COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS real! oi Slaiid

MAR 1 1933

'“a'' ^

.v'.'A ' A Review of Progress in

Conifnercial Standardization and Simplification

Photographed by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 9, No. 8 February, 1933

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. $1.00 annually ($1 .60 foreign ) ; single copy, 10 cents
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

ROY D. CHAPIN, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

LYMAN J. BRIGGS, Acting Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY. S. F, Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

A. S. McAllister, Assistant Director

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified pradlice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^te, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of produdf, method, or

practice. Its fundlion is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a project of this characfler, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified practice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current practice, formulation of a simplified pracfhice program, and presentation of

that program for adlion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSt for written acceptance of the action taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department of Commerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the induSlry concerned, in conducting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified practice may be applied to any com- modity or activity in which it will reduce

waSte. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effective any application of simplified practice which

will reduce waSte, Stabilize business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. 'M.cA.lliiler The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on activities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSting

and research laboratories. It ascertains the standardization

and specifications promoting activities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the atten- tion of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares directories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Directory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Products.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering construction activities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStruCtion, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fluctuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objective of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respeCt to other Structures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade Standards, on requeSt,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional inter- changeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufactured commodities.

The detail criteria are selected or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

dictation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division functions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfactory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no aCtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to products meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protecting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 9 WASHINGTON, D. C., FEBRUARY, 1933 Number 8

SUBJECT ANALYSIS

BUILDING AND HOUSING

Page

Aids to the construction industry 181 Asbestos paper and asbestos millboard 180 Industry approves standard for Douglas fir plywood 172 Key to minimum requirements in building codes 191 Minimum requirements for small dwellings 186 News in brief - 192 Reaffirmation of standard colors for sanitary ware 191 Uniform statute is prepared for mechanics’ liens 184 Wire diameters for production screens 180 electrical

Canadian electrical code 178

Electrical wholesalers approve labeling plan 172 Labels to protect manufacturers of radio sets 170 News in brief 192 Radio tubes in need of simplification 180 GROUP ACTIVITIES American Public Health Association 175 American Standards Association 176 New Federal specifications 186 News in brief 192 New specifications adopted for oils 188 Standard nomenclature of disease 183 HEALTH

American Public Health Association 175 Standard nomenclature of disease 183 Standardization of diagnostic reagents 189 INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

Canadian electrical code , 178 News in brief 192

METALS, PAPER. AND WOOD

Page

Asbestos paper and asbestos millboard 180 Industry approves standard for Douglas fir plywood 172 News in brief 192 Paper cones and tubes for textile winding 190 Wire diameters for production screens 180 MISCELLANEOUS

Commercial testing laboratory service 184

Development of various types of specifications 187 Metric standards adopted for sports 190 Time zones of the world 177 Use of specifications by State agencies 171 What are commercial standards 173 PUBLICATIONS

Flax and hemp twine 183 Minimum requirements for small dwellings 186 News in brief 192

Singletrees, doubletrees, and neck yokes 178 Standard nomenclature of disease 183 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Canadian electrical code 178

Electrical wholesalers approve labeling plan 172

Labels to protect manufacturers of radio sets 170 News in brief 192 New specifications adopted for oils 188 TEXTILES

Better standards in style merchandise 179

Effective date extended for wool blanket standard 186 Flax and hemp twine 183 News in brief 192 Paper cones and tubes for textile winding 190

Specifications for consumer goods 185

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of

the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups ina}^ be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical dis- coveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

157000—33 1 169
Labels to Protect Manufacturers

of Radio Sets

“Gyp” radio sets made in tiny shops whose equipment is a set

of soldering irons and whose research consi^s of tearing a ^andard set to pieces so as to copy it, are the curse of established

radio manufa(5turers. The “gyps,” of course, pay no royalties

to anyone. They hire no engineers, buy no advertising,

contribute to no broadcasting, issue no guaranties, give no

service. But they sell sets. The Radio Manufacturers Association plans to correCt this

evil through the use of a label attached to each set which will

assure the purchaser that his set is duly licensed and made up to

certain specifications. Initial use of the certified seal of the

association, which became effective January 1, 1933, will be

confined to receiving sets. Later it is contemplated to extend

its use to other radio and sound-equipment apparatus. Only

members of the association may use the seal.

To insure reliability of manufacture and performance of

receiving sets bearing the seal, manufacturers using the seal

muCt meet the requirements of the newly created RMA

Engineering In^itute, which provides the engineering standards and requirements for receiving sets. Among these are requirements that such receiving sets bearing the RMA seal

shall have been submitted to and approved by the National

Underwriters Laboratories; shall cover the entire United

States and Canadian broadcast band from 540 to 1,500 kilocycles;

shall be noninterfering in accordance with RMA Standards;

shall not exceed 10 feet radiation from the chassis and 5 feet

radiation from the antenna; and shall meet the quality and

performance Standards of the Radio Manufacturers Association.

170
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 171

USE OF SPECIFICATIONS BY STATE AGENCIES

Centralized Purchasing Based on Specifications Utilized by Majority of State Governments

By Spencer H. Reed, Bureau of Standards

In an endeavor to augment and bring up to date its earlier published material on State purchasing, the

Bureau of Standards recently communicated with the

procurement agencies (State and State highway) of

the 48 States, and the District of Columbia. An abstract of the data gained from the returns—43 out of

49 States (includes the District of Columbia) and 47

out of 48 State highway agencies reports—together

with pertinent information from other sources is pre- sented in the following pages.

Perhaps the most definite fact brought out by the

bureau’s survey is the wide prevalence of centralized

State purchasing. This system, given its initial trial in State government in 1897, when Iowa centralized

its purchasing for penal and charitable institutions,

languished until 1910, the year Oklahoma became the

first State to centralize the buying for all branches of

its government. Since then, the centralized purchasing movement has increased apace, and to-day returns show that at least 31 States and the District of Columbia are using such a system with varying degrees of

inclusiveness.

Centralized State purchasing bodies have a variety

of names, but they may be grouped for the most part

under three general types of administration. The

first type contains those States which buy through a separate purchasing department or bureau, such as Arkansas, Idaho, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North

Carolina, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Wisconsin, and the

District of Columbia. The second type purchases

through an appointive board, and includes Alabama,

Arizona, Florida, Kentucky, Michigan, North Dakota,

Oregon, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming. The third type

includes at least eight other States—California,' Maryland, Minnesota, Ohio, South Dakota, Tennessee,

Vermont, and "Washin^on—which procure supplies

through a subdivision of the State finance department.

In contrast to those States that employ a centralized purchasing system, there are as many as six

States in which the several departments of the government make their own purchases—Connecticut,

Delaware, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nevada, and New

Mexico. Although centralized purchasing is employed for penal, correctional, charitable, or other in- dividual governmental divisions of Indiana, Iowa,

Georgia, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Khode Island,

and West Virginia no centralized purchasing agency

IS reported for all divisions of any of these States. Needless to say, no State purchasing agency buys

evei’ything required by the entire State government,

for emergencies arise which permit no delay in secur- ing supplies, materials, or equipment. In some States

perishable foodstuffs and fuel are purchased directly

by the superintendents, business managers, or stewards

of the several State institutions; in others, books for

the State educational institutions are purchased in- dependently. Technical apparatus and equipment

are exempted from central purchase in several' States.

Aside from independent emergency procurement by

department officials of State governments, however,

there are 16 States—-Arkansas, Florida, Illinois, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana, New York, North

Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin

which report that their central purchasing body buys

for all divisions of the government, including State

highway and State educational institutions. Four

States—Arizona, Maine, Michigan, and Wyoming

report that their respective central purchasing agencies buy for all divisions of the State government,

except State highways and State educational institutions. Obviously, the principal function of these purchasing bodies is to carry through to completion all en- trusted procurement negotiations. To do this effi- ciently and economically requires systematization and

the elimination of all obsolete purchasing machinery.

Many States have gone a long way in this direction

through centralized procurement, the use of specifications, laboratories, skilled inspectors, and performance tests. Examination of the data on hand shows that at

least 42 of the 48 States, together with the District of

Columbia, use specifications. In addition to those

States which name the purchasing agent or the heads

of various departments as chiefly instrumental in

drafting specifications, several report that their specifications are formulated by the State purchasing bureau, the State standards committee, or the State specifications division. Not a few States utilize the combined services of their State engineer and other

technical authorities in drafting specifications.

In the formulation, adoption, and modification of

specifications the purchasing agencies of 31 States re- port that they seek the advice and cooperation of the

State department or agencies concerned, in order to ascertain their precise requirements. Only Kentucky,

New Hampshire, and North Dakota report that their

using departments are not consulted.

Twenty-eight States report that they purchase on

specifications prepared by their own government; 26

use Federal Government specifications; 19 use trade

brands ; and 14 use standard specifications of national

technical societies and trade associations; 10 States do

not purchase on trade brands; 6 do not purchase on

standard specifications of national technical societies

and trade associations ; 3 do not purchase on own specifications; and 4 do not purchase on Federal Government specifications. A large number of the States

indicate the use of two, three, or even all of the

methods referred to, depending upon the commodity

procured.

Eighteen States report the maintenance by their own

government of laboratories for testing purchases; 30

States use college laboratories; 12 Statue highway lab- oratories; and 11, commercial laboratories; 15 States

report they do not have their own laboratories ; 9 do

not use college laboratories; and 6 do not use com-
172 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1933

mercial laboratories. Many States report the use of

two, three, or even all of the types of laboratories

above mentioned.

Although deliveries to certain State purchasing

agencies receive very casual inspection and frequently no test at all, 35 governments claim to inspect purchases before acceptance. Several States emiiloy

trained inspectors and make performance tests as well. In some cases, the different using departments alone

examine and pass upon incoming supplies. One State

disclaims using inspectors or tests. It is interesting to note that 18 States report sav- ings effected by centralized purchasing, ranging anywhere from 6 to 50 per cent. Seven other States,

unable to quote exact savings, declare they are considerable. The average saving is about 21 per cent. With the exception of three States, the savings in

every instance amounted to 10 per cent or better. Eleven States reported a saving of 20 per cent or

better ; and two, a 40 per cent saving.

Turning now to State highway purchasing, it is observed that during the past 30 years the business of

building roads and furnishing highway service has

changed from a matter of community effort to one of

county. State, and Federal activity. It has grown to such gigantic stature that the total disbursements by

and for State highway departments for 1931 were re- ported as in excess of $1,000,000,000. Expenditures

for maintenance alone amounted to nearly $161,000,-

000, to say nothing of more than $21,000,000 spent for

equipment and machinery.

The problem of constructing and maintaining the

nation-wide system of highways has been entrusted by

the several State to their highway departments and

commissions. In at least 25 States, supplies, materials, and equipment for State highways are procured

through the State highway departments and commissions; and in 12 States, through State purchasing

agents.

Every one of the 48 State highway departments

claim the use of specifications, almost without exception drawn by the State engineer and/or assistants, or by each division with the approval of the chief engineer. In Connecticut, for example, highway specifications are formulated by the deputy highway comELECTRICAL WHOLESALERS APPROVE

LABELING PLAN

The electrical wholesalers’ industry has adopted

certain trade practice conference rules to minimize

unfair methods of competition, and these rules have

in turn been approved by the Federal Trade Commission. A prohibition against distributing electrical

supplies not properly identified is included.

By this it is jDrovided that the industry disapproves

of the shipment of unlabeled products of the industry,

which makes possible the easy substitution of merchandise of lower quality for that of higher quality,

particularly such material as is removed from the

original factory containers. The electrical wholesale

industry records its approval of the labeling or identifying, in accordance with accepted standards of the

industry, of all products of the industry in such manner as to establish the grade, quality, and quantity of

the products.

missioners, designing engineers, and testing engineers.

Specifications for Maryland highways are made by

the engineering departments; for Massachusetts, by

the Department of Public Works under the direction

of the chief engineer ; and for Texas, by the engineers,

chemists, or purchasing officer. Of the 48 State highway departments, 45 report

that they purchase on specifications prepared by their

own government, 43 on standard specifications of national technical societies and trade associations, 30 on

Federal Government specifications, and 22 on trade

brands. Fifteen States say they do not purchase on

trade brands, 11 do not purchase on Federal Government specifications, and 3 do not purchase on standard

specifications of national technical societies and trade

associations.

