NATL INST. OF STAND & TECH

AlllQb 3bfi3m

N!ST

PUBLICATIONS

NIST Technical Note 1439

International Study of the Sublethal Effects of Fire

Smoke on Survivability and Health (SEFS):

Phase E Final Report

Richard G. Gann, Jason D. Averill, Kathryn M. Butler, Walter W. Jones,

George W. Mulholland, Julie L. Neviaser, Thomas J. Ohierniller,

Richard D. Peacock, Paul A. Reneke, John R. Hall, Jr.

Nisr

National Institute oi 5f9ndards ond Technofogy

Techrology Adm ("iis^rcticn. U.5. Depcrtmenl ot Conr-nerce

QC

100

.U5753

#1439

2001 C.5.

NIST Technical Note 1439

International Study of the Sublethal Effects of Fire

Smoke on Survivability and Health (SEFS):

Phase I Final Report

Richard G. Gann, Jason D. Averill, Kathryn M. Butler, Walter W. Jones, George W.

Mulholland, Julie L. Neviaser, Thomas J. Ohiemiller, Richard D. Peacock, and Paul A.

Reneke

Fire Research Division

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8664

John R. Hall, Jr. Fire Analysis & Research Division

NFPA

Quincy, MA 02269-9101

August 2001

/ %^ %

\

U.S. Department of Commerce

Donald L. Evans, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Dr. Karen H. Brown, Acting Director
National Institute of Standards U.S. Governnnent Printing Office For Sale by the

and Technology Washington: 2001 Superintendent of Documents

Technical Note 1439 U.S. Government Printing Office

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Washington, DC 20402-9325

Tech. Note 1439

152 pages (August 2001)

CODEN: NTNOEF
ABSTRACT

Fire smoke toxicity has been a recurring theme for fire safety professionals for over four

decades. There especially continue to be difficulty and controversy in assessing and addressing

the contribution of the sublethal effects of smoke in hazard and risk analyses. The Fire

Protection Research Foundation (FPRF), the National Institute of Standards and Technology

(NIST), and NFPA have begun a private/public fire research initiative, the "hitemational Study

of the Sublethal Effects of Fire Smoke on Survival and Heahh" (SEFS) to provide scientific

information on these effects for public policy makers. This report on the first phase of the

project estimates the magnitude and impact of sublethal exposures to fire smoke on the U.S.

population, provides the best available lethal and incapacitating toxic potency values for the

smoke from commercial products, determines the potential for various sizes of fires to produce

smoke yields that could result in sublethal health effects, and provides state-of-the-art

information on the production of the condensed components of smoke from fires and their

evolutionary changes during transport from the fire.

Keywords: fire, fire research, smoke, toxicity, toxic hazards
This page intentionally left blank.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i

I. INTRODUCTION: THE HAZARD OF FIRE SMOKE 1 A. Smoke Lethality 1 B. Sublethal Effects of Smoke 2

C. ISO Document 13571 3

D. Need for Resolution 3

II. THE SEES PROJECT 4

III. PHASE ONE ACCOMPLISHMENTS 8

A. Definition of Fire Scenarios 8

B. Importance of Sublethal Exposures 11

1. Statistical Methodology 11

2. Estimating the Population Annually Exposed to Smoke

from Unwanted Fires 13

3. Estimating the Importance of Incapacitation as an Early Event

Leading to Death and Value of Extra Time 38

4. Summary 48

5. Future Work 48

C. Characteristics of Fire Scenarios in Which Sublethal Effects of

Smoke are Important 48

1. Categorization of Fire Scenarios 49

2. Published Test Data 50

3. Computer Modeling Design 54

a. Ranch house 55

b. Hotel 56

c. Office 57

d. Design Fires 58

e. Tenability Criteria 59

4. Computer Modeling Results 61

a. Baseline Results 61

b. Effect of Fire Size Variation 62

c. Effect of Variation in the Fire Room Doorway (Vent) Opening 64

d. Sublethal Effects from Irritant Gases 67

5. Summary: Fire Scenarios for Which Sublethal Effects

Could Lead to Significant Harm 68

6. Future Work 69

D. Toxic Potency Values for Products and Materials 70

1. Compilation of Toxicological Data 70

2. Data Organization 70

a. Combustion/Pyrolysis Conditions 72
b. Materials and Products Examined 75

c. Test Animals 75

d. Toxicological Endpoint 76

3. Evaluation of Toxicological Data 77

a. Estimation of Confidence Intervals 77

b. Generic Toxic Potency Values 78

c. Comparison among Combustion Conditions 80

b. Comparison between Toxicological Effects 81

c. Comparison among Materials and Products 82

4. Extrapolation to People 82

a. Treatment of Toxic Potency of Materials and Products 83

b. CO Toxicity 84

c. HCI Toxicity 84

d. Summary 85

5. Future Work 86

E. Generation and Transport of Smoke Components of Smoke Components 87

1

Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Smoke Aerosol 87

a. Morphology 87

b. Yield ....88

c. Aerodynamic diameters and particle shape 92

2. Changes in Smoke Aerosol due to Particle Transport and Decay 99

a. Wall Loss 100

b. Smoke Coagulation/Agglomeration 103

3. Adsorption and Desorption of Toxic Gases on Smoke Particles 104

a. History and Recent Developments in the Field of Surface Adsorption.. 105

b. Soot Surface Effects 106

c. Adsorbate Gas Effects 108

d. Soot Hydration 109

e. Transport of Specific Toxic Gases 109

f. Toxicity of Ultrafine Particles 114

4. Summary 115

5. Future Work 115

IV. CONCLUSION 116

V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 117

VI. REFERENCES ....118

APPENDIX: TOXICOLOGICAL DATA A-1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

I. INTRODUCTION

Fire smoke toxicity has been a recurring theme for fire safety professionals for over four

decades. This is because all combustible construction and furnishing products can produce

harmful smoke, most U.S. fire victims succumb to smoke inhalation, and the problem of how to address smoke toxicity in standards and codes has not yet been "solved."

The danger from smoke is a fiinction of the toxic potency of the smoke and the exposure a person

experiences to the (changing) smoke concentration and thermal stress over the time they are in

the vicinity of the fire. Some of the effects of smoke increase with continued exposure, others occur almost instantaneously.

Lethality is the most immediate effect smoke can have on occupants or on fire service personnel

responding to the fire, and the U.S. has a standard for measuring the lethal toxic potency of

smoke from burning products for use in hazard and risk analyses. Tools like HAZARD I, a widely used PC-based fire hazard assessment methodology, enable predicting the life safety

outcome of a given fire. The Fire Protection Research Foundation has developed a method for

calculating fire lethality risk by combining scenario analysis with hazard analysis.

There have also been anecdotal reports from fire survivors telling how smoke and heat impeded

their progress toward exits, caused lingering health problems, or impaired fellow occupants'

escape so that they did not survive. The sublethal effects that smoke can have on people include:

incapacitation (inability to effect one's own escape); reduced egress speed due to, e.g., sensory

(eye, lung) irritation, heat or radiation injury (beyond that from the flames themselves), reduced

motor capability, and visual obscuration; choice of a longer egress path due to, e.g., decreased

mental acuity and visual obscuration; and chronic health effects on fire fighters.

There continue to be difficulty and controversy in assessing and addressing the contribution of

these sublethal effects of smoke in hazard and risk analyses. As a result, product manufacturers

and specifiers, building and vehicle designers, regulatory officials, and consumers are faced with

persistence of this issue with little momentum toward resolution, inconsistent representation in

the marketplace, and continuing liability concerns. There is little doubt that the sublethal effects of fire smoke continue to affect life safety and that

the professional community does not yet have the knowledge to develop sound tools to include

these effects in hazard and risk analysis. This inability has severe consequences for all parties.

Underestimating smoke effects could result in not providing the intended degree of safety.

Erring on the conservative side could inappropriately bias the distribution and regulation of

construction and furnishing materials, constrain and distort building design options, and drive up

construction costs. Meanwhile, competition in the marketplace is already being affected by

poorly substantiated or misleading claims regarding smoke toxicity.

II. THE SEFS PROJECT

hi May 2000, the Fire Protection Research Foundation (FPRF), the National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST), and NFPA began a major private/public fire research

initiative to provide scientific guidance for public policy makers. Entitled the "hitemational

111
Study of the Sublethal Effects of Fire Smoke on Survival and Health" (SEFS), the project

objectives are to:

1

.

identify fire scenarios where sublethal exposures to smoke lead to significant harm;

2. compile the best available toxicological data on heat and smoke, and their effects on

escape and survival of people of differing age and physical condition, identifying where

existing data are insufficient for use in fire hazard analysis;

3. develop a validated method to generate product smoke data for fire hazard and risk

analysis; and

4. generate practical guidance for using these data correctly in fire safety decisions.

The project is composed of a number of research tasks under the headings of: Toxicological

Data, Smoke Transport Data, Behavioral Data, Fire Data, Risk Calculations, Product

Characterization, Societal Analysis, and Dissemination. The initial focus would be on

incapacitation (inability to effect one's own escape), since it is the most serious sublethal effect

and since there is more quantitative information on this effect than the other sublethal effects.

The first phase of the research included 5 tasks:

provide decision-makers with the best available lethal and incapacitating toxic potency

values for the smoke from commercial products for use in quantifying the effects of

smoke on people's survival in fires.

provide state-of-the-art information on the production of the condensed phase

components of smoke from fires and their evolutionary changes that could affect their

transport and their toxicological effect on people.

assess the potential for using available data sets (a) to bound the magnitude of the U.S.

population who are harmed by sublethal exposures to fire smoke and (b) to estimate the

link between exposure dose and resulting health effects.

provide a candidate scenario and intervention strategy structure for future calculations of

the survivability and health risk from sublethal exposures to smoke from building fires.

determine the potential for various types of fires to produce smoke yields from V2 (incapacitating) to 1/100 (very low harm potential) of those that result in lethal exposures

in selected scenarios.

III. PHASE ONE ACCOMPLISHMENTS

A. PREVALENCE OF SUBLETHAL EFFECTS IN FIRES

Both current prescriptive fire and building codes and the emerging performance-based fire and

building codes operate on a set of fire scenarios. These are detailed descriptions of the facility*

in which the fire occurs, the combustible products potentially involved in the fire, a specific fire incident, and the people occupying the facility.

The word "facility" is used throughout this document for economy of expression; it comprises all types of

buildings as well as transportation vehicles, whether at ground level or above.

IV
There are a large number of possible fire scenarios, with sublethal (and lethal) effects of fire

smoke important in some fraction of these. It is tempting to identify that subset by focussing on

those scenarios for which the largest fractions of fne deaths and injuries have occurred. This

approach would not, however, capture those scenarios in which people receive sublethal

exposures to smoke that result in adverse health effects or from which their survival was made

more difficult.

The entire 280 million citizens of the United States spend much of their time in residential,

commercial or transportation occupancies, and annually only 1 1 0,000 (residents and fire fighters) suffer a serious or fatal injury in a fire. Thus, it is incumbent to have estimates for the

following two pivotal questions:

1. Ho\v many people might receive sublethalfire smoke exposures ofany consequence?

Knowing the magnitude of the population exposed to fire smoke would be a first step in a

risk assessment where the heightened sensitivity of vulnerable subpopulations would be

balanced by explicit use of the probabilities that those people will be the ones exposed in any

particular fire. If this total number of exposed people were far greater than the number of

reported victims, then conservative (low) fire safety thresholds that imply that any exposure

to toxic fire smoke always results in unacceptable injury are not suitable for prediction.

Based on analyses of demographic and fire incidence data, we estimated that between

310,000 and 670,000 people (excluding firefighters) in the U.S. are exposed to fire smoke

each year. This compares to an average of 3,3 18 home civilian fire deaths and 1 1,505

civilian fire injuries per year involving smoke inhalation in part or in whole. There are thus

21 to 45 civilians exposed to toxic fire smoke per year for every one with a reported fire injury involving smoke inhalation. It is unlikely that these high ratios are due to unreported

injuries from reported fires, since the last national survey of unreported frres indicates these

injuries are mostly bums from small cooking fires. It seems more likely that most of the

exposures are brief or are to the dilute smoke that is present outside the room of fire origin,

where most survivors are located, and do not result in any noticeable consequences, let alone

injury or death.

2. How many ofthe recordedfatalities might have been the direct result ofa sublethal exposure

to fire smoke? It has frequently been stated that fire fatalities often result from incapacitating

injuries that occur earlier and from less severe fire exposures than do fatal injuries and that

incapacitation is nearly always followed by death. Establishing the degree of validity of this

position defines the proper data to be used to characterize the most harmful smoke exposures.

Our analysis indicates that roughly half of the deaths and roughly two-thirds of the injuries

could be prevented were the times to incapacitating exposures lengthened sufficiently to

result in a more favorable outcome. Many of these savable victims were asleep when fatally

injured and could have gained the necessary additional time to escape had they been

awakened, e.g., by an operational smoke alarm, but would not likely have gained any

additional usable time through changes to the fire timeline alone.
B. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRE SCENARIOS IN WHICH SUBLETHAL EFFECTS

ARE IMPORTANT

A second effort led to further guidance in identifying a lesser number of fire scenarios in which

consequential sublethal exposures to fire smoke might occur. A number of simulations were

performed using the CFAST zone fire model. These predicted the relative times at which smoke

inhalation and heat exposure would result in incapacitation. Fires in three building types were

modeled: a ranch house, a hotel, and an office building. Gas species yields and rates of heat

release for these design fires were derived from real-scale fire test data. The incapacitation

equations were taken from draft 14 of ISO document 13571. Sublethal effects of smoke were deemed important when incapacitation from smoke inhalation occurred before harm from

thermal effects occurred. The rare real-scale HCl yield data were incorporated as appropriate;

the modeling indicated that the yield would need to be 5 to 10 times higher if incapacitation from

HCl were to precede incapacitation from narcotic gases.

Post-flashover fires were known to result in both lethal and sublethal smoke exposures and thus were not examined further. In the current series of simulations, the fires ranged from a small

smoldering fire to those having a peak heat release rate of 90 % of the value necessary for room

flashover. The doors to the fire room ranged from open to nearly shut.

The results suggest that occupancies in which sublethal effects from open fires could affect

escape and survival include multi-room residences, medical facilities, schools, and correctional

facilities. In addition, fires originating in concealed spaces in any occupancy pose such a threat.

Sublethal effects of smoke are not likely to be of prime concern for open fires in single- or twocompartment occupancies {e.g., small apartments and transportation vehicles) themselves,

although sublethal effects may be important in adjacent spaces; buildings with high ceilings and

large rooms (e.g., warehouses, mercantile); and occupancies in which fires will be detected

promptly and from which escape or rescue will occur within a few minutes.

C. TOXIC POTENCY VALUES FOR MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS

To calculate the toxicity component of a fire hazard or risk analysis, the practitioner needs to know the amount of smoke that will produce particular undesired effects on people. Scientists

have developed numerous test methods and extensive data for a variety of single materials and

commercial products. Each method involves combusting a small sample in an apparatus that

attempts to simulate some type of fire; exposing laboratory animals, generally rodents, to the

smoke; and characterizing the result. The typical measurement is an LC50 or IC50, the

concentration of smoke (e.g., in g/m ) needed to produce death or incapacitation in half of the

animals in a given exposure time. We examined that wealth of data and sorted them by the

combustion conditions (related to a type of fire) producing the smoke, the specimens tested, and

the animal effect measured. Analysis of published data on the effects of gases, singly or in

combination, on test animals or people is to be performed in a future project.

The results from the various test methods were categorized by:

vi
Combustion/pyrolysis condition.

All the data were classified as resulting from well-ventilated flaming combustion (typical

of pre-flashover fires), ventilation-limited combustion (typical of post-flashover fires or

fires in nominally airtight spaces), or oxidative pyrolysis (typical of products being

heated without bursting into flames themselves).

All the combustors in the 12 small-scale apparatus for which animal exposure data were

available were ofjust three types: cup furnace (well-ventilated flaming or oxidative

pyrolysis), radiant heater (well-ventilated flaming or ventilation-limited flaming), or tube

fiimace (mixed mode or not defmed).

We assessed the combustion conditions represented in the devices using [C02]/[C0]

ratios, analysis of the air access to the sample, and autoignition temperatures of the

samples. None of these approaches led to successful identification of a specific

combustion condition for most of the tube furnaces, and thus most of those data were not

used in this analysis.

Only one of the devices had been validated against room-scale test data. None of the

devices accurately replicated true smoldering combustion.

Materials and Products Examined. Very few references provided a detailed composition of the

test specimens. We grouped the fuels in the usable reports into generic classes as follows:

acrylonitrile butadiene styrenes, bismaleimide, carpet foam (with nylon), carpet jute backing

(with nylon), chlorofluoropolymers, epoxy, vinyl fabric, fluoropolymers, modacrylics, phenolic

resins, polyesters, polyester fabric/polyurethane foams, polyethylenes, polyphenylene oxide,

polyphenylsulfone, polystyrenes, flexible polyurethanes, rigid polyurethanes, plasticized

polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl chloride resin, urea formaldehyde, NFR cross-linked EVA wire

insulation, PTFE coaxial wire insulation, THHN wire insulation with nylon-PVC jacket, wood.

Test Animals. After setting aside much of the tube ftimace data as not clearly replicating any of

the relevant combustion conditions in fires, all the test subjects were rats.

Toxicological Endpoint. The toxicological effects encountered were lethality, represented by an LC50 value, or incapacitation, expressed as an IC50 value. There were no data found on other

sublethal effects from the smoke from burning materials or products.

The data showed a wide range of smoke toxic potency values for the materials and products

tested. For a given combustible, any possible difference in lethal or incapacitating toxic potency

between the smoke from the different combustion modes was masked by the uncertainties in the

reported test results. There are instances where the mix of combustibles is unknown and a generic value of smoke

toxic potency is desired for a hazard analysis. Statistical analysis of the LC50 values for all materials generated a value of 30 g/m^ ± 20 glvci (one standard deviation) for 30 minute

exposures of rats for pre-flashover smoke. For post-flashover fires, a value of 15 g/m^ ± 5 g/m^

is suggested. The mean value of the ratios of IC50 values to LC50 values is 0.50 ±0.21, consistent

with a prior review.

Vll
5 -2 For pre-flashover fires, a generic 30 minute IC50 value (for rats) would be 15 g/m ±10 g/m ; for

post-flashover fires, the corresponding number would be 7 g/m ± 2 g/m . It is important to note

that there are some materials with appreciably lower potency values, indicating higher smoke

toxicity. If materials like these are expected to comprise a large fraction of the fuel load, a lower

generic value can be used.

Our objective is to estimate conditions of safety for people, including those who are more

sensitive to fire smoke than the average (or predominant) population. The information on which

to base such an extrapolation is far from definitive. Nonetheless, making a number of

assumptions, we estimate that the values for the concentration of smoke that would incapacitate

smoke-sensitive people in 5 min would be 6 g/m^ for a well-ventilated fire and 3 g/m for a postflashover fire. [This increase in toxic potency after flashover results from the sharp increase in

carbon monoxide yield during underventilated burning.] Both numbers have an estimated

uncertainty of a factor of two. The user of these values needs to be mindful that there is a wide

range of smoke toxic potency values reported for various materials and that some of these have

significantly higher or lower values than these generic figures.

D. GENERATION AND TRANSPORT OF SMOKE COMPONENTS

Smoke is a mixture of gases and aerosols. The latter include both micro-droplets and

carbonaceous agglomerated structures (soot) consisting of hundreds or thousands of nearly

spherical primary particles. A range of adverse health effects is associated with inhalation of

smoke aerosols, depending on the amount and location of their deposition within the respiratory

tract. The depth of penetration into the lungs and the likelihood of being exhaled depend on the

particle size; the degree of damage depends on the quantity of particles deposited, which is related in turn to the concentration of smoke aerosol in the inhaled air.

1. Initial Character. Most soot particles are sufficiently small to pose a respiratory hazard.

Particle sizes are generally smaller for flaming combustion than non-flaming, with mass median

aerodynamic diameters ca. 0.5 |im for the former and from 0.8 |im to 2.0 )im for the latter. Smoke yield, the mass of smoke generated for a given mass of fiiel bumed, varies from near zero

to 30 % of the fuel mass. Flaming combustion of wood is at the low end of this scale and

aromatic fuels are at the high end. The smoke yields under non-flaming conditions considerably

exceed those for flaming combustion. Smoke yield increases moderately with increasing fiiel size. Underventilated fires usually yield more soot due to reduced oxidation.

2. Smoke Evolution.

Surface Deposition. Should there be significant loss of smoke components at surfaces, the

tenability of the fire environment would decrease less rapidly. Generally thermophoretic

deposition from hot smoke near a cooler surface is the most important loss mechanism, except for

sedimentation of the largest particle sizes. We estimate that about 10 % to 30 % of the

particulates would be deposited over a period of 10 min to 30 min for a fire in a building.

The only quantitative data for gas loss at surfaces is for HCl, although it is likely that the other

halogen acids would behave similarly. Data from multi-room experiments showed 15 % of the

HCl deposited on walls for a 200 kW fire, 25 % for a 50 kW fire, and 60 % to 85 % for a 10 kW

fire. Losses for less polar or less water-soluble toxicants are expected to be no larger than these.

viu
Coagulation. The particle size distribution could also change as a result of particles colliding

and sticking. We estimate that there will be at most modest changes in the mass median

aerodynamic diameter as a result of coagulation for an enclosure fire. However, the number of

very small particles in the range 10 nm to 40 nm may decrease significantly. There is evidence that

ultrafine particles (diameters about 20 nm) can cause inflammation in the respiratory system, a response not seen with larger particles.

Adsorption and Desorption ofToxic Gases. It is important to know which toxic gases are likely

to be carried on the aerosols and how much is transported to and deposited in the lungs.

Qualitatively, it is known that: Gases may adhere by chemisorption (formation of a true chemical bond) and

physisorption (controlled by weaker electrostatic forces). Only physisorbed molecules

are desorbed in the lungs after transport there by smoke particles.

The nature of the gas molecules also plays a role. Aromatic molecules, such as benzene

and toluene, are favored for adsorption because of their structural similarity to the graphitic

soot. Polar molecules {e.g., H2O, HF, HCl, HBr, CO, NH3, NO, and HCHO) and

paramagnetic molecules {e.g., O2, NO2, and NO) can be adsorbed at local acidic sites. The adsorption of water molecules onto the surface enhances the adsorption of polar

gases. Since the fire produces significant water vapor, the surfaces of the particles are

likely wet to some significant degree.

There is little quantitative information regarding the transport on particles of sufficient mass of

noxious molecules to cause toxicological effects; most of this is for HCl. From literature data,

we estimate that over an exposure time of 1 hour, about 2 mg of HCl would be deposited in the

lower lungs by soot. Small water droplets are estimated to be 65 times as effective as soot in

transporting HCl into the lungs. This should also hold for the transport of any other combustion

products with high polarity and high solubility in water. Similar work on HCN transport

indicated that negligible HCN was carried on the water droplets, and thus water aerosol transport

of HCN into the lungs is not a strong concern.

IV. RESEARCH NEEDS

These fmdings suggest that key uncertainties in performing toxic fire hazard and risk

calculations are:

the source term for the combustibles, including rate of heat release, mass burning rate,

and yields of toxic species (especially irritant gases and aerosols) and

the relationships between physiological effects of smoke exposure and escape behavior.

Additional areas needing further research to improve the quality of fire hazard and risk

assessments are: enhanced information on the subsequent health of people exposed to fires; time-dependent yield data for typical fire-generated gases, especially irritant gases, from

room-scale fires;

IX
toxic potency data for rats for smoke from a wide range of materials and products

obtained using a validated bench-scale apparatus;

quantitative information on the losses of toxicants for a range of realistic fires;

identification of whether nanometer smoke aerosol can be generated in realistic fire scenarios; and

determination of whether a cloud of water droplets forms during a fire and, if so, the

conditions under which it may form and the size distribution of the droplets.
I. INTRODUCTION: THE HAZARD OF FIRE SMOKE

Fire smoke toxicity has been a recurring theme for fire safety professionals for over four

decades. This is because:

all combustible construction and furnishing products can produce harmful smoke in a

fire;

about 70 % to 75 % of the U.S. fire victims succumb to smoke inhalation, a fraction

which has been generally increasing for at least two decades;' and

the problem of how to address smoke toxicity in standards and codes has not yet been

"solved."

The danger from smoke is a function of:

the toxic potency of the smoke (often expressed as an EC50, the concentration needed to cause an effect on half (50 %) of the exposed population) and

the integrated exposure a person experiences to the (changing) smoke concentration

and/or thermal stress over some time interval: jC(t) dt. Some of the effects of smoke

increase with continued exposure, others occur almost instantaneously.

The concentration and distribution of smoke in a burning home, public building or vehicle

depends on such factors as the chemical composition and burning rates of the products (interior

fmish, furnishings, etc), the rate and direction of ventilation, and actuation of a suppression

system. The time of exposure is a fiinction of, e.g., the time of detection and alarm, the design of

the building, the motor capability of the people, and the presence of rescuers. The severity of the

outcome depends on all these plus the sensitivity of the occupants to the chemical components of

the smoke.

A. SMOKE LETHALITY

Of the effects that smoke can have on occupants or on fire service personnel responding to the

fire, the most severe is the loss of life. This has driven the development, validation and adoption

of a standard laboratory-scale device (NFPA 269", ASTM El 678^) for measuring the lethal toxic

potency of smoke form burning products for use in hazard and risk analyses.

The capability of fire safety professionals to estimate potentially lethal smoke exposures has

developed extensively over the past decade. Tools like HAZARD I enable combining all the

above factors and predicting the outcome of a given fire. The EXITT routine in HAZARD I, EXIT 89"^ and EXODUS^, for example, offer the ability to simulate people movement through a burning facility. The Fire Protection Research Foundation has developed a method for

calculating fire risk by combining scenario analysis with hazard analysis.^

Numerous hazard calculations have been performed in which the survival of occupants is the

predicted outcome. In many of these cases, the predictions are sufficiently in line with the actual occurrence and are sufficiently consistent with established fire physics that the community can
have some degree of confidence in this predictive capability (a) when the analyses are performed

by knowledgeable people and (b) when there are proper input data for the calculations.

B. SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF SMOKE

There also have been frequent reports from fire survivors telling how smoke and heat impeded

their progress toward exits, caused them lingering heahh problems, or impaired fellow

occupants' escape so that they did not survive. These are the consequences of a wide range of

sublethal effects that smoke can have on people, short of causing death during their exposure:

incapacitation (inability to effect one's own escape)

reduced egress speed or choice of a longer egress path due to, e.g. :

sensory (eye, lung) irritation

- heat or radiation injury (beyond that from the flames themselves)

- reduced motor capability

visual obscuration

decreased mental acuity

long-term physiological effects

chronic health effects on fire fighters.

Each can limit the ability to escape, to survive, and to continue in good health after the fire.

There continue to be difficulty and controversy in assessing and addressing the contribution of

these sublethal effects of smoke in hazard and risk analyses. These result from:

the unknown number of affected people, the fire conditions under which they are

affected, and the severity of their afflictions;

the confounding of assigning causation of any lingering effects because of, e.g., inhalation of dust and other irritants encountered in normal activities;

the tendency to ascribe toxicity to each product potentially involved in a fire, even though

other factors in the fire often affect toxic smoke yield more than inherent product

characteristics do, and even though there are many factors, unrelated to products, that

affect the conversion of toxic smoke yield at the site of the burning product into toxic

smoke exposure at the site of a potential victim;

inadequate measurement methods for and inadequate or inaccessible data on the sublethal

effects of smoke and inconsistent interpretation of the existing data;

lack of consensus on a method for measuring smoke and smoke component yields and

lack of accepted, quantitative relationships between exposures based on these yields and

the deleterious effects on escape and survival;

companies misusing toxicity data in the competition among products; and
differing objectives for fire safety and the cost, both public and commercial, of providing

a given degree of fire safety.

As a result, product manufacturers and specifiers, building and vehicle designers, regulatory

officials, and consumers are faced with persistence of this issue with little momentum toward

resolution, inconsistent or inaccurate representation in the marketplace, and continuing liability concerns.

C. ISO DOCUMENT 13571

Indicative of this overall uncertainty regarding sublethal effects of fire smoke has been the

response to draft document 13571 that emerged from ISO TC92 SC3 (Fire Threat to People and

the Environment). This one-time draft international standard formalized consideration of the

first of these sublethal consequences of smoke: incapacitation, defined as the inability to effect

one's own escape. Although there is relatively little information quantifying the effects of

smoke on an occupant's ability to escape, this document incorporated estimates of human

tolerance thresholds of the toxicants, along with estimates of the impact on the more susceptible

segments of the population. These conservative figures led to implied limitations on fire size

that would be impossible to achieve in practice. When this became broadly recognized, the

document was voted down and drafted as a candidate ISO Technical Specification. The ensuing

drafts of ISO 13571 have moderated the constraints on smoke toxic potency, while retaining the

basic concept of toxic effects resulting from accumulated fractional effective dose (FED) or

concentration (FEC).

D. NEED FOR RESOLUTION

There is little doubt that some sublethal effects of fire smoke continue to affect life safety and

that the professional community does not yet have the knowledge to develop technically sound

tools to include these effects in hazard and risk analysis. This inability has severe consequences

for all parties. Underestimating smoke effects could result in not providing the intended degree

of safety. Erring on the conservative side could inappropriately bias the marketing of

construction and furnishing materials, constrain and distort building design options, and drive up

construction costs. Meanwhile, competition in the marketplace is already being affected by

poorly substantiated or misleading claims regarding smoke toxicity.
II. THE SEFS PROJECT

In May 2000, the Fire Protection Research Foundation and the National histitute of Standards

and Technology began a major private/public fire research initiative to provide this scientific

information for public policy makers. The objectives are to:

1

.

Identify fire scenarios where sublethal exposures to smoke lead to significant harm;

2. Compile the best available toxicological data on heat and smoke, and their effects on

escape and survival of people of differing age and physical condition, identifying where

existing data are insufficient for use in fire hazard analysis;

3. Develop a validated method to generate product smoke data for fire hazard and risk

analysis; and

4. Generate practical guidance for using these data correctly in fire safety decisions.

To meet these objectives, the project team and the Technical Advisory Committee constructed a

set of tasks (Table 1).

Table 1. Research Tasks for the International Study of the Sublethal Effects of

Fire Smoke on Survivability and Health (SEFS)

1.0. Toxicological Data

1.1. Report on evaluation of literature values of LC50, IC50 and EC50 for products and

materials, adapted for human exposures, and with generic values for use in hazard analysis.

1.2. Review the existing data on the relationships between lethality and exposure to heat,

thermal radiation, narcotic gases, irritant gases, aerosols, and their combinations for animal

species and humans; identify the best such relationships (including from non-fire literature) and

determine uncertainty bars

1 .3. Review the existing data on the relationships between sublethal physiological effects and

exposure to heat, thermal radiation, narcotic gases, irritant gases, aerosols, and their

combinations for animal species and humans; identify the best such relationships (including

from non-fire literature) and determine uncertainty bars

1.3a. Review the literature on the relative penetration into the lungs of gases and aerosols of

differing dimension

1.3b. Review the data on distribution of people's susceptibility as a function of age, physical

condition, etc.

1.4. Examine the methods for quantitative extrapolation of the animal data to people, and

estimate the associated uncertainty levels

1.5. Lay out means to obtain more/better data without using human subjects.
1 .6. Fully documented report on the best data relating combustion products and physiological

effects (temporary and lingering) on people.

2.0. Smoke Transport Data

2.1. Review the literature on the dimension of aerosols produced in fires.

2.2. Review the literature on the wall losses, agglomeration, and chemical reaction of gases and

aerosols as the smoke moves (from the fire)

2.3. Review the literature on and models of the solubility in and evaporation from aqueous

aerosols of toxic gases in the humid fire effluent

2.4. Report on the generation and evolution of aerosols of potential toxicological concern.

3.0. Behavioral Data

3.1. Select contractor(s)

3.2. Review the relationships between physiological effects and impairment of human escape,

especially from irritant gases and including smoke obscuration and subsets of the population

who are more susceptible or less able to react to fire-generated smoke

3.3. Appraise methods for extrapolating such effects in animals to people and estimate the

uncertainty levels

3.4. Lay out means to obtain more/better data without using human subjects

3.5. Report on magnitude of sublethal exposures that compromise survival

3.6. Decision: Do sublethal exposures to smoke result in impeded escape?

4.0. Fire Data

4.1. Review data from reports on fires, on chemical exposures, from hospitals, etc. to characterize our ability to determine quantitatively (with uncertainty assessment) the importance

of sublethal exposures on escape, survival, and health

4.2. Estimate the magnitude of the importance (relative to lethality) of sublethal exposures,

with uncertainty bars

4.3. Identify ways to improve future gathering of case and epidemiological data

4.4. Report estimating the hazard of sublethal exposures to smoke relative to lethal exposures

by fire scenario
5.0. Risk Calculations

5.1. Compile a "full" list of fire scenarios; based on past fire risk analyses, identify those fire scenarios for which significant incidence data exist

5.2. Compilation of primary intervention strategies that would mitigate the outcome of fire and

accompanying casualties

5.3. Decision on scenarios for which to perform calculations and case studies

5.4. Perform calculations to estimate the decreased chance of escape and survival in these fire scenarios when people are exposed to sublethal levels of smoke

5.5. Verify calculations, to the extent possible, using the data from Task 4 or from specific fires

where the exposure information can be inferred

5.6. Report on calculated increased risk from sublethal smoke exposures for predominant fire scenarios

6.0. Product Characterization

6.1. Characterize the fire types {e.g., smoldering, ventilated flaming) and sizes (e.g., single

object, spread to successive objects) that can produce exposures within 1/100 of lethal

exposures; compare with smoke yields from wanted (e.g., cooking) fires

6.2. Develop accurate reduced-scale measurement methodology for obtaining smoke

(component) yield data for commercial products; generate data for generic products

6.3. Develop methodology for including sublethal exposures in fire safety analysis

7.0. Societal Analysis

7.1. Develop a method and case studies for projecting the enhancements of public safety and

the costs/benefits to society that would accrue from the inclusion of exposure to sublethal levels

of smoke in design specifications

8.0. Dissemination

8.1. Compile reference document(s) for the subject

8.2. Archive the research fmdings

8.3. Prepare practical guidance sheets for decision makers, based on the existing literature and

the Project outcome, and delineating the relative importance of lethal and varying levels of

debilitating smoke exposures; identify means of dissemination (web, flyers, etc.)
The timeliness of the project was a significant issue. The project team estimated that completing

all the tasks could take as little as 30 months. This afforded the opportunity to provide a sound

technical basis for emerging domestic and international standards.

However, the fiill resources were not yet available. Thus the sponsors and project team agreed

that the first Phase would focus on incapacitation (inability to effect one's own escape), since it was the most serious sublethal effect and since there was more quantitative information on this

effect than the other sublethal effects. This would ensure having useful output early in the

project.

The first phase of the research began in May 2000 with 5 tasks or subtasks:

Task la (1.1 in Table 1): Toxicological Data for Products and Materials: provide

decision-makers with the best available lethal and incapacitating toxic potency values for

the smoke from materials and commercial products for use in quantifying the effects of

smoke on people's survival in fires. Task 2: Smoke Transport Data: provide state-of-the-art information on the production

of the condensed components of smoke from fires and their evolutionary changes that

could affect their transport and their toxicological effect on people.

Task 4: Incidence Analysis of Sublethal Effects: assess the potential for using available

data sets (a) to bound the magnitude of the U.S. population who are harmed by sublethal

exposures to fire smoke and (b) to estimate the link between exposure dose and resulting

health effects. Task 5a (5.1 & 5.2 from Table 1): Scenarios for Fire Risk Calculations: provide a candidate scenario and intervention strategy structure for future calculations of the

survivability and health risk from sublethal exposures to smoke from building fires. Task 6a (6.1 from Table 1): Characterization of Fire Types: determine the potential

for various types of fires to produce smoke yields from Vi to 1/100 of those that result in

lethal exposures in selected scenarios.

These tasks comprise the effort needed to accomplish the first objective of the project and to begin the second objective. Completion of the tasks in the first phase of the SETS project has

provided the context for the tasks to come, indicated the capabilities and limitations of currently

available information, and generated useful products in its own right. The remainder of this

report describes what we have learned from these tasks and the value of that knowledge.
III. PHASE ONE ACCOMPLISHMENTS

A. DEFINITION OF FIRE SCENARIOS

Both current prescriptive fire and building codes and the emerging performance-based fire and

building codes utilize a form of hazard or risk assessment. In the former, neither the safety

objective nor the improvement derived from a code change is explicit. Rather, the code body

implicitly recognizes there is cumulative benefit from each product or design specification. If

the benefit proves insufficient or if new hazards are identified, additional specific code changes

are considered. In the latter, the safety objective of each section of the code is explicit. The

facility designer is given wide latitude in selecting a combination of features to meet that

objective. A hazard or risk analysis incorporating the properties of the facility and its contents is then performed to demonstrate that the safety objective will be met.

What the two approaches have in common is that they both operate on a set of fire scenarios. A

fire scenario is a detailed description of:

the facility' in which the fire occurs, including the occupancy type (Table 2), its geometry

and topology, potential escape routes and places of refuge, and any installed fne

mitigation devices (Table 3);

the combustible products potentially involved in the fire (Table 4);

a specific fire incident, comprising an ignition event (type and location), the involvement

of one or more combustible products at some rate of fire growth and heat and smoke

production, various stages of fire development (Table 5), the eventual extent of the fire;

the people occupying the facility at the time of the fire, including the types of people

normally in the facility, their ages, their physical capabilities, their sensitivities to smoke

and heat, and their locations relative to the fire.

There are interactions between each of these components, e.g., different types of people will be

exposed to fires of differing growth rate from different combustibles in different facilities. Thus,

there are large numbers of combinations of these factors. Presumably, the sublethal (and lethal)

effects of fire smoke are important in some fraction of these. It is tempting to identify this subset

by focussing on those scenarios for which the largest fractions of fire deaths and injuries have

occurred to date. That would certainly capture those scenarios in which the sublethal effects of

smoke led to the two "markers" we have of real-world fire casualties: death or hospitalization

proximate to the fire event. We would rely on the findings of fire data analysis that show:^'^

fire deaths in homes outnumber fire deaths in all other buildings by 20 to 1

the majority of fire deaths involve victims remote from the point of fire origin and fires

that spread flames beyond the first room, presumably through flashover;

most fire deaths occur in buildings lacking sprinklers and working smoke alarms; and

one third of the fatal fires start with upholstered furniture, mattresses or bedding.

