valued help in formulating and evaluating this statement

is expressed to the following organizations, for the most part NEA Units and

autonomous affiliated and associated organizations: Association for Educational Communications and Technology; American Association for Health,

78
APPENDIX H 79

Physical Education, and Recreation; American Association of School Administrators; American Industrial Arts Association; Association of Class- room Teachers; Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development;

Council of Chief State School Officers; Council for Exceptional Children;

Home Economics Education Association; National Association for Public

Continuing and Adult Education; National Association of Elementary

School Principals; National Council for the Social Studies; National Council

of State Education Associations; National Council of Teachers of Mathematics; National Higher Education Association; National Science Teachers

Association; NEA Committee on International Relations; NEA Division of

Educational Technology; NEA Division of Adult Education Service; NEA

Journal Staff; NEA Office of Government Relations and Citizenship; and

the NEA Research Division.

THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF

METRICATION

The interest of the National Education Association in the adoption of metric measurement is not of recent origin. A century ago a few distinguished

members of the Association were advocating adoption of the metric system

of weights and measures in the United States. And through the years many

members have continued to support that position, especially some of the

profession's foremost teachers of mathematics and science and some administrators and curriculum specialists concerned with program development. The interest shown by teachers has by no means been universal and, ex- cept on the part of a few crusaders, has not been militantly agressive. Educators for the most part have believed that metric standards of measurement

are superior to those in use and that // adopted in the United States it would

be easier and less time consuming to teach the metric system. But few have

regarded it as their duty to press for a change in public policy on this matter. Many have had teaching responsibilities which seldom involved the application or interpretation of measurement devices. Many educators as well as

others, accustomed as they were to existing standards, were indifferent

toward, or actually fearful of, any proposed change even if they would admit

that theoretically there were many advantages.

For such reasons it is only in recent years that the voice of teachers on the

subject of metrication has been heard, from greater numbers and in more in- sistent tones.

Association Interest a Century Ago

The Nafional Education Association was only 12 years old when in 1869

it created a Committee on Coins, Weights, and Measures, with Charles L. Davis of West Point as chairman. In his report to the Association, at the
80 EDUCATION

convention in Cleveland in 1870, Dr. Davis referred to his work on a similar

committee of college educators which recently had presented a report and

recommendations to another organization in Albany. His report, which he

said was identical to that made in Albany, carried seven recommendations

toNEA:

( 1 ) That the Association continue to provide for intensive study of

planned metrication — "all its bearings and all its consequences";

(2) That the Committee be authorized to include as a part of its printed

report the statement made to the House of Representatives by John

Quincy Adams in 1821 and a lecture by Sir John Herschell on "The

Yard, the Pendulum, and the Meter";

(3) That all teachers be urged by the Association "to give special atten- tion and study to this subject";

(4) That England, France, and the United States should be urged to make certain changes in the then existing values of the Pound,

Franc, and Dollar and at the same time to fix a permanent ratio for

them;

(5) That the Committee be authorized to carry on correspondence and

otherwise promote its recommendations;

(6) That authors and publishers of textbooks for elementary arithmetic

be urged to "exclude from future editions every currency not recognized and established by law"; and

(7) That the Committee be authorized to "ask the attention of the

Government, and of all the associations for the advancement of

science and knowledge, to the expedience of changing the value of

the ounce Troy, and thus substituting a single weight for the three

now in use."

Association records do not show what follow-up was made on this report

either by the Committee or by association officers. Its significance lies in the

fact that one hundred years ago, in 1870, change to metric standards of measurement was of sufficient interest and concern to educators that NEA

created a special committee on the matter and heard its report at an annual

convention.

Opinions of Distinguished Educators and Other Eminent

Persons

From time to time professional educators acclaimed as leaders by their

contemporaries have spoken out on behalf of conversion to metric stan- dards. In 1880 the eminent superintendent of schools in Worcester, Massachusetts, Dr. Albert P. Marble, had this favorable comment but realistic forecast about the adoption of metric measurement:

The metric system is very simple. Its introduction at once would be a

great saving of time and money. But it will not at once be introduced.

How was it with the decimal system of money? It was a century be-
APPENDIX II 81

fore four-pence-ha-pennies and nine-pences disappeared from

general circulation; and then they would not have disappeared but

for the war. To apply the decima:l system to these reforms [weights

and measures] : The metric system will not become general in less than 100 years.'

The U.S. Commissioner of Education in 1944, John W. Studebaker,

stated in the magazine This Week:

The universal adoption of the metric system of weights and measures would pose no great difficulties for the schools. Indeed, if the

schools were to teach only the relatively simple metric system the

task of teachers and of students would be immeasurably lightened.

Similarly in 1 946 the long-time editor of the NEA Journal wrote:

I am thoroughly in favor of the widest possible use of the metric system

in education, industry, and everyday life. It is scientific, logical, and

easy to use and furnishes a necessary base for international cooperation in science and industry. The use of the metric system

throughout our life, based on a thorough teaching of the system in our schools, would be a great advantage. It would simplify the work

of education. Children are confused and delayed in their learning by

the miscellaneous and clumsy tables that have grown up in our English and American usage. If we will substitute the metric system,

children must be brought to understand not only the system itself which is relatively simple but also the difficulties of making the

change from present measures over to the metric scheme and the

great advantage of making that change.

Thomas Edison, Alexander Graham Bell, and George Westinghouse all were strong advocates of the metric system. So, too, was Andrew Carnegie,

who said, "The present weights and measures of the United States of America are unworthy of an intelligent nation today." ^ Likewise, Arthur J. Balfour, noted in 1895 that, "Upon the merits of the case I think there can

be no doubt. The judgment of the whole civilized world has long decided

that the metric system is the only rational system." ' In similar statements

all through the years prominent educators and other leading citizens have

in effect concurred in R. H. Pray's indictment in which he said, "The people

in the United States have relegated themselves to one technological lastV'^

' National Education Association. Addresses and Proceediniis. Washington, D.C.: the Association, 1 880. vol., p. 39. -Studebaker, John W.,7/!(5 Week. April 16. 1944.

' Quoted in the Twentieth Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,

The Metric System of Weiiihts and Measures. N.Y. Bur. of Publications, Teachers College,

Columbia University. 1948. p. 57.

^ I bid.: p. 118. -Ibid.; p. 118. Pray, R. H., "The Metric System is Simple," Arithmetic TeacherS: 179, April 1961.
82 EDUCATION

Significant Action by Various Educational Groups

Many associations of teachers whose work is directly concerned with the

development of understandings and skills in the use of measurement stan- dards have gone on record, at one time or another, in favor of planned metrication. Typical of such action are the following resolutions:

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (Adopted

by the Council, December 29, 1 922.)

Whereas, the metric system of weights and measures has not yet been

brought into general use in the United States, and

Whereas, the American Association for the Advancement of Science

has already adopted and published resolutions favoring the adoption

of the metric system of weights and measures in the United States; Therefore be it resolved, that the American Association for the Advancement of Science reaffirms its belief in the desirability of the

adoption of the metric system of weights and measures for the

United States, and recommends that units of that system be used

by scientific men in all their publications, either exclusively or else with the customary non-metric units in parentheses.

Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers.

(Adopted in Chicago, November 25, 1944.)

Whereas, the advantages of the metric system, well known to scientists and mathematicians, would be in harmony with the simplification

procedures which will be a part of the post-war reconstruction pro- gram, and

Whereas, the metric system reduces all necessary computation in measurement to the operations of whole numbers, thereby greatly simplifying the learning of arithmetic by children, and

Whereas, there has been a long steady trend in metric adoption by 55 of

the 57 countries of the world, and

Whereas, there is no probability among the n.ations now on a metric

basis of going back to the English system, thus necessitating the use

of two systems with the accompanying inconvenient and time-consuming inter-conversions instead of one simple system, and

Whereas, the close of this war will furnish an opportunity never before

presented, when customs and habits have been torn loose from their

ruts; Therefore be it resolved, that the Central Association of Science and

Mathematics Teachers go on record as favoring some form of

legislation for immediate metric usage in those lines most feasible for

metric adoption.
APPENDIX II 83

National Science Teachers Association. (Adopted at Pittsburgh,

July 4, 1944, as the Association's first item of business.)

Whereas, the present practice in the United States involves the use of

many and various methods of measurements which in total are a conglomeration which is cumbersome to learn and unwieldy to use, and

Whereas, the metric system furnishes the most simple self-related and

convenient units which may be handled in decimals—just as is our monetary system, and

Whereas, practically every country in the world, except the United

States and Great Britain, has long since converted to the metric

system both internally and internationally, and

Whereas, in the United States many industries (e.g., electrical, American Medical Association, United States Army — about 90%) have

already adopted the metric system, and

Whereas, the majority of men in service and many of those in industry

are already familiar with the metric system, and

Whereas, at the time of retooling after the war it will be much less ex- pensive for industry which is not already using the metric system to make such conversion, and

Whereas, in international relationships, especially trade, it will be of obvious value to use the same system used by other nations (except

Great Britain) for periods ranging from over 20 years to over a century;

Therefore be it resolved, by the National Science Teachers Association,

central organization of groups of people interested in science and in education in these United States, that this organization hereby urges

Congressional action for post-war national adoption of the metric

system of measurements.

Furthermore, the Association is hereby empowered to take any necessary action to promote the purpose of this resolution.

Significantly, the Board of Directors of the National Education Association at its next regular meeting voted to support the foregoing resolution of

NSTA. While from such records as remain it would seem that this NEA

"support" was chiefly "verbal," the endorsement given by the Board of

Directors was an indication of a continuing, if somewhat latent, interest. It was also one recognized form of announcing official Association policy and

as such constitutes a significant step.

Association of Teachers of Mathematics in New England,

Connecticut, Valley Section. (Adopted at Northampton,

Massachusetts, April 1946.)

Whereas, the present systems of measurement in the United States are cumbersome to learn and unwieldy to use, and
84 EDUCATION

Whereas, the metric system reduces all necessary computations in measurement to the operation of whole numbers, thereby simplifying the

learning of arithmetic and the use of arithmetic for computation, and

Whereas, the electrical, radio, jewelry, and optical industries, the American Medical Association, the national and international sports or- ganizations, and the United States Army are now using the metric

system in whole or in part, and

Whereas, the metric system has been adopted by 55 of the 57 countries

of the world:

Be it resolved, that this Association go on record as favoring legislation

by both the Federal Government and the various states for immediate adoption of the metric system throughout the United States,

and

Be it further resolved, that this Association is hereby empowered to take necessary action to promote the purpose of this Resolution.

These resolutions are significant for several reasons: (a) they indicate that over the past half century a mounting interest in planned metrication has

begun to surface in the educational groups most directly involved with the

teaching and application of measurement systems; (b) they represent official group action, as contrasted with individual pronouncements; (c) they are unanimous in declaring that adoption of the metric system would be advantageous educationally — to both teachers and learners; (d) they concur in the belief that official action by the government (not merely education, per- suasion, and piecemeal adoption) will be necessary for effective conversion

to metric standards; and (e) they show that educators consistently are aware

of, and concerned with, the noneducational impact of planned metrication as well as with its educational effects, i.e., with its social, industrial, economic,

and diplomatic implications.

Recent Official Action

At the Dallas convention of the National Education Association in 1968

a resolution was adopted which for the first time committed the NEA offi- cially to an action program in support of planned metrication — to association support of federal legislation that would bring about conversion to metric measurement. The resolution stated: The National Education Association recognizes the importance of the

metric system of weights and measures in contemporary world commerce and technology.

The Association believes that a carefully planned effort to convert to the metric system is essential to the future of American industrial

and technological development and to the evolution of effective

world communication. It supports federal legislation which would

facilitate such a conversion.

The Association believes it is imperative that those who teach and those

who produce instructional materials begin now to prepare for this
APPENDIX II 85

conversion by urging teachers to emphasize the rise of the metric

system in regular classroom activities/

The following year in Philadelphia a similar resolution was enacted. Then

in 1970 in San Francisco the Association adopted its current resolution on

the subject and made it part of the "continuing resolutions." These resolutions are reintroduced each year automatically, and thus continue so long as they are reapproved by the delegates in later Representative Assemblies.

The text of the 1970 Resolution (C-16) reads as follows:

The National Education Association believes that a carefully planned

effort to convert to the metric system is essential to the future of

American industrial and technological development and to the

evolution of effective world communication. It supports federal

legislation that would facilitate such a conversion.

The Association declares that, commencing with the 1971-72 school

year, teachers of all grades should teach the metric system as the primary system of weights and measures of the United States.

In the Association's Representative Assembly, where at any given time

from 4,000 to 6,000 delegates participate in the business sessions, this resolution and the two similar ones of 1968 and 1969 sessions, respectively, were passed with virtually unanimous support. These repeated expressions

of interest, and the specific action called for seem clearly to represent a new

dimension in Association commitment.

In 1969 the National Science Teachers Association reaffirmed its tradi- tional support for planned metrication in the following "position statement,"

prepared by its Committee on Issues and approved by the Association's

Board of Directors, July 21 , 1969:

The National Science Teachers Association applauds the authorization

by Congress in July 1968 of a study of the advantages and disadvantages of converting to the metric system. We recognize the need

for an objective evaluation of all aspects of the conversion process

and for sound guidance in planning and implementing those changes

essential for a more extensive use of the metric system in the United

States. The efficiency and effectiveness of the metric system have long been

evident to scientists and educators. The desirability of a worldwide,

uniform system of measurement is obvious; approximately 90 per- cent of the earth's population resides in nations committed to the

metric system. For the United States, conversion appears necessary

and inevitable. The Association therefore strongly urges that the

metric system and its language be incorporated as an integral part of

the education of children at all levels of their schooling.

And in the same year the Board of Directors of the National Council of

^ National Education Association. Addresses and Proceedings, vol. 106. Washington, D.C.:

the Association, 1968. p. 53 1

.
86 EDUCATION

Teachers of Mathematics restated that association's interest in a resolution

which reads, in part, as follows:

'"Be it resolved, that the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

encourage the universal adoption of the metric system of measure.

. . While the Board of Directors favors the universal adoption of the

metric system, it is also aware of the complexity of this issue and is familiar with the history of many past attempts to effect such adoptions. The Board hopes to contribute in the long run to the adoption

of the metric system through the contemplated NCTM supplementary publications on the metric system and through the encouragement of the President to speak out in its favor at appropriate opportunities."

Three state education associations report that they, too. have adopted

resolutions which commit them to the support of planned metrication. Copies of these resolutions were not available for inclusion here, but the as- sociations involved are: Illinois Education Association; Missouri State Teachers Association; and Pennsylvania State Education Association.

The Special Interests of Various Educational Groups

Among the NEA staff units and the organizations closely allied to NEA,

which collectively are sometimes called the NEA family, many that have

taken no official action and done little if anything to promote the idea of

change to metric measurement are nonetheless aware of the issues. They are watching and listening with keen interest, knowing that conversion to metric

measurement would have both direct and indirect impact on the programs

and responsibilities of their members. Some have gone no further than to speculate; others are beginning opinion surveys and other evaluative

procedures. Typical of such interest is that expressed by the: Association for Educational Communications and Technology and by the

related staff unit, NEA Division of Educational Technology — specizii in- terest in the equipment changes that would be made and in the need for new

and revised audio-visual materials in the effective teaching of metric measurement.

American Association for Health, Physical Education, and

Recreation — spec\a\ interest in the use of metric units in the construction or modification of athletic areas and athletic equipment, and use of metric measurement in field events, swimming meets, and other athletic contests, in- cluding the impact of these changes on American interest, understanding of,

and participation in international athletic competition.

American Association of School Administrators — concern about the implications for school management, such as purchasing by the new standards;

maintenance during the transition period; construction plans; obsolescence

and cost of essential new equipment. Also, the Association is aware of an in- herent impact on curriculum development, supervision, and inservice pro- grams.
APPENDIX II 87

American Industrial Arts Association — interest centers on how a new

system of measurement will' affect shop procedures, equipment obsolescence, and pupil achievement in industrial arts classes. Association of Classroom Teachers — specia\ interest pertains to the impact of planned metrication on both preservice and inservice preparation and on curriculum revision and the modification of classroom procedures. Also,

the Association is interested in the extent to which metric measurement

would, in fact, simplify the teachers' task. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development— specia\ in- terest in what revisions of curriculum would be needed, including possible

economies in time for teachers and students, and in the supervisory leadership which implicitly attends any major program change.

Council of Chief State School Officers — concerned with the total impact

of planned metrication on a state school system: its administrative, financial,

supervisory, and curriculum implications; its effect on teacher preparation

and especially on pupil achievement.

Council for Exceptional Children — concerned with the potential simplification of teaching-learning procedures for slow learning children.

Committee on International Relations ( A'E/4 ) — interested in the influence

of a common system of measurement on the practical problems and effective

communication of international travellers, especially teachers and students.

Home Economics Education Association — special interest in the "con- sumer education" which will be needed in home economics classes as stu- dents begin to use metric units in cooking recipes and for garment sizes,

fabrics, patterns, and other household measurements.

National Association for Public Continuing and Adult Education and the

related staff unit, NEA Division of Adult Education 5^n'/ce — special in- terest in the kind and amount of education that will be needed for effective use of metric measurement by adults familiar only with the current system.

National Association of Elementary School Principals and also the

National Association ofSecondary School Principals — concern with the impact of metric measurement on both the administrative and supervisory

problems of a building principal, such as: changes in equipment and materials; teacher preparation; curriculum revision; and pupil achievement.

National Council for the Social Studies — interest in the extent to which

our adoption of the metric system would contribute to the development of

common worldwide understanding and effective communication. Also, the

Association is considering the implications of the introduction of maps

scaled to and interpreted in terms of metric units of measurement.

National Council of State Education Associations — special interest in the

present attitudes of teachers toward the proposed change and in what would

be the optimum timetable for conversion to new standards.

National Higher Education Association — concerned especially with: the

potentially better preparation of students to use metric measurement in col- lege classes, in science and mathematics; and with the colleges' new responsibilities in teacher preparation if a new system of measurement is adopted.

A brief poll of state education associations in late August 1 970 brought

out the fact that three have adopted resolutions favoring change to the metric
88 EDUCATION

system: Illinois, Missouri, and Pennsylvania. In addition to the three state associations resolutions already referred to, there is some awakening in- terest in metrication among these state groups." Exploratory studies, under

state association sponsorship, have been made in both Kansas and Indiana.

In the latter state a resolution will be introduced at the association's annual

meeting in October 1970. In 41 states where no official action has been

taken and no special study made, it is the opinion of the executive secretary

in 28 of those states that a majority of the association's members would

favor U.S. adoption of metric standards. In contrast, only four executive

secretaries are of the opinion that a majority probably would oppose such a change. Nine of the respondents were too uncertain as to teacher attitudes

to offer an opinion.

Each state secretary was invited to submit any personal reaction he cared

to give, either pro or con. Six submitted strong supporting statements; none

registered strong personal opposition. Significantly, too, only four of the 44

states responding indicated that they had little interest in the metric conference. Thirty-one were familiar with NEA's official position with respect

to metrication; 12 admitted that they did not know what NEA's position was

or whether there was an official position. One was misinformed, believing

that NEA was officially opposed to any change. This poll reflects no

widespread aggressive interest at the state association level, but like other

indicators seems to denote growing awareness of, and interest in, U.S. adoption of metric standards.

Metric Measurement in Today's Schools

The one safe generalization about what, when, and how anything is taught

in American schools is that no two schools are doing it exactly alike!

However, the following observations with respect to metric measurement in today's schools seem to be generally valid. First, instruction about the metric system in elementary schools — even

the better ones —usually is brief and superficial. Occasionally it may be in- troduced as early as grade 6, but usually not until grades 7 or 8. The pupil

may learn that there are metric units and learn the names of some of them

such as meter and kilogram, through his general reading in English, social

studies, or science classes. This, however, seldom leads to formal study of

the metric system. If taught at all — and sometimes it is omitted — metric measurement is taught in arithmetic and/or science classes. The time and attention given to it varies widely but for the most part is quite limited. Second, the teaching of metrics for the most part is about a system that "could be used" and that "some people use"; not as a system that "we are going to use, and you must learn to use." Even in science classes where metric measurement is used without conversion to imperial units the students

learn it as the "language of science" rather than the measurement system for everyday use by all the people. For pupils in today's school metric measure-

" This poll was carried out with the helpful cooperation of the National Council of State Education Associations.
APPENDIX II 89

ment is merely a second system, a parallel system; not the basic system.

They do not learn to "think metric." In their problems and even in the practice measurements they make with metric-scaled instruments — if any — they

typically translate the metric units into the more familiar English units. They

think about metric units in about the same way as about cubits, or fathoms,

or furlongs. Teachers aware of the common shortcomings compare metric

instruction as it is now given with the notoriously ineffective "translation

method" in the teaching of foreign languages. What is needed, they say, is a

direct approach: the use of metric standards until the pupil can apply them

and "think metric."" It was the inherent difficulty in any such "translation

approach" which led Donovan Johnson to say: "The successful teacher of

mathematics is like a builder of bridges. He must build a foundation for any new concept for each student by using concrete experiences."^" And another

educator puts it this way: "Education in the use of the metric system will not succeed so long as pupils must be taught to convert metric to English and to think English. There must be use of one system to make the teaching of that one system effective." In spite of this obvious fact a great many elementary schools do not have

a single meter stick, metric balance, or any measure of volume calibrated to show cubic centimeters or liters. Without such tools for application and

direct experience, any instruction must necessarily deal with abstract ideas

and the manipulation of numbers.

Third, research indicates that instruction in metric measurement is gradually improving, as schools move into contemporary mathematics pro- grams. In the so-called New Math program more attention is given to number systems, especially the base-ten system. Newer texts and course

outlines, too, seem to include more materials and provide more experience

in actual metric measurement than could be found in comparable texts and

courses of study a few years ago.'- An aggressive experiment to improve in- struction in metric measurement on a statewide basis is getting underway in Mississippi. The Director of this "Project for Metric Research" is Dr. John

M. Flowers, Department of Science, University of Mississippi. Initial response to the program, which involves the mathematics and science pro- grams of all grade levels, has been excellent and significant progress already

is claimed for it.'^ Many schools, too, are beginning to discover and use such

special materials as F. J. Helgren's Metric Supplement to Mathematics, now

distributed by the Metric Association, and Science— A Process Approach,

developed by a joint commission of the American Association for the Advancement of Science with support from the National Science Foundation

and marketed by the Xerox Education Division of the Xerox Corporation.

" For a typical presentation of this point of view see: Pray, R. H.,op. cit.

"' Joiinson, Donovan II., "Instructional Materials in the Mathematics Classroom," NEA

Journal 56: 40; May 1967. "Johnson, J. T., Official Report, American Educational Research Association, Washington,

D.C.: AERA, February 1936.

'^ Friebel, Allen C, A Comparative Study ofAchievement and Understanding of Measure- ment Among Students Enrolled in Traditional and Modern School Mathematics Programs.

Doctor's Dissertation. Berkeley: University of California, 1965. p. 288. Metric Association Newsletter, vol. 5, No. I.February 1970. p. 3.

426-013 0 - 71 -7
90 EDUCATION

Finally, most educators agree, however, that truly effective teaching of

metric measurement will come only when the metric system is adopted and

incorporated into the fabric of daily living. So long as it is a second system,

teaching fallacies such as these will persist:

(1) Instruction which should begin no later than grade 3 will be postponed.

(2) Nearly all the teaching will involve association with, and conversion

to, the conventional units.

(3) Many elementary schools will spend only a week or so on metric

measurement — perhaps in grades 7 or 8 — and never refer to it again.

(4) Metric rulers, etc., will continue to have English units "tagging

along."

(5) Text materials and problems will be abstract and superficial.^^

Because of present day superficial and varying programs, many students

arrive in the shops and laboratories of the secondary schools and colleges

without knowing how to use metric measurement. They are likely to find

themselves quite handicapped if they work alongside others who have been

introduced to the metric system. As an example of the neglect all too com- monly found an industrial arts teacher writes, "Few, and in many cases none, of the industrial arts students in my classes have facility with the use

of decimal equivalents of fractional-inch measurements, much less with their

metric equivalents."'^ And a college teacher, complaining of the same

weakness in basic instruction, reports that in a test given to 55 college

students:

(a) Only 1/3 could give a reasonably good definition of the metric

system.

(b) About 1/2 knew the millimeter, centimeter, and meter; 1/3 knew the

liter; 1/4 were familiar with the kilogram.

(c) All said they had had very little instruction about the metric

system./®

Educational Advantages of the Metric System

The educational advantages of the metric system pertain chiefly to two

facts: ( 1 ) the simplicity and interrelatedness of metric units in contrast to the

highly complex and unrelated units of conventional measurement; and (2)

the simplicity of computation with whole numbers and decimals in contrast with computation with mixed numbers and fractions.

As to the first point, relative complexity, one advocate of metric measure- ment says:

While any intelligent child can learn and carry in his mind the whole

metric system in three lessons, and any adult can master the same in

Helgren, Fred J., "The Metric System in the Elementary Grades." Arithmetic Teacher 14: 349-52: May 1967. Anderson, W. J., 7o(//-/ja/o//«(/;/sm'fl//)r?* 25:5 1 ; March 1966.

'« Whitcraft, L. H., 20th Yearbook, NCTM, 1948. op. c;7.
APPENDIX II 91

one hour or less of serious study, no man ever has, and probably no man ever will, master the United States system of weights and

measures.'^

In support of such criticism it is pointed out that we have different kinds of measures bearing the same name: two kinds of pounds (Troy and avoirdupois); dry and liquid quarts; eight kinds of tons; and 56 kinds of bushels! We

have measurement units with limited use such as the cord, board feet, and

many others. Standard units interrelated one to another would greatly

reduce the number of items to be remembered and used.

As to the computation load, Morgan and others have used a simple

problem to illustrate the difference: For a cubical tank 6 ft. 9 1/2 inches on

each side find: (1) the volume; (2) the liquid capacity; and (3) the weight of

the full tank of water.'* In English units the pupil converts the tank dimensions to inches and multiplies; then divides the 541343.375 cubic inches by 1728 to get the volume

of the tank in cubic feet. Likewise, he divides the 541343.375 cu.in. by 231

to get the number of gallons. Then to get the weight of the water in a full tank

he multiplies the 313.277 cubic feet by 62.5 and divides by 2000 if he wishes

to reduce it to tons. These are lengthy multiplications and divisions, involving some 250 numerals and replete with chances for error. In metric units the task is much simpler. The cubic content is 2.07x2.07

X2.07, or 8.869743 cubic meters. With 1,000 liters in a cubic meter the

liquid capacity is immediately obvious and arrived at by a shift in the decimal point: 8869.743 liters. And since the weight of a liter of water is by

definition a kilogram, the tank full of water weighs 8869.743 kilograms.

Only 39 numerals are used; one decimal point is moved; there are no lengthy

processes; the number of "chances" for error is greatly reduced.

Nearly all teachers foresee some simplification of the learning process

from the adoption of the metric system, and some economy of time that would result from it. How much the advantage would be and how much time

would be saved still remain in the area of speculation and conjecture. One

group that is interested in the teaching advantages of metric measurement

consists of the teachers of retarded or slow learning pupils, for whom conventional tables of weights and measures and problems that involve the multiplication and division of fractions and mixed numbers are sources of ex- treme and constant difficulty. C. J. Arnold'^ makes no effort to predict actual

saving in teaching-learning time, but says that obviously it takes twice as long to learn two systems as one, plus time to learn how to convert the units

of one system into the other. Therefore, he concludes that to give adequate

preparation for the use of a dual system we make the teaching task about

four times as difficult as it should be. Some have attempted to be more precise. Ratcliff reports that "educators

estimate that the metric system, by eliminating fractions, would save at least

Wells, William C, Scientific Monthly 4: 1 96-202; March 1917. Morgan, Joy Elmer. Quoted in 12th Yearbook, National Council of Mathematics, 1948. (For complete citation see footnote 3.

)

Arnold, C. J., Minnesota Journal ofEducation. 26:288 89; March 1 946.
92 EDUCATION

a year of time spent by children in learning arithmetic. Both Martin^^ and

Johnson22 have doubled this estimate, predicting that the time an elementary

child spends on arithmetic for 2 years would be saved. Johnson says that schools now spend three times as much time on fractions as on decimals, a

ratio that could be reversed if the metric system were in general use. hven more daring is the widely quoted estimate by Floyd W. Hough,

chairman of the American Geophysical Study of the Metric System:

Teachers of mathematics will agree that fully 25 percent of a child's time and the teacher's as well, could be saved in arithmetic courses

if the simple interrelated metric decimal units were substituted for

the English system of measurement. Such monstrosities as proper

and common divisors and mixed numbers could be laid to rest with

the celluloid collar and the oxcart.-^

If the saving actually could be as great as 25 percent, or even the

equivalent of the time spent by pupils and teachers for 1 year in arithmetic

teaching and learning, that advantage surely would be tremendous. That

metric measurement would simplify the learning task, and shorten it to some

extent, nearly everyone agrees. One research study which makes no claim of having proved the point, in- troduces an interesting hypothesis. It is a UNESCO study of the comparative achievement of the school children of 13 countries in arithmetic skills.-^ In this study the children in England and Scotland proved less proficient

than those from the countries on the continent with whom they were compared. The authors, in reviewing the result, believe that the most probable

explanation lies in the difference in the measurement systems used in in- struction, the metric system having been helpful in the cultivation of

arithmetic skills. Most important of all from the standpoint of good education is the fact that

in the modern world, so dependent on science and technology, the metric

system has become the international language of mathematics and science.

To be literate in that international language and comfortable in this technological age today's school children in the United States need to become "just as confident and fluent with metric units of measure as their

counterparts in the numerous metric nations of the world." "

Adjustments To Be Expected

Conversion to the metric system quite obviously will have an impact on numerous aspects of education. There will be many types of necessary read-

-" Ratcliff, J. D., This Week, April 16, 1944. -'Martin, Geo. S.. The International Metric System of Weifihts and Measures, Miscel- laneous Publication No. 2, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, September 1922. --Johnson, J. J. .Seattle Times. March 24, 1946. Quoted by Helgren, Fred J., op. cit. p. 349. Cited by Helgren, Frcdi.. Ibid. ^'•Anderson, J. F. and Arnold, C. J., "Elementary Education and the ]970's" Unpublished

paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Metric Association, Boston, December 30, 1969.
APPENDIX II 93

justment: some of them quite simple; some not so simple. The list which fol- lows is by no means complete but indicates something of the range and

variety of changes which must be anticipated in the nations' schools:

(1) Courses of study, especially in mathematics and in elementary and

general science, will need to be revised: courses in other fields reviewed for their contributing influence.

(2) Textbooks and related teaching materials must be reviewed and

revised or rewritten wherever units of measurement are involved.

(3) Teachers must be prepared — and those already teaching be

retrained — to teach the new system effectively.

(4) Supervisory personnel will have to focus on this area as upon any

significant change in curriculum.

(5) Classrooms, shops, and laboratories which do not have them al- ready must be supplied with the new measuring devices: meter

sticks, metric rulers, scales, etc. (6) Maps will be introduced with metric grid lines and the distances

scaled to metric units.

(7) Graph paper will be scaled by centimeters and miUimeters instead

of fractions of inches.

(8) Purchasing departments will use new specifications, expressed in metric terms.

(9) Boards of Education will begin to purchase land by the hectare and

square meter.

(10) Even the cooks in the cafeterias will soon be readjusting their

recipes in terms of metric units.

If the total transition were necessary in one quick step, the expense and

disruption of programs would be enormous. If the transition is made in stages, however, over a considerable period of time, neither the costs in- volved nor the problems of program adjustment should be prohibitive. The

experience of other nations bears out that conclusion. Existing facilities, for the most part, continue in use until time for normal replacement. Within

reasonable limits the new is introduced as old items become obsolete. During the period of transition the dual system will still persist; the difference

being that the metric system now becomes the basic one, to be learned and

used, and the conventional one a supplementary one for general understanding.

The Experience of Other Nations

Several nations in the recent past have converted to metric measure- ment—or are now in the process of conversion: Japan, India, Great Britain,

Australia, New Zealand. South Africa, and Canada. The impact of metrication on their school programs apparently has not been serious, though in several instances specific information on this phase of conversion is meager.

The best reports available on the impact of metrication on the schools are coming now from Great Britain, where the process has been underway for 5
94 EDUCATION

years and will not be completed until about 1975. Out of the experience re- ported by others come some observations and suggestions such as these:

(1) The system should be introduced into the practices of daily living,

and into the schools, in appropriate stages — not all at one time.

(2) Instruction in the schools should at least keep pace with, and when

possible precede, the actual application of new measures.

(3) Education must play a major role in the transition. Teachers will work with publishers on new materials. There must be articles in professional literature; short courses, conferences and workshops;

experimentation with methods; curriculum study; evaluation of

results.

(4) To teach a new system in terms of its relationship to an existing

system is the wrong approach. Instruction must be in the use of the new system.

(5) A major problem in conversion is logistics. If a manufacturer adopts

the metric system and his suppliers do not, he is in trouble. The same

will hold in education. Instruction must be geared to teacher

preparation and the availability of equipment and materials as well

as to the established deadlines for nationwide adoption.

(6) Instruction in metrics should be limited to the requirements of the

student for his further schooling, job needs, and daily living. This means thorough instruction in the basic metric units but selective

teaching of refined and derived units with limited or special application. An excellent brief summary of Britain's current situation has recently ap- peared from which the following excerpt is taken:

The schools are essential to the changeover. Primary schools were

required to adopt the metric system at the beginning of the school

year last September [ 1969]. It had been a second numerical lan- guage in the other grades for generations. The students now in the

primary schools will emerge thinking in metric terms. They should

be grateful, because they will have lost a mental rucksack of archaic

measuring units. They will have a simple, logical calculating system,

which takes far less time than the imperial system to learn and will be the numerical lingua fronca of the world.

There will inevitably be a period of bilingualism. The difficulty is not in learning the metric system; it is in unlearning the imperial one. It would be unwise to encourage this bilingualism. In Britain we have

had a bad example. The weathermen went over to centigrade (which

they should be calling Celsius) but radio and television tried to bridge the transition by giving temperatures in both centigrade and

Fahrenheit. The result is that everybody waits for the Fahrenheit

figure! With this reminder we do not intend to have road signs give

the mile equivalents of distances expressed in kilometers.

Lord Ritchie-Calder. "Conversion to the Metric System." Scientific American 223: 17-25;

. July 1970.
APPENDIX II 95

The report on Britain's experience outlines the major conversion stages

being carried out under the coordinating auspices of a representative Metrication Board. Metric standards will become available and be applied in 1970

to construction industrial materials and to the paper, board, and printing in- dustries. A small start is being made in metric land measurement but the

major changeover there will be in 1971. Engineering and shipbuilding are in the first stages of transition and, along with the armed services, have set 1972 as their major target year. Farming also will go metric in 1972 and

1973. Footwear sizes and specifications for fabrics and fibers will be metric

in 1972. In 1973 all road speeds will be posted in kilometers per hour. The

Metrication Board has no legalistic "big stick." However, it "sets the signals

and clears the track" for the switching. Its sanction — which is proving quite

adequate — is the warning that any company, industry, or group which is not ready by the agreed upon deadline date will be left behind.

Some Representative Teaching Aids

The statement which NEA is presenting here should not — and can- not—deal with the specific materials and methods of instruction which will make the teaching of metric measurement effective. New teaching aids will be needed, however, as illustrated by the following list of basic items:

( 1 ) Meter sticks and metric rulers.

(2) Cubes, squares, strips, and rods calibrated in metric units.

(3) The meter board. 1 centimeter in thickness and 1 meter by 10 cm,

with grid lines dividing it into squares. The same board cut into

squares which, when stacked, becomes a cube.

(4) Scales and balances calibrated in grams and kilograms, including the

scales used in health departments.

(5) Centimeter grid paper.

(6) Maps in metric scale, showing distances and areas in metric units.

(7) Cylinders and beakers graduated in metric terms.

(8) Celsius thermometers.

Likewise there are a few basic principles in methodology which ex- perience and logic would seem to dictate, such as:

(1) The instruction in metric measurement will need to begin when the

child is first introduced to the concept of measuring an object and

should continue to be taught, with growing levels of understanding

and application, in every succeeding grade.

(2) Linear units of measure, the easiest to comprehend and apply, will be taught first. (3) Instruction will need to be restricted to a single system, using metric

units only and without the old units "tagging along."

(4) Teachers will first emphasize the most-used prefixes, introducing

the less-used ones, such as deci- and deca-, after the basic ones are

learned.
96 EDUCATION

(5) Relatively greater stress will be laid on the use of decimals and less on fractions.

(6) Much practice will be needed in using metric standards and

estimating in terms of metric units.