Without exception, the State highway departments

make use of laboratories in connection with their purchase routine. Forty-five departments say they have

their own laboratories, 36 use commercial laboratories,

and 26 use college laboratories. Many highway departments employ two or even all three classes of

laboratories.

The amount of inspection and testing necessary for

road materials has naturally increased steadily with

the growing emphasis placed upon highway construction. The increase in Maine alone is well illustrated

by a comparison of the number of tests made of Portland cement. It is reported that whereas in 1914 only

7 samples were tested, in 1931 more than 300 samples were tested. And Maine is by no means the only State

in which the highway department inspects and tests its purchases. Forty-six other States do likewise.

Finally, Avith respect to highways, it seems pertinent

to give renewed attention to the fact that modern

conditions are apparently demanding a reallocation of

governmental functions so as to provide larger administratiA^e units. To this end, certain States have been

taking over, reconstructing, and maintaining all roads

Avithin their confines. And in several States, notably

Iowa, Kansas, and Michigan, the State governments

have been authorized to assist in constructing and

maintaining the roads in cities, counties, and townships

which are designated as connecting links in the State

road systems.

INDUSTRY APPROVES STANDARD FOR

DOUGLAS-FIR PLYWOOD

The manufacturers of Douglas fir plywood, together

Avith the principal distributors and users have long

felt the need for recognized grade classifications and

this need has been met in the Commercial Standard

for Douglas Fir Plywood, the approval of which has

been announced by the division of trade standards.

Bureau of Standards, in a circular letter under date

of December 15, 1932.

Stock panels are divided into five grades on the

basis of certain defects, while specifications are also included for concrete form material and door panels.

Standard sizes are listed for stock panels and a glossary of terms is added for the use of those unfamiliar

with the nomenclature of the industry.

Mimeograjihed copies of this standard may be obtained from the division of trade standards. Bureau of

Standards.
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 173

WHAT ARE COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

Examples Are Cited and the Distinction Between These and Other Standards Is Shown

Bj' I. J. Fairchild, Bureau of standards

Although in recent months the popular magazines

and trade papers have carried numerous articles on

various phases of standardization, the fog obscuring

the terms which describe the several kinds of standards, for example, industrial standards, performance

standards, quality standards and so on, is still about

as thick as the fog which envelops “ technocracy.”

The reason for the fog lies not in the difficulty of

understanding such terms but rather in their seeming

simplicity. One jumps to the conclusion that he understands, when as a matter of fact his thoughts skip

rather lightly over such common words with but little real discrimination among the standards which form

the very backbone of our

civilization. It may be helpful therefore, to “ burn off ” some

of the fog which obscures

and confuses our comprehension of one class of

standards, namely, commercial standards. How

do they differ from other

standards ? Wliat makes

them different?

In a very broad sense, commercial standards might,

quite naturally, be assumed to include all standards

which form a basis for, or a necessary adjunct to trade or commerce. This would include standards of

measurement ; that is, length, area, volume, mass,

weight, density, pressure, heat, etc. ; standard constants such as the mechanical equivalent of heat, light,

electricity, and so on; standards of quality or specifications for material by description or sample, or both; standards of performance; that is, a specification covering the operative efficiency, the output, durability, and other factors ; and standards of practice

for the technical regulation of construction, installation, and operation.

However, on a use basis, standards fall into a natural and practical classification of but few groups as follows: (1) Standard constants which comprise the

natural standards or the measured numerical data on

materials and energy, such as wave lengths, melting

and boiling points, gravitation, etc., on which other

standards are based; (2) weights and measures, namely, those standards which express the quantitative aspects of space, matter, time, energy, and motion,

such as length, area, volume, mass, weight, and so on

(3) specifications; that is, purchase specifications

covering materials by description or sample and project or job specifications which include both materials

and construction; (4) codes, regulations, and practices

set up by regulatory authority or common consent as a basis for control of sanitation, fire risks, safety zoning, or other limitations on construction, operation,

and practice; and (5) laws whicli set forth standard

principles and rules of conduct.

As used here the term “ commercial standards ” sig-

.nifies that a small but effective group of specifications

which are voluntarily initiated and accejited by industry for marketing manufactured commodities and

which are published by the United States Department

of Commerce as a part of the commercial standard

series. Commercial standards consist of nomenclature,

definitions, grading rules, dimensional standards, tol- erances, performances, methods of test, and other con- sumer criteria which may be incorporated into a specification established voluntarily by the industry as the

accepted basis for daily marketing of the commodity

that is, the basis for guaranties of grade or quality by

the seller or for accejitance by the buyer.

True, instances of other standards may be cited

which are serving the same purpose, but by far

the greater number of

specifications are prepared

by or for a large purchaser or a group of purchasers who normally buy

on specifications. The

usual specification covers purchase requirements for

definite uses with little or no concern for what may

happen to rejected items or grades outside the limits

of the specification.

Commercial standards, on the contrary, are established not only to serve as a basis for purchase, but more especially as a basis for marketing for the entire

industry and, consequently, must cover all the grades

necessary in that industry or form a part of a broader

plan for marketing the essential grades, both standard

and substandard. Hence, commercial standards, unlike most specifications, are established for the benefit

of all divisions of a given industry rather than for

just the large quantity buyers.

At first this may seem like a minor distinction, but

a little examination discloses a marked difference between the two. Take, for example, the item of linoleum. The Federal Government and other large

users buy the ordinary types, such as plain, jaspe,

granite, inlaid, and printed, on a definite specification

which covers thickness, minimum weight per square

yard, pliability and indentation (hardness). Tests

are made on the delivered goods to determine whether

or not they meet the specifications.

However, you and I as individuals buy linoleum

for use in our homes and we employ no specifications

and no tests to guide in these purchases. We are

offered no guarantees as to performance. According

to my observation, very few individuals have suffi- cient information or pay enough attention to the trade

brand to sa}'^ with any degree of confidence that a

certain make is superior to another.

What happens then to the run-of-the-mill linoleum

which may or may not meet the manufacturer's own

specifications or other adequate specifications? You

and I buy this substandard quality for use in our

This is the second of a series of articles by

Mr. Fairchild on the whys and wherefores of

commercial standards. “Why have them?”,

“ Who requests them?”, “ How are they used?”,

“How enforced?”, and how they have accomplished the desired results Avithout a corresponding extension of governmental function.
174 COMMEECIAL. STANDAEDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1933

homes on the same basis as standard quality without

suspecting the difference. We take our chances.

Since, but a small percentage of linoleum is sold on the basis of specifications, the great mass of the

product is not required to meet any purchase specification requirements and there is no assurance of quality beyond that conveyed by the trade brand.

As a result of competition, manufacturers have

brought out thinner and thinner gages of this product at lower and lower prices. Practically all of these

gages and types bear trade-marks or brand names and

there is nothing except the thickness (not indicated)

and the price to distinguish them for the average

buyer from higher or lower qualities. In other words,

the producers do not tell the users how they may dis- tinguish between the various guades. The fact that

there is no readily discernible comparability of grades

tends further to confuse the user, to make price comparisons impracticable, and to render unreliable any

conclusions resulting from practical experience.

And so the multiplication of grades and qualities

goes merrily on to the confusion and consternation

of the consumer who is expected to accept at face

value the adulant advertising sponsored by the producers, even though he is given no definite warranty

of quality which might be used as a basis for justi- fiable complaint.

A little study of almost any item normally purchased on specifications by contract buyers reveals

similar general conditions, and thus it appears clear

that specifications recognized by the Federal Government or by various technical societies can not be

accepted as representing the general quality of that

particular item as it appears on the regular market;

that it is not safe to assume that industry is prepared

to produce items meeting such specifications on a large

scale, since the rejects resulting from the general application of such a specification may be so large as to constitute an unbearable burden; and that the seller may quite reasonably hesitate or refuse to certify to the buyer that the quality of the goods delivered

meets all requirements of such a specification.

Red cedar shingles. —Suppose we examine one or two commercial standards from this point of view.

Take for example Red Cedar Shingles, Commercial

Standard CS31-31. In the past, red cedar shingles

have been sold in five different grades, and since the

industry had no means of really convincing the purchaser that the higher grades were more valuable in

service, the natural tendency was to market the lower

grades on a price basis. The low-grade shingles were thin, they were cross grained, they curled on the

roof, they split, they caught fire brands and ignited

readily, and as a result many progressive cities barred

their use entirely within the fire district. There was no profit in the poorer grades, and the industry

slowly but surely lost its reputation and its business

to other types of roofing materials.

The shingle manufacturers knew that the top grade

of red cedar shingles was much thicker, it was edge

grained, it lay flat on the roof, it did not hold fire brands, it did not ignite so readily, and finally they came to believe that if some means could be devised

of convincing the purchaser that he was actually

receiving top-grade shingles ' they (the shingles)

would have an opportunity to prove their superior

quality.

The manufacturers scrutinized the grading rules

for the top grade and revised the wording so as to be more specific; they requested the cooperation of the

Bureau of Standards in establishing this top grade

as the commercial standard of the industry. The

proposed grading rules were sent out by the Bureau

of Standards to architects, to lumber dealers, to general contractors, to roofing contractors, and to others

who are directly concerned in the grading of shingles,

and as a result grading rules for the top-grade shingles were further improved and the old 1,000 pack was

discarded for the square pack. In other words, the shingles were to be sold by the square (100 square feet),

similar to other roofing materials, in order that a di- rect price comparison might be made by the purchaser.

The standard as recommended by the general con- ference of producers, distributors, and users was cir- culated widely for written acceptance, and a majority

signed on the dotted line that they would use this

standard as a basis for production or consumption.

Then the grading rules and the inspection requirements were published by the Department of Commerce as Commercial Standard CS31-31.

The Red Cedar Shingle Bureau of Seattle, set up

by the industry, was to inspect the shingles, to police

the standard, and to issue the certification labels to manufacturers who actually complied with the re- quirements of the commercial standard. This label reads as follows

:

Cevtified Shingles. This label can only be used on Yo.

1 Grade. These Shingles are Guaranteed by the Manufacturer. Inspected for, Certified by, RED CEDAR

SHINGLE BUREAU, to meet all the quality require- ments of Commercial Standard CS31-31 for Red Cedar

shingles as issued by U. S. Department of Commerce,

Washington, D. C. 100 per cent Edge Grain Series MOOO Heartwood 100 per cent. This label forms a part of the sales contract between

the manufacturer and the lumber dealer and is enforceable by laAv as such. In the event the manufacturer fails

to give satisfaction to the lumber dealer, the Red Cedar

Shingle Bureau is then held responsible for replacement of the shingles or other satisfactory adjustment.

The standard became effective July 1, 1931, and in

the short time since that date the industry has improved its position to an almost unbelievable extent. On September 15, 1932, after clearing all warehouse

stocks, the producers as a group were oversold to the

amount of 226 car loads of red cedar shingles. In the

three months preceding October 1, 1932, employment

had doubled and in the two months preceding that date

the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau itself had found it necessary to take on six additional employees.

The industry gives full credit for this improvement to the establishment of the commercial standard

and to the strict grading and adherence to the plan

as carried out by the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau. Incidentally, only two lower grades of red cedar shingles are now recognized and they are rapidly losing their

importance as significant items in this industry.

Suppose we examine another commercial standard;

for example. Domestic and Industrial Fuel Oils,

CS12-29.

Fuel oils. —The great imriation in the properties of

fuel oils renders it impracticable to design a domestic

burner that will burn all grades satisfactorily. Users

of oil-burning equipment in the past often found it difficult to obtain the proper grade of oil, as no definite
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 175

requirements for any particular grade existed. Most

purchases were based on the specific gravity of the

oil, a property now considered of no practical value

in indicating the essential characteristics, which are

distillation range, viscosity, and flash point.

The American Oil Burner Association requested the

Bureau of Standards to assist in setting up standard

grades of fuel oil and establishing them on such a

basis as to permit certification of quality to the con-

.sumer. A tentative specification for six grades of oil was drawn up by the association, with the cooperation of the American Society for Testing Materials,

the American Petroleum Institute, and individual oil refiners. This specification was made consistent with

regular refining practices, and was recommended to the industry for acceptance as a commercial standard.