The word "facility" is used throughout this document for economy of expression; it comprises all types of

buildings as well as transportation vehicles, whether at ground level or above.
This approach would not, however, capture those scenarios in which people receive sublethal

exposures to smoke that result in deleterious health effects or in which their survival was made

more difficult, but not unsuccessful. The next two sections provide insights into identifying

those scenarios in which sublethal effects of fire smoke might be important.

Table 2. Classification of Facilities

[The following classification scheme, taken from the NFPA Life Safety Code^, groups facilities

according to their common usage. Implied in this classification are a number of factors related to use, the typical fuel load, and consideration of egress. Other factors, such as specific occupancy

populations, must be considered as well.]

Buildings Vehicles

Residences (single- or muhiple family) Automobiles and trucks

Hospitals Buses

Nursing homes Passenger rail vehicles

Board and care buildings Urban mass transit vehicles

Office buildings Aircraft

Day care facilities Spacecraft

Stadiums and large recreational facilities

Industrial (warehouses)

Industrial (high hazard)

Schools

Detention/correctional facilities Mercantile

Table 3. Fire Hazard Mitigation Strategies and Examples

Active Passive

Suppression system (water deluge, water mist, halon, dry

powder, carbon dioxide)

Cooling devices (fog nozzles)

Smoke exhaust system (whole building, stairwell, roof vent)

Detectors (automatic or manual, monitored or not)

Pressurization (compartments, elevators)

Evacuation aids (emergency lights)

Automatic door closure

Barriers (fixed walls, draft

curtains)

Low flammability materials

(interior finish, cable,

ftamishings)
Table 4. Potential Residential Combustibles

Combustible Class Typical Fire Growth Rate

Upholstered furniture Medium to fast

Wood furniture Slow

Wardrobes (with clothes) Medium to fast

Mattresses/bedding Medium to fast

Kitchen cabinets Slow

Interior finish Medium to fast

Cooking materials {e.g., oil) Fast

Paper trash Fast

Table 5. Stages of Fire Development

Fire Stage Characteristics

1 . Non-Flaming

1.1. Smoldering Self-sustaining; no external radiation

1.2. Oxidative pyrolysis Fuel subjected to thermal radiation or in contact

with a hot object

1.3. Non-oxidative pyrolysis Pyrolysis m a space so highly vitiated that no

oxygen reaches the fuel surface

2. Well Ventilated Flaming Flames below the base of hot gas layer

Burning rate is fuel controlled

3. Low Ventilated Flaming Flames extend into the hot gas layer

Burning rate is ventilation controlled

3.1. Small fire in closed compartment Air flow into the room or concealed space is well below that needed to replace the consumed

oxygen

3.2. Post-flashover fire

10
B. IMPORTANCE OF SUBLETHAL EXPOSURES

Essentially the entire 280 million citizens of the United States spend much of their time in the

facilities listed in the previous Section. Of these, we know of about three hundredths of one

percent (civilians and fire fighters) who suffer a serious or fatal injury in a fire. In order to assess the importance of the sublethal effects of fire smoke, it is incumbent to have estimates for the

following two pivotal questions:

1. How many people might receive sublethal exposures tofire smoke ofany consequence?

It is possible to estimate the number of people each year that probably shared space with some

quantity of toxic smoke from a reported home fire. If this total number of exposed people were,

as expected, far greater than the number of reported victims, then conservative (low) fire safety

thresholds that imply that any exposure to toxic fire smoke always results in unacceptable injury

are not suitable for prediction. [These low thresholds might assure the avoidance of lesser or delayed injuries, even by smoke-sensitive people. However, using such thresholds in a hazard

assessment that as a result predicts an unrealistically large number of injuries is of little value to responsible decision makers, who must provide for safety without other undue restrictions on the

public] And knowing the magnitude of the population exposed to fire smoke would be a first step in a risk assessment {e.g., of proposed code provisions or new products) where the

heightened sensitivity of vulnerable subpopulations would be balanced in calculations by explicit use of the probabilities that those people will be the ones exposed in any particular fire.

2. How many ofthe recordedfatalities might have been the direct result ofa sublethal exposure

tofire smoke? It has frequently been stated that (a) fire fatalities often result from incapacitating

injuries that occur earlier and from less severe fire exposures than do fatal injuries and that (b)

incapacitation is nearly always followed by death. Establishing the degree of validity of this

position defmes the proper data to be used to characterize the most harmftil smoke exposures.

1. Statistical Methodology

It had been hoped that databases other than those currently used to estimate the U.S. fire experience would contain sufficient detail on incident and exposure circumstances to develop answers to these two questions. However, based on discussions with people familiar with these

compilations, most were not likely to be helpfiil for our purpose. For instance:

The Federal agencies responsible for airline safety prepare detailed reports after fatal incidents, including timelines of human behavior and autopsy data on toxic exposure.

Unfortunately, they do not include details of non-fatal injuries.

The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) hospital emergency room

injury database, operated by the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, is the most

potentially useful database on non-fatal fire injuries. They do not, however, include even

the E-coding used on death certificates, which is necessary to achieve even a simple

separation of smoke inhalation from other injuries.

NFPA has a major fires database called the Fire Incident Data Organization (FIDO). It has more solidly based detail than any other national fire incident data base, but its typical level of detail is still limited, and the data base itself is representative in most

11
years only for multiple-fatality or other unusually large fires. Recently, FIDO was

expanded to attempt to capture all fatal fires for two years, and it was hoped that there

would be a number of incidents in which timelines of occupant movement could be

constructed, permitting estimation of exposure as a function of fire size, smoke extent,

and occupant location. This could then be linked to the reported health status of the

occupants: fatally injured, non-fatally injured, or uninjured. While the degree of detail in

the reports was too low to accomplish this, FIDO does provide insight into the victim's

condition like "unable to acf or "rescuing," and these victim condition codes are also

used in representative national data bases, e.g., the National Fire Incident Reporting

System (NFIRS). By indicating in some detail what people do in responding to fires that

is then generically described by one of the brief coding phrases, FIDO supported some

estimates of the timeline of exposure for those victims and the criticality of incapacitation

in that timeline.

The components used to estimate the number of people exposed to fire smoke annually were as follows:

Use was made of some occupant location sets developed for the FPRF fire risk analysis

method FRAMEworks.^ These sets translated 1980 U.S. Census Bureau data on typical

occupant activitv by household structure, age and ability of person within the household,

and time of day, into estimated assignments of typical occupant locations by household

structure, age and ability of person, and time of day.

While there have been changes in the mix of population characteristics since 1980, the

changes have been gradual and would not significantly affect the analysis. For example,

in 1980 1 1.3 % of the resident U.S. population was at least 65 years old, while by 1998,

the share had risen to 12.7 %. Even if all the people shown as injured in the calculation were elderly, this would only increase the estimate of people exposed to injurious smoke

by about 13 %. Increases in the estimate of people exposed to smoke strengthen the

conclusions.

Other 1980 U.S. Census Bureau data provided estimates of numbers of households by

household structure.

U.S. fire incident data supported the development of statistics on reported unwanted fires

by time of day, area of origin (corresponding to occupant location categories), and final

extent of smoke damage.

From these inputs, high and low estimates were made of numbers of people exposed,

based on matching the locations of people, by time of day, with the number of fires either

originating where they were located or spreading from their points of origin to the

individuals' locations.

For the analysis of the role of incapacitation in creating an extended time of exposure to fire smoke, the characteristics of fatal fire victims, especially their activity at the time of injury, were

culled from FIDO reports. An escaping victim, knocked down in flight by incapacitating smoke,

exemplified the critical role of incapacitation in creating lethal exposure. By contrast, for a bedridden individual incapacitation by the smoke would be relatively unimportant, since the

12
individual could do nothing to save himself or herself and would be exposed to as much smoke

as the fire could move to him or her, absent a rescue.

2. Estimating the U.S. Population Annually Exposed to Smoke from Unwanted

Fires

Table 6 provides the number of U.S. households, by structure, for non-family and family

households. ^^ Household structure is defined by the number of people (up to a maximum size of

5 or more, which is treated as 5), the number of adults (a "non-family" household does not

include children), the number of adults who are elderly (at least 65 years old), and the number of

adults who are non-working. To simplify the set-up, the number of adults who are elderly or non-working is expressed in fractional terms, representing an average across all households with

that number of adults and total people. This simplification is possible because all people of a common type share a common fate from a given fire; there is no need to stick to integer numbers

of people by type in order to support separate calculation of the fates of each one.

The analysis here (and in Tables 7-18) differs from the published analysis in that the published

exercise had to create occupant sets with integer numbers of persons by type, while this exercise can work with fractional numbers of persons, overall and by type. Also, this and all the

succeeding analyses eliminate the separate treatment of incapacitated adults (most of whom are also elderly) and of babies (under 3 years old).

Table 6. Numbers of U.S. Households, by Size of Household, Number of Adults,

and Number of Elderly or Other Non-Working Adults'"

A. Non-family Households [Estimated 30.3 % of adults m non-family households are

elderly, and all of the adults of working age are working]

Number of Persons per Household Number of Households

Persons Adults Elderly Non-working adults

1 1 0.303 20,602

2 2 0.606 2,768

3 3 0.909 497

4 4 1.212 155

5 5 1.515 70

13
B. Family Households (Married Couple and/or Children Present) [Estimated 9.3 %

of adults in family households are elderly, 55 % of adults in two-adult families are non-working,

and 44 % of single parents are non-working.]

Number of Persons per Household Number of Households

Persons Adults Elderly Non-working adults

2 2 0.186 1.10 19,220

2 1 0.093 0.44 6,129

3 2 0.186 1.10 11,346

3 1 0.093 0.44 3,458

4 2 0.186 1.10 11,666

4 1 0.093 0.44 1,601

5 2 0.186 1.10 8,118

5 1 0.093 0.44 1,176

Table 7 translates the entries of Table 6 from numbers of people, by type, per household, by

type, into entries on numbers of people, by type, in all households of a particular type. It also

provides summary data on the number of people, by type, in an average household. Again, the

published analysis treated all households with more than 5 persons as having 5 persons. Tables

7A and 7B are calculated directly from Tables 6A and 6B. Table 7C is calculated directly from

Tables 7A and 7B. The data used here are nearly 20 years old, but because they are reduced to numbers of persons, by type, per household, that fact should not create a problem.

Table 7. Total Numbers of U.S. Persons, Elderly, and Non-Working Adults, by

Size of Household and Number of Adults in Their Household^^

A. Non-family Households

Number of Persons per

Household

Total Number of Persons in All Households Combined

Persons Adults Persons Elderly Non- working adults

1 1 20,602 6,242

2 2 5,536 1,677

3 3 1,491 452

4 4 620 188

5 5 350 106

14
B. Family Households (Married Couple and/or Children Present)

Number of Persons per

Household

Total Number of Persons in All Households Combined

Persons Adults Persons Elderly Non- working adults

2 2 38,440 3,575 21,142

2 1 12,258 570 2,697

3 2 34,038 2,110 12,481

3 1 10,374 322 1,522

4 2 46,664 2,170 12,833

4 1 6,404 149 704

5 2 40,590 1,510 8,930

5 1 5,880 109 517

C. Number of Persons, by Type, per Household, Overall Average

People per household

Elderly persons per household

2.57

Non-working adults per household

0.22

0.70

Table 8 indicates the assumed (and most likely) location for a person of a particular type, by time

of day, for 3 time of day ranges. There are three candidate locations - bedroom; living room,

family room, or den; and outside the building (as when an adult is at work or a child is at school).

This analysis eliminates the separate treatment of incapacitated adults (most of whom are also

elderly) and of babies (under 3 years old). All other children and working adults have the same

assignments and so can be combined. It is further assumed that the room of fire origin, if not

otherwise estimated to have anyone occupying it, may have no one or one person present,

corresponding to fires whose causes point to someone present at the time and the less frequent

fires whose causes do not.

Table 8. Most Likely Locations of U.S. Persons, by Type of Person and Time of

Day10

Type of

Person

During

7 am - 6 pm

During

6 pm- 11 pm

During

11 pm-7 am

Child or Working adult

Outside building Living room, family

room, or den

Bedroom

Non-working adult Living room, family

room, or den

Living room, family

room, or den

Bedroom

Elderly person Living room, family

room, or den

Bedroom Bedroom

15
Table 9 uses data from Tables 7 and 8 and two assumptions to indicate, for each of four

candidate locations {i.e., type of room) in the home and each of the same three time-of-day

ranges, how many of what types of people are in that room, in another room, or outside the

building. The four candidate locations are candidate areas of origin for fire: kitchen; bedroom;

living room, family room, or den; and any other room or area. The additional assumptions

needed are these:

Notwithstanding the assumptions in Table 8, if fire begins in a room, there is a good

chance that someone was there to start the fire, either intentionally or (more often)

unintentionally. The range of assumptions regarding the number of people present, if Table 8 would indicate no one present, is to 1 , that is, yes, someone is present, or no, someone is not. Since a person present will be, by definition, close to the point of origin

of the fire, then person-present will yield a higher estimate of exposed people and personabsent will yield a lower estimate.

At night, when everyone in the household is assumed to be located in a bedroom, the

number of people in any one bedroom will range from one to two. Again, the assumption

of two people in the bedroom of fire origin will produce a higher estimate of exposed

people, while the assumption of one person will produce a lower estimate.

Table 10 uses the data from Table 8 on average number of people, by type, in an average

household, with the entries in Table 9, to produce a range of number of people, without

differentiating them by type, based on time of day, who are in the same room, another room, or

outside the building, for each of the four possible areas of fire origin.

Table 1 1 provides the linkage between how far smoke extends and how far away occupants

might be affected. Again, ranges are provided. When the extent of smoke ranges from zero up

to confined to the room of fire origin, the number of people exposed is estimated to range from

no one (zero) up to everyone assumed to be located, when fire begins, in the same room as the

room of fire origin. When the extent of smoke ranges from filling the first room up to anything

larger, the number of people exposed is estimated to range from everyone located in the same

room as the room of fire origin up to everyone located anywhere in the home. Table 1 1 uses

these assumptions with data from the earlier tables to indicate, based on what type of room is the

area of fire origin, time of day, and final extent of smoke damage, how many people will be

exposed to toxic fire smoke. A fire that spreads smoke through enough of the room of fire origin

will expose everyone who is still in that room. A fire that spreads smoke through enough of the

housing unit will expose everyone who is still in the room of fire origin and in any other room in

the housing unit. People located outside the housing unit will not be exposed, regardless of

smoke spread.

16

i
Table 9. Numbers of U.S. Persons, by Type of Person and Time of Day,

within 3 Exposure Zones - Same Room, Another Room, Outside Building,

by Room of Fire Origin^°

Room of Fire Origin

Who's

Located

in?

During

7 am - 6 pm

During

6 pm- 11 pm

During

11 pm-7 am

Kitchen Same room to 1 person to 1 person No one

Kitchen Another room

Non-working

adults and elderly

Rest of household Entire household

Kitchen Outside

building

Rest of household No one No one

Bedroom Same room to 1 person to 1 person 1 to 2 people

Bedroom Another room

Non-working

adults and elderly

Rest of household Rest of household

Bedroom Outside

building

Rest of household No one No one

Living room, family

room, den, or associated

chimney

Same room Non-working

adults and elderly

Entire household

except elderly

No one

Living room, family

room, den, or associated

chimney

Another room No one Elderly Entire household

Living room, family

room, den, or associated

chimney

Outside

building

Entire household No one No one

Other room Same room to 1 person to 1 person No one

Other room Another roomNon-working

adults and elderly

Rest of household Entire household

Other room Outside

building

Rest of household No one No one

17
Table 10. Numbers of U.S. Persons, by Time of Day, in Average Home within 3

Exposure Zones - Same Room, Another Room, Outside Building, by Room of Fire

Origin^°

Room of Fire Origin

How

Many Are

Located

in?

During

7 am - 6 pm

During

6 pm- 11 pm

During

11 pm- 7 am

JCitchen Same

room

0-1 0-1

Kitchen Another

room

0.92 1.57-2.57 2.57

Kitchen Outside

building

0.65-1.65

Bedroom Same

room

0-1 0-1 1-2

Bedroom Another

room

0.92 1.57-2.57 0.57-1.57

Bedroom Outside

building

0.65-1.65

Living room, family

room, den, or

associated chimney

Same

room

0.92 2.35

Living room, family

room, den, or

associated chimney

Another

room

0.22 2.57

Living room, family

room, den, or

associated chimney

Outside

building

1.65

Other room Same

room

0-1 0-1

Other room Another

room

0.92 1.57-2.57 2.57

Other room Outside

building

0.65-1.65

18
Table 11. Numbers of U.S. Persons Exposed to Smoke, by Time of Day, in

Average Home, Based on Extent of Smoke''

How Far Must

Smoke Extend?

Room of Fire

Origin

During

7 am - 6 pm

During

6 pm- 11 pm

During

11 pm- 7 am

Between any smoke

and filling first room

Kitchen 0-1 0-1

Between smoke past

first room and filling

housing unit

Kitchen 0.92-1.92 2.57 2.57

Between any smoke

and filling first room

Bedroom 0-1 0-1 1-2

Between smoke past

first room and filling

housing unit

Bedroom 0.92-1.92 2.57 2.57

Between any smoke

and filling first room

Living room,

family room,

den, or

associated

chimney

0.92 2.35

Between smoke past

first room and filling

housing unit

Living room,

family room,

den, or

associated

chimney

0.92 2.57 2.57

Between any smoke

and filling first room

Other room 0-1 0-1

Between smoke past

first room and filling

housing unit

Other room 0.92-1.92 2.57 2.57

The simplifying assumptions up to this point are a mix of conservative and non-conservative

assumptions. The simplified location assignments will mean more people are assigned locations

in a bedroom or living room when a fire starts there than will be there on average, while fewer

people are assigned locations near a fire starting anywhere else. The simplified assignments by

time of day will indicate more evening exposure of busy people with outside activities than will

actually occur, but they miss many of the reasons why people may stay home during the day, as well as the exposure of guests. The simplified maximum limit on household size is entirely

conservative, as it will underestimate exposure. The ranges linking exposure to smoke extent

will overestimate some exposures, e.g., where people in the room where a fire begins are able to escape with no exposure at all, but underestimate some other exposures, e.g., where people's

activities (rescuing, fire fighting, investigating, or escaping by some routes) take them toward the

fire rather than away from it. In the end, the authors believe that no major net overestimation or underestimation occurs with these assumptions.

19
Table 12 provides statistics from recent U.S. fire loss data regarding the number of reported

home fires and associated civilian deaths and injuries, by area of fire origin, time of day, and

final extent of smoke damage. The numbers of fires can be used with the entries of Table 1 1 to estimate the range of exposure. The numbers of deaths and non-fatal injuries provide contrasting

numbers on the number of exposed people suffering recognized health effects.

Table 12 uses a more detailed breakdown on the final extent of smoke damage, in order to permit

additional ranges of effect in the estimation. Fires with smoke damage confined to room of

origin are subdivided into fires with smoke damage confined to area of origin (meaning the

immediate area around the point of origin but beyond the single object of origin) vs. fires with

smoke damage beyond the area of origin but still confined to the room of origin. The former are

less likely to expose people in the room of origin; the latter are more likely to cause such

exposure. Similarly, fires with smoke damage beyond room of origin are subdivided into fires

with smoke damage confined to floor of origin vs. fires with smoke damage beyond floor of

origin. The former are less likely to expose people somewhere in the building other than the

room of fire origin, while the latter are more likely to do so.

Table 12. Numbers of Reported Fires, Deaths, and Injuries by Area of Fire Origin,

Time of Day, and Extent of Smoke Damage Annual Average of 1993-97 Home

Structure Fires Reported to Municipal Fire Departments

[Area of Fire Origin: Kitchen; Bedroom; Living room, family room, den or associated chimney;

Other room. Time of day: Day (7 am - 6 pm). Evening (6 pm - 1 1 pm), or Night ( 1 1 pm - 7 am)

Extent of smoke damage: None or confined to Object or area of fire origin; beyond area of

origin, but confined to Room of origin; beyond room of origin, but confined to Floor of origin;

Beyond floor of origin.]

Area of Fire

Origin

Time of Day Extent of Smoke

Damage

Fires Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

K D 27,156 26 645

K D R 12,522 11 493

K D F 12,597 25 647

K D B 22,352 146 1,334

K E O 13,765 8 341

K E R 6,352 3 262

K E F 6,759 8 375

K E B 10,944 66 683

K N O 5,148 11 141

K N R 2,604 3 101

K N F 3,378 14 222

K N B 7,211 -)->-» 695

B D O 4,637 13 158

B D R 3,565 16 179

B D F 5,194 57 482

20
Area of Fire

Origin

Time of Day Extent of Smoke

Damage

Fires Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

B D B 14,984 280 1,544

B E O 2,702 5 107

B E R 1,961 7 99

B E F 2,664 18 212

B E B 6,990 130 590

B N O 2,228 18 109

B N R 1,672 10 99

B N F 2,470 52 322

B N B 8,120 382 1,087

L D 4,000 16 101

L D R 1,632 6 69

L D F 1,560 28 150

L D B 8,324 313 875

L E O 2,713 4 53

L E R 1,037 3 45

L E F 953 19 75

L E B 4,542 157 358

L N O 1,882 17 73

L N R 924 6 50

L N F 1,089 37 157

L N B 6,440 567 958

O D O 43,179 16 370

D R 10,738 7 189

O D F 7,300 15 228

O D B 38,367 245 1,573

E 25,983 10 205

O E R 5,772 103

O E F 3,980 6 110

O E B 19,535 121 729

N O 15,243 27 133

O N R 4,050 7 84

N F 3,362 19 131

O N B 23,350 445 1,417

Table 1 3 translates all the other tables into estimates of exposed people, by time of day, area of

fire origin, and final extent of smoke damage. The several ranges introduced at various points

have been reduced to three estimates, called "lowest," "low," and "high." The "lowest" estimate uses the lower numbers for people located at or near the fire and the upper ends of the ranges on how much smoke extent is required to expose people away from the fire {i.e., smoke beyond area of origin is required to expose people in room of fire origin; smoke beyond floor of origin is required to expose people outside room of fire origin). The "low" estimate also uses the lower

numbers for people located at or near the fire but uses the lower ends of the ranges of smoke

extent needed to expose people. The "high" estimate uses the higher numbers for people located

at or near the fire and the lower ends of the ranges of smoke extent needed to expose people.

21
Table 13. Estimated Number of People Exposed to Smoke in Home Fires by Area

of Fire Origin, Time of Day, and Extent of Smoke Damage

[Area of Fire Origin: Kitchen; Bedroom; Living room, family room, den or associated chimney;

Other room. Time of day: Day (7 am - 6 pm), Evening (6 pm - 1 1 pm), or Night (11 pm - 7 am)

Extent of smoke damage: None or confined to Object or area of fire origin; beyond area of

origin, but confined to Room of origin; beyond room of origin, but confined to Floor of origin;

Beyond floor of origin.]

Area of Fire Origin Time of Day

Extent of

Smoke Damage

Lowest Low High

K D 27,156

K D R 12,522

K D F 11,589 24,186

K D B 20,564 20,564 42,915

K E O 13,765

K E R 6,352

K E F 17,372 17,372

K E B 28,126 28.126 28,126

K N O

K N R

K N F 8,682 8,682

K N B 18,533 18,533 18,533

B D 4,637

B D R 3,565

B D F 4,779 9,973

B D B 13,786 13,786 28,770

B E O 2,702

B E R 1,961

B E F 6.846 6,846

B E B 17,964 17,964 17,964

B N O 2,228 4,456

B N R 1,672 1,672 3,344

B N F 2,470 6,347 6,347

B N B 20,867 20,867 20,867

L D 3,680 3,680

L D R 1,502 1,502 1,502

L D F 1,435 1,435 1,435

L D B 7,658 7,658 7,658

L E 6,375 6,375

L E R 2,438 2,438 2.438

L E F 2,239 2,449 2,449

L E B 11,672 11,672 11,672

L N O

L N R

L N F 2,799 2,799

22
Area of Fire Origin Time of Day

Extent of

Smoke Damage Lowest Low High

L N B 16,550 16,550 16,550

O D O 43,179

O D R 10,738

D F 6,716 14,016

D B 35.297 35,297 73,664

O E O 25,983

O E R 5,772

E F 10,230 10,230

E B 50,204 50,204 50,204

o N O

o N R

N F 8,640 8,640

N B 60,009 60,009 60,009

Table 14 compares the range of estimates of people exposed to toxic fire smoke to the reported

1993-97 annual average civilian fire deaths and injuries, by area of fire origin, time of day, and

fmal extent of smoke damage. Tables 15-18 present summary statistics from Table 14, showing

the grand total as well as breakdowns by one or two of the three variables at a time. Again, the

"lowest" estimate uses lower number of people by location and upper range of smoke extent (i.e., smoke beyond area of origin to expose people in room of fire origin; smoke beyond floor of

origin to expose people outside room of fire origin). "Low" estimate uses lower number of

people by location but lower range of smoke extent needed to expose people. "High" estimate uses higher number of people by location and lower range of smoke extent needed to expose

people.

23
Table 14. Range of Estimated Number of People Exposed to Smoke in Home

Fires vs. 1993-97 Average Reported Civilian Fire Deaths and Non-Fatal Injuries,

by Area of Fire Origin, Time of Day, and Extent of Smoke Damage

[Area of Fire Origin: Kitchen; Bedroom; Living room, family room, den or associated chimney;

Other room. Time of day: Day (7 am - 6 pm). Evening (6 pm - 1 1 pm), or Night (1 1 pm - 7 am)

Extent of smoke damage: None or confined to Object or area of fire origin; beyond area of

origin, but confined to Room of origin; beyond room of origin, but confined to Floor of origin;

Beyond floor of origin.]

Area of Fire

Origin

Time of Day

Extent of Smoke

Damage

Exposed People

Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

K D O 0-27,156 26 645

K D R 0-12,522 11 493

K D F 0-24,186 25 647

K D B 20,564-42,915 146 1,334

K E 0-13,765 8 341

K E R 0-6,352 3 262

K E F 0-17,372 8 375

K E B 28,126 66 683

K N O 11 141

K N R 3 101

K N F 0-8,682 14 222

K N B 18,533 222 695

B D O 0-4,637 13 158

B D R 0-3,565 16 179

B D F - 9,973 57 482

B D B 13,786-28,770 280 1,544

B E O - 2,702 5 107

B E R 0-1,961 7 99

B E F - 6,846 18 212

B E B 17,964 130 590

B N O - 4,456 18 109

B N R 1,672-3,344 10 99

B N F 2,470 - 6,347 52 322

B N B 20,867 382 1,087

L D O 0-3,680 16 101

L D R 1,502 6 69

L D F 1,435 28 150

L D B 7,658 313 875

L E O 0-6,375 4 53

L E R 2,438 3 45

L E F 2,239-2,449 19 75

L E B 11,672 157 358

L N 17 73

L N R 6 50

24
Area of Fire

Origin

Time of Day

Extent of Smoke

Damage Exposed People

Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

L N F 0-2,799 37 157

L N B 16,550 567 958

O D 0-43,179 16 370

O D R 0-10,738 7 189

D F 0-14,016 15 228

O D B 35,297 - 73,664 245 1,573

O E 0-25,983 10 205

E R 0-5,772 103

O E F 0- 10,230 6 110

E B 50,204 121 729

N 27 133

N R 7 84

N F - 8,640 19 131

N B 60,009 445 1,417

Table 15. Range of Estimated Number of People Exposed to Smoke in Home

Fires vs. 1993-97 Average Reported Civilian Fire Deaths and Non-Fatal Injuries,

by Area of Fire Origin and Time of Day

[Area of Fire Origin: Kitchen; Bedroom; Living room, family room, den or associated chimney;

Other room. Time of day: Day (7 am - 6 pm), Evening (6 pm - 1 1 pm), or Night ( 1 1 pm - 7 am)]

Area of Fire

Origin

Time of

Day

Extent of

Smoke Damage

Exposed People

Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

K D All 20,564-106,779 207 3,120

K E All 28,126-65,615 86 1,660

K N All 18,533-27,215 249 1,159

B D All 13,786-46,945 365 2,363

B E All 17,964-29,474 161 1,008

B N All 25,009-35,014 462 1,617

L D All 10,594- 14,274 363 1,195

L E All 16,349-22,934 184 531

L N All 16,550-19,349 627 1,238

D All 35,297-141,597 283 2,360

E All 50,204-92,189 138 1,148

N All 60,009 - 68,649 498 1,765

25
Table 16. Range of Estimated Number of People Exposed to Smoke In Home

Fires vs. 1993-97 Average Reported Civilian Fire Deaths and Non-Fatal Injuries,

by Area of Fire Origin and Extent of Smoke Damage

[Area of Fire Origin: Kitchen; Bedroom; Living room, family room, den or associated chimney;

Other room.

Extent of smoke damage: None or confmed to Object or area of fire origin; beyond area of

origin, but confmed to Room of origin; beyond room of origin, but confmed to Floor of origin;

Beyond floor of origin.]

Area of Fire

Origin

Time of

Day

Extent of

Smoke Damage

Exposed People

Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

K All O 0-40,921 44 1,126

K All R 0-18,874 17 856

K All F - 50,240 47 1,244

K All B 67,223 - 89,574 435 2,712

B All O 0-11,796 36 374

B All R 1,672-8,870 33 377

B All F 2,470-23,166 126 1,017

B All B 52,617-67,601 792 3,221

L All O 0-10,055 37 227

L All R 3,939 15 164

L All F 3,674-6,683 84 383

L All B 35,880 1,037 2,191

All 0-69,161 53 708

O All R 0-16,511 15 375

O All F 0-32,885 41 469

All B 145,510-183,877 811 3,720

26
Table 17. Range of Estimated Number of People Exposed to Smoke in Home Fires vs. 1993-97 Average Reported Civilian Fire Deaths and Non-Fatal Injuries,

by Time of Day and Extent of Smoke Damage

[Time of day: Day (7 am - 6 pm). Evening (6 pm - 1 1 pm), or Night (1 1 pm - 7 am)

Extent of smoke damage: None or confined to Object or area of fire origin: beyond area of origin, but

confined to Room of origin; beyond room of origin, but confined to Floor of origin; Beyond floor of

origin.]

Area of Fire

Origin

Time of

Day

Extent of

Smoke Damage Exposed People

Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

All D 0-78,652 70 1,274

All D R 1.502-28,326 40 929

All D F 1,435-49,610 124 1,507

All D B 77.304-153,007 984 5,327

All E O 0-48.825 28 705

All E R 2,438-16,524 14 509

All E F 2,239-36,896 52 773

All E B 107.966 474 2,360

All N O 0-4,456 72 455

All N R 1,672-3,344 25 334

All N F 2,470 - 26,468 122 832

All N B 115,959 1,616 4,157

27
Table 18. Range of Estimated Number of People Exposed to Smoke in Home Fires vs. 1993-97 Average Reported Civilian Fire Deaths and Non-Fatal Injuries,

by Area of Fire Origin, Time of Day, or Extent of Smoke Damage

[Area of Fire Origin: Kitchen; Bedroom; Living room, family room, den or associated chimney; Other room. Time of day: Day (7 am - 6 pm), Evening (6 pm - 1 1 pm), or Night ( 1 1 pm - 7 am).

Extent of smoke damage: None or confined to Object or area of fire origin; beyond area of origin, but

confined to Room of origin; beyond room of origin, but confined to Floor of origin; Beyond floor of

origin.]

Area of Fire

Origin

Time of

Day

Extent of

Smoke Damage

Exposed People

Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

K All All 67,223-199,609 542 5,939

B All All 56,758-111,433 988 4,988

L All All 43,494 - 56,557 1,174 2,964

O All All 145,510-302,434 919 5,272

All D All 80,241-309,595 1,218 9,038

All E All 112,643-210,211 568 4,347

All N All 120,101-150,227 1,836 5,778

All All 0-131,933 170 2,434

All All R 5,611-48,194 79 1,772

All All F 6,144-112,974 298 3,112

All All B 301,230-376,933 3,075 11,844

All All All 312,984-670,034 3,623 19,163

The grand total row (bold) shows a range of annually exposed people in the range of 3 10,000 to 670,000 people per year. This compares to 3,623 civilian fire deaths reported per year, 19,163

civilian fire injuries reported per year, and a combined 22,786 civilian fire fatal or non-fatal

injuries reported per year. ' * [Deviations from published figures are due to rounding errors.]

This translates into a range of 14 to 29 people exposed to toxic fire smoke per year for every one

with a reported civilian fire injury.

The ratios would be even more dramatic if the deaths and injuries were limited to those involving

smoke inhalation, in part or in whole. In 1993-97 home civilian fire deaths and injuries

involving smoke inhalation, alone or in combination with bums, averaged 3,318 deaths and

11, 505 injuries per year, for a total of 14,823 civilian fire fatal or non-fatal injuries per year.^^

This translates into a range of 2 1 to 45 people exposed to toxic fire smoke per year for every one

with a reported civilian fire injury involving smoke inhalation.

It is important to consider the potential sources of the enormous difference between these

estimates of numbers of people exposed to fire smoke, which very low thresholds would estimate

should produce an injury in nearly every case, and the much lower numbers of actual reported

injuries and deaths:

28
It is unlikely that the injuries from smoke inhalation in reported fires are numerous

enough to change substantially this huge gap between estimated exposed people and

estimated injured people. Even if one includes injuries in unreported fires, the number of

recognized (by the victim) smoke inhalation injuries falls well short of these estimates.

The last study of unreported home fire injuries produced an estimate of total fire injuries

above the high estimate for people exposed to toxic fire smoke, but most of those injuries were bums from small cooking fires, not from smoke inhalation. These were injuries

recalled by people, based on extrapolation from a 3-month recall period and some

prompting from the telephone interviewers regarding examples of what is included in the

category of fire injuries. ' Were numerous and significant aftereffects of smoke

inhalation still being felt, these injuries would have been more evident in the study.

There is the possibility of a very large number of unreported, unrecognized fire injuries

due to fire smoke inhalation. These single exposures (except in the case of fire fighters)

would result in injuries less severe than those from ordinary chronic exposures to carbon

monoxide, such as second-hand cigarette smoke, use of fireplaces, and exposures to operating motor vehicles in partially confined spaces such as garages and bus tunnels.

[Such injuries would seem to fall short of the type of serious and lasting health effects

contemplated by those who set the goals in national codes and regulations or even those

cited by advocates of the more sweeping goals cited in justifying more stringent

thresholds.]

Most of the potential exposures in the low-end estimate above occurred in larger fires,

where smoke spread beyond the floor of origin and the victims were outside the room of

origin. The smoke will have been diluted as it typically expands well beyond the zone of

burning in such large fires (see Section III.C), and this will have reduced the occupants'

exposure to levels below, often well below, those near the fire. In addition, most of the

exposures added to the low-end estimate to produce the high-end estimate involve

smaller fires (within the two categories of fu-es with smoke confined to or not confmed to room of origin). Transport effects will apply to these victims as well, even though they

tend to be closer to the point of fire origin.

By definition, most exposed occupants are not unusually vulnerable to smoke.

While these figures and this analysis are for home fires only, the larger typical building size and

much smaller fire incidence, death and injury rates in all other types of buildings will tend to mean that (a) the home fire numbers dominate the injury and death numbers for all buildings and

(b) the ratio of estimated exposures to reported injuries and deaths is likely to be even higher for

non-home buildings. For either reason, the qualitative conclusions would be unlikely to change

if other occupancies were added to the analysis.

29
3. Estimating tlie Importance of Incapacitation as an Early Event Leading to

Death and Value of Extra Time

From the thousands of single-fatahty home fires reported to NFPA's FIDO database in the two

years when all fatal fires were solicited, 127 were analyzed for this task. The incidents selected

here, except as noted in the tables, were the first incidents coded (typically the earliest

chronologically) into the system when all fatal fires were being sought. The patterns of interest

from these were clear enough that it is unlikely additional data coding would have produced

different results, but this remains an option for the fiiture.

Tables 19-21 list the key data for fatal injuries, non-fatal injuries, and uninjured occupants,

respectively. Here are some notes regarding the coding used in those tables:

For non-fatal injuries and uninjured persons, there may be more than one per incident, in

which case the identification code numbers the incident and then numbers the individuals

from#lup, (e.g., #692-1).

Under "Victim Location," "Intimate" means "Intimate with ignition," which means the

victim was very close to the point of origin of the fire. Examples include clothing fires and ignitions of bedding near a person in bed.

Under "Victim Condition at Ignition," "Impaired" means "Impaired by alcohol or other

drugs," including legal medications. Physical conditions that might have made the victim

more vulnerable to fire effects {e.g., asthma) are shown, when reported, in brackets. A

distinction is made between physical or mental "limits" of (old) age and more precisely

defined physical or mental handicaps.

Under "Victim Activity When Injured," details are provided, when reported, regarding

exposure for people fatally injured while attempting rescue or fighting the fire. Details

are grouped under four broad categories:

"Overcome" means the person was overcome/incapacitated by fire effects

while engaged in the activity. A person overcome by fire can be rescued,

in which case the injury suffered is non-fatal.

"Forced out" means the person sustained some exposure while engaged in

the activity but had to break off the activity short of completion to flee

what the victim perceived as intolerable fire effects.

"Forced back" means the person moved toward the fire or people needing

rescue, but turned back at the edge of the fu:e exposure zone.

"Successful or stayed outside" means either the person was successful in

the intended activity (rescuing or fire fighting) and so broke off the

activity before being forced out or back by the fire OR the person stayed on the outer fringes of the fire-affected zone throughout the activity and so experienced very little if any exposure.

Each of these categories is presumed to involve less quantity and duration of exposure to

fire effects than the one before it, although that is not as clear for the last category.

30
Under "Condition Preventing Escape," the term "incapacitated" is the term used in

coding to mean an inability to move prior to fire exposure, such as the situation for a bedridden victim. It does NOT mean early incapacitation by the fire.

This is the column where information is shown, when reported, to indicate the nature of

the "irrational activity" recorded under "Victim Activity." "hrational activity" always

involves positive actions that increase risk for no good reason, usually a decision to seek

refiige inside the home (e.g., a child fleeing to his or her own bedroom, choosing familiar

surroundings over a safe refuge). This column also records information, when reported,

that provides more detail on severity and duration of exposure or, more often, on how

close the victim was to successful escape.

Entries were made for 1 1 5 fatally injured individuals, with the last five recorded under a revised

protocol where only individuals involved in rescuing or fire fighting when injured were recorded.

Entries were made for 42 incidents involving non-fatal injuries, with a total of 65 non-fatally

injured individuals documented. Of the 42 incidents, 16 (or nearly two-fifths) had reports on more than one non-fatally injured mdividual. Entries were made for 22 incidents involving

documentation on uninjured individuals, with a total of 38 uninjured individuals documented.