Estimated Cost of Conversion

Many variables enter into any estimate of the cost of metrication. When

and how rapidly the transition occurs could greatly affect the price tag, so far as schools are concerned. If equipment and materials must be discarded pre- maturely, conversion could become expensive. If extensive and intensive

teacher training must be done quickly, extra costs must be expected. If courses of study and curriculums must be revised under the pressure of close

deadlines, funds for such work will be needed. With a more leisurely

schedule, the amount varying according to one's assumption, such costs would tend to diminish or disappear altogether.

And again, what is fairly chargeable to the conversion program? How

much of the curriculum revision and in-service education, for example,

would go forward in any event — if not on metrication on some current educational problem? What part of the new equipment cost for metric materials

would be spent on new equipment of some type no matter what system of

weights and measures is in effect? What administrative costs associated with

metrication are separable and identifiable and which ones would persist if conventional measurement were still in effect? And so it is with other as- sumptions. There are many obvious variables and very few objective data on

which valid estimates can be based.

As stated already, the time schedule for conversion is a critical factor in determining probable school costs. Textbooks and semi-durable instructional materials for elementary and secondary schools are replaced on an

average, 5-year cycle. Hence no appreciable extra expenditure for texts and

semi-durable materials will be involved if the conversion schedule exceeds

5 years. For more durable equipment some additional obsolescence might be

involved, though this should not be excessive. The longer the conversion

period the more new metric-scaled equipment can be acquired on normal

replacement schedule. The NEA Research Division estimates that to purchase essential new materials and equipment in a single year, at present

cost levels, could run from 500 million to 750 million dollars. But if absorbed

over a span of several years any extra costs should be minimal.

In the same way the cost of teacher preparation, both preservice and

inservice, and any additional administrative and supervisory costs can be

largely or wholly absorbed into ongoing programs if the conversion schedule

extends over several years. In short, educators foresee no major cost problem for schools, if the United States decides to adopt the metric

system — so long as the conversion period is long enough to make use of nor- mal cycles and schedules.

One further fact about probable school costs should be kept in mind. Just

as there should be no excessive additional costs associated with the conver-
APPENDIX II 97

sion, there will be no "dollar savings" to the schools — as some have implied.

Any saving in "learning time" for pupils and teachers that the metric system

may produce will simply release that time for other learning experiences — it will not reduce school costs.

The Metrication Schedule

The National Education Association does not presume to offer a specific

schedule for conversion to metric standards. The educational impact will be

only one of many considerations in the development of target dates and conversion deadlines. And even if the educational impact were all-controlling,

who can say just what schedule of conversion would be best for the nation's

schools. On some facets of this problem, however, there is wide general

agreement among educators:

(1) When and if the decision is made to go metric, a "reasonable lead

time" would be helpful before any significant segment of the econo- my makes the critical move.

(2) A dramatic kick-off date, with concerted publicity and fanfare,

would help to motivate the early school efforts.

(3) An officially-established, representative board — somewhat like Britain's Metrication Board — would seem to be a helpful agency in setting up and following an orderly, coordinated schedule. Separate

deadlines will be needed for various areas of conversion such as, the

time for metric measurement to become effective in the sale of

groceries; a deadline for metric standards in large industries such as petroleum, coal, steel, automotive, or aircraft; a deadline for fibers

and fabrics, papers, and other consumer products; a deadline for

metric units on road signs; the time to begin land sales by metric

measurement; etc.

(4) If such a schedule is followed, over a spread of perhaps 10 years, schools will have few serious problems of adjustment as they keep

pace with conversion efforts.

(5) Undue delay in starting the program — too much lead time in preparation- would be self-defeating, a retarding influence on the

work in metric measurement now being launched and extended in the better schools.

Conclusions

First, by and large, the nation's teachers who have seriously considered

the matter seem to concur with science and mathematics specialists that adoption of the metric system by the United States will be advantageous not only in the realms of science, technology, and international trade but also in the area of education. They are aware that problems of adjustment will arise

and some added costs may have to be assumed. But there will be teaching

advantages and educational economies as well.
98 EDUCATION

Second, the educational impact will be most direct and extensive, but also

easiest to accomplish in mathematics and science instruction; but any changeover to metric measurement will be felt in nearly all segments of the school

program — for the most part a type of impact that will be welcomed as an improvement.

Third, many schools on their own initiative are beginning to extend and

improve their instruction with respect to metric measurement. However,

their work lacks motivation and will not become really effective so long as the metric system is a secondary and parallel system. For that reason the official adoption of the metric system by the United States would assist all such schools.

Fourth, the educational advantages of metric measurement cannot be

questioned: the simplicity of the system; its interrelatedness; its use of

decimals instead of fractions. Few would challenge the fact that the

teaching-learning task would be eased for both teachers and pupils, especially for pupils with learning problems.

Fifth, some considerable economy would be effected in the time tradi- tionally spent on elementary arithmetic by both teachers and pupils — time

that could be better spent on other types of learning.

Sixth, while obvious problems and some added costs must be anticipated

it is our considered opinion that the extent of the problems and costs has

frequently been exaggerated; that many of them will be resolved and absorbed almost unnoticed once a well-planned schedule of adoption gets un- derway.

Finally, we believe that with a reasonable margin of lead time and a pro- gram of gradual adoption, spread over a period of perhaps 10 years, there

will be few serious problems for schools and educators and none with which

they are unable to cope successfully.

For these reasons the position taken by the National Education Association in 1970 and in other recent years seems eminently justified, namely, that a carefully planned effort to convert to the metric system in the United

States should be put into effect as soon as possible. When this occurs educators can be relied upon to do their part, willingly and efficiently, in making

the new system understandable and functional as the international numerical

language of a progressive nation.
Appendix III

Report of the National Science Teachers Association

at the Education Conference

Ad Hoc Committee for Study of Conversion to Metric System

of Measurements September 1970

The National Science Teachers Association > is an organization comprised

of teachers of science and others connected with any aspect of science education. Its 20,000 members include representation from elementary schools,

secondary schools, colleges and universities. The association's activities in- clude curriculum research, teacher education, issues, professional standards

and practices, international programs in science education, and programs for science students. It is an affiliate of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and an associated organization of the National Education Association. The draft of this report was prepared exclusively by the Ad

Hoc Committee.2 The draft report was reviewed, revised as necessary, and

approved by the Association's Board of Directors.

Section I. Classroom Activities and Instructional Procedures

A. PRESENT STATUS

1. Current Usage of the Metric System in Science Teaching

Virtually all courses in science at all grade levels teach and/or use units of

measurement. The extent of usage of the metric system depends upon grade

level and curriculum origin.

Elementary School Science. More recent elementary school science pro- grams use the metric system widely for making physical measurements and

in problem solving. Few, if any, elementary science programs use the imperial system exclusively, although several of them use imperial units in in- stances where children are more likely to comprehend the magnitude of a

quantity (e.g., radius of the earth, distance to the moon) when expressed in a more familiar, imperial unit than in its metric equivalent. The use of convenient, familiar, and arbitrary units, such as the width of a floor tile or the mass of a given washer, is increasingly prevalent in elementary school

science. The elementary science programs developed by curricular study

groups that are national in scope tend to use metric and arbitrary units exclusively. These include: The AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science) Program; Elementary Science Study (ESS); The Concep-

'1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Washington, D C. 20036, Mr. Robert H. Carleton, Executive

Secretary.

- Mr. Fred Blumenfeld, Millburn High School, Millburn, New Jersey 0704 1 : Dr. John Maccini, Science Teaching Center, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20740; Dr. Bobby J. Woodruff, Committee Chairman, Ridgewood High School, Ridgewood, New Jersey.

99
100 EDUCATION

tually Oriented Program in Elementary Science (COPES); Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS); the Minnesota Mathematics and Science

Teaching Project (MINNEMAST); Elementary School Science Project;

School Science Curriculum Project; and others.

Secondary School Science. Most of the more recent junior high school

science programs use metric and arbitrary units exclusively, or at least predominantly, while several of the less recent ones make use of both metric

and imperial units. Curricula developed by study groups that make little or no use of imperial units include: The Earth Science Curriculum Project

(ESCP); Introductory Physical Science (IPS); Interaction of Matter and

Energy (IME); Secondary School Science Project (Time, Space, and

Matter); as well as some of those identified above under elementary school

science which also produce materials for junior high school use. Metric units are used nearly exclusively in most high school science courses in biology, physics, and chemistry. The not-so-recent descriptive biology courses require little use of units of any kind. The three course versions of

the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) employ the metric system

exclusively except in certain illustrations where a mountain height or sea depth may be expressed in feet. While three popular physics pro- grams—those of the Physical Science Study Committee (PSSC), Project

Physics, and the Engineering Concepts Curriculum Project (ECCP) — do not use the imperial system at all, the dual usage of metric and imperial units is

still found in a few physics textbooks. The Ad Hoc Committee knows of no

chemistry course that makes any use of imperial units of measurement.

Unified science courses, which combine several sciences in a 2- or 3-year

sequence and which are becoming increasingly prevalent, require a unified

system of units. Because of the universal use of metric units in chemistry and

their widespread use in physics, metric units are nearly always used in unified science courses. College Science. The metric system is used predominantly in college

science courses. Many courses use the metric system exclusively (e.g.,

chemistry). Some courses that are oriented toward application or field study

(e.g., some courses in physics, engineering, geology, and oceanography use both the metric and imperial system of units for measurement, problem solving, printed teaching materials, charts, maps, graphs, etc.). Curriculum Origin. Almost all curricula developed by funded study

groups on a national scale have used metric and arbitrary units extensively,

often to the complete exclusion of imperial units. Due to the widespread use

of these curricula, millions of young people have been taught the essentials

of the metric system during the past decade or so. There are, however,

available on the market numerous science textbooks that were written by a

single author or small group of authors, some of which use imperial units of

measurements, often in conjunction with metric units. However, commercial

publishers of individual works have in recent years been influenced more

and more by the programs of national study groups, and hence, are incorporating metric units more and more and using imperial units less in their publications.
APPENDIX III 101

2. Trends

Metric units have been used for decades in science teaching. During the

past decade or so there has been a marked trend toward an exclusive use of

metric units. Although this trend has been more pronounced at the secondary level, it has also been noticeable at the elementary school level. There is also a growing tendency to provide experiences for students to learn the metric system through laboratory or practical usage rather than teaching it through formal instruction. Even in instances where both metric and imperial units are used, the trend is for students to learn to work with each system

of units separately and independently without conversion of one to the other. For example, some physics courses may call upon students to determine

work done in foot-pounds or in joules. Seldom are they required to convert

foot-pounds to joules or vice versa as was the case when many of their

teachers were in high school and college.

3. Advantages and Problems in Teaching and Using the Metric System

Advantages to Teaching and Using the Metric System. Compared with

the imperial system of units, the metric system is relatively easy to teach for

several reasons:

(1 ) Because the metric system is based on tens, it is easier for students

to understand, remember, and convert the various size units of the same quantity than is the case with the imperial system of units. For

example, the relationships among millimeters, centimeters, meters,

and kilometers are far simpler than the relationships among inches,

feet, yards, and miles.

(2) Unit conversions and calculations are far simpler and more efficient for students to perform. Because calculations can be done with

decimal fractions rather than common fractions, students are generally more accurate in their handling of calculations in the metric system than in the imperial system. For the same reasons, the

metric system lends itself much more readily to the use of the slide rule than does the imperial system. For example, students generally can calculate quicker and with less error the volume of a rectangular

solid that is 20.9 mm x 9.05 cm x 0.52 m than one that is 10 inx

(2 ft, 7 in)x(l yd, 2 ft, 5 in). (3) The entire system of metric units is more coherent and easier to comprehend than the imperial system. Metric units of mass and

volume are related to a linear dimension of space, whereas there are no defined relationships among a slug (or pound), a gallon, and a yard or among any of their sub-units.

(4) Students find that measurements are more easily made in metric

units than in imperial units. It is much easier, and generally more ac- curate, to estimate by interpolation a point that lies three-fourths the

distance between 8.7 and 8.8 cm than one that lies three-fourths

between 3-1/4 in and 3-3/8 in. Also, since the graduation marks on

a yardstick or foot ruler represent common fractions with different

denominators, errors in reading the graduations are common.
102 EDUCATION

(5) The similarity between the metric system and United States coinage

facilitates the teaching and learning of the metric system.

In addition to the above factors, which facilitate the teaching and learning

of the metric system, the system has other advantages in the science class- room:

(6) Because metric measuring instruments are often calibrated in smaller units or sub-units than are those marked in imperial units,

measurements made in the metric system are frequently more

precise. This is generally true of linear, volumetric, and mass measurements, but often is not true of temperature measurements.

(7) Because calculations and unit conversions are easier and faster with

quantities expressed in metric units rather than imperial units,

mathematical tasks interfere less with the learning of science when

the metric system is used than when the imperial system is used.

Problems of Teaching and Using the Metric System. The chief, and only

significant, difficulty in teaching and using metric units in the classroom is

,

that students tend to regard the metric system as a "second" language to be

learned and used for specific purpose. By the time most students become

acquainted with the metric system, they are so habituated in their use of

thinking with the imperial system that it is often difficult for them to make

the transition to metric units. Even when they become competent and facile

in using the metric system in calculations and ordinary measurements, they

find it difficult to comprehend the magnitude of some metric units. For in- stance, the volume of a liter is often understood only when it is related to a

quart. A temperature of 98.6 °F is understood (or felt intuitively) more readily than its equivalent of 37 °C. A body weight of 150 pounds is more

meaningful to students than the same weight expressed as 666 newtons (or

68 kilogram-force units). After considerable experience with using metric

units of space in the magnitude range of classroom dimensions, a distance of

50 miles is still more comprehensible to students than its approximate

equivalent of 80 kilometers. Most students do not acquire sufficient ex- perience with the metric system in science classrooms alone, even those in which metric units are used exclusively, to enable them to think in terms of

metric units. Moreover, there is little incentive for them to do so, for when

they leave the science classroom, they must, in all other aspects of ordinary

living, use and think in terms of imperial units. Problems of Learning the Metric System. The problems that students

presently encounter in learning the metric system in this country are probably the same as the present problems of teaching and using the metric

system in our science classes (see above). Apparently, little is known about

the problems that students in this country have in learning the metric system

or about the best ways of teaching and learning the metric system. (The committee understands that Dr. Arthur H. Livermore and the AAAS Commission on Science Education have, over about a 5-year period, studied the metric learning problems of elementary school children. The committee is, however, unfamiliar with the findings of the studies.)
APPENDIX III 103

The ERIC Clearinghouse for Science and Mathematics Education of the

Ohio State University recently completed a cursory search of the literature concerning teaching and learning of the metric system. Eleven articles, a pamphlet, and two dissertations since 1944 represent a surprisingly small

body of research from this retrieval system. (Bibliography is appended to

this report.) Dr. Stanley Helgerson, Director of ERIC, reports that a complete search on this topic would not likely contribute many more sources

of information. Therefore, governmental and private agencies should lend

early support to research efforts related to means by which metrication can

be best accomplished at all grade levels and for preservice and inservice

workshops.

Dual Measuring Systems. Except for the possible advantage of un- derstanding the nature of measuring systems in general by comparison, it is impossible to conceive of any advantage in the use of more than one measurement system in science teaching, provided the system that is used is adequate for the purpose for which it is required. The metric system is entirely adequate for all purposes of science teaching (and probably for every

purpose in this country), while the imperial system of measurements is in- adequate in many ways. The only justification for the use of dual systems of

measurements in science teaching — and the justification is a weak one — is the continued use of imperial units in this country outside the classroom.

Summary. So long as the imperial system of units is the primary system of

measurements in this country and so long as the utility of the metric system

is, in the views of students, confined to science classrooms and laboratories,

the metric system of units is, and will continue to be, difficult for students to learn and use. If and when metric units are used primarily or exclusively in

this country, there is no reason to believe that any significant difficulties in using the metric system in science instruction will persist. There is nothing

about the metric system of measurements per se that makes it difficult to learn except for those attributes that are inherent in any system of measurement. Because of the several advantages that the metric system has over the

imperial system, there is good reason to believe that it will be easier to teach,

to learn and to use than our present system of measurements.

B. POSSIBLE FUTURE EFFECTS

Note: It is to be emphasized that this report deals with the impact of measurement system conversion in science education, not with any other area of

education.

1. Effects of Increased Usage Without National Program

Assuming that there is no national program to increase the use of the metric system in the United States, the continued increasing worldwide and

domestic use of the metric system should have no deleterious effects on

science education beyond those now existent. Any such increase should ac- celerate the trend in science teaching toward increased use of the metric

, system in the classroom and in textbooks and other instructional aids and

may decrease somewhat the time spent in teaching the metric system. How-
104 EDUCATION

ever, without a national policy for a complete conversion, such increased use

of the metric system would do very little to reduce the present difficulties that stem from the fact that for students the imperial system is a "native"

language while the metric system is a "second" language that often is not taken seriously. Present problems in the teaching and use of the metric

system in science classes can be solved only by a commitment, a policy, and

a planned program of converting to the metric system in all sectors of national life.

2. Problems and Costs of Conversion Through a National Program

Advantages and Disadvantages. A nationally planned conversion from

the imperial to the metric system of measurements would entail no long-term

disadvantages for science teaching. The only disadvantages would be those

related to the costs and practical difficulties involved in the conversion

process itself. Any short-term disadvantages would be outweighed by far by

the long-term advantages that would accrue to the teaching of science by a

national conversion to the metric system.

Teacher Training. Some training in the use of the metric system would be

necessary for some science teachers, although the need would be minimal

compared with the training requirements of other teachers or persons in most other occupations. It is expected that the need would be greatest

among teachers of elementary science, especially teachers of self-contained

classrooms who are not science teaching specialists. However, these

teachers would need training in the metric system for several other curriculum areas. The need for training of secondary school science teachers would

be minimal and would constitute no problem of any significance. Among

secondary science teachers, a minority of junior high school teachers and a few biology and earth science teachers may need some refresher training in the metric system. It is anticipated that few, if any, teachers of chemistry or physics would require such training.

Probably every school district has within its professional staff a sufficient

number of science teachers who are qualified to provide the training required

by all other teachers in the school system, or at least all science teachers in need of training. The problem of providing such training will undoubtedly

vary widely from large city school systems to small school systems in some

rural districts. Most school systems, however, have some provisions for the

inservice training of teachers, provisions which in most cases should be

adequate for the training of teachers in the metric system.

Leadership Training. There will probably be a need for leadership training for the science teachers and others who provide instruction for local inser- vice groups. Such leadership training could be provided by state departments of education, on a regional basis, or by colleges and universities

through federal grants. Part of the leadership training might be offered as part of existing programs for science teachers conducted by colleges and

universities with federal funds. Leadership training of no more than a week

should be adequate.

Type of Training Needed. The type of training that would be required de-
APPENDIX III 105

pends considerably on the needs of teachers of the various sciences and

grade levels. Generally, secondary science teachers are likely to need little more than refresher instruction, while many elementary science teachers

will likely need basic and more thorough training.

Little is known about the effectiveness of various methods of teaching the

metric system to anyone — teachers or students. There is a great need for a program of research to determine the best ways of teaching the metric

system and ways of evaluating understanding and performance in the use of

it. In the absence of research findings, it is believed that the most effective

method for adults is to provide a concentrated period of time in which they

have both extensive and intensive experience in the practical use of the metric system in a wide variety of physical measurements and in problem solving. For those who are already familiar with the imperial system, conversion

from metric units to imperial units and vice versa should be emphasized no more than is necessary for the establishment of equivalence benchmarks

(e.g., that a foot is approximately equal to 30 cm, that a kilogram-force unit

is about 2.2 pounds, or that 5 miles is about the same as 8 kilometers).

Cost Considerations. Most science classrooms and laboratories especially

those in secondary schools, are already equipped with metric instruments.

Measuring devices currently in use and calibrated in imperial units could un- doubtedly be replaced with metric ones on a normal replacement schedule

within a period of 10 years or less. Such instruments consist of items no more expensive than yardsticks and spring balances calibrated in pounds. In some instances, metric calibrations could be added to existing equipment

until such time as it can be replaced. Over a 10-year period, or less, there

should be little or no costs involved, beyond normal replacement costs, in equipping laboratories completely with metric instruments.

Some textbooks, films, and other teaching materials would require modification as a result of conversion to the metric system. Practically all of such

modifications would be the responsibility of commercial producers. The

average usable period of most textbooks is from about 3 to 6 years. Hence

schools should incur no costs above normal expenditures as a result of metric conversion over a period of 10 years or less, provided revised textbooks

are available from publishers during the first half of the 10-year period. This seems not to be a serious problem since most publishers of educational

materials revise textbooks approximately every 5 years or so. The life ex- pectancy of films is longer than that of textbooks. But again, most science

films that involve measurements at all already use the metric system. Many

school systems do not own, but rather rent, films; hence, those schools

would entail no costs as a result of unit conversion. Films in libraries owned

by large school districts, counties, or regional educational units have a useful

life expectancy that is probably under 10 years. Thus, large educational units

should be required to bear only very small costs over a 10-year period in replacing the few films that are now geared to the imperial system of units. Curriculum Changes. Since science instruction is already based far more

on metric units than on imperial units, no major changes in curricula should

be required as a result of conversion from imperial to metric units. Probably

426-013 0 -11-8
106 EDUCATION

the only change that would be needed would be the placing of greater emphasis on the use of metric measurements in elementary school science than is now the case. ^

3. Educational Advantages of Measuring System Conversion

The educational advantages of the metric system are essentially the advantages of the general use of the metric system (see A-3 above). The simplicity, efficiency, and coherence of the metric system make it easier than

the imperial system to teach and for students to learn and to use in making

physical measurements and solving problems. As noted above, measure- ments made in the science laboratory using metric units are often more

precise than those made in imperial units. In addition, the relative simplicity

of metric unit conversions and calculations causes mathematical problems

to distract less from the teaching and learning of science than is the case with

imperial units. The adoption of metric measurements for general usage

would greatly benefit science education, particularly at the secondary level,

by freeing science teachers of most of the time they must now spend providing basic instruction in the metric system, or in remedial efforts related to

difficulties inherent in imperial unit calculations, and by allowing them to devote more time to the teaching of science. Furthermore, familiarity with

the metric system extends pupils' range of communication; they can read,

with better understanding, material from other countries and, eventually,

exchange data with colleagues elsewhere with greater ease.

4. Proposed Plans for Conversion to Metric System

Proposed Timetable. From the standpoint of science education, the

process of conversion from the imperial system to the metric system should

be accomplished at the earliest and in the shortest feasible time. The

schedule proposed below is believed to be a reasonable one so far as education in science is concerned. It is recognized, however, that the best results

will be obtained if conversion efforts in science education are coordinated

and are consistent with those in other areas of education.

Proposed, 10-Year Conversion Schedule

Year Proposed Plans 0-2 Planning, training, support for research, and other preparations.

j 3-7 Grades 7-12: metric system to be taught and used exclusively. -j Grades K-6: metric system taught as a "first language," imperial system taught j as a "second language." 8-10 Metric system used exclusively in all elementary and secondary education.

The 2-year period of planning, teacher training, and other advanced

preparation should be sufficient for teachers of science. During this 2-year

period of planning and preparation at the local and state level, colleges and

universities that prepare teachers of science would have a year or more to prepare preservice teachers in the use of the metric system, thus ensuring

that all teachers entering the profession during the conversion period and

thereafter would be thoroughly conversant with the metric system. Research
APPENDIX III 107

related to teaching and learning the metric system should be encouraged and

supported prior to, or at least during this period.

At the beginning of the third year, the exclusive use of the metric system

in the secondary schools (grades 7-12) should be feasible. This plan would

ensure that students who graduate from high school at the end of the seventh

year and afterwards, when the conversion is making headway in the nation

at large, would have a working knowledge of common units of the metric

system. Also at the beginning of year three, the metric system should be

used as the measuring system of primary usage in grades below grade 7. At

the same time, only those aspects of the imperial system that are likely to be

needed by students for the duration of the conversion process should be

taught as a "second language." Also beginning with year three, it should be

possible in schools that employ science teaching specialists in elementary

schools for the science teaching specialists to deal exclusively with the metric system, leaving the teaching of the imperial system to the regular class- room teacher.

Colleges should strive to meet the above conversion timetable in their

science offerings, especially those offered for general education. It is possible that some of the more specialized courses for which there is a limited option of textbooks may have to await the availability of textbooks that substitute metric for imperial units. Leadership and Coordination. In the interest of an orderly and minimally

frustrating conversion of measuring systems, the major leadership and coordination efforts for the change should come from the national level. So far as education is concerned, it would be desirable that national planning be carried out in consultation and in conjunction with state departments of education and with professional organizations at the national level. State departments of education, among other possible functions, should provide leadership in developing plans with local school districts for the inservice training

of teachers in metric usage and should ensure compliance by local districts with state and national plans and schedules. Local school districts should

develop and carry out plans, consistent with state and national plans, for

teacher training, for making any needed curriculum changes as a result of the

conversion to metric system, and for replacing laboratory equipment and

other teaching materials over a scheduled period of time.

5. Information Concerning Metrication Plans or Experiences of Other

Countries

The Ad Hoc Committee has no knowledge of the metrication plans or ex- periences of other countries, except for the plans announced by Great Bri- tain in "Going Metric: The First Five Years," the first report of Britain's

Metrication Board (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1970). The

plans reported therein are general, not specific. The recommendations and

proposals of this Ad Hoc Committee appear to be consistent with the

general plans announced by the Metrication Board for Great Britain.
108 EDUCATION

C. POSITION AND OPINIONS

1. Association's Official Position

In March 1969, the National Science Teachers Association in annual con- vention overwhelmingly adopted the following resolution as its official position on the issue of converting to the metric system of measurements.

The National Science Teachers Association applauds the authorization

by Congress in July, 1968 of a study of the advantages and disadvantages of converting to the metric system. We recognize the need

for an objective evaluation of all aspects of the conversion process

and for sound guidance in planning and implementing those changes

essential for a more extensive use of the metric system in the United

States. The simplicity and efficiency of the metric system have long been

evident to scientists and educators. The desirability of a worldwide

uniform system of measurement is obvious; approximately 90 per- cent of the earth's population resides in nations committed to the

metric system. For the United States, conversion appears necessary

and inevitable. The Association therefore strongly urges that the

metric system and its language be incorporated as an integral part of

the education of children at all levels of their schooling.

2. Other Opinions or Suggestions

a. A liaison body at the national level should assist in coordinating the

conversion plans of education and those of educational testing services, text- book publishers, and producers of laboratory equipment and supplies, films,

and other teaching materials.

b. Plans for conversion to the metric system by educational institutions

should proceed in a careful, orderly, and deliberate manner. It would be unfortunate if individual schools and school systems developed uncoordinated

plans in response to increased usage of metric measurements without a national policy and an established timetable. It would be confusing to the many

students who transfer between school districts; it would frustrate the

planning of publishers and other producers of educational materials; and the

lack of a national policy and timetable would perhaps engender resistance

from some parent groups and some teachers who are ignorant of the metric

system or who remain unconvinced of the need for change. The chaotic

situation that would likely arise would be far less desirable than acceptance

and compliance that would accompany a universal imperative.

c. Advancing the schedule of conversion in education ahead of the

schedule set by industry, transportation, communication, and other sectors would have the advantage of preparing students to assist in the education of

their parents, who will be the most immediate and confused consumers when

the conversion begins on a national scale.

d. The Ad Hoc Committee and the Board of Directors of the National

Science Teachers Association wish to reiterate the position stated in the
APPENDIX III 109

above resolution (paragraph C-1). We strongly urge that the metric system

and its language be incorporated as an integral part of the education of chil- dren at all levels of their schooling. We believe this goal can best be realized

within the context of a complete conversion to the metric system in all sectors of national life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bowles, Richard D., "The Metric System in Grade Six," The

Arithmetic Teacher 11: 36-38, January, 1964.

Branley, Franklyn M., "The Metric System" Grade Teacher 76: 49,

100, December, 1959.

Frost, Douglas V., "From Finger Counting to the Metric System"

Applied Optics 5: 1257-1258, August, 1966.

Helgren, Fred J., Metric Supplement to Mathematics, The author,

Waukegan, 111., 1967, 28 pp. (Available from Fred J. Helgren, 2004

Ash Street, Waukegan, 111. 60085.)

Jeffries, T. W., "Teaching the Metric System," The Science Teacher

28: 53, February, 1961.

Kunkle, Stanford L., "How to Teach High School Students Any Metric

Units They Need to Know," Education 71: 49 1-492, April, 1 95 1. Johnson, J. T., "Three Studies on the Effect of the Compulsory Metric

Usage: Another View," Journal ofEducational Research, XXXVII,

pp. 575-585, April, 1944.

McFee, Evan E., "The Relative Merits of Two Methodologies of

Teaching the Metric System to Seventh Grade Science Students,"

Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, 1967.

Polzin, Maxine A., "A Descriptive Analysis of the Teaching of the

Metric System in the Secondary Schools of Washoe County,

Nevada," Unpublished master's thesis. University of Nevada,

Reno, 1967.

Rucker, Isabelle, "The Metric System in the Junior High School,"

Mathematics Teac/z^/- 41: 62 1-623, December, 1958.

Scott, Lloyd, "A Study of the Case for Measurement in Elementary

School Mathematics," School Science and Mathematics 66: 714-

722, November, 1966.

Weinberg, Eugene D., "Use of the Metric System in Microbiology,"

The American Biology Teacher 22: 340-342, June, 1960.

Westmeyer, Paul and McAda, Harleen, "Awkwards and Other Units,"

The Science Teacher 33: 62-65, March, 1966.

Yorke, Gertrude Cushing, "Three Studies on the Effect of Compulsory

Metric VisB-gt,'' Journal ofEducational Research, XXXVII, pp. 343-

352, January, 1944.

110
Appendix IV

Some Education Statistics

The Magnitude of the American

Educational Establishment

1960 —1970

This year there are more than sixty-two milHon Americans engaged full- lime as students, teachers, or administrators in the nation's educational

enterprise. During the past decade, the number of students has increased by thirteen million, with the bulk going into public schools, two-year

colleges, and universities. Costs have risen by 160 per cent to $70-billion. There are a million new teachers, more than half again as many administrators as there were ten years ago, but fewer school districts and institutions, reductions brought about by school district consolidations and the use of

larger buildings. The breakdown is given here:

1960-61 1970-71 lVbO-61

Students

Pupils in elementary schools (kindergarten through

eighth grade)

Public schools Nonpublic (private and parochial)

Total Secondary school students

Public high schools Nonpublic

Total

College and university full- and part-time students

enrolled for credit toward

degrees

Public institutions Nonpublic

Total

Total students enrolled Teachers Elementary school teachers

Public Nonpublic Secondary school teachers

Public Nonpublic

College and university teachers

Public Nonpublic

Total SH/SEPTEMBER 19, 1970

27,692,000

4,800,000

32,492,000

8,589,000

1,100,000

9.689.000

2,115,893

1,466,833

3,582,726

45763,726

858,000

133,000

550,000

59,000

241,000

197,300

2,038,300

32,400.000

4,200,000

13.600,000

1,400,000

Board Members

Local school board members

Stale board members

College and uni\ersity

trustees

Totai

166,571 780

202,351

15,000,000 Cost (In billions)

Current expenditures and interest Elementary and

secondary schools

Public Nonpublic

Higher

Public Nonpublic

5,313,000 2,064,000

7,377,000

58,977,000

1,084,000 148,000

928.000

85.000

569,000 264,100

3.078.100

Capital outlay Elementary and

secondary schools

Public Nonpublic

Higher

Public Nonpublic

Total

$14.1

1.9

3.3 2.7

S2.9

0.4

0.9

0.8

1970-71

Institutions Administrators Elementary 95,200 82,852 and Supervisors Secondary 26.500 30.810 Superintendents of schools 13.012 12,917 Universities, colleges. Principals and supervisors 83.292 121,005 and junior colleges 2.000 2.525 College and university presidents 2,000 2,525 Total 123.700 116.187 Other college administrati\e and

School Districts 40.520 19.169 ser\'icc staff 46,000 88,000

102,743 500

$35.6

4.1

13.1 8.4

$5.1

0.6

2.6

0.5

$70.0

Figures based on latest available esiiiiwres from the U.S.

Office ol Education and the National Education Association.

Ill
112 EDUCATION

Table 1. Number of public school systems and number of pupils

enrolled, by size of system; United States, 1966—67

Enrollment of pupils. School systems Pupils enrolled October 1966 Number Percent Number Percent (thousands)

Total 23,390 100.0 43.842 100.0

or more 170 0.7 12,590 28.7

1 0 nnn to 24,999 350 1.5 5,730 13.1

\Jy\J\J\J to 11,999 880 3.8 7,293 16.6

3,000 to 5,999 1,726 7.4 7,178 16.4 1,800 to 2,999 1,819 7.8 4,251 9.7 1,200 to 1,799 1,636 7.0 2,416 5.5 600 to 1,199 2,838 12.1 2,437 5.6

300 to 599 2,723 11.6 1,185 2.7 150 to 299 2,091 8.9 459 1.0 50 to 149 2,230 9.5 209 0.5 15 to 49 2,673 11.4 71 0.2

1 to 14 2,368 10.2 22 0.1 None* 1,868 8.0

* Systems not operating schools. Digest, p. 42, table 57.

It seems useful to group these data as follows, to demonstrate the large number of small school systems which may be hard to reach for teacher training and curriculum innovation.

6,000 or more

600 to 5,999 .

.

Less than 600 .

School systems

{Percent)

6.0 34.3 51.7

Pupils enrolled (Percent)

58.4

37.2

4.2

Table 2. Private vocational schools and students, 1966*

Category Schools Students Trade and technical 3,000 835,710

Business 1,300 439,500

Cosmetology and barber 2,771 288,346

• A. Harvey Belitsky, Private Vocational Schools and Their Students, Schenkman, Cambridge. Mass.

(1970), page 9. (Also A. Harvey Belitsky, "Private Vocational Schools, Their Emerging Role in Postsecondary Education," a staff paper of the W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research [June 1970.])
Appendix V

Curriculum Changes for School Mathematics

A recommendation by: S. Sternberg, Professor of Mathematics, Harvard

University .

From a passive point of view, the transition to the metric system can have

an effect on education similar to the effect on the economy. A certain

amount of retraining of the teachers will be necessary to help them adjust to the new system, analogous to retooling industry. The analogue of consumer

resistance will not be present, since children have no built-in preference for the foot-pound system. On the contrary, the simpler manipulative rules of

the metric system will make the metric system more attractive to children

and easier for them to learn. As most current teacher training involves some

exposure to the metric system, teacher resistance can also be minimized

through a gradual shift in emphasis in teacher training institutions. However, if imaginative advantage is taken, then conversion to the metric

system can be used as a vehicle for instituting substantial improvements in the mathematics curriculum. These are:

early introduction of decimal fractions, with corresponding reinforcement of the place value system; an increased connection between the geometry and the arithmetic portions of the curriculum; a considerable downplay of inessential skills in manipulation of fractions; ease of introduction of exponents and "scientific notation";

elimination of substantial amounts of time wasted in the junior high

school on "percent problems."

We now discuss these various points in detail. At present, children have no prior intuitive experience with the place value system and no reinforcement other than the use of money. With the metric system, children can be

exposed to primitive experiences (not verbalized or made explicit) which

bear directly on the place value system. As early as the 1st grade, they can

be given experience in measurement of weight, length, area and volume

(liquid) in which they will automatically convert in units of 10. Much of this experience can precede the standard introduction of place values via counting, and it can provide both prior intuition and reinforcement. As early as the

2d grade, decimal fractions to two places can be introduced.' A typical les- son might have the children guess at the lengths of various objects, first to guess the length to the nearest centimeter and then to the nearest millimeter;

all this taking the decimeter as the natural unit of length for children. This

lesson simultaneously introduces decimals to two places and, when

' Professor Andrew M. Gleason of Harvard University has told us of his success in teaching decimal fractions to second graders.

113
114 EDUCATION

everything is expressed in terms of millimeters, numbers to three digits. In

the 2d and 3d grades, addition and subtraction of three digit numbers, and

decimal fractions to second order can be taught together. The decimal

equivalents of 1/2, 1/4, and 1/5 can be introduced, by area counting primarily, but also by length and money. By the 4th grade, the exponential notation can be introduced, again reinforced by the fact that the units are changed

dually to the numbers. Some suggestions have recently been made for lin- guistic and notational changes in this area,- changes which are already implemented in part in computer programming.

In the current curriculum there is too little emphasis on geometry in the

primary grades, and especially the measurement aspects of geometry. This

is principally due to a reluctance on the part of educators to take time away

from the teaching of basic arithmetical skills. With the metric system, the

geometry curriculum can be easily used to supplement and reinforce the

teaching of the arithmetical skills. There would be more of an emphasis on

the metric and coordinate aspects of geometry, and geometry and arithmetic

would be much more closely coordinated. The measurement of area is much

more convenient and instructive in the metric system.