Ample acceptance was accorded and the effective date was made July 1, 1929.

If one buys a domestic oil burner to-day he will

most likely discover that it bears a metal tag which

reads something like this

This burner is designed to use No. 2 grade of fuel oil He will naturally ask for No. 2 fuel oil. In the event

of unsatisfactory service from the burner, the manufacturer’s representative will have the oil tested to

determine whether or not it meets the specification for

the No. 2 grade, thus immediately fixing responsibility

for the difficulty. If the oil complies with the specification, the burner manufacturer will have to look

further for his trouble; if not, the oil distributor is held responsible for not supplying oil to meet the

specification requirements.

In both of the above instances, the q>roducers are

entirely familiar with the rec[uirements of the commercial standard and are in a po.sition to supply material complying with these commercial standards

without limit, except, of course, to the extent of their

production capacity.

At this writing, 45 commercial standards have been

accejited and there are 78 active projects voluntarily

proposed by the industries concerned, looking toward

the establishment of commercial standards.

The answer then to the question raised by the title may be summarized as follows: Commercial standards are definitions, grading rules, dimensional toler- ances, methods of test, and other consumer criteria embodied into specifications established voluntarily by

the industries concerned under Bureau of Standards

lirocedure as the accepted basis for daily marketing

of the commodities, and published and identified as such by the United States Department of Commerce.

AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION

Scope and Function of the Research and Standards Committee of the Association Reviewed

By Abel Wolman ^

Early in 1928 the council of standards of the American Public Health Association was designated to re- view any resolution, report, or publication which

undertook to establish in the name of the association, or any of its sections, professional or technical standards and to notify the membership and the governing

council of its approval or disapproval of such proposed standards.

In 1929, with the revision of the set-up of the association, the committee on research and standards was

appointed. The committee took over the duties of the

council on standards and was made responsible for

carrying out research and the development of standards in the technical branches of public health service and training and the coordination of such re- search and stanclardization. It was charged also with

the duty of reviewing from time to time standards

already published.

The association has 50 committees, the majority of

which have been allocated to the Committee on Research and Standards. It is through these subcommittees that the research work of the association is done. The committee has confined its activities to being of service to these numei’ous smaller subcommittees. Since the committee has come into existence it has reviewed many, but approved only three sets of new standards, “ Minimum Qualifications for those

Appointed to Positions in Public Health Nursing,”

“ Essential Features in the Design of Sanitary Drink-

' Chairman. Committee on Research and Standards, American Public Health Association ; chief engineer, State of Maryland Department of Health.

ing Fountains,” and “ Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease.”

The first-named standard was approved in the belief that they can be met quite generally by the year

1935. They include the minimum training and ex- perience necessary for a nurse on a staff provided with

well qualified supervision, for the nurse working alone,

and for supervisors and directors. These qualifications were published in detail in the May, 1931, American Journal of Public Health.

The standard for. “ Essential Features in the Design of Sanitary Drinking Fountains ” was developed

by a joint committee of the association and of the Conference of State Sanitary Engineers after numerous

conferences with users and manufacturers of fountains.

These standards will be revised from time to time

so as to include any improvement in design, etc. The committee was asked to review the report

“ Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease.”

They have, after careful consideration and conferences

with the representative of the association to this committee, approved and endorsed this standard.

Standard Methods of Water and Sewage Analyses

is, of course, our best known set of standards. They

were originally prepared as early as 1905 and have

been reviewed and revised at intervals. During 1932

the committee has worked closely with the committee

making this revision and has put its final endorsement

on the seventh edition Avhich is now being published.

Immediate work for the future is concerned with the

standardization of laboratory reagents, of methods of

preparation of certain vaccines, and of ventilation re- quirements for indoor living quarters.
176 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 19:^3 AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Current developments of the following standardiza*

tion projects under the auspices and procedures of the

American Standards Association have been reported

by that association

:

Safety code for mechanical refrigeration.—A re- vision of the Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration has been approved by the association. The re- vision, made in order to bring the refrigerant methyl

formate within the provisions of the code, is a very

simple one. Methyl formate is added to the list of

refrigerants contained in the definition of “ flammable

refrigerants ” and the minimum test pressures on the

high and low side are given for methyl formate in tabular form, along with the test pressures for other re- frigerants. The American Society of Refrigerating

Engineers is sponsor for this project.

Shaft couplings for hydroelectric units.—A new

American standard entitled, “ Shaft Couplings, Integrally Forged Flange Type for Hydroelectric Units,”

has been approved by the association. It gives tables

relating to the coupling dimensions, and to the drill- ing layout and bolt dimensions, respectively. The

standard was developed by the ASME committee on

standardization of shaft couplings, and was apjDroved

by the American Standards Association as an existing

standard.

Steel spiral rods.-—The revised American standard on steel spiral rods for concrete reinforcement (Simplified Practice Recommendation R53-32) has been

approved by the association. The revision consists

largely of a rearrangement of the tabular form in

which certain data are presented, and the removal to tables in an appendix of other data now given for in- formational purposes. The revision has been accepted

by industry under the procedure of the division of

simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards.

Annular hall hearings.—A revision of the American

tentative standard for annular ball bearings, single- row type, has been approved by the association. This

revision consists of a change from 0.4 and 1.0 mm to

0.6 and 1.5 mm, respectively, in the dimensions r and H

of the light-type bearing No. 39 {r designates the

maximum radius of the fillet of a shaft or housing,

and H the minimum height of the shoulder on a

shaft). The revision also includes the addition of the

separable (open) type ball bearings, and of the angular contact type ball bearings in the light, medium,

and heavy series. Paper insulation.—Specifications for impregnated

paper insulation for lead-covered power cable has been

approved as an American standard by the association.

These specifications were prepared by the sectional

committee on insulated wires and cables, which is now under the sponsorship of the electrical standards

committee. The requirements of the specifications are

identical with those for insulation in the “ Specifications for Impregnated Paper-Insulated Lead-Covered

Cable ” of the Association of Edison Illuminating

Companies. These specifications are widely used for

this type of material.

The specifications cover materials ; workmanship

;

jjroperties, such as recommended thickness of insulation for the various types of cables ; dielectric strength

of insulation; change of power factor with voltage;

long and short time electric strength before and after

installation ; mechanical properties ; maximum operating temperature; measurements and tests, including

selection of samples ; and methods of measurement for

the various properties of the cable. Safety code for work in compressed air.—The ASA

standards council has voted to initiate the development of a safety code for work in compressed air

following a request received from the International

Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions (lAIABC), to whom sponsorship was as- signed. The scoj)e of the new project is as follows:

Construction and operating rules for work in caissons tunnels, or wherever workers are subjected to air under pressure

higher than atmospheric, including protection from mechanical hazards, the use of necessary instruments and apparatus,

provision of locks, methods of lighting, communication and de- compression, the keeping of records, medical attendance, peri- odic inspection and air analysis, rest rooms, hours of labor, sanitation, ventilation, fire prevention, fire protection, temperature control, and other conditons of work.

Several State regulatory bodies have adopted

standards on this subject and a fair degree of uniformity exists. The lAIABC felt that the development of a national code would help in maintaining

this uniformity and minimize the danger of other

bodies developing standards differing markedly from

those now existing. Contractors engaged in this kind

of work operate on a national basis and, as the equipment used is expensive, they should be relieved of all expense possible due to lack of uniformity in State

requirements. The development of such a group of

specifications as is contemplated in this project should

do much toward accident prevention in what is un- doubtedly a very hazardous operation.

Illmninating engineering standards.—A revision of

the American standards on illuminating engineering

nomenclature and photometric standards, made under

the proprietary sponsorship of the Illuminating Engineering Society by its committee on nomenclature

and standards, has been approved by the American

Standards Association. With few exceptions, the

principal changes in the standards are rewording in

the interest of clarity and directness of statement, and

not changes of substance.

The symbols and definitions approved in these

standards have been Avidely adopted in other standards being prepared under the procedure of the American Standards Association. The committee of the

Illuminating Engineering Society which prepared the

standards has served as a subcommittee of the sec- tional committee on definitions of electrical terms,

Avhich is under the sponsorsliip of the Institute of Electrical Engineers. Group 55 “ illumination ” of the re- port on the proposed American standard definitions of

electrical terms, prepared by this committee, also contains the definitions in the standards on illuminating

engineering nomenclature and photometric standards.

The symbols and abbreviations included in the standards have also been accepted by the sectional committee on scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations. The symbols have been approved separately

as the American standard symbols for photometry and

illumination, and the abbreviations are included in

the draft of the standard on abbreviations for scientific and engineering terms, which it is expected will

be approved as an American tentative standard.
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 177

TIME ZONES OF THE WORLD'

Correlated International Systems and Plan Adopted in United States Are Explained by Time Section

Chief of Bureau of Standards

By Eai,ph E. GotTLD, Bureaxi of Standards

In recent years there has been *a great increase in the demand for information regarding time in the

various cities and countries of the world. This is largely due to the development of international news

services, world-wide telephony, transoceanic aviation,

exploration, and the more precise timing of events. From the earliest civilization man has reckoned

time by the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies.

The rotation of the earth on its axis from west to east causes these bodies to “ rise ” in the east and “ set ” in

the west. Consequently, points to the east of us have

sunrise before we do, or, as we say, their time is faster than ours ; while points to the west have time

that is slower than ours. This rotation of the earth

about its axis once in 21 hours gives a time change of one hour for every 15° of longitude. That is, if observations were made on the transit of the sun

across the meridian at points separated by 15° of longitude, it would be found that the time of transit at two such points would differ by one hour. If the

separation of the points of observation were decreased,

the difference in time would be decreased in the same

proportion. These times would all be true local times,

using the transit of the sun across the meridian as a standard.

Since the distance around the earth is less at points

not on the Equator than at the Equator the distance on the earth’s surface corresponding to a time differ- ence is also less in the same proportion. For example, at the Equator 15° corresponds to about 1,040

miles, while at the latitude of New York 15° corre- sponds to only about 784 miles. Or, at the Equator a

difference of about 17 miles makes a time difference

of one minute, while in the latitude of New York a

difference of only 13 miles makes a difference of one minute in true local time.

The need of a uniform time began to be felt in the

United States about 1870, and the railroads gradually

adopted a system for use on their roads specifying

definite important centers or junction points at which

changes of one hour should be made. As means of

communication still further developed, it became apparent that some system of international time must be

established.

In 1884 an international congvess was called in

IVashingfon to consider the subject of a world standard of time. The world was divided into zones, each

covering 15° of longitude, the time for each zone being

that of the meridian passing through its approximate

center and the time in adjacent zones differing by one

hour. The meridian passing through the observatory

at Greenwich, England, was chosen as the zero meridian from which all time should be reckoned. Al-

* Readers desirous of more information on this subject will find “Standard Time Throughout the World” (price 5 cents), Circular of

the Bureau of Standards No. 399 ; “ Standard Time Conversion Chart ” (price 10 cents), Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No.

84; and “Time Zone Map of the United States” (price 10 cents). Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No. ill, of interest. These may be procured direct from the Superintendent of Documents,

Washington, D. C. 157000—33 2

though there was no definite agreement as to the

adoption of this time by the different nations, the

plan was gradually accepted.

In 1886 Japan made the time of the one hundred

and thirty-fifth meridian east (nine hours faster than

Greenwich) its standard time. Belgium and the

Netherlands adopted Greenwich time in 1893, although

the Netherlands later reverted to Amsterdam time,

which it now uses. Germany, Italy, Denmark, and

Switzerland in 1893-94 each adopted central European time, which is one hour faster than Greenwich,

and Bulgaria, Rumania, and Turkey established the

time for those countries as two hours faster than

Greenwich. The Australian States followed in 1895.

Rumania is now using one hour faster than Greenwich

as its standard.

The adoption of time differing from Greenwich by

an odd number of half hours soon made its appearance. This slight departure from the original plan is of advantage in some places, since it more nearly

agrees with true local time. In New Zealand the time

is 11% hours faster than Greenwich time, in Burma

6% hours faster, while in India, excepting Calcutta,

it is 5% hours faster. Gape Colony formerly was 1%

hours faster than Greenwich, but in 1903 the legal

time was made 2 hours faster than Greenwich.