(One of those individuals was actually a family of unreported size, all of whose members

escaped together from a separate apartment unit than the point of fire origin.) Of the 22

incidents, 1 1 (or half) had reports on more than one uninjured individual.

All of the non-fatally injured or uninjured people who were not engaged in attempting rescue, fighting the fire, or attempting to escape when injured were themselves rescued by someone else

(except for a couple cases where the relevant information was unknown or unreported).

Table 19. Special FIDO Study- Fatal Victims

ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

651 Same room Impaired Unable to act Blocked by fire; incapacitated

680 Intimate Impaired; physical

handicap

Asleep Incapacitated

681 Unknown Physical handicap

[partial paralysis]

Escaping Moved too slow?

691 Unknown Unknown [asthma] Unknown Unknown

692 Same room Too young to act Irrational activity None

693 Another room Impaired (very) Asleep Incapacitated

698 Intimate Asleep Asleep None

716 Same room; close

to fire but not

intimate

Impaired Escaping Chose wrong path -

to bedroom not

direct to outside

720 Unknown Physical handicap Escaping Moved too slow?,

reached carport,

close to escape

31
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at IgnitionVictim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

734 Unknown Unknown Unknown None

743 Another floor Physical handicap due

to age

Escaping Moved too slowly;

incapacitated after 20' of walking

slowly in smokefilled hall 745 Another room? Impaired Asleep? Incapacitated

752 Intimate Awake Irrational activity,

maybe even suicide

None

756 Intimate Awake Irrational activity Chose wrong refuge - familiar bedroom

757 Same room Unknown Unknown Unknown

759 Unknown Unknown Escaping None

764 Another room Asleep Escaping, rescuing -

just by yelling alert Blocked by fire, i.e., trapped

765 Same room Unknown Irrational activity Chose wrong refuge - bathroom

766 Intimate or same room

Physical handicap, agerelated limits

Unable to act Incapacitated

779 Intimate or same room Awake Irrational activity Chose wrong refuge - own bedroom

781 Same room Unknown [emphysema] Irrational activity Returned from

outside - to get rifle 806 Another room Physical handicap Unknown Unknown

813 Another room Unknown [diabetic] Escaping Unknown

821 Another room Too young to act Unable to act (9

months old)

Unknown

912 Another room Asleep Rescuing (cats) -

overcome by fire None - Fire wasconfined to room of

origin but flashed over enclosed room

917 Another room Asleep Escaping Blocked by fire, chose wrong path -

primary path

922 Same room Awake? Unable to act - knocked down or

fell

Incapacitated - but

unknown how

1005 Intimate Physical handicap Asleep or unable to act

Incapacitated?

1009 Unknown — but

found in a different room

Physical limits of age Unknown Unknown

1013 Unknown Impaired; also beaten

unconscious

Unable to act Incapacitated

1021 Intimate Too young to act

[2 years old]

Unable to act Moved too slow, fire setter 1022 Same room Physical handicap, also Unknown - didn't Incapacitated or

32
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

limits of age move moved too slow?

1024 Intimate - smoked

while on oxygen

Physical handicap - on oxygen [emphysema]

Unable to act -

removed by rescuer Blocked by fire

1034 Intimate Physical limits of age Unable to act None

1036 Intimate Impaired Unable to act Clothing on fire; fire blocked exit 1201 Same room Too young to act ( 1 months)

Unable to act Moved too slow

1208 Another room Unknown Unknown Unknown

1210 Intimate Mental handicap

(schizophrenia)

Asleep or unable to act Unknown

1228 Same room Awake Fire fighting -

overcome by fire None

1230 Unknown Impaired Escaping None

1232 Another room Asleep Rescuing -

overcome by fire

Re-entered building

1235 Intimate Physical limits of age

[used a walker]

Escaping or fire fighting - overcome by fire while moving

away, to water

Moved too slowly

1236 Same room, fire setterImpaired, mental

handicap

Irrational activity Chose wrong refuge - fled to bathroom

1239 Intimate Asleep Fire fighting -

overcome by fire None

1241 Intimate Impaired Escaping Blocked by fire 1244 Intimate Bedridden by physical

handicap

Unable to act None

1249 Same room Unknown Unknown None

1250 Another floor Unknown Unknown Blocked by fire 1254 Another floor Unknown Sleeping? Unknown

1257 Another room Unknown Escaping None

1260 Another room Awake Fire fighting -

became disoriented, so fled to wrong

refuge

Chose wrong refuge - bathroom tub

1262 Another room Impaired Escaping None

1265 Another floor Asleep [also sick with

flu]

Sleeping Blocked by fire

1274 Another room Unknown Unable to act -

afraid to jump

Blocked by fire

1275 Same room Unknown Unknown Unknown

1279 Same room Impaired Unknown Unknown

1284 Another room Physical handicap [on

breathing machine]

Unable to act Incapacitated

1295 Intimate Physical handicap

[stroke, blind in one

eye]

Escaping Door nailed shut

33
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

1303 Another room Asleep Escaping None

1313 Unknown Physical limits of age Unknown None

1315 Unknown Unknown Escaping None

1319 kitimate Physical handicap,

mental limits of age

Unable to act Incapacitated - in restraints 1320 Unknown Physical limits of age

[used a walker]

Escaping Unknown - was 4-5'

from fi-ont door

when overcome by

fire 1337 Another room Impaired Escaping None

1339 Intimate Physical handicap

[legally blind], physical

limits of age

Escaping Chose wrong path -

into closet, because

blind and

disoriented

1340 Another room Bedridden by physical

handicap

Unable to act Incapacitated

1433 Intimate Impaired [also liver disease]

Sleeping None

1436 Another room Physical limits of age

[used a walker]

Unknown None

1446 Same room Bedridden by physical

handicap

Unable to act Incapacitated

1448 Same room Unknown Unknown Unknown

1456 Another room Unknown Unknown Unknown

1479 Another floor Unknown Unknown Unknown

1482 Intimate Physical handicap

[stroke 2 days earlier]

Escaping Unknown

1486 Another room Asleep Escaping Chose wrong path,

primary path to front door went toward

fire 1490 Intimate Asleep [had terminal

cancer]

Escaping None

1497 Another room Asleep Escaping None - overcome by

fire in room next to room of origin

1498 Same room Unknown Unknown Unknown

1499 Same room Asleep Sleeping Unknown

1502 Intimate Awake Fire fighting -

overcome by fire on

self while moving to water

Clothing on fire; ran

to bathroom

1504 Another room Physical limits of age Escaping - had

cardiac arrest while

investigating fire

Unknown

1521 Intimate Mental limits of age Escaping, fire fighting - overcome

Clothing on fire; went to bathroom

34
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

by fire on self while

moving to water

1522 Intimate Impaired Escaping None

1527 Another floor Asleep Escaping Unknown

1535 Unknown Impaired Escaping None

1537 Another room or

floor

Unknown Escaping None - Almost got

through front door

1541 Unknown Unknown Unable to act -

mother carried him

to window but he

would not jump

None

1543 Another room Unknown Unknown None

1545 Another room Physical limits of age

[arthritis; used walker]

Escaping None

1548 Same room Awake Escaping Locked door

1549 Unknown Impaired Unknown Unknown

1551 Another room Too young to act [ 1 months]Escaping Blocked by fire

1552 Same room Physical handicap Unable to act Incapacitated;

blocked by fire 1646 Unknown Impaired Unknown Unknown

1648 Another room or

floor

Asleep Sleeping Unknown

1650 Another room Asleep Escaping Blocked by fire 1655 Same room Unknown Escaping Blocked by fire 1659 Another room Unknown Unknown Unknown

1661 Unknown Impaired Unknown Unknown

1663 Another room? Impaired Escaping Unknown

1672 Intimate Impaired Irrational activity Chose wrong refuge - went to bedroom

after setting fire 1725 Another room Too young to act [1 year old]

Unable to act None

1745 Intimate Physical limits of age Unknown Unknown

1746 Intimate Impaired, physical

handicap

Sleeping or unable

to act

Incapacitated -

rescued by neighbor

1748 Intimate Impaired Escaping None

1750 Same room Bedridden due to physical handicap

Unknown - but

moved to dining room

Unknown

1752 Same room Unknown Escaping None - made it to "near" back door

1760 Another room Asleep Sleeping None

1764 Intimate Physical handicap

[wheelchair]

Unable to act Blocked by fire

1765 Same room Awake Unable to act? Unknown — child

stayed in bed after

35
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at IgnitionVictim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

setting fire there

1768 Same room Unknown Escaping Chose wrong refuge - adult went to a bedroom closet After #1768, no fatal cases recorded except when victim activity included attempting rescue or

fire fighting

1840 Same room Impaired [insulin for diabetes]Fire fighfing -

overcome by fire on

second trip to bathroom for water

to fight fire 1875 Another room Asleep Fire fighting —

overcome by fire while escaping after breaking off fire fighting

None

2511 Same room Asleep Rescuing, escaping - overcome during

escape after rescue

attempt

Chose wrong path -

during escape, went

to room of fire origin to call 911

2514 Same room Impaired Fire fighting -

overcome while

moving away from

fire toward water in kitchen

None

2515 Intimate Physical limits of age Fire fighting,

escaping -

overcome by fire on

self while moving to water in kitchen

Clothing on fire

36
Table 20. Special FIDO Study - Non-fatal Injury Victims

ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

651-1 Intimate or same room Awake Escaping None

651-2 Another room Asleep Escaping Blocked by fire -

dove out window

692 Another room Asleep Rescuing - Overcome by fire and rescued by

firefighters

None

743 Another floor Asleep Escaping None - walked into

heat/smoke zone, became disoriented, not sure how

escaped

766 Another room Physical handicap, also

limits of age

Fire fighting,

rescuing - Forced

out, possibly by

heavy smoke

None - tried to rescue wife, who

needed wheel-chair,

from fire room

781 Same room Asleep Escaping None - some initial exposure

912 Another room Asleep Escaping None - fatality died

rescuing cats while

this one escaped

with same initial conditions

1013-1 Intimate Awake Setting the fire, then

escaping

None

1013-2 Unknown Unknown Escaping Unknown

1021 Another floor Unknown Rescuing - Forced

out by heat and

smoke

None

1022 Another room Physical handicap Rescuing - Had to be rescued himself,

possibly partially overcome

None

1201-1 Another room Asleep Rescuing, escaping - Forced back by

fiames

Blocked by fire, so jumped out window

1201-2 Same room Too young to act

[2 years old]

Unable to act -

rescued by passerby

None

1228 Another room Unknown Unknown - rescued

by firefighters and

had not moved

Unknown

1232-1 Another room Asleep Rescuing - partial success, spent time

in fire zone

Reentered building

37
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

1232-2 Another room Asleep Sleeping None - rescued by

parent

1232-3 Another room Asleep Sleeping None - rescued by

parent

1249 Same room Unknown Rescuing — Forced

out by smoke

None

1265 Outside building Awake Rescuing - Forced

back by flames

None

1275 Same room Unknown Rescuing -

Successful, but

removed victim later died

None

1303-1 Another room Asleep Rescuing, escaping - Forced back by

heat and smoke

Blocked by fire

1303-2 Another room? Asleep Escaping None

1303-3 Another floor? Asleep Unknown None - rescued by

firefighters from

unreported location

1337-1 Unknown Impaired Escaping None

1337-2 Unknown Impaired Rescuing, escaping - Forced out by

smoke

Unknown

1340 hitimate Impaired Escaping None

1448 Another room or

floor

Unknown Unknown Unknown

1499-1 Same room Asleep Unknown Unknown — rescued

by parent

1499-2 Unknown Unknown Rescuing -

successful, spent

time in fire zone

Unknown

1541-1 Unknown Unknown Rescuing, escaping - spent time in fire zone, then fell out window

None

1541-2 Unknown Unknown Escaping None

1541-3 Unknown Unknown Escaping None

1545 Unknown Mental handicap Fire fighting,

rescuing, escaping -

Forced out by smoke

None

1551 Same room Too young to act [2

years old]

Irrational activity Chose wrong refuge

(bedroom), rescued

by neighbor

1552 Another room Asleep Escaping, rescuing -

Forced out and then overcome by fire

None - Rescued

after incapacitation

by fire-fighters and

survived; found 10'

38
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

from front door

1648-1 Another room or

floor

Asleep Rescuing, escaping - partially

successful, time in

fire zone

None

1648-2 Another room or

floor

Asleep Sleeping - rescued

by parent

Unknown

1672 Another room Unknown Unknown Blocked by fire 1764 Another room Asleep Escaping Blocked by fire 1771-1 Another room Asleep Escaping - via

window

Blocked by fire

1771-2 Another room Asleep Escaping - via

window

Blocked by fire

1786 Another floor Asleep Escaping - wife died

under same

circumstances

None

1810 Outside building Awake Rescuing - Partial success, stayed

outside at fringe of

fire effects zone

None

1830-1 Same room Mental handicap Escaping Blocked by fire 1830-2 Another room Asleep Rescuing - Forced

out by firefighters,

based on heavy

smoke

None

1830-3 Another room Asleep Fire fighting -

Forced out by fire size

None

1866 Same room Asleep Escaping None

1874-1 Same room Impaired Fire fighting,

rescuing, escaping -

Forced out due to

fire size

None

1874-2 Another floor Asleep Escaping None

1874-3 Another floor Asleep Escaping None

2098 Another room Impaired Escaping Overcome by fire but rescued by

firefighters

2144-1 Same room Awake Escaping - rescued

via window

Blocked by fire

2144-2 Another room Unknown Escaping Blocked by fire - jumped from

window

2163-1 Unknown Unknown Unknown Blocked by fire, rescued by

firefighters

2163-2 Unknown Unknown Unknown Blocked by fire.

39
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at IgnitionVictim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

rescued by

firefighters

2163-3 Unknown Unknown Unknown Blocked by fire, rescued by

firefighters

2175-1 Unknown Asleep Escaping None

2175-2 Unknown Asleep Escaping None

2189-1 Intimate Awake Escaping None

2189-2 Another floor Awake Escaping None

2189-3 Another floor Awake Escaping None

2208 Unknown Asleep Escaping Unknown

2249 Outside building Awake Escaping, rescuing -

Forced back

None

2281 Another floor Asleep Escaping None - rescued after being incapacitated

2323 Another room Asleep Escaping, rescuing -

Successful, repeated

exposure to fire effects zone for 3 rescues

None

40
Table 21. Special FIDO Study- Uninjured Occupants

ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

691-1 Another floor Unknown Unable to act Blocked by fire but

rescued, in smoke

zone till rescued

691-2 Another floor Unknown Unable to act Blocked by fire but

rescued, in smoke

zone till rescued

691-3 Another floor Unknown Unable to act Blocked by fire but

rescued, in smoke

zone till rescued

692-1 Intimate or same room

Too young to act [3 years old]Escaping - led to safetyMoved too slowly -

possible initial exposure

692-2 Another room Asleep Rescuing — did not have to enter fire effects zone

No exposure

692-3 Another room Unknown Escaping No exposure

692-4 Another room Unknown Escaping No exposure

716-1 Another room Awake Rescuing - in fire effects zone, and

exposed crawling

out

None

716-2 more

than one

person

Another floor - a family of

unreported size

Unknown Escaping No exposure

720 Another room Awake? Rescuing - Forced

back by fire Some exposure

1021-1 Another floor Unknown Escaping, rescuing -

Avoided fire effects zone

None

1021-2 Another floor Unknown Escaping None

1021-3 Another floor Too young to act Unable to act -

rescued

Moved too slowly

but never in fire effects zone

1022 Another building Awake Rescuing -

Successfiil, some

time in fire effects zone

None

1024 Another room Awake Rescuing -

Successful even though victim later died, some time in

fire effects zone

None

1228 Another floor Asleep Escaping None

41
ID# Fatal Victim

Location

Victim Condition at Ignition

Victim Activity

when Injured

Condition

Preventing Escape

1284 Another floor Physical limits of age Rescuing, escapingForced back by

smoke and heat

Unknown

1497-1 Another room Asleep Escaping None

1497-2 Another room Asleep Escaping None

1527-1 Another floor Impaired Escaping None

1527-2 Another floor Asleep Escaping None

1527-3 Another floor Impaired Escaping None

1548 Same room Awake Escaping None

1655-1 Another room Asleep Escaping, rescuing -

Forced back by fire Unknown

1655-2 Same room Awake Escaping None

1746 Outside building Unknown Rescuing - Removed victim

ft-om burning bed,

but victim later died

None

1752-1 Outside building Awake Fire fighting,

rescuing - Removed

victim from floor

but victim died

None

1752-2 Outside building Awake Fire fighting,

rescuing - Removed

victim from floor

but victim died

None

1810 Same room Awake Escaping - ft-om fire he set None

1866 Another room Asleep Escaping None

2103-1 Another floor Asleep Escaping None

2103-2 Another floor Asleep Escaping None

2118-1 Outside building Awake Rescuing - Forced

out by heat

None

2118-2 Outside building Awake Fire fighting -

Forced out by

flames

None

2149-1 Another apartment

unit on same floor

Awake Fire fighting -

Forced back or out by fire

None

2149-2 Another apartment

unit on same floor

Awake Fire fighting -

Forced back or out by fire

None

2175 Unknown Asleep Escaping None

2511 Another room Asleep Escaping None

42
Table 22 compares the fraction of victims involved in various activities for reported deaths and

injuries in home fires to the corresponding fractions from the FIDO study. For deaths, the FIDO

study differs from the reported fire deaths particularly with regard to sleeping and escaping. It is possible that our coding gave credit to people for attempting to escape based on less evidence or

less success than the typical fire officer would use. The differences are much larger for non-fatal

injuries, but this reflects the fact that the FIDO study only examined injuries suffered in fires

where one person died. For all statistics, proportional allocation has been done for cases where

activity at time of injury was unknown. For FIDO study statistics, when two or more activities were noted for a single injury, a fractional value was assigned to each.

Table 22. Activity at Time of Injury - Special FIDO Study vs. 1993-97 Reported

Home Fire Civilian Deaths and Injuries^^

Activity at Time of InjuryReported

Deaths

FIDO Study -

Deaths

Reported

Injuries

FIDO Study -

Injuries

Sleeping 41.3 % 14.0% 17.3% 5.3 %

Escaping 27.2 % 42.4 % 23.8 % 62.6 %

Unable to act 13.7% 25.6 % 4.8 % 1.8%

Irrational action 6.4 % 9.3 % 5.0 % 1.8%

Rescuing 3.1 % 2.9 % 7.4 % 24.9 %

Fire fighting 2.9 % 5.8 % 31.9% 3.8 %

Other known activity 5.4 % 0.0 % 9.8 % 0.0 %

The purpose of the FIDO study was to obtam additional insight into the risk consequences of

certain behaviors. Table 23 provides a summary description of what inferences might be

reasonably drawn from a combination of coded descriptions about a fatally or non-fatally injured

victim.

Activity is the most important of these descriptors. An individual coded as "unable to act" or

"acting irrationally" is very unlikely to benefit from additional time, as they will need someone

else to rescue them. Incapacitation by fire is irrelevant m that these individuals are aheady

uicapacitated by other conditions. For example, there were 22 fatally injured victims coded as "unable to act" compared to only 1 non-fatally injured victim and three uninjured occupants so coded. The latter were primarily children who required only direction for successful rescue. The

fatally injured victims who were "unable to act" included a number of adults who were either

physically or mentally unable to assist in their own rescue and would have posed a severe challenge even with more time.

43
Table 23. Estimated Value of Delayed Time to Incapacitation, Based on Victim

Activity at Time of injury, Condition at Time of Ignition, Location at Time of

Ignition, and on Other Condition Preventing Escape

Activity of Victim

at Time of Injury

Condition

Preventing Escape

Condition of

Victim at Time of

Ignition

Location of

Victim at Time of

Ignition

Would Delayed

Incapacitation Have

Provided Useful Time?

Escaping ( 1

Any Any Any Very probably yes

Irrational activity

(8)

Any Any Any No, unless irrational act is due to incapacitation by

fire, which is rarely true, hi

FIDO study, these victims

usually sought refuge in unsafe place or re-entered

building for no good reason Unable to act (7) Any Any Any No

Fire fighting (3-5) Any Any Any Possibly, if delayed growth

allowed successful

completion of task before

escape became impossible

Attempting rescue

(2)

Any Any Any Possibly, if delayed growth

allowed successful

completion of task before

escape became impossible

Sleeping,

unclassified, or unknown (6,9,0)

Fire grew too fast, fire between victim

and exit, victim

moved too slowly,

unclassified or unknown (Not 3-5

or?)

Awake or

asleep (1,8)

hitimate

with ignition

(1)

Unlikely; there are serious

problems that won't

disappear with more time

Sleeping,

unclassified, or unknown (6,9,0)

Fire grew too fast, fire between victim

and exit, victim

moved too slowly,

unclassified or unknown (Not 3-5 or 7)

Awake or

asleep (1,8)

Not intimate

(2-7)

Possible; these problems

might be manageable with more time, especially if there is earlier detection, too

Sleeping,

unclassified, or unknown (6,9,0)

Any combination of codes other than those in the

two rows above

Unlikely or uncertain; there are no favorable victim

characteristics to encourage

optimism

At the other end of the spectrum, an individual coded as "escaping" is very likely to benefit from

additional time. Incapacitation stops the escape attempt and is of critical importance in the

timeline leading to death. A substantial majority of individuals in the FIDO study who were coded as "escaping" emerged without fatal injury. For reported deaths and injuries, this pattern

44
is even more dramatic, bearing in mind that the overall totals are about 5-to-l non-fatal to fatal injuries and the percentages of each coded as "escaping" are quite similar.

Some victims (e.g., those coded as impaired by drugs or alcohol, or having physical or mental

handicaps or limits associated with age) might benefit less from a given increment of escape time

than victims without such limitations, but all should benefit to some degree. However, the other

characteristics of victims who were attempting to escape rarely show problems that would reduce

their ability to benefit from extra time. For example, only 9.7 % of these deaths and 7.6 % of

these injuries involve victims who began their escape after being intimately involved with

ignition. Only 7.4 % of these deaths but 20.4 % of these injuries involve victims with reported

handicaps, impairments, or limitations.

An individual coded as "sleeping" will need some help to benefit from any delay in the timeline

of developing fire hazard. Absent the introduction of some form of alerting that did not occur in

the fire as it happened, the individual is likely to continue sleeping and simply be fatally injured

later. Incapacitation is irrelevant to what happened to them, but might not have been irrelevant if they had been alerted to the fire earlier. Some victim conditions (e.g. , impaired by drugs or

alcohol, or having physical or mental handicaps or limits associated with age; victim located in

same room as fire) and some fire conditions (e.g., fire blocked escape path to exit, fire moved too

quickly and left no time to escape) would indicate less potential for the individual to benefit from

extra time.

An individual coded as "unclassified" or "unknown" with regard to activity is like an individual

coded as "sleeping" in that time might help or might not help, and the difference is likely to depend on factors captured by other victim characteristics or by factors not recorded.

An individual coded as "rescuing" or "fire fighting" poses a very interesting situation. Clearly,

incapacitation is important because it terminates the activity and probably does so with the

victim exposed to severe fire danger. At the same time, both activities involve voluntary

assumption of risk by the individuals for a rational purpose. If the risk of incapacitation takes

longer to develop, the individual may continue to attempt rescue or fire control during that time.

We do not know how often that extra time will lead to sufficient success to allow the individual

to save himself or herself. We do not know what cues individuals use to decide to stop these

activities and save themselves. Therefore, it is quite possible that extra time until incapacitating

conditions develop would not help these individuals.

Because the stakes are higher for rescue than for fire fighting, we might speculate that rescuers

are more likely to persist in their attempts than fire fighting occupants. And it may be noted that

there are 58.8 non-fatal injuries suffered while fire fighting for every fatal injury suffered during

that activity, compared to only 12.6 non-fatal injuries suffered while rescuing for every fatal injury suffered during that activity. This argues for the greater persistence, even unto death, for

the would-be rescuers, while the even lower ratios (only 3.4) for all other activities argues for the

fact that both rescuing and fire fighting involve voluntary risk that can be broken off if the

individual feels too much at risk. Persistence for sleepers or those unable to act or acting

irrationally is not something they choose - or choose to stop.

45
Table 24 shows how very different the fatal injuries, non-fatal injuries, and no-injury cases are in

terms of the kind of exposure associated with each group's approach to attempting rescue or fire control:

Table 24. Reason for Termination of Rescue or Fire Fighting Activity, by Severity

of Harm to Person Engaged in Activity

How Did Activity

Terminate?

FIDO study -

Fatal injuries

FIDO study -

Non-fatal injuries

FIDO study -

Uninjured people

Person overcome by

fire (and, if not

fatally injured, was

then rescued)

79% 14% 0%

Person forced out

{i.e., had to leave the

fire zone)

21% 41% 13%

Person forced back

(i.e., prevented from

entering the fire zone)

0% 18% 33%

Person successful in

activity and/or stayed

outside fire zone 0% 27 % 53%

Total cases 14 22 15

In both of the injury columns, fatal and non-fatal, we do not know whether any changes delaying

the time to an incapacitating dose would in fact lead to a reduced dose received because:

we do not know the cues leading people to break off the activity short of success and

we do not know how close the unsuccessful people were to success (although the

narratives uniformly suggest that they were not that close).

It appears more likely that the person would have simply extended his or her activity time, taking

advantage of the reduced strain from the fire.

Table 25 indicates the numbers and shares of deaths and injuries associated with each of the

categories in Table 23. It also includes a letter grade (A to F) intended to provide an estimate of

the degree to which extra time until incapacitation is likely to lead to a different, more favorable

outcome. The "escaping" victims account for 16.5 % of deaths and 18.6 % of injuries; they are the ones most likely to benefit and have grade "A." The "rescuing" and "fire fighting" victims

account for 3.8 % of deaths and 32.4 % of injuries; they are next most likely to benefit and have

grade "B." Four-fifths of the deaths and roughly half of the injuries fall in the remaining

categories, where the value of extra time is less certain or less favorable. The "unable to act" and

46
"acting irrationally" victims account for 12.4 % of deaths and 7.6 % of injuries; they are the least likely to benefit and have grade "F." The other victims (67.4 % of deaths, 41.4 % of injuries) were sleeping or had activity unclassified or unknown, with most having no other known

characteristics of victim or fire to indicate that they would or would not have benefited from

extra time to incapacitation. They were given grades from C to D, with higher grades reserved

for those victims who did have other known characteristics pointing to a better chance of using

extra time effectively.

Table 25. Number and Share of Reported Home Fire Deaths and Injuries, Based

on Victim Activity at Time of Injury, Condition at Time of Ignition, Location at

Time of Ignition, and on Other Condition Preventing Escape

Activity of

Victim at Time of

Injury

Condition Preventing

Escape

Condition of

Victim at Time of

Ignifion

Location of

Victim at Time of

Ignition

Number/Percent of

Deaths and Injuries

(Letter Grade is for 'Would Time Help?')

Escaping ( 1

)

Any Any Any 594 deaths (16.5%)

3,571 injuries (18.6%)

(A - Extra time most

likely to help)

Irrational

activity (8)

Any Any Any 139 deaths (3.9%)

747 injuries (3.9 %) (F -

Extra fime won't help)

Unable to act

(7)

Any Any Any 307 deaths (8.5 %)

701 injuries (3.7 %)

(F - Extra time won't

help)

Fire fighting

(3-5)

Any Any Any 73 deaths (2.0 %)

5,053 injuries (26.4 %)

(B)

Attempting

rescue (2)

Any Any Any 66 deaths (1.8%)

1,154 injuries (6.0%)

(B)

Sleeping,

unclassified, or unknown

(6,9,0)

Fire grew too fast, fire between victim and

exit, victim moved too slowly, unclassified or unknown (Not 3-5 or 7)

Awake or asleep (1,8)

Intimate with

ignition ( 1

)

78 deaths (2.2 %)

227 injuries (1.2%)

(D+)

Sleeping,

unclassified, or unknown

(6,9,0)

Fire grew too fast, fire between victim and

exit, victim moved too slowly, unclassified or unknown (Not 3-5 or 7)

Awake or asleep (1,8)

Not intimate

(2-7)

732 deaths (20.3 %)

2,172 injuries (11.3%)

(C-)

Sleeping,

unclassified, or unknown

(6,9,0)

Any combination of codes other than those in the two rows above

1,620 deaths (44.9%)

5,525 injuries (28.9 %)

(D)

47
This analysis suggests that roughly half of the deaths and roughly two-thirds of the injuries could

be prevented were the times to incapacitating exposures lengthened sufficiently to result in a more favorable outcome. This summation, based on the content of Table 25, assumes that:

all of the A and B deaths and injuries could be prevented, none of the grade F deaths and injuries could be so affected, and

half the grade C deaths and injuries and one-third of the grade D deaths and injuries could

be so prevented

4. Summary

Estimates from analysis of epidemiological data indicate that: Approximately one half million people are exposed to fire smoke each year. This is 2 1 to 45 times the number of reported civilian fire injuries involving smoke inhalation. It is likely that this disparity results from most of the exposures being of short duration and/or

to low smoke concentrations.

Roughly half of the deaths and roughly two-thirds of the injuries could be prevented were

the times to incapacitating exposures lengthened sufficiently to result in a more favorable

outcome.

Thus, it can be inferred that sublethal effects from smoke exposure can play a substantive role in

preventing safe escape from a fire, but lead to noticeable consequences in only a small fraction

of the people exposed.

5. Future Work

The single most useful addition to the knowledge upon which the foregoing analyses are based

would be enhanced information on the subsequent health of people exposed to fires.

C. CHARACTERISTICS OF FIRE SCENARIOS IN WHICH SUBLETHAL EFFECTS

OF SMOKE ARE IMPORTANT

A second approach led to further guidance in identifying a lesser number of fire scenarios in

which consequential sublethal exposures to fire smoke might occur. This was accomplished

using:

an analysis of the published literature on the fire size, duration, and toxicant yields for

fires important in U.S. fire statistics, and

computer modeling of the resulting conditions in compartments near to and away from

the fire source. In these simulations, the relative importance of toxic potency and thermal

effects was monitored.

The criteria used for identifying classes of fire scenarios in which sublethal effects of smoke

were important were:

48
smoke exposures ranged from one third of the lethal level (taken to be the incapacitating

exposure) to one percent of the lethal exposure (taken to be a conservative value for a non-harmful exposure), and

harm from thermal effects did not occur before a harmful toxic exposure was

accumulated.

1. Categorization of Fire Scenarios

The primary descriptor of a fu^e is its size. Fire incidence reports group fires in categories:

Fire confined to the initial combustible, or spread beyond that combustible, but confined

to the room offire origin. These are generally pre-flashover fires of limited duration and

spatial extent. In the U.S., injuries and deaths in the room of fire origin from these fires are most often caused by intimate contact with the fire, e.g., inhalation of nearly

undiluted smoke from a smoldering chair or bums from flaming clothing. Prior

indications are that outside the room of fire origin, lethal or incapacitating exposures to heat or smoke are unlikely.

Fire extended beyond the room oforigin. These are generally regarded as post-flashover

fires. They generally continue until actively suppressed or until all the accessible fiael is consumed. Prior analysis indicated that within the room of fire origin, heat most often

reaches a life-threatening level before toxic effects occur. Outside the room of fire origin, both thermal and toxic potency effects can be important. In the U.S., most fire fatalities involving smoke inhalation, either as the sole cause or as a contributing cause, occurred outside the room of fire origin and from fires that had spread beyond the room

of origin.

When treating fires quantitatively, the proper measure of fire size is the heat release rate (HRR).

It is this released heat (enthalpy) that raises the temperature of the surroundings, imposing

radiative and convective flux on the occupants. The result is an accelerating, perhaps

exponentially growing rate of consumption of the mass of the fuel items. This is why HRR is both the single most important indicator of real-scale fire performance of a material or construction and of the consequent fire hazard.'^ The report of the recent European program on

Fire Safety of Upholstered Furniture (CBUF) is consistent with this view, ranking the

performance of materials by the HRR of the product and the resulting height of the hot smoke

gas layer.'"* Heat release rates can range from a few kilowatts for a smoldering fire to several

megawatts for a post-flashover fire.

Fires are also characterized by their growth rate, which in the absence of specific data is usually

represented as quadratic with time. Typically, four categories are used, where the characteristic

time is that at which the fire reaches 1 MW:

Ultra fast < 75 s Fast 75 s -150 s Medium 150 s -400 s Slow > 400 seconds.

49
Variation in other fire characteristics has far lesser effect on the development of fire hazard. For

flaming fires, the details of the ignition process have little import since it is the rapid rise of the

rate of heat release that leads to hazardous conditions. For smoldering fires, the growth rate is very slow, and the smoldering time tends to be very long compared to the initial ignition

transient.

The concentration of toxic gases and aerosols depends on the mass of products that is consumed

in the fire, as well as dilution during transport to additional spaces and forced or natural

ventilation. As shown in Section III.D, there is a range of toxic potency values that can be

significant. Thus, the source term of the concentration of toxic smoke from burning products

needs to be carefully determined.

2. Published Test Data

While there have been numerous real-scale room tests of burning products, relatively few have

included the information needed for input to predictive computations to compare thermal effects

and toxic potency:

fire size,

gas temperatures and radiant fluxes to which occupants may be exposed,

yields of important fire gas species and resulting concentrations in compartments of

representative occupancies.

A sampling of available data is summarized below and in Table 26.

Sardqvist '^ reports heat release rate, smoke production, and CO concentrations for a number of

different products from other literature sources. For typical construction products, peak HRR

values range from about 200 kW to more than 3000 kW. For most of the products, only a CO

production rate is available, without an accompanying mass loss rate. For products where data

are available, CO yields range from 0.02 kg/kg to 0.08 kg/kg.

Kokkala, Goransson, and Soderbom' report heat release rates and CO yields for a range of wall

surface linings tested in the ISO 9705 room/comer test. All of the tests resuhed in high HRR

values. They note [CO]/[C02]concentration ratios below 0.1 for HRR values up to 1000 kW and

close to 0.25 for HRR values above 1000 kW.

Sundstrom'"^ reports on upholstered chairs and mattresses tested for the European CBUF

program. In tests of single items of upholstered furniture, they report HRR values ranging from

300 to 1500 kW. CO yields range from 0.01 kg/kg to 0.13 kg/kg and HCN yields range from

0.0002 kg/kg to 0.004 kg/kg. Most, but not all, of these furniture items would lead to fires below

a level that would cause flashover in their test facility. They note that gas yields increase and

times to untenable conditions decrease within the fire room as ventilation openings decrease.

Ohlemiller et al}'' report on a series of tests to study the fire behavior of bed assemblies,

including a mattress, foundation, and bedclothes. Table 26 shows some of the test results for a mattress assembly. The peak heat release rate was 990 kW. The [CO]/[C02] ratio varied during

the test, ranging from 0.33 just after ignition to 0.006 during active burning.

50
Purser'^"'^ has reported a number of tests that include measurement and analysis of tenability

during building fires. Data on CO, CO2, and HCN yields are included. Yields of CO and HCN

are seen to vary inversely with ventilation, with somewhat higher yields at lower ventilation

conditions. CO yields range from 0.01 kg/kg to 0.08 kg/kg; HCN yields range from 0.009 kg/kg

to 0.09 kg/kg. Times to incapacitation for occupants in an upstairs bedroom of the test structure were estimated to be 2 min to 2.5 min with the fire room door open and more than 20 min with

the fire room door closed.

Purser" reviewed a range of available test data comparing gas yields from small- and large-scale

tests. Table 26 includes some of the large-scale test results. Yields of CO and HCN were somewhat higher for tests where flaming combustion was preceded by a period of smoldering.

CO yields range from 0.04 kg/kg to 0. 13 kg/kg and HCN yields range from 0.0006 kg/kg to 0.007 kg/kg.

Morikawa and Yanai ^^ and Morikawa et al.^~ present the results of a series of ftilly furnished

room fires in a two-story house. In all fires, the ignition source and fuel load were large enough

to lead to rapid flashover in the bum room. The major fire gases were measured in the bum

room and on the upper floor after flashover. Gas temperatures in excess of 700 °C were reported

in the bum room; upper floor temperatures were not reported. CO and HCN levels reached more

than 4 % volume fraction (40,000 ppm by volume) and 0. 1 % volume fraction (1000 ppm by

volume), respectively, in the upper floor within some of the ten minute tests. Although no yields

for the important gases are reported, the authors conclude that HCN production increases when

the [C0]/[C02] ratio is greater than 0. 1

.

Denize"^ reports on a series of ftimiture calorimeter tests on upholstered chairs. Similar buming

behavior is seen for all the chairs. A representative sample is included in Table 27. He notes

two regimes for the [CO]/[C02]ratio. Lower values, in the range of 0.005 to 0.01 are seen during

the growth phase of the fire and higher values around 0.01 to 0.03 as the buming decreased. Tsquared fire growth curves are seen to be a good representation of design fires for upholstered

ftimiture fires.

Babrauskas et al.~^ report on a series of room tests conducted to compare a range of furnishing

materials both with and without added fire retardants. They include bench-, fiimiture, and full- scale test resuhs, including HRR, gas species, and animal exposures. For fires with HRR as high

as 639 kW, CO yields ranged from 0.18 kg/kg to 0.23 kg/kg and average [C0]/[C02] ratios

ranged from 0.02 to 0.19. They conclude that available escape time for occupants of a room with

fire-retardant fumishings is more than 15-fold greater than for occupants of an equivalent room

with non-fire-retardant fumishings.

Braun et al.'^ and Babrauskas et al.^^ report on large-scale tests conducted to compare to benchscale toxicity measurements. Braun used different combustion modes: smoldering ignition

initiated by a cigarette, flaming combustion initiated by a small gas bumer, and smolder-toflaming transition combustion initiated by a cigarette and forced into flaming after a prolonged

period of smoldering. Yields of CO, CO2, and HCN were included. CO yields ranged from

0.08 kg/kg to 0.15 kg/kg and average [C0]/[C02] ratios ranged from 0.01 to 0.2. HCN yields

51
ranged form 0.0002 kg/kg to 0.01 kg/kg. Babrauskas used three different materials in a postflashover fire with Douglas fir, a rigid polyurethane foam, or PVC lining the walls of the bum

room. Yields of CO, CO2, and HCN were included. CO yields ranged from 0.07 kg/kg to 0.5

kg/kg and average [C0]/[C02] ratios ranged from 0.01 to 0.2. HCN yields ranged form

0.0002 kg/kg to 0.01 kg/kg.