In the present curriculum, a considerable amount of time is spent in developing skills in the manipulation of fractions. For most students much of

this is a waste of time. Many students do not develop any feeling for the rela- tive size of rational numbers when presented in the form of fractions. When

presented in decimal form, they acquire more meaning. In practice, one has

very little use for learning the rule for addition of two complicated fractions:

it only becomes useful when the student comes to add two rational functions

in high school algebra. It should therefore not be emphasized in the elementary school curriculum, and it might even be eliminated. The major emphasis on teaching algorithms for adding fractions should come just before the cor- responding algorithms are taught in the high school algebra course. In ele- mentary school, all fractions should be converted to decimals, and the addition and subtraction operations all done on decimals. Conversion to the metric system will help give a push in this direction, not only by enforcing the

study of decimals earlier in the curriculum, but by tending to remove the last vestiges of the need to study the algorithm of fractions.

Practically 6 months of instruction time in the 6th, 7th, and 8th grades are currently devoted to the notion of "percent." All this time would become un- necessary if decimals are introduced from the start, and if all fractions are

- Richard P. Feynman, a letter to the editor of 5c/>/?///ic/lwer/ca«, November 1970, p. 6; M.

Danloux-Dumesnil, The Metric System: A Critical Study of its Principles and Practice, University of London, The Athlone Press (1969), pp. 148 ff. The urgent notational problem addressed in these papers has existed since Simon Stevin gave

us the decimal point in 1585. If one of these suggestions could be even partially implemented in elementary school mathematics, it would greatly aid in the teaching of "scientific notation," the laws of exponents, and the appreciation of the relative size of numbers. There is much to be said for the general use of these notations, for they would simplify measurement language by eliminating the customary Greek-and Latin-derived prefixes which are now recommended only for every third power of ten.
APPENDIX V 115

automatically written in decimal form. By the downgrading of fractions and

the elimination of the time spent on "percent," a year to a year-and-a-half can be cut out of the current curriculum. This would make room for innovative introduction of materials into the elementary school curriculum,

primarily in the direction of probability and statistics and coordinate

geometry.
Appendix VI

Inservice Training Programs

a. Outline of an Inservice Training Program for a County-Wide

School District

Gerard J. Putz, Science Consultant, Macomb Intermediate School District,

Mount Clemens, Michigan

Macomb Intermediate School District provides central services to 21

local school districts in the county and coordinates academic and administrative activities among them. Its academic divisions are special education, instruction, vocational, data processing, and

research. Other intermediate school districts in the state of Michigan

may provide more or less in the way of academic services and more

or less in the way of administrative and other coordination functions,

including centralized purchasing and payroll and bus transport of

children.

The proposal outlined below is based upon successful experience in this District, including the preparation of secondary school teachers in the use of computers and a workshop on safety for secondary

science teachers.

A discussion of teacher training should take the needs of children as well

as the needs of the teachers into consideration at three different levels of in- struction:

A. Early Elementary (K-3)

B. Upper Elementary and Secondary Schools (4- 1 2)

C. Adult Community

The greatest need for training of teachers will be at the early elementary

grades (K-3) and the greatest need for retraining of students will be for stu- dents (grades 4-12) and adults who are already familiar with the customary

system.

Elementary school teachers will require the most intensive inservice

training. The training should be similar to that which we hope they will use

with their students as teachers generally "teach as they are taught." We

should consider some basic guidelines concerning measurement before going

on. To begin with, measurement should not and really cannot be "taught"

through a series of planned lessons. Learning to measure (especially in a

relatively unfamiliar system) is a i^radual process related to each child's experiences. Until a child has had the opportunity to experience in concrete,

comparative terms what a gram and a kilogram, or a centimeter and a meter

are, the term "five centimeters plus seven centimeters" is meaningless to him. Again, it is much like learning a new language. We have discovered that we cannot teach a new language (w.hich the metric system really is) by

teaching the vocabulary and grammar of this language. The most effective

116
APPENDIX VI 117

way to learn the new language is to use it in meaningful, everyday oral expressions. So too with the metric language, children will learn it best if it is not "taught" but experienced and used in some activity in the context of

situations in which a child is actively involved (sewing, cooking, caring for

animals, racing "hot wheels," comparing heights of roommates, etc.). The

training of teachers should reflect this principle. This gradual experimental

process is the most effective way to unlearn an old system and relearn a new

system.

In the judgment of the science, mathematics, and vocational teachers and

consultants of this district, secondary school teachers of these subjects are already quite familiar with the metric system. They need very little, if any,

special inservice training, other than challenging and interesting investigations to demonstrate the advantages of the metric system. The metric sys- tem is the normal mode of instruction for 95 percent of our senior high math

and science classes.

If any inservice training were to be conducted for the secondary school

teachers, I would recommend a half-day "awareness" workshop dramatically emphasizing the advantages and differences of the metric system. The

six basic units of the International System would be emphasized together

with the unitary nature of the derived SI units, and interesting and imaginative investigations would be developed to illustrate the calculation of the

derived units. For the secondary school teachers (grades 7-12) this awareness workshop

could be conducted at the Macomb Intermediate School District for the ap- proximately 70 department chairmen in Macomb County who could, in turn,

conduct similar inservice training for their respective staff. Students majoring in secondary science and mathematics will need very

little assistance, for the metric system is well covered and is the standard

system used in measurements and calculations. However, the nonscience

majors do not focus in this way on the metric system; they will be familiar

only with the English system and be in need of additional training. We believe that for the nonscience majors and the nonscience teachers the most

important factor that will facilitate their learning a new system of measure- ment will be time and not any one-shot concentrated effort. Like learning a new language, it will be important that they are given every opportunity to use the new "metric language" in their everyday experiences — both personal

and vicarious (T.V., news media, etc.). If they are exposed to the new

system often enough, if they realize the benefits and advantages of the new

system and if a need to use the new system is established, then they will gradually develop an increasing facility with the metric system without any

special intensive training.

Inservice training would be most effective if conducted before school

opens for the fall term. Five to eight 2-hour sessions would be conducted by

the principal or a master teacher. The Intermediate School District would

bear the responsibility for training these instructors at a county-wide in- stitute or workshop. This training could also be conducted over national educational TV, but we believe a "hands-on-experience" approach would be a more effective mode of instruction.
118 EDUCATION

Adult education directors and community school directors believe that a

national THINK METRIC campaign would be more effective and successful than any special class they could organize on the subject.

b. Outline of an Inservice Training Program Using Television

in Part

Annie Sue Brown, Visiting Associate Professor of Education, University of

Georgia, Athens, Georgia

This proposal is based upon experience with inservice training pro- grams using television in part carried out in Atlanta where the author

served as science supervisor. It is an extrapolation of the programs

produced there for the introduction of the AAAS science curriculum. Science— A Process Approach, and draws to some extent upon

Atlanta's experience with it. The outline offered here is incomplete and must be completed locally,

taking local conditions into account. The videotapes of experimental

classrooms should be made locally using the inexpensive and unobtrusive portable cameras and recorders which have come to the market in the last few years. The television inservice training program consists of an intensive period

of television lessons together with some face-to-face meetings with an in- structor. These might be followed by a sequence of monthly TV lessons

comprising videotapes of further successful teaching situations, or by a more

extensive course in teaching elementary mathematics. The intensive period

would consist of four to six broadcasts and one or two face-to-face meetings over a period of 2 weeks. If time were available, it could precede the opening

of school in September; but otherwise it would be appropriate to secure

released time by dismissing classes an hour early on 6 to 8 days during the

first 2 weeks of the term. In either case, the event should be promoted as the

start of metrication in the local school system.

The initial broadcasts should be based upon successful teaching experiments carried out during the preceding school year to discover students'

reactions and the ways in which they best learn metric units and measurement. These trials should be under the direction of the supervisor of elementary mathematics arid science, and experiments should be made at all grade

levels and by teachers of various degrees of experience. Four to six videotapes of 20-30 minutes duration each should be edited from these ex- periments. They would constitute the TV portion of the intensive period of

inservice training. Each tape should be accompanied by program notes dis- tributed in advance, together with instructions for a sequence of measure- ment activities to be performed by the teachers immediately after the broadcast. The exercises should not take more than an hour.'

' The instructions should say what measuring devices to bring to the viewing area and what

objects might be brought to be measured. Typical measurement activities might include: measure your own "vital" dimensions, measure straight and curved lengths, regular and irregular areas and volumes, various objects in and around the classroom, etc.
APPENDIX VI 119

This portion of the inservice training program can be completed by the

teachers alone or in small groups, and an instructor need not be present.

However, the TV sessions should be accompanied by perhaps two face-to- face meetings between groups of about 20 teachers and an instructor who is a member of the inservice training team, preferably a teacher who took part

in the lessons which were videotaped. These face-to-face sessions could be

devoted to clarification, other teaching strategies, and further measurement

activities appropriate for the grades that the teachers are teaching.

The intensive portion of the program must include lessons and activities on the measurement of length, area, volume, capacity, mass, and temperature. In addition to classroom videotapes, at least one broadcast ought to be

devoted to the description and use of the apparatus supplied to the schools

and to information about inexpensive things that teachers can buy or find or make themselves to use in their own classrooms.

This initial period should provide the knowledge base for teaching metric

units. The inservice training program might terminate here, or it might continue for the rest of the year in one of several different ways. For example:

(a) A broadcast each month of additional excerpts from lessons

videotaped during the current year, demonstrating additional ways of

teaching and learning measurement; together with one or two face-to-face

meetings with an instructor. The broadcasts might be in the same format —

a

20-30 minute videotape together with program notes and some new activities for the teachers to perform during the rest of the hour.

(b) A more intensive program of lessons in the same format, which might

lead to academic credit for mathematics teaching. As we have suggested

above, the intellectual and skills content of the metric system is small, and

familiarity with it can be achieved only by usage. Accordingly, an inservice

training program on the metric system alone can hardly justify the award of

any substantial amount of credit. However, the curriculum modifications in elementary mathematics which should accompany metric conversion warrant considerable attention, and they would require teachers to learn new

teaching skills. These subjects include the introduction of decimal fractions

at the second grade level, measurement activities of all kinds for grades 2-4,

the estimation of number and of various physical quantities, limits of accura- cy and the meaning of significant figures, place value, approximate calculations, and the exponential notation. An inservice course of this dimension

would easily comprise 3 hours of academic credit. (If academic credit or

credit toward a salary increment is to be awarded, it may be necessary to prepare performance objectives and measures of competence. Reading

material might be made available on the history of the metric system and on

the experiences of others in going metric and in teaching relatively "advanced" concepts to relatively young children.)

The entire program of inservice training should be developed under the

direct supervision of the person responsible for elementary curriculum in mathematics and science. The team would include technical people, of

course, and the teachers of trial classes and other resource people, according

to local conditions.
120 EDUCATION

The inservice training program should be attended by teachers who teach

in self-contained classrooms and by mathematics and science specialists.

Teachers who teach with mathematics and science specialists would profit

from some parts of the program, if not all of it; and it would ease organizational problems if all elementary teachers in the system were to participate

in at least the intensive portion. The program should be designed to take

their various needs into account.

A Plan for Implementing an Inservice Teacher Training Program for Teaching

the Metric System of Measurement

1 . Establish the need for using the metric system. (This may be part of the

THINK METRIC campaign.)

(a) Articles in local papers

(b) Comments on local, state, and national television programs

(c) P.T.A. programs

(d) Letters to teachers and parents.

2. Secure the approval and encouragement of school authorities.

3. Identify and prepare the instructors and resource persons; and conduct

teaching experiments and prepare videotapes of them. Edit the videotapes to make about six 20-30 minute presentations.

4. Arrange compensation for successful completion of the course. Give

teachers one or more of

(a) Increment credit (clear with school personnel office that the course

will be recognized for credit).

(b) College or university credit (check with college and university con- cerning the time requirements and performance objectives and measures).

(c) Money.

(d) The pleasure of accomplishment and public service.

5. Announce the offering of the concentrated course and the academic

year follow-up. Include in the announcement the structure of the presentation.

6. Organize classes according to the number of teachers involved, where

they teach, the assignment of instructors, and other details of administration.

7. Teach the program and evaluate teachers' responses.

8. Make changes based upon evaluations.

9. Repeat the course during the summer and try some variations.

(a) Try spending more time in class each day in order to cover the

material in 1 week.

(b) Consider broadcasting on Saturday mornings instead of after school, if local people desire it.
APPENDIX VI 121

c. Recommendation for a Workshop-Based Teacher Training

Program to Introduce the Metric System

Adeline Naiman, Elementary Science Study ,2 Education Development Center,

Newton, Massachusetts

In order to get teachers to unlearn the English system and "think metric,"

I believe that a slow, steady workshop program is needed over a long

time — half a day a week for a school year would not be too much. Alternatively, a week-long saturation workshop could be carried out, but this is less

likely of success. A third possibility is the one we have used here at the Elementary Science Study (ESS)— a 4-week summer institute for six teams of

five teachers/science supervisors from six regions of the U.S. These teams

have come here, spent day and night with ESS staff in workshops and

discussions and then gone back to their home districts to run 2-week

workshops for teachers in their own school systems with follow-up

throughout the year. ESS staff have been available to help with the 2-week

workshops and for consultation and visits during the year. This last model might well be modified to fit the needs of the metrication

program. Key teachers or mathematics/science specialists could be brought

to summer institutes and could then run workshops for their colleagues at home. ESS has also run 1-week workshops during the school year as an in- troduction to our materials, and this is an alternative model.

The essential component of a workshop of this kind is material that stimulates the participants and gives them something to take home and teach to other teachers or to their students. "Learning by doing" is the precept. No

amount of lecturing will make the use of a new language instinctive. For

adults to learn a new measurement language there must be considerable time

and opportunity to use that language in real activities, without pressure. Once teachers are at ease with measurement in the metric system, their stu- dents will find it simple. For very young children, learning the metric system

is only as difficult as learning measurement and estimation.

The same materials are appropriate for adults and children alike. If I were

planning workshops to teach teachers the metric system. I would build the

program around actual projects and activities that call for measurement or estimation in a natural way. Since I am convinced that it is important to put concrete materials in the students' hands, I would use some of the ESS and

African Primary Science (APS)^ units, as well as certain mathematics

materials that are now available. These include —

Match and Measure; Peas and Particles: and Mapping (all ESS units).

Ourselves (APS).

Ways to Find How Many (University of Illinois Arithmetic Project).^

Cuisenaire Rods, centimeter-unit blocks, and others.

- The Elementary Science Study is supported principally by the National Science Foundation.The African Primary Science Program is a project of Education Development Center sup- ported principally by the U.S.A.i.D.

' ^The University of Illinois Arithmetic Project is a project of Education Development Center, supported principally by the National Science Foundation, the Carnegie Corporation of New

York, and the Ford Foundation.

426-013 o - 71 - 9
122 EDUCATION

In addition, I would — if time permitted — have Pattern Blocks and Geo

Blocks (both ESS) and prototypes cut to centimeter scale. I would equip the

workshop area with sandplay and waterplay tables full of an assortment of

standard metric containers, and have a metric spring scale and an equal-arm

balance with a balance beam perforated at centimeter intervals for balancing

activities. In other words, I would have a simulated classroom or sciencemathematics laboratory in which all of the ESS units could be carried on in a metric ambiance.

In working with teachers, I would simply introduce the units and materials, spending perhaps half a day on each unit, and requiring the teachers to use the metric system throughout. The primary focus of the activities would

not be the mastery of the metric system through conscious process; it would

be the introduction of new science and mathematics materials which the

teachers could then take home to use with their pupils. It is like Zen and the

art of archery: happiness, like hitting the target (and like the mastery of the

metric system), is not what one tries for; it is the byproduct of repeated ex- perience. After being steeped naturally in a new language, one finds one knows it — I know of no widely successful alternative.

d. "Match and Measure" — A Working Paper on a Unit of Elementary Science Study (see pp. 123-185)

124 EDUCATION

uJ

*» a»

p2 UiUJlO^
APPENDIX VI

0) 1 o 1 0) •H 4-1 1 o c

-C 4-t 0) 4h f-i .-H o

4-1 +J 03 > O 0) 0 o O E 4-> C/2 >

c 3 0) o

<a H T3 c 4-> T3 c c c o H ni o tn 03 o c 4-1 c O

E • H (/I o *-> to 0) 4-> <u c • H c H !-i 03 4-> t-l 00 • H

&0 u 03 > X O • H > O CTi o

-a !-i •a x: 3

a a. 3 tu 4-i T3 CI, c: +j *j UJ C E o

(/) in +-1 ao •H •H •H c 03 03 C -a •M

<u 0 rH c c 03 o E 03 C 03 03 o U

c D. • H O U 03 3

(U O o H a U c 0) -o

•H o ^J UJ O o X3 C/1 (D o 0) 1/) 03 H T3 > S-i +-> o

03 o O 03 -o -C O

0 a, c o > (LI +-1 o D c o +-* <L) f/) 0) C u • H c 03 E l/l (U Cu c (h (D c •H !^ l-H O TD O

1) 3 o t-1 (U c C O

E u <u 4-> o !h 03 (-1 D rH T3 c •H 03 O a,

!-i C 0) •M C U U) OJ !h o 3 u OS O C 03 •a 3 •H ID c

(D O in •»-> H P T3 03 13 o c C 03 I/) H

eS •H 0) 03 O 0) c (U M E Ofi 3 o 3 c

03 •H 03 a. T3 H 0) o E <4H E o O UJ > C

1/) 1 E tn in 0

4-1 <—

t

o c 4-1 4-1 OO C 0) o O •a H C 0

0) > <4-l fH 0 C 0

(H 0) T3 Ph 4-1 0 T3 OO Q OJ 0 O 0 03 3 o

U +-> 0 c 43 4-1 u c u 3 c in

03 4-1 oo 0 l/l q •H 4-> •H > c j: DO X o u (/I 4-1 03 1/1 03 OS 4-1 3

--H -H in O 0 •H •H o H 4-> 0 C T) O 3 i-1

f-l 03 T3 o3 4-1 H

03 T3 c 03 t3 4-1 4-1 OO 4-1 E C •H O 4-1 c 03 03 c

•H 3 oo 3 03 4-1 E H c

Sh O O 0 t/1 0 a: 0

fi, u. 03 0 Jh C x: ^4 4-1 0) 4-> j: O O 0 +-1 o !-i -d D 4-1 E •H 03 3 OS

0) o 00 4-1 4-1 E OO

*-' C fl •H T3 P. C fH O 0 0 0 00 •H 0

O -H >+-( o > O c T3

Ph U -C c O TJ C

&,C/2 « oo O o 0 0 •H 3 3 > o 0 O

« r-H 03 o C C C

03 H (-1 c •H 0 H 0 E

C C !h H 00 •H o

(L) O 0 4-» 0 C (H !h

0) -H 4-> 0 O 0 0 4-1 XI +-> 03 c i-H c c 3 O,

OJ E 0 OS •H •H 4-1 x; in

U1 2 +-i o tn tn in 0 0

03 m !h in 4-1 00 o 03 4-1 in in 03 00 03 o O H (h

C/D •!-> 4-> ^1 r-H j: 4-1 4-1 0

c 0 03 O) « C

UJ E 0 T3 E 4-1 O 4-1 0 O 03 o E C u 3 •H H 03

!h ex. H 0 T3 c O 0 4-1

M-l o 03 0 3 in 4-1 O

1 -C 1 p. 0

in 03 Cu o I-H u H OS !h 0 0 0

03 (J ^-1 P., 4-1 *H 0 OO O o3 3

CI. o 0 4-1 c •H X

0 in 4-J 0 0 c !h

4-1 o *-» 00 0 !h 3 0

03 4-1 -C 03 ^ t3 >

E 4h P.T3 4-1 oS (-H 0

03 C in • H o

-o 4-1 -a 03 in OS in 0 in c X CJ 0

4-1 03 X f-i 03 o

c 4-1 ^4 0 • H 0 4h o

•H O E o > !h U O x:

f-l r-H 4-1 0 0 0 o

a, a, •H 03 4-1 4-1 in

•+4 fH 4-1 03" 3 C

T3 0 O < E 0 O

c 0 XI 4-1 4-1 03 03 -0 in c 0 4-1 pH C E O T3 u 03 O 0 0

in 4-1 4h C o in 6 O 00 UJ in u -d 03 H OS in c 0

•H 4-1 in in 4h 0 in 03 4h •H 03 0 O a 08 0

3 t3 •H E U

Ul O !h

4-1 •a rH 0 P. O in C 0 0 O 4-1 4h •iH 0 u 3 4-1 c 03 E 3 in 0 3 0 +-1 in E 4-1 •H

•H O 03 in C P. O 4-1 3 ;h O o o 03 0

cr Dh •H •H rH 0 U w in T3 4-1 0 O P. o

0 +-1 3 O > 4-1 03 4h

!h in 4-1 3 0 C X 0

03 •H in -o T3 •H in

0 C O -H 4-1 0 -H M O

E H OS 4-1 P. o- p. to ' o

03 3

(J T3 H O

^4 Sh 0 p. <

O X

) in X

0 oS

+-1 s

03

4-1 q

CO o

4-1 C

o o O in •H

- E

00 !h C 0

•H P.

13U C O 0

O 4-1 0 4H

in X

X C

in 03

4-1 1-H 00 - •H ^4 M 0 X

P. C O 0 u u

H O X-H

P. !h o p.

4-1 O 0 ^

C -H 3 XI3 0 &,O -M ^4 j: 0

p. 4-1 x: 3 in - O -H

-H x; rH

03 4-1 XJ O -H 3

•H 3 p.
126 EDUCATION

4-) 4-J 3 c X 1 CO O a; CO o.

C 3 <L) E c •H >—1

rt o 3 a, •H to 0)

p

O c p J= C o > UJ x: 2 i/l (U H o c3 f-( o o X3 X •P x: 13 0) o > in p: c o •H 3 q X) 3 s nj 1/1 o

0) tj T3 o XI S 3 o -J c O n) 3 C u c

0) +-> 0) <D <+H cu T3 rt c o

!h c x: 4-1

X CD S UJ

p

13 •H (/) +-I rt OJ XI OO to r—(

fH

X !h P x-o <uu H)

H 3 oJ •H o GO to Cll x: o < t/1 3 0) +j u p 0) O oj •H 00 -o

X

O

O 4J T3 x:

C c u o i/l 0) o x: )-< o > X ClJ c C T3 <-J kJ p o !-< o X3 nJ

01

C 3 o E P !h 2 lA nj X2 +-> c 10 o C H 00 '-' s X +J o e !h X c H a! •H ^ XI

<D P XI o •H o a C O P p to

0) o o o 1/1

X •H P w

H •!-> o o (J o ^1 CO 0) XI "c o XI •H

Ma

u 10 ^1 c

aj XE- 3 p •H c 0 o OO

•aO c I/l

O •H 1/1 > o 3 p •H c ni •H c > a) •H o to •H 3 •H U1 P to •H 1) o (U 'Jj < P 10 &, C 10 > -a

01 !-iO CTJ o nj 1) "E, 3 3 a> OJ u 00

+-> « p

u 00 c o

0) T3 rt S OJ 0)

X 3 00 •H o

0) <U 1) o O x: 00 0) 1/1

O J3 s 3 H p !-i c P O a H o o e 11

1/1 x; o <u u-i t^ o o 3 x; x: 3 to "3 o P .3 (X

to

^5
APPENDIX VI 127
EDUCATION 1 in jr "—1 H c 1 tt) ID

X +-> in •—1 u o H fH fH o -a 0

11) aj E D ID 1 E ID

O

X ID o H E -H M u X) 10 3 in X X o jr E fH w 1+H in -C fH 03 o H 03 03 03 03 a (-> a 4-> -H z Oj X in e in c 03 c in O 1—1

in Mh T3 in ID (-> 3 3 3 o in ID o C < in <D T3 E 0! 4h

•H oJ '—1

0)U 0) fH

X

C 03 x: ID

4-> f—i nl o u ID CI 0) & 0) 03 in ID 03

Oj

u o 0) 03 •H

a (D 03 -C

t-H > CL,

D •o +-> E ID 0) 4-J

M in

0) 11)

X in 4-> 03

C 3 -d c 0) in

0) 4) fH •H ID DO 1)

C 1—1

•H tj *H

O in 0) e in O 0) C 00 c E •H o. 4-1 ID 03 r-H c J-* ID bo C H o 4h 0= c •(-J ID •H 1) •H +-< 03 03 E O u 03 (D in 0) X x; P. o 6 X 03 fH c •M a u ID 3 ID ID ID 03 o c o fH 0) Uj E x: E %. •H E x: E •H 0)

H-l 0) -a o +j 4-1 *-) J= o p +-1 c in ID in 3 4) 03 C ID 03 M c O 4-> 03 M ^H 0) XI j: (D X fH in o 1+-I 03 o o xx: OS 03 1)

(U •u 0) r-H X!

M o C c 0) 3 in fH c 11) in O ID 03 c 6 •H H fH +j x; ID 03 o C 0) H ID <D •H o E 3 3 M X fH 60 H •H +j C C N -C a) 3 o o o X 03 ID CD c &, ID o 03 •H T3 --H -a iw a) i-H E x: U o •H <L) J= e in o 3 03 "O in u +-> ID C < 3 60 fH +J 4-> > fH <D 03 3 OS (D

<u 4-1 o tfl c (D ID •H 3 fH 0) 03 x:

X (-

N ID 3 a. in

C

OO tfl fHO •H I-H •H e c c o e *-> 00 c 4h d. tt) E in ^ in o H fH m X H o 03 <D in XI •H ID 03 in 11) X 3 l+H o 6 fH •M fH w o 3

(U

i+j 3 • o3 in o o 3 ID <D <D

C •M in -C "oo M - fH H o fH fH -H O H •l-l o •H o 4) l-i c !-> ID i-j 03 O E 03 -P c ">s in O in o H t—1

•t-l E ID

O in in 0) rt C •H <—t

u. +-> •H 3 M c in

O o C

C

11) •H 03 o 3 in <-< 3 03 0) 0) OS 1) 03 m rH in c M ^ e ID o o ID H o o u ei. IJH X a)

in in

HH in •f—1 c U o •M c 03 in o 3 E ooo

1-^ so

03 1 co

0) •H 1 a) o E !-> in a; X I-H •H 03 a) X 3 3 •H H in u o o fH ^4 X fH c 60X X O o o

ID 0) err in > X o ID 03

X

C ID

C E a) 3 XJ

03 o 60 03 l+H 14H u 03 X X 14H 60

O fH

fH 4-1 03

H a) • • C 4-1 a)

X

C 03 -d fH •H >

fHH 60 ?H X) • • in o

OJ CD XI •o a) > T3 1^ c iH ai fH fH <D fH S I-H 03 X 60 ^ E O o

n3 o « oca) 3

in 0) <D

O 60 ai E X X in X I-H OO E a) fH • OS fH a) X -H o

0) 0) 1)

O

H 3 X o • H in

+-> OJ 3 in XI o a) in 60

03

O •H ID

XX

X c

0) 03

M fH in

ru a)H in in E r 03 in 1 3 1 in X (D •a OS I-J fH 0) 1 E 3 •4-1 x: fH O in <3 0) •H fH in

+-> o a £ X E D.

C 3 C ai 3 o I-H Co 4-1 H X O O 0) >

0) 00 3 •H o in a) -H

X •H

in ID

C fH 3 in fH 4-1r X) a) 3 X H X : H X t3 in u O in c a) -H fH 60 X C Mh XI <u 0) 03 3 r a) X a)

0) E 03 -H

H I-H

H cr c- o P.

C • E O 01 > 4-1 4-1 XI I-H 4-1 XI H X - fH in 03 4-1 H a) a) 03 C 60

X 03 OS I-H O I-H X p 4-1 X • E 03 C a) -H 00 .-H z '+^ - E 03 O 4-1 in +-1 3 X X 03 a, c fH o 4-1 u C C

03 03

are fore tall much impo

>~

how
APPENDIX VI

1 -a t/) DO 0) QJ T3 c s !h <J •H o

3 •H c 3 M

o c •a • H cr O •H c > +J •H a. OS c •(-> n) <u 3 o n) £

<J D 00 o E oa o

4) c x: 0) c c o

i-H <u o H

X) •H o E 00 aj c o

nj t/) c e X C « '+^ OJ o

<U > o !-i u

c f-i o u t/) fH

l-i H >^ nj 3 c <u

rt o OJ X

x: *-> •H O J M t/) M o

(1) c !-> i-H c

o 0) U (8 cs

01 u 3 -a D C 03 o cr c •H o c ns l+H •M D o •o o H *-> c <U E (h

Sh oj >>TD <u <L) 0) <u X x: •H o c

!X c

X o e •H nJ

0) J-* D E I/) +-» 3 (U X o <D c

0) M c 00 M a O o

s c +-» c nJ o

0) H DO !-i ifl > CL, c 3 CU <D

t/1 •H O c

<u Oj C oo u-i 0) o

x: 1) !h nJ c X

H /3 box n3 M e

•H fH n) s o x O >, ^1 x: o ^1 u c CQ nJ 4-1 X Mh

t/1 00 o o

03 4-) E X fH 4H

fH 4H <D c • H

a, (J X fH O o3 3

3 c +J 03 t-> u •H 0) c: <fl 03 •H OO <u 3

Oj *> t3 c I-H O O C •H 0) X o

oo o fH X 03 t/1 4H c u 0) 03 H •rH LO X 00

OJ (D fl. 6 I/) H c

e X B O -o 4h •H M H o •H 0) O ^4

tH t/) 3 X 3

4h T3 a- </) «

^^ O C •H 4-> 03

<u CD 03 I-H <u H <D

+-> 0) E c E

03 OO -o H 3

3 05 (/) C c +-1 X •H OS T3 a)

0) X 03 C

O X U lA 03 O

+-* •)-> 13 fH -d iH n.x 03 -H (a != M

3 •!-> 00 E <—

1

03 c 00 o c o '4H 4-' <L> 4h •H fH to < t/1 > •H

03 O in O •t3 3 4h 4h X O C

•M VI O u 03

OS •H -t-J X <u oa 'd <U ^-l 0) I/) •M o T3 3 X (h -a X 3 I/) 03 T3 <D

(U i-i M •(-' 03 C T3

(U 03 c (D -H 0) C

t/) OO •H s c E (U X 3

3 X O X <D

(J <4H X <u 3 -O o <l> E c 3 E o E O o in •H 0) (U o in 03

0) X to o in I/l in D

t/) O •H c 3 fH 4J E

o X 0) tfl O in

03 -H (U H tu H o

Mh fH X X 4-1

1/3 14H o <D 4-1 +-> QJ

0) H &. c X o to X 4-> t4H X o

• H C 1) OS E 4-1 H

> o o X o 1) oox

<t) • H o X 4-" in c 3

T3 t/l M u 3 4-1 <D 3 3 <u in •H X OOMh fH (/) E 03 4-1 c C <u 3 d) 4-' 4h H

H o X TD i/i E c •H 3

Jh o 4-1 (U i/i <u 3 o •H 03 4h E in in to -3 c O 0) 03 0)

03 C CD <U fH X

<U oi 3 I-H in 3 in o

E •H 4-' 4H in E c X c c •H 03 (U H

I-H fH 00 0) t: 0) 0) 03 0) c i

3 3 E in III C 4-> o o- >

O <U o +j 03 •H X 03 fH n) 4-> -H X 4-1 E • Uh c

C EC O rH . X

D^ilUOfll-HoSCllI

> -H X -H lU 4-1 -H <U X ClD4->4-'fHC4Hh4-l OX C 13 0) C T3 U4-iina).-H>aii-HC

IP > -H c in -H m t4HincxoinxX4-' 03-Houaju3-r-i

X4-> • O

00 X o

C 01 --H D 3 X

D ol H E E

lU 03 3 in fH •H O moo C X ^

O 4-> ^H U X a>

' o X

3

in

0)

fH c in O •H O

03 E OJ o X in 4-1 o O 03 X c

3 4-" o 3 rt •H O c E '4H I-H

4-1 •H o o 4-> u a, o •iH 3

03 in o I-H l+H in X o C o c

in > 03

03 I-H X 0) X

CO 4-1 r-t o

a, 0) 03 tH 3 OO 4-1 o 0) X X

c 03 X

00 •H •H Ih 3 03 in H C OJ O

T3 -H S CJ C fH E C

03 -3 -H -H

+-> in

in rt X

03 -. 3 e E -3

" O

ID !=; 4-" X -H -H

4-1 X4-1 C

C ID H XX03 3

fH E

fH E fH fH <U H 0 4-" -o C 14H X _o X

I-H t= o D 3 "o "do CO in •H H E 3 4-1 iH H CD +J 03 0) 03 X O

13 +J 03 in c 3 X I-H 3 •H O in in H

OO 00 I4H ID O 4-" •H to to 04

•H C, 4-> ol c 3 <D in +j •3 •H ID o 3 u "fH •H CO Ol >- o c ID I-H ID 3 OO 4-^ 3 o oj 4-> 4-1 a- o 4-> C X 03 03 03 H X u •iH ol X 4-1 M 3 4-» o

1 CD C

0) 4J X T3 4-1 ID o

fH to 3 4-1 C ID •3 U •H

4-1 3 o C 1 03 CD ID ID •H in E 3 X o Uh > N ID 3 03 o 3 T3 03 U X ID o d. in in I) O E O E 4-1 4-> E 4-1 4-1 4-1 > > 0) t4H C 03 CD 03 fH H t4H 03 c ID t+H o X 03 •H ID •H

ol E o in 4-1 3 fH -3 T3

CJ ID c *-> CT X 03 C

1h in ID U in in 4-1 ID 03 3 3 4-> in 01 03 c^- CD o C X o in H 3 CD in O X CD 4-1 X 01 c CD cr in ID 3

ID 3 CD 03 X c 3 I4H 03

4-1 03 oox O 3 ID ^ O in

CD I-H fH -H

CD P, IN- 03 in o3 00

CD C X X T3 -rH X 4-1 r-1 -3

•H C T3

fH X 03 ID 1) CJ 4-1 in •3 to 3 C CO fH :3 C 0) 4-1 3 -3 C

o c o X 3 a

c in c _o X H

03 H 3 X t4H X X fH o P O

o o o 0) • H c in in fH X in •H CD c ID ^4 0) ID 4-1 C

o X o X -3 •H c H •H 4-1 t4H o X 03 03 in 4-1 O CD JH •H o T3 •H X OO W fH in 4-1 t: X 4-1 o o 03 ID o c

0,-3 +-1 > 3 c O

4-1 X ID in •H E ID H

03 4-1 in X C4H X •H 0) CJ X 3

4-1 OO Ol I-H CD •H c 4-1 I-H E > T3 E

03 03 4-1 03 o UJ ID 3 X 03 ID fH 4-1 Ol in cr o fH I4H •H 4-1 ID in O C C

fH CD ID fH to fH X ID 03 T3 X O CD -3 ID "cD CD ID X 4-1 c X 1+4 > 3 CI. •H 03 E 3 m •rH 3 4-1 CD X t4H 4-1 3 O •H 14H C CD

CJ •H in C Cu-a 03 X ID
130 EDUCATION o<jj

m c t/) <u •H

X • H 4-» C AS (/I x: !h X <u i/l t3 03 0) 4-1 c -a 03 T3 u 0) 4-< « (H X C E o •H C E

<v 3 OD 4-> Oj c 03 •H

X +-> 00

Ou i/i 4-1 !h c <u <+-! 0) O C UI 4-1 •rH 3 •H t/1 P.