In 1914 Brazil was divided into time zones on the

international basis, and in 1930 Mexico abandoned lo- cal time for the zone system. An important change was made in 1924 in the complete zoning of the Soviet

Union, which comprises old Russia and Siberia, into

11 time areas. A few countries still retain the time

of some important city as the legal time of the country.

The United States, although using the S5'stem since

1884, did not legalize it until March 19, 1918, when

Congress directed the Interstate Commerce Commission to establish limits for the various time zones in

this country'’. Changes in these boundaries have been

made from time to time, in order that the time changes

may occur at such points as to result in a minimum of

inconvenience. The division lines are not straight,

but largely follow the railroads and pass .through important cities and junction points. The United States

is divided into four standard time zones, each approximately 15 degrees of longitude in width. All places

in each zone use, instead of their own local time, the

time counted from the transit of the “ mean sun

” across the meridian which passes through the approximate center of that zone. The interval between successive passages of the sun across the meridian is somewhat variable, and for this reason apparent solar

days are unequal. Therefore, mean time has been

adopted, which is kept by a fictitious or mean sun moving uniformly in the Equator at tlie same average

speed as that of the real sun, thus making days of

equal length. It is “mean noon” when this “mean

sun ” crosses the meridian. These time zones are designated as eastern, central, mountain, and Pacific, and

the time in these zones is reckoned from the seventy-
178 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1933

liftli, ninetietli, one hundred and fifth, and one hundred and twentieth meridians Avest of GreeuAvich, respectiA^ely. The time in the A^arious zones is sloAYer than GreenAAdch time by 5, 6, 7, and 8 hours, respectiA^ely.

The question of changing from the time of one

time zone to that of an adjacent zone arises in practice largely in the ojieration of railroads. Because of

the inconvenience of changing the time by the neces- sary amount of one hour at every point where a rail- road crosses one of these boundary lines, the more

convenient practice has usually been followed of making the change at some terminal or division point on

the road, at some junction point, or at the boundary

line between the United States and Canada. The re- sult is that practically the boundaries of the time

zones are defined by the lines connecting these points

of railroad time change. Because of the location of

these railroad junctions or terminals the resultinglines are somewhat irregular.

The best generally available source of accurate time

is the time signal as transmitted by telegraph from

the United States Naval Observatory and broadcast

by radio from Arlington, Va., and certain other naval

stations. All naval time signals are made in a standard manner. The signals begin five minutes before the

hour and consist of a dash on each second, except that no dashes are sent on the seconds listed below

:

55 minutes ; 29, 51, and 56 to 59 seconds. 56 minutes ; 29, 52, and 56 to 59 seconds. 57 minutes; 29, 53, and 56 to 59 seconds. 58 minutes ; 29, 54, and 56 to 59 seconds. 59 minutes ; 29, and 51 to 59 seconds. Beginning exactly on the hour a much longer dash is sent. In all cases the exact second is denoted by the

beginning of the dash, the end being Avithout signifi- cance.

It Avill be noted that the number of seconds sounded

immediately following the single second omission and

preceding the long omission at the end of each minute indicates the number of minutes of the signal yet

to be sent. For instance, the signal for 56 minutes and

52 seconds is omitted and then 3 seconds are sounded,

indicating that 3 minutes of the signal remain to be

transmitted. These time signals, if received directly

and automatically, are seldom in error by as much as

0.20 second. The average error is generally less than

0.03 second.

Two stations automatically transmit the signal as received from the Naval Observatory at Washington,

Avith errors averaging only 0.02 to 0.006 second. Most

of the other stations automatically reradiate, and error

is somewhat larger. The signal, hoAvever, is suffi- ciently exact for commercial use. Nearly every country of the Avorld has established a legal time upon

Avhich to operate, and also a legal time for islands

and deiiendencies under its control.

CANADIAN ELECTRICAL CODE

The Canadian Engineering Standards Association

has announced the issuance of part 2 of the Canadian

Electrical Code, which includes definitions of terms

and general requirements applicable to most of the

individual specifications and are placed in this section

so as to minimize repetition in the detailed specifications. Unlike part 1 of the code, which deals with reg- ulations covering the installation of electrical equipment, part 2 consists of the general requirements of

those specifications which govern the design, construction, manufacture, and marking of the electrical equipment itself. An appendix to part 2 gives the thickness

limits and methods of measurement for uncoated and

for galvanized plate and sheet steel. Following the adoption of part 2 of the code, the

majority of Canadian electrical manufacturers, Avhose

products have heretofore been listed or labeled by

UnderAvriters’ Laboratories, have expressed a prefer- ence to employ the serAuces of the Hydro Electric

Power Commission of Ontario for these products

rather than those of Underwriters’ Laboratories. On

January 1, 1933, therefore, UnderAvriters’ Laboratories’ listing, label, and reexamination serAuces on elec- trical devices and materials manufactured in the Dominion of Canada was discontinued. All, or nearly

all, of these Canadian electrical products are noAv

listed by the Hydro Electric Power Commission of

Ontario, Avhich will extend to them its listing and

label service as - already applied to other Canadian

electrical products.

However, lightning rods and motors, controllers,

and fittings for use in hazardous locations Avill con- tinue to be tested and listed by Underwriters’ Laboratories, and the laboratories Avill continue its present

listings and label and reexamination serAUces on products other than electrical as made in Canada by

Canadian manufacturers. These include fire doors

and windows, extinguishers, tanks, roof covering materials, refrigerators, hose, oil burners, and other nonelectrical items.

The Hjnlro Electric PoAver Commission Avill continue as heretofore and under the same arrangements

Avith United States manufacturers to list a large

number of electrical products manufactured in the

United States on the basis of their being listed and

labeled by the laboratories. Furthermore, it is ex- pected that the Underwriters’ Laboratories will co- operate with the Hydro Electric Power Commission

and with the Canadian Engineering Standards Committee at OttaAva, for the maintenance, so far as

possible, of equiA-alent electrical standards.

SINGLETREES, DOUBLETREES, AND

NECK YOKES

Simplified practice recommendation R134-32, cov- ering singletrees, doubletrees, and neck yokes, is now

available in printed form, and copies can be obtained

from the Superintendent of ,Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 5 cents each.

This simplification program, which Avas proposed

and formulated by the industry, is concerned with the

sizes and types of stock A^arieties of these commodities. Representatives of the industry have estimated

that adherence to the simplified practice recommendation by all interests Avill result in the elimination of

approximate!}^ 90 per cent of the items formerly

listed in the manufacturers’ catalogues.
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 179

BETTER STANDARDS IN STYLE MERCHANDISE

The Critical Need for Better Standards of Quality in Merchandise Reviewed by Chairman of the National

Quality Maintenance League

By Julius Forstmann ^

The argument, which has often been advanced, that

the present economic situation is responsible for the

deterioration in the standards of quality in merchandise of every character, is basically wrong. The proof

of this lies in the fact that the promotion and sale of

inferior merchandise gained increasing impetus during the period from 1925 to 1929, admittedly the most

prosperous years this country has ever seen. There is no doubt in my mind that this persistent

exploitation of cheap merchandise—^cheap in the sense that it is of inferior quality and gives poor wear or

service—is responsible to a marked degree for tlie present deplorable economic situation in this country.

Until it is remedied there can be little prospect for in- creased employment of skilled workers at high levels of wages by legitimate manufacturers or retail merchants, who are obliged to compete against copyists

whose sole reason for existence is the copying, in

inferior materials, of tlie legitimate products of re- sponsible producers.

It is an acknowledged fact that the production of

good quality merchandise of every character requires more labor at better Avages than does the manufacture

of cheap imitations. The legitimate manufacturer

operates on a more stable schedule with fewer shut

doAvns and reductions of personnel. He requires

larger and more permanent investment of capital and

more frequent reneAA-al of equipment. He conducts re- research departments in order to create neAV commodities, or to improve existing products. His methods of

operation tend to stabilize prices and to limit competition within legitimate bounds, because competitive

manufacturers operating on identical or similar standards of qualities are woiddng Avith fixed entities, and

price advantages to customers are the result of superior skill and dexterity.

The manufacturer of inferior products who imitates

superficial!}’- the exterior appearance of a legitimate

product has no such responsibilities or limitations. He

)i profits from the market established by another manufacturer who lias produced a commodity which the

public buys because of its style and service appeal. In order to bring down costs the imitator purchases

infei'ior raAV materials, and whereA’er possible elimi- nates operations of manufacture. He pays low rates of wages because his product does not require the

skilled Avorkmanship of the original Avhich he is imitating. His schedule of operations is dictated entirely by the condition of a market Avhich he has no hand in creating or maintaining so that his employee’s

! AA'orking time is sporadic as well as poorly paid,

i If the situation outlined above Avere confined to a

feAV industries its effects Avould not be so generally

' disastrous to business. But in recent years it has be- come an almost uniA^ersal condition. Legitimate

manufacturers Avho have over one or many generations

' I’resident. Forstmann Woolen Co. and chairman of the National

• Quality Maintenance League.

built up great enterprises by their adherence to fixed

principles of integrity in quality of products have

these products stolen from them by imitators almost

before they can place them on the market. As a result, they are finding in many instances that their

initiative and continued expenditure in plant equipment, personnel, and sales activities are largely for

the benefit of the irresponsible imitator.

The manufacturer is not the only one Avho is suffer- ing. Since the condition that exists affects Adtally

questions of inA^estment and employment, it is felt in the entire economic fabric of our existence. The

retail merchant, after all, must be the outlet for all commodities Avhich come directly into the hands of the

general mass of consumers. The surfeit of cheap merchandise on the market has brought down his dollar

sales to a point where profits are more unusual than

usual. Merchants would rather sell the better grades

of merchandise because each unit sale brings in more

dollars, and good merchandise means more satisfied customers. But competition is so intense that against

their will many of them have substituted the superffcial appeal of Ioav prices for the substance of reality

at legitimate prices. The result of this kind of senseless price merchandising is that large numbers of

retail merchants to-day base their operations primarily against competitors instead of Avhat their OAvn

judgment tells them is the type of merchandise their

particular clientele prefers.

There is another important phase of economic life Avhich has been seriously affected by the preA^alence of

low-grade merchandise, and that is the iieAvspaper and

magazine field. AdA^ertising has diminished tremendously in the past four years. Part of this, of course, may be justly ascribed to the general shrinkage of

activities which have accompanied the depression.

But beyond this is the undisputed fact that legitimate

manufacturers Avho haA'e a pride in their product

have been forced to cease advertising through loss of

i-ev'enue suffered by the encroachment of imitators.

Where price instead of integrity of quality is the

major appeal, advertising of wares to the public on the

basis of their superiority in style, Avear, service, etc.,

is useless, CA-en if the manufacturer is prosperous

(‘uough to continue to advertise. This same situation

obtains in retail advertising. The price battle has

been waged Avith such unreasoning claims, and Avith such careless regard for the facts that the public is rapidly losing confidence in the claims of resources in

Avhich at one time they had the most implicit confidence.

The National Quality Maintenance League, Avhich

has been organized by a group of manufacturers

originating and producing style merchandise Avilli fixed standards of quality, has been carrying foi'Avai'd a general educational campaign to emphasize the

('conomic and style value of merchandise of this character; to coordinate the activities of these organizations, and to encourag(‘ and foster the organization

i
180 COMMEECIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1933

of such groups in related industries as can assist in

this movement. The league could not have obtained

the widespread support which it has gotten without

the whole-hearted cooperation of publications of

every character. This cooperation has run the gamut

from such important fashion publications as Vogue

and Harper’s Bazaar to the Atlantic Monthly and

The Forum. There is no doubt that this cooperation

has been most effective in awakening the public to the

fact that merchandise bought on price only is a gross

extravagance.

A campaign of this character is necessarily one of

education. It appears logical and feasible to me that

a most important curative measure would be a concerted campaign to educate the people of the country

regarding the necessity of insisting on good standards

of quality in every commodity which they buy, and

to recommend to Congress legislation which would

control the activities of unscrupulous copyists and

imitators both in their physical operations and in the

claims which they make in advertising and selling

their products.