Tsuchiya "^ reports mainly [C0]/[C02] ratios for a series of fires. The ratios are seen to depend

upon fuel type and fire conditions. He notes three burning regimes: pre-flaming smoldering,

flaming growth or steady burning, and glowing as the fire decreases. Typical values of the

[C0]/[C02] ratio include 0.14 during smoldering, from 0.005 to 0.025 for the flaming fires, and

as high as 0.4 to 0.5 for post-flashover fires.

The data in Table 26 provide guidance for model simulations to estimate temperatures and gas

concentrations in a variety of occupancies and fire conditions. For a wide range of fire sizes in

open buming, likely equivalent to pre-flashover conditions, the [C0]/[C02] ratios are typically

less than 0. 1 and as low as 0.005. For the larger fires within rooms, most likely vitiated, the

values are higher, with values in the reviewed data up to 0.4. It is noteworthy that experiments

with wood-lined enclosures show much higher CO levels under vitiated conditions, with

[CO]/[C02] ratios near unity."" While these conditions are seen most often in lethal scenarios,

sub-lethal effects may be of note far removed from the room of fire origin.

HCN yields show less variation, with only one value greater than 0.02 kg/kg fuel. More

typically, values in the order of 0.001 kg/kg to 0.007 kg/kg are evident, with several values less

than 0.001 kg/kg.

Irritant gas yield data from ftill-scale tests are extremely rare. For example, the CBUF report^"*

includes HCl yields that range from 0.0001 kg/ kg fuel to 0.03 kg per kg fuel. HBr

concentrations were below 10'^ volume fraction and were not quantified further. Concentrations

of other irritant gases were not measured.

52
(A

0)OO

tfi d)

k.34-1 (00) o

0)u

<1) (0Eoco

re H

(AO3

TJO

0)o

(0

(A

(Are O

"DC

re

re q:

0)

(A

re

_a)a> q:

reoX

(d

CM

re I3=e ooo Oomooo oooAoo o

inoo o

'^OO ooloooOO o

oooom oOS

ON

ddd

dd

Oin

ON

_o ON

d

!-H

HCN

yield

(kg/kg

fuel)

d

k^

d oooooo oo

X3odood

j2odood

ONOd odoood odood r^ odo

riOd odo

«nod ^ o •c ^ 2 O « u s o11 O Oo

o\oo d

d

rndood

d2od

indo

ONod

ind odood odoOd

in

riodo

inod

ONdo

riod

dooddood

indo

inood

CO

yield

(kg/kg

fuel) 00oo1 oo d ooooo do

<^od c^ dood

dood

ood

ONodo

'^od

dood

u.'

do

OOd

indo

OOod

indood

i^

>> HH oD3

'c3

a>£o

Si 1 m-^^ gOooo £

_oaoPoo

(U

klgooo £

_o313 £_o

"3

(L» 313

1-L,

_o

"re

(i> 313

Ph 13co c

Oho3O^ 2 2 s

p-l tc o

<D

1/3 3O

-2 2

k-

'2 ^' P o 11re p

<u P a § ^ P O

13 o

-^

O

O (DO a> p .S S o fe

M

.K 2 -^ -S £^ o £

:= c P «

fc re 35

C

<1> r- 'C_o

reo313

Ph

1^

'S£

_o

reo

r-oo

Pi o

-o

'goo

(—oo

r-oo oHoooo 3

_o

re > 3aoU

C/2

J= o 1 O

^,

>^O

00 1 bO<N — o ^ O o

c/f Cu > ^ o !=: ^ CJ)

're OO o ^

"O ^''

to •^^ O — ^ -

re

re

re ooHQU

\^

're <-<-> Is< u o

r-- HQU

're ro c Q < U

HQU

'reo<

re

re

_P

reen

<D

re

Oh <ii 11 O

're

133

_o

re > o1

X)

re

reo

13

lyT

'c

13

c/3 3

_o

'C

re > 3. O

a"

15o

:0c3

C/5

'£o 3

_N

'p

(U Q

re

C/3 3

re

re CQ 5m

re

c/3 3

re X)

re CQ

reo3

c/3 H

CJ

c/3 co

CJPa

c^-( O

c« -ooo

(U t^M-l> ^ 2 'S ^• ^^ 2-4—•

-^ '5 1 =

—, =* 13 ^

.5? Oh O Z S ^ o ^ ^ o

.P c/3 CJ C3

CJ a,

1/3

C/3

c/3

C/3 a>Oh oP c/3 o

c« a> CJ .z, 2 K

r<-3 in
3. Computer Modeling Design

29 A number of simulations were performed using the CFAST (version 3.1) zone fire model." This

computer program predicts the environment in a structure that results from a specified fire. The

CFAST model is widely used throughout the world, and has been subjected to extensive

evaluations to study the accuracy of the model.

The simulations produced time-varying profiles of smoke concentration and temperature

distributions. Since the main output was to be the relative times at which these two fire products

produced incapacitation, and for simplicity of modeling operation, the people remained

stationary as the environment around them evolved.

Three facility geometries were selected for the simulations. They contain features that capture

the essence of many of the fixed facilities in Table 2 from Section II. A (single- or multiplefamily residences, hospitals, nursing homes, board and care buildings, office buildings, day care

facilities, schools, and detention/correctional buildings). The ranch house geometry is a typical

single-family residence with multiple rooms on a single floor. The hotel geometry includes a

single long corridor connecting two guest rooms. The long hallway would allow increased heat

losses to the surroundings compared to the ranch house. The office geometry is a far larger

structure with higher ceilings and a larger, more open floor plan than either of the other two

geometries.

In any given year, very few people are exposed to fires in the largest, high-ceiling facilities

(stadiums, large recreational buildings, warehouses, high hazard industrial buildings, and stores),

and they are not included for that reason. The simulations of the various rooms of fire origin

provide insight into the relative hazard from thermal or toxicological effects in singlecompartment transportation vehicles (automobiles, trucks, buses, trains, urban mass transit

vehicles, and aircraft). The principal difference between spacecraft and any of the above is the

nominal absence of gravity in the former. Fires in spacecraft require different simulations than

the ones performed here.

The selected combustibles are representative of the most common fires in which people are exposed to smoke. The design properties of these fires were varied, thus making these

combustibles surrogates for almost any type of buming products. Table 27 summaries the

simulations.

Table 27. Conditions in Computer Simulations

Facility Combustibles

Single-level (ranch) house

Business occupancy

Hotel occupancy

Mattress and bedding

Cooking materials

Upholstered furniture

Interior wall coverings

54
a. Ranch house. This configuration is intended to be a generic residential floor plan. The

layout consists of three bedrooms, a central hallway, a combined living room and dining room,

and a kitchen. The geometry is described in Table 28; the layout is shown in Figure 1

Table 28. Geometry of the Ranch House

Room

Number Description Floor Area (m') Ceiling Height (m) Door to: Fire

1 Master

Bedroom

13.68 2.4 6 Yes

2 Bedroom #2 10.80 2.4 6 No

3 Bedroom #3 10.20 2.4 6 No

4 Living &

Dining Rooms

36.45 2.4 5,6 No

5 Kitchen 10.26 2.4 4 No

6 Hallway 16.88 2.4 1,2,3,4 No

Figure 1. Schematic of the Ranch House

I I

_y\

Room of Origin

/\^

>

'\/ \/'

®

I 1

O

o

o

D

<

^

V

® <

>

55
b. Hotel. This configuration consists of two sleeping rooms and a connecting hallway. The

hallway is 30 m long, thus the separation between the rooms is quite significant. The geometry

is summarized in Table 29 and the layout in Figure 2.

Table 29. Geometry of the Hotel Scenario

Room

Number Description

Floor Area Ceiling

Height (m) Door to: Fire

1 Hotel Room 8.93 2.4 2 Yes

2 Hallway 73.20 2.4 1,3 No

3 Hotel Room 8.93 2.4 2 No

Figure 2. Schematic of the Hotel

Target Room (2,4x3,7)

Hallway

(2,4x30)

(2.4x3.7)

56
c. Office. This configuration consists of 4 equally sized office spaces enclosing a hallway and

elevator lobby. Each office has two doors connecting to the hallway. The office layout is assumed to be an open floor plan with desks and/or cubicles. The geometry of the office is summarized in Table 30. The layout is also shown in Figure 3.

Table 30. Geometry of the Office Scenario

Room

Number Description

Floor Area

(m')

Ceiling

Height (m) Door to: Fire

1 Office 1 625 3 5 Yes

2 Office 2 625 3 5 No

3 Office 3 625 3 5 No

4 Office 4 625 3 5 No

5 Hallway and

Elevators

1000 3 1,2,3,4 No

Figures. Schematic of the Office

R oom of Origin r~\ ©

/ \

/

\

(D

\

/

\^^

©

/ \ ®

57
d. Design Fires. Previous analysis had shown that fires that proceeded beyond flashover

could and did produce lethal environments outside the room of fire origin. These results

suggest that sublethal exposures to smoke are also readily possible for post-flashover fu-es. This

paper also cited U.S. fire incidence data showing that about one fifth of the smoke inhalation

deaths arose from fires that had not proceeded beyond the room of origin, suggesting that some

types of these fires could result in people experiencing sublethal smoke exposures.

Accordingly, the design fires in this study were chosen to reflect a broad spectrum of fire

behavior from smoldering fires to near-flashover fires in each of the three facilities. The smoldering fire was approximated with a steady 10 kW heat release rate. The

thermal effects on people from a smoldering fire are generally negligible relative to the

effects of the toxic species.

Three geometry-dependent fires were selected to represent low, medium, and high levels

of flaming combustion. The fires are geometry-dependent due to the fact that the

maximum HRR is determined by calculating the minimum fire size that would result in

flashover in the room of fire origin, using Thomas' flashover correlation.

Thomas' flashover correlation" ' is the result of simplifications applied to an energy balance of a compartment fire. The simplifications resulted in the following equation that has a term

representing heat loss to the total internal surface area of the compartment and a term

representing enthalpy flow out of the vent: = 7.8^^+378^V^ (1)

Q is the minimum HRR required for room flashover (kW), At'vs, the total surface area of the

room (m"), A is the area of the vent (m"), and h is the height of the vent (m). The constants

represent values correlated to experiments producing flashover.

The fire sizes for each scenario were chosen to range from 0.05 to 0.9 times the minimum

flashover HRR calculated for the specific geometry. Thus, the absolute magnitude of the fire is higher for the office scenario (with its larger room size) than the hotel and ranch scenarios.

Finally, fires from experimental measurement of actual products prevalent in fire statistics were

used to provide representative fires from the fire test data reviewed earlier. An upholstered chair

fire and a mattress fire were included to place the generic design fires in context when compared

to conditions generated from actual frre test data. Table 3 1 summarizes the design fires chosen

for each scenario.

Gas species yields for these design fires were taken from the literature data reviewed earlier. For

the flaming fires, the [C0]/[C02] ratio was set at a constant value of 0.03 and the HCN yield was

set to 0.0003 kg/kg fuel from the literature data reviewed above. For the smoldering fires, higher

yields were used, increasing the [C0]/[C02] ratio by an order of magnitude and the HCN yield

by a factor of 2. For the upholstered chair and mattress fires, experimental data from the tests were used.

58
Table 31. Selected Design Fire Scenario Characteristics

Geometry Fire Descriptor Maximum HRR (kW) Growth Characteristics

Ranch

Smoldering 10 Steady

0.05 • Flashover 87 Linear

0. 1 • Flashover 174 Linear

0.5 • Flashover 869 Linear

0.9 • Flashover 1.564 Linear

Upholstered Chair 1490

->

Mattress 990 -t"

Hotel

Smoldering 10 Steady

0.5 • Flashover 713 Linear

0.9 • Flashover 1,283 Linear

Office

Smoldering 10 Steady

0.5 • Flashover 5974 Linear

0.9 • Flashover 10,752 Linear

e. Tenability Criteria. The following are the criteria used for the two potential effects on

people. As in all zone model calculations, the hot gases are presumed to be uniformly mixed in an upper layer and not present in a lower layer in each room. The effects of concentrated smoke

or high temperatures near the fire itself are not included.

Heat exposure: The current version of ISO document 13571^^ mcludes equations for calculating

incapacitation from skin exposure to radiant heating and from exposure to convected heat

resuking form elevated gas temperatures. Combining the two, a dimensionless Fractional

Effective Dose (FED) for heat exposure is given as:

1.33 FED. Xf^At .t ^

3.4 TM^^ ^1.33 '

' f 5x10'

where q is in kW/m' and T is in °C

At

(2)

59
Gas Concentration: The FED equation for the incapacitating effects of asphyxiant gases, derived

from the current version of ISO document 13571 is:

GASES Z-33QQQ Z. 220

(3)

The HCN term has been modified slightly from exp(//CA/^/43)/220to eliminate the artifact of a

zero HCN concentration resulting in lethality at very long exposures. CO and HCN are the

average concentrations of these gases (in the conventional ppm by volume) over the time

increment At. The person "receives" incremental doses of smoke until an incapacitating value of

FED is reached.

The ISO document also includes an equation for incapacitation from irritant gases. Few sets of

large-scale test experimental include yields of irritant gases. In addition, current fire modeling

capabilities do not typically include the ability to track the generation and transport of multiple

irritant gases. Thus, an irritant gas (HCl) was only included in our analysis for one scenario

where such data were available. For the other calculations, we assumed that the asphyxiant

gases accounted for all or half of the overall tenability due to gas inhalation.

The Fractional Effective Concentration (FEC) equation for the incapacitating effect of irritant gases in the current version of ISO document 13571 is:

FEC - IS2J + 1521] + ISL] + I5^ + £122J +

1000 1000 500 150 250

[acrolein] [formaldehyde ] ^

[Irri tant]

30 ^ 250 ^ Zu C\

For our analysis, two FED or FEC values were used:

FED or FEC = 0.3, indicating incapacitation of the susceptible population. This limit was

used for both heat and gas tenability.

FED or FEC = 0.01 (1 % of the lethal FED value for the susceptible population), a value

well below a level at which a significant sublethal effect would occur. This limit was

used only for the gas tenability.

The following hazard calculations were based on the assumption that occupants would breathe

the relatively clean lower layer gases when possible. Specifically, if the layer height were above

1.5 m, lower layer values were used, since occupants could breathe lower layer gases while

standing. If the layer height were between 1 m and 1 .5 m, the upper layer values were used if the

upper layer temperature was below 50 °C; otherwise, the lower layer values were used. This

presumes that occupants would breathe upper layer gases if the gas were not to hot; otherwise

they would bend over and breathe lower layer gases. If the layer height were below 1 m, the

60
upper layer values were used, since occupants could not bend far enough if the gases sufficiently

filled the room. While some occupants might crawl, this cannot be presumed, and the upper

layer assumption is conservative. FEC calculations were based solely on upper layer values

since the FEC is based on an instantaneous exposure.

4. COMPUTER MODELING RESULTS

a. Baseline Results. A baseline scenario was conducted for each of the three geometries.

The door to the room of fire origin was fully open and the fire had a linearly increasing HRR

(increasing by 10 kW/s) until a maximum HRR of 90 % of the minimum HRR necessary for

room flashover, as determined by Thomas' flashover correlation.

Figure 4 shows the relative importance of the thermal FED criterion vs. the gas FED criterion at incapacitation and at 1 % of the lethal concentration levels. Ranch house configuration. The occupants of rooms 1 and 6 were overcome by heat before

any sublethal effects were noted (the 1 % of lethality criterion). For rooms 2 through 5 (bedrooms, living/dining room, and kitchen) the criterion for incapacitation by heat was

achieved between 120 s and 190 s, soon after the conservative threshold for any sublethal

effect was passed - between 90 s and 140 s, and well before smoke inhalation was

incapacitating. Even in the kitchen, the room farthest from the fire, incapacitation from heat

occurred well before incapacitation from smoke inhalation, but at times when lesser smoke

effects might be felt. Thus, in all cases, incapacitation from thermal exposure occurs before

incapacitation from gas inhalation, but sublethal smoke effects might occur remote from the

fire room.

Hotel configuration. Thermal effects significantly preceded any toxicity effects in all rooms.

Office configuration. The volume of the office occupancy is large due to the higher ceilings

(relative to the other two scenarios) and the large square footage of the office and hallway

spaces. This doubles the effective volume above the height where occupants would be

exposed. Thermal effects dominate in the office of fire origin, as well as in the hallway

outside that office, resulting in heat criterion achievement in 230 s and 660 s, respectively.

People in the remaining offices crossed the 1 % of the lethal gas FED threshold at 880 s, while becoming incapacitated from smoke inhalation at 1240 s. Incapacitation from heat

occurred at 1570 s. However, for this scenario the occupants are estimated to be evacuated

from the fire floor within 370 s ", well before incapacitation and even before the potential

onset of sublethal effects in some areas. Causality for the differing scenario results is investigated below.

61
Figure 4. Comparison of Thermal Effects and Narcotic Gas Effects for Several

Different Geometries

Ranch House

^ 0.10

0.01 -

Hotel Office

0.1 0.2 FED, Heat

/

Incapacitation

Fire Room

Office 2

Offices

Office 4

Hallway

1 % of Lettiality

0.1 0.2 FED, Heat

b. Effect of Fire Size Variation. Since the magnitude of a fire in a room will affect, in

different ways, the rates of temperature rise and mass of toxic gases, simulations were performed

in which the fire size was systematically varied. Five different fire sizes were simulated in the

ranch house scenario (only), ranging from smoldering (10 kW) to 0.9 times the HRR for

flashover (1564 kW). Figure 5 shows the results in times to effect for different fire sizes as a function of a fill volume. As the fire grows, the smoke must fill the top of the room (the floor area times the distance between the ceiling and top of a door) before the fire effluent can spread

to subsequent rooms. Each time the smoke spills into another space, the additional room results

in a step increase in this fill volume.

Incapacitation from thermal effects. For the largest HRR fires (1 564 kW and 869 kW), the thermal criterion was rapidly

exceeded in all rooms. For the 10 % of flashover fire level (174 kW), the effects of volume separation were

significant. Incapacitating exposures in the rooms intimate with the fire (room of origin

and hallway) were reached in less than 250 s, while the subsequent rooms (bedrooms 2

and 3, living room, and kitchen) remained tenable for 3 10 s to 750 s. For the small, 86 kW fire, an incapacitating exposure was reached in the room of fire origin in 230 s, but not in the kitchen until 990 s. For the smoldering fire, the thermal criterion was never exceeded in any of the rooms.

Thus, large fires resulted in rapid thermal effects throughout the ranch house. A critical intermediate fire size exists for which thermal tenability limits may or may not be achieved

based upon proximity to the fire (intervening volume). Very small fires do not realize

significant thermal impact on people beyond the room of fire origin.

62
Figure 5. Effect of Fire Size on Time to Incapacitation due to Thermal Effects and

Narcotic Gases for Fires in a Ranch House.

Thermal Effects

«

CO 'o

COQ.

COo

c

2000

B 1500 -

1000

^ 500

0)E

-•— 1564 kW

O 869 kW

-f— 174 kW

-^ 86 kW

Temperature limit not reached in smoldering fire

.V

. .. —W'

.—

V

5=^

< o

10 15 20

Volume (m^)

25 30 35

2000

1500

c

.g

CD

i_ "c

CDO

c

oO

m 1000

CO

500

0)E

1 % of Lethal Concentration Due to Gases

—•- 1564 kW

O 869 kW -^— 174 kW

-V 86 kW

Smoldering Fire

^^^-^

"~~v10 15 20 25 30 35

Volume (m^)

(/}

CD 'o

COQ.

COo

c

E

i2000 -r

•^ 1500 -

1000

500

—•- 1564 kW

O 869 kW

-^r- 174 kW

^7 86 kW

Smoldering Fire

Incapacitation Due to Gases

w

10 15 20

Volume (m^)

25 30 35

63
Incapacitation from narcotic gases.

For the largest fire ( 1 564 kW), the criterion for incapacitation by smoke inhalation was

rapidly exceeded in all rooms. The same is true of the 869 kW fire, with the exception of

the kitchen, from which people could escape for 3 1 80 s, almost an hour.

For the 1 74 kW fire, the time to incapacitation was far longer, greater than 1 000 s for all rooms. People could still escape from the kitchen after 7200 s (which is beyond the time

interval over which the FED equation is valid).

People would not be incapacitated by smoke from the smallest flaming fire (86 kW)

except after long times in the hallway (1770 s) and the two bedrooms (1670 s). The room

of fire origin does not become untenable due to a vent to the outside.

For the smoldering fire, the incapacitation criterion was exceeded, but at long exposure

times, in all rooms. This is because the toxic species yields were taken to be significantly

higher (10 times the CO and twice the HCN) for smoldering fires than flaming fires.

Thus, large fires can rapidly generate incapacitating exposures throughout the facility.

Logically, smaller fires take disproportionately longer to do so. Smoldering fires can lead to shorter times to incapacitation than small flaming fires due to higher narcotic gas yields, hi all cases, unlike for thermal effects, the intervening volume (remoteness from the fire) has a minimal effect upon times to incapacitation by smoke inhalation, as shown by the shallow curve

slopes in Figure 5. By the time toxic gases become important, the entire volume of the house is filled below the door lintels. Thus, the structure resembles a single large volume more than a

series of smaller spaces.

"No effect" criterion.

For all the fires, this sub-threshold exposure is exceeded within five minutes in all rooms, and

thus some secondary effects of smoke are possible if evacuation or rescue is delayed. Similar to the incapacitation results, there is little dependence on the intervening volume at all fire sizes.

Again, the structure resembles a single large volume more than a series of smaller spaces.

In general for these pre-flashover flaming fires with all open vents, the time to incapacitation

from thermal effects is comparable to or shorter than the time to incapacitation from inhalation

of asphyxiant gases. For the smoldering fire, thermal effects are, of course, not important, while

incapacitation from smoke inhalation can occur.

c. Effect of Variation in tlie Fire Room Doorway (Vent) Opening. The results of

simulations of the impact of ventilation between the room of fire origin and the rest of the ranch

house scenario are shown in Figure 6. The HRR of the fire is 1564 kW, or 90 % of the HRR that

would lead to flashover with the door fully open. Based on Thomas' flashover correlation, the

scenarios with the door partially closed would result in fire room flashover.

The effect of decreasing the door opening was to decrease the available ventilation to the fire room. An oxygen-limited fire may result, thus decreasing the prescribed HRR of the fire. Additionally, flow is reduced between the room of origin and the rest of the structure. The

average flow from the room of fire origin to the connecting hallway with the doorway 10 % open

was roughly one fifth of the flow when the vent was fially opened.

64
Incapacitationfrom thermal effects. Changing the vent opening had a significant impact on the

time to thermal incapacitation. When the door to the room of fire origin was completely open,

the exposure criterion was exceeded for all rooms in less than 1 90 s. Reducing the door opening

by half resulted in a significant difference only in the kitchen, the room farthest from the fire,

where the time to incapacitation increased from 190 s to over 350 s. The differences for all other rooms were less than 30 s. Closing the door to 10 % open resuked in times to incapacitation 3 to 5 times longer than if the door were 100 % open for all rooms except for the room of fire origin.

The kitchen did not exceed the thermal criterion in 500 s.

Incapacitationfrom narcotic gases. Incapacitation from smoke inhalation occurred in all rooms

between 150 s and 280 s with the door fully or half open. Having only 10 % of the original door

opening resuhed in toxicity incapacitation times between 400 s and 470 s for all rooms except

the room of fire origin. [The fact that the kitchen did not become untenable when the door was

50 % open was a function of the assumptions made in the analysis of which layer (upper or lower) the occupant was breathing. Since the upper layer was warm (greater than 50 °C) but

greater than 1 m off the floor, the occupant was assumed to breathe the lower layer (low toxic

gas concentrations, relative to the upper layer), hi the door 10 % open scenario, the upper layer

temperature in the kitchen was less than 50 °C, and the layer height was between 1 m and 1.5 m.

Therefore the occupant was assumed to breathe air from the upper layer.]

"No effect " criterion. Generally, within about two minutes, there was a hypothetical potential

for sublethal effects throughout the house. This took a bit longer in the kitchen when the door is half open. Interestingly, when the door was open only 10 %, the flow from the hallway (to the

two bedrooms and the dining/living room) exceeded the flow to the hallway from the room of

fire origin, extending the tenability somewhat. With larger door openings, the flow to the

hallway dominated.

Severely restricting the opening between the fire room and the rest of the structure limits the

flow of gases out of the fire room. This results in longer times both to thermal effects and to effects from combustion products.

Figure 7 shows a comparison of the thermal and gas concentration effects for two single-item

fires taken from the literature reviewed above. In the ranch house, both the upholstered chair and

the mattress fire resulted in occupants being overcome by thermal effects at or before the time

gas concentrations reached 1 % of lethal values. Temperatures reached 100 °C in rooms outside

the room of fire origin within 130 s for the chair fire and 260 s for the mattress fire. (For the

mattress fire, the kitchen never reached 100 °C.) Gas concentrations reached 1 % of lethal

values within 1 10 s to 190 s for the chair and mattress fire, respectively. Incapacitation occurred

far later, with values ranging from 460 s to 650 s for the chair fire and from 560 s to 920 s for the

mattress fire.

In all but the smallest fires, times to incapacitation are greater than or competitive with the time

occupants would be overcome by thermal effects resulting from the fire. In some cases, notably

larger fires with open vents near the room of fire origin, incapacitation due to thermal effects occurs prior to any sublethal effects.

65
Figure 6. Effect of Fire Compartment Vent Opening on Time to Incapacitation due

to Thermal and Narcotic Gas Effects for Several Rooms in a Ranch House

Thermal Effects

CO

(0 'o

COQ.

COO

c

£

600

500 H

400

300 -

200

100

-o

Vent Fully Open

Vent Open 50%

Vent Open 10%

Incapacitation times > 1000 s

for rooms outside room of fire origin for 1 0% vent opening

•O

O

25

Volume (m^

30 35

Incapacitation Due to Gases

CO 600 c 500

o

CO 400

o

COQ.

CO 300

o

c

^00

o

CDE

100

o

Vent Fully Open

Vent Open 50%

Vent Open 10%

10 15 20

Volume (m^)

25 30 35

1 % of Lethality Due to Gases

CO>.

Id

CD

CD£

uuu

500 - —•— Vent Fully Open

O Vent Open 50%

400 - --— Vent Open 10%

300 -

200 - ^

1 I" 1

.o

100 -

-- r—~^

10 15 20 25 30 35

Volume (m )

66
Figure 7. Comparison of Incapacitation from Thermal Effects and Narcotic Gas

Effects for Two Single Item Fires in a Ranch House

CO

(DW

CO o

o

oD

Q

UJ

0.30

0.20

0.10 -

0.02 -

0.01

0.00

0.3 1.0 2.0 FED Due to Heat

3.0 4.0

d. Sublethal Effects from Irritant Gases. There are numerous accounts of people

"suffering from smoke inhalation" as they evacuate a building. Many of these are presumably

from exposures of the order of a few minutes or less. Based on the above simulations, these

effects are not likely to be from narcotic gases. It is more probable that the cause is irritant gases, exposure to which causes upper respiratory effects very quickly, especially at the

incapacitating level. ^^ As stated earlier, there is a dearth of irritant gas yield data from roomscale tests and so they were not studied in detail for this analysis.

For one of the single-item fires, an upholstered chair, yield data for HCl were available. For this

scenario, FEC values for exposure to HCl were calculated along with FED values for asphyxiant

gases and heat. FEC values never reached incapacitating levels in any of the rooms of the ranch

house. Irritant gases reached 1 % of lethal conditions at times roughly comparable to those for

narcotic gases. Typical values of the FEC for HCl exposure at incapacitation times due to heat or

narcotic gases were approximately 0.03 and 0.06, respectively. The HCl yield for this item was

only 0.002 kg/kg fuel; it would have to be 5 to 10 times higher for incapacitation from HCl to occur at times comparable to heat or asphyxiant gases.

67
5. SUMMARY: FIRE SCENARIOS FOR WHICH SUBLETHAL EFFECTS COULD

LEAD TO SIGNIFICANT HARM.

It had previously been shown for post-flashover fires that thermal conditions are the first to make

the room of fire origin untenable and that lethal or incapacitating exposures could precede

intolerable thermal conditions in rooms remote from the fire room.^

From the computer modeling in Section III.C, we now project that for pre-flashover fires:

In the room of fire origin, incapacitation from thermal effects generally will occur before

narcotic gas concentrations reach even 1 % of lethal conditions. The exception to this

involves smoldering fires that generate little heat and, with little buoyancy to drive

mixing throughout the space, can readily generate incapacitating exposures, especially for

occupants intimate to the smoldering item.

Outside the room of fire origin, in buildings with large rooms, smoke is diluted rapidly,

and the exposure threshold for significant smoke inhalation effects will occur well after

incapacitation from heat.

Outside the room of fire origin, in residential buildings and other buildings with ordinarysize rooms, incapacitation from smoke inhalation will rarely occur before incapacitation

from heat and thermal radiation or escape or rescue. These occurrences of incapacitation

from smoke would take place remote from the room of fire origin at times long after

ignition. In remote rooms, the exposure threshold for significant sublethal effects may

well be exceeded from fires that stay below fiashover.

Under certain ventilation conditions, fires in concealed spaces (from which cooled but

noxious smoke could escape into adjacent areas) in any occupancy could produce

harmful smoke environments.

There are few data sets from room-size fires that include the yields of irritant gases. Depending

on those yields, the time to incapacitation from irritant gases could be comparable to the time to incapacitation from narcotic gases.

These projections, which would benefit from experimental confirmation, are consistent with

analyses of U.S. fire incidence data.^° Fire deaths from smoke inhalation occur predominantly

after fires have progressed beyond fiashover. The victims are most often in a room other than

the fire room. Within the room of fire origin, toxic hazard is much less likely a threat than is thermal hazard.

This knowledge suggests that occupancies in which sublethal effects from open fires could affect

escape and survival include:

multi-room residences,

medical facilities,

schools, and

correctional facilities.

In addition, fires originating in concealed spaces in any occupancy pose such a threat.

68
In the following occupancies sublethal smoke effects of smoke are not likely to be of prime

concern:

Open fires in single- or two-compartment occupancies (e.g., small apartments and

transportation vehicles) themselves; however, sublethal effects may be important in

adjacent spaces;

Buildings with high ceilings and large rooms {e.g., warehouses, mercantile); and

Occupancies in which fires will be detected promptly and from which escape or rescue

will occur within a few minutes.

6. Future Work

Time-dependent yield data for typical fire-generated gases, especially irritant gases, from roomscale fires are almost non-existent and are needed before firm conclusions can be drawn.

69
D. TOXIC POTENCY VALUES FOR PRODUCTS AND MATERIALS

To be able to perform the toxicity component of a fire hazard or risk analysis, the practitioner

needs to know how much smoke it takes to produce undesirable effects on people. Over the past

30 years, scientists have developed numerous methods and extensive data for a variety of single

component materials and commercial products. Nearly all of the studies involved combusting a small sample in a laboratory apparatus intended to simulate some type of fire; exposing

laboratory animals, generally rodents, to the smoke; and characterizing the resuh. The typical

measurement is an EC50, the concentration of smoke (e.g., in g/m ) needed to produce an effect

in half (50 %) of the animals in a given exposure time. Nearly all of the material and product

data are for lethality (LC50) or incapacitation (IC50).

This section of the report examines that wealth of data, sorts it by the combustion conditions

(related to a type of fire) producing the smoke, the specimens tested, and the animal effect

measured. We use the best available information to extrapolate from data for the median rodent

to values for a susceptible person and then update the generic values to use in fire hazard

analysis when the composition of the mix of combustibles is unknown. This is valuable in both

building design and fire reconstruction. A key component of this evaluation is the assignment of

an uncertainty range to the derived toxic potency values.

There exists related literature on the toxicological effects of the individual and combined gases in

smoke on animals and people. An assessment of those data is to be the subject of another study.

1. Compilation of Toxicological Data

The search for lethal and sublethal toxic potency data for materials and products involved on-line

library searches for pertinent books, journal articles, proceedings, and technical reports. The

primary on-line database used for this literature search was the Fire Research Information

Services (FRIS) maintained by the Building and Fire Research Laboratory at NIST. Other online library searches were performed using TOXLINE and MEDLINE (maintained by the

National Institutes of Health) and the Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxic Substance

Library (maintained by the Environmental Protection Agency). In addition, technical experts

involved in the project were asked for unpublished data and other published data that were not

readily available otherwise. Table 32 presents a summary of the literature search, including the

number of citations found. A complete list of references obtained is presented as a separate list in Appendix A to this report.

2. Data Organization

The literature review identified different types of toxicity test methods ranging from laboratory

small-scale tests to fiill-scale tests. To enable analysis of the full set of toxic potency data, the

results from the various test methods were categorized by:

Combustion/pyrolysis condition

Material/product examined

Type of test animal

Toxicological endpoint

70
Table 32. Sources of Toxic Potency Data

Source Number of Citations

Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 1 ASTM/ISO Publications 4

Environmental Health Perspectives 2

Journal of American Industrial Hygiene Association 2

Journal of Archives of Environmental Health 3

Journal of Combustion Science and Technology 1

Journal of Combustion Toxicology 39

Journal of Consumer Product Flammability 1

Journal of Fire and Flammability 1

Journal of Fire and Materials 18

Journal of Fire Safety 2

Journal of Fire Sciences 23

Journal of Fire Technology 4

Journal of Forensic Materials and Pathology 1

Journal of Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 3

Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 1

Journal of Macromolecular Science-Chemistry 1

Journal of Medical Science and Law 1

Journal of Science 2

Journal of Testing and Evaluation 1

Journal of the American College of Toxicology 2

Journal of Toxicology 1

Journal of Toxicology and Applied Phaimacology 3

Journal Zeitschrift Fur Rechtsmedizin 1 NIST Publication, Technical Notes, and Report 23

Proceedings 38

Other Reports 25

Toxicology Letters 1

71
a. Combustion/Pyrolysis Conditions. As shown in Table 5 (Section III.A) there is a small number of types of combustion in fnes:

oxidative pyrolysis (non-flaming), typical of products being heated without bursting into

flames themselves;

well-ventilated flaming combustion, typical of pre-flashover fires;

ventilation-limited combustion, typical of post-flashover fires or fnes in nominally

airtight spaces; and

smoldering, or self-sustaining, non-flaming combustion.

The purpose of a small-scale toxic potency measurement is to obtain data from a small material

or product sample that is germane to some particular set of realistic fires. In this section, we

assess the combustion conditions in the 1 2 small-scale apparatus for which data are available.

Each apparatus will then be aligned with one or more of these realistic fire conditions.

As shown in Table 33, the combustors in the small-scale apparatus fall into three types: cup

furnace, radiant heater, and tube fiimace. While measurements of combustion gases have been

made in a number of other small-scale devices, these 12 are the only ones for which animal

exposure data have been reported.

In the cup furnace methods, the sample is placed in an open-top quartz beaker that is set in a

fiimace. The bottom and lower portions of the beaker are heated to a pre-set temperature, which

is generally picked to be above or below the autoignition temperature (AIT) of the pyrolysis

vapors. The pyrolysis or combustion vapors rise and flow out the top of the beaker into the box

in which the animals are exposed. The box is closed, so the test animals experience the

accumulated combustion products. Combustion tests have shown that the lethal toxic potency of

pyrolysis smoke is at a maximum at furnace temperatures near the AIT. Thus, in most nonflaming cup furnace tests, the furnace temperatures are kept at approximately 25 °C below the

predetermined AIT to ensure conservative toxic potency values. For flaming tests, the oxygen

concentration remains high enough that the vitiation does not obscure the toxicity of the smoke.

Natural buoyancy tends to draw sufficient "fresh" air to the sample so that the combustion

product profile for flaming samples is indicative of fuel-limited combustion. Thus, cup fiimace

data are typically used to represent well-ventilated flaming combustion and oxidative pyrolysis.

In the radiant heat devices, the sample is exposed to a defined heatflux. The irradiance is generally sufficiently high {e.g., 50 kW/m^) and abetted by an ignition device to ensure flaming

for all but the most resistive products or low enough {e.g., 25 kW/m") to preclude flaming of all but the most readily ignitable smoke. The combustion products remain in a closed compartment,

and the animals are exposed to the time-integrated accumulation of smoke. The smoke is indicative of well-ventilated burning. [It has also been shown that the data can be used to calculate the toxic potency of smoke from post-flashover burning by enhancing the carbon

monoxide yield to that level observed in post-flashover fires.^"^]

72
Table 33. Small-Scale Toxicity Test l\/letliods

Method Group Individual Test

Cup Furnace Methods

NBS Cup Furnace

Dow Chemical Company Method

University of Utah Method

Radiant Heat Methods

Weyerhaeuser Method

NIST/SwRI Method

Tube Furnace Methods

UPITT Method

DIN 53 426 Method

Federal Aviation Administration Method

University of San Francisco Method

University of Michigan Method

University of Tennessee Method

NASA/JSC Method

Like the cup furnaces, the combustion environment in tube furnaces is defmed by temperature.

This can be uniform, a fixed value, or a time-variant (ramped) range. The sample lies within a long horizontal tube, much of which lies inside the furnace. In some devices the sample is stationary, in others it is moved through the heated zone of the tube, replenishing the supply of

fresh fuel. In the tube furnace experiments reviewed there is no mention of the ignition of smoke

in the combustion device. Tube ftimaces are open systems, with the air flowing to the sample

and through the combustion zone. The animals are thus exposed to a time-varying smoke

composition. Depending on the particular apparatus and operating procedures, it was difficult to determine discrete fire conditions represented by the tube furnace combustion.

None of these devices can accurately replicate a true smoldering combustion. Achievement of

the low heat losses needed for this self-sustained process requires a physically larger sample than

that which can be accommodated by bench-scale devices.

In most of the cited literature, the combustion conditions represented in a test were either vague

or completely undefined. Thus, in order to make use of as large a fraction of the accumulated

data as possible, we attempted our own assignments. This was achieved as follows:

For those tests in which the sample flamed, the ratio of the concentrations or yields of

carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) was reported, and the [C02]/[C0] ratio

was eight or greater, the combustion mode was considered well-ventilated. For tests in

which the [C02]/[CO] ratio was less than 8, the combustion mode was considered

73
ventilation-limited. In cases of flaming combustion where the concentrations or yields were not reported, the toxicity data were most often set aside.

In some flaming experiments, the nature of the sample being burned had a strong

influence on the ventilation. For example, in cup furnace experiments with low-density

samples (with a corresponding large size relative to the beaker), oxygen access to the

burning site is expected to be impeded, and the combustion would tend toward

ventilation-limited. In experiments with high-density samples (with a corresponding

small size relative to the beaker), oxygen levels are expected to be higher.