<VO M-l TDa tA T3 H U u rH O •a <D O O 0) <U

<u (U ,—1

<u o <x x: <u x:

!-i <u c 10 0 4-1 > X 3 c 4-" CI. c o (D n) t3 <U •H O •H O 1/1 T3 E 14H

t/) 0) •t-l

u -0

X

u

H

OO IH 0)

O

O

(U t/1

C +->

C 0) o H i-i <u o 0) 1) in H x: t3 !h T3 00 E 0) > ^ u C 1/1 O H o CO c •O • ni 3 03 CO t/1 •H > 3 -H (U 4-1 VI X l/l 03 !h •H t/) o c t3 0) 03 4-1 (U 00 C 0) C E -C <U X O cu O 1/1 >-l c 1) !-i nJ 3 u E HI

CS c o • H •H 0) ,-HH x: •H

C ID o M-l 0) O (4H +j T3 3 o a. 3 (U <+J f-i > 3 o O O 4-1 c V) 1/1 t/1 CI, H 03 4H E

rt 0) 03

X T3 CXT3 0)

X 03 fH fH

f-< o !U aj S C e 4-1 x: " 'H

ifl -C e tu

O 03 o <u 4-1 +J <U >

(8 o <D 4-> (Jm •H CL,X o

rt oj <U Th

cS fH "O 0) 4-1 •H a) <D M fn O ifl (U 03 OJ TD

(I (-> n! +J 4-> 03 ^^ > OJ 4h H)

<u CO !-i 1) 03 o O o

+J

X o 3 T3 >-l 03 x; c

rt o E ,-HC 03 i-H 4-1 03 E a n! o 3 rH OJ H X 4-1 •H E O o •H o <u 03 •H 3 OO 1/1 0) 3 H U u o H XI •H

Th oo c 71 XI 0) )H •H 4-1 0) t-l o. •H « <u 0) M-l OJ c/l T3

O ^4

•I-I > (H 1/1

H (1) fH 01

X o -H 03 3 03

O 3 X •H <u XI o o E d, OO 4-1 O X

C4H T3 4-1 4-1 X O 0) X 1 c C <D in in •H o 00 > fH 4-1 C <D 3 in ID in 3 c 3 10 03 •H o •rH 14H in C D 3 fn OJ o 3 fH o

00 o D 4-1 6 I4H in o H

H •H in d. ID

X i <D o O

•o fH

H in Oj Oj <u •H

O 3 •H fH 14H rH c 03 (D c 4-1 4-1

O

Ifl ,-H

X fH •H

U

X c H 4-1 in ol •H

H ID

C 4-1

H 3 4-1 <u T3 03

X o fH E H

C

O 03

X in oJ •H OO x: o 1/1 lU 03 a- 4-1 o H 3 03 O o C O 4-1 (D E T3 <D •p x; fH X E 4-1 4-1 o in o 4h • H (U 4-1 c •H <D 4-1 •H in 10 0 03 3 o OJ fH •H 4-1 fH OO 10 ID 1) •P o 0) 03 f4 <D v X in in tj in E OJ <L) in 03 T3 c 3 U E •H f- C 3 X

00 OO •4-1

X 03 03 CD in fH

X in 00 3 H 3 <U > Tj in 4-1 03 c H 00 (U X fH 0) O X 4-1 03 c •4-1 •H 4-1 fH H C 03 lA •H <U 3 E <u CO 14H ,-H •H H X o m CI. 3 4-1 ID in ID ID

(/I o TD 4^ 00C

m fH o 4-1mu o 03 in

O 00 fH c E in

<U 3 uO d) +-1 c •H •H o in o 03

O oJ 03 c T3 o 3 E in X 4-1 H fH o •H 4-1 <4H <u lU ^H Uh <D •H •H 14H nS 4-1 •p X o O c c Oj X rH o o in 4-1 E in f4 •H 4-1 o O

4-1 0)

X OO o c <4H 03

H in

X 4-1 o 00 03 3 X in 4-1 c E 00 !h c o 0 03 4-1 4-1 (X c OJ X OO c in o <D X 3 O •H CO u nS E 4-1 O CL, c c X 3 •H E 4-1 c <D OJ 3 4-1 ID 00 4-1 CO c X 4-1 E •H •H (D o 3 H •H fH m cr o E u 03 4-1 O fH c -a in O •H 4-1 ID c in 4-1 T3 E in •H • H 3 X •H Ol •H •H c H ^4 in 00 T3 c OO CO 03 ID C ID <u fH 4-1

4-1 4-1 1) 4-1 OjO o C

C o •H ID •H f4 •H 3 01

4-1 lU lU XI c X 4-1 <D •H Oj o m fH 4-1 in

X o 4-1 in > T3

in (/I

X E 3 inX 4-1 (D fH fH

O •H 4)

U C+H

H f4 Oj

C o H 1 X •H U 0) <U in 3 3 ID <D fH TJ Uh > fH C 3 OJ B 4-1 c ID fH O in in > X o H d. 10 3 d X -U •H in in X H 14H 3 Ci 03 01 H 4-1 > OO 4-1 ID 4-1 o E 4-1 1) (L) o C in 03 10 (-1 (D ID 4-1 C u ID X •H fH O 4-1 o •H

x: > K ni o m 4-1 c o 03 3 E U c -o o •H OJ 03 4-1

O 4-1 t4H

4-1

C s in o in 03 3 0) P. (D •H > fH

H 3 •H

d in o C in o <u 4-1 E E Uh •H o! Hh X C d 4-1 CO <u <D

10 o H <u fH 4-> fH

O 14H c X •H

U

O 3 3 o c ID fH CI D. o 03 in ID <u T3 OO <U 0) U 3 4-1 ID U C4H in

OS o X in 4-1

X 3 X c x-o in 4-1 CfH f4 ID E o

x: 4-1 I—i E -o 3 P- •t-l <U •H 4H 01 03 c OJ in ID

O in <D OJ CIX

fH lU <u 03m <X

O o in in 4-1 03 ID in

d ID 00X 01 10 03 c 3 o in ID 3 o fH X > Ci. f4 O dX 03 4-1 X

o.

O

X c -o c E 4-1 (X 1)

X in E D (J

H ID d. o •4-1 f4 s" 4-1 fH o OJ 03 03 ^4 0) E <D 03 o •H 4-1 X 4-1 f4

14H 3 (D T3

a> i fH ,-H ^ X d) 0) o X <D ID

C

X (J fH

X

C 3 c O

X c tn

in t d, CI. 00

u •4-1 t4H in f- E X 3 3 03 4-1 ID rH

d

OO 4-1 03 oJ
APPENDIX VI 131

n) • 1/1 3

• H c lU o POX C -H o O

<U 4-1 +J 4-1

t/1 nJ CO

tA U E

CD <U 1)

t/) O O (/I

• H 4-1

O nJ

4-1 u T3

C -H

E <D 05

1/) H i I)

4-1 •H 0) ID OJ fH H <A X in S +-1 !h a) 3 D

nJ U 4-> t3 0 e •o X o nJ nJ f-l X 0 0) 4-1 ^< It a> (D X 4-1 H 1) Cl, u 0 0

3 O X C 0 aj 0 c

nJ 4-1 *-> 0 4-1 al al in J= •H 4-1 > X pr •H

(U !h O in e u OJ 0) c c 4-1 x: CD !-i n! 1/) •H 00 •H ca 1) ID m •H

4-1 P- OJ i-H T3 Oj 4-1 > •H o ctf Cu ^4 O X u X 0)

4-1 o &. in 0) •H a 4-1 4-1 nJ +-> m f-l 0) 4-1 •H OS e 4-> 0) 0 -0 H -0 X 4-1 4-1 c C e 0) o Cl 0 0) 3 OS u 0 •H

f-i •H 4-1 4-1 4-1 3 13 aj E

0) a. P- m c« nJ fH ^ OJ •H X Cl. • H 00 4-1 E 0 C ^-1 X 4-J ni !h !h nJ i-H 0 > in 3 03 13 03 o c !h J= 03 o <u 03 0) •H 0 3 C H 3 U S u 4-1 •H 3 X X 03 03 a,

H fH 00 3 &. C

C fH 4-1 H

•H T3 0 14H x-o X 4-1 03 I-H 4-' •H C

u 03 4-1 •H Ul in 03 03

4-1 X 3 in •f-i 0)

03 4-1 X Xn3 in in u

E 03 c ai fH 3

Wl X.-H 03 0 OJ in

14H c a; a. ai 03 0 • H 0 X in c !=; fH -0 4-1 a 3 E

1/1 03 c ai

4-1 Ph C 1/1 03 0 fH 0 Uh

fH E 0 03 T3 4-1 0

0 fH m

in 0 T3 4-1 in in in 3 0 in a; 4-> 1) T3 H 0 0 ai C -d •H C X X >-i 03 3 f=: 03 0 01 X T3 in I-H 3
132 EDUCATION

c = o 2 1-3 X) u -J

<D 3

<

M u a)

1^

-2. o

O

c/l O

0) O

0 oa

0)

c O

OS

CO

CO

q: <

3 -J

a. UJ c CO u

•H <

< 0 nj UJ >-

UJ 0 fft r-H (-J 2 2 OS -d H p C >

< u !-( 0 oi _i a:

nl u r> n

0 ID CO u. z (H CQ C 2 < UJ Cl ^

<U nl l/l UJ CO (-3 a: o. 0 QC Oh -i. =) UJ 0

a) 0) ID 3 X

a. CO CJ UJ UJ < < a: s oa w UJ 0 0

CO CO
APPENDIX VI 133

(7>

<D o

(UP. c 4-1 6 o •H

03

m

C

O

H 4-1 T3 tu t3 H x: oi

^4 4-1 <D o XI x:

0! x:

0) -D e 4-1 x: e •H O O 3 -H T3 0) tJ 4-1 x: C « 3

03 4-1 -ii 0} O o 03 -H

00 03 <U <U C t/l XI (U x: <u • M r—i c O 13 o o

tc to an 3 O

4-1 4-1 oj 4-1 e oc

tn

er •H 0)

4-1

C r-H 0) t3

(/> <u

D x: ^4

(U (H H ar ta

+-1 o

CI,

D c c s cr H 0) -H H 1) •H 0)

I/l Jh

u o 3 T3

4-1

C

<D (/I o x: 0) 03M c 3 3 /3 x: 4)

H o H x: H 4-1 &. fH 00

at no

o3 0) Mx: hi

x: o 4-1 u

!-i o o

•H

X x:

£U 4-1 t/l x: 3 x: D 4-1 H OO

03

C

O

Ph-H +-i s c

4-1 MH OO rH X 3 OX - c c

03O

4-1

N

•H 0) o H

own x: o i-H rt

[/I t4-( o

0)

O

4-1 c C Irt 03 03 o o e <V 10 « <u

1/1 -o fH J=

t/i •H ID +-1 03 &,

(—(

0) 4-1

O x: 4-1 4-1 03 p x: 3 <u 1 4-1 <u c

4-4 0) 1-H

C

03 3 03 03 T) 4-1 t4-l 4-1 hi

00

H 4J OJ

p

C x:

X

O

H o 4-1 4-1 3

x: o o 0) E p X

4-1 E O t/l 03 o !h 3 H o 3 (/) 4-1 in 3 Q
EDUCATION

u in H •H J= O o X 1 o o o 03 in o *-> rH T) 0) H 1—

1

c Ph -C

tn <V ni nj T3 C c C !-i o U-l a. 3 O

•H 3 in O 14-I +J n) !h 03 (D o 03 in

>H 4-1 C 3 a; 0) D O •H !h X in Oh »-< 03 o (-1 u U

a; o o 03 M > 4-1 (U I/) t-H M

C H N J2 H r^ o

T3 <u in <4-l r-4 o t3 1 o 0!

*-i a> 6 <u E

nj u 3 4-1 OJ in C

6 H a> H OJ oo O

-d -0 (H 03 j= m 0) n) u 4-1 o

o X E O, 03 H in

0) 00

0) c U) U1 -o

+-> o H 01 Oh c

&.T3 J= C 3 03 •H T3 r-4 -a u 10 bO

in • H C in > C 3 •H

0) in o o -o u

3 3 c 3

-a T3 o !h Sh o 0) f-i

• H 3 4-1 4-1 4-J 4-1 H !-i J= +-> 0) in ^

< U o i-H X tlj !h <D 3 03 c o e Oj lb !-i s

4-1 in o 4-> in

<4H T3

4-1 0 •H

Oj Ho o.

-a 4-1 14-4 0 0)

1—4 4-> J2 H in '0 4-1 C 0) o ar th ch

<u 0) 03 •H -C -d

4-1 C

00c 0 3 o •H S

f-l o !h c 0

o in 3 H H

c i/i <4-l ^ U 03 4-1 o o a> 3 -d o

3 6 0 ar

!h <4H 0) 0

u 0 XI

4-1 03 4-1 c X <u

0) 03 (D ji; CU 4-1 3 0 +-1 fH H 03

03 3 4-1 !h 0 4-1 O in 4-" 4-> 3

00 D c 0

<U C 0 0

H (J 4-1 OJ

4-1 H X X2

00 3 in 0

C 00 a- •H XI 0

3 4-1 <u X 0)

4-1 J= 0 x: in

in 4-1 X) 4-1 •H

C 4-11 H X 0 in 0 x: in 01 00 X lU o. u X 4-1 <L) X c 4-' r—

»

X 0

in 0) X 03 Oj 0) 0 0 •H H X c Oh

IP c 0) S x: (D X u 0 03 • H e 0 0 C H +-1 x: in a. 03 H E ^ H

X 0 e lU e X HI 4-1 in 0 H T3 X in X C« X in 0

4-1 Xo3 in H XI D 4-1 c- 1) 4-1 <u i-H 14H

14-1 rH in 0 0 0 m X 0

0 4-> -a 0 CJ T3 Q X c c 0

X 0 Sh X 0) 0 <u TJ 0 4-1 in XI

!h <v 4-1 X 03 X3 !-i 4-1 -H H 03 0) 0

•H c H e 1> 03 4-1 !h H in e -H

03 0 0) 4-1 ^ X H 0) X -d 0 ^4 fl. in X > T3 C 0 4-1 l/l C 0) H 0) 0) (U 03 0 H 3 03 X a> X in Oh 3 0 in 0 J3 0 0. 1) < Oh

0) -C in 4-1 03 0 in X in 0 Oj c in lU i/i C 0 00 <u 4-1 03 Oh u t4 in 0 D 4-1 in c 0 fH

OJ 3 c <u m 0 H +-I X X in HI

0) 3 00 4-1 ^ 0) 4-1 +-1 03 >

14-1 C 0 c in 0 U D ^4 H 3 c 0 ^ 0 0 c 0 e c 03 X 03 0 03

in c 03 (D XI 4-1 in 0 X

u •H 03 X e 0 in -0 • H c > u in J= 4-1 0 4-1 00 3 01 X 0 C

•a 0 C t-> X 4-1 •H -d 0

3 l*-l c <v 00X1 •H <u 4-1 in •H 0 0 03 c 0 -3 (U e in c c -d C +J

01 4-1 H C X 03 •H m 1) 0 Ol bO (D I/) -d Oh 03 4-1 in X 4-> !h X 3 C C <u l/l x: 4-1 in 4-> 03 03 4-1 3 0 c •H 00 0 03 in a. 1) C 03 Oh U H

0 0 3 3 X X 0 e in X o, 01 0 0 C 4-1 in in 0 1 3 T3 0 x: X 4-1 0) <v 14-1 •H 3 0 1 X

(U 4-1 0 P ^4 c c H fH 0 in c

x: in 0 'in x> •H •H •H 01 0 00 00 01 t- T3 0<'4H C C E

in 3 0) C •r-4 OJ 4-1 e • H •H 0 •H 3 0 Vi 0 0 0 <u X C c 4-1 0 4-1 0) c 0 4-> X 4-) •H
APPENDIX VI

<U-HT3&c+-'0 ID XlO-MOJ

•HOJ rtU!-i4JCt«- -OMg

> U aC EOX-H^rHp,

o<-i<D^'Ha)XimO 4-" - u) !H-r-><u-i-'m4->oJf-Cnj in T3+-> O TSIU^H •^iW't3 -MSOC

i-HrtUnJ i/lC+Jt-nXSO-Hit-i ^ ^ 03 V >, oj M-H O <U 3 O 0) nt H 3 '+^ -rHO) CXCW-H ^-P

I/) u o vi oOi-H X w> C

d. o3-H-a.-i3-Hj:: jhuc

3 e o aor X C a> oo-o • c fx-n 3 rtOOCW-t-'D'Otnc ac U z ^ VI nJUH-Hf-H O i-H-H 6C<U -l-inj t-lO^-l^^^3o3>^0•Hl-' - 0) +JT3 +JOOrt -H^HOSn+J-OlHe OC -CO+J •l-i!-i!-i^<4-inl!UO

<u -MSI/) r-H-MO

•H O 4-J O CliM-t EJJi—lOoJOOfiW MOOO CSO DO "O-HtS

+Jn) ShO <1>i/i <Uf-i i-iEx: (nSCDXfHODCJUO 00)0)0 ^'-itJDO)eO) o O nJXfH-H hO D-HO-h ox U 0) +J0)^-lc«•l-'O•M^^3: a^O30^^

u

I o

I Ifl .-H O; tfl -r-l H O CL, X 0) T) o a, X

•u E c 0) •H 'H 0) "-I 3

" +J D 0) -d X -a D c c

Oj 0) rH (/) fx 03

o; X 01 0) 3 p

1—

1

o E X 3

o C o

o C 03 o CO 0) X

X 3 p Ph 03 o o 1) o

lA o o (/) ^

c C X C

oj 0> o •H C 03 H

1/) P •H E X

M-t H PhX P

O E P C

Hi « 0) o o

O c p tp •H p

C o p o P

u 03 03 Ul E

3 O 03 (U H

o 0) 1/) 0) MX o 0) U •H N 00

!-i •H 3 fH

0) 3 m 0) « i« O X 1/) ft X IP

+-) 03 CO !h

0) p X O (/) oo E p 03 p 0) c c X C •H H O 3 P 01 o +-) Sh •P O u •H •H D o 03 P Q -3 o P, 1/1 •H

0) !-i p E o X 0) O 03 o •H c <4-l O o
136 EDUCATION

Xi c

3

3

, C O ^O

in 4->

o

+J o

•—I (U

nj 3

0) tn i-H

f-i 3 CL,

o -o O

O «

u-t j: ^

o a) —I j=

-i-i
APPENDIX VI 137

£

c

?

o

c

c

s;

c

e E 4-* o 1) o t/) o 3 O -H o J3

^^ JD (/I 3 -a 0 a; <U

(U O c Sh u

XI H 0) C

4-" e cfl 3

4-1 O (/) c c 4-1 •H 3 0 c T3 O H fH 3 C

3 <D O D

0) 14-1 -a !h

(/I M-l 13 C H ^ o O •H

C3 > 4-> O 00 O o

4-» U O +-»

1/1 <D o +J

q t/l c/l 3 C nj

4-> O

>H t/) T3 O (1)

CI. 0) PL, O I/)

t/1 t/1 n! c

0)Ph a, o oi r—

I

j=

lA

4-" 3O

3

<u

<4-t 4-1 M o

C 03 o -o '4-1 u

o OJ

nJ u

o 4-"

<4-l u

O 03 > M P. 03 C (U H <D 4-1 6 c— o CD H

u O CB o 4-1 (J

0) M M 3

•H 3 O

03 o 4-" M-l M In O O 03 j: ^ Sh e

CS C 03 o H (J

n!

!-i '+J £ O 3 (4-1 O rH O 4-1 3 03 o O <U m [/I "u

(L> <u C 4J H

O o 03 -H x: Q •o U 3

o

S

0

[/) <4-l

1 <- 03 o 03 o 03 ClO 4-1 4-1 >^ 1

1 •H

ri 3 (i: 03 4-1 CD (L) 4-1 DO o 4_) r- •r4 • H

t/1 r- 3 O bo E 0

d) l/l CD ^ ^4 •H X 4-J <D !h H 0) 4-1 4-1 a) t—

1

(D X c/) -C o3 f- (J 0 (i;

if) 4-1 4_) 4-> •H <L) u O

l/l 03 o x: 0 3 </l 03 o 3 s 3 4-1 E U3 H

f-H <4-l t-1 U o 03 !h O 3 1) 4-' X -P X. 0 03

4-" 03 03 3 E P.

<b in t/l s o 4-1 E

m •H !h D H 03 O O

o E OJ Ifl C 03 4-1 O

o 0) -C 4-1 (D tfl j=: <4-l 4-1 O tH fH 0 i-i c 3 o 03 s <u X) •H i/l 0 0 0

oJ 0- •o 3 •H 4-1 c c •H E T3 D <4-l 03 o O n) 0 0)

4-1 o O -C e •H

4-1 !h 'Jj 3 X 0

o c/l aj c ni X (J

!h c !h 0 < d) E 03 c ^4 <U C H 0 e

0) o j—{ T3 H C E X

!h 6 o E o 03 4-1 -o

T3 (U 03 H t/l !h •H <4H c

E M 4-> M O C/1 oJ •H C U <a 4-> U) o

(U •H 0) X. (U 3 o3 <4-l tfi u X) C 4-" T3 o 3 0 o [/) 4-1 C H

o O x: !-i O H O 3

4-1 4-» 4-1 XJ 4-1 -d 03 m •H

426-013 O - 71 - 10
138 EDUCATION

u 1 3 in o

la. is C- u

•H

!h 3

ve in 3 o o

•H yo

X .—t

<U c a 4-1 ni Oj o O X4-1 ^4 <U <U e U) > o U)

St

(/) rt bi

<D 4-1 o

(->

O j= +-1 oJ ^1 1/1 Ul

•l-l

O T3 •H

c— Oi 3 M O H 3 O t/l U

-C 0) 0) 0) t/1 4-> x: T3 u -d in •M c ifl o o O 0) H ur

OJ)

OJ) -a (U u o •H in

!-i 4-1X JO T3 o +-1 o O f-i c

(L> c i/l 3 X

iH o o +j

c^-

C tn <U

X +j

nJ •p -H ^1 e x: in

l/l <u n) 4-1 ^-1 4-) 00 c •U & Ifl o <u H 0) •H ^ H 3

4-1 +-1 <v

m

(/I c OS

C c 4-1 3 <D o e o in •H o t—i

1/) in E

<u 00 4-1 ^4 ^4 ,c nJ c 4-1 0) nJ p o •M •H in Oh

T3 • H <u

OX 1/1

m 0) <L>

U

•H 1) E 3 X • H M <D 4-1 Cu c s o 1/1 E

1/1 njH in o 2 h—1

J= hHu
APPENDIX VI 139 13

0)

llnJ c

T3 •H 0

n) T3

0) (D

t/i >

-a « 0)

01D f-l t/i D

•(-> <u T3 C

lU •H

p

+JC <u tn

oJ as a. tn

al

M 6 C > a) a 3

j:

ro a, 0 00 H 3 E0 X c +J D 7j M

-d ao

C

C -H

•H •H J=

C_)U «

+J

nj (D 3 6

c^- ^1 3 0) 0 ft

njft 0E ^4-1 0 0

i-i

[/I •M ft

•H ao fH -H +-I Ci t/1 in ut ve 0 0 M (>• 0 E •H

n) -a 3 n)

t/) <u H ft 01

Oj OJ 4-1 •H

c^- c 0 M 3 -o J ns 01

4-1 0 C C oi +-I 00 c H C E T3 0 fi XI 0 T3 U 0 4-» a, H 4-( 0 (LI t/1 C 3 <U > 03 03

U1 ^1 0! 3 M X .C ft 0 •H oi 03 3

13

C 0 ^ ft D j= >-i 0) C OJ 0) ft

HH 0)

a a!U

C 03

t-H 4-" •H DO ^^ +->

4-1 3 0

ni 3 0 0 03 0 01 +J 0 4-J X X X 3 0) <D U) +-> 3 0 c E TJ 0) _o 0 -D aj 0 OS 0 Q 0) U CO E Q
EDUCATION

3

o

3^

•H +-1 O O (U x; M .-( moo

O C

fH ai X nS jC a, 0)

to 01

3o

tii

fTj OJ :/) E t3£ X C

a ^ -H

tu <u ^ V) <-> t3 O

.-H t+Ho

130 T3 C t« H C <U P n) E

bo o tU •H 00

•l-J tLl X

C ^ tj

MX

<u .- u s a o

u

to 00 3o c

-d nj CI,

ttl o

tti

+J c

•H q ttf 3 -H

1/1 3

tu CJ o

-d +J t3

ni i/i cd tu tu ji:

i-H J-t t/1

I tu e

tu -M p tu X C 3 X .M -H O -M

3oX 3

o fH

to o

nj OJ 3

(30 (/) o

H

•H o tfl tu tu

OJ E

•)-> 0) to tu H c to o

3 !h o c tu 3 >

ta o lU X T3 C

Irt 00 to

!-i c H

3 •H rC o X 4-" X rH u t+H T3

tu o tu x: H 4-' tu +J DO 3 3 X

o tu

>-H (—

(

•!-> tu

4-1 c 3

0 o

3O T3 X rH !h •H (U c P

03 U tJ o oj

t^• tu E

3 tu E

O o o X Oj 2

to -a tu 03 3 lO U c tj O 3 o 4-1

tti 4-* 0-- ad >

-H ,—

V

oX tu

4-1 es bO c ^4 DO O U X to X C H tu to o X <D 03 c +-1 H 4-1 +-1 o X 3 u c +-> i-H C 03 4-1 3 3 3 u O OJ •H X " 03 tu 4-1 t4H o tu e 4-1 s tu X

E

-O

to ed u

Cl< O

Se

4-1 ke he

tu o 4-1 E 3 r-4 03 4-1 to 03 Oh r-H 4-1 w

ry

re rH r-H am a<

03

tu c 0) tu 03 -H i-H E o r-H H c^-3

on nt 3

tu tu 03

r-H DO do

t+H o H c^- H X U tJ X 3 tu •d 4-1 Sh (H 03 X 4-1 <U O p.

tu 03 03 tu X 4-1 .-H DO X -d C^- to 4-1 GO Dh-h to 03 --H 4-1 to to 00 o X) X 03 to 3 •H 03 4-1 - X f-l tu to U tu o c 03 00 rO tu ^4 to 03 4-1 tu to X 3 c ^4 ac> 0) o3 3 H U > o

to JZ H 3 C C o 10 3 tu rH

4J T3 O tu •H !h t4H 4-> o o to u

4-> (H •H e X o p. X

•H 3 3 H DO O 4-1 O 03 p. tu (D 3 O 3 o o tu > X X 3 tu E tu 03 03 4-> 3 C O O C 4-1 3 03 O c o •H tu X) t^- 10 O X E -o

-d o •M ti3 U lU DO t3 CO o

Oj o +-I 4-> J= tt) > to C -H C 3 O o

c c to tu 03 H HH r-4 0) 4-> M

to >-l tu tu t4-t p. (U rH 10

tu Cu E o tu tw PhX •d ni •p D, nJ 3 n3 o • o 3 4-1 C 3 o

3 t4-l 03 to 1) o to X tu E 03 MM to tfl •d X-H 3 X O 4-> 4-1 c 4-1 tu

tu rH •d o C X o to X tu oox to tu C U -H DO 4-1 3 C 4-> 4-1 4-' lU 10 O •rH O

o *-> H 3 Ct3 -H fH 4-1 (U CI. 03 o 4-1 t4H to

^4

03a.E

X 00

4-1 c X-H

c o

03 TD

T3 X

3O tr! X E

XI X X C

XI (H t4H C nS t4.4 oJ Q O

Jh Jh

4-1 00 tu

10 >

3 03 •d o X

C T3

03 03 3

+J X O

CO lO X

O -HX a, 4J o

4-1 DOc D -H
APPENDIX VI

o

4-" O DO C DO 1 x; in +-> c

-a C O H 0) o +-> -o •H fn a) 03 x: GO t/) -a H a Cu in C x; •H u

3 C t/1 03 o ^ 3 4-> 3 x: 03 D T3 a x: 0- H O E M +-> OS - E 4-> o in c o in TS [/> 4-J 0) -M DO 03 •H OS 14-1 •H 3

^^ H c c •H 3 DO o x: O .C in

Lse O. C

3 (U 03 rH C) XI in I) c 4-' 4-" o 3 O 3 J= o 3 E E -a •H TJ x: fH a 3 a DO 1) <L) 03 D a> H c ai in 03

^^ -a 03 3 t/l 0) D .-H Si o C in in 03 1) 3 Th •H

OJ <L) c E O -H 0) 3 x: O in E- X) 4-1 o 1—

(

08

4-1 C 3 M C

<D

0) X J= m X lU <u OS 03 E a, X 3 J= H CJ •M 03 4-" x: ^4 OJ E OSE

in fH > <L1 •t-l Oh O 3 4-" in ^. aj o

H (U 1) <u e o > E 4-> OS 00 x: in (J o OO ^ M DO 03 C X •H ^4 3 +j 03 o 4-1 3 c o 3 m T3 •H a) 3 03 03E M f-i •H (/I •!-( C O !h x-a D u 4-1 ^4 3 C *-> OJ 03 -H 03 ^4 x: c 03 aj T! •H O O < o 4-1 •H

•H U <U lU 03 -C X C 4) 3 O E > X 4-1 4-1 3 OS ine

03 W DO O 4-) 03 in c O 4-1 m 03 <u O C 4-> X x: •H -a 03 o C 03 j:

r T3 *-> M !h 3 H

3 X f-l c 4-> c x: 03 o C in -H M 3 O 00 K H nS 4-1 X tn •H 3 Ci, c/l O !h do 00 03 c 3 3 3 03 a) x:

in x: 3 x: 00 C C (-> •H 4-> 00 Sh x; o o

4-1 O r} (h +-» o •H in <U •H 3 E lU 4-1

4-1 •H 4-1 0) +-> -0 -o o •H H aj c n) C 3 4-1 aj in x: c OS 14-1 x: OS ^4

cage

^4 to (J tn +j •M tn +J *-> 1) (H •a 4J OS a) o 4-1 c E 3 3 E 0 E DO x-o 4-1 x: 14H in

<u

(U e c 0 fH C 1) < f-l -o 3 ID C DO +-1 fH UI u <u rC 03 Vl x: o c ^ T3 o x: -H c 4= a; x: c

fn 0) in O !-i •(-J (1) 03 t-> E 3 3 C o 4-' x: U x: aj DO3

u O o -o C 3 o in O lU -a 3 3 fH p. <—

t

&. 00 ^ !-i f-l 03 o XI 3 E X3 o o O. DO i-H •H t3 +-< C •^^ O OS O a) •H in 4-1 to 03

4-1 c o e X c o -a JZ (U O i-H H o3 (4-1 E in XJ 4-1 DO u in 3 a) o a;

<L) 3 u X O in !-i c c c 03 o > H I c^- OS o O '+-> 3 •a OS O OS 1) D -r4 •H 3 X) --I u O X -H 3 E C DO o o tn o 0) 3 3 00 E X OS aj in

as- o 3

O

lA •M 0) c DO j: +-» M-l 4-1 4-> c a) n. in o •H in <+-! X •H X C O in DO X !h 14-4 x: 3 •a E 03 fH T3 rt C O 4-> 3 +-» f-H 03 0) 03 H (D c 3 +-< a) OJ inC

a) T3 in 03 in o-x: c -H in 4-> DO T3 4-1 x: DO aj

!h a> •H o C, 0) DO o O e (U o (U 4-' <u 4-> OS ^4 c 0 03 4-1 o H

(D T3 3 !-( -H <^-^ H ^, -o c C 03 !h <u H 0) •H H a) j:

x: O 3 Cu 0) <4-( -H o <u •a 03 E T3 H 3 -

10o

,C •H ^ tn i-1 <U E <L) c 4-» Oh O 4-1

jesi 4-1 M X<J -1-1

• DO 03 a> 03 o o E •H c •H X a> c aj 03 o <U 3 O 3 1) x: 03 3 x: 3 a> a. ai

j:: in in c

M 0) < E < 03 CO -H 4-1 M-l in 00 E u 3 14-1 4-> o x: in 14-1 C_) cr

•rH 14H X3 O
142 EDUCATION

0) ,-1

!-i

t/) <D 3 E 4-" -a • <u ^ -a N

3 e: ft o 3

O O T3 X OCAS

<D !h ^ <D O

<-> J= 3

•l-J

0 O

-d o

0) ^ -H

o

(L) O

c a; -H

(U o oo •HOC

0) rH a, >> —

I

X oj aj

0) S J=o

g O t3 o jr: c

o

O -H (U XI -a -d

<L) 0) X

^ o

o h

C C --I •H -H ^

U J= 3

l/l <u OJ e

cu o

e in

it!
APPENDIX VI 143

2o 1/1 a x: T3 0

CO M C 1 3 X *-> 3 is

0) wi CO c

•H OJ se MO do he

ao 00 u x: CLl 3 o 3 X c EU-i C o CD t/1 c H in •H DO •H h 1^ CO -o 4-1 3 4-1 4-1 (U -C 3 CO CO CU x: 4-1 3 c H

o C C r^ V) If) 4-1 in 3 O DO 4-1 0 C4-I M aJ O 0) <u o E +J O c •H E

<D o CU fn o E T3 CJ 0) H t4H 0 -a

Qi (/I CD ^1 u o 0) o ^4 ^

E o (U CO -a <U X 3 3 T3 3 3

o X o M 3 M •H '4H x: 01 DO in in o

o 0) p. X c cn 4-1 •H CO 3 CO 3

^^ c CO <u <U 7^ 14-1 0 O 0

O •M 00 O tu 3 e XI <J c E 3 E en

to o C o !h (U c CO C4-1 O E

nj u o a <L> S-i o CO x: 4-1 0 in 0 o

<4H 3 -1 C4-( x: 3 4-1 X E o. o

o •H *~> in CO in c c 4-1 o CO !-i 0) n3 e x: CO M • H m CO o 4-1 <u O o <D •tJ 01 c (h 1 O

+-> M O E 4-1 +-1 a CO 0 !h 3 M t/1 +J <u CO in 0) CO 0 0 0 4-1 o X T3 i- X CD H 3 0

•M •H C> 0) *-> +-> C •H 4-1 ^4 !h x: T3 4-1 !-i O 4-1 3 l+H P. u 1/1 3 M-l DO O o CO 0 x: •H 3 O DO CO c o O 4-1 o XI 4-1 4-1 O

XI c M -M CO l-l E U CO x; QJ X ca •tH ra •M o DO X x: u t4-( x: X 4-1 O CO DO </) o CO 1 t-J M 3 4-1 01 H CO 3

irt •H E C •H o E (U X t4H X 4-1 aJ 0) 0) -H -a C4H T3 -a in TD 4-1 CO 3 U —1 j:: OJ 1 c 3 in +-1 0) •a 1h X

X) o 0 x: 3 3 o CO 1/1 in •H 4-1 C o O cfl 0 x: X CJ O o •H 3 o in 3 in 0

o M t-> CO -o 3 > 4-> CO c O 0 T3 H *-> a. -M XJ OJ C c Xi T3 01 3 3 4-1 0

•4-1 CO CO CJH c V-i H 3 o C 00 C E 50 o Ifl B CO *-> O o 3 3 c 01 (D in !h DO 3

(U o X 0) O •H x: tH E T3 CO 3 c 3 !h T3 X3 CO <L1 +-> (U Cl E u 4-1 3 O C O H o

a. 3 x: X CO DO in o 3 0 u c

t/) (-> C CO o M M +-1 o 01 !-i CO O T3 CO o

+-I +J O CO o +-> CO o in o 0) 0) in CO •o CX, o

X -H D. j: a x: E 13 in XI X E in DO E H E

<D +j DO tu (D M o < 4-' 01 u CO CO o c C Ifl DO c x: x: o 3 4-1 x: CO O 4) X in o 0

n) c -a H +-> o tt) in O H o 4-1 0) 3 u X o

^ H c T3 M CD 1/1 3 4-1 4-1 4-1 4-1 X !-i T3

•H '-< 3 c c (/I in E X 0 0 r-H CU •M o CO CO

MO

CO 01 3 o 0) 0) c •o 0 -C 4-1 •H J= 0) !- •M +-» O x: c O ^4 CO C c 4-" x;

E- O CO l/l in 4-1 u +-1 o T3 <4H 4-1 E CO o o < CJ
144 EDUCATION 1

*-i •M 1 O 3 o

+->

C (/)M

O o c C X) *-> c TJ -o o H 03 f-i

CC 1/) <f> C ni <L> H >, 3 •H 03 <D ^ O. o3 o O !-i 0) C (U in 3 o x: nJ e H t-H <4-H a.

•o i/i > Ph 03 03 4-1 -H <u 03 e 6 C H <L> (D T3 o to O T3 x: a, C o o H s O 03 4-> M-l f-i •H

(D t/) a.