This whole question of better standards of quality

in merchandise is one in which the Government,

through the Department of Commerce and its other

agencies, should interest itself actively.

WIRE DIAMETERS FOR PRODUCTION

SCREENS

Manufacturers of wire screens used in the production of mineral aggregates have for some years desired to reduce the variety of wire diameters used for

these screens. To this end they have been cooperating

with officers of the three large associations representing producers of mineral aggregates, including sand

and gravel, crushed stone, and slag. During 1932,

conferences of manufacturers and users of screens were held to consider the possibility of mateidally re- ducing the niunber of different wire diameters cata- logued.

A representative of the division of simplified practice of the Bureau of Standards was requested to at- tend a preliminary conference held on October 7, at which manufacturers of screens and producers of mineral aggregates were fully represented. A tentative

list of wire diameters had been prepared by a committee of screen manufacturers and was approved at this

meeting. The committee then requested the Bureau of

Standards to arrange a general conference at which

the tentative list could be acted upon.

This general conference was held on December 15

in Washington, under the auspices of the Bureau of

Standards, and was attended by representatives of screen manufacturers, manufacturers of machinery in

which these screens are used, producers of each group

of mineral aggregates, and representatives of various

departments of the Government, including the Departments of War, Interior, Agriculture, and Commerce. All phases of the matter were fully discussed,

and certain modifications in the tentative list of wire

diameters were made to bring the final simplified list in conformity with current practice and trends in the

industry.

The simplified list as unanimously adopted by the

conference, represents a reduction in variety of approximately 75 per cent in the number of different

wire diameters used for square mesh screens having

clear openings ranging from one-eighth inch to three

inches, inclusive. Four wire diameters, designated as

light, standard light, standard heavy, and heavy, were

adopted for each clear opening listed. The total number of listed openings is 21 in the range of size above

mentioned, and is stated by the manufacturers to cover 95 per cent of normal demand.

This project is regarded by screen manufacturers

and users as a starting point for further simplification,

which it is hoped will include reduction in the number of standard clear openings, also simplification of

all dimensions of round hole perforated screens and

of bar and wire screens with rectangular openings.

The industry hopes eventually to develop projects

covering actual simplification of sizes of normal ag- gregates on a national scale, after completing the

projects above described. It is authoritatively stated

by both screen manufacturers and users, that such

simplification is not only desirable from their own

standpoint, but will be of direct public benefit through

the establishment of definite standards of dimension

for the materials used in all concrete construction.

RADIO TUBES IN NEED OF SIMPLIFICATION

Radio receiving sets to-day are using many new

tubes. Thereby hangs a tale of a new confusion in

the industry which is giving manufacturers, dealers,

and service men trouble.

Six months ago there were 33 recognized designs

of tubes. Tubes of the same type were widely interchangeable. To-day thei’e are 65 types of tubes, and

very little interchange is possible. An extreme in- stance is a tube about to be put on the market which

has seven prongs. A definite trend toward simplification has been reversed.

Dealers and service men are complaining of the

burden of stocking 65 varieties of tubes. Some manufacturers feel they have worked into a situation

wherein they make no money from tubes but must

depend upon a side line, as incandescent lamps, to get

by. Set owners have not felt the full impact of the

change as yet, but when they do find there is only one

store, perhaps at the opposite end of town, where they

can get the one tube that fits the socket in their radio

set, they are expected to protest. In the end, the

pressure of these forces probably will accomplish

simplification.

ASBESTOS PAPER AND ASBESTOS

MILLBOARD

Simplified Practice Recommendation R19-28, Asbestos Paper and Asbestos Millboard, has been re- affirmed without change by the standing committee of

the industry.

This recommendation, which was proposed and developed by the industry, has been instrumental in reducing the varieties, sizes, widths, and thicknesses

of asbestos paper from 72 to 20 and sizes and thick- nesses of asbestos millboard from 21 to 4.
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 181

AIDS TO THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Manufacturing and Construction Economy Effected by Simplified Practice, Commercial Standards, and

Certification and Labeling Plan Developed by the Bureau of Standards

By Henry D. Hubbard, Bureau of Standards

The Bureau of Standards has facilities for a great

variety of researches affecting construction. These

are of the utmost value to the people: Fire resistance

as related to construction, protection from lightning

by suitable conducting systems, adequacy of plumbing, and other systems required in structures; the

properties of structural materials and built-up building components; the economy strength of structural

elements and structures; protection from weathering—the “ ravages of time ”

; and others in great

variety promoting the arts and industries which

insure comfort, health, and wellbeing to all people.

The Department of

Commerce, through its Bureau of Standards,

aids the construction in- dustry and the jmblic

served by it in many ways.

The planning aspect was

described in the preceding article; research and

testing will be touched

upon later. The present

article deals with bureau

standardizing activities. Precise measurement during this century has ex- tended to building materials and processes of construction with successful results. Strain gages measure to a few millionths of an inch the strains in struc- tures under load. Testing devices are multiplying to measure the quality of structural materials and effi- ciency of processes. Scientific research discloses the

optimum measured factors in the quality and per- formance of products. Measuring instruments and

methods become steadily more precise and more automatic. Measurement is emerging as a master control

of industry in serving the Nation.

Standards are vehicles for applied measurement.

They prescribe in measured terms the quality of materials, performance of devices, and efficiency of

processes, and are called standards of quality, standards of performance, and standards of practice.

The Bui’eau of Standards promotes actively the

simplification of varieties, the standardization of

staples, and the certification of qualit}'’ of materials

of construction. To reduce the number of sizes and

varieties of any product to an acceptable minimum in

the light of current production and demand, the bureau through its division of simplified practice, cooperates with^ industry in formulating simplified-practice recommendations. Seven I'epresentatives of business, industry, and the Government serve as an advisory committee in planning the simplification

activities of this division.

If an industry requests the bureau to sponsor a project for simplifying a given line of products the work

follows a carefully standardized procedure controlled

by industry at each step. A special standing committee of the industry is appointed to secure the active

support of all interests concerned. The success of

such projects is such that engineering handbooks,

management handbooks, codes, and other reference

works more and more refer to specific simplified-practice recommendations. If a simplification project is accepted, in writing, by a substantial majority of the

producers, with a satisfactory concurrence of dis- tributors and consumers, a simplified schedule of ac- cepted sizes and varieties is officiall}'^ promidgated by

the Bureau of Standards with the approval of the

Secretary of Commerce.

Simplified practice eliminates superfluous variety,

sizes, patterns, and types

of commodities; reduces

production costs; and en- hances values in distribution anil consumption.

An industry stands to gain by simplified practice Avhich favors the

stock items which reflect normal maximum demand (the user’s choice),

rather than odd sizes or “specials.” Given a choice, it is economy to select a stock item instead of

a “ special.” Ease of replacement, prompt deliverjq

and economy result. Active simplified practice recommendations illus- trate how successful!}^ industries have eliminated su- perflous variety. A ratio of reduction of 5 to 1 is not uncommon. In some cases a reduction of more than

90 per cent is effected, apparently without inconvenience. The advantages and savings are reported as equally surprising.

Construction materials are especially amenable to simplified practice. Among successful projects we

find glass for floor, roof, and sidewalk; millboard and

paper board for insulating purposes, lumber, reinforcing bars and spirals, joists, roofing and roofing teriies, concrete building units, curbstone, slate, tile, pipe el- bow fittings, plumbing fixtures for hospitals, lavatory

fittings, brick, builders’ hardware, and others of interest and importance to architects, structural designers,

engineers and the ultimate consumer. The sizes and

varieties of rough and smooth face brick were reduced

from 75 to 2, concrete building units from 115 to 14,

structural slate from 827 to 138, solid section steel windows from 42,877 to 2,274. Sidewalk lights were

simplified by reducing 120 sizes to 6, 80 st}des to 5, 10 shapes to 2. One group finds “that manufacturers arc able to make shipments more promptly and accurately. An

architectural concern states that “ the cost of materials

is lessened by application of such standard simplified

practice.”

The gains from reduced stocks, bi-iefer catalogue,

lists, quicker turnovers, reduced warehouse s])ace re- quirements, efficient ordering, and more prompt reThis is the second of a series of articles by

Mr. Hubbard, assistant to the acting director of

the Bureau of Standards, outlining the work

of the bureau as it concerns the construction

industry. These articles will cover research,

testing, simplified practice recommendations,

commercial standards, and the certification and

labeling plan.
182 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

jiliiceiiient or repairs ai'e estimated in high hgures by

experts in the several fields. One hardware merchant

reports that “ this (simplified practice recommendation) has increased our net profits on fencing at least 25 per cent.” It is noteworthy that acceptors form more than 80 per cent of the national output of wovenwire fencing.

A large eastern manufacturer writes that simplified

practice “ is one of the greatest works done in recent years for the economy of construction.” A concrete block distributor reports : “ My block business shows

a satisfactory profit whereas formerly excessive stock

ate up all the profit.” The head of a supply house

writes : “ AAe have been able to reduce our invested

capital and inventory approximately^ 50 per cent.” Cooperation in the bureau’s simplified practice service is given by^ tlie American Institute of Architects, a fundamental professional group concerned with construction. A survey of its members showed 4,112 re- quests for published simj^lified practice recommendations on 121 subjects, and 1,056 acceptances of 63 simplified practice recommendations from 46 firms and

individuals. During a time of relative inactivity in

building this is most significant.

Another division of the Bureau of Standards,

“ Trade Standards,” serves consumer and producer

alike by cooperation at the request of the industry in

establishing standards of quality and dimension for

products. If the industry^ as a whole, accepts the

standard, the bureau, on approval by the Secretary'

of Commerce, promulgates it as a “ Commercial Standard.” Many gains result—a definite indication of

grade, greater availability, loAver costs by mass production, smaller stocks, competitive pricing, easy replacement, and more prompt shipment. A new confidence

is felt by purchaser and user if a certificate of quality,

based on a specification, which accompanies the product becomes part of the sales contract. Typical “ commercial standards ” in the construction

fields comprise: Staple porcelain (all-clay) plumbingfixtures (CS4-29) ; staple vitreous china plumbing fix- tures (CS29-30) ; colors for sanitary ware (CS30-31),

covering six standard colors, and providing for color

reference samples to insure uniformity. The standard

for builders’ template hardware (CS9-29), and nontemplate hardware (CS22-30), combine simplified

schedules of variety and interchangeability for re- placement Avith standard finishes. A structural material specification recently aplAroved by industry as a commercial standard, fibei- insulating board (CS42-32), gives specific requirements for thermal conductivity”, tensile strength,

plaster bond, Avater absorption, deflection, thickness,

etc., for two classes of this material used as structural

and roof insulation. This is most timely since a neAV created industry is noAV producing insulating materials—some resisting heat transmission, others

resisting sound transmission, important for the neAV technologies of indoor air conditioning and quiet.

In establishing such a commercial standard, national

groups participate, such as the American Institute

of Architects, Associated General Contractors of

America, PlyAvood Manufacturers Association, the

National Retail Furniture Dealers Association, and

similar large makers and users of construction materials. The bureau serves as impartial coordinator

to measure the degree of acceptability of a proposed

FEBRUARY, IGMC.

specification, and a commercial standard is promulgated only if approved by 65 per cent by volume of

production, and then only if no active opposition develops. Evidence of the value of this service is a report from the Red Cedar Shingle Bureau, stating

that as a result of commercial standard (CS31-31), on September 15, the red cedar shingle industry Avas oversold by' 226 carloads after all stocks on hand had

been cleared. The mills are noAV operating at more

than 50 per cent full capacity, employment has

doubled in the past three months, and they are noAv

able to operate at a profit. The industry is in a better

position than it has been for about 10 years owingla rgely to the good effect of the commercial standard

and the certification label system recommended by the

bureau.

Another division of the bureau, “ specifications,”

promotes and facilitates the use of nationally recognized specifications. In this enterprise the certifica- tion and labeling plans of purchase were devised with

special reference to purchasing agencies of city. State,

and Federal Governments, purchasing with tax money for public purposes.