In many of the tube furnace tests, it was not reported whether the sample flamed and, if so, for what portion of the test. To determine retroactively whether flaming was likely,

we compared the reported furnace temperature with an AIT for the material being tested.

[The source of these temperatures was the cup furnace literature, in which the AIT of the

test material was measured in order to assure flaming or non-flaming combustion.

Knowing that, e.g., all polystyrenes do not have the same AIT, we nonetheless used the

cup furnace AIT value as indicative, for lack of better information.] If the furnace

temperature was at least 25 °C above the AIT, we considered the combustion to be

flaming. Where the ftimace temperature was at least 25 °C below the AIT, the

combustion was labeled non-flaming. When the furnace temperature was within 10 °C or

so of the AIT, the data were set aside. In some cases, CO and CO2 concentration or yield

data were reported. This information was also used to make the determination of

combustion conditions.

Reports on many of the tube furnace articles (specifically, the descriptions for the combustion oven experiments at the University of Pittsburgh, University of Michigan, University of

Tennessee, and NASA/Johnson Space Center) did not provide sufficient information to establish

the fire conditions being represented. Furthermore, in some of the tests spontaneous flaming

occurred in otherwise non-flaming experiments. In either of these cases, the data generated from

these experiments were set aside since they could not be directly related to one of the three

combustion conditions. Table 34 summarizes the relationships we found between toxicity

methods and fire conditions.

Table 34. Fire Conditions Replicated by Principal Toxicity Test Methods

Metliod Type

Fire Conditions

Well-ventilated

Flaming

Ventilationlimited FlamingOxidative

Pyrolysis

Mixed or Unknown

Cup Furnace X X X

Radiant Furnace X X

Tube Furnace X X

74

I
b. Materials and Products Examined. The citations included toxic potency data for a wide range of single component materials and for a limited number of products. Very few

references provided the detailed composition of the test specimens. Typically, the sources provided the generic polymer and whether or not the material or product was fire retarded. The

type or formulation of the retardant(s) was often lacking. Given the vagueness of such details,

we grouped the tested items into generic classes of materials and products, which are presented

in Table 35.

Table 35. Material and Product Groupings

Acrylic fibers Polyesters

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrenes Polyester fabric/polyurethane foam

Bismaleimide Polyethylenes

Carpet (modacrylic/acrylic) Polyphenylene oxides

Carpet foam (with nylon) Polyphenylene sulfides

Carpet jute backing (with nylon) Polyphenylsulfones

Chlorofluoropolymers Polystyrenes

Epoxy Polyurethanes, Flexible

Fabric, vinyl Polyurethanes, Rigid

Fluoropolymers (data set A) Polyvinyl chlorides, Plasticized

Fluoropolymers (data set B) Polyvinyl chloride. Resin

Modacrylics Urea formaldehydes

Phenolic resins Wire insulation, NFR cross-linked EVA

Polyacrylonitriles Wire, PTFE coaxial

Polyamides Wire, THHN with nylon-PVC jacket

Polycarbonates

The fluoropolymers were separated into two distinct sets (A and B) because, as will be seen

below, the lethality values fell into two groups that were two orders of magnitude apart.

Fluoropolymer data set B is shown only for completeness. Real-scale experiments have shown

that these very high toxic potencies are not realized when hydrogen-containing combustibles are

also involved in the fire.^^ Thus, this set of values has not been used in the analyses that follow.

The fluoropolymers were the only product group for which the data warranted this separation.

c. Test Animals. The test subjects used in all the listed toxicity test reports were rats and

mice. As noted above, the data from the two methods that used mice (University of Pittsburgh

and University of San Francisco devices) were not used in this analysis because of the

indeterminate flame conditions in those apparatus. Thus, the data evaluated in this compilation

are based solely on rats as the test subject. We do not differentiate among strains of rats used in

the experiments.

The number of test subjects and their exposure to the smoke also varied among the tests. In the

cup ftimace and radiant heat methods, individual rats were positioned such that only their heads

75
were exposed to the smoke. In the tube furnace methods, rats or mice were exposed as either

individuals in a head-only position or as groups in whole-body positions. For the purposes of

this study, the toxicity data are evaluated only in terms of the species used, not the number or position of the subject.

d. Toxicological Endpoint. The toxicological effects encountered during the literature

review were lethality and incapacitation. There were no data found on other sublethal effects. Table 36 presents a matrix of the reported lethality endpoints, grouped by the toxicity methods.

Table 36. Toxicological Effects Measured Using Principal Test Methods

Method Type

Toxicological Effect

LC50 LL50 IC50 Other

Cup Furnace X X

Radiant Heat X

Tube Furnace X X

Smoke lethality was expressed as either a lethal concentration or lethal loading. The lethal

concentration, which is expressed as an LC50 value, is the mass loading or mass combusted of a specimen per unit chamber volume (smoke concentration, in g/m^ or mg/1) that kills 50 % of the

test animals during a fixed exposure time and perhaps a post-exposure observation period. The

lethal loading, which is expressed as an LL50 value, is defined as the mass loading in the fumace

that kills 50 % of the test animals as a result of a fixed exposure time (mass of material, g).

Unless the latter could be converted to a concentration, the data from the tests could not be use in

hazard analyses.

Sublethal endpoints are typically expressed as either an effect concentration or a time-to-effect.

Time-to-effect measurements provide information on the rapidity of toxic action rather than on

toxic potency. Since the purpose of this study is to generate dose-response information, the

time-to-effect endpoints are not included in this evaluation. Thus, the data compiled here are incapacitating concentrations (expressed as an IC50 value), which are defined as the mass loading

or mass combusted per unit chamber volume (smoke concentration, in g/m" or mg/1) that causes

incapacitation of 50 % of the test animals during a fixed exposure time and perhaps a postexposure observation period. While a variety of pure gas exposure studies have used various

techniques for measuring incapacitation, all the articles collected for this project used the hindleg flexion conditioned avoidance response test.^^

Among the large number of methods and laboratories, there was variation in the length of time

the animals were exposed to the smoke. Table 37 presents a summary of the different exposure

times reported for the toxicity test methods reviewed. Most of the data are for an exposure time

of 30 min with a post-exposure observation period ranging from 10 min to 14 days. In some

experiments, there were no post-exposure observation periods. For the tube fumace methods

(specifically the combustion oven devices including the University of Pittsburgh, University of

Michigan, University of Tennessee, and NASA/JSC methods), the exposure times were (10, 30,

76
60, 140, or 240) min, with post-exposure observation periods of 5 min or 10 min, or 7 days or 14

days. However, since as noted above, the data from these devices did not meet other criteria, all the LC50 and IC50 values in the following discussions and analyses are for 30 min exposures.

Table 37. Exposure Times for Principle Test Methods Reviewed

Method Type

Exposure Time (min)

10 30 60 140 240

Cup Furnace X

Radiant Heat X

Tube Furnace X X X X X

For the evaluation in this report, we used only toxic potency data developed from tests that

included a post-exposure period. In the reported tests, incapacitation (from a combination of

narcotic and irritant effects) typically occurred during an animal's exposure to fire smoke.

Lethality, on the other hand, occurred either during the exposure to smoke or during the postexposure period. The relationship between these post-exposure effects in rats and the effects on

people during a fire remains to be assessed. However, we felt it more appropriate to use the

more conservative toxic potency values (i.e., those that include a post-exposure period) for the

current purpose. Alternative analyses can be performed as desired using the information

assembled in Appendix A.

3. Evaluation of Toxicological Data

The usable sets of LC50 and IC50 data are shown in Tables 38 and 39, respectively. As noted

earlier, all data are for rats exposed to the smoke for 30 min and then observed for some postexposure period. Each cell contains a median value for the experimental determinations and 95

% confidence limits; the number of determinations is shown in italics.

a. Estimation of Confidence Intervals. The original toxic potency data, compiled in

Appendix A, is of varying quality. Some LC50 and IC50 values have corresponding 95 %

confidence intervals and some do not. In addition, the numbers of individual experiments

(sample sizes) used to calculate these confidence intervals are not always available. This varying

quality of the individual data presents some challenge to appraising the aggregated set of

toxicological values, a principal objective of the SEFS project.

To estimate the 95 % confidence intervals for each combination of material, combustion

condition, and toxicological endpoint, the available information was grouped into three cases:

1 . For some combinations, each of the (one or more) reported toxic potency values includes

a 95 % confidence interval. The standard uncertainties were derived from the confidence

•1-7 -JO intervals. A hierarchical Bayesian model , implemented with the BUGS software , was

then used to obtain a consensus LC50 or IC50 value and its 95 % confidence interval.

These results are indicated in the cells of Tables 38 and 39.

77
2. For other such combinations, some of the reported toxic potency values include 95 %

confidence intervals and some do not. To estimate 95 % confidence intervals for the

latter, we assumed that their accuracy is similar to that of the former. We determined a

representative standard error of results for studies of the same material and combustion

mode. The now-complete set of data were then fed into the same model used in case 1

.

These cells in Tables 38 and 39 are marked with a double asterisk.

3. For the third group of such combinations, there are no studies with reported confidence

intervals, but confidence intervals are available for the same generic material under a

different combustion method. We assumed the accuracy of results is similar across combustion methods and used an approach analogous to that described for set 2. These

cells in Tables 38 and 39 are marked with a single asterisk.

It appears that, although the data were reported in the source articles to as many as three

significant figures, the repeatability of these results is probably not better than ± 30 %.

It is important to note, however, that the gas yields and toxic potency data from only one of these

12 bench-scale devices (the radiant furnace now used in NFPA 269 and ASTM El 678) has been

validated against room-scale experiments.^"* Thus, the accuracy of the other bench-scale data is undetermined.

b. Generic Toxic Potency Values. A quick scan of Tables 38 and 39 shows a wide range

of toxic potencies. A hazard or risk analysis for a known set of combustibles should use toxic

potency values appropriate to those products, the expected combustion conditions, and the proper

toxicological effect.

In many cases, however, there is a mix of combustibles whose composition and time of entry

into the fire are not well known. In those instances, generic values of toxic potency are

desirable, ones that can be held constant throughout the analysis.

The last two rows of Tables 38 and 39 contain estimated mean LC50 or IC50 values for each of

the combustion conditions and the estimated 95 % confidence interval for the median value

obtained using the following Monte Carlo method. For each combustion condition (column), a random sample of size 1 500 was drawn from the materials in that column. At each draw, each

material present in the column for that combustion condition had an equal probability of being

selected. Then, for that draw a random value was picked from a presumed normal distribution

with mean and standard deviation given by the entry for that material and combustion condition.

For example, suppose that for well-ventilated combustion the first draw chose "epoxy." The

random value would then be from a normal distribution with mean 7.6 and standard deviation of

4. 1 . These 1 500 points were then averaged to obtain an estimated overall mean LC50 or IC50

value. The 95 % confidence interval was determined assuming that the 1500 points represented a normal distribution.

78
Table 38. Average LC50 Values (g/m^) (confidence limits, g/m^) {sample size)

Material

Well-ventilated

Combustion

Ventilation-limited

Combustion Oxidative Pyrolysis

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ** 26.4 (22.0,30.8) 4 ** 32.3 (28.2,35.3) 4

Bismaleimide 14.9(12.8,17.2) 1 41.9(38.8,45.1) 1 Carpet foam (with nylon) * 107.9(46.6,138.5) 1 * 68.0 (36.0,81.1) 1 Carpet jute backing (with nylon) * 57.0 (35.5,69.4) 1 * 89.9 (53.7,99.2) 1 Chlorofluoropolymers ** 17.8(10.2,33.6)2 ** 24.6 (17.7,32.1)2

Epoxy 7.6(1.5,15.8) 1 11.0(8.9,13.1) 1 Fabric, Vinyl 32.0(28.0,37.0) 1 19.0(17.7,20.9) 1 Fluoropolymers (data set A) ** 27.4 (19.0,35.8) 4 ** 25.4 (17.8,33.5) 4

Fluoropolymers (data set B) ** 0.12 (0.04, 0.93) 6 ** 0.37 (0.10, 0.96)4

Modacrylic ** 5.6 (4.0,7.2) 3 ** 6.5 (4.6,8.3) 4

Phenolic resin 8.4(7.3,9.5) 1 5.9 (4.8,7.0) 1 Polyacrylonitriles ** 40.2 (37.0,43.4) 2

Polyester ** 35.6 (31.4,39.4) 4 ** 38.2 (18.7,56.2) 1 ** 37.8 (29.2,46.9) 3 Polyester fabric/polyurethane foam * 41.9 (30.9,55.9) 1 * 29.9 (25.2,42.2) 1 Polyethylene ** 36.8 (30.1,43.0) 3 5.8(3.5,8.9)2

Polyphenylene oxide * 31.0 (22.3,35.6) 1 * 24.0 (17.8,36.5) 1 Polyphenylsulfone ** 27.2 (20.6,33.7) 4

** 18.0(13.1,23.1)4

Polystyrene ** 35.6 (33.4,37.9) 7 ** 43.5 (41.1,45.6) 6

Polyurethane, Flexible ** 35.4(31.8,38.9) 18 ** 20.4 (16.0,24.9) 4 ** 29.9 (26.5,33.0) 15

Polyurethane, Rigid ** 13.0(11.6,14.5) 12 ** 25.9 (15.8,35.2) 1 ** 29.5 (25.2,33.9) 10

Polyvinyl chloride, Plasticized ** 26.2 (20.1,33.2) 3 16.0(13.7, 17.5) 1 ** 22.9 (11.8,34.4) 3 Polyvinyl chloride. Resin ** 20.0 (16.8,23.2) 8 ** 16.1 (13.2,19.3)5

Strandboard 47.0(37.7,57.3) 1 Tempered hardwood 58.1 (40.8,67.0) 1 86.5 (79.4,93.0) 1 Urea Formaldehyde 11.2(10.4, 12.0) 1 1.20(1.10,1.30) 1 Wire, PTFE coaxial wire * 10.8(5.7,25.7) 1 * 13.5(8.00,25.2) 1 Wire, THHN wire w/ nylon-PVC 55.0 (44.0,66.0) 1 99.8(88.6, 107.2) 1 Wire insulation, NFR crosslinked 51.0(40.8,61.2) 1 Wire insulation, FR crosslinked EVA 25.2(18.9,33.5) 1 Wood ** 40.2 (34.8,45.1) 14 **36.1 (30.8,41.0) 14

Estimated mean 30.4 25.8 27.8 95 % Confidence Interval (5.4,58.4) (16.9,41.3) (1.6,78.4)

79
Table 39. Average IC50 Values (g/m^) (confidence limits, g/m^) {sample size)

Material Well-ventilated Flaming Oxidative Pyrolysis

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene ** 11.2(6.1,15.8)3 ** 15.4(7.9,22.0)3

Bismaleimide 6.8(5.4,8.3) 1 20.1 (16.3,24.0) 1 Epoxy 6.2(5.2,7.3) 1 4.1 (3.3,5.0) 1 Fluoropolymers (data set A) ** 14.8(6.9,21.9)2 ** 14.5(7.9,19.9)2

Fluoropolymers (data set B) ** 0.55 (0.10,1.01)2 ** 0.68 (0.31,1.49) 1 Modacrylic ** 3.2 (0.7,6.0) 2 ** 3.3 (0.2,6.7) 3

Phenolic resin 2.0(1.6,2.4)2 1.5(1.2,1.8) 1 Polyphenylsulfone ** 15.3(10.0,19.8)3 ** 11.6(6.6,16.8)3

Polystyrene ** 20.0(15.0,24.9) 5 ** 33.4 (22.4,39.8) 5 Polyurethane, Flexible ** 17.4(10.1,25.2)8 ** 15.5(7.6,22.7)8

Polyurethane, Rigid ** 5.4 (4.0,6.8) 8 ** 9.5 (5.3,14.00) 8

Polyvinyl chloride, Plasticized **7.1 (4.9,9.3) 1 ** 3.4 (2.8,4.0) 1 Polyvinyl chloride. Resin ** 12.2(8.6,16.3)4 ** 13.5(6.1,20.4)4

Urea Formaldehyde 7.4(6.5,8.3)1 0.7 (0.6,0.8) 1 Wood ** 21.4 (17.5,25.3) 10 ** 15.3(12.2,18.5) 12

Estimated mean 11.2 11.5

95 % Confidence Interval (1.4,24.0) (1.1,25.0)

c. Comparison among Combustion Conditions. Since the combustion conditions and

the products on fire vary within a fire compartment and evolve as the fire grows and ebbs, it is useful to assess the accuracy of using a single toxic potency value in engineering calculations.

The following examines lethality data for two pairs of fire conditions and incapacitation for one

pair.

Lethality: well-ventilatedflaming and ventilation-limited combustion. These data sets in Table

38 were compared in two ways:

The first generalized approach was a comparison of the mean LC50 values for both

conditions, including all materials (except fluoropolymers B) in the data set. There is a wide range of LC50 values and modest differences between the mean values for the two

columns. The broad 95 % confidence limits around the two mean values suggest that any

difference between the lethal toxic potencies of the smoke generated under these two sets of conditions is not resolvable.

Examination of the data in the column labeled "Ventilation-limited Combustion"

suggests that some of these numbers may be too high for use in evaluating post-flashover

fires. Carbon monoxide yields from flaming fnes are generally distinctly higher after

80
flashover, so LC50 values should fall relative to the same products burning with ample

ventilation. Further, the LC50 value for post-flashover smoke is about 25 gW if the only

toxicants it contains are CO2 and CO.^"* The presence of additional toxicants will reduce

this. There are six materials with entries in these two columns. While the two chlorinecontaining products and the flexible polyurethane foam appear to behave appropriately in

both these aspects, the other two materials do not. The rigid polyurethane, which should

produce some HCN as it bums, has an LC50 value near 25 gW and decreases in lethal

toxic potency as the air supply decreases (the wrong direction). The underventilated LC50

value for the polyester sample is above 25 g/m^ The LC50 value for the modacrylic

carpet sample, which should produce HCN, is about the level for toxicity from CO2 and

CO only. However, even were all the "Ventilation-limited" data reflective of the two

(above) guidelines for post-flashover fires, the mean value for this column would not

likely be sufficiently lower that the two confidence intervals would not overlap.

The second approach was a comparison of LC50 values on a material-by-material basis.

For four of the six combustibles the 95 % confidence intervals overlap. In three of those

cases, the ventilation-limited values are lower; in the fourth, the reverse is true. This does

not constitute strong evidence for a fundamental difference between the data in the two

columns.

Thus, while there is reason to expect that the lethal toxic potency of smoke from post-flashover

frres would be higher than for pre-flashover fires of the same combustibles, the published data do

not present sufficient evidence to resolve such a difference. This comparison is especially

compromised by the small data set for ventilation-limited combustion and the inconsistencies in

it.

Lethality: flaming combustion and oxidative pyrolysis. Comparison of the mean LC50 values and

95 % confidence intervals for the three combustion conditions reveals no statistical difference

between them; the mean values are nearly identical and the confidence intervals for wellventilated combustion and ventilation-limited combustion are fully contained within those for

oxidative pyrolysis.

Incapacitation: well-ventilatedflaming combustion and oxidative pyrolysis. Recall there were no

reported IC50 values for ventilation-limited flaming conditions. The mean values of the two

columns are nearly identical and the 95 % confidence intervals are essentially congruent. For

about half the materials the individual confidence intervals show considerable overlap. The

remaining half are split between the flaming value being higher and the reverse. Thus, any

possible difference in incapacitating toxic potency between the smoke from these combustion

modes is not discernible.

d. Comparison between Toxicological Effects. Kaplan and HartzelP^ had reviewed the

literature and found that for exposures to narcotic gases (CO or HCN), the concentrations that

caused incapacitation (measured by a variety of devices) were one third to one half of those that

resulted in the death of various animal species.

81
For the smoke data collected here, the mean value of the ratios of IC50 values to LC50 values and

the standard deviation are 0.50 and 0.21, respectively. There is no significant difference between

well-ventilated flaming combustion and oxidative pyrolysis.

These results are consistent with the Kaplan and Hartzell ratio, given the uncertainty in the

measurements. In addition, since there is a broad set of expected toxic gases (e.g., CO, halogen

acid gases, HCN, partially-oxidized organics) in the smoke from this group of materials, it is not

unreasonable to generalize that an incapacitating exposure is about half that of a lethal exposure.

e. Comparison among Materials and Products. As noted above, it would benefit

engineering calculations if there were a single LC50 (and thus IC50) value to be used when the

mixture of combustibles in a fire is unknown. In HAZARD I, the suggested values are 30 g/m

and 10 g/m^, respectively (for 30 min exposures of rats to smoke).

The wide range oftoxic potency values in Tables 38 and 39 strongly suggests that any such

generic value must be used with caution. However, should such a number be needed, a generic

value for lethal toxic potency (30 minute rat exposure) in pre-flashover fires (even if much of the

smoke were generated from pyrolysis rather than flaming) would be 30 g/m ± 20 g/m . For

post-flashover fires, the situation is less clear. The data compiled here and the value calculated

for CO and CO2 only suggest an upper limit of 25 g/m . Data derived from the NFPA 269

radiant fiimace^'^ suggest a value of 15 g/m^ ± 5 g/m^. [The uncertainty in the post-flashover

value is much lower because the toxic potency is dominated by the large amount of CO produced

during underventilated burning. This CO yield is controlled by the shortage of oxygen more than

differences in the fuel chemistry.^]

y > For pre-flashover fires, a generic 30 minute IC50 value (for rats) would be 15 g/m ± 10 g/m . For post-flashover fires, the corresponding number would be 7 g/m ± 2 g/m^.

In all cases, it is important to note that there are some materials with appreciably lower potency

values, indicating higher smoke toxicity. If materials like these are expected to comprise a large

fraction of the fuel load, a lower generic value can be used.

4. Extrapolation to People

The objective of fire hazard and risk analyses is to estimate conditions of safety for people,

including those that are more sensitive to fire smoke than others. For this purpose, it is valuable

to estimate the extrapolation of the above information (which addresses lethal and incapacitating

exposures for the median rat) to incapacitation of the sensitive human. The information on

which to base this extrapolation is far from definitive. The following analysis is directed at obtaining order-of-magnitude factors and estimated uncertainties at the current state of an

imperfect art. We rely heavily on the reviews and judgment of the team currently producing the Acute

Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hazardous Substances."*^ We do note that the direct

application of their effort is in a direction different from ours, and much of their analysis is not

pertinent to calculations of the effects of exposure to fire smoke.

82
The AEGL team defines three levels of threat:

AEGL- 1 is the airborne concentration of a substance at or above which it is predicted that

the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable

discomfort, irritation, or certain subclinical, non-sensory effects. However, the effects are not disabling and are transient and reversible upon cessation of exposure.

AEGL-2 is the airborne concentration of a substance at or above which it is predicted that

the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting effects, or an impaired ability to escape.

AEGL-3 is the airborne concentration of a substance at or above which it is predicted that

the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience life- threatening effects or death.

Thus, for incapacitation in this project, we are interested in the analysis associated with AEGL-2

values.

a. Treatment of Toxic Potency of Materials and Products. The incapacitation results

from a combination of narcotic and irritant gases. As noted above, the incapacitating exposure to

fu-e smoke is about half the lethal exposure, and this factor of about two is similar whether

dealing with pure narcotic gases or the complex mix of gases in the smoke from a burning

product. Thus, we assume that the factor of two holds for irritant gases.

Next, we make the assumption that to extrapolate the toxic potency of the smoke from rats to the

toxic potency for people, we can treat the toxic component of the smoke as behaving like the

sum of a single narcotic gas and a single irritant gas. We choose CO and HCl, respectively,

because of their prevalence and because of the existence of draft AEGL compilations for these

two molecules."^

'''^"

In two room-scale studies involving the burning of a halogenated combustible, the CO

concentration is significantly larger than the halogen acid concentration:

Sheets of non-plasticized PVC (43 % CI mass fraction). The volume fraction of CO was

about 1/6 that of CO2; the [CO]: [HCl] ratio was about 3 (accounting for some HCl

losses)."^^

A fire-retarded TV cabinet (about 12 % bromine) produced comparable volume fractions

of CO and CO2. The volume fraction ratio of CO to HBr was about lO."

Both of these items are toward the maximum of the halogen content for commercial products.

Thus the ratio of CO to halogen acid concentration from combustion of such products will

generally be higher than these numbers. In reality, serious fires resuh from the burning of

muhiple items, many of which {e.g., wood items) are halogen-free. Thus, for the general fire that

is capable of generating incapacitating smoke levels, a CO to halogen acid concentration ratio of

5 is a reasonable lower limit.

83
For those products containing no atoms that produce strong acids in the smoke, there will still be

some production of organic irritants such as weak acids, aldehydes and ketones. There are no

reported measurements of the yields of these gases in room-scale tests. For this estimation of

incapacitating exposure, we assume that their contribution will be small relative to that of the

halogen acids (which are included at the above [CO]:[HX] ratio of 5) as well as small compared

to the CO contribution.

b. CO Toxicity

Rat Data and Human Levels. Rounded rat LC50 data assembled by the AEGL panel is compiled

in Table 40:

Table 40. Lethal Volume Fractions of CO for Rats for Various Times of Exposure

Exposure time (min) 5 15 30 60 240

Volume fraction x 10^

(ppm by volume)

12000 8600 5000 4200 1800

Children can be said to represent a smoke-sensitive but otherwise healthy sub-population. As

such, they showed symptoms that would impair escape at about 25 % COHb."^^ Using the

Peterson-Stewart curves and the input values for a 5-year-old child, this appears to result

from, e.g., a 5 min exposure to about 0.15 % volume fraction (1500 ppm by volume), or oneeighth of the 5 min lethal exposure for rats.

Another smoke-sensitive sub-population is people (adults) with coronary artery disease. Here,

the AEGL summary indicates that exposures resulting in about 5 % COHb would lead to effects

that would seriously compromise evacuation. A similar calculation to the one for children

indicates that this COHb level could resuh from a 5 min exposure to about 0. 1 % volume fraction

( 1 000 ppm by volume), or about one twelfth the 5 min lethal exposure for rats.

Together, these estimates suggest using one tenth of the exposure lethal to rats in 5 minutes as the exposure that would incapacitate people in 5 min should provide protection for a large

fraction of the smoke-sensitive human population.

Time Scaling ofExposure Data. Typically the interpolation/extrapolation from one set of

exposure time data to other exposure times is done using an equation of the form: C" t =

constant. A value of n = 2 produces a reasonable fit (±20 %) to the data in Table 40. A similar

dependence had previously been found for lethality due to CO.^"^ Thus, the 5 min ICsens for

people exposed to CO is about one fourth of the 30 min rat LC50.

c. HCI Toxicity

-45 Rat Data and Human Levels. Kaplan exposed baboons, generally presumed to be a good

surrogate for humans, to 0.019 % volume fraction to 1.7 % volume fraction (190 to 17000 ppm

84
by volume) of HCl for 5 min. All were able to escape, despite significant trauma at the higher

concentrations, psiote: The AEGL panel used rat data over the baboon data because the latter exposures are for very short exposure times minutes and they needed information on exposures

up to 8 hours - a big extrapolation. For this application, the baboon exposures are appropriate.]

In separate tests, exposure of anesthetized baboons to 0.5 % volume fraction and 1.0 % volume

fraction (5,000 and 10,000 ppm by volume, respectively) for 15 min produced significant drops

in arterial oxygen pressure.^^ [Such an effect was not observed in exposures to 0.05 % volume

fraction.] Hartzell notes^^ that, if combined with exposure to CO, this drop could lead to incapacitation at modest COHb levels. Data on combined exposures were not developed. Since

there are no data for exposures between 0.05 % volume fraction and 0.5 % volume (500 and

5000 ppm by volume) and since the 1 5 min exposures are three times longer than those from

which none of the animals were incapacitated, we suggest that the HCl concentration that could

lead to incapacitation in 5 min in the presence of CO is about 0.3 % volume fraction (3000 ppm

by volume).

There are no citations for relating incapacitation of the median person to include the sensitive

fraction of the human population. The AEGL draft report^" uses a factor of 3 for this, saying that

the irritation "is not expected to vary greatly between individuals." This leads to an estimate that

the HCl concentration that could lead to incapacitation in 5 min of smoke-sensitive people in the

presence of CO is about 0.1 % volume fraction (1000 ppm by volume).

As noted above, in a fire involving a chlorine-containing fiiel, the HCl concentration is likely to be at least five times lower than the CO concentration. Thus, when the CO concentration is ca. 0.15 % volume fraction, the HCl concentration would be under about 0.03 % volume fraction

(300 ppm by volume). This is well under the incapacitating concentration for smoke-sensitive

people.

Time Scaling ofExposure Data. There do not appear to be reliable primate data to enable time

scaling. The AEGL-2 summary indicates that n = 1. The toxicologists associated with ISO

TC92 SC3 found the sensory irritancy was ahnost instantaneous and thus not time-dependent.

d. Summary

For materials and products that do not generate strong acid gases, we can assume that CO

(as a surrogate for asphyxiants) is the primary toxicant and use one fourth the 30 min rat LC50 as the 5 min human ICsensFor materials and products that do generate strong acid gases, narcotic gases account for

the majority of the combined incapacitating effect of narcotic and irritant gases. We

suggest that one use one fifth of the 30 min rat LC50 as the 5 min human ICsensSince the narcotic component dominates the ICsens values, the use of C"t as a time scaling

formula is preferred.

85
It is hard to affix an uncertainty to these conclusions given the (lack of uncertainty in the resources for) analysis of the AEGL information and the other assumptions stated above. An

estimate is that they are accurate to within ± 50 %.

In Section II.D.2.e we estimated that, for an unknown mixture of combustibles, a generic value

for the concentration of smoke that would incapacitate a rat of average smoke sensitivity in 30

min would be 30 g/m"* ± 20 g/m^ for a well-ventilated flaming fire and 1 5 g/m^ ± 3 gW for a

post-flashover fire. Incorporating the above analysis, we estimate that the corresponding values

for the concentration of smoke that would incapacitate smoke-sensitive people in 5 min would be

6 g/m^ for a well-ventilated fire and 3 g/m^ for a post-flashover fire. The user of these values

needs to be mindful of two key factors:

There is a wide range of smoke toxic potency values reported for various materials.

Some of these have significantly higher or lower values than these generic figures.

These generic values are estimated with significant assumptions in their derivation. An

estimated uncertainty is about a factor of two.

6. Future Work

As can be seen from the number of assumptions and approximations in the above analysis,

considerable effort is needed to improve the reliability of the resulting estimates. In particular, one needs:

Toxic potency data for rats for smoke from a wide range of materials and products

obtained using a validated bench-scale apparatus.

Gas yields, especially for irritant gases, from room-scale tests to improve the estimation

of the extrapolation from animal lethality to human incapacitation.

We presume that documented human exposure data will be impossible to obtain and realize that even the data for laboratory animals will be difficult.

86
E. GENERATION AND TRANSPORT OF SMOKE COMPONENTS

Thus far, fire smoke has been treated as a bulk entity, i.e., a mass of effluent generated during a

fire. At the end of the prior Section, the toxic potency of the smoke was simphfied as if it were composed ofjust two toxic components.

Smoke is, in fact, a mixture of gases and aerosols. The latter is defined as a suspension of solid

and/or liquid particles. The nature of the aerosol component of smoke can play a profound role

in the lethal and sublethal effects on people. This Section presents the state-of-the-art in the

factors that could affect smoke toxicity: the amount of aerosols produced in fires and their

characteristics, the changes in concentration that occur as the smoke moves away from the fire,

and the potential for the aerosols to transport adsorbed or absorbed toxic gases.

1. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Smoke Aerosol

Smoke particles include both micro-droplets formed from condensed organic vapors and highly

carbonaceous agglomerated structures consisting of hundreds or thousands of nearly spherical

primary particles (soot). A range of adverse health effects is associated with inhalation of these

particles, depending on the amount and location of their deposition within the respiratory tract. The depth of penetration into the lungs and the likelihood of being exhaled depend on the

particle size, and the degree of damage at a given site depends on the quantity of particles

deposited there, which is related in tum to the concentration of smoke aerosol in the inhaled air. An assessment of conditions within the lungs must begin with information about the source of

particulate matter: the fire itself.

Smoke particulates can be characterized in a number of ways, including shape, chemical

composition, mass, size distribution, mass-to-charge ratio, and quantity. After a brief description

of particle morphology, this Section reviews the data on smoke yield, aerodynamic diameter, and

size distribution collected from the published literature.

a. Morphology. The composition of the smoke aerosol generated during flaming combustion

is completely different in character from that generated during pyrolysis or smoldering.

Chemical, electrical, and collisional processes in the flame environment resuh in smoke

consisting largely of highly carbonaceous black soot."*^ Each soot particle is a complex chainlike

agglomerate made up of hundreds up to a million roughly spherical primary particles, each

typically on the order of 0.01 \xm to 0.06 jam in diameter and close to monodisperse, "

" although primary particles up to 0. 16 )im have been measured in a crude oil fire. " The largest

primary diameters are associated with heavily sooting fuels, often with a high aromatic content. The physical extent of a soot agglomerate is typically in the range of 0.5 \xm to 5 jim, but may

become as large as 200 |J.m

53

Li contrast, the non-flaming processes of pyrolysis and smoldering resuh in a complex mixture

of liquid and solid organic materials. Basic pyrolysis products may include ftiel monomer,

partially oxidized products, and polymer chams. Condensation of low vapor pressure organic

constituents forms nearly spherical micro-droplets with a tarry consistency. The resulting smoke

48 has a light-colored appearance.

87
The surface area of a smoke particle and the chemical functionalities on that surface are of

critical importance to the ability of that particle to adsorb water and toxic gases. Growth

processes for smoke particles are discussed in Section E.2, and the topic of adsorption is covered

in Section E.3 below.

b. Yield. Smoke yield, sometimes also referred to as the emission factor, is defined as the mass

of smoke generated per mass of fuel burned. Values range from near zero to ca. 0.3 gsmoke/gfoei, or 30 % of the fuel mass. Fuels such as methane and wood undergoing flaming combustion

populate the low end of this scale, and the high end typically represents fuels with a highly

aromatic chemical structure.

The amount of fiiel converted into smoke particles in a specific fire is affected by a number of

factors. Combustion mode (flaming or non-flaming), the fiiel material itself, and the ventilation

condition (well-ventilated or underventilated) are of primary importance. Other important

influences involve the configuration of the fuel, including fiiel bed size and geometry, and

environmental conditions, e.g. , temperature and oxygen content. Tables 4 1 and 42 list smoke

yields for a variety of materials under flaming and non-flaming conditions, respectively. To

compare results under similar experimental conditions, the data in these two tables were

collected from research performed using the same test bed, the ventilated Combustion Products

Test Chamber at the Georgia Institute of Technology, between the years 1 976 and 1 99 1 . All

experiments reported in these tables were performed in air, with variations in ventilation airflow

rate, radiant heating levels, and sample orientation. In all these cases the flames are wellventilated. Materials are listed in order of smoke yield from largest to smallest in each table,

with only factors that significantly affected the yield for a given material indicated under

comments for clarity.

These two tables illustrate how strongly the amount of smoke generated is affected by the type of

material being burned. Because cyclic ring structures are the basic component of both soot

particles and waxlike tars, aromatic fiiels such as polystyrene (PS) and fiiels with a high aromatic

component generate the highest smoke yields during both flaming and non-flaming

combustion."^^'^"*'^^'^^ This accounts for the presence of polycarbonate (PC), asphah, and rigid

polyurethane (PU) foam near the top of both Tables 41 and 42. Cyclizing reactions taking place

during degradation of polymers such as rubber and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) also enhance

smoke production through the addition of aromatic molecules to the fire environment.^^ The

mass of smoke produced by such fiiels can exceed 10 % of the fuel mass during flaming

combustion and 30 % during non-flaming combustion. Other chemical composition factors

affecting smoke yield include molecular weight fraction and carbon content. A study on

petroleum products by Patterson et al.^^ comparing smoke yields from kerosene, two type of

diesel oil, and asphalt demonstrates that smoke yield increases with increasing molecular weight

fraction. Increasing smoke yield also increases with increasing carbon content, as shown in a study of crude oils by Evans et al.^^ and a comparison of plain rubber with tire rubber containing

a large amount of carbon black.^^ Note from Table 41 that smoke yields for flaming PVC

measured by Patterson are considerably larger than those measured by Zinn, Bankston, and

colleagues. ' As shown in Table 42, smoke yields also vary widely for PVC undergoing non-
flaming combustion, possibly indicating differences in the cyclizing reaction processes during

degradation.

The smoke yields under non-flaming conditions considerably exceed those for flaming

combustion for the vast majority of fuels, including wood, rubber, polycarbonate, rigid PVC,

flexible PU foam, and expanded polystyrene (PS) foam.^'''^^'^^'^^'^^ For wood in particular, the near complete combustion in a flaming environment compared with high tar production during

smoldering propels it from the bottom of Table 41 to near the top of Table 42. The difference in

smoke yield between these two combustion modes has been attributed to the high chemical

reactivity in the flame environment, which results in a larger breakdown of pyrolysis products to gaseous components than in non-flaming combustion. ^^ A few exceptions to this trend are noted

in the literature, however. Smoke yields from the two highly charring foams tested by Zinn et

al., "a rigid PU foam and a rigid trimer foam, were somewhat less for non-flaming than for

flaming combustion, and PVC samples tested by Patterson et al.^^ produced significantly more

smoke while flaming than during non-flaming combustion.

Fillers added to polymers to change their physical properties affect the smoke yield during

burning, though the direction of the change depends on the specific additive. The addition of

fillers to PVC and polypropylene (PP) was found to decrease smoke yield, sometimes

significantly, although definite trends with amount of filler were not seen. Lowered smoke yield

was accompanied by the conversion of a larger percentage of the original fuel mass to char.^^"^^ Flame retardant additives decreased smoke yield for rigid trimer foam but significantly increased

the smoke yield for flexible PU foam and expanded PS foam.^^ Mixing sand with polymeric

fiiels was found to increase smoke production in almost all cases.

hi general, smoke yield increases moderately with increasing fuel size. For a pool fire,

increasing the diameter from 0.085 m to 2 m increased smoke production from 0.06 g to 0.13 g

of smoke per gram of crude oil.^'* The smoke yield also increased with the depth of the fuel

layer.^^ A comparison of large scale test results for sugar pine and rigid PU crib structures with

those for cone calorimeter measurements of red oak and PMMA indicated that smoke yield was

roughly equivalent for comparable specific burning rate.^^ Smoke production was found to be

higher in bench-scale studies of whole wood and plywood than at medium scale, but the possible

contribution of smoldering to the bench-scale tests could not be ruled out.