O o Oj t/) 3 X c 03 c

(U

M o 03 •H

U c

oj !-i 0) 00

C o rH T3 00 00 DO OJ o u

U-lH

H XI U-l Xi

O

H l-l

M

O 03O X) a. 4^ c C 4-> t-H c H 3 fH

U) <J 3 H 03 Si t n)

t-> <U

U 6 LO a,

+-I 6 ni 4h fH t/1 03 0) 6 O D <D o <u 4-1 Ph o -C 03 •M f-l o s •l-J 0) 03

<j CO c c c o 4h c H o H 1> <U o H O 0 H e •H 3 H -d

am

tn t-> ^1 03 oo • o

(U <t>H o i/i

C </) o c c C •H P •H •H O H H t/1 o X o <u -C -H <D

03 <u (D oJ x:

Oj <L) a, Ol S +j 03 x:

(U

X 0) -H OJ !-i c Q OJ a) 0) < oo <u S CL, o "5 T3 O T3 c o O <u s c C a> 3

<J oi o 03 2 03 T3

4-1 03 3 Oj O

x; x:

X tf) M

03 -H 4-1

ifi 3 O

03

C x: O M

XI o

X) X)

0) -H E ^1 +-1 o

03 0)

O 4H x: p. M O !-> !h x; 0) o 3

oo o o 3 (LI 4h o H 4-> c H oo

0) c

03 0) o

oo X) s c (U H 03 o >

03H

C

x: TJ

O

tfl XI o 3 +-» X3

XI o O

C •H Xi +-» X 3 Si •H O X c (U

tfl 03

03 •H o •(-1 c^- 3

-o 0) 3 OS 00 C S 3 O 3 c H 3 O X cr H

4-1 4-> >, (U T3

I/) •H 3 O <L> c > O O in •o 03 H o T3

d. <D 0) 3 & -H > X

03

O 3 !-i 03 •H

UXw 4h x:

H tfl
APPENDIX VI 145

1/1 •H o

o

<D p

If) <U x:uH

j=2 o

o

•H <U T3 t/1 O 1/) (rt <A rt

(1) •H O a, u

c d)

<L) <D •H c

^1 « CO <UX J3

<u -o

-a C

fn CO O

O +-I O

4-1 03 0) ^^ cn 13 +-> <U lA tfl <U 3

c c

OJ 0) H o

nj 2 ft

4h^ T3

-C 03 C

03 00

-C C

>> u ^ T3 -M ^ 0) (/)

•H 03 T3 H > c

00 c O Xi o 03 o 03 c 03 X) -Q (h X X H J= •H 03 D< to 4-1 ^^ M 11 (H Jh <Li c 4-1 OO O •!-> T3

1/1 •H o •H c

M-l J= ITi 03 4) +-1 •H •a c +J O 1—

(

a; C [/) 0 D (/) 3 u 03 -o c (U U

<t) 0) •r-f a> •H +J D

u c 4-" (J 03 T3

<u « c 00 3 00 C M T3 (L) •H 03 o •H 3

n. •H (/I o > > 0)

03 X 03 O T3 C OO T3 o X c o C <D

03 •M O o H XI

03 (L) ns

<D S-i (-> -H

OJ X) ^ Mh

x: e "4-1 +-I 3 O in C -H D x: OO cj C <U 0) H -H > -a

I/) CI. -H CD 3X .-H -O _ X) Xl "-I 4-- XI

00 CL, E3

3 0) (Li u Xi x: o o

+-> 4-1 4-1o a -o

<a <u u

4-' C <U cox:

2 ft-H

03 (D

1/1 X C X

o oox:

XI C 00

•H 3 O f-i o

3 -M J=

O X

Qj 03 M 3 • x: 4h

00 ^ r-H H 0) 01

0) 4-1 x:

+J 4-1 rH U OO

c/3 44 <D 4h X3

<U O

c/1 a (/) CD 03 T3 3

O X 4-1

C 3

03 O

x: x: Cu in B

3 4-1

3

O

M O to •M 03

to CD 3

x:

03 X

4-1 O

4-1 -H XI 3

U X D O Xi

H XI CD +-1 U

03 +-1 4-1 4-1 "d 03

4-1 T3

CD 3

OO ^ ID T3 C 3 C <U •H to ^ -O ^03 —I

03 !D (U O H e -C 4h

•H -a (u x: c T3 x: • CJ

4-1 -H CD 4-1 03 4h T3 4-1 CD CI, CD -O CD 4-1 —I 4-1 (D 01 —I

CD O O ^ (D x: o to to x: X !h 03 03 4-1 O o) O, 3 c

X

o

X3 O CD I 4-1 x: c

4-1 •H T3

tD

4-1 C 0) •H

03 *-l 3 T3 to T3 3 H 4) O e x: X

CD 4-1 •a o x: 3

T3 4-1 ,X3

03 u

3 OO CD O g c 03 4-1 -o X o -H 4-1 03 03 ^4 3 (1) CD T3 4-1 O XI u 4-1 to 3

X3 3 •H CD O (D 4-1 XI

4-4 3 &, x; •H O •H 4-1 T3 u 4-1

<Ll 03 03 3

u 03 x: o

<u C •H 4-1 3

•H 03 3

a, 4-1 U

O A< •H (0

03 4-1 3 X in 6

-H 4-1 O -d 3

03 &, 3 03

0) 4-1 c d; x: o •H f-( 4-1 o 03 X 03 +-1 03 3 4-1 4-1 o x; 3 o •H 4-1 4-1 -a 4-1 X 0) 03 03

OO

3 <U O X. C O

c c

C^ -H

!-i (U 4-1 fH CD X 03 CD x: 4-1 x: •HO 3

to 03 CD

03 CD x: 4-1

CD +-1 CO O

- C X CD —I D

o! 4-1 C 4-1

-r-t -H

U- 03

x: 03 ^ 4-1 x: x:

CD

to CD O 'H O 6 4-1 3

ft (T ft CD -O 3

00

:

. . _ 03 O

ty ,-1 X3 (D 3 4-1 - to O O to

i-H 03 s x; -H 3 = E- to
EDUCATION

•H 4h

J=

O

UX •!-«

(/I C/) Cij

0)

C

P. 3 3 C u U•H Oj

^^ r-l o

CO J3

nl r-( T3 CX-H U 3 oj o -a e ^ o o - o o +J tJ j:: 3 !h J= m j:

nj o +J " oa c c !h C -H .H cfl HE CI- ^ •-< in +-> XI O OJ f-H 0) ^ s (-1 a. -M 0)

CL.

O E C <D 3 -H o ^

Oi (/) C/)

U X2H

M

X c C <u OJ T3 1 •H JZ W

T3 +J V) •H C T3 X 0) C -a <4-l u 1 00

n) re

O

t/1 c </) c X H p- o

i-l

H 3 +-> 4->

1/) P. p.

U

<u c u o o u 3 o r-H 4-1 0) E C •M e H +-I 0)

<U

H OJ J= (/I .p

*-> c c (U •a OJ 3 <L) c O E nl 3 K 4-> «

Ifl -M 0) E

<u n) c e P. 3 o

(1) t/1 M 0)

a) <u o M E

•H o c 4h o 3 O <D O t/1 u <U , 1 c H

13 3 c 3 -

0) "(/) (-> (/) (U 3

p, <D u0 •p

•(-> T} c U

•H 1/1 cij T3 o (/) C

*-> •H ai

f-l

w

T3 nj

m

<U

0) 1/1 c 4-" nj C C D (D O e •H

<-> <u 4-1 (H c 3 < t/l >

Oj

C

<1) o e u

u

4-1 03 X 4-"

M a> o j= C 4-> ni

'4H in o

P. o O +J C i/l H T)

If) n! 3 Ci E x:

OJ

^4

4-1 -H

•H

4-1o o

inPnJ HI T3 3 J= X !-( ^4 0)

nJ

<U -t-i E nj X M

-o c o

XI ^o

oo o

•H^ "4-1 nj O

fX o x: -H C X 3 H w H ^ D O 3 C • -H D XI O <U X X 3 4-1

1) 4J

0) <u ca 0 4-1^ C (U

ta . 4-1 -H E

t/1 CD CD 0) H X X X XI 4J 4-1 4-1

u tu

4-1

X

Xo Oc H ^

P,

OJ

(UQo-H e C H 0) c c 3 -H 4h XI

^4

u o O U

4-1 (U

t/1 c o X 4-1

0)

O

XO

X

u o

Ph +-> oi

,-1 o

nj

O 3

t3 in

C OJ O in (U

^4 E u o

<L) .-1

X in X. X -H CI 3 ^ 4-1 nj oj

1-3 (-

O 4-1 0)

14H 1)

X

m

X

u

X +-1
APPENDIX VI

- e

<D O

CO o 2

0) o

o -H -a O ^ 01 u

u V) ^ o

(/I oj O QJ o 6 m

+-I X! « t/i M o a: c; c C 4-> « cfl (U o nJ M

Ph H <u (i> tn c r/1 nj j= •H m H 0) O M 3

e X <t) <D O

•o 0) E n) f-i DO <D e

•H 6 V O X •H 3 JZ +-> M

m 0) O P <u U n 4-1 n) c/1 X <u O c <+i

0) E H > t/l CO C H +-» DO e m e o X c •H o

0) •H <u 0) fH e +j •H o o H « C C O •M

•M D c H nj !h U •H +-> a. <U

a; P. DO 3 1—

1

•M X Ul <u c DO u <n

!-> <u C s •H H 6 H

o o 0) X ifl in

Ul x; OJ Da H •H e 4-1 X f-l <D »—

t

X <L) ni •H c x: D <U ni M X in X

X

n! X

3 X

C C •

i/> E -H

P. <U X O N +J 3

0) in +-1 > oj 3

<u 0) o

13 S X

O +J ft 3 c X

O E

OS <L> DO X

D M

DO O

H 4-1

T3 DO +-I VI 4-1 c e t—

1

c O 3 <u o o 1/1 •H •H DO o o E (U u a. X 03 X 4-1 •H U O, in 4-1 •H u

<D ^4 0) n! C X •H (U X P.X 4-1 •H 03 ^4 DO M X 4-1 V) 1) •H X c

<D O 4-1 rH u Oj H

!-i !-i •H o 4-1 4-1 x-o 3 <l) 3 X c O X O 3 OJ DO -a

rH 0) X 4-1 O e c <U

03 n) •H X 3 DO DO 4-4 C +-> 4-1 U

•M c C o C O 3 +-1 C -H H « 4-1 0) 1/) 0) 0 a: > •H c 6 4-1 o! ^^ > 03 X •H tu c OJ *-> W 4-1 <D s 3 E lA m 0) 03 o 4-1 4-1 X 0) 03 e E X 3 O o X 03 03 X o

CNJ

4-( in O

U

L

he he T3

DOC X 4-1 P, •4-1 CD H

m o 4-4 X H X 0) T3 10

<D O <D o C X +-1 X C 0) c 0) X X 4-1 CD o 4-1 nl m <D 03 in !h X O X 4-1 n! fH c X 3 ID a 4-1 CD 4-1 in E o

o 4-1 X X 10 •iH in o X (L) O E CD f-i 4-1 4-1 3 03 in CD X X c T3 X o 3 3 o in c E 0) o < C 4-1 X C 4-1 in O ni 4h m •H X

c 03 u P o 4-1 3 fH o X or in 03 XDO es

4-1 in tt) he pa 4-1 in03

in X 4-1 in C •H X ni E X in ID E C

•H 4-1 T3 ^4 •H e o CD in ^4 o

00 ID in <L1 01 4-1 CD 00 ID •H 03 DO c 4-1 DO DO CD •H 4-1 in c X X DO C O c c c ^1 H H 4-1 in c

•H C 03 I) H H in 4-1 X fH e' H •H

^4 O o !h X X 1) 0) • H 4-1 o o X 4-1 DO X •a 3 O X > > X 4h o E

tn c 1 C i-H in ni 03 •H ID fH X ^4 DO •H •H OJ •H 03 CD X DO •H t-l CD o ^ c rH o u e (H X OJ U CD > ni O in H O

c 3 H -d o E < 4-1 4-1 0) ID o •H X

0) in 4-1 I—

t

X 4h P. ID ni fH X X CJ X

03 •H T3 0) O 3 t-l X +-1 X

c <u in X O ^4 4h CD c ID o s •H CJ X CD o 4-1 CD 4-1 O 10 O X H fH f-l X ^4 3 u in H 4-1 03 4-1 4-1 ID X 13 X o 0) o nJ ID ni o +-1 X 10 H C o 4-1 X 4-1 o X in 4-1 01 •H 3 O

f-1 03 •H 4-1 4) 4-1 CD tJ 3 X M O ^4 4-1 Oi X DO X Th o O O 03 H 0) 4-1 DO 00 3 c 4-1 X 4-1 H 3 ni 10 3 o

c C •H O DO -a O ft in ID fH H in 4-1 4h H H t: c o ID 4-1 ft 0) ft

in X o 03 in o X M X in H 4-1 •H 0) !h => o X (U -J in in in O < 4-1 -d ^ X 4-1 in H

M 4-1 ft in X u CD 03 ni 0) O DO E 03

03 (U P. o) rH 03 H ID CD X 0) O •H c •H X

e E 03 a, X 3 4-1 in !-i 4-1 C IJ 1—

1

o X u
148 EDUCATION

t/1

QJ

Ctl 6 t/1 1—1 X rt +J Ofl 0)

H) -1-1 Uh M T3 o in H tf) 3 OJ

t/)

u t/1

u 4-> 1^ . nj Cfl M E

cfl

is 3 (J o XOJ

n) 3

P.

M E W c o O E

•M

O 3

fn 3 c O +-» H t-( <U X t-i +-» t/1 3

+->

O

C •H c X

11

C •H Qfl fH 3 t/1 T3 bO O oj 00 H c •H ac x: •H x: tn C o ^ t-l Oj o 3 <u . j-i i/l E

!h 0) o • 1/1 nj 0) m

<-> 6

<A T3 (U <u to O H C^- o

XI ^^ T3 c H '+^

X 1/1 3 03 Sh

nS t/1

O

X 01 3 3 o X t/1 o

!h

UX

<1>C 3 3 C oj O o t/l O U X X

O nj 'H

+->

X 3 *-> <u (U 03 nj q 13 -M

X

T3 -H r-, -I X tfl ^ O (U -H 0)

H) oi >!h t/1 O oj

tfl 0)

03 c la)

tU tU

H

X 3 X 43

f-i T3

T3

X 3 <U 03 H !h 3

CI, C t/1 3 -H

t«

X

H ^ -M C > <L) (/I t-l (0 OU

Cu

C oj

O -H

C S w

X -H

X 03E O

<U 3 e *-> o

-H t/1 t/1 o 00 X c

oj -H t4_| ^< O 4-' C 3

<D t/1 in tfl P oi Sh -H

-3

(U

^^ o 01 O ^-' 3

(DO in

X 00C

ax)

Mo

oj

X o

oj -TJ

C E O XJ

OJ (D oo t/l tsi C 3 -H H O <A ^; X M

fH

X H)

O oj 13 3 C

Ph 3

XI--(DC

•H

X oj

X +-> O +J3 < O O

4h .

(U OO (L) XI C 3 oj 3 ^ XI

CQ oj

C > (U • (U <D XXX!

oj •!-> 3 <U

!-l OE O 11 o u

X) XI 0 f-l ^ c

oj 0) 03

(1> 01 <D

t^ CJ -H H

tu oj

q > <u n o -P E
APPENDIX VI 149

re? 0 •0 <u 7) 3 x: (-1 0) 4) 4-> X

lA *-> 03 f-i 3 <D C 0

nS X M 3 u 3 3 X (U X

i) m •H VI 0 0 (U E 0 0 1/) 03 C X) (U XJ 03 4-1 •M 0 M tu 0) 03 03 U (U X

O -C H C E U X <u X c 4-> •M p a, 0 f-H 0 3 X) X 71 •H M 3 IT) a 1-1 X +-> C 4-1 X c 71 0) 0) -0 0

T3 0) 0) <D 1/1 03 X X 4-1 X 03 XI O > !h 0 •4J 03 tJ <U <u X

,0 M c H •H X X 4-1 4-1 4-1 tu 00 H t-H CJ) qj H) 71 +-> 4-1 71 c 0

ti 0 £1, X X 4-> 0 c 3 ca 3 4-» C OJ <A (U 4-1 (-> c XJ •H 0

0 0 c -H D XJ 0

>, OJ 0 •r-i 0 M P -M C 4-1

!-i tfi CL, 03 '/I 1) •H 71 D

0) 3 •(-> 03 c X !h J >

l/l i/> <u 3 03 0 M -H 0 0 <u 4-1 f-l u

D 03 ar 0 0 4-1 0 0 X 0 H X (L) M-l 03 10 X) 4-1 4-1 00 4-1 3 E +J •H X 1 0 C 0) X! P < X -a X 4-1 41 X

X 0 13 (U c in 0 00 X 4-1 03 3 •M 03 <Si •H X 03 c w c

c 0) > U) • 3 0) (U 0) 0

CO •a 4h •H t» X ^4 rH 4-1 3

0 te

t/i a.s 0 no

14-1 3 0)

71 <u 30

4-1 0 <V 0 4-1 •H 3 Ul X) c +-> X <U X) X E -C 0 0 03 0 03 1) +-> C aj nj a> XI in 3 X fH X 7) 0 +-1 3 4-> 03 03 3 -H 71 4-1 ^ c

+J 0) JZ 3 P <U c rH 3 M 03 H 03 X •A •H 71 X 0) •H 03 0

c 3 0 p M X P X ^4 3 c 0 C

0) fn H 0 <v H +-1 0 4-1 !-( Ph !-4 <0

!h 0 ^1 M c 03 XI X 0 4-1 0 3 !h 4)

<1) -0 0 0 03 +-< +-1 •(-> 00 CI. 0 4-1 4-) 4) 4-1 03 -d 03 03 +-> 0 -H c OS 0 X C

!h H C XI X 3 3 •H X! 03 4-1 4) •H 00 H a> +-> a +-< 71 <U 0 >

T3 ^. E in C 3 4) 3 X X3 4) "O 0 H (/I 3 XI 3 X 0 > (U 00 H 0 4) 71 X 0 tn c 0 Xi "0 0 C 3 U 0 X

c •H t/1 03 3 <M 03 0 0 <u 4-1 4-1 X3 X 03 H 0) 0 T3 X 4-1 c XI 4) E l-l 0 00 E M-i >-< 0) 71 XI 0 ttJ TD 4-1 0 C OJ c X 4-1 C

3 <U n) 0 X) cu •H 0) •H 4-" 4-1 (D H 4) 3 0 C 0 3 c c: 0 X !-i 3 0 X X 4) 0 0 03 0 0 r-i 4-1 4-" 0 c 4-1 u 4h 0

CNJ
EDUCATION

0) 3 o

OJ O 4-1 tn

(J o fH c Ph 0 00 4-1 H x: X 3 <U 00 0 tfl o

O 03 +-> T3 u 0 3 O

C 0) rH 0 0 t4H o O rO c E 0) IH oo > 4-1

cfl ^^ o C 0 T3 o !-l T3 aj CI nJ c c 3

C 3 J= T3 tfl nJ rH o

nj +J +-J o O •H X 0) 0 T3 3 tn 4-1 0) 4-J 0) 4-1 n) 4-1 O tn in Mh

!h C 4-1 O •H 3 E in o

3 to U 0 lb O 3 3 4-1 cd T) +J

1 o e O 0 O H T3 J= h nJ

in o a) • +-> 4-1 in •H to G. c [/I •H tn X. 4h 0 O T3 0 ,iS

(-> x: tn rH 0 0 c C tn J= c •M (LI ^1 tn OJ 4-1 0 4-) 3 o X (U tn 3 !h rC -0 •H o in j: 4-- tn O O 0 3 u H H C8 4-> T) o O

0) > 0 o 0 t4H 3 0

V) •M 4-1 0) E X 0 Cu tn 4-1 E 3 o in o oi ^ ctj X DO 3 tn H o o O O T3 4-1 n! 4-1 0 4-1 t—

1

O M ft -M 0 tn c > P 4-1 -C t4H 0 0 o 0

(U T3 0 tn X 3 tn E E E

V) T3 C 0 rH tn 0 <T3 +J o lU 0 +-1 ttj c 0 nJ ttj 00 3 tn in _s •M ^4 3 rH c in O

(U C oo c o, 0 3 4-1 U oJ 0 X 0

I—

I

nJ !h nJ nj tn U !h to X I—

(

0) S 0 4-1 0) U OJ c

13 tn 0 0) (J ttj e •M in 0 nl 4-1 t« 0 s: o tJ

tfl X (U u u E 3 3 .C 4-1 3 o n) o c t3 0 O 4-> O 0 O 4-1 <u +-> ^ in ^ *-> C 6 C rO u E H •H !-l 0 oo 0 c c n) 0

rt 3 X J= O 3 Oj •H 4-1 a, j:: s O J= O 4-1 3 C nJ 4-1 M i-H tn t-. 4-1 c O tfl (U U 0 rH J= '4H 0 !h t4H <u H 4-1 X T3 J= 4-1 O u !h 0 tn o

<4-l 00 O <U M 0 O 0 T3 ^4 0 Uh

(/) M 0 0 oo 3

>^ 0) 0) in ^ O 0 c c •H O0X3 3 4-1 s: c D . H r-H O o o o rC H t« O o o < D<2 t4H 4-) rO

ttj o oo < •H C

(30 O 0

O ^ ^ X r-H . 4-) 4J T3 0 - T3

Sh C 0) -H o tn 0 T) E -H X in

I X4h

0 M O

XJ 0

3 > M

0 tn X 0 C

Uh ca 0 E

C ^4 0 0

3 >

cr 0 0 3 u o

^+4 J=

cii in 0 X +-I X 4-1 O

o

- t4H • 0 0 H t4H u O O C

*-> rC O tJ c

0

4-1 X >

tt) t- rC C n

4-> n) > U

JD -H 0

E -O C 0 3 -H t4H C 0 O

E O. 0

0 ni M

4-1 !h 0 oo ni C tn

tn 0

i

> c tn 0 tfl X t4H O t-H o H rC 0

14H E 3 O o (H 0 +-1 0 e 3

o (H tn 3 -C CJ ttj tn OJ •H in +-1 00 •rH tn tn oo 0 oJ TS 0) c 4-1 C

c in 0 0 •H o 0 o

•H •H 00 H c S .ii c to ft U c o csi I-H 4-1 oJ ft 4-> H o c 4-1 nJ o 0

0 tn tn tn 0 3 4-1 in U 4-1 3 fH 0 nJ CO 0 OO Id T3 0 -C u

o C 3 i-H ft O 0

c ai O •H •H O •H H 0 X OJ c -C rC 0 3 c •p

4-1 4-1 0 o o ft 3 cr o o

0u

ni3

OX

c

0 C^'X

3 n)3

3 0 O E

T3 ni

to

4-1 o 0 O rC

t4HU

3O o X T3

4-1 *-> 3 c^- O

ft 4-1 O

0 t4H 3 0

O t4H in X H

U rC 3 3 O o 4-1 X 3

ft

^40 4-1 0

4-1 •H C

4-1 3 o

nJ X

E oo (H c 0

4-1 •H >

•H 0 3

in in to 0 03 0 o 0 o a E Q

CNJ
APPENDIX VI

i

3

•H in

J= O

1> E

•(-J H -d

o - 6

r-l o <u

-l-i XI

4-1 O O

O -M !->

I - -C 0 (U !-> in (1) 05

in H

•r-i CDo

c

• H (U

1

I 4-1 ^ 4-1

(U O

a, cd O O T3 O O C

t3 t3

•H 03

O +-I c

<L> 00

03 -H

03 a> 03 U l/l 3 T3 H C X < X 03 3 TJ +->

• C if> " 1) 03

ifl x:

O cfl +-> O

X) K 03 6 e

3

E

« T3 E 03

-H O

f-i X (U _ O O M O U1

4-1 )-i o3 x;

CI, - Dh

in d. 3 <L> 03

+-> 03 O --I h

3 X O

O U 0) U £i fl,

!h 03 O M

O '-^ 4h C

14-1 3 -H O " ^ -1 X 0) 03 3 t/1 -O 4-*

0) C (h 0) « c; 4J h

3 03

r-> 0) 3 3 U M

3 13 O 3

X-i-i e o O 4-"

4-1 C

!h X 03 03 a> 3

03 C

0) 0) O U

C -3

03 ^

4J -H

in J=

•H O

T3C <U

03 'H 03 U

4-1 4-' E 03

O O

C 4J

03

0) M AS

1= -H O 4-1 4-1X4-'

03 CJJX 6 -H O/ E -H 4h <D O XX

1 X Ih

4^ X 03 Ofl E -H

•H 0) X

QJ 1/1

03 . _

0) T3 - - w X 03 4-> 4-' O -H T3 O C -H M 3 3

03 X " 3 X

(U O 4-> C X M E

O C <U

•T3 4-1 0) X

O i-H 4-1 1)> m 0) 4-1 03 E X 03

E

O !h O O

t-i

4-1 !D 0) C^-

03 E

6 O

M C

C -H

•H 4-1 O

03 O

DO E i-i

bO X

0) in E o3 O C

in oS X

3O -H x-o

^4 3

1) in

u in

0) o X ^

X •

!-i X +-1 X

X M ;i

in E

o

^^

p.

0) in X 3

O c^- X 0) O 4-1 4h c^. 0

3 03 a> in O ^4 in 3 X-H 3 O M o E

T3 X r-l 03 3 TM

O 4-1 4h 3 O 4-1 O

o

+J X H X X +-> C M 4-) b£> 3 -H -O C

! 0) -H <U

' XX 3

03

' O (U 0) OJ

' X X X X

OS
EDUCATION

ca 3 o 0) j: m n c

J3 OJ C f-i X c OO 4-1 3

0) (A 05 03 3 in 4-1 <1> c X)

•H *-> in E H 00 in

in cx >, 00 DO nj •I-" (D X H (t> Oj C c 03 u 03 jU o u

T3 6 •H •H o 3 H 03 C aj 00 to »-( OO in P. 4-> •H S c a; 3 (D C 03 in in X i+H f-H 0) o in •H <U (U

(/I 0) •H 03 B o C

>> f-i 4-1 1) O 03 o (U H

a) 1) in e c O in <L) ca S X o -0 H tn X X) tJ

•!-> 0) <u C TD C O 0) c in 4-1 (h 0 C

<u u X Oj i-i O Oh -M o > 03 u •H H 0) X

-a >, o •H in a; in c in E T—i LO +-I in !h X 00 •H O H O <L) 03 in c c 03 -C •M in •M 3 in m •H !-i in u O in a. 03 D -C 4-1 ID -d

0) 0! •H •H e O 4h •(-I ^ !-< <U 03 o o 03 Oi 03 s in <u cn U OJ !-i !h 0) +J X o •H 4-1 <U o o 0) C JS in c

t/) •M o (H > 0) i-> 0) 4-' f-l OJ T3 •H 0) OO ^ 0)

0) </) C > CI, in in c T3 '+^ 03 XI

.—

t

oi 03 <u <u H rH o S H -d CL, f-i H in fH •H ttJ c U1 3 ^1 f-i 3 in T3 x: H T3 S in 03 a; in u •H 00

!-i C o o 0) > <u 03 > c +J Oj 3 u <U lU <u 03 o c

(/I X in 6 < O 6 4-1 a F-H •H

Q Q

Q> 03 Q

r-H r;

CDo o tfi Q

a 4-1 ft c c

(U H •H

4J -C

in 4-1 3 In

<u •H 4-1 cr X

s 3 03 01 O <u in 4-1 -o i!

4-1 in .i! o in O

c m in x: O in •H u <u 4-) 03 E

in c -0 •H < H 4-> 03 O 1-1 0

•H 4-1 f-l 4-1 lU X P in •H 4-1 in T3 •H 0) D T3 S H c^- C T) c 4-1 o

l-l 00 3 4-1 H 03 3 o

3 c O in in u o H Uh 3 E 3

!h O o 0) <u 0) 3 ol in H ^^ X X X C'- O ID U) !-i 4h 4-1 4-1 c 4-1 X 3 in 03 •H O

in > E o X 4h -H

0) 0) 03 <D o +-1 4-1 O t-i OO 4-1 O u in

(-1 03 O O c 4h E 3 X -a

03 03 O O 4-1 u

i-H 3 X in 4-1 o X DO 03 O c 4-1 in C f-1 C X

3 X 03 C C •H in o <u O e tu •H 03 10 TJ -1 < in E 4-1 03

CL, C 0) J-l C r-H <u H -H ^^ o 3 U X r-H 3 4-1 O U 4-1 0) U 10 in 1 4-1 ^4 •H o

4-1 fn 03 1 H 4-1 DO -H U 0) lU 00 DO HI in C -4-1 3 lU 4-1 e c C X •H in O CL, in •H H 4-1 f-l X 03 oo-ic: T3 X 3 ID O. C o i-H c E (J in r-H c 3 H H •H o •H o3 u

03 4-1 o M 3 ^4 !h 0) -H U o >• in J3 T3 4-1 6 in
APPENDIX VI 153

M I M C <D

<U -H J3

a. tJ

0) a> m

Oh M r-H

f-i !-H nJ O 0) 4-1

Oj 4-) 3 (U V) •H ^ O ^4-1 O

VI c M n) -H

-O 4-1 c o

•H C

1/1 X 0)O

4-1 "O c

3 C

cr -H

0) M

•H 4-1

4-^ 3

« o

JO

in M

c

O <U X ^ X 3

-O 4-1

<4H o q

O 13 <U

C 2 rl

CI) 0) o

(U o 3 cox

" o

in f-i C K

OH E

4-' 3

c

4-1 3 u M 03

. . -H ^1 (D 01 M 3 0) ^ X ji;

1) 03 3 4-1 3 D O -H

4-1 -O O M-l so

CM

a,-H 3 <4-l C <U 4-1 4-1 3 3 C O O 4-1 •H j:: m N

in H •H i-t o in in f-i •H <u m

03 +-1 o 4-1 14-1 •H T3 in 4-1 E

(U m p. in X o 03 c +-1 •H e C oi H H <D 03 4-1 o 0) 14-1 E 3 Q0 4-1 C

o o c o 0) C U O Ofl

4-1 o 0) 14-1 H o C "u o 4-1 c in 4-J X •H 03 in 4-1 E 3 o 03 3 T—

t

I—

I

X 0) o o CD c D c 03

Cl. 4-1 !h E DO 14-1 •H -C o e c <4-4 c o c o 03 (J

<D n) 3 m •H WIT3 f-i •H

4-1 2 in m h 03 c O 4-1

4-1 AS 3 O 3 •H 14-1 in

Oj X u X r-l tu fH O in

oj •H 0) 03 !-( o J= 3 T) ni

4-> E 4-1 o c > in lU in in 4-1 •H O 14H CJ 14-1 C O -a O c o H o 14-1 c u -0 o

<4H !-i O •H 03 c; c 4-1 <u <U -C a) 4-1 c

>-H (U -d 4-1 <U 03 4-1 H •H H c 4-1 H t-4 E •4-1 o

the ch H c

he c

•H ove ew

van and

Cl, T3 c mu

uai the •Ho

4-1 cks ck in ad

ck <D

c: 4-1 o OJ 4-1 H •H H <u •H

03 U m •H 4-1 +-1 4-1 +J 03 03 3 in in in 4-1

426-013 O - 7: - 11
154 EDUCATION X

<U 3 N in

a) nj6

jh a) T3

m 3

iH • toO

<U ^1 ^1 » +j a> o « 03 ft E

i-> -H 'H C !h ^ X)

0) a, nJO e O O -r-. M CI. in (U 3 a< m X o 3 C in U in o ^ o a,

•H o

.-1 -p

CtJ I

^1

Hi 3 (UO

4-1

O

O S.

4-> t3 00 n) - M-i

4_l (DO

oo 0)

X

•H

X f-l 4-" 0) 4-1 -H X! x: K

in ji: 3

in 4-> 4-1 - e 0) o j: 6 H 4^

tn t3 in

Oj 4-*

u3

in

D o u in !h

p., in OJ 0) I) 4J I) 1 E ^ u c O T3 n!

in 3 in

^4O -H

ft 3 X - : -H !-i m ^ -I x: o I ni j: <i> ' u 4-> c

MI4-1 (U 3 0) in C < £ X -H H 4-" 0) 4-> X

in in

C 4-'

C T3

oJ

M -H 3 n!

0) (U in

O

O (U E ft 3 4-> X c 4-1
APPENDIX VI

in o

rH

O

cij XI 33 -P C T3 D C

^^ 3o C h g °

W).-l C -H H nJ U U 3

0) .-I e M

oo < -H3 M he: ha-

<D nd

+j

u +-< -C 'J) 03 <D c 03

O

<D o cS X) •M 3 X •M l-J (D O (U p 3 t/l U •M •H m

C d) •H aJ •(-> •H 4-1 3 c -o

<DO -d nj o C

D JZ •H

O DOM -o (J <U •M ^-> U-l <u 01 c OJ !-( <D 3

•o

H -C OS XI o 0)

0)

a o 4-' +-> t-1

XX

c;

m o 03

w o ^ U) M T3 (D 0) OJ c •H -a c aj (U 3 *-> 03 CO c

•H 3 3 ni +j

a

O

X oi a. -o T3

l/l

X •H o f-i (1)

C

O 00

(U <u (J (U <uM TJ oi x;

a c o s: c o j= o C c c M •(-> •H c •)-' <u 03 n3 H X3

!-i 3OC

(U

C

X 03

C

O -H 3 f-( X O <4-l O ^ X <t> o 3 0) .-H 0) O XI w X - X 03 i/l 3

fH

OO ^ bO —I DO O ^ 6 C X)

0) +-I 'H M W Oi

O 6 3Oc c

oi oiH

OO -H

XI »-> C 4-1 oi < XP o33

M-l X3 O U

f-i fH 3

CD t/l X nj e (u <u e e

T3

X) 03 • ^1 X •HX -

!->

O

r o < p

C ^ 00 •H X T3u

03X

•H 0)

X X3

X

U

00 3

0) 3 tU ^ m

O - <u f~> w o 'P c c

(H oi 11 3 P >

4-1

W "-I -H <—<

1) X 3

4-1 00 o

00 0) c e • H X

(/) oi 3 S

OO

CSJ
EDUCATION

00

tJ c 3

•H •H P

ur

(U in c O d o

c-- lU

(U I—1 6 c

<u I—1•H

nJ (U •M tb th ce

Cll oo x:

an S 4-1 +j p o •H in

cd 3 Ha o (1) !d c- > J= P. o e in c o o c o <u s CO X

ni U1

u

p 1 •H T3 0) 1 •a (U 3 <u o o OJ o M M X 3

in

cd ^ !-i OJ

<P nS <u

<U <D 4h l+Hu 1)

VI 3 Oj 3 3 u 3 O O H 0) J= J= J2

n! P <-> M 4-) !-i O

•M 3 3 3 XI

0) 3 O

O o

10

O

X o 3 T3 Q C C ni « 3 •H •H ^ <u o o -0

as -0 el un c 3 o o u

CJ I 3 oJ

X! t3

!h <L)

C

nJ P oJ X 3

OJ l/l

O

H .H « T3 P H « C

XI CI -H O !-< o c^' X-H -O . - <U fl, .H Mx; in o ox -1 O XI

X) ^ P CD

•-1 o in •H > C

x: 03 op

Xl

X 03

(U (U .-H c U -H

0)

S-1 - O „ .- a.M-1 S 03 X <L) O

0) X3

O P C ul •H !-i o 3 V x: '-I X P P rH C C -H

n3 3 4-1 e o e - O P X o <u « o 3

4-1coO 0) -O 3

.X 0) in

<U -H ^ 03 x: X) <u H E 6

<u 3

f-i

p

C

03 l/> -H

C

03 x:u • u u p x: c o

•H (-1 3 a; o X o c

4-1 03

u

C 03 1 <u O 01 1 x: •H P p in dJ P p P - 03 in 3 XI in c o Ph C o3 H <u H c E in P 03 p. (/) x; 03 3 -H x; •H C

*-> in 4h

p

X •H

X

O in r—l r-H oo > in

p o P 03 lU 0) c 03 C X p <u in 0) x; o 03 in

in xx: E •H E H

T3 1)

p 3 •H r-H P

<Up inX <L) r-H 03X f-i DO 03 03 M E H !h 1)

a) .-H x: c l-l n) 3 <D

C

!h 0)H

r o in I) ^^ 3 <U Sh • 4-1 0) o o ^ 3 T3 <u X 01 o oX <u 3 E

in o H C

1) o p

in 3

ac o C X 3O P X 3oX03

X

X <U ^ P X

in

p

T3C P, H 3

4-1

T3 -O ^ 03 - P • <U ^ -ax O 4h h p

•H

O 08 P X c m p rH

-a p, cd

Sh 0) 0)

03 t-l T) X C C - O 03 O E o

OS - o

(D in in X 03 X P

r-H

OO

•rH 3 O 3 in 4-1

03 rH3 O O M O O

^H

C

O

X in H 4-1 in

03 03

X

1) OS 3 X

03

rop T3

th p. he o H an Oh •H <D p p CO 3 X c

in X) ^1

H in 1) (D X) 00

03 •>

XX 0) c 3 p o u o 4h o o oi OS X <u o D 01 P _ X 4-1 U p 0) H o

in fH o p

d) 1) (D OJ in

p 1—1 C P.X 3 03 o 03 P in

C

03 P in 01 o P X XI ^H Ph P p D 0> 0) OS DO 3 •H X .^^ oo p o 3 P in c X OS •rH 4h 1 rrH 1) >—i 4h o

P.

H

C cd 3 03 P .0) 0) 4-1 P* O P un th he ec

r-H 01

in T3 di H in in C X 0) p, U 03 •H P X (U 3

4-1 4h ro

1/) he lie

X HH

O

O 3 p

p P o in 01 XI X xs O c in p. c p OS 3 C H 3 C 03 01 H) P -H n) 03 •H P X) X X 00 u X 1) c C u cd 0) ^1 fH X -H (H •H p X p ID p 3 o OS p

.iS

C 4-1 (U

O •H in

in

U c 3 Ph

OS • H o u (d DOp 3 P o P S c OS p X H X C 4-1 c OJ X p

(L>O •H X) 4H

X o

lU p, 0)

O

pp

p

u p. XI 03 3 3 Hi CJ P, P E X cd O p 0) o 3

(h CO

up o
APPENDIX VI 157 o C o o o p

0) a- fH e X 03 DO 0) o w p C o > OO

ro he 1 ul diLl

J. • H o1 on o •(-» 4-1 4-1 x: C - Ul p ^ D <L) <u 4-1 <L) T3 4h

!-( aa o +-> Ul (h

D o 3 +j H u 03 •!-> X -H 03 rH o

<D 03O 03 (U

x

X

p

H -a

X 0)

u J= ai c 3 O +-> 0) *-> *-> 0) X U) 3 ^< H J= a, -M X p

<PO <u 0) 00 03 3 p Ul -C 0) 1/1 +J H <U M O •H 3 (J

(/I 0) -C -3 +-> f/l <L>u XI <u

C •H

T3 c C 4-1 <D U) (U 03 P D 0) 03 o H o o 3 o Ul

CI, I) J= - X +-• 03 0) -3

0) -a o 00 <L)

C 03 4h 3 H

U (H

M

n)

M

nj

O 03 O (J03 -C 03 o j:

•H 3

nf 3

CI.