There have been compiled “ Avilling-to-certify ” lists of 8,000 sources of supply of commodities certified to comply with the requirements of 381 Federal specifications and commercial standards, about 60 per cent of

Avluch relate to materials of construction. Officers of

the National Association of Purchasing Agents and

the Educational Buyers Association attest the value of

the distribution of these lists to purchasers of educational institutions. The lists are continuously subject

to revision and enlargement by increasing the number

of lists and the number of “ willing-to-certify ” firms on those lists. The certification plan is supplemented by a self- identifying quality guaranteeing labeling plan developecl by trade associations for products meeting the

terms of nationally recognized specifications. These

bear a quality label guaranteed by the trade association. Gains from the plan include encouragement to makers to comply with nationally recognized standards of quality, aiding producers to expand their markets for staples complying- with such standards by promoting confidence in their quality, determining- the

commercial acceptability of certain nationally recog- nized standards of quality, and, finally, broadening

the source of supjily of products conforming to such

standards.

The Chief Coordinator of the Federal GoA'ernment

states in a published bulletin that inspecting officers are better assured of quality when a material is delivered under the certification and labeling plans.

These facilitate the use of the nationally recognized

specifications by purchasers not equipped to test the

products delivered and thus remove the disadvantage

under Avhich the small purchaser labors. Of particular interest to the construction industry

are the compilations of nationally recognized specifications. The bureau’s specifications division has done

signal service to all purchasing agencies by the compilation and publication of the National Directory of

Commodity Specifications, in which all nationally rec- ognized specifications are listed and briefly described.

It is also compiling an Encyclopedia of Commodity

Specifications series giving in full, without duplication, the substance of all these specifications, with
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 183

indication of the differences in recognized specifications for the same commodities. Together the directory and encyclopedia not only form a monumental

contribution to efficient inirchasing, designed primarily for public purchasing agenci&s spending tax money, but equally valuable to private purchasing

groups as well. Naturally many structural materials are covered

in this reference library, mateilals the quality of

which determines the life and utility of construction

work. Private purchasers inaj^ now buy quality-specified materials conforming to national standarcls without actual testing to secure the advantages of certified quality. Two volumes of the enci'^clopedia series have

already been issued. Standards and Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries, and Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and Their Products ; a third volume, Standards and Specifications foi' Metals and Metal Products, is in press; seven other.-^ are iilanned. A revised edition of the National Directory, first issued in 1925, recently appeared, bringing the subject references up to date. The program is being carried out under the guid- ance of an advisoiT board, the members of which are

official representatives of 14 national organizations

interested in the preparation and unification of specifications, and with the cooperation of the Bureau of

Foreign and Domestic Commerce of the Department

of Commerce.

Typical materials of construction are now purchasable under the certification plan and guaranteed to conform to the Federal specifications, such as Portland cement (SS-C-191), hollow clay tile (SS-S301), common clay brick (SS-B-661), fire-clay brick

(HH-B-671), prepared asphalt roofing (SS-R-501).

a.sbestos millboard (HU-M-351), abrasive paper

(P-P-101), wire rope (RR-R-oTi), flat glass for

glazing purposes (DD-(t—151) , builders nontemplate

liardware (FF-H-101), interior varnish (TT-Y-Tl).

lead-zinc base paints (TT-P-36), battleship linoleum

(LLI,(-L-351), concrete pipe C\WV-P-371) , threaded

cast-iron pipe fittings C\WV-P-451)

The certification plan has also been applied to cer- tain structural materials for Avhich commercial standards have been promulgated by the bureau, such a^ plywood (CS35-31), red cedar shingles (CS31-31).

staple jiorcelain (all-clay) plumbing fixtures (CS4-

29), builders’ template harchvare (CS9-29), colors for

sanitary ware (CS30-31), wall paper (CS16-29),

aromatic red cedar closet lining (CS26-30).

Related Avork is that of the Federal Specifications

Board, of Avhich the director of the bureau is ex officio chairman. The board is interdepartmental. Quai'-

ters and a clerical staff are, hoAveA’er, furnished b}" tlu' bureau. Bureau experts actiA-ely cooperate in drafting technical siiecifications for the staple supplies re- quired b}’ the United States Government. Bureau ex- perts hold 27 chairmanshiiis of the technical committees of the board, AA’hich number more than 04, on

Avhich 56 bureau experts serve as committee member,^.

The bureau’s research results thus enter specification practice as standards of quality and dimension.

More than 700 Federal specifications liaA'e been

adopted. They goA’ern the great bulk of GoA^ernment

purchases, many of Avhich relate to materials of construction. They are formulated in the light of the

present “ .state of the art ” and their use has effectively

raised the standard of GoA’ernment supplies. These

Federal specifications may be adopted by States and

municipalities and large private buyers to govern

their purchases, thus giving all gOA’ernmental purchasing agencies in the country the benefit of the knowledge

and expert judgment of the Federal Government.

In times of economic stress rigid economy in public

purchasing is called for to conserve tax money, and

it is important to plan expenditures Avisely to insure

economy and efficiency. In these efforts the Bureau

of Standards cooperates effectiA^el}^ Avith commerce and

industiw in three Avays, namely, the actiA^e promotion

of simplification of varieties, the standardization of

commercial products, and finally, in facilitating the use of standards of quality in the manufacture and

sale of materials on the Bureau of Standards’ certi- fication-labeling plan.

STANDARD NOMENCLATURE OF DISEASE

For the past three years, 27 national societies and

governmental bureaus in the medical, clinical, and statistical fields have been collaborating through the National Conference on Nomenclature of Disease, Avhich

they created for the purpose, in the preparation of a uniform system of naming and classifying diseases.

The results of this work Avhich Avas described in the

June, 1931, issue of Coaiaiercial Standards Monthly',

Avas released from the press of The CommonAvealth

Fund (41 East Fifty-se\’enth Street, Ncav York) on January 1, 1933, under the title of A Standard Classified Nomenclature of Disease.

As compared Avith previous jiomenclaturcs, this

book, AAUich in’esents a numerical index of diseases, is much more inclusiA'e and takes into systematic ac- count, as most other nomenclatures do not. both tlie etiology of the disease and the part of tlie l)ody af- fected. It is the first classified nomenclature to be deA'eloped by national rather than local interests. The

sponsors of the Avork hope that this standard nomenclature aadII promote uniformity in the ox])re.ssion of

medical thought and, because of its analytical nature,

Avill encourage greater precision in the anal}’sis of the causes of illness and death. It should thus proA'ide a more accurate basis than any heretofore aA’ailable for

mortalitA^ and morbidity statistics, and for the recording and interpretation of clinical experience.

FLAX AND HEMP TWINE

The printed copies of Simplified Pj'actice Recommendation R136-32, coA'ering flax and hemp tAvine. are noAv available, and can be obtained from the

Su]ierintendent of Documents. Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., for 5 cents each.

This simplification program, Avhich Avas suggested

and dcA'eloped by members of the industry, provides

for the number, yardage, l)reaking strength, and ]nit- ups of different grades of fine finished hemp twine:

and for the ply, yardage, breaking strength, and ])utu])s of the various grades of fine unfinished flax and

hemp twine.
184 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL TESTING LABORATORY SERVICE

Laboratory Aid in Investigating Sales Claims of Sellers

By B. H. WrrHEBSPOON ^

The buying public has at last awakened to’ a realization that its needs, desires, and demands during the

past three years for progressively lower prices, and

yet lower prices, have brought upon itself a barrage of

difficulties and disappointments.

This price demand has been anticipated and encour- aged by certain manufacturers in all fields of industry.

Broadly speaking, these manufacturers were those

whose ability to prove and sell the idea of quality to their buyers was limited or negligible. Price was their

major sales weapon, and quality, performance, and

efficiency were presumed, rather than actual. Quality manufacturers, faced on every sales front

by both public demand and competitive activities, were

forced to either yield their previous product standards

and attain a level of production costs to meet such

price demands, or to sacrifice profits and accept losses,

in an attempt to maintain their portion of such busi- ness as was available.

This merchandising era has been bolstered and promoted by advertising and sales claims running the

gamut from truth to fiction. It is to be wondered that the buying public, wanting to believe that they were getting the best for the

least money, encouraged in this belief by advertisements and sales arguments, all too frequently imAvarranted and unproven, and finally finding their beliefs

unfounded and their money poorly spent or wasted,

should have become progressively skeptical of all advertising and sales claims ? Even manufacturers whose word about their products formerly received unhesitating acceptance, now

find an astounding lack of acceptance and belief upon

the part of the buying public.

Such a situation, gaining ground with great mo- mentum over recent months, obviously requires the

most serious attention on the part of all manufacturers and distributors. Many of the more forward looking of these have recognized the situation well in

1 President, Pittsbnrgli T'esting' Laboratory, Pittsburgli, Pa.

advance and have taken steps to make available to their own marketing organization and to their cus- tomers facts, evidence, and proof regarding the merit

quality, efficiency, performance, and other factors of

their products.

So far has been the public swing of incredulity,

lethargy, and indifference to the claims of the manufacturer and distributor that the seller now finds it necessary to use every possible means to prove his

case. No longer will the unsupported claims of the

seller fullj^ suffice, whether it be the spoken word of

the individual salesman or the printed word of the

advertiser.

In response to an insistent and growing demand by

seller and buyers alike, for certification and proof

from recognized disinterested sources, regarding the

sales claims of the former, and whicli can be relied

upon and accepted by the latter, the Pittsburgh Test- ing Laboratory has established an industiial research

division to coordinate and expand its research and

fact-finding investigations, for the mutual benefit of

buyers and sellers. For this purpose use is made of

the entire facilities of the laboratory and its branch

offices. As well as its personnel located at all industrial centers. A considerable number of assignments

for clients’ use in sales and advertising have already

been handled by the industrial research division.

In the interest of both the seller and the buyer, the

findings of a technical institution serving the seller as

a client, and yet definitely obligated to the buyer,

who considers and accepts such findings, must be sur- rounded by every possible safeguard. Accordingly,

the Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory, in accepting the

clients’ assignments, does so under an agreement that

the use of its findings in sales promotion and advertising is not permitted unless and until such use is first submitted to the laboratorj^ for review and approval, not only that the accuracy of quoted statements

of the laboratory may be fully checked, but that the

references to conclusions drawn, or inferences made,

regarding its findings ma.y be established as well.

UNIFORM STATUTE IS PREPARED FOR

MECHANICS’ LIENS

Completing an 8-year study, the standard State

mechanics’ lien act committee of the Bureau of Standards has made a report to the Secretary of Commerce

embracing a uniform mechanics’ lien act recommended

for enactment by the legislatures of the several States. The proposed uniform State statute provides a more equitable basis for liens against real property by

laborers, persons who furnish material, subcontractors,

and others engaged in building construction and

related work.

The committee’s report states that it had the as- sistance, in drafting the uniform act, of the National

Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws.

This organization (see November, 1932, Commercial

Standards Monthly) and the American Bar Association, approved the final draft of the act at their recent annual meetings. The task of the committee is said

in its report to have been that of reconciling the di- verse interests represented in the construction industry. The report states that an agreement on an act, “ which, it is believed, accomplishes the purpose, is a new and forward step in the matter of legislation

affecting so large a number of commercial groups.”

The committees have endeavored to safeguard the in- terest of the owner at every step, and at the same time

to accord to the contractor, the subcontractor, the material man, and the laborer a facility for collecting their

accounts and, when necessary, for filing and proving

their liens so as to insure security to them upon the

real property for which their work or materials were

furnished or upon a bond substituted for it.
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 185

SPECIFICATIONS FOR CONSUMER GOODS

Standard Specifications for Household Buying Are Being Developed

By Faith M. WiLUAiis ^

At the present time many farm products are graded

for sale according to standards set-up by the Bureau

of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture. Manufacturers have for a long

time been writing accurate descriptions for the raw

materials and partly finished goods they buy. The

Bureau of Standards, United States Department of

Commerce, has worked with industrial and commercial agencies in setting up specifications that have limited the production of various articles to a given number of stock sizes and thereby cut down manufacturing costs. The Federal and State Governments have

worked out specifications for purchases for various

Government institutions. The housewife is beginning

to ask why she can not buy specification-made goods

guaranteed by the manufacturers.