89
Table 41. Smoke Yields for Flaming Combustion in Air

Material

Smoke Yield

(gsmoke/gfuel)

Comments References

PVC 0.185 9.6 1/s airflow Patterson et al., 1990"

PVC 0.094,0.144 4.8 1/s airflow Patterson et al., 1991^°

Asphalt 0.119

9.6 1/s airflow,

80 kW/m- Patterson et al., 1991^"

PC 0.102,0.104 Patterson et al., 1990"

Asphalt 0.097

9.6 1/s airflow,

50 kW/m' Patterson et al., 1991^°

Rigid PU foam 0.085, 0.091 Zinn et al., 1979'', Bankston et al., 198l''

Tire rubber 0.082, 0.089 9.6 1/s airflow Patterson et al., 1990"

Expanded PS foam 0.085 Zinn et al., 1979", Bankston et al., 1981^^

#5 Diesel oil 0.071 9.6 1/s airflow Patterson et al., 1991^^

Asphalt 0.061

5 1/s airflow,

50 kW/m' Patterson et al., 1991^°

Rigid trimer foam 0.060 Zinn et al., 1979'', Bankston et al., 198l''

#5 Diesel oil 0.045, 0.053 4.8 1/s airflow Patterson et al., 199l'°

Plain rubber 0.045 4.8 1/s airflow Patterson et al., 1990"

PP 0.042 Patterson et al., 1990"

PS 0.032, 0.041

Zinn et al., 1978'^ Bankston et al., 1981^^

Patterson et al., 1990"

#2 Diesel Oil

0.023, 0.035,

0.045

Patterson et al., 1991'*^

Kerosene 0.027,0.031 Patterson et al., 199l'^

HDPE 0.028 Patterson et al., 1990"

Flexible PVC 0.028 Zinn et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 198l''

Rigid PVC 0.025 Zinn et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981^^

Wood 0.025 25 kW/m- Bankston et al., 1981^^

PP 0.018 Zinn et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981^^

Rigid PVC 0.012 Bankston et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981^^

MDPE 0.012 Zinn et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981^^

PMMA 0.008-0.018

Zinn et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981'^

Patterson et al., 1990"

Flexible PU foam <0.01 Bankston et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981^^

Wood 0.0026,

0.0041, <0.01

80, 50 kW/m' Patterson et al., 1990", Bankston et al., 1981^'

90
Table 42. Smoke Yields for Non-flaming Combustion in Air with 50 kW/m^ Radiant

Heating

Material

Smoke Yield

(gsmoke/gfuel)

Comments References

PC 0.32 Patterson et al., 1990"

Asphalt 0.288 Patterson et al, 1990"

Wood 0.154 Vertical Bankston et al., 1976^^ Bankston et al., 1981^''

Flexible PU foam 0.146 Vertical Bankston et al., 1978^', Bankston et al., 1981^''

Tire rubber 0.136

9.6 1/s airflow,

high heat flux Patterson et al., 1990"

Flexible PVC 0.123 Horizontal Bankston et al., 1978^', Bankston et al., 1981^'' PP 0.121 Zinn et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981^''

Plain rubber 0.12 4.8 1/s air flow Patterson et al., 1990"

Expanded PS foam 0.114 Horizontal Zinn et al., 1979", Bankston et al., 1981^^

Wood 0.108 Horizontal Bankston et al., 1976^^ Bankston et al., 1981^^

Tire rubber 0.107 9.6 1/s air flow Patterson et al, 1990"

Rigid PVC 0.093 Horizontal Bankston et al., 1976^^ Bankston et al., 1981^^

PS 0.084 Zinn et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981'''

Rigid PU foam 0.082 Vertical Bankston et al., 1976^^ Bankston et al., 1981^^

Rigid PVC 0.070 Horizontal Bankston et al., 1976^^ Bankston et al., 1981^^

Rigid PU foam 0.070 Horizontal Zinn et al., 1979^, Bankston et al., 1981^'^

Flexible PU foam 0.064 Horizontal Zinn et al., 1979", Bankston et al., 1981^^

Rigid trimer foam 0.047 Zinn et al., 1979", Bankston et al., 1981'"

PVC 0.037 9.6 1/s airflow Patterson et al., 1990"

Rigid PVC 0.030 Vertical Bankston et al., 1976*"', Bankston et al., 1981^'^ PVC 0.017 4.8 1/s airflow Patterson et al., 1990"

PMMA <0.01 Zinn et al., 1978", Bankston et al., 1981^^"

As indicated by the comments in Table 42, the orientation of the fuel may have a significant

effect on smoke yield for non-flaming combustion. The smoke produced by a vertically

mounted sample of flexible PU foam was found to be over twice as much as that produced by a sample mounted horizontally, and smoke yields were also higher for vertical samples of wood

and rigid PU foams 66,61,62 An exception was noted for rigid PVC samples, for which a sample

mounted vertically yielded less than half as much smoke as one mounted horizontally.

91
Under most conditions for non-flaming combustion, an increase in radiant heating rate increases

particulate mass concentration substantially.*"^'" For flaming combustion, increasing the external

heat may either increase the smoke yield, as for asphah," or decrease it, as for flaming wood, for

which any smoldering contribution raises the smoke yield considerably/^

Finally, the fire environment is an important factor. Underventilated fires usually result in more

soot loading due to reduced oxidation. Measured smoke yields for wood cribs were an order of

magnitude larger under underventilated conditions than when well ventilated.^^ However, testing

by Patterson et al.^^ demonstrated lowered smoke yields with an oxygen-poor mixture of air and

nitrogen for purely flaming PC, flaming PVC, and PC with a significant smoldering component.

As indicated in Tables 41 and 42, higher airflow through the combusting environment increases

smoke yield," and the laminar or turbulent nature of the flow may also have an effect.^^

For a listing of smoke yield data for a wider variety of fuels than shown here, see the chapter by

Tewarson in The SFPE Handbook ofFire Protection Engineering 67

c. Aerodynamic diameters and particle shape. Soot particles produced in a fire are often reasonably well represented by a log-normal particle size distribution function.^^'^^ In this

type of size distribution, which provides certain mathematical advantages for particle size

analysis,^*^ the logarithm of the diameter, rather than the diameter itself, satisfies a Gaussian

number distribution. If n, is the number of particles with diameter J, , the mean geometric

diameter da is given by:

y n, log^,

\ogd^= ^^

(4)

and the geometric standard deviation Og is:

Y,n,{\ogdg -\ogd.f

logcT,

X(«,)-l

(5)

A plot of frequency vs. diameter for this size distribution is skewed toward the larger particle

sizes, such that the number of smaller particles is much greater than the number of larger ones. Note that the value of Og is dimensionless; instead of adding or subtracting from the mean

diameter, (7„ is a multiplicative factor, with one geometric standard deviation representing a range of particle sizes from {dg/Og) to {dgXOg) that contains 68.3 % of all particles.'^^ For a

perfectly monodisperse distribution, Og= \.

The average size of particles described by a log-normal size distribution fiinction may be

quantified by any of a large number of median and weighted mean diameters. The wider the size

distribution, as measured by the geometric standard deviation, the larger the difference between

various measures of average diameter. Since smoke particle size distributions are typically quite

broad, and since different experimental techniques measure different average diameters, it is

92
critical to select the average diameter measure and measurement technique that best capture the

information relevant to the specific problem at hand.

For the purpose of assessing health risk due to deposition in the respiratory tract, the most

appropriate measure of size is the aerodynamic diameter. This is defined as the diameter of a

unit density sphere (density = 1 g/cm^) having the same aerodynamic properties as the particle in

question. In other words, the settling velocity of a particle of any shape or density with a given

aerodynamic diameter is equal to that of a spherical water droplet of the same diameter.^^'^^ This

choice enables direct comparison of the deposition behavior of the nearly spherical microdroplets

generated in large quantities during pyrolysis and smoldering (non-flaming) processes with that

of the complex agglomerates formed during flaming combustion. While the aerodynamic

diameter is a good approximation to the actual diameter for a microdroplet, its relationship to the

physical size of an agglomerate is not obvious and is best determined by experimental

measurement. Cleary found for soot generated by burning acetylene as a laminar diffusion

flame that the aerodynamic diameter was a factor of 3 to 5 smaller than the overall agglomerate

size. A cascade impactor is the apparatus most frequently used to measure aerodynamic diameter, hi

this device, the aerosol whose size distribution is to be measured enters a compartment

containing a series of collection platforms known as stages. Inertial forces transport particles in a direction perpendicular to the streamlines of the velocity field in this compartment with a rate dependent on flow field, size, and density, causing particles in successively smaller size ranges

to impact on successive stages. The mass of particulate matter on each stage is then weighed.

This information is combined with the particle size range for each stage, as previously

determined by calibration, to plot the cumulative distribution function for this aerosol on log

probability paper. The mass median aerodynamic diameter is the 50 % point on this curve, and

the degree to which the size distribution is described by a log-normal distribution is established

by how closely the curve represents a straight line. If the distribution is indeed log-normal, the

geometric standard deviation is given by the particle size at the 50 % probability point divided by

the size at 15.87 % probability.^'

Size distribution data, including median aerodynamic diameter and standard deviations, are presented in Table 43 for smoke aerosols produced by flaming fiiels and in Table 44 for those

produced by non-flaming fuels. As a graphical illustration of their ranges. Figure 8 presents

aerodynamic diameter plotted as a function of yield. In this plot, flaming data is marked by red

asterisks and non-flaming (smoldering or pyrolysis) by blue open triangles. The range of median

aerodynamic diameters for smoke aerosols as reported in the papers included in this literature

search is from 0.05 |im for flaming wood to 10 [im for acetylene.

For smoke particulates produced during non-flaming combustion, geometric standard deviations

are mostly in the range between 1.7 and 2.2, though values as large as 3 and 4 are reported

(Table 44). Independent measurements by optical particle counters have provided consistent

values of the size distribution. The flame generated smoke agglomerates show a much broader

range of geometric standard deviations extending from 2 to 16 and even larger. Because of the

complex shape of the agglomerates formed in the flame, there is a lack of an independent

verification of the aerodynamic size distribution of these particles. Cleary reported that the

93
nature of the impactor collection substrate affects both the aerodynamic median diameter and the

width of the distribution. A smooth surface such as aluminum foil, which was used in most of

the studies reported in Tables 43 and 44, leads to "particle bounce" and a smaller apparent

particle size compared to the results with a surface coated with a greasy material. There is a need for a better quantification of the aerodynamic properties of smoke agglomerates.

Table 43. Size Distribution and Yield of Smoke Aerosols Produced during

Flaming Combustion

Fuel Type

Fuel Size

(m' unless

noted)

Smoke Yield

(gsmoke/gfuel)

Mass

Median

Aero.

Diam.

(Hm)

Geom.

Stand.

Dev.

Comments References

Heptane

3.5 mm

diam. cotton wick bundleNA 1.5 Lee and

Mulholland, 1977^'

Acetylene

67.5 cc/min 0.062-0.088 6.4-9.6 No fit

Gas

Cleary, 1989"

72 cc/min 0.064 5.8

Samson et al., 1987''

59.0 cc/min NA 2.4,3.8 No fit 5 1 .0 cc/min NA 0.72 No fit Cleary, 1989"

43.3 cc/min 0.029-0.042 0.43-0.59 8.5-14

42 cc/min 0.48

Samson et al., 1987''

39.5 cc/min 0.008-0.015 0.24-0.46 3.8-20 Cleary, 1989"

Kerosene

0.09 NA 3.2 12-13

Pool fire Corlett and Cruz,

0.36 NA 1.56,0.57 11,31 1975''

Crude oil

113 0.12 1.0 Pool fire Evans etal., 1992^

1.13 0.080

2.5 3.1 Aged 1 50 min

1.1 2.4 Aged 90 min Evans etal., 1989^*

0.8 2.7 Fresh

0.28 0.085 0.5 6.8

Pool fire Evans etal., 1987^"

3.1 0.14 0.3 Evansetal., 1992^^

Asphalt 2.27 0.024 0.34 8.5 Shingles,

30° angle

Dodetal., 1989^'

Douglas fir

0.411m' 0.027 1.28 3.1 Wood crib,

Undervent.

Dodetal., 1989^'

0.006 0.025 0.43 2.37

Vert., 2.5 W/cm',

4.8 1/s

Bankston et al., 1978''

2.23 0.0014-0.0024 0.18 16

Plywood, Vert.,

Parallel plates Dodetal, 1989''

0.137 m' 0.0009 0.056 46 Wood crib

94
Birch

wood 0.0225 0.0035 0.053 16

Vert., Parallel plates

Dodetal., 1985"

PMMA 0.006 0.015-0.018 1.1 9

Varied heating

rate, airflow,

%02

Patterson et al., 1990"

PS 0.006 0.041 1.0 4

Varied heating

rate, airflow,

%02

Patterson et al., 1990"

PVC 0.006 0.105-0.185 0.4-3 2.5-7

Varied heating

rate, airflow,

%02

Patterson et al., 1990"

Rigid PVC 0.006

0.012 0.44 2.02

Vert., 2.5 W/cm',

10%O2

Bankston et al., 197861

0.012 0.41 OT Same w/ air

PP 0.006 0.042 0.6 11

Varied heating

rate, airflow,

%02

Patterson et al., 1990"

Rigid PU

foam

0.006 0.091 0.48 1.90

Vert.,

2.5 W/cm-,

7.2 1/s

Bankston et al., 197861

Flexible

PU foam

0.0225 0.034 0.29 16 Horiz. Dodetal., 1985''

HDPE 0.006 0.021-0.028 0.17-0.4 3.6

Varied heating

rate, airflow

Patterson et al., 1990"

Table 44. Size Distribution and Yield of Smoke Aerosols Produced during

Non-flaming Combustion

Fuel

Type

Fuel

Size

unless

noted)

Smoke Yield

Vfosmoke' §fuel/

Mass

Median

Aero.

Diam. (fim)

Geom.

Stand.

Dev.

Comments References

Cellulosic

insulation

0.021 0.055 2-3

Mulholland and

Ohlemiller, 1982^^

Cotton

4 cmx

2.2 cm

cloth

strip

NA 1.6-1.7 Horiz., Varying

aerosol age

Lee and

Mulholland,

1977''

95
Douglas

fir

0.006

0.108 1.80 1.83 Horiz.,

5 W/cm'

Bankston et al., 1978"

0.165,0.221,

0.237

0.90, 1.05,

0.92

1.83, 1.93,

2.28

Vert., 6.2 W/cm%

17%,10%,5%O2

0.154 0.82 1.98

Vert., 5 W/cm0.031 0.5 1.86

Vert., 3.2 W/cm-,

low airflow

0.0225

0.0062 0.29 4.0

Flam./Smold.

Plywood,

Vert.,Parallel

plates

Dodetal., 1985^^

0.0234 0.14 6.4

Same w/ Solid

wood

PS 0.006 0.084 2.60 1.84

Horiz.,

5 W/cm' Zinnetal., 1978"

Expanded

PS foam

0.005

0.114 1.84 2.17

Horiz.,

5 W/cm'

Zinnetal., 1979"

0.147 1.15 2.08

Same w/

additives

PP 0.006

0.121 2.05 1.77

Horiz.,

5 W/cm'

Zinnetal., 1978"

0.092, 0.079,

0.115,0.115

2.10, 1.95,

1.75, 1.10

1.85, 1.99,

1.74, 1.89

Same w/

additives

Bankston et al., 1978"

MDPE 0.006 NA 1.50 1.73 Horiz.,

5 W/cm'

Zinnetal., 1978"

Flexible

PU foam

0.006

0.146,0.102 1.80, 1.50 1.83, 1.60

Vert.,

5, 10 W/cm'

Bankston et al., 1978"

0.137 1.60 2.22

Horiz.,

5 W/cm',

Additives Zinnetal., 1979"

0.064 1.23 2.56

Same, w/o

additives

0.153,0.080 1.04, 1.10 1.71, 1.82

Vert., Additives,

5,10 W/cm'

Bankston et al., 1978" 0.154,0.68 1.01, 1.08 1.79,2.08

Vert., Additives,

5,10 W/cm'

0.116,0.079 0.89, 1.66 1.88, 1.57

Vert., Additives,

5,10 W/cm'

Flexible

PVC 0.006

0.123 1.49 1.61 Horiz.,

5 W/cm'

Zinnetal., 1978"

0.123,0.095,

0.085, 0.079

1.37, 1.15,

1.14,0.91

1.61, 1.83,

1.78, 1.85

Same w/

additives

Bankston et al., 1978"

96
Rigid

PVC 0.006

0.093 1.40 1.45

Horiz.,

5 W/cm^ Zinnetal., 1978"

0.070 1.20 1.86

Horiz.,

5 W/cm'

Bankstonet al,

1978^'

0.064-0.076 0.70-0.77 1.94-2.04

Vert., 6.2 W/cm^

17%,10%,5%O2

0.030 0.85 1.79

Vert., 5 W/cm^

0.012 0.42 1.90

Vert., 3.2 W/cm^

Rigid PU

foam

0.006

0.191 1.20 2.10

Vert., 9.2 W/cm^

Bankstonet al,

1978^'

0.070 0.82 4.21

Horiz.,

5 W/cm^

Zinnetal, 1979^^

0.077 0.80 3.58

Same w/

additives

0.082, 0.086,

0.092

0.83,0.78,

0.62

2.30,2.38,

2.23

Vert., 6.2 W/cm^

17%,10%,5%O2,

low airflow

Bankstonet al,

1978^'

0.057 0.34 3.10

Vert., 3.2 W/cm%

low airflow

PMMA 0.006 <0.01 0.68 1.87

Horiz.,

5 W/cm'

Zinnetal, 1978"

Rigid

trimer

foam

0.006

0.023 0.59 2.98

Horiz.,

5 W/cm\

Additives Zinnetal, 1979^^

0.047 0.26 3.09

Same w/o

additives

As can be observed in Figure 8, particle sizes are generally smaller for flaming combustion than

non-flaming. This was determined by Bankston et al.^^ to be the case for wood, rigid and flexible

PU foams and rigid PVC, with mass median aerodynamic diameters nearly identical around 0.5

}im under flaming conditions and from 0.8 jim to 2.0 |im for non-flaming. The median

aerodynamic diameter for flaming birch wood as measured by Dod et al. was 0.0530 |J.m, as compared with 0.139 )J.m for smoldering Douglas fir. This is due to the more complete

combustion that takes place during flaming. From Tables 43 and 44, the particle size

distribution may be considerably broader for smoke produced during flaming than during

pyrolysis or smoldering.

97
Figure 8. Smoke Yield and Aerodynamic Data (red = flaming; blue = smoldering)

LOOOOf '—-^-

0,1000

Smoke

Yield

(gs/gf)

0,01001^

0,0010 ^

0.0001

-I—I—I—I I I 1 1 1—

r

A

)«

y^

^

^

0-01 0.10 1.00

Aerodynamic Diameter

(jjm)

^

^:

10.00

Median aerodynamic diameters for various materials are also listed in Tables 43 and 44. The

processes of smoke particle formation and growth take place in the environment surrounding the

burning material; therefore, although chemical composition plays a role, the size of a smoke

particle is determined primarily by its thermal history, its residence time within regions of high

concentrations of combustion products, and its residence time in the flame. Material

composition is therefore of smaller importance, although some generalizations may be made. For

the foams tested by Zinn et al.,^^ particle sizes are smallest for rigid trimer and rigid PU foams,

both of which leave a considerable fraction of fuel mass as char after burning. A char-forming

sample of PP was also found to produce particles with a substantially smaller particle size. ' This may be due to lower concentrations of particles and combustion gases resulting from the

reduced mass loss rate of charring materials. A relationship of the size of the primary particles

within soot aggregates with ftiel chemistry has been observed by Koylu and Faeth,^' who note

that the largest primary particle sizes are associated with aromatic fuels. The median

aerodynamic diameter of smoke collected from smoldering cellulosic insulation was 2^im to 3

|im, much higher than the values obtained for smoldering Douglas fir.^^ The addition of fillers to

98
polymeric materials may result in either an increase in smoke particle size, as for the trimer

foam,^^ or a decrease as for PP, flexible PVC, flexible PU foam, and expanded PS foam.^"^'^^

In most cases of flaming combustion, as shown in Table 43, the median aerodynamic size

increases as the fiiel size increases. This is to be expected since a larger fire tends to be hotter

with a larger flame, providing a thermal environment conducive to particle growth An exception

to this trend was observed by Corlett and Cruz with kerosene pool fires, for which a quadrupling of the pan area resulted in a decrease of the median aerodynamic diameter. They

qualify this finding with the comment that reproducibility deteriorates with decreasing particle

size and that further work will be necessary. For non-flaming combustion, an increase in

external heating rate increases the particle size as expected.

In non-flaming experiments by Bankston et al., particle size distribution for non-flaming

combustion was not strongly affected by oxygen depletion, although for rigid PU foam the

standard deviation decreased, with fewer very small and very large particles. For flaming wood

cribs, particle sizes from an underventilated fire were considerably larger than those from a fire in an open environment, with median aerodynamic diameters of 1.3 |J,m and 0.06 |im

respectively.^"^ This is presumed to result from the lack of oxygen to convert soot precursors to CO2 and water.

Increasing the flow velocity in the vicinity of smoldering material decreases particle size, since it decreases the residence time for particles to grow by coagulation.^"^ Increasing ventilation gas

cT /r*) z:i -7-7 temperature results in an increase in characteristic particle diameter, ' ' ' presumably due to a higher concentration of pyrolysis products resulting from an increased mass loss rate.

2. Changes in Smoke Aerosol due to Particle Transport and Decay

A smoke aerosol is a dynamic entity in terms of its motion, the particle size distribution, and its chemical content. The gross motion of smoke is determined by the fluid mechanics of a buoyancydriven flow within a building. To a large extent, the motion of the aerosol mimics that of the gas

flow. However, there are smaller-scale transport processes affecting the concentration and size

distribution of the particles. There are several processes leading to losses in the particle

concentration including particle sedimentation, particle diffusion in the boundary layer region to the surface, and thermophoretic deposition from a hot smoke near a cooler surface. This Section

describes each phenomenon, provides the formula defming the transport property, and gives

esthnates for the amount of smoke deposited as a result of each process.

The particle size distribution can also change as a result of individual particles coagulating, i.e., particle collisions and sticking. The resuhing mcrease in the average particle size will affect the

aerodynamic diameter and thus the amount deposited in various portions of the respiratory tract. Estimates of these effects will be provided. There are other growth processes that are important for

certain gaseous species. These mclude condensational growth and the adsorption of gases on the

particle surfaces. These mechanisms will be treated in Section E.3.

99
a. Wall Loss. Should there be significant loss of smoke particles at surfaces, the tenability of

the fne environment could increase. There are three processes that can lead to wall losses:

thermophoresis, sedimentation and diffusion.

Thermophoresis. Small particles in the gas phase are driven from the high to low temperature.

This becomes important in fnes because the gas temperature as it impinges on the ceiling can be

very high compared to the wall temperature. This is evident in fires by the black deposit on the

ceiling directly above the fire with decreasing evidence for deposition as one goes out from the

center. For particles much smaller than the mean free path of air, the thermophoretic velocity is

-70 independent of particle size and is given by the following equation:

-0.55r\ dT

p„T dx

(6)

where dT/dx is the temperature gradient, T| is the viscosity of air, and Pg is the density of air. In

this limit the thermophoretic velocity in air for a temperature gradient of 100 K/cm is 0.03 cm/s.

For particle sizes large compared to the mean free path, the thermophoretic velocity depends on the

thermal conductivity of both the gas and the particle.^^ The velocity is lower in this limit by a

factor of 3 to 10 depending on the thermal conductivity of the particle. In the transition region

between the free molecular and continuum, the thermophoretic velocity is somewhere between the

limiting values.

Sedimentation. The settling velocity of a particle is computed from the balance between the

68 gravitational force and the drag force leading to the equation

(7)

where d is the particle diameter, Pp is particle density, g is acceleration due to gravity, and the

Cunningham slip correction C accounts for non-continuum effects through the following

expression:

C(d) =I+K„ [Aj + A: expf-As/KJJ , (8)

in which the Knudsen number is the mean free path of air divided by the particle radius {K„=2A/d),

and constants are Aj=\.l42, ^j=0.558, and ^^=0.999.^'^

Diffusion. Smoke particles undergo Brownian motion, manifested as irregular wiggling motions of

the aerosol particles as a result of the random variations in the collisions of gas molecules with the

particle. The Stokes-Einstein equation for the diffusion coefficient D is given by^^

D = kTC

?>Kr\d

(9)

where k is Boltzmann's constant and C is the Cunningham slip correction.

100
Relative effects. Table 45 compares the magnitude of the wall loss effects for these three transport

processes. We consider a uniformly distributed aerosol and a surface with a sticking boundary

condition for the case of diffusion, aerosol settling on a surface for sedimentation deposition, and a

fixed temperature gradient of 100 K/cm for the case of thermophoresis. hi all cases, it is assumed

that a particle touching the surface sticks. It is apparent that for the case of a 100 K/cm

temperature gradient, thermophoresis results in a larger deposition rate than either of the other

processes except for sedimentation of the largest particle sizes.

Table 45. Comparison of Calculated Particle Deposition Modes (particles sticking

to a 1 cm^ surface during a 100 s period for a suspended particle density of 10^

particles/cm )

Particle Diameter, jim Thermophoresis Diffusion Sedimentation

0.01 2.8x10^ 2.6x10^ 6.7 X 10-

0.1 2.0 X 10^ 2.9 X 10^ 8.6 X 10-^

1.0 1.3x10^ 5.9x10^ 3.5x10^

10.0 7.8x10^ 1.7 X 10^ 3.1x10^

There are factors that impose significant limitations to this type of calculation:

Turbulentflow effects. The results in Table 45 are for a static flow, while realistic fire- driven flows are buoyant and turbulent. The general approximation made in realistic

calculations of particle deposition is that the particle concentration in the turbulent flow is uniform until one approaches the boundary layer, where the concentration decreases

linearly to the surface. The diffusion velocity in this case is given by:

D

(10)

where 8 is the boundary layer thickness. The rate of deposition is much greater for

turbulent buoyant flow compared to diffusion in still air because of the much larger

gradient near the surface for the turbulent flow. The difficulty in applying this analysis is in the determination of the boundary layer thickness. The thermal gradient driving the

thermophoretic deposition will also have a boundary layer thickness that is typically

much greater than the particle concentration boundary layer thickness.

Soot agglomerate. There is another serious difficulty in making a quantitative analysis

for the case of flame generated soot. The particle deposition rates in Table 45 are for

101
spherical particles. There are almost no quantitative data for the settling velocity,

diffusion coefficient, or thermophoretic velocity for soot agglomerates. Fractal theory

provides a framework for computing these properties, but there have been virtually no measurements of these properties for comparison with theory. Most comparisons are for

the fractal dimension and the optical properties.

Experimental data. For room fires, there are no quantitative data on the soot deposited within

the enclosure or in the connecting corridor and adjacent rooms. Lacking such information, we

rely on a variety of studies providing deposition rate information for conditions simulating some

of the features of smoke deposition in a room fire to provide an estimate of the magnitude of the

action of the smoke deposited. In a study by Dobbins et al.,^^ smoke from burning crude oil was

collected in a hood above the fire and drawn into a 1 m^ aging chamber. The initial temperature

of the soot was about 100 °C and it cooled to within a few degrees of the walls in a few minutes.

The mass concentration of the smoke was monitored over a period of 90 min. There was about a

10 % decrease in the aerosol mass concentration in 15 min and about 25 % over a period of 90

min. The dominant particle deposition mechanisms in this case were sedimentation and

diffusion with a small effect from thermophoresis when the smoke first entered the chamber. If

the experiment were scaled up to the size of a realistic enclosure, the deposition via diffusion and

sedimentation would be less because of the smaller surface area per unit volume.

Eventually, theoretical analysis of thermophoretic deposition may provide a simplification in

predicting deposition for realistic conditions. For a flow of a particle-laden gas toward a cold

isothermal surface, Batchelor and Shen^^ found for a range of flow condhions that the particle

deposition is proportional to the heat flux to the boundary. The capability to compute the

convective heat transport from a buoyant plume to the ceiling and walls of an enclosure for a 3-

dimensional transient boundary layer is just now being developed by Baum and Rouson.

Combining this model with a suitable generalized Batchelor/Shen analysis would allow the

computation of the thermophoretic deposition of the smoke to the walls and ceiling at the same

time that the convective heat transport is computed.

A study by Mulholland et al}^ provides a sense of the magnitude of the thermophoretic deposition.

Smoke generated using the Cone Calorimeter apparatus was drawn through a 6.3 mm diameter

stainless steel tube. The inlet temperature of the smoke, T,, was in the range of 450 K to 625 K

with an outlet temperature To of 300 K. It was found that the fraction of smoke deposited,/j, was

approximately proportional to the ratio of the temperature difference to the inlet temperature.

T -T

/, =0.5^—^ . (11)

Qualitatively, this expression suggests that the particle deposition is proportional to the heat loss even in the case where the wall temperature is not isothermal.

We can make an upper bound estimate of the thermophoretic deposition from a hot smoke layer by

using equation (11) with the assumption that all of the temperature change of the gas is a resuh of

convective heat exchange with the ceiling. We assume that the initial ceiling temperature is 1300

K and the temperature leaving the building is 300 K. For these assumptions, we compute/j= 0.38.

102
A more realistic assumption is that only half of the heat transfer is to the ceiling while the other

half is to the entrained flow beneath the ceiling layer. This results in a value of 0. 19 for/r..

The rough estimates given above suggest that about 10 % to 30 % of the smoke produced would be

deposited over a period of 10 min to 30 min for a frre in a building. The value could be less than

this if the fire were small or could be larger if the fuel produces very large soot agglomerates such

as is the case with polystyrene. Of course, the deposition over a long period could also be larger if there is very little flow into the enclosure/building.

b. Smoke Coagulation/Agglomeration. Changes in the size of smoke particles affect their

movement toward surfaces and their surface area, which in turn affects the mass of toxicants they can transport. Smoke aerosols are dynamic with respect to their size distribution function. Smoke

particles or droplets undergoing Brownian motion collide and stick together. In the case of liquid

particles, this results in the formation of larger droplets, while in the case of soot, which is made up

of clusters of nearly spherical primary particles, this coagulation process leads to the formation of

larger clusters which are called agglomerates. The coagulation equation expresses the rate of

change in the concentration for a given particle size as a second order kinetic process involving

gains due to collisions of smaller particles resulting in a particle of that size and losses resulting

from a particle of the specified size colliding with any other particle size. Litegrating the

coagulation equation over all particle sizes leads to an equation for the rate of change of the total number concentration, A^, with coagulation coefficient, F : ^= -nv= . (12)

dt

The value of the coagulation coefficient was estimated to be 4 x 10'^° for smolder generated smoke

from incense sticks, 1.0 x 10'^ for smoke from flaming a-cellulose^^ and 1.5 x 10" for smoke

produced by the burning of crude oil.^*^ Integrating equation (12), we obtain an expression for the

total number concentration as a function of time based on a homogeneously distributed aerosol

with initial total number concentration No :

N= ^' (13)

l + FN^t

The total number concentration within a flame is on the order of 10^ particles/cm to 10

particles/cm^ and the coagulation coefficient is greater than the values given above because of the

increased temperature. Assuming a number concentration of lO' and a coagulation coefficient of

5 X 10'^, one fmds based on equation (13) that the number concentration has decreased by a factor

of 26 after 0.5 s residence time in the flame. This suggests that there would be a significant

amount of agglomeration within the flame. Agglomerates with as many as 100 spheres have been

observed by transmission electron microscopy for soot sampled thermophoretically within the

flame.

The equation above applies to a uniformly distributed smoke aerosol, while smoke produced by a

fire is being continuously diluted by the entrainment of air. There is a lack of direct experimental

103
data on the effect of the coagulation process on the size distribution of the smoke as the smoke

travels from near the fire to a remote location where it might be inhaled by someone escaping the

fire. If the smoke particle size increases by a large amount during this trip, this may mean that less of the smoke will penetrate deep into the respiratory system.

The smoke aging study carried out by Dobbins et al.^^ provides insight regarding the coagulation

process. The smoke from a crude oil pool fire was collected in a hood about 2 m above the base of

the fire and then sampled into a 1 m aging chamber. The temperature (100 °C) and concentration

(100 mg/m\ 6x10 particles/cm ) of the smoke entering the chamber are estimated to be similar

to what the smoke properties would be for the plume as it reaches the ceiling of a room. Over a 90-minute period, it was found that the smoke number concentration decreased by a factor of 24

during which time the mass concentration decreased by only 25 %. From these concentrations and

assuming a density of two for soot, we compute that the diameter of average mass increases from

0.25 um to 0.72 Lim. The aerodynamic mass median diameter increased from 0.8 um to 1.1 um CO during this same aging period, as shown in Table 42. The reason for the relatively small change

in the aerodynamic diameter is the broadness of the size distribution, resulting in a peak in the

number distribution about a factor 4 lower than the peak in the mass distribution. Coagulation of

small particles with each other has a large effect on the number concentration and on the count

median size, but coagulation of a small particle or agglomerate with a large agglomerate has little effect on the mass of the large particle. The example given here is probably an overestimate for

the effect of coagulation on the aerodynamic diameter, since in a more realistic scenario the smoke

would be diluted by entrained air.

The above scenario suggests that there may not be a large change in the mass median aerodynamic

diameter as a result of coagulation for an enclosure fire. Thus, if the initial size distribution

indicates a large fraction of respirable particles, this will still be true for the aged particles. The

coagulation process in many cases may, however, greatly reduce the concentration of very small

particles in the range 10 nm to 40 nm. There is concern about the increased toxicity of such

particles, despite their negligible mass.

While the above analysis suggests that coagulation may have only a small effect on the

aerodynamic mass median diameter, this result is based on a limited data set for a single fuel

burning at a fixed heat release rate. It would be valuable to measure the size distribution of smoke

collected at various regions in a muUi-room test facility for a range of burning materials and fire sizes to assess the effect of aging on the size distribution.

3. Adsorption and Desorption of Toxic Gases on Smoke Particles

Although much is known about the toxicological effects of fire gases on the respiratory tract, the

potential for damage to the deep tissues of the lungs due to transport of toxic gases adsorbed on smoke particulates is as yet poorly understood. The preceding Sections considered the state of

knowledge of characteristics of particles produced in a fire and their transport through the fire environment to a person ready to inhale. In this Section we consider the question of which toxic

gases are likely to be carried and deposited m the lungs by looking at the mechanisms of

adsorption and desorption for various gases and smoke particles.

104
Gas adsorption is a spontaneous process through which a system containing a gas and a condensed phase approaches thermodynamic equiUbrium. hi thermodynamic equihbrium for a

specified gas adsorbed on a specified solid at a fixed temperature, the quantity of gas taken up by

the surface is a function of its pressure, n=f(p), or relative pressure, n=f(p/p^), where /?^ is the

saturation vapor pressure of the adsorbate.^^ This relationship, known as an isotherm, has played

a central role in the development of models for adsorption and the understanding of adsorption

mechanisms.

During adsorption, unsaturated forces at the surface of a condensed phase material, the

adsorbent, are at least partially saturated by interactions with gas-phase molecules, the

adsorbate. There are two types of adsorption, distinguished by the strength of the attractive

forces:

Chemisorption refers to the formation of a true chemical bond between the adsorbate

molecule and the surface of the adsorbent. The process is strongly exothermic, releasing

in excess of 0.5 eV per adsorbate molecule, but the energy barrier in breaking existing

chemical bonds within the gas molecule or surface structure or both must frrst be

overcome.

In physisorption, the interaction between gas molecules and surface is controlled by

weaker electrostatic or van der Waals forces, the same forces as those involved in

condensation. Since no energy barrier exists, physisorption is reversible and occurs over

a much more rapid time scale than chemisorption.

Desorption, the removal of the gas molecule from the condensed phase surface, is an

endothermic process that occurs for physisorbed molecules only. The deposition of toxic gases

in the lungs after transport by smoke molecules, therefore, depends on the partition of the

available toxic gas molecules into those remaining in the gas phase, those chemisorbed onto the

smoke particles, and those physisorbed. Only the physisorbed molecules are of mterest for the

lung deposition problem.

a. History and Recent Developments in the Field of Surface Adsorption. The book

entitled Equilibria and Dynamics of Gas Adsorption on Heterogeneous Solid Surfaces provides

a good review of recent developments, especially in regard to modeling the gas surface

mteraction. The historical perspective presented in the Preface and the first chapter ^ begms with

the "Pioneering Age" of adsorption theory, in which both the gaseous adsorbate and the solid

adsorbent surface are highly idealized. These early models considered a gas molecule

approaching a single adsorption site, represented as a local minimum in the gas-solid potential

function (Langmuir in 1917), or a regular 2-D array of such sites (Onsager in 1944). The BET

theory (Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller), still used today as the basis for the determination of

surface area of adsorbents, extends the Langmuir model to account for secondary adsorption on a previously adsorbed layer. For adsorption on muhiple layers of adsorbed material, the FHH

isotherm (Frankel, Halsey, and Hill) models the adsorbate as a thin layer of liquid on a homogeneous flat sohd. Time-dependent processes were handled with empirical equations, such

as the Elovich equation developed in the late 1930's, and srniple theoretical and experimental

diffusion studies.

105
Key developments during the "Middle Age" of adsorption science, which started after the Second

World War, were the consideration of the energy heterogeneity of real surfaces and the

development of advanced analytic techniques for describing this heterogeneity along with

interaction among adsorbed molecules. Approaches were sought for more complex problems,

including the reverse problem, in which the adsorption energy distribution is sought from an

experimental isotherm, and the treatment of gas mixtures in an equilibrium state. Absolute Rate

Theory improved understanding of adsorption and desorption processes, and lattice gas theories

explored surface self-diffusion for both physisorbed and chemisorbed species. For describing

carbonaceous agglomerates such as soot, modifications of the Dubinin-Radushkevich (DR)

isotherm proposed for microporous surfaces in 1947 are still being used with reasonable success.