HP

ya

4-1 3 6 •3 -3

H CI. 4-1 4->

O 1) Ul o 0) <-> 3 O (/) fH *-> 4h o •3

u

C +-> in 3 O 3 •H P fH

X 4-1 <D nj a. 3 0) O 01 P 03 E- c <U (-» tn o H P 3 H X 3 fH +J 03 H nJ > 3 o 3 O 0) X +-> M X 1 o dJ

ca 0) Ul

O o c Ul

X 1) o t/1 0) o <U H c H •H p a,

<u

H

K Ul

M o 03

XX o

<u

H 3 - •M

M •M 03 Ul •MUO

p P p 2

x: c X r/l •M 3 H 03 •M o W f—i 00 -3 -3 01 DO P <u 3 DO

00 t/1 ^ c 00 -• 0) P C Ul 3 O c DO 1 4h DO C n! -H 03 C O •H -3 X o C

4-1 c •H

H

C 00 - X •H i-H 03 P Jh

H

O

H c -h c t3 03 r-H c C 03

X o 'o? •H u. -H Vl < &< 03 H X p Q 3 o

00 c 03 (U

O o O o 03

C E a, X)

X -3C

U 4-> a. <L)X P

•H

p

D oj • -—' 4J 1 '-^

h (U

H --^

X I

f-l

H +j t3 03

M f-l •p P 4h

rt !h

K « K

X <-> Ul <uK 3 K

O

(U c <U ni <» - a oo <» -3 <M (aO

•(-> (U x: o (a +-I <» 03 fH c r«

C Q) di

<u +-< ^ ^ 03 0) ni o 1^ o 3 O

fn XJ S 6 0)

X .-1 « X S aC S <u

<D 3 H •H

t-i -3

M '-4 03 3 1) Ul Eh

X Eh 4h

nj •H 03 03 < J= 3 3 o
EDUCATION

C O sz XI Oj

(LI H ni 0) 4-1 4-1 c: 3 <U fn Ifl r4 o3 C

c X) X 03 3 03 O C <L> 0) H VI

03 U X if> C X -a 00 O n tu bO H H o C rH

<D 3 0) -C H (U h> •H 1/1 C t/i XI O T3 4-1 !-. nJ < <D 4-1 OJ H (U 3

J= U fn o. 3 E Ifl o

3 T3 01 00 o 03 4-1 O 4-1 XJ 4-1 (K C H c XI <D O e (U o D u o <U +-1 6

o ;3 U o •H JZ C o

(/I w 0) 4-1 <L) o

ni 0) •o 4-" e <v 1—

1

o •a (D T3 OJ c •H H •o H <L) e 1) 4J •r-t u O 03 d. o 03 o <u 03 03 X

c o 0) O H -o D. > 4-1

(-' 0) +-> rH •H x; CD X XI

•H •H +-» 4-1 a> 03 XJ C

fH c/l e (/) o) o3 0) H 0) 4-> •H H 4-1 ^4 T3 00 -C 0) p. !-i O 4-1 03 C E V)

<L) X O 0) -C H <D c

(U 4-1 oj o 00 3 t/1 I) OJ o c 4-1 c r-4 c 3 -Q

•u •H CJ <D H OJ O

(J ^1 a; •H !-i c

<u as c -d 4-1 o

c o o •H to i-H c

01 u irt e x: •H H <u 4-1 •a (S <U 4-J j: E c 03 o

0) <u o & 0) u 0) 0) u o

•H 4-1 C o 0) e •H o !-< <u u 3 Cl, 4-1 H (U H H 3 03 I/) in •H (J •H a< (L) > 4-> CI, D 03 3 03 u

X J= (L> 03 oJ j: (U CT X <u •M E <J E (Li a. 4-1

c

3 X m

OJ o

H 1/1

I/) OO o3

03 O C

4-1 4h O

3

O OJ XJ X 03 4-1 X

0)

03 00 0) c e

-a Si 3

-H O

3 OJ t3 O X 03 3 4-1 Xto

4-1 4-1

3

- O

3 X! O ol X) X

03 1/)

CJ tfl

0(/)3^ 4-lCD-Ht/l(/JCD O

4h DX

C 4-1

1-1 4-1 C in •H o ts nt ks to 00

1)E

4-1 as ed th

4-' 4-1 •H 0) o H o to t-i 03 X 3 H to 4-1 X CO 03 (U 3 E X O0 4H 4-1 lU 3 o lO o

•4-1 •H o E to H O to a> H ol u X 1> OJ XJ X) ol o 3 0) 4h DO

4-1 X X X u XI XJ •H 4-1 E •H X 4-1 4-1 03 3 <L> 4-1 u 3 T3 X 00 0) OO XX c r—

I

3 4-1 (U (U tl) 3 X c 4-( ^4 03 o X +-1 4-1 O 4-1 1) O X 3 X 4-1 to o 03 CJ X r-H +-1 H 4-1 03 "0 ex 0)

4-1 4-1 <U H (U to 4-1 3 3 4-1 3 dJ E 3 X 3 0) 3 OJ tj c o X o 4-1 O +-I CJ ^ O X i-H 4-1 <u 4-1 to 1) -a 01 4-1 U X 4-1 03 X XI 4-1 ol X ol to O DO

XI c DO O O X fH 2 4-1 •H H c 4-1 Oh to 3 (U O c (U H 4h H 3 to O 4-1 1—1 (U 1 X O <U 3 to 4-1 H o 3 X o t3 3 X O CL, O T3 4-1 to <u 4-1 XJ DO E 4-1 ooxJ >H

(U 3 03 E 03 C 01 01 03 H H X o (U 0) 4h X ol O X rH X X X o e u O to s: 4-1 to (J 4-1
APPENDIX VI

00 !-i

1 00 in T3 tt) (D he 0

X) c 0) ta lU <u a X x: 4-1 in 0

1 <D 0 X S 0 4-> +-» 3 x:

00 c 3 M tj 4-1 +-» 0 H "o 4-> 0 x: ta +H u 0 0 in 3 ta OJ •d +-> lU ca in 4-* -o c 4-> 0 u

tfl +-* a H (D 0 < •M 0) x: 1) <U in c 0 H 0 X !-> n! a ca X M -0 (U 4-» f-i 0 ta c 3 0 XI XI c S c +J 4-> H 3 c <u B 3 0 <L) 0) 'tn tu 1) +H H i-1 T3 4-> 4-" "o

i-o am

in 6 X a; x: I4-I 3 u c 0 ca c ta c tJ X 0

4-> <u !h tn in 0 +-» 0 0 3 C 4-1 X H tu 0 0 in u J= 3 Cu X) 0 0 lU 0 E TD0 0 X x: ta 0

00 D H > e ta o u T3 X <D fH 0 3

4-1 0 H 3 P. c 0 a in ta x: ta 0 0) OJ !-i tu !-i p 00 0 nJ ta C in X c ax X <U 3 3 in •H 0 4-" ta <—

1

0) •H a s 3 0 00 in <u 00 in !-> 3 in 4-1 0 •H

rt 6 4-1 c 0 H ta in ^1 ta H +j ta 1/1 p.0

r-H 4h C <u M u +-J •H H in 13 in ta 0

in: 4h 0

4-" (1) 3 ca 0 ta -0 X X2 +J D E 0 4h U X •H H ca !-i -a X 0 00 ta 0

i/l *-> 3 ca U x: <u •M 3 o OJ +j 0 ta 4-» 4h D in 0) +J 0 C ta 0 x: in in > 3 +-» 0 1) 00 3 3 ta 2 +j lU <u •H •H 0 X C 4h 3 X

u u P. c 0 la a) <u X ;h X 0 0 0 ta J2 <u -H 3 M (U XI u ^ in x: 0 0) tj !h ta 4^ 3 0 X {X

x: r—

1

CO 0 ta jC ta •0 u i-i (U ta tj ta 4-> a u Cfl 0 ta B c 3 x: lU -0 ta cn 4^ 3 0

CS U 'Jj <u 0 •H -d . . H •H 00 +-I X in 0

ex: 3 th; X 0 4-" x: 0 <U (U x: 00 c +J tu •H l-l (h p. u 0 4h

•M <u 00 +-> x: ta 0 4h 0 0) 0 0 XI 0 0

0 J5 +-> in in c 0 *-> 0 <+-( 0 00 (-> 3 0 ta 0 >

j: -a +-> 0) H 0) 4-1 +j 0 P. 0) in in 0 in

!h

-5 0 ^-' T3 ta 2 <u 00 E c T3 c 0 x: c -o c > •p X H x: X x:

-d •a c <u •H <D •H 3 C •H c lU »—

I

u 0 0 ta 0 C

sasi 4-1 00 3

•H D •H •P <D E 0 ta 0 ta a) X •H -H X -a 0 0 •H 0 3

j= 0 c c 0 4-1 in x: +-» a. XI •I-" 3 in •4-" •!-> tu E 4-> in i-i 0 3 0

n) <u <u (h a, 0) 0) in 3 6 ca C 0) x: c 0 E 0 00 0 X _x U -a &. 3 c ta 4-' 0) l-i in 0 3 U-i tw 3 D lU S 4-J 0 u c

.rH

4-> 0 0 f- m •H 0) (-1 tu -0 c 0 r-H •H 3 fn0 dmc

ta 0 x:

CO c -a T3 3 •0 x: ta <U p 0 4-1 4-' in in

th:

i-H -C

in +j ta in c X 3 in <u P< ca c ta in ta >

0

4-> c TD X 0 3 in 0 B <u 0) X 3 0 0 0 •H 0

0) C/5 3 t*-i H +j M •!-> 13 H 4-1 <U (-1 0 E C c ta C

c a, 0 0 c 0 6 ta in ta X X H lU in

4-1 in C H 0 4-" •H •H •H -a 0 ID C c 0) *-> 4h X <u +J 0) 4h +-» • H -a H ta x: ta 0 I—

t

ta 3 0 X c H t4-l in c x: 4-1 0 0 3 0

Ph ta 0 c -a •r-( 0) 1-1 H 0 •H 4-1 M • H CO 30

DO 0 ta 0 p. 0 ta in TJ +-> (-1 T3 (U ja c 0 -a 4h < X C 0 i-> p. X

in 3 ta •H ta <u 0,-0 C box: 1 00 0 tj •rH u •H X 0

•H c tn j= a 4: e 3 <D ta c •M X •(-> c 0 lU ta th X 0 0 4-" 0) !h in 0 0 fH <u H c 4-> X H 3 x: u 3

0

4-> c 4-" X 4-1 +J T3 +j 0 xx: a, 0 0 0) !h 00 c 4-1 +-> 0 3 0 in •H 0 0 0

0 j: <u 4-J ID I+-I <L) ID x: H s 0 >- z in fH x: 0

+-> 0 •M nJ x: H X 0 M 0 ca c X lU 3 X c ta 0 H < P. 4h < 3 0 - *. +-J IJ-I H *-> in p-. s •rH x; XI H tn ta

CVJ
160 EDUCATION

Ms

o

-4o

<:

o

(/I I i-H CD rH X nJ DO

nj ni 0) c 4-* •H 1 x) 3 CU Sh 1 O Sh X) D O O X o O

4-> CD o 3 (-» +J <4-l c/1 OJ 4-' <u E *-> 3 -o c/1 cn 1—

1

O rH (U X ,

1 <+-! -a > H +-> O c •H o 4-> o

o OJ 3 q H

1 4-1 ft o CU M cti a nJ 3 CD _c

tn CD CU c/1 4-> 4-' a) c T3 > o !h X3 tj O O O O cO u +J o O o o O ft ^ o CU o 3 > c (30 ft

•i-J c tcj O CU H "J-i •H -13 a: ft 3 o 4-1 fn ca 3 o CU c n3 i/i E >

V) T3 VI E CD CU a tio 0) <u o E o u c

•H D o <J 1) cj-l 4J H

*-> -C 0) <D O C n3 c/l •H (-> •H 3 3 c/1 > &. c/l c/l O CU H C C cij -o O D CU !h

•(-> •H J= <U (U c CJ -d O M E CU oi X oJ Ml H •a 4-" C4-I oi ^-1 C 3 o H u 4-" O X •H H 0) c 3 3 <4-l MX c , OJ c/l CU 3 O o o • C (/) c/l O O H 4J c/l CU Oj 3 CU

(h c/1 -H !h O E

jS o <Li C -d X) l-l X 3 H CU X o r-H CU X 4-> Id 3 c S t-i •H > 03 c« c O <1> •H -H X O O

nj -O 3 O ft U

4-* C 4-' 4-1 LO X C -H wl O 3 i/l ft CU !h O 0)

ft E

X

et:

CTi ed ft C CU C4-1 ft CU f4 (M

CI 0 ft f-l 0 C

u 0 3 ca • H cn XI 4-J c/l ft ft ft (=: C c/l x: ft • ^4 H E ni CU (U 03 CU CU 0 X CU 11 0 H U c/l +-1 4-1 o X E C4^ CU 3 0 4-1

4-1 0 X ft Oi c

<f) XI c/l c/l 0

cn c C Cfl C 0 3 (H CU ed CU 03 ft !^ X)

Ob bO 0 u 0 cn CU f-4

4-1 C cn 4-1 CJ ft

CU X 4-1 03 4J --H -H 03 X IM ^ oi Oj 03 0 X ft 0

C 3 CX XI X H 4-1 H Oj c 4-1 0) 0

AS X 4-1 ni CU ^4

cti u C lA IM 0 oi 4^ E CU Oj c/l <U ^4 m E

1 T3 f-l (U CU H 03 "O C C CU ^4 in 4-) XI 0 0

^^ nJ C4^ cd c/l •H c 4-1 3

CU (U fn oi 0 4-1 U -H 0 f4 •H 0 X .—I

4-1 CU X) u 0 X 0 r—C 0) X oi H c 0 03 Cu 4-1 X 44 cfl CU 0 4-1 ^4 -M U c/l ft U !h 3 -H 3 0 oi (U 0 0

<+H 3 -d ft ftX XI ft

c X

0 •r4 4-1 T3 ft bO

03 ft C

03 0

U .—

c

3

4-1

!/l 440 3

•H V) C4H

4-1 C/l > 4-> 4-1 t4H 0 3

0 0 0 0

c/l X

C/l e m X C/l 0 0

03 X 0 4-1 .—

t

4-1 0

CJ (H u

C4-I 03 4-1 < 0 X c/l
APPENDIX VI 161
162 EDUCATION
APPENDIX VI 163

+-> 0) a

aj 4-1 p

G.

cu c 03 o •H 3 o

a! u D

nj M r—i i/> o P.

I4H 3

!h o

3 T3

<-> J2 03

03 o 01 C

1 a t/^ C o 3 O

o O una •M

!-< 0)

^1 03 0) 0) M <4-l 03 u x:

nJ c

(1) i-( iJ 01 x: 4-1 0) +j »->

ti3 pa

oo

*j

+-I •Hc "u

03

(U 3 ^. X! O

(D 4-J in H c

<DU

T3 3 o

OS3 (U<u

0)c J= oo o 4-J cH

f-l rH •H > c 0)

U-1 o o

E )h 1 c

<L) <D 0) E c •H 03

<u 6 6 x: (LI c 03 4-1 •H o C D 3 u 4-1 ^4 c l-J o 4-1 0) X a, (U in H O C 7j > m I/) 4-1 o 00 4-1 c •H u o c -a 4-1 03 03 OJ H x: 0) •(-> <U o !-i c OJ <D •a E

+j 3 <L) <ft T3 4-> 3 OJ p< > c

(-> E 0) 4-1 4-1 o 4-1 03 M (D C CD O 3 4-1 X 03 o T3 o

03 03 O x: c o 03 03 <u c <l> 7j -C •M M <x> H p. x: Ofl c (J (LI l/l 0) *-J H 00 3 4-1 c tn OS o

+-1 u i-l !-i ^^ c DO •H •H <x <u

^^ 03 o (U O <u H X c & (A oo X) tfl •H o >-i (U 4-> M-l Cu c H 03 c Q.

<+H U) *-l X u p- <L> 03 +J H 00 C E (-> 0) M CI 3 +J 03 -o t-l o x; c 03

0) <u 03 oi X3 H 00 o i-l o

<U a: 0) c E < o > <4H XtJ

.-H r-H -H

03 x: o X 4-1 , (U o ^^ t3 -H o

- oo X3 •

• H t/l C t/l 3

<D (LI -r-l (U -H O

x: x: 3 x: x:

+-'+-' o 4-1 4-1 -a o r-i C --I ^ 4h M-l

l-H O 08 O O

X O 4-1 (/I ^-1 •H (U 4-1 O O

x: 4-1 c 3

0) 3 i-l 3 O U O

oo -H !-l (-1 •H 03 (/I C p. Cil O

4-1 x: x; > ^ 03 x:

4-1 3 03 O

<4-l !h x: (D < (4-1 4-1 4-1 3 (U

(/I {/)

so

3 O S 1) 4-1
EDUCATION

o

0) 3

0) !h •M O

E J=

tj !-> in H 1—

(

3

T) H

C •M

nj t/1 O

t/l !-i 3 C <U O 4-1 O H 4-( 4-" p O

OJ

!h ^(D <u O J= u O T3

0) <a3 T3 E •H

f-i O

V) <u •H U (t> Oj CI, O U

E aj 4h a. C 4-1 ni H C c o

3 -H

+-J I/) - O OJ

<U P- S

O O

E O

E 3 X

C £

-H < <+^ « c

<L) U o <L> t/l

(/I f-i <U •o c c CJ 4-1 (/) 0) OS

cij > c D 3 (Ll O

o O •H C o XI > tfi !h O ni o

T3 3 !-( T3

>-l C (U Oj C

(U 0) !h H (1) <u n) 3 aj 3 •H nJ d. 3

O t/1 n3 !-i ca nJ

•!-> (D >, C 3 tn E <L> X 0 ttJ > a" <L) ^1 <D O aj f-i 4h •H

X) 4-> X 0) (L) •H

OJ t-i ^ a •H

T3 4-1 •H !-i c Cl- 3

<U •H <L) X 4) nJ 0) +3 M

o U fH o > H

x: O O CO -a 3 O > 4-1 u <u c t/l VI •H O <u ,-H 0) C (U C

0) <n -t-l J2 4-1 o •H o H 13 n) U rt c (= 03 O n) !h ^1 OJ tn <u 4-1 E ^^ O o t/1 4-» <D s H c

O U CI, o X O C !-i 3

!h M nJ (D c« O) o OJ O

4-1 n) a.T3 3 o CI, s

tn

(D 4) c X 00

Cl^ c (J •H

n) o •H (/I e X

X) fH f^ <u Cl rt

11 o <a •H Oj > c

3 (U c d,

!-i X +-> OB fH 3 3

rt O 1/1 +-> <D o +J 3 C CO •H 4h 00 o o B X) <U c

0) C H 4-> m X •H

0) 4-> 4-1 •H o t/i 4-1 4-1 0) fH O O 3 •H oi 4-1 a: 13 0) XI c JD •M P. c 3

0) (/) o fH •H Ci. e •H 3 -a 0) 11 0)

<L) o H X V) ,^ X

o U X 4h XI 4-> c U X 4-1 4-1 o 3 •H 4h C tn 4h 4-1 +-1 E

T3 O c CD 4-1 O c m <D

(U fH d) c ,-H T3 -o <u 0) o 4-1 X H fH H XI O o

U 3 •H +-> oj 4-1 tU fn

<U o X « o O 4-1 &,

13 fH o U) (U o in

4-> t/l 3 in C -H (U X (U fH u •H

<U <U X 4-1 X E 4-1 3 X fH 4-1 4h 4-1 4-1 o tfl f4 4-1 T3 0) O 4h fH c +-1 ,-H fH o 4-1 4h o -a H n) i/l fn" n) u X) -C <u XX X c >

o <a f^ X C +-1 ca m oj tJ oJ (/I 0) o

<u CI, <D E X) 3 X lA X) U) c O o

OS 4-" O 4-) OJ o m <u X

fH X c 4-1 C X 3 X bi 4-1 <u X <U 3 X C/D c

13

fH •H f4

•H fH +-1 +H

- 3

4h CI,

XI E

1-H (U 3 fH O 4-1 X 'H -H X m X +J CL)XI,-H.H t/113XH 4-1 -a Oj

<u 4-1 fH cfl a

E 3 C fH O 4h O 'H 3

0/2 O 4h 4h «

X -H

(U fH X nJ

4-1 >

11 3 13 O

C O cfl tu O 4h X :

CO
APPENDIX VI 165

1

V/)

o

^>

s: o +-» O

x: X (U •M H +-* (L) (h •H -C <u "s CD O 4-» !h C )-> 01 -H c DO 0) o c o C j=; U

t» cu O 3 0) O

•H 3 3 u

VI 3 c 01 (U O t/l o CO CI, T3 +-> cfl

(L> 3 -H C

0! X E o

O u w •a > -H H 01 (-> X o a; CJ

nj ca •H Oh 0) 3

>^ I—

f

T3 ^-1 3 nJ C -0 03 +J e •H c/1

(/I -a -i: C

lA c o

r-t n) nJ <D •H a. o

nl jr 3 01 3 u X£-

o

nJ n) ui ra of

(/I 00 ^^ c !/! 3 0) c O OJ 01 S (J H <+-! ll (U c C !h nJ c X nJ o

OJ fn ^^ Sh 0)

<D i/l (U o CO a. C DO 4-( <L) 3

(UO (L> c >-i o 2 n! o 11

[/I !-i -a 3

0

01a. 0

o u 5 0 X i-H >

03 M T3 O o

C 0 O o

D, O 3 0 x: c o o

U +-> tA p

3 c !h 3

O •H

01 O O 0 X u

ed

!-i G. cn •H 0

O ID T3 4-1 c

<D 1/1 ^ C

3 3 3 0 D

O. DO o O o

O 3 (U x: 3 0 X

o C x:

-a c <D o H •M •o

cu O 3 0

lA 4-1 3

01 <D 01 o o

X) 00 0) f-( G. 3

x: o (/) lA

01 01 (-I 3

0 ,-1 rs

(fl o x: C c3 0

01 4-> i-j DO 3 d,

0) c 3 01 0 (L) •H O O 0

(/I x: C x: 3 i/i it 0 cn ay 0 -a 4h E 0 !h 3 o 0 O C

XI (U o x: 3

3 !h lA lA CO X

-a *-J nl C 0 X O X H

o 03 !h c o c o

(/I O 0 Ol 01 c x: E 4-1 e 0 M 01 4-> M

01 03 3 0 3 o i

I/) (/) o x: _o

zz +-* 1

I

• o

V

-o

XI 01

4-1 o 0

3 01 ^^ 4-1 O 4-J m

DO o o c

« c X3 0 o •H

•H o x: 4-1 0 CO !h 4-1 tn P. 3 4-1 Ph

CO c -H 3 C4H •H •H in D. O x:

T3 St 0 C4-I 0 u

x: o 4J 0 4-1 00 CO G, 01 e 3 T3 0 01 x: o ol U P. 4-1

t/i x: 0 0 0 4-1 x: 4-) x: Id 4-1 lA c 4-1 0

(A X 0 •H H 0'

0! o x: 3 0 X3

X3 4-1 0 >

O E C o o

0 03 O o 0

r—

I

c o o o cfl 03 o +-1 0 •H (-1 •H XI T3 O

fH -a m 3

•M i-H crt X) X

o 0 0 ^4 c x; E 4-1 0 x: 0

o 03 x: 4-1 o.

<oi ol E 4-1 01 c e c/) 0 Cl. 0 1 (/) cfl f-l 01 OS 0 o C+-1 •o 0 > C+4 O H C CJ o 0

-H O o X3 CO x: 01 O (A 4-1 o a< -H o l« 0

x; 4-1 0 0

Ch -a 01 H x: o c XI C4-I 3 ^4 lA « O O 4-1 0

0 4-1 3 rH rH XI r—

I

1 03 C4-1 Ol O

e 0 c !-( o !h J= 3 C+-1 3 0 0 3

c O > E >

CW 0 0 0 C+-I < O XI CO cfl O

oo
166 EDUCATION

12 1 (O •H T3 C c

03 o3 O o E X)

0) lO -a !h 0) £1 c <U Ph

oj oj Xi 03 X3 H (D 3 t/3 6 a. -M H s 03 13

[/I o <u C u cr 1

1

03 T) CU 3 «

c o o

o 03 i-j 03 0) NI o a. 03 T3 •a E

CQ -aH at C 03 C

f-( o O C • H

0) O O o

tt bl 03 T

C

^-> ma

n3 0) c

a. (LI H E •H Xl

4-J > H (h T3 01 C T> cd H •H 1 C o

03 o- o 11 X3 O !h 10 3 CO X) oj t-) T3 o M

03 <u o H <D •H o

<u +J J2 CVl o D Oi C_) 03 03 +J E 03 3 C f—

1

CO E O 03

CJ 03 3

3 CO O

f-i <U - CJ M CO 03

CO -H C E O

>

O CD u -a O T3 M .—I3

c/l O M 3

Cl, E

(U CU +J X.

(-> 03

03 ^

O..

c/l - CU c c

CU O

t3

• J H CD J= E

O ct! an

<D 03 d

03 C

oo T3 O r-^ O 3

CU CO

CO CUu

CU

c r

!h 4-1 <D 0)

t; f-l -H E

03 CU 3

03 T3 C

4h --H (U ct3 o a,.H> -M ASh CU CO o !h 3 (U vox CD C 03

CO

CU <u th th liv c c

o

d? •H

no

<u u X CO 03 x: 3 O o (U O XI •H c

-C

CU

CN-(U o X !-i CU c w 03 x: c 4-1 H f-l C4-I X X

^ 0) O +-> CU o

CO • H x:

cti <u CJ 4-1 H r-H (H !h o O lU 4-1 03 CO E x: Oj 4-1

+-> X X c

Dh 4-1 0

03 CO 3 c

•H OJ tm

03 CO >^

CU (U T3 03 03

to x: O. 3 03 r-C CO 03 O +-J 3

0) X) he or 3 c 3 4-1 O o O

r—i C X CO CO

<u 3

00 03 u •a CO o

c H 3 x: o x: 3 O

03 3 o x: oj

03 I—

I

X (U

(U 4J

(U c/3 H 03 C 3 U E H O ^ ^ 3 X 03 • O E TD xx:

!h O X 03 C -H

!-i O 03 x: H XJ U S

X Cl

4-1 o3 C

3 X

3OX

C c^- 03 C U -H
APPENDIX VI 167

13 'H -H C 3

CO j:> -a

<u

<U O 4-1 X +-> «

0 <u

<U ^ (U j: -H -i-i

ca o c U (U O (U f-i DC U-l

n3 r-i .H X tfl '—I "O u 3 4h

VI O '13 O

3 .-H CO O X> ^-1 U1 •H U) C

<U O

CO J= C -H > +J CD *-i

V)

!h t3 O I C

tu <U O

P. E

CO CO

• ^ -H

0) +J T3 O

CO ^-1 0

P. 3 3

(/) O r-H

X

O

fHd,

p.

CO

M <U CO 0) <u <U

(U 0 00 TD c tu OO XL to

4-J o C ^ r-( -C !h CO 3

CO in s 4-> •rH -H D tJ CO

<u 00 DOX e <t> c X CO D, c <u c o o OO o .-H tu d. 3 !-i o CO o i-H f-i U

CO o CO !-i - •H CO CO lA CO CO X 4-> u in 0} ^ tn 3 CO c CO CO CJ 3 -o

a) u O c <U <A OO • H O c

o E <u U <D CO CO c (H •H CO o o LO 4-» > u CO CO 4-> to c 13 4-* 1) o •H u X CQ o 00 C CO cn t/i C f-l •a CO +-» H CO O. <u CO 4-* c Dh 00 C 4-> CO CO c

e OO 4-> CO CO ID tl) u T3 C C <U > cn !h

(-> 3 • w <u J o •H o CO

4-1 o 4-1 Ofl 00 c CIO CO 4-* C C <L) 1) CO CO 3 •H U c H CO '4H in o 4-1 •o 4-> O •H

0) CO o H O 4-» •H CO -H s C O CO 4J 2 e CO 13 CO H tsl o t4H E

00 c in

4-" C tn •H -C 4-1 3 OO 4-1 CO to 00 o O o c tn X •H X) X 00 o -iH m tJ c

c ^4 OO CO

C4-I OJ rH 4-1 OO 00 u

O c 13 OO tn •H c

1—1 +-> o c X o X

CO tn tn H •H CO tu 3 4-1 •H 3 in tu X 4-1 C U tn c X X 4-1 tj tu O CO O o 4-1 CO E •H 4-1 1) 4-1 E O 13 tu CO o

tn ^4 tn O O 13 C a; tu tn •H 3 T3 o 0) tu CO ^4 <u

tn ^4 o X B u

CO to tu tn o o CO o CO

ID tu XX *r—

I

4-1 13

f-i 4-1 tu c <u 4-1 in CO to x; tu 13 3 tu

fl, DO 4-1 O CO tu t4-4 e 130 c in tu o E Mh O

o 3 c •H t4-l tu o O • H o tn 13 o o X tn T3 CO in tu X 4-1 +J o CO E to 13 3 4-1 o

4-1 to to tu •H o

tn -J o CO u tu tu ^4 t4-l r—

1

13 4-1 3 tu to X tP in X tn tJ 13 H 13 tu CO 4-1 C tu

tn -C OO tu X •H O c 3 00 H c •M 4-1 ^4 in 4-1 tu o u

3 C4-1 •fH U 4-1 3 u (-1 CO O O c CO u 13 CO

4-1 1/) •H c U o

tu 4-1 in tu •H 4-1 o H <4-l 13 tn in X tn <4-l CO 00 C C C4-I o 3 O

fH •H •H X o tu CO CO OO tu •H f-l 13 tu t4H ^4 00 c in 13 O 4-1 c

13 tu o X tn •H tn H

U tu •H •H 4-1 tJ •H CO 3 4-1 X .U to c

4-1 4-1 a- tn o o CO 13 tu

4-1 c -a O t4-l tu !h •H tu 13 O c tn

tu 4-1 !-i tu CO s U o X

C •H tu 4-1 OO o O c U-l !-i o 3 3 in CO O o o +J

o
168 EDUCATION —0do O c

nj

^1 o Ph

0) 4-' E C O -d •H c (Li O

OJ o OH (-> •H cfl c •M U o O l-J o 3 oj O

Id oj J= c O M

(/)

U to

Cl, (-> T3 (D 3 c O C O O •H de H

en <u c H

M •H f-l •H P. <D ra « P,X D T3 <D

rt 1/1 e C

aj 3 oj Ph (U o 4-1 ^1 > tJJ •H •H

<D

C > e

l-J •H

nl o o 3 IS

+->

H ar

4-" p. 14-1

O « tu f-4 o Oj o

XI -D c m C 3 o P P,Mh

n) P o H nj

C/5 S-l <D 3 o P O 3 oj 03 M P. (/) o
APPENDIX VI 169

c to to +J -d •a tn

me er

tfl on " n) (-1 0) c D 0) Cu 03 •M o

o (U n) o E c 3 H t/i t/l 0) a. O (-1 -C M o 03 f~l to o -a M o! c to o o a in tn t/i +-> U o T3 Ph (U 0) C CJ c

a, c c C C ^4 (/I i-l C 3 DO 6 N <U x: 3 00

1} o o O 0) 3 a) 03 03 O c <D l-l 4-> X4-I C

OB J3 +-1 (/) 00 4-J > (J o in •H T3 <D <L> <l) H

C 3 o •H <U ft t/l >-i 3 4-1 4h !-l H 4-1 t/i S-i nj n) ca aj 3 00 3 0) <D 3 03 cr 4-1 O oo 3 o o 00 O o H O N Cu CO to -H 3 p: tfl a) •(-> 3 4-1 1 H <u •H 03 o! <L) • H o! 3 ca Mh a: ^1 4-1 lA CI, <u o! S 0) XI T3 oJ 0) C/1 6 <L) c o 3 S

u <D Sh H oj H CO H T) P to -H lA P H (/) <u O 13 e x: e c c <U 0) O XI CI, 4-1

+-> - H Oh C 0 •H O C •!-> U 3 to o O

to 4-» c nJ nJ I—

1

c 1) (U •H •H (h m as D U 0) in •H •H

n) C G. o +-> o IS D 0) O <u -d O 1) O P P

> i/l <U o +-> lA t/l •M in a, C <L> •!-> Ci, 03 tn a

3 l-J j: Oj M H 03 C in 03 03 <+-( c: OS d. 03 C <U nj o o 3 03 O o o 03 j: 4-> o •H o JC 03 o3t-ioo c:34h in toty ooxi upC1,u'—'totouojDt/iuOHoS

c -o u p •r-t 13

<u c 03 O

c tu p

•H 00 6 c: T3

c: p o c: p •H u o 03 c !-i o

o t/l ^1 u o > t/l <D 0) O 0! <u O 3

00 tu 03 OO t/l u ^^ S tu tu ni o •H to a. o 3 o!