The Bureau of Home Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, and the American Home

Economics Association received so many requests for

information on the subject of standard specifications

for household goods that they cooperated in the compilation and publication of the booklet entitled

“Household Purchasing; Suggestions for Club Programs.” This booklet outlines the material available

for club programs on difficulties the consumer meets

in the present market, food standards and grades,

food containers, weights and measures, quality standards and grades for foods, buying textiles and clothing, household equipment, and what the Government

can do to help the consumer. The programs are now

in use by a number of extension clubs. In this attempt to bring together information as to the standard specifications which are now in definite

usable form for the housewife, several interesting

points came to light.

Some of the grades used in sorting agricultural

products for the market can profitably be used by the

housewife in her purchasing, provided definite information is furnished her as to what these grades mean.

In some cities beef officially stamped with the official grade name can be bought in the retail shops. In some parts of the country poultry, eggs, and butter

are now being sold to consumers labeled according to the Government grades. Large numbers of turkeys

have been graded for the consumer, each bird being

labeled with its Government grade mark. The

standards for canned foods developed in the Bureau

of Agricultural Economics under the warehouse act have been used in certain States as a basis for selling

canned goods.

Under the food and drugs act, definitions and

standards for a large number of food products have

been promulgated bj'' the Department of Agriculture.

These are designed (1) to fix the identity of the articles, and (2) to insure that they be of sound and

marketable quality. The specifications are of such a nature that any departure of an article above the

^ Senior economist. Bureau of Home Economics, U. S. Department of

I .Vgriculture.

I

maximum or below the minimum limits prescribed is evidence that the article is either impure or abnormal.

Recently the food and drugs act was amended so as to authorize the Secretary of Agriculture to promulgate

standards of quality, condition, and fill of container

for canned foods. The same amendment authorizes

the Secretary to prescribe a statement which will appear in a plain and conspicuous manner on the labels

of all canned foods which do not meet the standard

and which will clearly indicate that they fall below

such standard. This amendment in no sense authorizes the distribution of adulterated or misbranded

canned foods. As heretofore, these are banned under

the terms of the food and drugs act. It does, however,

divide legal canned foods into two classes : (1) A class of a quality which entitles it to be known as “ standard,” and (2) a class which is in some respects inferior

and, therefore, must be labeled “ substandard.”

The imposition of the substandard labeling requirement is important from the houseAvife’s standpoint

because it is a precaution to save the pocketbook. The

housewife with a limited budget who feels that she can not afford to purchase canned foods of standard

quality but does desire to obtain canned articles of

satisfactory nutritive value, can satisfy her desires by

selecting those canned products Avhich bear the substandard label, with full assurance that they are legal

and Avholesome, eA^en if not so palatable or of such

satisfactory appearance as the standard article. On

the other hand, if it is her desire to avoid the loAver grades of canned foods, she may assure herself of the

character of the product she buys by refusing to accept an article bearing a substandard label. Some of the specifications used by Government and

State agencies for institutional purchases may also be

used by the housewife. Most of these, however, need

to be revised in terms which will help to indicate their use to her. This would involve considerable study.

When she buys household equipment, the housewife

frequently spends a considerable sum of money for a

single article. In making such a purchase she Avants the best possible information, and she frequently asks

the Bureau of Home Economics for assistance in learning Avhat she needs to knoAV. A beginning has been

made in the setting up of standard specifications for

household refrigerators. The refrigerator, like many

other pieces of household equipment, does not carry its A^alue on its face. It has taken some three }^ears of

work by manufacturers, ice distributors, and refrig- erator users to determine hoAV ice-cooled refrigerators

should be labeled so that the houseAvife Avill know what

she is getting. There may be in one roAv refrigerators

varying in price from $25 to $200 with little dilference

in outside appearance. It is important that in deciding Avhat to purchase the houseAvife should haA’’e some

other basis of judgment. The salesman may tell her

much about insulation and probable length of life. She Avould be much more secure in her purchase if each manufacturer Avere to place on his ice box such a

'li
186 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1933

statement as the following with pounds and cubic feet

definitely stated.

Ice capacity pounds ; cubic feet of usable

space. Guaranteed temperatures. Milk compartment

not over 45“ F. Food compartment average temperature not over 50° (under standard test conditions, out- side temperature not exceeding 80°, with daily ice con- sumption under standard test conditions of pounds).

Such information would enable the housewife to

select the ice box best adapted to her needs. In conferences among manufacturers, distributors, and users of refrigerators agreement has been reached as to part,

although not all, of this label. It is an indication of

the type of specification Avhich the housewife wants

and which the best manufacturers are coming to see they must furnish in some form and stand behind if they are to protect their goods on the market.

As time goes on it will be possible to develop similar labels suitable for other pieces of household equipment which will be of material help in solving the

purchasing problems of the housewife.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR SMALL

DWELLINGS

Emphasizing the great advantages of sound construction as related to public safety and health, the

Bureau of Standards announces a revision of the publication, “ Recommended Minimum Requirements for

Small Dwelling Construction.” The primary purpose

of this series of recommendations prepared by the Department of Commerce Building Code Committee, is to suggest minimum requirements that may be utilized

by local building officials and committees in connection

with redrafting their building codes. The present re- vision takes into consideration the results of research

and experience since the publication of an earlier re- port of the same name issued in 1923. Copies of the

revised publication may be secured from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., at 10 cents a copy.

There is a common tendency, a foreword to the re- port states, to forget the positive protection to safety

and health that properly framed, well-administered

building codes can effect through prohibiting faulty

structures. This tendency has contributed in large measure to the hampering effects of antiquated codes

which restrict unnecessarily the development and use of many of the best improvements in materials and

methods that have been made in recent years. Adequate strength and fire resistance are the chief

considerations of the report. In the one case atten- tion is centered on minimum thickness of walls, construction of floors, bracing where necessary to prevent

distortion, and anchorage to resist the force of high

winds. In the other, various methods of fire stopping, proper clearances between heating devices and

combustible construction, and safe construction of

chimneys is featured. The aim has been to require

what is necessary in the light of tests and experience

but at the same time not to burden the home builder

by requiring excessive amounts of materials.

In addition to the suggested requirements, there

is an appendix in which much supplementary information about sound building is given. This calls attention to the new developments that code committees may wish to consider. In some cases there is not as yet sufficient evidence upon which to base defi- nite recommendations, but rapid increases in knowledge are to be expected, and will perhaps justify local authorities in giving recognition. The apjiendix also describes many features of good building practice that

should be observed but which it is not feasible to re- quire in a code.

The material presented in the report should be of

marked value to designers, commercial builders, home

owners, and other groups. The timely value of the

report proceeds from the fact that when a resumption

of home building takes place, as it eventually must, a source of information on sound construction will be

at hand.

NEW FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

Seventeen, specifications were acted on by the Federal Specifications Board during the month of January. Of this number, nine proposed specifications

and eight revisions have been sent out for official com- ment and criticism. Copies of these specifications are

available in mimeographed form, and further information can be obtained from the Federal Specifications Board, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

New desig- nation Specifications proposed Old F. S. B. No.

M-C-301

0-A-51a W-L-lOla

FF-P-lOla

SS-T-301 SS-T-321

SS-T-341 ZZ-T-401

Aluminum alloy No. 3 (aluminum-manganese) sheet and

plate Mattresses, inner spring . _ . _ Sponges

Hose, pneumatic, braided

Brick, silica Cement, silica , . Charcoal

Mittens, asbestos .. Conduit, steel, rigid, zinc-coated. _ ... . .

243a

Specifications to be revised

Chinaware, vitrified

508

506

507

581

Tile, structural, clay, floor Tile, structural, clay, load-bearing, wall..

Tires, bicycle EFFECTIVE DATE EXTENDED FOR WOOLBLANKET STANDARD

The date for the clearance of existing stocks of wool

and part wool blankets was extended to April 1, 1933,

according to a circular letter to the industry from the

division of trade standards. Bureau of Standards,

under date of December 30, 1932. This action fol- lowed the request of representatives of the retail trade

and was approved by a majority of the standing committee. It was felt that unusual business conditions

and the attendant inability of the retail trade to clear their stocks of blankets before December 31, 1932,

Avarranted this action.

The fine spirit of cooperation exhibited by the majority of the industry in agreeing to this postponement, Avhen their stocks have already been cleared,

will doubtless be reflected in the spirit of fair play

that is anticipated after April 1.
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 187

DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS TYPES OF SPECIFICATIONS

Specifications for Materials and for Equipment Discussed by Waterworks Engineer

By F. M. Randlett ^

Standardization is one of the essential bedrocks of

civilization. The origin of standardization goes back

to the crude beginning of human culture. The earliest

records of which we now have any knowledge were

the standards of weights and measures of ancient

Babylonia and Egypt. The Ten Commandments are

basic standards of modern ethics. Barter and trade

developed a standard medium of exchange or money.

The development of these early standards to the pres- ent methods of effecting commercial transactions is a history of interest and value that can not be covered in

this brief article. Standardization has been essential to the development of our civilization, and it is particularly neces- sary now if we are to advance in the next decade at the pace we have in the jiast. No one can doubt that

the standardization of materials, of machine, of processes, and of products of manufacture, has been one

of the prime aids to American progress.

Engineers preparing specifications and contracts should give emphasis to the use of standard terms,

abbreviations, symbols, constants, and other nomenclature, for we must use a standard language if we are

to be properly understood. Specifications, contracts,

and other technical procedure must not overlook di- mensional standards that have been set for various

commodities. A standard form should be followed in

the preparation of contracts and specifications, so that

nothing is overlooked and that important general matters, such as responsibility, payments, etc., are legally

covered.

We probably will never reach the point where standardization of specifications can extend to the complete

specifications for a project. Specifications can not

conceivably replace the service furnished by the engi- neer in drawing up a standard in contract form for a waterworks installation. This is manifest, as geographically, geologically, biologically, and logically,

conditions are different. However, standardization of

specifications for materials and equipment is of prime

importance to the engineer in enabling him to fit into

his project standard materials and equipment that

make it possible for him to turn out a finished installation with a maximum of efficiency, hydraulicalljq

mechanically, electrically, and financially. The recognition and use of specifications enables him to concentrate his attention to the planning -of the installation

and to the development of specification requirements

for such materials and equipment as may not yet be

covered.

The use of the word “ standard ” naturally raises

the question—What is a standard specification? Primanl}^ a standard specification is a specification

adopted as standard by some party. First, a specification may be a standard of one consumer or it may be

that of the manufacturer Avhere a specialty is involved.

When such a specification is found effective its use

_ 1 Pacific coast manager, Robert W. Hunt, Co., engineers, San Francisco, Calif. ; abstract of paper delivered before meeting of the Callfornia

section, American Water Works Association, Stockton, Calif.

naturally extends to other consumers as a result of the

brotherhood of engineers. When it has spread this f ar an association of consuming interests, such as the

American Water Works Association, may advance the

specification to a standard of that association.

Even with the greatest possible use of existing

standards, there will be many materials and equipment items for which the individual must sooner

or later set up his own standards, putting them in

line for group use, and eventually national standard

use. In the preparation of any such specifications,

there are certain major matters that are worthy of

mention.

1. A specification for a product should contain the

fewest possible restrictions, consistent with obtaining

the material desired. The service which the product

is to perform, in connection with reasonably feasible

possibilities in its manufacture, should determine the

limitations of a specification. A complete workable

specification for a product represents a very high

order of work. It should combine within itself the

harmonized interests of both the producer and con- sumer, and should be so comprehensive as to leave no

chance for ambiguity or doubt, and above all, should

provide for inspection and tests that will protect the consumer in his purchases.

2. Excessively severe limitations in a specification are suicidal. They lead to constant demands for concessions, which must be made if the work is to be kept

going, or to more or less successful efforts at evasion.

Better a few moderate requirements rigidly enforced,

than a mass of excessive limitations, which are diffi- cult of enforcement, and which lead to constant fric- tion and sometimes to deception.

3. There is no real reason why a specification should

not contain limitations derived from any source of

knowledge. If the limitations shown by ph3^sical test are sufficient to define the necessar}^ qualities of the

material, and this test is simplest and most easily

made, the specifications may reasonabl}" be confined to

this. If a chemical anah^sis or a microscopic examination, or a statement of the method of manufacture, or information from all four, or even other sources, are found useful or valuable in defining limitations, or in

deciding upon the quality of products furnished, such

information should appear in the specifications.