The "Modem Era", beginning in the early 1 990s, is marked by the application of greatly enhanced

computer power to simulate complex adsorption and desorption events using computationally

intensive tools such as Monte Carlo and Molecular Dynamics, combined with experimental

techniques such as Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

to characterize in detail the molecular structure of real surfaces. For adsorption processes on

carbonaceous particles, the techniques of FTIR spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and microgravimetry enable the determination of the kinetics and mechanisms of some

important heterogeneous reactions between the surface and the gas phase adsorbate. ' Advances

in theory have come with the use of fractal techniques to describe the soot surface. Adsorption

isotherms derived from fractal theory represent an extension to the classical FHH isotherm

model.^'

b. Soot Surface Effects. Adsorption processes for soot have been the subject of considerable

recent research because of concerns about the effects of man-made particulates on atmospheric

chemistry and human health. Soot particle surfaces are highly complex due both to the wide

variety of surface chemical functionalities and to their agglomerate physical structures, which

result in large surface areas. Their strong affinity for gases of many kinds has long been noted;

many industrial processes employ specially-designed "activated carbons" to remove impurities and

act as reducing agents. The following are the features of the particle that affect the rate and extent of adsorption:

Surfacefunctional groups. Carbonaceous aerosols formed by combustion processes vary widely in

their surface properties depending on their origins, thermal history, and the composition of the

surrounding environment as they form and develop. The range of responses of soot particles to hydration, for example, is due to differences in chemistry during development. If soot is produced

under low temperature conditions, from 200 °C to 500 °C, oxygen is incorporated into the surface

during formation. The surface oxides for this soot are acidic in nature, consisting of carboxylic,

lactone, phenolic, and quinonoid fiinctional groups. The resulting soot particles carry a negative

surface charge and are hydrophilic. Hydrophobic, positively charged soot particles containing

basic functional groups such as hydroxyl groups are created when soot lacking surface oxide

groups, such as that produced at high temperatures (>1000 °C) in the presence of CO2, is exposed

to oxygen and hydrated at low temperatures.^^ Subsequent surface oxidation of a soot particle

during aging increases the acidity and polarity of the carbonaceous surface, probably due to the

fonnation of carboxylic acid groups, making the surface more hydrophilic with time. Physisorbed

O2 and incorporation of trace elements such as sulftir increase soot hydration as well.

106
The chemical contents of soot may include elemental carbon (graphite), organic matter from

incompletely-burned fuel, nitrogen, sulfur, and various other elements. The structure of soot is predominantly aromatic in nature and consists of randomly oriented graphitic microcrystallites, or

platelets, each about 1 5 nm in area and 1 nm thick and separated by 2 nm to 5 nm. The most

chemically reactive areas are likely to be at the edges of these platelets.^' Along the edges, where

aliphatic and aromatic chains are exposed, highly reactive sites may be found where carbon is not

exerting its full valency and is attached to other atoms with only three bonds. Other chemical

reaction opportunities are provided by the heterocyclic nature of many of the ringed structures at the platelet edges and by the surface functional groups containing oxygen. The presence of

inorganic ash within the particle will also affect its adsorptivity properties. Only a percentage of

the carbonaceous surface is active. For example, coverage of the surface by oxygen-containing

functional groups has been measured at about 50 % for n-hexane soot. Smaller platelets are subject to oxidation before larger ones. While the maximum adsorptive capacity of a particle is largely determined by the specific surface area, the surface fiinctionalities, which are specific to the

type of fuel and combustion history, are important at lower adsorbate partial pressures. ' "

Pore structure. The adsorption properties of a soot particle are also affected by its porous

structure. Pores are classified in three basic size ranges. Macropores, with pore width greater than

50 nm, provide access into the interior of the particle. Mesopores, with pore width in the range of

2 nm to 50 nm, are of the proper size for the formation of a meniscus of the liquefied adsorbate,

and therefore provide sites where capillary condensation may take place. Micropore widths are under 2.0 nm, a size of the same order as that of molecules, and can represent a large fraction of the

surface area available for adsorption. This category is further divided into supermicropores, from

0.7 nm to 2.0 nm, and ultramicropores, less than 0.7 nm in width.

""

Information on the effects of the porous structure of real materials on adsorption can be obtained

from the shape of the measured isotherm, which generally falls into one of five classes. For a nonporous solid, gas adsorption follows a Type II isotherm, in which the quantity adsorbed

increases with relative pressure to a point where it knees over into a smaller slope, then continues

to rise with a slope that increases with relative pressure. The presence of micropores in the solid causes increased adsorption at low relative pressures due to the interactions of these sites,

resuhing in a Type I isotherm. The presence of mesospheres resuhs in capillary condensation at higher relative pressures, increasing the adsorption over that of a nonporous surface and causing

hysteresis in adsorption and desorption processes (Types FV and V). A small slope of adsorbed

gas amount for low relative pressures (Types III and V) indicates that the adsorbent-adsorbate

interaction is particularly weak.

Micropores less than about 2 nm were found by Jaroniec and Choma^^ to play an important role m

the surface adsorption of benzene on activated carbon, a factor of 10 or more greater than that of

water. It is of interest whether soots also display this enhanced adsorption and whether it also occurs for other organics such as acrolein. The authors also report a high degree of surface

irregularity for the activated carbons with a fractal dimension of about 2.6. The increase over the

non-fractal surface exponent of 2 is mainly attributed to the micropore structure.

107
Comparison ofsoot to carbon blacks and activated carbon. Considerable research has been done on the adsorption properties of carbon blacks and activated carbon. Care must be taken in

projecting those results to adsorption on naturally-occurring smoke, however, since the engineering

of these commercial products has modified their chemical and physical properties significantly.

Both carbon blacks and activated carbon have considerably larger surface areas, due to the rapid

cooling of soot to produce carbon blacks^° and to the dehydration, carbonization, and activation

processes that create the extensive network of pores in activated carbon gas. ^ In addition, mineral

matter is incorporated into commercial activated carbons to improve reactivity, and surface

properties such as polarity and pore size are designed to optimize adsorption of a specific

adsorbate.

c. Adsorbate Gas Effects. The adsorption of a particular gas onto a soot particle also depends

strongly on the properties of the gas molecules.

Polar molecules. For polar molecules {e.g., H2O, HF, HCl, HBr, CO, NH3, NO, and HCHO), the

combination of differences in atom electronegativity with molecular structure results in a dipole

moment. These gas molecules are preferentially adsorbed over non-polar molecules by sites with

unpaired electrons and by acidic oxide groups. In addition to the weaker van der Waals forces that

control the physisorption of non-polar molecules, polar molecules are likely to be held by

hydrogen bonding.^^ Molecules with high dipole moments are preferentially adsorbed over and

may even displace those with smaller moments.^^'^' This factor is of particular importance in the

presence of highly polar water molecules, which is discussed in more detail in the section on Soot

Hydration below.

Paramagnetic molecules. For paramagnetic molecules, including O2, NO2, and NO, unpaired

electrons with parallel spins inhabit a set of degenerate orbitals. Since many chemical

functionalities on the soot particle surface also contain unpaired electrons, the attraction of this

type of adsorbate molecule to these sites will be strong. The presence of paramagnetic molecules in

the soot environment is expected to affect the adsorption properties of the soot toward other

adsorbates, at least for those that may be adsorbed by these same sites. Study of the soot

adsorption of these gases in combination with other diamagnetic or paramagnetic gases has

provided insights into the coadsorption of more than one adsorbate.

Aromatic molecules. Aromatic adsorbates, such as benzene and toluene, interact most strongly

with carbonyl groups on the soot surface, with which they form an electron donor-acceptor

complex.^" This interaction is enhanced by substitutions in the carbon ring, such as NO2 or aldehyde groups. The affinity of aromatic adsorbates is enhanced by an increase in the number of

carbonyl groups, such as through soot aging, and decreased by acidic surface oxides.

Other organic compounds. Non-polar paraffmic compounds are hydrophobic in nature and

adsorb preferentially on carbonaceous surfaces free from acidic surface oxides. " Such surfaces

preferentially adsorb hydrocarbon vapors relative to water vapor.^^ Unsaturated organic

compounds are preferred to saturated compounds on polar surfaces.^^

d. Soot Hydration. Hydration of soot particles from adsorption of water molecules already

present in the atmosphere, generated in the fire, or introduced during suppression is a cooperative

process. The more H2O molecules adsorbed, the stronger is the surface attraction toward

108
additional H2O molecules.^^ If water were adsorbed onto the surface of a soot particle in

sufficient quantities to change the local surface appearance to that of a water droplet, its adsorption properties with respect to other gases would be quite different.

Chughtai et al. used the following modified version of the DR isotherm to describe the mass of

water adsorbed per gram of soot a as a function of humidity p/po for a variety of soots and carbon

blacks:

log a = log ao - D [log {po /p)f (9)

This equation applies for p/po up to about 0.55 and allows determination of the chemisorption

limit, soot surface coverage at that limit, and the onset of multilayer formation. For the soots

tested, chemisorption takes place at low relative humidities up to about 0.25. The corresponding

limiting surface coverages range from 6 % to 18 % for pine needle, n-hexane, coal, JP-8 (aviation

fuel), and diesel fuel soots, reflecting the density of surface sites for irreversible adsorption of H2O

for each soot (oxygen-containing surface functionalities). For p/po between 0.25 and 0.55, the

dominant mechanism is quasi-reversible adsorption possibly facilitated by hydrogen bonding

between surface sites, and for p/po from about 0.55 to 0.83, multi-layer adsorption through the

cooperative interaction between adsorbed and gas phase molecules, again through hydrogen

bonding, dominates.

Even at the highest humidity measured, the mass of water adsorbed per gram of soot is only in the

range of 0.02 g/g to 0.06 g/g for natural soots. For liquid water to play an important role in

transporting HCl to the alveolar region of the lungs, the mass of water must be comparable to the mass of smoke rather than only a small fraction of it. Thus, soot may be considered the dominant

means of transport unless the fire atmosphere is nearly saturated for H2O. Actually, for a relatively

high ambient humidity, approaching or even exceeding saturation is possible due to the conversion

of most of the hydrogen in the ftiel to water vapor. There is a need for data in the humidity range

approaching saturation to assess whether there is a marked increase in the adsorbed water for these

conditions.

e. Transport of Specific Toxic Gases. Table 46 contains a list of toxic gases that may be

transported by smoke particles and some common materials that produce them during

combustion. It also indicates the magnitudes of inhalation exposures that can cause sublethal

effects ranging from significant sensory irritation to lung edema. Higher exposures can be fatal. Missing from Table 46 are the asphyxiants CO and CO2. Although these are arguably the most

important toxic gases in a fire, it is unlikely that these molecules will be transported by smoke

particles because they lack the polarity, solubility, and other molecular features needed for

adherence to the particles. All of the gases in the Table are irritants except HCN, which is an

asphyxiant.

109
Table 46. Major Transportable Toxic Gases from Combustion

(Sublethal effects occurring: A, below 10'^ volume fraction (10 ppm by volume; B, 10'^ to 10"^ volume

fraction (tens ofppm by volume); C, at 10"^ to 10"^ volume fraction (hundreds of ppm by volume); D, at 10'^ to 10' volume fraction (thousands of ppm by volume.^^)

Toxic Gas Potential Sources

Sublethal

Effects

Acrolein

(CH2=CHCHO) Cellulosic materials, e.g., wood, cotton, paper; polystyrenes, ABS A

Toluene diisocyanate

(TDI)

Flexible polyurethane foams A

Formaldehyde

(HCHO) POM, polypropylenes B

Hydrogen cyanide

(HCN)

Nitrogen-containing materials, e.g., wool, silk, PAN, ABS, acrylic

fibers, nylons, urea/formaldehyde, melamine, polyurethanes,

polyacrylamide

C

Nitrogen dioxide

(NO:)

Nitrogen-containing materials B

Hydrogen chloride

(HCl)

PVC and chlorinated additives B,D

Hydrogen fluoride

(HF)

PTFE, other fluorinated compounds and additives B

Hydrogen bromide

(HBr)

Brominated compounds and additives B,D

Sulfur dioxide (SO:)

Sulfur-containing materials, e.g., wool, vulcanized rubbers,

poly{phenylene sulfide)

B

Hydrogen sulfide

(H:S)

Sulfur-containing materials C

Ammonia (NH3) Nitrogen-containing materials C

Styrene (CsHg) Polystyrenes, ABS C

Toluene (CyHg) Polystyrenes, PVC, polyurethane foams D

Benzene (C6H6) Polystyrenes, PVC, polyesters, nylons C

Despite the awareness of the importance of aerosols in affecting smoke toxicity, there is relatively little quantitative information regarding the transport on particles of sufficient mass of

noxious molecules to cause toxicological effects. The following summarizes the available

information, the best of which is for HCl, with some on HCN and other toxicants

Hydrogen chloride. The transport of HCl has been studied largely because it is a major pyrolysis

and combustion product of polyvinylchloride (PVC), a polymer in widespread use. Chlorine is also present in a number of flame retardant additives. Further, other halogens (bromine and

fluorine) are present in a number of commercial products, whose combustion generates the

analogous halogen acids, HBr and HF. Their transport should behave much like HCl. Thus HCl

is a surrogate for any toxic combustion products with high polarity and high solubility in water.

110
Wall losses. Galloway and Hirschler^ have developed a five parameter model to predict the

adsorption of HCl vapor on a variety of surfaces. The model includes a bulk gas phase, a boundary layer with a mass transfer rate of the HCl across the boundary layer, equilibrium

between the gas phase concentration and surface concentration, and first-order reaction with

the surface. The values of the mass transfer coefficients for the ceiling and walls were

obtained from Cooper's analysis of the convective heat transfer to ceilings above enclosure

fires together with the Reynolds analogy between heat and mass transfer. '^^ Once the

parameters were determined empirically, the measured and predicted concentrations of HCl

concentration for a wide range of surface-to-volume ratios and different kinds of flow agreed to within about 20 % in all cases reported, and often agreed within the measurement uncertainty.

This model was incorporated within FAST to describe the surface adsorption of HCl for largescale experiments.

For one set of experiments involving a room and a corridor,^ ^ agreement between

experiment and model prediction of the remaining gas-phase HCl concentration was

typically within about 20 %. The amount of HCl deposited was about 25 % for the 50

kW fire and about 1 5 % for the 200 kW fire. A second set of experiments involved a room, a corridor, and a target room where the

concentration was monitored in the second room.^°" The agreement between

measurement and prediction was about 30 %. In this case, the deposition was much

greater, ranging from 60 % to 85 %. This is due to the much smaller fire size ( 10 kW)

together with the lower velocity for a "dead-end" flow into a second room compared to a flow through a corridor.

The full-scale tests demonstrate the sensitivity of the HCl loss to the details of the

configuration and the fire size. It appears that the general approach used by Galloway and

Hirschler could be applied for determining the parameters for other gases and then used to estimate the losses in full-scale tests. If such work were carried out now, one could

incorporate the adsorption model into a field model for the smoke dynamics such as the Fire

Dynamics Simulator developed by McGrattan and Forney.

HCl adsorption on smoke particles. In order to transport a molecule of HCl deeply into the

lungs and deposit it there, the molecule must be loosely bound to a smoke particle. To

determine the partition of HCl gas molecules among those remaining in the gas phase, those

bonded weakly to soot particles through physisorption, and those bonded tightly, or chemisorbed. Stone et al.^^^ analyzed smoke products from combustion of cylinders of PVC

film interleaved with sheets of polyethylene (PE). Nearly all chloride (98.4 %) was found in

the gas phase, 0.7 % was easily desorbed from the soot during a 22 hour purge, and 0.9 %

was tightly bound to the soot. This corresponds to about 20 mg of physisorbed HCl per gram

of soot for a gas phase HCl volume fraction of 2.7 x 10'^ (2700 ppm by volume).

The quantity of physisorbed HCl provides another demonstration of the affinity of HCl gas

for water. A comparison of the measured surface area of soot particles from this experiment

with the 0.15 nm^ covered by a single HCl molecule suggests that HCl coats each particle to

111
a depth of 1 .5 monolayers. This thick coating is best explained by nuxed adsorption of water

vapor and HCl together by the soot.

The authors also estimated the amount of HCl that may be deposited deep within the lungs.

Assuming that the density of soot is equivalent to the aerosol in this experiment at 1.57 g/m^,

that 40 % of soot particles travel into the alveolar sacs, and that the breathing rate is 1 8 L/min

over an exposure time of 1 h, the mass of HCl retained in the lower lungs would be 13 mg.'°^

This soot density is very high, corresponding to a visibility of about 0.3 m for a light

reflecting sign. A more likely concentration for an escaping occupant would be 0.3 g/m , which would result in a considerably slower deposition of about 2 mg of HCl per hour. This

is to be compared to about 1 700 mg of HCl vapor deposited in the respiratory system

assuming 50 % deposition of the inhaled HCl vapor.

Inhalation of smoke and gases from a fire containing halogenated materials is therefore

expected to result in significant irritation to the upper respiratory tract from HCl gas with

transport of a relatively small amount of HCl deeply into the lungs by small soot particles.

HCl solution in water droplets. Since HCl gas is highly water-soluble, it could attach to small water droplets in addition to soot for transport deeply into the lungs. To determine the

fraction of HCl that could be transported by a water aerosol, Stone^ ^ set up a flow of HCl

gas through a wetted wall tube of dimensions similar to those of the upper respiratory tract. The effect of a water aerosol stream on the transport of HCl through the tube was determined

by comparing the amount of chloride deposited in the liquid film layer when the aerosol is present to that when it is not. A roughly even partition of HCl between gas phase and aerosol

was found. Stone estimated that water droplets of 3 |Jm or less in diameter are nine times as

effective as soot in transporting HCl into the lungs.

A reanalysis of Stone's data provides a much larger value for the effectiveness of water

droplets relative to soot. The mass of physisorbed HCl on the soot obtained by Stone et al} ^ was 19 mg of HCl per g of smoke or 30 mg of HCl per m^ of combustion gases. For soot

particles with aerodynamic size in the range 0.5 jxm to 2.5 |a.m, the alveolar deposition

fraction is about 40 "/o.^^"^ Thus, the estimated amount of loosely bound HCl deposited in the

lung from inhaling 1 m" of the smoke and combustion gases is 12 mg. The estimated mass

concentration of HCl in the vapor state is 4300 mg/m^ based on Stone's results that 0.7 % of

the HCl was physisorbed. If this vapor were exposed to water droplets such as produced in

Stone's droplet experiment, the fraction of HCl adsorbed on the droplets would be about 45

% of the total, which corresponds to 1900 mg/m^. The estimated alveolar deposition for

inhaled droplets in the size range between 1 |Lim and 5 |a.m is 40 %}^^ So in this case there

would be about 800 mg of HCl deposited in the alveolar region for a subject inhaling 1 m^ of

these droplets. Comparing the droplet deposition (800 mg) with the soot deposition (12 mg),

we see that the droplet mode of transport is about 65 times greater.

Either of these conclusions suggests that measurements are needed of the number and size

distribution of water aerosols produced during fires. These are extremely difficult measurements

to make, but would put the contribution of particle-borne acid gases in perspective.

112
.107 HCN. Stone and Williams also investigated the possibility that HCN could be transported into

the lungs by a water aerosol using the same apparatus used to investigate HCl transport. '°^ The

difference in the amount of HCN measured in the gas phase with and without the aerosol stream

was negligible, indicating that the amount of HCN carried on the water droplets was under 1 %.

Water aerosol transport of HCN into the lungs is therefore not a strong concern.

Other toxic gases. The main focus of most studies of adsorption of gases onto soot particles is on the effects of atmospheric particulates on human health and the environment. Much research

has been done on gases such as CO, CO2, O2, NH3, NO2, NO, and other NOx, PAH, and SO2,

therefore, but the adsorption of other gases of particular concern in fires, such as acrolein and TDI,

has not been studied. Chughtai et al.^^ have studied the adsorption and reaction of a variety of

molecular species found in the atmosphere on the surface of soot. Their analysis methods

include microgravimetry and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Table 47 displays results

for some gases of interest during combustion. The adsorption of SO2 and NO2 for gas

concentrations on the order of 0.2 volume percent is on the order of 0.01 g of gas per g of soot and thus indicates that surface adsorption of such gases is not large enough to have a toxic effect on humans. The ability to distinguish different modes of surface adsorption for NO2 compared

to SO2 from the EPR indicate that the SO2 is primarily physisorbed while NO2 is primarily

chemisorbed.

Table 47. Gas Adsorbate Data97

AdsorbatePolar

Molecule

Para- or Diamagnetic

% Chemisorbed% Physisorbed Temp Comments

NO2 Weak P 90.3 % 9.7 % 22 °C 1010 ppm NO2, 1 5 mg soot NO Weak P 0% 100%

NH3 Moderate D 100% 0%

1 7, 34, 57, 68 ppm NH3 w/ 20 mg

soot,

34 ppm NH3 w/ 5, 1 0, 1 5, 20 mg

soot,

0.21 mg NHs/g soot, surface

coverage 1 .2 %

SO: Moderate D

17.7% 82.3 % 22 °C

1010 ppm SO2, 15 mg soot, surface

coverage 8.58, 6.84, 4.79, 2.25 %

19.0% 81.0% 34 °C

22.8 % 77.2 % 46 °C

23.7 % 76.3 % 66 °C

113
f. Toxicity of Ultrafine Particles. Particles in the ultrafme size range of 20 nm and smaller

in diameter that are inherently nontoxic have been found to cause an inflammatory response in

the respiratory system not seen with fme particles about 250 nm in diameter. For particles with

intrinsic toxicity, the cell damage and release of inflammatory mediators is much greater for

ultrafme than for larger particles. Epidemiological studies also indicate a link between the

smallest particulate sizes and adverse effects on cardiopulmonary health. ^°^ Although the

mechanisms of damage are not yet completely understood, recent research has provided some

insights.

The lung damage mediated by ultrafme particles is hypothesized to result from the penetration of

these particles into the interstitium deep within the lungs. '*^^ In this scenario, particles travel into

the alveoli, where they overcome the capability of the macrophages to clear the lungs by

engulfing foreign material and ingesting it or transporting it to the mucociliary escalator for

removal. This may occur due to injury to the macrophage cells themselves, to particle numbers

that overload the system, ^^^ or to contamination of the pulmonary surfactant.

'^^ Ultrafme

particles that escape the macrophages are small enough to pass through the epithelium into the

interstitium, where they can act as a chronic irritant to cells or be transported to the lymph nodes.

This damage may occur even for particles that are chemically inert, as has been seen in

experiments with ultrafine particles of TiOi and carbon black. ^ ^ ^

There is one instance in which smoke toxicity due to ultrafme particles has been raised. Under

certain specific laboratory conditions, the toxic vapors from combustion of pure

perfluoropolymers (PFP), such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and tetrafluoroethylenehexafluoropropylene copolymer (FEP) were found to manifest toxic potency up to a thousand

times that of the combustion gases from other materials or PTFE in other toxicity tests. Rats in a

small-scale combustion toxicity test were found to die from 30 min exposure to as little as 0.04

mg of PTFE combustion products per liter,"" as compared to a 30 min LC50 of 3.8 mg/1 for CO

gas and 20 mg/1 to 50 mg/1 for combustion products from woods and most plastics. Further

testing established that the lethality of these fumes was significantly reduced or eliminated by

aging, filtering, and co-combustion products with other materials, and that the high toxic potency

could be restored during the aging process by reheating. "^'""^'^^ These results pointed to ultrafme

monodisperse particulates as the active species. Measurements of highly toxic PFP aerosols

showed that a significant number of particles are 20 nm in diameter or smaller, presumably

formed by condensation of a dilute vapor of relatively low molecular weight (2 kD to 6 kD)

fluoropolymer.'^^ Recent experiments with rats show that PTFE fiimes containing ultrafine

particles cause severe inflammatory damage involving pulmonary macrophages and epithelial

cells. As the PFP aerosol cools and ages, however, or in the presence of a dense particle

concentration, thermal coagulation of these primary particles causes the formation of much

larger aggregates, and the high toxic potency is eliminated.

114
4. Summary

For the large fires of most consequence, there is little expected change in the nature of the smoke

as one moves further from the fire room. Changes in respirability, resulting from changes in aerosol dimension, are expected to be

modest. Most of the initial smoke aerosol is in the size range for effective transport to the

lower portions of the respiratory tract.

It is possible for toxicologically significant quantities of polar gases, such as halogen

acids, to dissolve in water droplets.

Surface adsorption of gases on the smoke aerosol surface is likely to be small compared

to the amount of the gas needed for a toxic effect.

Losses of gas phase toxicants from the breathable atmosphere should be relatively

modest.

The total smoke wall loss from fires in buildings is predicted to be a small fraction of the

total smoke generated. Gasses are more likely than smoke aerosol to deposit on a surface

because of their much larger diffusion coefficient.

Particles with a diameter of 2 nm to 30 nm may be much more toxic than particles with a larger

diameter.

5. Future Work

There are three types of information that would influence exposures to airborne toxicants:

Quantitative information on the losses of toxicants to walls for a range of realistic fires;

Identification of whether nanometer smoke aerosol can be generated in realistic fire scenarios; and

Determination of whether a cloud of water droplets forms during a fire and, if so, the

conditions under which it may form and the size distribution of the droplets.

115
IV. CONCLUSION

In Phase I of the SEFS study, we have learned where and for what fire types sublethal effects of

fire smoke are likely to result in harm to people. We have also learned that while sublethal

effects from smoke exposures can play a substantive role in preventing safe escape, these effects

lead to noticeable consequences in only a small fraction of the people exposed. Experimental

information on the generation of irritant gases and aerosols in building-size fires will complete

the picture.

We have compiled and analyzed all the data available from bench-scale toxicity devices. This

produces a basis for estimating the lethal and incapacitating potential from smoke. There are no

data on other sublethal effects from the smoke from burning materials. There are extensive

laboratory-scale data on combustion gases that remain to be analyzed. There are few buildingscale experiments to validate the bench-scale results, although the few that exist show some

correlation.

Thus, the most important next step for the SEFS study is the establishment of an accurate

reduced-scale measurement methodology for obtaining smoke (component) yield data for

commercial products. An integral component of this is the generation of a reference data set of

building-scale smoke and heat yield data.

Following that, we should examine the state of knowledge of any relationships between the

physiological effects produced by smoke inhalation and the behavior people exhibit in a fire

situation. There appears to be little established information, and the current analysis indicates

that most smoke exposures are inconsequential. Nonetheless, escape modeling involves

extensive assumptions in this area, and these need to be assessed.

116
V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The technical staff of the NFPA Fire Analysis & Research technical staff contributed valuable

suggestions regarding the content and design of the data coding instrument. Kimberly Rohr and

Robert McCarthy coded most of the fire incidents used in this analysis.

Dr. Blaza Toman of the NIST Statistical Engineering Division was especially helpfiil in

analyzing the toxic potency data.

A number of people provided thoughtful comments on the planning for this phase of the research

and in particular offered comments on earlier drafts of this manuscript: Dr. Ann Marie Gebhart,

Dr. Gordon Hartzell, Pat Horton, Elaine Thompson, Dr. Rudolph Valentine, and Dr. Joseph

Zicherman.

Frederick Mulhaupt, Steven Hanly, and Eric Peterson of the Fire Protection Research Foundation

provided administrative support.

Finally the authors thank the sponsors of Phase I of the SEES Project: the Alliance for the

Polyurethane Lidustry, the American Plastics Council, DuPont, Lamson & Sessions, NASA,

Solvay, the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI), the SPI Fluorocarbon Products Division, Swiss

Institute of Safety and Security, Underwriters Laboratories, the U.S. Access Board, and the Vinyl

Institute.

117
VI. REFERENCES

Hall, Jr., J.R., Bums, Toxic Gases, and Other Hazards Associated with Fires, National Fire

Protection Association, Quincy, MA, (2001).

NFPA 269, Standard Test Methodfor Developing Toxic Potency Datafor Use in Fire Hazard

Modeling, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA (2000).

ASTM E- 1678-97, Standard Test Methodfor Measuring Smoke Toxicityfor Use in Fire

Hazard Analysis, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, (1998).

* Fahy, R.F., "EXIT89: An Evacuation Model for High-Rise Buildings," Fire Safety ScienceProceedings ofthe Third International Symposium, pp. 815-823, Elsevier, London (1991).

^ Owen, M., Galea E.R., and Lawrence, P., "Advanced Occupant Behavioural Features of the

building-EXODUS Evacuation Model," Fire Safety Science-Proceedings ofthe Fifth

International Symposium, pp. 795-806, Elsevier, London (1997).

^Bukowski, R.W., Clarke, F.B., Hall, Jr., J.R., and Stiefel, S.V\[., Fire Risk Assessment Method:

Description ofMethodology, National Fire Protection Research Foundation, Quincy, MA (1990).

n Ahrens, M., The U.S. Fire Problem Overview Report, National Fire Protection Association,

Quincy, MA (2000).

o Rohr, K.D. "The U.S. Home Product Report (Forms and Types of Materials First Ignited in

Fires)," National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA (2000).

^ Life Safety Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.

Analysis by S.W. Stiefel of U.S. Census Bureau data, as published in R.W. Bukowski et al.

Fire Risk Assessment Method: Case Study 1 : Upholstered Furniture in Residences, National Fire

Protection Research Foundation, Quincy, MA (1990), pp. 24-31.

Hall, Jr., J.R., Patterns ofFire Casualties in Home Fires by Age and Sex, Quincy, MA: NFPA

Fire Analysis & Research Division, April 2000.

" 1984 National Sample Survey of Unreported Residential Fires: Final Technical Repoii.,

prepared for U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Contract No. C-83-1239, Audits &

Surveys, Inc., Princeton, NJ, (1985).

'^ Babrauskas, V. and R.D. Peacock. "Heat Release Rate: The Single Most Important Variable

in Fire Hazard." Fire Safety Journal 18 (3): 255-272 (1992).

CBUF, Fire Safety of Upholstered Furniture - The Final Report on the CBUF Research

Programme, Sundstrom, B., ed., European Commission, Measurements and Testing Report EUR

16477 EN, Interscience Communications, London (1995).

"^ Sardqvist, S. Initial Fires, RHR, Smoke Production and CO Generation from Single Items and

Room Fire Tests, Lund University, ISSN 1 102-8246 / ISRN LUTVDG/TVBB-3070-SE (1993)

Kokkala, M., Gorannsson, U., and Soderbom, J., Five Large-scale Room Fire Experiments,

Project 3 ofthe EUREFIC Fire Research Programme, Technical Research Centre of Finland,

VTT Publications 104, 1992.

118
1 n Ohlemiller, T. J., Shields, J.R., McLane, R.A., and Gann, R.G., Flammability Assessment

Methodologyfor Matti'esses, NISTIR 6497, National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD (2000).

Purser, D. A., J. A. Rowley, P. J. Fardell, and M. Bensilum, "Fully Enclosed Design Fires for

Hazard Assessment in Relation to Yields of Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen Cyanide,"

Proceedings oflnterflam '99, 8 International Fire Science and Engineering Conference,

Interscience Communications (1999).

^^ Purser, D. A., "Assessment of Time to Loss of Tenability Due to Smoke, Irritants, Asphyxiates

and Heat in Full-Scale Building Fires - Effects of Suppression and Detection on Survivability,"

Proceedings ofFire Suppression and Detection Research Application Symposium, Fire

Protection Research Foundation, Quincy, MA (1999).

^^ Purser, D. A., "The Development of Toxic Hazard in Fires from Polyurethane Foams and the

Effects of Fire Retardants," Proceedings ofFlame Retardants 90 Conference, Elsevier Applied

Science, London (1990).

'' Morikawa, T. and E. Yanai, "Toxic Gases from House Fire Involving Natural and Synthetic

Polymers under Various Conditions," Fire Safety J. 20, 257-274 (1993).

~~ Morikawa, T., E. Yanai, T. Okada, M. Kajiwara, Y. Sato, and Y. Tsuda, "Toxicity of Gases

from Full-Scale Room Fires Involving Fire Retarded Contents," Proceedings of the International

Conference on Fire Safety, March 21-24, 1993 (1993).

'^^ Denize, H., The Combustion Behaviour of Upholstered Furniture Materials in New Zealand,

Fire Engineering Research Report 004, ISSN 1 173-5996, University of Canterbury (2000).

^^ Babrauskas, V.; Harris, R. H., Jr.; Gann, R. G.; Levin, B. C; Lee, B. T.; Peacock, R. D.; Paabo, M.; Twilley, W.; Yoklavich, M. F.; Clark, H. M., Fire Hazard Comparison ofFireRetarded and Non-Fire Retarded Products, Special Publication 749, National Bureau of

Standards, Gaithersburg, MD, 92 p., (1992).

-^ Braun, E.; Levin, B. C; Paabo, M.; Gurman, J. L.; Clark, H. M.; and Yoklavich, M. F., LargeScale Compartment Fire Toxicity Study: Comparison With Small-Scale Toxicity Test Results,

NBSIR 88-3764, National Bureau of Standards , 83 pp., 1988.

-^ Babrauskas, V., Harris, R. H., Braun, E., Levin, B. C, Paabo, M, and Gann, R. G., "The Role

of Bench-Scale Test Data in Assessing Real-Scale Fire Toxicity," Technical Note 1284, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, 1991.

-^ Tsuchiya, Y., "CO/COo Ratios in Fires," Fire Safety Science - Proceedings ofthe Fourth

International Symposium, Kashiwagi, T., ed., Intl. Assoc, for Fire Safety Science, Boston, MA,

pp. 515-526, (1994).

-^ Pitts, W. M., Johnsson, E.L., and Bryner, N.P., "Carbon Monoxide Formation in Fires by

High-Temperature Anaerobic Wood Pyrolysis," Combustion Institute. Symposium

(hitemational) on Combustion, 25th. Proceedings. Abstracts of Symposium Papers. Session

07-B: Fire Hazards. July 3 1 -August 5, 1994, Irvine, CA, Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA,

69-70 pp, 1994.

119
^^ Peacock, R. D., Forney, G.P., Reneke, P., Portier, R., and Jones, W.W., "CFAST, the

Consolidated Model of Fire Growth and Smoke Transport," Technical Note 1299, National

Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD (1993).

^^ Gann, R.G., Babrauskas, V., Peacock, R.D., and Hall, J.R., Jr. "Fire Conditions for Smoke

Toxicity Measurement." Fire and Materials 18 (3), 193-199 (1994).

^^ Thomas, P.H., "Testing Products and Materials for Their Contribution to Flashover in

Rooms," Fire and Materials 5, 1 03- 1 1 1, 1 98 1

.

32 "Fire Hazard Analysis - Estimation of Time Available for Escape from a Fire," Proposed

Draft Technical Specification, ISO CD 13571, 14 Draft. International Organization for

Standardization, to be published.

Averill, J.D., "Performance-Based Codes: Economics, Documentation, and Design," Master's

Thesis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute (1998).

^^ Babrauskas, V., Levin, B.C., Gann, R.G., Paabo, M., Harris, Jr., R.H., Peacock, R.D., and

Yusa, S., Toxic Potency Measurementfor Fire Hazard Analysis , NIST Special Publication 827,

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD (1991).

^^ Clarke, F.B., H. van Kuijk, R. Valentine, G.T. Makovec, W.C. Seidel, B.B. Baker, Jr., D.J. Kasprzak, J.K. Bonesteel, M. Janssens, and C. Herpol, "The Toxicity of Smoke from Fires

Involving Perfluoropolymers: Full-Scale Fire Studies," J. Fire Sciences 10, 488-527 (1992).

S.C. Packham, R.B. Jeppsen, J. McCandless, T. Blank, J. Petajan, "The Toxicological

Contribution of Carbon Monoxide as a Component of Wood Smoke," Journal ofCombustion

Toxicology 5, 1 1-24 (1978).

^^ Gehnan et al., Bayesian Data Analysis, Chapman Hall, (1997).

^^ MRC Biostatistics Unit, histitute of Public Health, UK.

^^ Kaplan, H.H. and Hartzell, G.E., "Modeling of Toxicological Effects of Fire Gases: I. Incapacitating Effects of Narcotic Fire Gases," J. Fire Sciences 2 286-305 (1984).

Standard Operating Procedures of the National Advisory Committee on Acute Exposure

Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Draft

Report, November, 1999.

"Proposed Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs): Carbon Monoxide," U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Draft Report, November 2000.

"Proposed Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs): Hydrogen Chloride," U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, Public Draft, May 2000.

^^ Klees, M., Heremans, M., and Dougan, S., "Psychological Sequelae to ( Intoxication in the Child," Sci. Total Environment 44, 165-176 (1985).

"^ Peterson, J.E. and Stewart, R.D., "Predicting the Carboxyhemoglobin L

Carbon Monoxide Exposures," J. Applied Physiology 39, 633-638 (1975).

^^ Kaplan, H.L., "Effects of Irritant Gases on the Avoidance/Escape Perfoi

Respiratory Response of the Baboon," Toxicology 47, 165-179 (1987).

120
^^ Kaplan, H.L., Anzeuto, A., Switzer, W.G., and Hinderer, R.K., "Effects of Hydrogen Chloride on Respiratory Response and Pulmonary Function of the Baboon," J. Toxicology and

Environmental Health 23, 473-493 (1988).

'*'' Hartzell, G.E., private communication to R. G. Gann, 2001.

^^ Mulholland,1995 G.W., "Smoke Production and Properties", The SFPE Handbook ofFire

Protection Engineering, 2"^* ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, pp. 2-217 to 2-227 ( 1995).

^^ Brown, N.J., R.L. Dod, F.W. Mowrer, T. Novakov, and R.B. Williamson, "Smoke Emission

Factors from Medium-Scale Fires; Part l^ Aerosol Sci. & Tech. 10, 2-19 (1989).

^° Faeth, G.M. and U.O. Koylu, "Soot Morphology and Optical Properties in Nonpremixed

Turbulent Flame Envirorrments," Combust. Sci. and Tech. 108, 207-229 (1995).

^^ Koylu, U.O. and G.M. Faeth, "Structure of Overfire Soot in Buoyant Turbulent Diffusion

Flames at Long Residence Times," Combust, and Flame 89, 140-156 (1992).

^"^ Evans, D., G. Mulholland, D. Gross, H. Baum, and K. Saito, "Envirormiental Effects of Oil

Spill Combustion", NISTIR 88-3822, Report for National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg,

MD (1988); also Proceedings ofthe Tenth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical

Seminar, 9-1 1 June 1987, Edmonton, Alberta, Ministry of Supply and Services Canada Cat. No.

En 40-1 1/5-1987E, pp. 91-130 (1987).

^^ Zinn, B.T., C.P. Bankston, R.F. Browner, E.A. Powell, T.K. Joseph, M. Pasternak, R.O.

Gardner, and K. Kailasanath, "Investigation of the Properties of the Combustion Products

Generated by Building Fires," Final Report of National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD,

Grant Number G8-9003, 1 October 1977 to 30 September 1978 (1978).

^'^ Dod, R.L., N.J. Brown, F.W. Mowrer, T. Novakov, and R.B. Williamson, "Smoke Emission

Factors from Medium-Scale Fires: Part 2," Aerosol Sci. & Tech. 10, 20-27 (1989).