4-1 c: < u< < O H t/l

t/l 03 P >,

to X 03

tu C O P I t-l X tu 3 to X Ci, to O 3

tu s e to tu

^1 »—' trt r-1 tu X

o! ,—I 03 tu P P

• 03 I X 03

to • H 3 x

tu CI. tu p

P 3 tu o 03 U H

0! o P H S o 3

3

OO ma

1

1 13 E

TJ ^1 T3 c: O

C <-H X O tu 03 o

03 03 u U t/l ^1 E T3 3 to T3 to O to C o 03 a. o 03

03 4-1 tu tu 4h

t/l C Dh tu u

•H X 03 to x: 03 tu 03 p c !h 03 H •H 03 03 03 c: •rH 3 03 tu u •H ^1

03 > E C tu

lA E 03 c: p < CX P

tu t/l !-i 03 3 03 H P O X E P c O o P P

• H •rH c: tu 00 > OO -a to c

H to p tu •H P tu H to •H P tu 3

3 3 XI o < T3 T3 T3 P P

C C X H c

03 OS 5 c P 03 o

X. to to 03 trt O 4h

426-013 0 - 71 - 12
170 EDUCATION t T3 4-" M C -H OJ C

O

t->

O

O

0)

D jr:

X (U

O

O >H oj ^ X C - 3

Cu oJ <—t nj

O t/)

(/) CD i/l t3 n3 in in (U

.-I

a -H q-i

X s

nj

O

UO (U

C -H 11 o o -M (-1 m -t-" I -H

I/) o

a,

(/) c

•H 3 O O c e -H o

T3 4-1

oi

X

0) 3

t3

O

C ^ O

a! oJ e 3 H 4-> 1/) !h

O o a f-i C <U C 0)

1/1 3o O 1/1

H XX M 0) O

CJ

X 3 ^ £- S

4-> J3 -H

O

l/l 4_t -4-) 4-)

<L> T3 I/) 1 C 4-1 C c 4-> H H C 03 03 o 1 03 3 3 e T3 <U 3 o •H CD <u

t/) o H c !-i (/I 0) 4-> 3 DO

aJ T3 XI 0) T3 00 T3 o 03 DO t/lC o 1) 0) 0) &, C c •a H 6 3 !-i 4) H H ni <u 1) c •H 3 (H O t/) Cu 13 4-) J= •H 03 CI, 3 m .—( m O O !h T3 to o (D 3 ^4 0) i-H ID C 03

cS e (/I (D

U Cl< Oj (-1 03 <L) (U

4-1 > X

H 3 ^4 S « 3 *-> tn O <D 4-' 4-1 T3 ^ o o 0) c C OJ OJ to o C 4-* <+-l o U H Ph c H H c

•H Id o o <U to V) CD -H 4-» (U <LI 1) "o lU 3 3 E tu o <L> OJ -C 4-1 > o H O 3 4-1 3 4^ to

4-1

M « 0) o t/l c o

I/)

X OJ -a X) 4-" I—1 o >

-d c 03

H +-> c u 03 3 03

H c

4-" c c o -a !h CO Oj 03 o H 4-1 •H

<u Oj dj 03 (1) XI 03

i-l t/) +-> Pu o 4-1 "tj 03 ID

U t/l t3 e X c 3 4-" O

-HO 03 03 <D T3 Oj S l/l 01 oJ • H •a C « (« 03 e H ^ o XI Ob to X U o o <U X c i/i DO <D 03 <1) 1) tu tu

!-i 4-' OJ nJ c C 3 4-'

+-J U-l e DO

H

C 4-" 3 +-> CD

(U e <u c u 3 c 4-" 6

0) 6 "J-lX

M

H 3 '4^ 03 rH t4-l 4-" 3 O 03 03 -o o Ph C o u o 1—1 H DO <+4 o X 4-J <u •H DO O 03 u O 4-' <u > 4-1 x: 3 3 •H e o

CQ c J=X •M

m CO

O

H

X J=

CD 4-1 !h

X ^4 T3 > c 4-1 c .-H •H 03 c OJ c 03 03 H

•H eu 3 C o 3 *-> O. 03 x: s 3
APPENDIX VI 171

T3

C .-I 0) 'H S J3

H -a 0)

n) +-» aj O M-H +-» rH ifl 3 -(-1 4-1 'H 0)

nJ rt -H 3 o U X !h -a C

0) u (U tn aj ^ 3 O-Mh i-i ^ nJ • E O O tu u

4-1 in -Pc X

•l-l -H O

tn u o (L> m O 0) -p

C C

•H -H

t/1 (Ti

3

o M H

J= -H 3 u u. o

u

<u o

!-i • a) oS wi C ^ O ft (1) <D

1/1 e 6 ^ -l-i H O 3 "J-l S oj O !-> O
EDUCATION

O Xi3

03 W £

3 <U -M 3 T3

fn O oi Id

<D S

o3 <u <u jn

03 X C

R X 3 o s q --H (J 0)

(U o -o s

i/l n:3 O

C 3 >H < -H cn 4-1

XJ o

« 3

3e 03

03

(Uo O c 03 t <u (D 6

•H !h o

o

0) O u a. i-> a) OS X

0) 01 03 C e

•H a) 0)

r—i AS o M •H •(-> •H e c I—

t

<u <D o f-l -C

-o ni •M

<L) 03 c J= 00 00 o c c

-o •H •H > ^

<u oJ ^ 3 > J= -H

03 X O

-C O 3

3 tJC

C 03

<4-l X 0) M s

13 +J 3

03 X) O

C >

OO 03 X U !-> (U H tf) o u T3 03 fH fH DO fH f-l •H C U <u <u -o c 3 ID in 03 x; H O C

01 X ^ •p O •H ft 3 o

03 OS 3 U in t—

1

•H in <D u l/l H

ft un e 03

ea

+-I H or ar

03 fo er er he e 3 14-1 ft E M 4-> X

O 08 03

(-1 3 T3 -o

t/i ha <M

i-HO 03 i« O

1) H (U in 4-1 4-1 <U X (U O ^1 c

03 C fH c X -H 4-1 CD 3

3 H 3 « 3 OS C f-l O

OS > o !-> •H O E

OO o S T3 03 x: 03 C c o 03 00^ <Li 4-1 in •H o in C ^ in c ttJ

f-l o H <L) •H -H •H o < E

3 a e j= e t-( o 03 3 O T3 OS DO a, in 4-1 &. c <u I/) 3 f-l OS j: 03 O 3 in E 0) c

tn <L) -J 1/1 <l> 4=

•r-l OS

4->

!h O t-i M x: r-l ft n3

XIc -a cj

OS c • x:

OS OJ 4-1 fH .-I <L>

<L) fn 3 X T3 e 0) t-i 4-1 ^

O 3 O O

1+-I X) O 4-1 H

<U 3 •

•H X 3 4-" , o

" X3 O <U

03 <4H X) <U

O O

10 4-1 M H O X '4H 14-1 X 4J 4-1 4j in O

•H e

t+-l ^

cu f-l x: c

OS O 1) OS o

-C 4-1 X <L> c fH <U

4-1 o X in Qi X3 X X 4-1 OS X •H

4-1 14H o 3 OS t/1 c OO o X OJ 4-1 c

(U c fn in •H

XI o ft 0) 3 3

H f-4 o X in H fH 0)

144 4J 4-1 4-1 OS 4-1 X fH C in OJ in 4-1 •H o 1) 4H E 4-1 o T3 X nS aj 3 13 c

0) 4-1 o 4-1 o C

in 4-1 4-1 OS OS

OS O o E OJ (D 3 Hi

•r-l

4-1 ed ed SS X ar th X U X 00 4-1 4-1 03 4-1 o 0) o c c ft fH 4-1 X 4-1 H a; E o 03 X C

OS <u 4-1 a ft 4J 03

0) 3 4-1 C 4-1 in ft 0) x OS •H o u 4-' •H <U E E

4-1 of sm Po o he OS X th <u D

in 0) c C X

4-1 4-1 03 X c 4-1 03 in x c r-H in •H X I/) 3

DO 3 u 00 4-1 fH o ft 4J •H o c 4-1 (U X 3 03

1) E f-l r-l in X c OS X CJ -C OS fH fH o3 o XI 4-1 o X 3 <1> ft X OS 4-1 o 08 <u 0) 4-1 in C 4-1 03 3 14-1 E E o OS -H m 0) C u O u

03 OS <L) OS X Th o •H X 3

in in 5 E 4J 4J o ft in in

0) 00 > C 1=; OS O o a) 00 i-H E

th o C -H fH XI

OS -H Mh

0) «§ fH X

fH (U 1) o3 4-1 X

03 4J

r-l E 3 o

3 <U X

O rH DO X X c X

in o H 0) u fH X in ft 3 4-1 •H O X D ft<4H X •H

XI 4-1 <44

0) O 0) DOX m

DO 4-1 03 m

3 -H 0)

fH 3 XI O X •H 4-1 in -3

0) fH X ^ X 1) O DO 4-1 X

X 00 4J 3 c o

lU ^4 o X 4J ft OJ

4-1 in 3 th

4J ^ 4-1 C fH •H o H -H X 4-1 4-1 o OO d

ft a; u 3 X a) o

in cH

lire X OS

4-1 H 4-1 aj

4-> c E

4J ft C o 08 < 3 3 o in

•=3"

OS 3 OS 4-1
APPENDIX VI

00

0) 0 c

1) X H H

•H u nj u O ni J= in o at E O C M oo 00 ni J— •H

IS] D 00 •H — in c •H 0 (- M c t/) "•"^ ni 00 H 0

•H m •H •P 3 •H

Q-> <u X O •H 0 c: 'o 0 M

c X 3 0 0

Qj o oi ni CJ* X ni ni o Ph

.—

(

C 0 Ul p

(U oi H ni C X 0

•H +J -Q 0 •H +-> u o 0 to

+-* H E 0 ni i-> 0 O

T3 +J i« o n) H !h H

O •H in P H ni m c P. O 0 ni bO nj <U tn 0

CL, M 0 f-1 4^ u ni -O p > 0 c ni o X X c fH e' 0 ni d C 0 T—

I

•H E

ni <u !l> 0 O 3 S ni +-> P 0 3 6 o O X -P !h ni 0 p (D <L> 4-> TS Ul J= ni •H P

-O U ni c 3 •H E P. P

« ni ni ni 4-1 o ni O C in O H T3 XJ 0 c 0 e

o nS rt H M H .C p

(H o 0) o 0 H ni ni c o H S M ni p J= 3 c

+J (U X 0 H ni O -d 3 O

(/) x: 0 T) C E ni 0 3 E p

p ,c C •H ao O <; in 0 0 o nj c

i M 03 a C oo 0 •H 00 C -C 3

c c c H C C c •H in C O

c •H 4) t/1 0) H t/l •H H m O 0 6

4) C tj o U 0 o u ji: •H in > ni U O o CO M •H c c •H o P 0 H

t3 P 4h « H C 4-i +-> ni •H M « tn •H OO 0

o <D H 0 0 O •H o lA p m P E

•H •H -O T3 s T3 ni H ni 0 o 'H ni 03

+-1 OJ C T3 M ^ > in U in <D a, •H C nj a. P

D E E 3 H X nJ X 0 P ni 0 H o C r-H nj ni o X. a* •M <j o 0 t-J D. o E p ni p p

p 0

0 0 ni p in ni X

in c 0 0 o • H O X. p

3 o ^1 Tl ni in C 0 P 0 P in in 0 u

ni 4-1 C O C 00 in 0 in in in 0 o 4-1 Ph -p • H O in • H ^1 ^ c o r-l 3 0 c C O E oi 0 ni 0 ni C ni •H a nJ x; •H

n3 o 0 E 0 00 T3 •H 0 4^ P o p m

in <J 0 c 0 x: E c^- H 0 p

P P 00 U P nj 0 u 0 p P !h T3 XI tp c

P< c o x: > 3 E P nj 0 0 0 o

0 0 p ni 0 in 4^ CJ 0 O o c ni x: -C x: in !h o

u p o p O •H o 0 x: p P in 3 0 p

o c u !-i c:

.

•C XI t—

1

0 p p O •H ni 00 nj x:

nl o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 fn XI 4-1 -o c c u 00 o

o •o P H p a. u X) 0 O c ni •H 0 H H

O u ip u C ni 3 C o

"0

ni E X2 X) J5 P 0 o nj 0 o j= o o •H p c 00 in •H p. u in Ph p ni 0 U u 0 c^> 0 p c X X p in !-i nj in •H 0 c P

I—

(

•H 0 0 0 in in C U TD O 4-1 in 00 o H C^' XI oo c X. -C •H S-i o ni ni oo in

nj c fn o 00 p p 0 0 0 •H in (h P X. H 13 o 3

•H 0 c P P P. 0 O XI c p O

0 Sh •H 4-1 X •H 0 P. U O P C p o 3 p O 00 oo c: ni O ••a C !-i u 4-1 ni o o p 3 c o i-H 0 3 in 3 0 0 0 ^1 Pk c o H X o o 3 in oo 0 o C in 0 C nj XI 4^ p x: •H O 4h 0 0 u 0 o E -o >

0 4-1 H p X o E P ni T3 ca ni 0 ni O c^-

f-1 O o 4-1 a P 3 •H c P P x: C

•a p o c c C in P nj 3 U 0 c p 0 -a 0 X c nJ ni 0 o o p 0 E O in in 0 x: o X3 c x: •H 00 •H in 3 > +J 4-1 c E in E • i-i 0 C p o in ni p

x; 0 0 oo o- 0 c 0 o ni E •H H •a in u p i-l 6 C H P p in in ^-1 •H ni p I-H S-i nj 0 3 •H 0 0 f—

1

c 0 0 0 P p ni in !-i 3 0 p !-i c E in 3 o U E x: c 0 C 0 u O O O 00

in P H o 3 P nj U o o 0 H p H E O E •H u u

o in ni > o in 0 • l-i x: P nj o o 4-1 u nj p p. p c 4-1 p 0 c P P 0 0 0 c 0 nj 0 H 4-1 o s 0 C 0 m 0 t-l p

o 4-1 X. ni • H 3 c o o C x: x: 3 o ni P o p O P p p o 4-1 m in 3 o O p p 4-1 E 3 •H
174 EDUCATION ^

(T)

in

C

(-> 0) <D C S-l

O a) 3 H e o 4-" •M

nj OJ X TJ 0 3 UJ O

<AO !J « 03 ^

PhH 6 T3 >+-( c C C O

!h (D

D > !h

d U1

O 4-> -H

D

M (U tn

C I T) x: 3 •H X O 4-> t/1 o OJ e c c

-C ^• ca

D o o +-> z f-i <J

p (U <D

+->

C f-i oj q-i o c t/1 oi O +-> +J o o X e o H o 6 •M M T3 oo a, <D c

^1

C 0) •H

!-i aj o p

X (U OJ 3

a* o X tn

CS ^ ^ o

a, o U oJ 0)

l-J

C

W <L>O -M

C -H -H f-l rH 3

1/1 nj

(H (1) U ^4 C X! 6 M O T3 oj

03

AS M-H

O > X

a)3 <U oO h M O J= U

(U CO Ph

0) tA

•P (H

0) 3 M 4-1 O U P 3 3 !-i

CJ 03 -H e3 <D 3 «

--I

C

O tu

OO

C ^ > ^ 3O

-O 01 ^

oj oj -HO , j: 3 c

03 'H

<U

O

m I

03 3 O

C o o £ q ^

4-1 0 03

X ^ 01

WO 4-1 ,^ </l -Hox 3 C U X o

4-'

X

O ^ !-i COD

<4Hm 4-1

oa 0) o (D > ^ 4-1 X oju O -H

(U S-1 M +-1 •rH C

oj X) 3 oi vi in -H

<a inX

CL, 60 X -H C

1)

X -H 03

in T3 o

•O

C r-l .H

C

O -rt 4-1 o3 -H 3 03 j: 4-1 X e

"1

00

4-1

X

f-i 11 3 o x o

4-1 4-1

X eO -4-1 o in o

0)

a) in

S-l 14H X) O

in 1)

11 tH tH X OJ o

03 > E O -H

4-1

O OJ o c

!-i 4-1

O

X lU o • 4-1 J= D +J dj . •H O 4-1 fH S -r-l X oj 43 U

<L1 DO ^4 -H

-a c o ft 3 U3

o3 in

03

CJ 4-1 c o o

f-1 J=

03

M • a, 3 X E O C

^4 (U --H 1) E 4-1 3

4-1 in 4h

4-1 ^4 3 X O O -i-, 4-1 4-1 r 3

in

O

r-i in 01 E

oj

m ^

OJ -H oj ID E 4-1 +J H

oj !-i

XC

QO ^ O

CU ^ • Ph 03 • O C/3 •
APPENDIX VI 175

O

O

O 4-> C^- 05 ^

U 0) 3

3o i>- at an O T3 a oj nj X <u • oo

X

-aoX

> 3 M 1) O

« J= XI

0) •!-> 3 nl

t/) t/l T3 -M

•M (1) c

(1) O CS Dh Q x: s

6 X

O n! o -o

n) 0

3 O

H ^^o

ni 3

O

a. 6

3

O Qi

-dc

nl oc

0) c

x: •H

ve rko

o se 3

M-( c O

o x:

</) X H ni u X 2

0) X3 a.E T3 c o 0) o

u 6

3

I/) H

C

n! o M

6 o et H

C C -a p. 3

(D o

!h o (/I -0

T3 Mh 3 U

o n) •H •H -o

x: o fH C

(J ca

1/1 > M

tn c

•H 3 H o

o +-» C

•r-f

0 u

I/) 0) •H X3 ^ g

01 3

.-I 03 3 E O

X3 O •

3 ^

O ifi X C

3

OX <N- c

03 03 U 0)

O -H

1/1 3

C

3

O -o

VI O o o

00 03 <U C +J C •'^ 03 3

oX ^^ 3

x: o -a

oo X.-I

• H 3

tu M-l o

3 3

03 X

c

3 0) O 3

a:

oo
176 EDUCATION

(L) c 1 U1 J= o i-i

t->

O (U (P o

•H

M <D o

+-I o 3 1-1 <u -C

X ^ O o c: XI Q 4-" -0 6 ^-'

f-i VI c Jh •H

+-»

O 0 u -o c T3

C c H 0) T3 OJ ni ni 3 o •H 3 S X CL, C a >

(-> o <D o

•M o o fn OJ +-> •H XI H •H o 3 4-1 C

^^ 03 LO

H 0) o 3 -3 3 0) Mh

^^ E o 3 <U O O

O

m

C DO a H

O ^ X

H c T3 03

4-> ni

H 1/1 T3H i-H x:

Cfl 'J c 4)

u CD

S-i

u o •H -a •H

H XI

03 t/i •H >^x: & O <D

O

OJ

m !h x; <u 4-> O M jS C

a,

u in do o 4-> •H

Ut

tu !h ^1 o D o

-C fH 3 <D

C r-H

H to X3 o H +-1 c +-I ni 0) e N c +-> c (D x: 3 H -H O 3 e 4-1 c t/) S X •I-" c o 1 03 0 c O c O 0 O 03 O H U 3

tfl 03 4-> c X !-, •H -o c:

XO

03 i-i

H •H rH 03 0 t4H 0 4-1 o 03 r-H

X t->C 3 4-1 c:

m c o 3 r-4 CI, H 3 14-1 H (/) 3 •H o e X) c n3 -H 03 <4-l « C

<u fH ni o •H •H 4-1 CX o H 0

03 p. Ol c: 4-1

H

XX 13 o DO CI, +-> o H ii tn 4-1 f-l !h to tu c 3 3 u 4-1 0 0 4-J n3 1—1 E •H d. ni O T3 r-. DO c DO

n3

O 0 c: p- •HO

I/) 0 x: tJ

O •o 0 •H E 4J

to 0)

X +J

H • H E ns 0 03 •M 60 4-1 H 'O > • H X (-1 0 u

tn c 0) 3 0 C o 4-1 0 3

ni r-f in ^4 •H

u

X tfl

H E O a, 3 cihx: DO 3 n3 0

f-l 3 1/1

O 3 0 0 X

C

H o ni 03 'O <4H E 4-1

O

H 0 T3 0 c •3 0 -0

X

X3 c E 03 !h 03

C DO 03

C ni -3 •H 0 03 in ni

H

D P c O 4-1 3 0 0 o E fn > in ni o 4-1 C > f-l O H dJ 0 •(-> O n3 0 0 ni C in t4-l 4-> 4-1 E 4-1 AS 0 4-1

!-,H ni +-< c 03 \0 ^4 c n3

O

C •H c: ni < 0 X3 x: 0

03 <4-l 3 ^1 03 3 03

am o T3 3

fl< 3 <ni

H 3 E 3 T3 T3 o 4-1 in X E X 4-1 ^4 E D ^4 ^-l 3 O 03 O 1 o t/) o

!h <U ni a, o C 0 Q

u <4-l

O

C -d c; 0 x: 1 0 tfl f-l u. C 03 o > 4-1 H c: 0 to

(D ni 4-1 o U 03 P, o -d -H

x; +-> c •H Ci 0 o 03

H r-H

X

t/i oi 3 10 4-1 Q. P, 4-1

O 4-1 coI

-o c i: ^

-p +v i ^ ^ y
APPENDIX VI 177

•n r 4-1 in -o ID 4-> 0) 3 4-1 H ID X 3 u O -d f-l a •a +-> o 4-> o u 4-" 0)m 1) -a OJ oo (D -o

OS or ck ho in •a (= O X X C X ID E U-l •H rH

(U •H O 4-> 4-1 •H 4-1 •H P. o r-H

1 N u in 4-1 OS 0) 4-1 03 •H o OS O 03 -d 3

I/I

1 te t3 C

4-) E ID

em

1—

1

r-H ee •H>

OX

ID

or

a) in C -H o- 4-1 3 H !^ o H 44 £ on 03 ID 3 in 4-1 O c 4-1 X c in o

c O c ID in 4-1 OS 0 4-1 in 3 It) O 4-1 3 X ID u 4-1 N 0

o -I H 3 14-1 4-1 X in c o X H

0) X -M !-> O o Cu <D X 03 03 4-1 00 in X P -H X 3 QO -d 3 X H in

!-> n) O 4-1

(D he o 4J

no ha X

4-1 ke er u ht le 00 d, 4-> o M-l X o ID 03 > ID 00 X

c oo OJ 3 O 3 O 4-1 U E o X •H •H 3 x: o X 00 4-1 3 O 4-1 OS p 3 c in 0) <4^ "3 E o 4-1 E 3 <u H 4-> 4-1 CX 4-1 4^ 4-1 0 c +-I x: ID a c 3 C "in 3 1) in ID 3 C o X 0) O <u O •d O 4J 10 4) c 4-1 o !h 4-1 4-1 4-1 4^ 0) X c

!-i •H 1/) X •T3 t3 c 03 -d 4-1 ID 03 44 o

•a 0) 03 (U E <D o X <U !-i O c tj O X

00 oo e O • H fH o 3 ID H X in C 4-1 oi •H Oj -H !h X 3 !-i X in 3 3 in (h !-i +-1 <D 14-1 f-< o O (D 1—

1

4-1 ID ID o a. 3 0 O o P-, 3 •H a,x U H X 3 X C

6 3 X o U1 C DO 1) 4-1 •H ID 4-1 00 c^- ID •r-l X o c •c ID OJ T3 oo X X E in OS X

c ll a, OS l-J 03 ^4 0) !-i 03 C o 4-1 4-1 4-1 o H 4-1 03

03 4-1 3 e 4-" -a X X X •H ID 03 H f-l in r-l E o O Sh 4-) f X 3 OS 4-1 o o

•a 3 X) <D •H -a 4-1 4-J 00 -H -o Ph in 03 o

MO o o X X 13 c c 4-1 ID -d X X

> -c x; ID u <D H ID -o 3 C ^ •H u !h ID 4-> OS J= +j x: in H c X -13 3 O 03 c 3 in m •!-> 0) •H CJ ^ o O in 3 O ID f-l 4-1 00 f-l -a t3 4-1 3 (D OS 03 in 4-1 Oh XX ID 44 c 0

CD t-H O 4h !-i 0) 00 (D 03 -o O -d 4-1 C ID H >

m O X ^4 03 X X c ID c X •H -d o

j= 4-> (-1 4-1 i-H !-i H X nS o 03 44 OS c 4-1 0) +-» (U 0) (D ID ID X in in 3 •H 4-1 in •H 4-1 -d a; 03 x: 0 XX f-l O X O 03 E in C 4-1 0 c 13 e oo t—

1

o « 4-1 ID !h O 4-1 4-> O 4-1 3 03 •H c 03 4-1 4-1 03 03 o 03 3 OS u 03 X

O ^1 o <u o CJ >- o 14-1 U ID 4-1 X 3 O H X f-l 44 o oo -M X 4-> X < in 4-1 H 4-1 14-1 4-1 03 3 O

o
178 EDUCATION

0) o

71 0) jr VI

M —I

•HM c

c

0) 03 OJ D 3 4-1 a"a a- e oJ « -H <u H O,

in J= c Oj

4-1 o o C o e H (U DO +-> <u ft J= c

•H 4-1 4-1 c

to O (/) 03 00

CI, H c

3 3 t-1 •H U 00 o

nJ C

<U -H e <u

!h M H 4-1

00 <D c f-l H 01 4-1 o

DO jc: 0) 4-1 c 4-1 4-1 01 o O 4-1 j: ts 11 o <L1 <u ^

T3 O XI C 03 03 O H

E

er -Q

-i; 1) c <U 0)

(/) f-i o C

ta ti 4-1 o

O c in

(D T3 o O

"o C 4h

4-1 03 O

<D o c o 4-1 4-1 o 0) 3 H o <U 4-J 4-1 X: Th •H O 03

01 3 re U

4-1 T3 •H 1/1 CD 4-1 « 4-1 c 03 m 0) T3 4-1 U 03

oi 4-1 4-1 u

00 DO •H c

•a <+H c H u

c 4-1 03 c <u o ^4 tn 4-1 o

u •H 3 •H 03

0) OJ 6 03 4-1 3

J= •H

4-1 fH O T3 4-1 03 c

te

4-1 on O

c • H ol X) u C

•H ^

3 de 4-1 o

c V O

0) 4-1 01 03 03 03 4-1 <U DO t) 3 ifl rH 4-1 H 4-1 •H 0 03 +-1 U

s: X 4-1 O 03 u 4-1 4-1 -H

00 4-1 O DO c 1 c H 1 c^- 3 CD -H 3 o •H c

!-i O E 4-J cn o o

C O U 03 4-1 o C c -H O 4-1 x u 3 c 03 o o 4h

+-1 0- o oo CJ 03 -a (U CJ i-H CU DO

03 O DO c r <u 01 CU DO O c o • 11 DOX 4-1 03

] Z 4-1 • H CU C o 4-1 « 00 E O 4-1 -C X I-H CU t3 ol O i-H 3 c

!h 4-1 t/) ,-H o 03 CU H 03 O -H 03 4-1 CU E X 4h E

3 3 - DO c H

4-1 U E 1 CU o 3 E O O

0) C O 4-1 e o 4-1 4-1 x: 3 !h O r-H oi CU X. X 1—

1

4-1 o 0) f-l 01 o CU T3 E LTN 03 4-1 X o C

3 03 4-1 <u c 6 3 4-1 o H

CU < JZ CD CU o 4h C D 4-1 C (h -d X o t3 T3 O 3

4-1 -O r 3 C •H •H O

4-1 C H o •H X

0) 4-1 H 3 T3 J= 3 4-1 3 tn U O o <u tj 4-1 c

DO (h ^ in O C CU 01

03 C 03 f-i (U C 4-1 H a; o

rt 0) •H 03 o CJ x -a 4-' « E 4-1 c 4-1 3 tf) O -H +J f-i o CU X

<u c 03 03 (U X DO c o i-l DO 4-1 o X ^ X c H 4-1 (U 1 c 3 c

4-1 Ol 03 !h 4-1 (U 03 4-1 3 4-1 03 4-1 3 E c

4-1 T3 o C CJ CU 03 CU CU O 03 O 00 J= X x 3 iH 01 (J ^ o CU 4-' O 0)

4-1 4-1 O J= x 4h

ifl B o 4-1 -H 3 4-1 i-H 4h O <1) 00 O E VI 4-1 T3 •H E J= t3 (U •H C T3

4-1 o X 03 03 4-1 4-1 01 j: 4-1 4-1 CU 03 CU X

00 4-1 <U X J= -C j: O C

3 O 3 •H 4-1 M 4-1 4-1 01 O o U -H t-1 CU E X 03 3 •H c E ^ c a:

4-1 C > 0) o o O o c 3

•-( O 4-1 •H (-1 O -H oi O < c O 0) 3 4-1 (/I u. 4-1 4H X
APPENDIX VI

t/l

X

(D in

^^ -1

C

O D. 3 E '4-(

0) ;H -H r-l •H w o o o n) o t+H

1) 0 o ^ T3 ul <U O C M +J o rt c ui O (-> -H DO

X3

0) 1 4-> M 1 OJ

l/> 3 CO OO

u

OJ

O f-i *-> c 3 u c 0) Oj 3 in

<D <u CI.

O 03 •M e 0) c -a D e

•H o -tj o 0) D 00 > o

am -d

0)E

oa in o oi 3 in

0) (U OO (U o 3 c

x> > o OS +J 3 M 4-1 4-1 00 <4-l c o O c 4-1 0) (U • H o in T3 M c 3 3 c OS •M o o X3 0) D

(/) E

(U T3 4-> M-l 03 (-1 c 3 O 3 oj +J

<D inM 3

<J n) OO 01

O 3 3 <D c O -o E •r-t M 0)

Si o a: M in 03 in

C

B. 3 E 0) o

4-1 > in

O <U 0 03 in H (-( Th O 0)

oiu

d in • o3 D 0)

0) fH E ^ -H .H XI 3 -M cr

OO <L) TD C !h C H 03

o) n) - E (U (U C O 3

•H -1-1 !->

t3 do C C

03 -HP

ID in ^ o3 X3

03O oi 0) S ^ E

CNJ

in 3 o O O

<^ 4-1
180 EDUCATION t

-d

H

0)

U c ji: Oj o H o a. *-> c O o o pr o oo

T3 a, -i-i

w

O nj o

irt 0) OJ Do H

fo c

-d UT

nJ DO in o c D c H

X. e u

X OJ H e u in D

"3

O

t/1

cfl 0) in

01 in oo E o D e: rH

14-I o •r-l 'Jj CD CD (Nl !h C H

T3 <L) in C >, 0) H 3 aj ^ o 4-" C o nl <D •H

(1) X)

u X3 E

J2

H !-i

H <A i/l in 1) H c M

-C j: o <L) 4-* in

in

0) o o o 3

XI nd

14-1 4-' he en E

(11 o 00 an 4-1 > OJ 1 7^ a, c C 3 03 tu ^4 H •H O <u

<uM 4-1 4-1 -a

x:

m CS tu c

4-> > U > 3

^4 0) 0) lU 4-1 in 0) ^4 1—1

4-1 03 4-1 !> H 03 c •H c in <D E H 1) X •H <u •H x:

•H in 1> 3 4-1 in •H in 03 o

r-H > X^ DO 4-1 03 •H 03 O H

•H 3 M

O 4-1 o 1)

<L) ID crO tu XI in 4-1 E 3 X) <u < E C <U 3 <u E 11 H tn > ^ 3 <u f-i •H •H D

<U

C

M 3 in x:

H ^4 in

!h 1 n) in

C 4-1 4-1

m

03 o o c <u

4-1 X3 o <V •H c +-1 o e

03

X ^ e 4-1 • H <J

!h 0) +J a, 03 tu .—4 <D N H X 3 -o tn (-4 Cu •H O <u o 4-1 11 o 03 e in H XI o •H

03 o in tnH x: 2 4-1

4-> T3 +-> E !-i o O C 1+4 S-i E O oo

03

O c o o tn c 00

<LI (K 14-1 o 1) tu •H c E c !h ^-1 T3 u H

•H

O o (U in -o 3 T3

H

u •H in in tn i-H in c

•H 4-" -H i> o3 (1>

H 03 oi

fn 03 j= c x: tu 4-1

4-> (J o o E in
APPENDIX VI 181 o

<i> f-H - .P fH

C ' p 0) •P in 03 ID

0) cd -C rH 4H ,—^

tw fH

rt

p • rH in

p

D -M •(-" tJO 03 <D oo 3 X pti c > X C C o c O (l> ID n) o •H C <D tn -C (n ^ C -C M rH I—t

•M

C •o

nJ <U S O

C

n) -H - M c o (D o +J S

to

O c P c •>

p

X -M

H

U <u at cd

M (U 3 o o u o M S P. •H in (U U XTJ C in P

nJ

in XI

C

(1) Cfl T3 as cd I—t

!-i o C 3 o <o -a <A H rH 4-1 o o <r3 •p oo q O 4-> g O N BQ <d .-1 C OS tn E H e o

•H

O in

O rH . JO

0)

O

C (U o Z -H XI cd

p .a \o a; > C o O in ,p PI £ c H 1/1 fH H td •P o P .V (U 1 cd O -H o •(-I <n o E

+-> tn T3 'rH tfl in in

u

W

O s p

h -P ID oJ r-l

O

»-> o •H ni tn E <B S C (U

n! 4-1 in c p

O J5

t—1 1 +J (h in in •> rH P

tnD n) tn

H (D

(U E C P tnX fH o r

M

CU I/) fH 0) 0) n3 OJ fH

p ^ -H to o D X 01 E O in u U (D to p

T3 3 e p !h in ca i-H -H O 01 in (U -d tn CJ a, -d d > 1 in O <U <+-! c Sh P C o H 0 C ^ p 3 C nj O x: (LI nj fH P in u -d 3 0 1-1 in oJ O CJ tM o E !i to 3 C o fH fH rH fH .-H c CD ctf H n) tM (D P N O 0) in C T3 •H T3 ID fH o o C fH ' ID K> C O 0 !h -h P P P. to -H 3 P \D •H C ^ n) H nj p OJ (J in to nJ •H -d in CM) in rH (D

Sh (L) 4-»

a

C > in 3 -H TJ OjC ,P 'rH nj T3

a) rH

C rH

C TJM in cfl Ip •H (D •rH OJ fH o o 6 •H •H <D O nJ fH C P. •a o fH tp XI E ^H S 3 O C J-" OS 3 P Oj O o O ID o 3 O ID 3

a.

u P p to

X P Ph in

ball tick box

seam tape meas from Miss larg two
182 EDUCATION

rt

Ci, o

o

s

-E

rt <u 1/1 u rt rt (« 1 C 6 U) (U m H H u •H N •H •H 4-1 rt rt c > 3 -0 •H o 3 C c •H •H o D c Ul CQ o

1 E 01 0) C o o K) X ^ Th rt 3 O rt' rt M c Ul •H e D

oc o <U !-( PJ m m c

•a c r-H (U UJ rt H

c H O c CO <D O rt rt 13 rt H x: •H o <-> o

3 M 3 rt E ,0

r-H 1 rt +J o r—

t

rt

0) o "4-1 > e c -a X) 0) o

c c o o H C ,c •H o

1 •H ha rtI fr <J rt rt

<4-l ire

4-1

rt3

cr

rt m

rH o

rt 4-1 >

rt in o rt o

3 0) o

tn

rt "O 4-1 u o

(U c 4-1 o in in -H E rt O 4-1 rt 4) 4-1 XI rt H XI in o tn u ^4 rt 3 rt H c •H !-i a) 4-1 rt

4-1 o 4-> O tm

[/) in o in in H 4-1 tj

rt rt p< in ^4 c H M-1

t-H o in rt 3 C •H 4-> O

o o o m rt in u 00 4-1 ^4 o, rt m

-a in C T3 <L) u rt h

fH •H rt. o o Ph o

rt <v U 4-1 -H o •H H 4-1 T3 D 3 !h O 4-1 4-1 U 3

C <4-l in O -H in m rt X)

rt U-l rt in T3 rt rt ILl -H

4-J o 0) in 0) H rt rt !h V) o E rt E E Cl- P- O 4-1

T3 rt O 0)

4-1 0) o 4-' > E X)

in -0 o in c o m

rt (N rt 3 C •H S o E •H c 144 P. P. X rt E

in 11 P< rt <D o

C 4-1 XI C 3 rt H 4-) o 4-1 rt X2 144

0) o o 0) f-l 4-1 rt

aj in in x: rt C rt D

3 OJ u P, o -o H

XI x: rt o 4-1 N •H rt X

rt o 0) 3 c H U > rt

rt C H o fn 00 rt •H in rt p. tn > O •H

rt in o tu •H x: o rt > rt X >

rt o to TS oo m rt

in c X

rt •H rt <U o o

c o 1 ^1 X2 o O

in o XI (Nl Xi rt rt in T) 4-1 T3 pa

^4 3 o rt 4-1 rt u

rt <D 0 rt 3 !h c o o Z o rt 3 !h XI 14H -C P, o 0) CQ < o in rt X 4-1 o 4-1 o

1) 4-1 rt 0) to a.
APPENDIX VI

x: X

K J I •> 01 P

1 o - -H ol X •H

1 •(^ O 3 60 in 1 -o •M 4h 3

t/i r -w +-> C *-H J-" lU c c O I tu J= a C X o 03 c (h •H 3 Ol <4H O

u t-> O t-1 o 0) 3 o I-H O 71 t3 3 d) u U -H < •H lA u. Ol >H V) *-» OH1 Oj o o u M CU ol (U a: <P o O

n) c 3 H H ol 01 u <U X I-H o 3 P • (3 1 <u •H C ^ E E &, E u 0) t3 o 1—

1

• S E M 3 D ^ c (U 01 X (U 3 71 T3

to aj X t/) 0) o o ^ u (U x; 0) 0) 0) 71 >

U t3 3 l-i T3 o •H ^^ +J o X (U P 03 H

C s TJ i-H -Q 4-> •H 03 03 •H o in +-> X c 01 X X Cjj u rt •H 03 X in f-i E X f-H D u- CTi +J CJ 00 u

•'^ S -a •H (U x; tn E U .-H OO u X u ol I-H

t/i c 4-> o •H fH (H 03 4-1 !h X +J I-H 4h -0 •H I-H 00 & - •(-> 01 T3 •H O o 3 <u X O 3 <u 03 I-H O I-H a- < c

j: C •M 4h u X 4h C •H 3

an X 3 o C U 03 i/l U c O O 0) X i+j o

Q O •H 1 (/I H E 00 1) •H s E u o X CJ 3 o 0) o •H c C u 0) +J o

35 3 .-H C 00 ^ O a u H 0) o I-H 03 c 71 0) c 4) s •u X ri c rt •H o c 0) I-H o Z o o o X o o 4-( w •H E 4-1 Sh C-O) c I-H •H Sh T3 <+-l C •H +-" -tJ 2: o J= lA T3 •H 0) H H X c o 01 03 •P

+-> o 03 (U 4-J 00 UJ o <u o 00 O 01 t4H

(/) ^ 0) c +J (U X 71 ol •H o o

c +J 0) ^^ o 0) • H t/) XI 3 •M 11 •H 4h 3

•H o E •H s UJ 71 c a o :i •H O- H T3 OO

E-H -H oo 00 o H a) o X P C UJ c

•H o 3 X IH X o 3 JO (H Oi C tJO •H c !-i X'+^ P o XI CL U1 p X *-> O 03 Ol H c

O <D c o •M ^1 -a 3 +i 3 CO > o

J= •H o 0) <4-l o- ^ •H 71

<U !-> o "cb XI O •H X o t/1 71 71 ol a 0) E •H J= o c X ol T3 o §^ 0) 71 0) §: c 4-1 3 +J 3 JZ s o o u C !h !h P T3 OJ u

c o 0) 00 • 05 c c Vl ol 71 (U c 71 •H u

Ul JZ 00 13 3 OJ a o o 01 c 03 71 *-> <u H 2 00 T3 O 0) D •H j= O -U Co H >+-( E H 0) 03 71 OO O c

ai '-3 J3 r-H *-) in j: o3 o +-1 Tl a) O <a o 0) U 03 H 0) •H 4) 03 00 H u o X <u X a. 'a ^^ Ol 3 3 K O 00 CU c ol to o o o 00 o 03 3 C O K .a c U H 00 Ph X c X X T3 c a 10 C +-> E XI <D U a ^ X H *-> c 1/1 ^^ 03 41 o c H

•> OJ X •H 3 0) > 03 S +J X c •H 03 <» s X 03 /<! CO -d O <U c H -H CJ U ol +-> T3 E a. 71 71 C

o « c x: O H in ol 01 M 03 C •H CO (Nl c ft P •H § s

0) 00 O 03 o X 71 I-H 01 !h 'a; H (h" (U X J 3 0) c +-< t4 3 D. 03 71 O OO P

w *-> w o i-H ^ (D K ^ > X 0) E +-> (» c 71 X 01 •H !h H +-> 3 •H 01 •M T3 •H c <U E o C •H E H 0)

(U x; <4H s c X •H C P 11 X o •H o 3 3 a. X 1—

*

3 S M 3 3 O +-< 3 3 1/1 E CO u o w 2 p

LPl

< v9

4C>a

Oh CO c 3

a +^

CO s

a ?^ a, to

3

o

'X3

CO Co <»

rS 3 'tj

^Cl C5 Co

to

v-i O

t3 CO '--i RQ a; RQ 3> O K

t» B

Ci Bh
EDUCATION

o

a; es s0 3

00

in K 03 4-1 c 0 •H x: CJ P 0 D H !h 1) 4-1 4-1 f-H +^ t/i H in 4-1 T3 x: 4-1 •H

<u 0 3 0 in 4-" DO 3 e u n) nj E •H C in 03 DO

0) 3 3 E 4-t !-i 0 x: E 3 4-1 X c

s X D 3 in CU 0 0 0 0 in 0 CJ H

09 X X <D 0 XI H U X c 4-1 •H c

c 2 E e in 4-1 0 3 -C c •M 03 1) 3 in > H 03 4-1 03 0 e E D (-1 c 03 •H 0 DO 4-1 03 H 0

-0 4-1 ,C CU 1—i 60 c CJ 3 I-H s c 0 4h c +J 03 0 0 •H 03 DO 0 0 0 r—

I

3 -o C X CJ > •H 4-1 -d 3 fH C3- c 4-1 •H 4-1 0

•H Ul +J 4-1 0 lU 0 H •H 03 in 4-J 03 0

!^ DO 0) C 03 c 3 0 4-> XI U 03 i-i X2 S tn •M (U 0 0 0 J= in c« 03 c; CJ CJ OD 0 E in •H 3 •H in •t-i +J in 4-1 01 -H c CJ QO TD fl, r-l i-H +-I •(-' CJ 03 CJ 0 ejo in • H1 4-1 0 x:

•H U 0 c XI T3 -C C t3 4-> c +J •H DO 4-1 CQ CD 0 0) H 4-1 ^4 C •H c • H1 0

CO C a. e !h 00 03 3 4-1 03 c CJ 0 in

r-~i i-H aj > (J r- 0 C DO 0 x: 13 0) i PL, 4-1 CJ O W 0) lA +-I -0 in 03 c 0 00 E cn 4-1 O e u CJ) 0 •H > H 0 •d 03 .« 0 <u I-H 03 4-" 0 CJ 03 4-1 i CJ CJ !h W 0 0 0) c 4-> t-> •H fH T3 0 u in 4-1 CO u tS 0 in <U j: 4-1 C C 1 0 3 cn X tn p 4h CJ C in X CJ in 03 c' E 3

-d lA C a. u •H a 4-> CCS in 4h1 in

Si c CO T3 •H C 4i x: 03 •H 0 CJ CO •H G r—

(

<U in CU CO c 0 DO 0 0 -H

-C CJ in ?^ in 1) 3 4-> TJ 03 4-1 13 (/I H CB !h T3 4-1 4-1 3i CJ c

<1) C H 4-> in 0) CJ •H 0 T3 0 (h C tj DO 03 <-H 03 C JZ x: > 0 C CJ CD E 0 H 00 E 0 M CJ 0 P- C c 4h1 H d, 3 s 4-1 0 c CD C/3 03 fn 0 03 c 0 •H H cS 4-( u w s: E H 0 0 H 0 4-1 CO 3 in 0 > w US- 0 •(-> 4-" X cr

(0 CO M nJ c Cfl ^1 13 0 U C CJ C 3 CJ c H X4-( s x: 4-» OJ 3 CJ x: CJ 4-1 -t-i CJ 0 U I) « in 4-* a 4-1 i-i E K 3 (h 0 0) in in T3 in •H f-l i-i 0 13 0 S 0 -d c (t) ^< •H 1-1 0 4-" 0 u .-H 0 x: g 0 tu eu 0) S D Ci •H T3 XI 4-> •H •H in Crj •H

CO H a. -c •H U U c x: x: <i) 4-1 x:

4-1 e 0 0 4h C H CO 0 03 •H CJ CJ 03 pq 0

a) cS oi c 4h

+J X <u 0 3 0 0

00 0 4-> CJ 2 -3
APPENDIX VI 185

UJ

426-013 0 - 71 - 13
Appendix VII Equipment Lists for Occupational Education Programs

Through the courtesy of Professor Charles F. Ward of the Division of Occupational Education of North Carolina State University, we secured the

equipment lists compiled for over a hundred different occupational curricula

by the Division of Occupational Education of the North Carolina Department of Community Colleges. These curricula were arranged in alphabetical

order and numbered by the North Carolina Division of Occupational Education: The absence of many numbers from the sequence suggests that the list

is quite incomplete.