^^ Koylu, U.O. and G.M. Faeth, "Carbon Monoxide and Soot Emissions from Liquid-Fueled

Buoyant Turbulent Diffusion Flames," Combust, and Flame 87, 61-76 (1991).

^^ Koylu, U.O., Y.R. Sivathanu, and G.M. Faeth, "Carbon Monoxide and Soot Emissions from

Buoyant Turbulent Diffusion Flames," Fire Safety Science: Proceedings ofthe Third

International Symposium, pp. 625-634 (1992).

^^ Patterson, E.M., R.M. Duckworth, CM. Wyman, E.A. Powell, and J.W. Gooch,

"Measurements of the Optical Properties of the Smoke Emissions from Plastics, Hydrocarbons,

and Other Urban Fuels for Nuclear Winter Studies," Atmos. Envir. 24A, 1-14 (1990).

^^ Evans, D.D., H.R. Baum, G.W. Mulholland, N.P. Bryner, and G.P. Forney, "Smoke Plumes

from Crude Oil Bums, " Proceedings ofthe Twelfth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program

Technical Seminar, 7-9 June 1989, Calgary, Alberta, Ministry of Supply and Services Canada

Cat. No. En 40-1 1/5-1989, pp. 1-22(1989).

^^ Bankston, C.P., B.T. Zinn, R.F. Browner, and E.A. Powell, "Aspects of the Mechanisms of

Smoke Generation by Burning Materials," Comb. & Flame 41, 273-292 (1981).

121
^° Patterson, E.M., R.M. Duckworth, E.A. Powell, and J.W. Gooch, "Measurements of the

Emissions Properties of Burning Plastic Material for Nuclear Winter Studies," DNA-TR-90-98,

Defense Nuclear Agency, Alexandria, VA (1991).

^' Bankston, C.P., R.A. Cassanova, E.A. Powell, and B.T. Zinn, "Review of Smoke Particulate

Properties Data for Burning Natural and Synthetic Materials," NBS-GCR G8-9003,

Supplemental report for National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1978).

^^ Zinn, B.T., C.P. Bankston, R.F. Browner, E.A. Powell, T.K. Joseph, J.C. Liao, M. Pasternak,

and R.O. Gardner, "Investigation of the Properties of the Combustion Products Generated by

Building Fires," Final Report of Products Research Committee Project, Grant Number G8-9003,

1 January 1978 to 31 December 1978 (1979).

^^ Dod, R.L., F.W. Mowrer, L.A. Gundel, T. Novakov, and R.B. Williamson, "Size Fractionation

of Black and Organic Particulate Carbon from Fires: Final Report," Lawrence Berkeley

Laboratory Report LBL-20654 (1985).

^^ Evans, D.D., W.D. Walton, H.R. Baum, K.A. Notarianni, J.R. Lawson, H.C. Tang, K.R.

Keydel, R.G. Rehm, D. Madrzykowski, R.H. Zile, H. Koseki, and E.J. Tennyson, "In-Situ

Burning of Oil Spills: Mesoscale Experiments," Proceedings ofthe Fifteenth Arctic and Marine

Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, 10-12 June 1992, Edmonton, Alberta, Ministry of Supply

and Services Canada Cat. No. En 40-1 1/5-1992, pp. 593-657 (1992).

^^ Mulholland, G.W., V. Henzel, and V. Babrauskas, "The Effect of Scale on Smoke Emission,"

Fire Safety Science: Proceedings ofthe Second International Symposium, pp. 347-357 (1989).

^^ Bankston, C.P., R.A. Cassanova, E.A. Powell, and B.T. Zinn, "Liitial Data on the Physical

Properties of Smoke Produced by Burning Materials under Different Conditions", J. Fire &

Flammabilityl, 165-179(1976).

^ Tewarson, A., "Generation of Heat and Chemical Compounds in Fires", The SFPE Handbook

ofFire Protection Engineering, 2"^^ ed., NFPA, Quincy, MA, pp. 3-53 to 3-124 (1995).

zro Hinds, W.C., Aerosol Technology^- Properties, Behavior, and Measurement ofAirborne

Particles, John Wiley and Sons, New York (1982).

^^ Reist, P.C., Introduction to Aerosol Science, Macmillan Publ. Co., New York (1984).

Raabe, O.G., "Particle Size Analysis Utilizi]

Distribution," ^ero5o/ &/. 2, 289-303 (1971).

^' Cleary, T.G., Measurements ofthe

Ph.D. thesis, U. of Maryland (1989).

^- Lee, T.G.K. and G. Mulholland, "1 Technology," NBSIR 77-1312, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. (1977).

^^ Samson, R.J., G.W. Mulholland, and J.W. ( Agglomerates," Za«gmi//r 3: 272-281 (1987).

^"^ Corlett, R.C. and G.A. Cruz, " JFF/Comb. Tox., 2: 8-33 (1975).

'"^ Raabe, O.G., "Particle Size Analysis Utilizing Grouped Data and the Log-Normal

i

Cleary, T.G., Measurements ofthe Size Distribution and Aerodynamic Properties ofSoot,

h

^" Lee, T.G.K. and G. Mulholland, "Physical Properties of Smokes Pertinent to Smoke Detector

I

^^ Samson, R.J., G.W. Mulholland, and J.W. Gentry, "Structural Analysis of Soot

'^^ Corlett, R.C. and G.A. Cruz, "Smoke and Toxic Gas Production in Enclosed Fires,"

122
^^ Mulholland, G.W. and T.J. Ohlemiller, "Aerosol Characterization of a Smoldering Source,"

Aerosol Sci. & Tech., 1:59-71 (1982).

''^ Zinn, B.T., R.A. Cassanova, C.P. Bankston, R.F. Browner, E.A. Powell, J.U. Rhee, and K.

Kailasanath, "Investigation of the Properties of the Combustion Products Generated by Building

Fires," NBS-GCR 77-1 16, Final Report of National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD,

Grant Number G7-9001, 1 October 1976 to 30 September 1977 (1977).

^^ Powell, E.A., C.P. Bankston, R.A. Cassanova, and B.T. Zinn,, "The Effect of Environmental

Temperature upon the Physical Characteristics of the Smoke Produced by Burning Wood and

PVC Samples," F/>e & Mat., 3: 15-22 (1979).

no Waldmann, L., and Schmitt, K.H., "Thermophoresis and Diffusiophoresis of Aerosols," Chp.

VI, Aerosol Science, ed. C.N. Davies, Academic, New York (1966).

^^ Allen, M.D. and Raabe, O.G. , "Slip Correction Measurements of Spherical Solid Aerosol

Particles in an Improved Millikan Apparatus," Aerosol Science and Technology 4, 269-286

(1985).

^^ Dobbins, R.A., Mulholland, G.W. and Bryner, N.P., "Comparison of a Fractal Smoke Optics

Model with Light Extinction Measurements," Atmos. Envir 28, 889-897 (1994).

^' Batchelor, G.K., and Shen, C, "Thermophoretic Deposition of particles in Gas Flowing over Cold Surfaces," J. Colloid and Interface Sci. 107, 2 1 -37 ( 1 985 ).

' Personal communication from Howard R. Baum, 2000.

^^ Mulholland, G.W., Henzel, V., and Babrauskas, V., "The Effect of Scale on Smoke

Emission," in Proceedings ofthe Second International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, T. Wakamatsu, Y. Hasemi, A. Sekizawa, P.G. Pagni and C.E. Grant, eds.. Hemisphere, New York

347-357(1989).

^^ Friedlander, S.K., Smoke, Dust, and Haze, John Wiley and Sons, New York (1997).

^^ Mulholland, G.W., Lee, T.G., and Baum, H.R., "The Coagulation of Aerosols with Broad

Initial Size Distribution," J. Colloid Interface Sci. 62, 406 (1977).

^^ Gregg, S.J. and K.S.W. ^ing. Adsorption, Surface Area and Porosity, 2"'^ ed., Academic Press,

New York, NY (1982).

^^ Cerefolini,G.F and W. Rudziriski, "Theoretical Principles of Single- and Mixed-Gas

Adsorption Equilibria on Heterogeneous Solid Surfaces," in Equilibria and Dynamics of Gas

Adsorption on Heterogeneous Solid Surfaces, W. Rudziriski, W.A. Steele, G. Zgrablich, eds.,

Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 1-104 (1997).

^^ Rudziriski, W., W.A. Steele, G. Zgrablich, eds., Equilibria and Dynamics of Gas Adsorption on Heterogeneous Solid Surfaces, Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1997).

^^ Lary, D.J., D.E. Shallcross, R. Toumi, "Carbonaceous Aerosols and Their Potential Role in

Atmospheric Chemistry," J. Geophysical Research. 104, 15,929-15,940(1999).

'^^ Chughtai, A.R., G.R. Williams, M.M.O. Atteya, N.J. Miller, and D.M. Smith, "Carbonaceous

Particle Hydration," y4?mo5. Envir. 33, 2679-2687 (1999).

123
^' Pfeifer, P. and K.-Y. Liu, "Multilayer Adsorption as a Tool to Investigate the Fractal Nature of

Porous Adsorbents," in Equilibria and Dynamics of Gas Adsorption on Heterogeneous Solid

Surfaces, W. Rudziriski, W.A. Steele, G. Zgrablich, eds., Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, The

Netherlands, pp. 625-677 (1997).

^" Cookson, Jr., J.T., "Adsorption Mechanisms: The Chemistry of Organic Adsorption on

Activated Carbon," Ch. 7 in Carbon Adsorption Handbook, P.N. Cheremisinoff and F. EUerbusch,

eds., Ann Arbor Science Publ., Inc., Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 241-279 (1978).

^^ Goss, K.-U. and S.J. Eisenreich, "Sorption of Volatile Organic Compounds to Particles from a Combustion Source at Different Temperatures and Relative WmmdiXiQS,'' Atmos. Envir. 31, 2827-

2834(1997).

^^ Kaneko, K., "Heterogeneous Surface Structures of Adsorbents," in Equilibria and Dynamics

of Gas Adsorption on Heterogeneous Solid Surfaces, W. Rudzitiski, W.A. Steele, G. Zgrablich,

eds., Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 679-714 (1997).

^^ Jaroniec, M., and J. Choma, "Characterization of Geometrical and Energetic Heterogeneities

of Active Carbons by using Sorption Measurements," in Equilibria and Dynamics of Gas

Adsorption on Heterogeneous Solid Surfaces, W. Rudziriski, W.A. Steele, G. Zgrablich, eds.,

Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 715-744 (1997).

^^ Cheremisinoff, P.N. and A.C. Morresi, "Carbon Adsorption Applications," Ch. 1 in Carbon

Adsorption Handbook, P.N. Cheremisinoff and F. EUerbusch, eds., Ann Arbor Science Publ., Inc., Ann Arbor, MI, pp. 1-53 (1978).

^^ Chughtai, A.R., M.M.O. Atteya, J. Kim, B.K. Konowalchuk, and D.M. Smith, "Adsorption

and Adsorbate Interaction at Soot Particle Surfaces," Carbon 36, 1573-1589 (1998).

Hilado, C.J., Flammability Handbookfor Electrical Insulation, Technomic Publ. Co.,

Westport, CN(1982).

^^ Galloway, F.M. and M.M. Hirschler, "A Model for the Spontaneous Removal of Airborne

Hydrogen Chloride by Common Surfaces," Fire Safety J. 14, 251-268 (1989).

^°° Cooper, L.Y., "Convective Heat Transfer to Ceilings Above Enclosure Fires," 19th

Symposium (International) on Combustion, Haifa, Israel, The Combustion Institute, 933 - 939

(1982).

'^^ Galloway, F.M. and M.M. Hirschler, "The Use of a Model for Hydrogen Chloride Transport

and Decay to Predict Airborne Hydrogen Chloride Concentrations in a Full-Scale Room - Corridor Scenario," F/re 5'fl/efv J. 19, 73-101 (1992).

^^^ Galloway, F.M. and M.M. Hirschler, "Transport and Decay of Hydrogen Chloride: Use of a Model to Predict Hydrogen Chloride Concentrations in Fires Involving a Room - Corridor - Room Arrangement," Fire Safety J. 16, 33-52 (1990).

'^^ McGrattan, K.B., H.R. Baum, R.G. Rehm, A. Hamins, and G.P. Forney, "Fire Dynamics

Simulator - Technical Reference Guide," Technical Report NISTIR 6467, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD (2000).

124

I
^^"^ Stone, J.P., R.N. Hazlett, J.E. Johnson, and H.W. Carhart, "The Transport of Hydrogen

Chloride by Soot from Burning Polyvinyl Chloride," J. Fire & Flamm. 4, 42-5 1 (1973).

^^^ Stone, J.P., "Transport of Hydrogen Chloride by Water Aerosol in Simulated Fires," JFF /

Comb. Tox. 2: 127-138 (1975).

^°^ Heyder, J., Gebhart, J., Rudolf, G., Schiller, C.F., and Stahlhofen, W., "Deposition of

Particles in the Human respiratory Tract in the size range 0.005-15 |im," J. Aerosol Sci. 17:81 1- 825(1986).

^*^^ Stone, J.P., and F.W. Williams, "Transport of Hydrogen Cyanide by Water Aerosol in a Simulated Fire Atmosphere," J. Comb. Tox. 4, 231-235 (1977).

^°^ Pope III, C.A., "Epidemiology of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Human Health: Biologic

Mechanisms and Who's at Risk?," Envir. Health Persp. 108, 713-723 (2000).

^^^ Donaldson, K., X.Y. Li, and W. MacNee, "Ultrafme (Nanometre) Particle Mediated Lung

Injury," y. Aerosol Sci. 29, 553-560 (1998). "° Sosnowski, T.R., L. Gradon, and A. Podgorski, "Influence of Insoluble Aerosol Deposits on

the Surface Activity of the Pulmonary Surfactant: A Possible Mechanism of Alveolar Clearance

Retardation?," y^ero^o/ 5"^/. and Tech. 32, 52-60 (2000). ^" Churg, A., B. GiUcs, J. Dai, "Induction of Fibrogenic Mediators by Fine and Uhrafme

Titanium Dioxide in Rat Tracheal Explants," Am. J. Phys.-Lung Cellular and Molecular

Physiology 211, L975-L982 ( 1 999).

^^' Levin, B.C., A.J. Fowell, M.M. Birky, M. Paabo, A. Stolte, and D. Malek, "Further

Development of a Test Method for the Assessment of the Acute Inhalation Toxicity of

Combustion Products," NBSIR 82-2532, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD

(1982).

^^^ Purser, D.A., "Recent Developments in Understanding of the Toxicity of PTFE Thermal

Decomposition Products," Proc. oflnterflam '90, 5''' International Fire Conference, 3-6 Sept.

1990, Canterbury, Eng., Interscience Communications Lt., London, Eng., pp. 273-286 (1990).

^'"^ Fardell, P.J., "UK Studies of the Toxic Potency of PTFE in Fire," Proc. oflnterflam '90, 5"'

International Fire Conference, 3-6 Sept. 1990, Canterbury, Eng., Interscience Communications

Lt., London, Eng., pp. 257-271 (1990).

^^^ Clarke, F.B., H. van Kuijk, R. Valentine, G.T. Makovec, W.C. Seidel, B.B. Baker, Jr., D.J. Kasprzak, G.J. Marovec, J.K. Bonesteel, M. Janssens, and C. Herpol, "The kihalation Toxicity of

Smoke from Fires Involving Perfluoropolymers," Proc. oflnterflam '90, f' International Fire

Conference, 3-6 Sept. 1990, Canterbury, Eng., hiterscience Communications Lt., London, Eng.,

pp. 287-295(1990).

^^^ Johnston, C.J., J.N. Finkelstem, R. Gelein, R. Baggs, G. Oberdorster, "Characterization of the

Early Pulmonary Inflammatory Response Associated with PTFE Fume Exposure," Toxic, and

Appl. Pharm. 140, 154-163 (1996).

125
APPENDIX A: TOXICOLOGICAL DATA

TABLE A.1

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR WELL-VENTILATED FLAMING COMBUSTION

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm'^

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

gm'^

95%

Confidence

Limits

g-m'^

Acrylonitrile butadiene

styrene

Pellets 1 15.0 12.3, 18.3 10.6 7.4, 15.2

Pellets 1 15.6 13.2, 18.4 6.0 4.1,8.9

Pellets 1 20.8 15.9,27.2 17.0 15.0,20.0

Pellets 1 19.3 16.7,22.3

5.4, 8.3

JBismaleimide

No details provided 2 14.9 12.8, 17.2 6.8

Carpet foam (with nylon) 3 108.0 NA

Carpet jute backing (with

nylon)

3 57.0 NA

Chlorofluoropolymers

Ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene

(39.4 % fluorine; 24.6 %

chlorine)

4 15.1 NA

Blown ethylenechlorotrifluoroethylene

(39.4 % fluorine; 24.6 %

chlorine)

4 20.0 NA

5.2, 7.3

Epoxy

No details provided 2 7.3 NA 6.2

Fabric

Vinyl 5 32.0 28.0, 37.0

Fluoropolymers

(data set A)

Ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene

(59.4 % fluorine)

4 30.2 22.8, 40.0

Polyvinylidene fluoride

(59.4 % fluorine)

4 27.3 17.9,41.7

Tedlar-thin opaque 2 40.0 NA 21.0 14.2, 27.8

Fluorenone-polyester - thin clear film 2

4

13.2

0.075

11.8, 14.6

0.03, 0.27

10.7 9.9, 11.5

Fluoropolymers

(data set B)

Fluorinated ethylene/fluorinated

propylene - 76 % fluorine

126
TABLE A.1

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR WELL-VENTILATED FLAMING COMBUSTION

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm""'

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

gm'^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

Polytetrafluoroethylene- Teflon 6 0.045 0.04, 0.05

Polytetrafluoroethylene- Teflon 0.017 NA

Polytetrafluoroethylene -powder 0.164 0.07, 0.37 0.8 0.06, 1.51

Polytetrafluoroethylene -powder 0.400 0.02,6.81

Polytetrafluoroethylene -powder

Modacrylic

Knit fabric

0.045

7.1

0.04, 0.05

6.4, 7.9

0.25 NA

Knit fabric 4.7 3.2, 6.9 2.8 2.0, 3.0

Knit fabric

8

4.4

8.4

3.9, 5.0

7.3, 9.5

3.1

2.0

2.2, 4.3

NA

Phenolic resin

Rigid foam

Polyacrylonitrile

No details provided 7 38.7 36.2, 42.4

No details provided

Polyester

NFR Fiberfill

7

9

41.8

30.8

NA

28.2, 33.6

NFR polyester upholstery fabric 10 37.5 35.3, 39.8

NFR polyester upholstery fabric with NFR FPU 10 39.0 36.0, 42.2

NFR laminated circuit boards;

polyester resin with CaCOs filler Polyester fabric/PL) foam

composite

11

10

53.0

42.0

NA

NA

Polyethylene

NFR semi-flexible foam 12 35.0 34.0,41.0

FR semi-flexible plastic foam 12 31.3 29.3, 33.3

Wire

Polyphenylene oxide

NFR business machine housing

1

11

46.0

31.5

NA

NA

Polyphenylsulfone

Pellets 1 25.3 22.0, 29.2 15.0 NA

Pellets 1 36.0 24.9, 39.6 21.8 12.9, 36.7

Pellets 1 11.7 9.1, 15.0 10.0 NA

Pellets 1 19.8 14.8,26.5

Polystyrene

NFR rigid foam; GM-51 1 53.5 NA 30.0 NA

127
TABLE A.1

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR WELL-VENTILATED FLAMING COMBUSTION

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

FR foam; GM-49;expancled 13 35.8 23.6, 48.0 17.9 NA

NFR rigid foam; GM-51 1 32.6 30.5, 34.8

NFR rigid foam; GM-51 1 38.9 37.9, 39.9 28.7 27.5, 30.4

NFR rigid foam; GM-51;

extruded

13 33.8 30.7, 36.9 12.7 NA

NFR foam; GM-47; expanded 13 27.8 NA 15.4 12.0, 18.8

NFR TV cabinet housing; high

impact polystyrene base

formulation

Polyurethane, Flexible

NFR FPU #12

11

9

40.0

40.0

NA

NA

FRFPU#11

No details provided

Melamime type foam

Melamime type foam with vinyl fabric FRFPU#14

9

5

5

5

9

40.0

52.0

12.5

26.0

27.8

NA

46.0, 59.0

9.7-16.1

24.0 - 28.0

23.3, 33.1

FR foam; 22.3 kg/m^ 14 26.0 NA

FR GM-23 13 34.5 31.2,37.8 15.1 NA

FR GM-27 13 33.1 26.5, 39.7 9.6 6.0, 13.2

NFR FPU #13 10 40.0 NA

NFR foam; 22.3 kg/m^ 14 40.0 NA

NFRGM-21 1 38.0 NA 9.6 4.1,22.1

NFRGM-21 1 49.5 NA 49.5 NA

NFRGM-21 1 40.0 NA 37.5 35.8, 39.3

NFRGM-21 13 43.2 39.8, 46.6 8.3 NA

NFR GM-25 13 37.5 NA 14.5 11.3, 17.7

NFR foam 8 43.2 39.8, 46.6 8.1 6.7, 9.5

128
TABLE A.1

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR WELL-VENTILATED FLAMING COMBUSTION

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

gm'^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm^

NFR upholstered chairs with

flexible polyurethane padding

foam, a cover fabric, and steel frame; density of foam is 25

kg/m^

Polyurethane, Rigid

NFR foam, 25 mm thick, 96

kg/m^

11

15

35.0

11.0

NA

10.0-13.0

FRGM-31

No details provided

13

5

14.2

22.0

NA

21.6,22.2

6.7 5.5, 7.9

NFR GM-30 1 38.4 NA

NFR GM-30 1 13.3 12.2, 14.5

NFR GM-30 1 11.3 7.6, 16.8 8.9 5.1, 15.6

NFR isocyanurate; GM-41 13 11.4 9.3, 13.5 4.1 3.3,4.9

NFR isocyanurate; GM-43 13 5.8 5.0, 6.6 2.8 2.3, 3.3

NFR GM-29 13 11.2 9.3, 13.1 5.2 3.4, 7.0

NFRGM-35 13 12.1 8.0, 16.2 5.8 4.5,7.1

NFR GM-37 13 10.9 9.4, 12.4 3.9 2.9, 4.9

NFR GM-39; sprayed

Polyvinyl chloride, Plasticized

Plasticized PVC

13

16

16.6

26.0

NA

NA

4.8

7.1

2.7,6.9

4.9, 9.3

CPVC water pipe 3 16.0 NA

Commercial rigid 1/2" PVC

conduit

Polyvinyl chloride, Resin

Sheets, 12.7 mm thick, 1,490

kg/m^ density

3

15

29.5

20.0

NA

NA

No details provided 5 26.0 21.0,31.0

Sheets

Pellets

15 25.0

15.0

NA

10.0, 19.0 6.0 4.0, 8.9

Pellets 17.3 14.8,20.2 18.5 17.5, 19.8

Pellets (w/ zinc ferrocyanide) 9.4 7.2,12.3 11.8 10.1, 15.1

Pellets (w/ zinc ferrocyanide) 14.3 12.5, 16.3 13.2 11.3, 15.4

Pellets (w/ zinc ferrocyanide)

Tempered Hardwood

15.0 15.0, 15.5

129
TABLE A.1

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR WELL-VENTILATED FLAMING COMBUSTION

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

gm'^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

No details provided 17 58.1 40.8 - 67

Urea formaldehyde

Foam 8 11.2 10.4, 12.0 7.4 6.5, 8.3

Wires and Cable Products

Commercial PTFE coaxial wire

(product)

3 9.6 NA

Commercial THHN wire with

nylon-PVC jacket (product)

3 55.0 NA

NFR wire insulation made of cross-linked EVA copolymer

(product)

11 51.0 NA

Wood

Douglas fir 15 150 NA

Douglas fir 35.8 28.6, 44.9 20.0 16.4,24.3

Douglas fir 45.3 39.0,52.7 18.4 14.0, 24.1

Douglas fir 24.0 19.0,29.0 14.5 10.0, 19.1 Douglas fir 29.6 22.7, 38.6

Douglas fir 38.4 35.2,41.9 14.0 10.5, 18.6

Douglas fir 41.0 33.0, 50.9 21.8 15.5, 30.7

Douglas fir 39.8 38.2,41.4 23.5 23.0, 24.0

Douglas fir Douglas fir 18

29.8 23.9, 37.1 20.9 NA

106.5 NA

Douglas fir 18 69.4 NA

Douglas fir 13 13.3 10.1, 16.5

Red oak 45.0 39.9, 50.8 40.6 NA

Red oak 56.8 51.6,62.5 34.8 31.1,39.0

Red oak 60.0 56.6, 63.6

NA: Values not available in literature.

130
TABLE A.2

LC50 VALUES FOR VENTILATION-LIMITED FLAMING COMBUSTION

Material Reference

30 min LC50 Value (with

14 day post-exposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm'^

Fabric, vinyl

Polyester, Resin

5

11

19.0

40.5

17.7,20.9

NA

Polyphenylene oxide 115

24.0

16.0

NA

Polyvinyl chloride, Plasticized 13.7, 17.5

Polyurethane, Flexible

No details provided 5 18.0 16.9, 18.4

PR upholstered chairs with flexible polyurethane padding foam, a cover fabric, and steel frame

Melamime type foam

11

5

23.0

8.0

NA

7.2, 10.4

Melamime type foam with vinyl

fabric

Polyurethane, Rigid

No details provided

Wires and Cable Products

PR wire insulation made of crosslinked EVA copolymer (product)

5

5

15

15.0

14.0

25.0

14.7, 16.2

14.3, 14.5

NA

NA: Values not available in literature

131
TABLE A.3

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR OXIDATIVE PYROLYSIS

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

95%

Confidence

Limits

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm'^ gm'^ gm'^ gm

Acrylonitrile butadiene

styrene

Pellets 1 19.3 13.9,26.9 21.0 15.1,25.2

Pellets 1 38.4 NA 5.8 2.8, 8.4

Pellets 1 33.3 23.1,47.9 23.0 18.5,27.5

Pellets 1 30.9 21.2,45.0

Bismaleimide

No details provided 2 41.9 38.8,45.1 20.1 16.3,24.0

Carpet foam (with nylon) 3 68.0 NA

Carpet jute backing (with

nylon)

3 90.0 NA

Chlorofluoropolymers

Ethylenechlorotrifluoroethylene

(39.4 % fluorine; 24.6 %

chlorine)

4 20.1 18.4, 22.0

Blown ethylenechlorotrifluoroethylene

(39.4 % fluorine; 24.6 %

chlorine)

Epoxy

No details provided

4

2

28.9

11.0

20.3,41.1

8.9, 13.1 4.1 3.3, 5.0

Fluoropolymers

(data set A)

Ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene

- 59.4 % fluorine

4 3.3 NA

Polyvinylidene fluoride - 59.4 % fluorine

4 24.3 19.1,31.2

Tedlar-thin opaque 2 34.0 NA 18.8 12.0,25.6

Fluorenone-polyester - thin clear film Fluoropolymers

(data set B)

Fluorinated

ethylene/fluorinated

propylene - 76 % fluorine

2

4

17.2

0.05

NA

NA

10.9 NA

Polytetrafluoroethylene - powder6 0.045 0.02,0.12

132
TABLE A.3

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR OXIDATIVE PYROLYSIS

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

Polytetrafluoroethylene - 1 0.125 0.08,0.19 0.68 0.31, 1.49

powder

Polytetrafluoroethylene - powder

Modacrylic

Knit fabric Knit fabric

1

1

1

0.235

5.2 7.8

0.05, 1.20

4.9, 5.5

6.3, 9.7

2.7 2.1,3.4

Knit fabric 1 7.0 5.0,9.7 3.0 2.0,4.0

Knit fabric Phenolic resin

Rigid foam;GM-57

Polyester

Fabric

1

8

10

5.3

5.9

5.0

4.0,7.1

4.8, 7.0

NA

3.2

1.5

2.8, 3.7

NA

NFR polyester upholstery

fabric 10 39.0 38.4,. 39.5

NFR polyester upholstery

fabric with NFR FPU

Polyester fabric/PU foam

composite

10

10

47.5

30.0

43.0, 52.5

NA

Polyethylene

NFR semi-flexible

polyethylene foam

12 5.3 4.4, 6.6

FR semi-flexible plastic

polyethylene foam

Polyphenylsulfone

Pellets

12

1

6.1

18.7

5.3,6.9

15.2,23.0 8.8 6.8, 11.2

Pellets 1 32.2 27.7, 37.5 19.0 10.2,35.3

Pellets 1 10.7 8.4, 13.6 7.0 NA

Pellets Polystyrene

NFR rigid foam; GM-51

1

1

9.5

50.0

9.1, 10.1

NA 50.0 NA

FR foam; GM-49;expanded 13 40.0 NA 30.9 26.2, 35.6

NFR rigid foam; GM-51 1 46.2 NA

NFR rigid foam; GM-51 1 40.0 NA 40.0 NA

NFR rigid foam; GM-51;

extruded

NFR foam; GM-47;

expanded

Polyurethane, Flexible

13

13

40.0

40.0

NA

NA

40.0

27.2

NA

23.0,31.4

133
TABLE A.3

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR OXIDATIVE PYROLYSIS

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

gm'^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

NFRFPU#12 9 37.8 36.6, 39.0

NFRFPU#13 10 37.0 29.8,46.0

NFR foam; 22.3 kg/nT" 14 33.0 NA

NFR GM-21 1 27.8 16.9,45.8 7.0 3.6, 13.6

NFR GM-21 1 40.0 31.2,51.3 20.2 8.6, 47.3

NFR GM-21 1 26.6 15.3,46.2 53.0

FRFPU#11 9 17.2 13.2,22.4

FRFPU#14 9 40.0 NA

FR foam; 22.3 kg/m-" 14 23.0 NA

FR GM-23 13 12.6 10.5, 14.7 7.3 5.5, 9.1 FR GM-27

NFR GM-21

13

13

30.5

13.4

23.1,37.9

NA

25.2

3.2

4.7,45.7

1.6,4.8

NFR GM-25 13 36.9 30.9, 42.9 15.1 12.4, 17.8

NFR foam 8 14.3 11.9, 16.7 4.2 3.3, 5.1 NFR GM-21; 2 PCF

Polyurethane, Rigid

NFR GM-30

3

1

34.7

34.0

NA

NA

NFR GM-30 1 39.6 NA

NFR GM-30 1 35.1 NA 29.3 NA

FR GM-31

NFR isocyanurate; GM-41

13

13

40.0

8.0

NA

7.1,8.9

9.0

3.0

6.8, 11.2

2.7, 3.3

NFR isocyanurate; GM-43 13 5.0 4.6, 5.4 3.4 2.8,4.0

NFR GM-29 13 40.0 NA 8.9 5.1, 12.7

NFR GM-35 13 36.7 NA 10.8 NA

NFR GM-37 13 36.7 NA 6.8 3.4, 10.2

NFR GM-39; sprayed

Polyvinyl chloride,

Plasticized

CPVC water pipe

13

3

10.9

9.1

9.3, 12.5

NA

4.0 2.4, 5.6

Plasticized PVC 16 21.0 18.8,23.2 3.4 2.8, 4.0

Commercial rigid 1/2" PVC

conduit

Polyvinyl chloride, Resin

3 37.0 NA

134
TABLE A.3

LC50 AND IC50 VALUES FOR OXIDATIVE PYROLYSIS

Material Reference

30 min LC50

Value (with 14

day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm"^

30 min IC50 Value (with

14 day postexposure

observation)

gm"^

95%

Confidence

Limits

gm'^

Pellets 1 16.0 14.0, 19.0 9.4 NA

Pellets 1 20.0 14.7,27.2 30.0 NA

Pellets (w/ zinc

ferrocyanide)

1 7.6 5.5, 10.5 5.4 5.1, 10.1

Pellets (w/ zinc

ferrocyanide)

1 13.3 11.5, 15.4 11.7 10.3, 13.2

Pellets (w/ zinc

ferrocyanide)

1 11.3 8.5, 14.9

Strandboard

Oriented Strandboard 18 47.0 37.7, 57.3

Tempered Hardwood

No details provided 17 86.5 79.4, 93

Urea formaldehyde

Foam 8 1.2 1.1,1.3 0.7 0.6, 0.8

Wires and Cable Products

Commercial PTFE coaxial

wire (product)

3 12.5 NA

Commercial THHN wire

with nylon-PVC jacket

(product)

3 100.0 NA

Wood

Douglas fir 16.7 14.5, 19.3 15.0 12.3, 18.2

Douglas fir 27.6 22.9, 33.3 10.1 7.2, 14.2

Douglas fir 26.8 21.3,33.7 5.6 3.1,9.9

Douglas fir 24.0 19.9,29.0 22.0 13.2, 36.7

Douglas fir 25.9 20.0, 33.5 10.1 7.2, 14.2

Douglas fir 20.4 16.4,25.3 18.3 14.5,23.0

Douglas fir 22.8 20.2, 25.8 13.5 12.0, 14.2

Douglas fir Douglas fir 18

18.5

100.8

17.3, 19.8

NA

14.7 13.3, 16.2

Douglas fir 18 64.6 60.6,77.1

Douglas fir 13 14.6 8.1, 21.1 4.8 3.8, 5.8

Red oak 25.0 18.7,35.5 25.0 NA

Red oak 30.3 26.0, 35.4 23.0 NA

Red oak 35.0 24.5, 50.1 24.1 NA

NA: Values not available in literature.

135
REFERENCES

1. Levin, B.C., M. Paabo, and M.M. Birky, "Interlaboratory Evaluation of the 1980 Version

of the National Bureau of Standards Test Method for Assessing the Acute Inhalation

Toxicity of Combustion Products," National Bureau of Standards, NBSOR 83-2678, 88

p., April 1983.

2. Farrar, D.G. "Comparative Study of the Toxicity of Combustion Products of Tedlar and a Fluorenone-Polyester Film," Proceedings, NASA Conference on Fire Resistant Materials,

1 -2 March 1 979, pp. 239-250, 1 979.

3. Anderson, R.C., P. A. Croce, F.G. Feeley, and J.D. Sakura, "Study to Assess the

Feasibility of Incorporating Combustion Toxicity Requirements into Building Materials

and Furnishing Codes of New York State: Final Report, Volumes I and II and III," Arthur

Little Inc Report, Reference 88712, May 1983.

4. Kaplan, H.L., A.F. Grand, W.G. Switzer, S.C. Gad, "Acute Inhalation Toxicity of the

Smoke Produced by Five Halogenated Polymers," Journal ofFire Sciences, 2 (2), pp.

153-172, March/April 1984.

5. Babrauskas, V., B.C. Levin, R.G. Gann, M. Paabo, R.H. Harris, Jr., R.D. Peacock, and S. Yusa, "Toxic Potency Measurement for Fire Hazard Analysis," National Institute of

Standards and Technology, NIST Special Publication 827, 1 19 p., December 1991.

6. Birky, M.M., M. Paabo, B.C. Levin, S.E. Womble, and D. Malek, "Development of

Recommended Test Method for Toxicological Assessment of Inhaled Combustion

Products. Final Report," National Institute of Standards and Technology, NBSIR 80-

2077, 63 p., September 1980.

7. Williams, S.J. and F.B. Clarke, "Combustion Product Toxicity: Dependence on the

Mode of Product Generation," Journal ofFire and Materials, 7, pp. 96-97, 1983.

8. Farrar, D.G. and W.A. Galster, "Biological End-points for the Assessment of the Toxicity

of Products of Combustion of Material," Jowrwa/ ofFire and Materials, 4 (1), pp. 50-58,

March 1980.

9. Levin, B.C., M. Paabo, M.L. Fultz, C. Bailey, W. Yin, and S.E. Harris, "Acute Inhalation

Toxicological Evaluation of Combustion Products from Fire-Retarded and Non-Fire

Retarded Flexible Polyurethane Foam and Polyester," National Institute of Standards and

Technology, NBSIR 83-2791, 70 p., November 1983.

10. Levin, B.C., E. Braun, J.L. Gurman, and M. Paabo "Comparison of the Toxicity of the

Combustion Products from a Flexible Polyurethane Foam and a Polyester Fabric

Evaluated Separately and Together by the NBS Toxicity Test Method and a Cone

Radiant Heater Toxicity Test Apparatus," National Institute of Standards and

Technology, NBSIR 86-3457, 70 p., November 1986.

11. Babrauskas, V., R.H. Harris Jr., R.G. Gann, B.C. Levin, B.T. Lee, R.D. Peacock, M.

Paabo, W. Twilley, M.F. Yoklavich, and H.M Clark, "Fire Hazard Comparison of Fire136
Retarded and Non-Fire-Retarded Products," National Institute of Standards and

Technology, NBSSP 749, 92 p., July 1988.

12. Potts, W.J., T.S. Lederer, and J.F. Quast, "A Study of the Inhalation Toxicity of Smoke

Produced Upon Pyrolysis and Combustion of Polyethylene Foams, Part I. Laboratory

Studies," Journal of Combustion Toxicology, 5, pp. 408-433, November 1978.

13. Farrar, D.G., G.E. Hartzell, T.L. Blank, and W.A. Galster, "Development of a Protocol

for the Assessment of the Toxicity of Combustion Products Resulting from the Burning

of Cellular Plastics," University of Utah Report, UTEC 79/130; RP-75-2-1 Renewal, RP77-U-5, 102 p, September 1979.

14. Braun, E., R.G. Gann, B.C. Levin, and M. Paabo, "Combustion Product Toxic Potency

Measurements: Comparison of a Small Scale Test and Real World Fire," Journal ofFire

Sciences, 8 (1), pp. 63-79, January/February 1990.

15. Babrauskas, V., R.H. Harris, Jr., E. Braun, B.C. Levin, M. Paabo, and R.G. Gann, "The

Role of Bench-Scale Test Data in Assessing Real-Scale Fire Toxicity," National Institute

of Standards and Technology, NIST Technical Note 1284, 1 10 p., January 1991.

16. Farrar, D.G., W.A. Galster, and B.M. Hughes, "Toxicological Evaluation of Material

Combustion Products. Final Report," University of Utah Report, UTEC 79-141, 165 p. November 1979.

17. Alexeeff, G.V. and S.C. Packham, "Use of a Radiant Furnace Fire Model to Evaluate

Acute Toxicity of Smoke," Journal ofFire Sciences, 2 (4), pp. 306-323, July/August

1984.

18. Alexeeff, G.V., Y.C. Lee, J.A.White, and N.D. Putas, "Use of an Approximate Lethal

Exposure Method for Examining the Acute Inhalation Toxicity of Combustion Products,"

Journal ofFire Sciences, 4 (2), pp. 1 00-1 12, March/April 1986.

137