The North Carolina list overlaps to some extent the list of occupational

curricula offered in the public colleges of the California Community Colleges. The overlap indicates common and nationwide needs — the lack of

complete correspondence is due in part to the inferred incompleteness of the

North Carolina lists and to local needs and interests — e.g., there would not

likely be a course in oenology in North Carolina, nor a course in textiles technology in California.

Each list obtained from North Carolina is a detailed and priced inventory

of the equipment needed to open a curriculum for a specified number of stu- dents, ranging from 12 students to 30. The lists were examined by the project director. He identified the items that would have to be replaced, supplemented, or modified in order to teach a suitably metric curriculum; these

costs were totaled for each curriculum.

The estimated costs of replacing small and large items (Rlsmall and

Rllarge in the table) at a break-point of $50 and of small and large modifications {Mlsmall and Mllarge in the table) at a break-point of $100 were summed, and the results are tabulated on the following pages.' The lists which showed significant costs were sorted into groups of related subjects

and each group was examined by an occupational education specialist in that area to see if the list seemed to be reasonable for the curriculum, and to check on the earlier estimate of the cost of metric conversion.

Our observations at project FEAST showed that very little would need to be changed in the kitchens and bakeries of this sector of occupational education. Thermometers would have to be replaced, but they are an inexpensive

component of the ovens they monitor. Scales and volume-measuring containers are much more important in baking than in cooking, yet even there

' The sums are rounded to the nearest hundred dollars. The modifications are typically the replacement of gauges, thermometers and linear scales as small components of larger systems, and the replacement of lead screws and other major components of relatively expensive

machinery. The latter were estimated at 10 percent of the cost of a new machine for small machines and 5 percent for larger machines. These modifications have been outlined in "Measure for Measure: a Guide to Metrication for Workshop Crafts and Technical Studies," see the Bibliography, p. 200. A lathe can be modified for cutting metric screws by providing a different

set of gears connecting the headstock spindle with the changegear box, while various dials can

be obtained to read in both English and metric units simultaneously for use with crossfeed screws and with the feed screws of milling machines and other machine tools. A number of

design possibilities are discussed in "Machine Tools for Metric Production," also described in the Bibliography, p. 20 1

.

186
APPENDIX VII 187

great precision is not required, and inexpensive modifications of existing

scales can be made rather than the expensive modification which would seem to be needed in scales constructed to meet the standards of retail trade. ^ We are indebted to Mrs. Hilda Gifford of Project FEAST, and to the fol- lowing persons who helped us with the evaluation of the North Carolina

lists: Tapan Banerjee, John Majkut, Richard D'Onofrio, and Edward VanDusen.

- Estimated at $150 per scale for manual computing scales in food retailing, and $1000 per

scale for prepackaging printing scales. Conference report. Conference on Consumer-Oriented

Industry, National Metric Study Conferences, Washington, D.C., 2 1-25 September 1970.

Table 1. Equipment inventories for selected occupational cur- ricula—original costs and estimated costs for metric conversion

Number

of

students/or

stations Total

cost

of

equipment

Conversion cost breakdown

Total

cost

of

conversion

R/large

R/small M/large

M/small

Agriculture

:

Animal science lab .... 24 4,400 0 40 rarnermg lab 12 4,000 0 20

Forest management

lab. 24 35,000 2,500 2,400 80

Horticultural science

laD. 24 56,000 300 60 224

Poultry science lab .... 24 5,300 0

Wildliie science 20 22,000 200 120 50

rlealtu: 16 4,500 0

r^pnt^l hvoipnp plinir* 16 122,000 0 Dental lab 72 179,000 1,800 1,785 Dental operatory 16 42,500 0 Dental materials lab . . . 16 41,000 500 500

Dental X-ray

operatory. 16 22,000 0

Inhalation therapy .... 15 71,000

Medical office examining room. 20 23,500 100 110 Medical records lab .... 20 15,500 0 Operating room

assistant. 12 3,500 0

Physical therapy

assistant. 20 31.500 100 90

Sterilization area 16 5,700 0

Office and Business: 30 6,200 0

Interviewing and

testing. 20 4,000 0

Office machines lab .... 30 23,000 0

Secretarial lab 30 22,000 0

Stenographer lab 20 5,700 0 Typing lab 30 7,300 0
188 EDUCATION

Table 1. Equipment inventories for selected occupational cur- ricula—original costs and estimated costs for metric conver- sion—Continued

Conversion cost breakdown

«j a

CO o

imber dents, tions O 2; ^ E

« .£• 8 ^

—, K

rt >

large

small 'large

small

-J 3 TO Z "S? H O 1) H o o

1 <*f hT1 1 fo 1

• nil A If* from** / nrwx/t^r 11 diiic/ puwci

plsnt mcch3.nic. 40 Z / J ,uuu 1,300 87n oZU 1 7<>

1 Zj Aviation rnanagcmcnt/

pilot technician. 1 f\ nnn 750 ZZ J 7nZU soo

2,700 1 ^8n 7wn Zou yi 1 n

1 <

1 J ou,uuu 2,000 <in 1 ^f\f\ 81 nnn 3,900 ^nn 1 c

1

J

Z»4UU C7n 8 /U

1 7 1 / ,uuu 0

Plant layout m t> / i 0 Production planning . . . jVifi mn 0

Quality control O, lUU 0 Surveying-advanced .... 1 o 400 1 fin ioV 1 n

Surveying-related 1 o

1 1 <nn 1,100 oon fi ^ Trade and industry; Air conditioning and

refrigeration. 1 "7 nnn 1 / ,UUU 1,000 77S / Z J 7fin ZoU

1 7 nnn 400 J 1 J 7SZJ Automotive mechanics . . 16 Tn nnn 4,400 1,035 600 2,655 135 Carpentry and

CaUlllCL IIlaK.111^. 20 1,250 455 J?7S/ J 7^0 1 4S

Diesel 1 u 79,500 1,700 77

1

ZZ 1 / O J ?njU

1 J 1 '>n snn 200 fin 7^

i-'icciricdi inaidiiaiion . . . in nnn "400 1 on 1 1 n fin

1 c

1 J 4,500 0

1 z ij zu 1 nnn 100 on

a2>lld gl/,CU ClCCll ic line . . 13 if, nnn '500

^fi zu An snn 1,000 7 < A /50 zUO

ZU nnn 400

ZU 1 d ^nn "1,100 7nZU 1 no Heavy equipment/

earth moving

machinist. 15 102,000 "3,200 1,435 270 450 50 Heavy equipment/

earth moving

operator. 15 ftfiO OAO 0 Hydraulic flow .... 16 16,000 1,100 900 200

Hydraulics and

pneumatics 12 6,800 800 650 120

Industrial maintenance . . 20 93,500 "4,300 999 50 3,190 100 Instrument mechanic . . . 15 22,000 1,500 15 760 715

Light construction 16 13,000 700 110 290 230 50 Machine shop 15 250,000 18,300 4,500 600 13,000 200 Machine tool 15 '•64,000 8,300 2,500 800 5,000

Masonry 20 4,000 200 120 40 Model and pattern 12 3,500 0
APPENDIX VII 189

Table 1 . Equipment inventories for selected occupational cur

ricula—original costs and estimated costs for metric conver- sion—Continued

Conversion cost breakdown

1 1

c

«5 O

imber dents, tions S sa tal

CO

tiversi large

small

/large

/small

^ a CO Z s

O t4_, t- O 1) (So 8 Pi p6 Plumbing and pipe

fitting. 20 4,200 b Radio and television . . . 20 18,100 "100 Sewing machine

mechanics. 15 34,000 0

Smjill PTipinp rfnair 15 4,100 500 365 110 25 Telephony 12 0

Textile manufacturing 20 95,500

study. 30 4,900 0 Tool and die shop 15 20,000 1,500 500 18,000

Transportation

15 4,600 430 170 4,000 50

T Jnholstprv niftin p

cii lu w I iig

.

16 0 20

tc hmn V i n o 30 0

^Velding 16 1 78 son 3,300 1,485 65 1,725 65 Vending machines 20 23,000 90 90

Fishery and marine:

Fishery science 20 24,000 900 610 10 150 140 Marine technology 18 189,000 4,400 2,400 340 1,640 200 Marine mechanics 16 32,000 2,000 1,400 100 400 100 Applied art and graphic art! Art design lab 20 9,000 0 8 32 C^ommercial art and

ad design. 20 37,000 100 123 Drafting and design 20 37,000 300 300 33 Furniture design lab .... 20 21,000 0 50 Graphic arts-general 20 33,000 ' 300 Graphic arts lab 15 326 500 ' 1,000 150 750 80

Interior design lab 20 12,000 0 40 Photo studio 30,000 t Public and personal

services

:

20 0 Journalism 15 2,700 0

Library technical

assistant lab. 20 5,000 0 Radio and television broadcasting. 232,000 0

Recreational therapy . . . 20 4,800 0

Recreationl grounds

management lab. 24 6,900 0

Basic sciences: Chemistry-analytical . . . 12 22,000 0

Chemistry-industrial . . . 12 6,000 0

426-013 0 - 71 - 14
190 EDUCATION

Table 1. Equipment inventories for selected occupational cur- ricula—original costs and estimated costs for metric conver- sion—Continued

Conversion cost breakdown

imber

of

dents

/or

tions tal

cost

aipment

tal

cost

nversion

large

small ^

large 'small

3 3 ta Z to Hod 0.4-, o H o o ct! Pi

Chemistry lab-general . . 12 26,000 0 Chemistry-organic 12 10,500 200 200

Chemistry-physical .... 12 1,500 0 Environment chemistry

and biology. 16 64,200 0

Life science lab 24 8,500 0 Marine biology 20 75,000 0 24 24,000 0

Physics-vocational 24 12,500 100

" Depends on industry. Depends on pipe thread changes.

' Estimate. "Modification of government excess machine tools, estimated at $1000, may exceed inventory value.

« Small tools.

' Depends on changes in the printing industry.

e This inventory listed many used or surplus machine tools.
Appendix VIII

Some Prospects for TechnicaS Occupational Education

and Engineering Education

It is easier to say what occupational education is not than to try to write a

definition which would be acceptable to most of the people working as occupational educators. On the one hand, occupational education is more than

merely learning job skills; but on the other hand it does not include the train- ing of scientists, engineers, medical professionals and academic teachers,

although they are most certainly being educated for their future occupations.

The accompanying diagram of a "career ladder" in certain technical areas can be roughly divided into thirds, with rather fuzzy boundaries between

them. On such a diagram, occupational education concerns itself with the

middle third. The boundary "engineer— technologist — technician" is in a

state of flux, and some people expect changes to occur in this region during

the next two decades which will be of such a magnitude as to dwarf the

technical problems of engineering education which may arise from metric

conversion. During this period, the faculties of colleges of engineering will adapt to the distinction between engineering and engineering technology. It

is frequently remarked that many young men are trained as engineers and

then find employment as engineering technologists in effect; that is, they

work as highly qualified assistants to the engineers who are the source of

originality in solving engineering problems, and who have the management

skills and judgment needed to carry complex projects to successful completion. In this role they become specialized in ever narrower fields and lose the

flexibility and breadth of view which is essential to being an engineer.

The implementation of this distinction is beginning to occur in the struc- ture of engineering education. Curricula leading to the associate degree in engineering technology are well established in junior colleges, community

colleges, and technical institutes both public and proprietary; and bachelordegree programs in engineering technology are being started in independent

colleges and proprietary schools. Plainly, changes will also occur in the

established schools of engineering. (Similar changes may be expected to occur in the structure of career ladders in the medical occupations and in the

occupations based in behavioral science which are expected to become important occupations in the near future.) In recognition of this imminent reorganization of the engineering profession, and as a measure of its magnitude, the Engineers Council for Professional Development have predicted that the ratio of engineers to technicians-and-technologists may be expected to change from the present

ratio of about three to two to a ratio of about one engineer to each 8 to 1

2

technicians and technologists.

191
192 EDUCATION

Professionah Technical, Craft, and Industrial Occupations

Education-Training

University

4, 5. 6. or more years. BS. MS. Ph D

University

4, 5. or 6 years. BS, MS. Ph.D.

State College—Junior College

2, 3. or 4 years Emphasis on

broad and basic theory Science, Math, Engineering Subjects, Communication, Economics

Not Pre-Engineering

Associate Degree

Area-Vocational

Technical Institute

2 years of Extension

Courses, Lab-Shopwoik

Specific Skills, Tech and

Applied Knowledge

Tools—Instruments—Controls Drafting—Calculations Diploma—Certificate

Area -Vocational Technical Institute

2 years or less Practical Pre-Employment

Applied Science—Math

Shopwork—Drafting

Processes—Equipment

Tools—Instruments

Certificate—Diploma

Apprenticeship, 3 to 6 Years

Vocational Programs Pre-Employment

Work-Study, Retraining

Titles

Prepared by Juhn A Butler Ounwoody Indu.'strul Institute Minneapolis. Minnesota

Divisions

Physicist Chemist

Mathematician

Metallurgist

Architectural Chemical, Civil Mechanical

Electrical Electronics

Specialization is Field Oriented Chemical, Civil. Mechanical, Electrical Electronics, Industrial Metallurgical

Specialization Areas: Manufacturing

CDnstruction

Installation Instrumentation Customer Service

Manufacturing

Construction

Installation Maintenance

Service Graphic Arts Building Trades

Manufacturing

Transportation

Manufacturing

Construction Transportation

Custodial

Employment

Research

Invention Design Development

Teaching

Basic Research Applied Research

Process Development

Quality Control

Service-Sales Administration

Cost Control

Planning-Drafting Computations-Estimating

Tests-Evaluations

Modifications Time Study-Safety

Technical Writing

Industrial Chemistry

Drafting Estimating Surveying

Testing Diagnosis

Tool & Die Makers

Model Makers

Set Up Man

Lay Out Man

Millwrights Mechanics Repairmen

Draftsmen

Carpenters

Electricians Plumbers

Sheet Metal Workers

Welders

Printers

Operators

Fabricators Assemblers

Inspectors Truck Drivers Helpers

il.mdling

?4oviiig I^nading Digging Cleaning
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

The contributions of the persons named

Mary Allen

American Vocational Association

Washington, D.C.

John Anagnost

Devry Institute of Technology

Chicago, Illinois Leland P. Baldwin

California Community Colleges

Sacramento, California

Larry Barclay

College Entrance Examination Board

New York, New York

Charles Batterman

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts

A. Harvey Belitsky

Upjohn Institute for Employment Research

Washington, D.C.

Harold Berryhill

Marion, Iowa

Edith Biggs

Department of Education & Science

London, England

Gordon Bowen

Metrication Board

London, England

Hugh P. Bradley

Education Development Center

Newton, Massachusetts

Christine Branch

Board of Education

Cleveland, Ohio

William Brooks

Harvard University

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Grace Brubaker

National Education Association

Washington, D.C.

below are gratefully acknowledged:

Katherine Bruce

City College of San Francisco

San Francisco, California

William K. Burton

Ford Motor Company

Dearborn, Michigan

John A. Butler

Dunwoody Industrial Institute

Minneapolis, Minnesota

S. Carlow

City and Guilds of London Institute

London, England

John Church

State Department of Education

Sacramento, California

G. A. Coleman

Slough College of Technology

Slough, England

Judson B. Cross

Education Development Center

Newton, Massachusetts

Don Dafoe

Council of Chief State School Officers

Washington, D.C.

George P. Daugherty

. Bell & Howell Schools

Chicago, Illinois Oluf Davidsen

American College Testing Program, Inc Iowa City, Iowa

Martin Deutsch

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Ralph E. Davey

Wentworth Institute

Boston, Massachusetts

Harold Duis

Office of Education

Washington, D.'C.
194 EDUCATION

Ken Edwards

International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers

Washington, D.C.

Elwyn Li. Evans

Department of Education & Science

London. England

George F. Fardy, Jr. Education Development Center

Newton, Massachusetts

Charles Feistkorn

ITT-Mass. Trades Shops Schools

Boston, Massachusetts

Leonard Feldt

University of Iowa

Iowa City, Iowa

W. Eugene Ferguson

Newton High School

Newton, Massachusetts

Jack Fishleder

Lawrence Hall of Science

University of California

Berkeley, California

Jean M. Flanigan

National Education Association

Washington, D.C.

Charles I. Foltz

Education Development Center

Newton, Massachusetts

B. B. Frank

State Department of Education

Sacramento, California

Jean G. French

University of California

Berkeley, California

Richard A. Friede

Holt, Rinehart & Winston

New York, New York

Denis Frost Ladbroke Mathematics Centre

West Kensington, London

James Gates

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics

Washington, D.C.

E. Glenadine Gibb

University of Texas '

Austin, Texas

Hilda Watson Gifford

City College of San Francisco

San Francisco, California

John Gilliland

Newton Public Schools

Newton, Massachusetts

Andrew Gleason

Harvard University

Cambridge, Massachusetts

William Goddard

National Association of Trade and Technical

Schools

Washington, D.C.

Benjamin H. Golini

Needham High School

Needham, Massachusetts

William G. Gordon

California Community Colleges

Sacramento, California

Mauri Gould- ^

Lawrence Hall of Science '

' University of California'

Berkeley, California

John Grede

City Colleges of Chicago

Chicago, Illinois Roy Grove

Dunwoody Industrial Institute Minneapolis, Minnesota

Newman A. Hall

National Academy of Engineering

Washington, D.C.

C. Halton

Slough Institute of Technology

Slough, England

Thomas Hammond

Devry Institute of Technology

Chicago, Illinois Thomas Hanna

Automobile Manufacturers Association

Detroit, Michigan
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 195

Ray Hannapel

National Science Foundation

Washington, D.C.

Frank Hawthorne

New York State Department of Education

Albany, New York

Leigh Hewitt

Dunwoody Industrial Institute

Minneapolis, Minnesota

Paul Hovsepian

Board of Education

Detroit, Michigan

Malcolm M. Hubbard

Newton, Massachusetts

Warren Huston

Newton Public Schools

Newton, Massachusetts

Bernard J affe Brooklyn, New York

John Joanou

Education Development Center

Newton, Massachusetts

Eleanor Johnson

Newton Public Schools

Newton, Massachusetts

Harry Jordan

Department of Education and Science

London, England

Jack Kammeraad

Michigan Department of Education

Lansing, Michigan

Bruce Kingsbury

D.C. Heath Division of Raytheon

Lexington, Massachusetts

Phyllis Klein

Education Development Center

Newton, Massachusetts

Woodrow Knutson

Dunwoody Industrial Institute

Minneapolis, Minnesota

Andrew Korim

American Association of Junior Colleges

Washington, D.C.

Barry Lane

Xerox Learning Systems

New York, New York

Donald E. Lawson

F. E. Compton Co.

Chicago, Illinois Arthur H. Livermore

American Association for the Advancement of

Science

Washington. D.C.

Thomas B. McAuliffe

Boston Public Schools

Boston, Massachusetts

Milton MacDowell

Capuchino High School

San Bruno, California

John Majkut

Blue Hills Regional Technical Institute

Canton. Massachusetts

David Malone

Blue Hills Regional Technical Institute

Canton, Massachusetts

L. Frank Mann

State Department of Education

Sacramento, California

Winton Manning

Educational Testing Service

Princeton, New Jersey

Sebastian Martorama - State University of New York

Albany, New York

M. L. McGlashan

University of Exeter

Exeter, England

Paul Millane

Association of American Publishers, Inc. New York, New York

Robert Minarik

Dunwoody Industrial Institute

Minneapolis, Minnesota

Philip Morrison

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts
196 EDUCATION

Michael Moss

Metrication Board

London, England

Fred Mulcahy

Milwaukee Area Technical College

Milwaukee. Wisconsin

Sheldon S. Myers

Educational Testing Service. Inc. Princeton. New Jersey

Priscilla Moulton

Brookline Public School System

Brookline. Massachusetts

Andre Nadash

Riverdale. Maryland

Richard G. Netzel

American Association for the Advancement

of Science

Washington. D.C.

Anthony Newman

National Education Association

Washington. D.C.

Louis Panush

Western High School

Detroit. Michigan

George Parkinson

Milwaukee Area Technical College

Milwaukee. Wisconsin

Herbert A. Perry

Sacramento State College

Sacramento. California

Peter Phelan

Publishers Association

London. England

Warren Phillips

Dunwoody Industrial Institute

Minneapolis. Minnesota

Kenneth Pinnock

Publishers Association

London. England

Denise Plamenac

City College of San Francisco

San Francisco, California

Alan M. Portis

Lawrence Hall of Science

University of California

Berkeley, California

F. Lincoln Ralphs

County Education Department

Norfolk, England

Isaias Raw

Education Development Center

Newton, Massachusetts

Christopher Rivington

Publishers Association

London. England

ByrI K. Shoemaker

Ohio Division of Vocational Education

Columbus. Ohio

Russell Sandberg

Devry Institute of Technology

Chicago. Illinois

Herbert Siegel

Bureau of Industrial Arts

New York City Board of Education

New York, New York

James Short

Newton Public Schools

Newton. Massachusetts

Robert Sibson

Schools Council

London. England

Tom Slater

Texas Education Agency

Austin. Texas

Malcolm K. Smith

Lowell Technological Institute

Lowell. Massachusetts

George Springer

Indiana University

Bloomington. Indiana

James R. Squire

Ginn & Company

Boston. Massachusetts
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

C. S. Story

Texas Education Agency

Austin, Texas

James S. Strickland

Education Development Center

Newton, Massachusetts

J. Allen Suver

Bellevue Community College

Bellevue, Washington

Carl Swanson

Wentworth Institute

Boston, Massachusetts

John Teeple

National Planning Association

Washington, D.C.

Hugh Templeton

New York State Department of Education

Albany, New York

Robert Thompkins

Holt, Rinehart & Winston

New York, New York

Roy P. Trowbridge

General Motors Corp.

Warren, Michigan

J. G. Truxal

Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute

Brooklyn, New York

Thomas Turcin

Milwaukee Area Technical College

Milwaukee, Wisconsin

Mildred Wagner

Needham School Department

Needham, Massachusetts

Richard Waldroup

Gilford Technical Institute

Jamestown, North Carolina

Louis Wall

Western Illinois University

Macomb. Illinois

John P. Walsh

Dunwoody Industrial Institute

Minneapolis, Minnesota

William U. Walton

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Cambridge, Massachusetts

Charles F. Ward

North Carolina State University

Raleigh, North Carolina

David Whiting

Newton High School

Newton, Massachusetts

Charles Whitmer

National Science Foundation

Washington, D.C.

Alfred B. Willcox

Mathematical Association of America

Washington, D.C.

Michael Windle

William Torbit Junior School

Ilford, London

Ronald J. Young

Wentworth Institute

Boston, Massachusetts
GLOSSARY

1. Customary System: the system of measurement units (yard, pound,

second, degree Fahrenheit, and units derived from these) most commonly

used in the United States. Often referred to as the "English system" or the

"U.S. system." Our customary system is derived from, but not identical

to, the "Imperial system"; the latter has been used in the United Kingdom

and other English-speaking countries, but is being abandoned in favor of the

metric system.

2. Metric System: the measurement system that commonly uses the meter

for length, the kilogram for mass, the second for time, the degree Celsius

(same as "Centigrade") for temperature, and units derived from these, ^his

system has evolved over the years and the modernized version today is identified as the "International System of Units," which is abbreviated "SI."

3. International System of Units (SI): popularly known as the

modernized metric system, it is the coherent system of units based upon and

including the meter (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), kelvin (temperature), ampere (electric current), and candela (luminous intensity), as established by the General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960,

under the Treaty of the Meter. A seventh base unit, the mole (for amount of

substance) is being considered as another SI base unit. The radian (plane angle) and the steradian (solid angle) are supplemental units of the system.

4. Metrication: any act tending to increase the use of the metric system

(SI), whether it be increased use of metric units or of engineering standards

that are based on such units.

5. Planned Metrication: metrication following a coordinated national plan

to bring about the increased use of the metric system in appropriate areas of

the economy and at appropriate times. The inherent aim of such a plan

would be to change a nation's measurement system and practices from

primarily customary to primarily metric.

6. Cost of Metrication: that increment of cost, monetary or otherwise,

directly attributable to metrication over and above any costs that would have

been incurred without metrication.

7. Benefits of Metrication: monetary and other advantages accruing as a

result of increased use of the metric system.

8. Measurement Standard: a device or physical phenomenon that is used

to define or determine a characteristic of a thing in terms of a unit of measurement established by authority. Examples are gage blocks, weights, ther- mometers, and mean solar day.

9. Engineering Standard: a practice established by authority or mutual

agreement and described in a document to assure dimensional compatibility,

quality of product, uniformity of evaluation procedure, or uniformity of en- gineering language. Examples are documents prescribing screw thread

dimensions, chemical composition and mechanical properties of steel, dress

sizes, safety standards for motor vehicles, methods of testing for sulphur in

oil, and codes for highway signs. Engineering standards are often designated

in terms of the level of coordination by which they were established (e.g.,

company standards, industry standards, national standards).

198
GLOSSARY 199

In addition to the main glossary, we find the following terms need to be

defined for this report:

Place value is the concept that a numeral represents a certain value depending upon its place in a number. For example, the numeral "2" in 7521 means "20" in the sum 7000 + 500 + 20 + 1, while in 7251 it is in a dif- ferent place and has a different value.

Binary fractions are fractions with power-of-2 denominators: halves,

quarters, eighths, sixteenths, etc.

Full Titles of References Identified by Short Names in the Body of the Report.

"Digest" —D'xgQsl of Educational Statistics 1969, National Center for Educational Statistics, U.S. Office of Education Publication OE- 10024-69.

"International Standards" — The First U.S. Metric Study Report, National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 345-1, Washington, D.C.

(December 1970).

"Systems" — Systems of Units, A symposium organized by the American

Association for the Advancement of Science, 29-30 December 1958, Carl

F. Kayan, ed., publication number 57 of the AAAS, Washington, D.C.

(1959).
BIBLIOGRAPHIES

A brief bibliography

Prepare Nowfor a Metric Future, by Frank Donovan, Weybright and Talley, 1970. A well-informed journalistic treatment of the problem.

"Conversion to the Metric System," Lord Ritchie-Calder, Scientific

American, July 1970, page 17. An introduction to metric measurement and

to the problems faced by Britain in adopting a policy of conversion and in implementing it. "Going Metric -the First Five Years- 1965-69". The first report of the

Metrication Board, 1970, 77 pp. London. Her Majesty's Stafionery Office.

(Copies may be secured from the U.S. National Bureau of Standards.)

The second report of the Metrication Board to be published in the spring

1971.

A white paper will be published by the British Government in the spring

1971: it will present the Government's position for a parliamentary debate.

Metric Change in India, edited by Lai C. Verman and Jainath Kaul. In- dian Standards Institution, New Delhi. Essays by a number of the civil servants who were engaged in the Indian program of introducing a decimal

coinage and the metric system — a program now all but complete.

The Metric System: a Critical Study of its Principles and Practices, by

Maurice Danloux-Dumesnils, translated by Anne Garrett and J. S. Rowlinson, University of London, The Athlone Press (distributed in the U.S. by

Oxford University Press), 1969. A logical and historical critique of the pres- ent state of the units. It is persona! and written in a fresh style, and every

teacher and student of science would enjoy it.

Bibliography of British pamphlets on metrication

"Metrication in Schools; Report of Conference on 20 March 1968," London, The Royal Society, June 1968, 43 pp. Position papers presented at the

time when education first came to grips with metrication.

"Metrication in Schools II; Report of Conference on 19 September

1968," London, The Royal Society, January 1959, 59 pp. Key papers and

discussion of them.

"Metric Units in Primary Schools," The Royal Society, September 1969,

29 pp. Background material and educational implications.

"Metrication in Secondary Education," The Royal Society, 1969, 12 pp. Background material and educational implications.

"Change for a Pound," Schools Council, London, Her Majesty's Sta- tionery Office, September 1968, (revised edition, January 1970), vii + 51

pp. This pamphlet deals with metric weights and measures as well as the

decimal coinage. It describes teaching experiences and tactics and strate- gies; and sets forth the implications for mathematics and other subjects

together with recommendations. [The Schools Council is a curriculum

development and coordination arm of the national education establishment.]

"Measure for Measure: a Guide to Metrication for Workshop Crafts

and Technical Studies," Schools Council, London, Evans Brothers

200
BIBLIOGRAPHIES 201

Limited/Methuen Educational Limited, February 1970, 62 pp. This

pamphlet is a complement to the one above, and outlines in some detail schedules for changes in metal- and wood-working shops and in technical

drawing. It describes the experience of one school and discusses in a general

way the problems of developing metrication in a coordinated way, especially

regarding the supply and demand of vocationally trained workers.

"Introduction of SI Units in Schools," published by the Mathematical Association, (no date). 25 pp. "SI Units, a Guide for Teachers," The City of Bradford (Yorkshire) Corporation, 1970, 24 pp. A mixture of authoritative facts and informal notes and suggestions for teaching tactics, with several pages of familiarization exercises for adults (teachers) which can be performed in an hour or two. "Metrication II; The Teacher and the Transition Period," Kent County

Council/Kent Education Committee, Maidstone, September 1970, 24 pp. This pamphlet is similar to the one directly above, but different in tone. The

concepts of mass, weight, and force are discussed in some detail. Separate

booklets on the various academic subjects are promised.

"Machine Tools for Metric Production," Machine Tool Industry Research

Association, (no address). November 1968, 24 pp. This booklet outlines the

factors to be considered by machine tool users; it has drawings of dual-dial

feed-screw indicators and a list of manufacturers of conversion equipment.

"Metrication, Decimalization, and SI Units," Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions, September 1969, 16 pp. Mainly a compilation of

definitions, standards of usage, and conversion factors.

FORM NBS-114A (I-7I) U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBS-SP-3tl5-52, Gov't Accession No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE U.S. Metric Study Interim Report:

Education

5. Publication Date July 19 71

6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S) Dr. Berol D. Robinson

8. Performing Organization

V. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Proiect/Task/Work Unit No. 4063129

11. Contract/Grant No.

12, Sponsoring Organization Name and Address 13. Type of Report & Period Covered Interim

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

IS. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) This publication concerns the effects of increasing worldwide use of the metric

system on education in the United States. The study was carried out and the report

prepared for the U.S. Metric Study by the Education Development Center in Newton,

Massachusetts. The aims of this education study were fourfold: (1) to assess the

educational advantages and disadvantages of both the metric and the customary systems

of units, (2) to determine the current usage of metric measures in U.S. schools and

trends in that usage, (3) to find the ways in which education would have to change as the U.S. accomodates to increased worldwide use of the metric system, under a laissez

faire or a planned approach, and estimate the costs of the changes, and (4) to make

recommendations of ways in which to take best advantage of said changes . The report

also discusses and suggests ways of achieving curriculum changes needed in view of

increasing metric usage. The publication includes the program of the Education

Conference, held in October, 1970, as one of a series of National Metric Study

Conferences; and the texts of the key papers presented at that conference by the

National Education Association and the National Science Teachers Association.

17. KEY WORDS (Alphabetical order, separated by semicolons) education ; International System of Units

)

metric conversion i metric system; metric usage; metrication; metrication, attitudes

toward ; metrication , costs and benefits of j metrication , impact of ; SI ; U.S. Metric

18. AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

21. NO. OF PAGES

PO^ UNLIMITED. UNCL ASSIFIED 216

1 1 FOR OFFICIAL DISTRIBUTION. DO NOT RELEASE

TO NTIS.

20. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS PAGE)

UNCLASSIFIED

22. Price

$1.75

USCOMM-DC 66244-P71

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1971 O - 426-013