Neither the producer nor the consumer has a right to arrogate to himself the exclusive right to use information from any source. Where methods of testing,

analj’sis, or inspection are well known and understood,

it is sufficient if the specification simply refers to them.

Where new or unusual tests are required, or where different well-known methods give different results, it is essential to embodjq in the specification, sufficient description to prevent doubt or ambiguity.

4. Proprietary articles and commercial products

made by processes under the control of the manufacturer can not, from the nature of the case, be made the

subject of standard specifications. The very idea of

a specification involves the existence of a mass of com-
188 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1933 mon knowledge in regard to any product, which

knowledge is more or less available to both producer

and consumer. If the manufacturer or producer has

ojiportunities, which are not available to the consumer,

of knowing how the variation of certain constituents

in his products will affect the product during manufacture, so also does the consumer, if he is philosophic

and a student, have opportunities not available to the

jiroducer of knowing how the same variation of constituents in the product will affect that product in service under special conditiohs with which he is familiar, and it is only by the two working together

and combining the special knowledge of each, that a really valuable specification can be drafted.

5. All specifications in daily actual use need revision

from time to time, as new information is obtained,

due to progress in knowledge, changes in methods of

manufacture, and changes in the use of products. A

new specification ; that is, one for a product which has

hitherto been bought on the reputation of the makers

and without any examination as to quality, will be

fortunate if it does not require revision in from 6 to 10 months after it is first issued.

There is at present a distinction existing between

specifications for materials and specifications for

equipment. Specifications for materials are essentially

standards of quality involving test requirements that

indicate a proper measure of usefulness. In addition

to quality requirements, they should include provisions

that will result in a high standard of usefulness in

their application. Such items are tolerances, workmanship, and inspection provisions. Not only should

materials comply with certain stated quality requirements, but they should comply with standards of first- class workmanship in all particulars. When materials are bought in considerable quantities or where

fhey are vital construction materials, or where they

are materials essential to the continuous operation of

a plant or machine, or when their failure may result

in appreciable monetary loss, such materials must be

most thoroughly inspected, otherwise the preparation

of any specification is superfluous.

The general term of “ equipment ” covers a large

field—from small devices to the largest mechanical

and electrical equipment. Generally speaking, the

equipment represents the development of individual

manufacturers. A specification of this kind can not be

extended to the same detail as can one for materials.

There are, however, important points in connection

with the specifications for equipment that should be

carefully considered. Specifications for operative effi- ciency for machines and devices, known as standards

of performance, specify the factors involved in terms

susceptible of measurement, numerical statement of

speed, uniformity, output, economy, durability, and

other factors which together define the net efficiency

of an appliance or machine. The requirements for the

large field of equipment makes it practically impossible to give a more comprehensive picture of the method

of arriving at sound or comprehensive specifications.

Mention, however, might be made of the fact that

municijial. State, and Federal codes and regulations

should be studied for the technical regulation of the

construction and installation. Such codes provoke

efficiency and convenience in the maintenance and operation of the equipment with fire protection and

safety provisions.

To much the same extent as on materials, specifications for equipment should include provisions for in- spection and tests so that the inspector representing

the consumer on vital equipment can see that proper

materials are used and that they are fabricated in a

first-class workmanlike manner. Tests of completed

equipment when not of large size can be accomplished

at point of manufacture, but on large power or pumping installations due provisions should be made for

duty or performance tests after installation. These

duty tests should be conducted under the direct control of the consumer or representative and be the

basis of final acceptance and payment for the equipment.

Many of the specifications cover requirements of a device or piece of equipment in general as to dimensions and capacity only. To such specifications must

be added such definite and concise statements as will

make it evident what requirements must be met as to strength, durability, and efficiency of operation.

Avoid general clauses that are not definite as they

are usually matters of opinion often impossible of

enforcement.

The development and use of specifications is a matter of vital importance to progress. By developing

and using standard specifications the net result will

be materials, equipment, and installations that will

give the maximum of usefulness, serviceability, and

efficiency—a maximum utility at a minimum cost.

NEW SPECIFICATIONS ADOPTED FOR OILS

Minimum specifications for oils used in the manufacture of motor oils carrying the Pennsylvania Grade

Crude Oil Association emblem were fixed at a recent meeting held in Oil City, Pa., of the directors of the

association. The new specifications are mandatory on March 1, 1933, but will be put into practice by most

companies before that date. Neutral oil used in blending motor oils after Marcli

1 must have a minimum flash point of 420° F. This

compares with a former minimum of 400° F. The

neutral oil must have a minimum viscosity of 180 Saybolt universal seconds at 100° F. This compares with

a former minimum of 150 Saybolt “A” seconds at 70°

F. Neutral oil of 25 pour test used in blends must

have a minimum A. P. I. gravity of 29.5°. Bright

stock to he used in motor oils carrying the emblem

must be of at least No. 8 color and have a minimum

flash of 540° F. In the case of oils made by the long

residuum method, the finished motor oils must be at

least equal to those produced by blending neutral oils and bright stock. The improved minimum quality of motor oils carry- ing the emblem will have the effect of increasing the

cost of manufacture of some of the oils which have

been sold at “ cut prices ” under the emblem. Estimates are that the added cost may be on the order of

about 2 cents per gallon. Some manufacturers, of

course, selling branded goods at regular prices have

maintained a standard of quality equal to the new minimum in the past.
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 189

STANDARDIZATION OF DIAGNOSTIC REAGENTS

Public-Health Specialist Outlines Need for Standard Reagents

By John F. Norton'

The laboratory section of the American Public

Health Association has, for more than 25 years, been

actively interested through its committees in the

standardization of certain laboratory procedures. Of

these, the three best known relate to the examinations of

water, milk, and shellfish. Standards for air examination and for disinfectants have been prepared, but these

are not longer in existence as recognized procedures.

While it is unfortunately true that many laboratories depart in varying degrees from the so-called

standard procedures, it can hardly be disputed that

the standardization of technic as sponsored by the

laboratory section of the association has had a whole- some effect on public health laboratory work. In cer- tain States, supervision is exercised by the State department of health laboratory in connection with the

diagnostic work of laboratories within the State. However, this affects public health laboratories in rel- atively limited areas. The writer is very doubtful as

to the possibility or even the propriety of standardizing clinical laboratoiy technic. Certainly this could

not be done without the expenditure of an enormous amount of time and energy.

There is one phase of laboratory technic however,

which might properly become the interest of the laboratory section, and that is the standardization of

reagents used. The larger laboratories may be

equipped to prepare and standardize their own materials, although this is not practical in all instances.

On the other hand, the small laboratory must depend

entirely upon diagnostic reagenfs which are furnished

by biological supply houses, except those which are

occasionally supplied by a State laboratory.

At the present time there is no control by any independent and unprejudiced group, over these reagents.

It would appear that an opportunity exists to devise some means for the approval of these diagnostic re- agents in order that the laboratory worker may have

concrete evidence that his fundamental materials are

the proper ones to use for any specified test or reaction.

The situation as it exists to-day is not a reflection on

the ethics or the abilities of the commercial firms

which supply diagmostic reagents. There may be real

differences of opinion concerning the standardization

of these products. Divergent views are sometimes ca- pable of amalgamation and it is believed that in a majority of instances standards could be promulgated

which would be satisfactory to the public health lab- oratory worker. • Indirectly such an undertaking as the

standardization and approval of diagnostic reagents

would be of service to the medical profession which

depends upon these laboratories for diagnostic data.

It is hardly necessary to present arguments con- cerning the necessity for standardization of diagTiostic

reagents. Most of us have had experiences which

indicate its desirability. Antipneumococcic serums

obtained from independent sources have given divergent results in the typing of pneumonococci ; antimeningococcic serums vary considei-ablyAvhen tested on the

basis of the agglutination reaction. It is freely admitted that standardization would not eliminate cer- tain discrepancies connected with fundamental biological diff erences in the behavior of bacteria and their

products. It would, however, tend to increase the

reliability of much laboratory work.

A survey has been made of the various diagnostic

reagents which may be purchased in this country.

The variety is considerable, and includes most of the

materials which are necessary to cover a wide range of

clinical laboratory work.

Certain fundamental materials are now on a reli- able basis. Buffer solutions should belong to this

class if made from chemicals of the highest purity,

but our experience has been that these should be

checked by potentiometric measurements before use. Biological stains are being approved by a commission

especially organized for this purpose. Carbohydrates

of the highest purity are obtainable as well as other

chemicals. The problem of standardization of peptones and meat extracts is an important one, but one on which little progress has been made. However, we ai’e primarily concerned in this article with re- agents that are used in biological reactions in connection with clinical laboratory diagnostic procedures.

Two of the most important classes of reagents and the

problems involved are mentioned.

Amhocepters.-—Both antisheep and antihuman ambocepters are available. The problem of standardization

probably is not so acute here as with some other reagents.

Seru’ins. —The variety of serums available for diagnostic laboratory purposes is considerable. The list includes human-blood typing serums and antiserums

against a variety of bacterial species, such as diphtheria bacilli, gonococci, typhoid, and paratyphoid

baccilli, meningococci, dysentery organisms of the

various recognized groups, the Brucella group, and

pneumococci. The antigenic specificity of strains of

any group or species of bacteria is known to vary. These serums have therefore certain recognized limitations, but it seems to the writer that some uniformit}*

should exist perhap>s even to the extent of requiring

that these serums be xirepared from certain standard

strains or that they react with such strains. At the same time it is admitted that the situation is a diffi- cult one, but at the iiresent time there are, with a few

exceptions, no standards of any kind available.

No mention has been made of such laboratory materials as culture media, a great variety of which ai’e available. The standardization of these Avould be at the present time, an extremely difficult task and perhajis not be worth the required effort. It is obvious that this is a iilea for the recognition

of a situation in which the xiublic health laboratory

is vitally concerned. While the situation can not, of

course, be remedied immediately, it is not inconceivable that a start could be made toward the axiproval

of certain of the more imxiortant diagnostic reagents

and thereb}^ help to establish a greater uniformity in

^ the results of clinical laboratoiy work. Michigan State department of health, Detroit, Mich.
190 COMMEECIAL. STANDAEDS MONTHLY FEBEUARY, 19:53 PAPER CONES AND TUBES FOR TEXTILE

WINDING

A simplified-practice recommendation of interest to the textile industry is the one recently completed for

paper cones and tubes, as reported in the January,

1933, Commercial Standards Monthly, These cones and tubes are used for winding knitting yarns, silk,

rayon, hosiery yarns, tire cords, wire insulating yarn,

thread, etc. The cones covered by the recommendation

range from 5% inches in length to 10^2 inches, while

the tubes range from 2% inches in length to 61/2 inches. In addition to the length, the schedule for

both cones and tubes provides for other basic dimensions to identify items which are retained for regular

stock purposes.

This program is the first to be completed in a series proposed at a meeting of manufacturers of various

kinds of textile machinery held in New York in 1929.

This meeting was called at the suggestion of an important manufacturer of winding machinery, who had

summarized the need for simplification in the in- dustry as follows

:

To date we have manufactured 163 distinct types of spindles

with 1,900 varying sizes, and in so doing, naturally our manufacturing costs and inventory are inflated. Unless some stand- ards are established, the list will ever be increasing. New

industries now have no tabulations of standards to order equipment from and the older textile industries most fre- quently order their new machines equipped with spindles

“ same as last ” or “ with spindles to tit bobbin or tube as per sample herewith.” The “ same as last ” customers might

easily pick some standard spindle if such was tabulated, that could be used equally well, and the “ same herewith ” is usually picked at random and usually only varies from one which might have easily been standard had no error been

made in its manufacture or had it been made to conform to some standard bobbin, quill, or tube. From our records of some 36 years, we have prepared our own lists and drawings of what we consider standard, particularly with reference to the hole size. These standards are

called for on approximately 80 per cent of our orders, and

on the remaining 20 per cent, they are special. On one machine alone, namely our No. 90, we have 30 standard style

spindles with 200 different sizes and, in the special spindles, we have 74 styles with 1,016 varied sizes. We naturally would

not expect the industry to standardize according to our records

alone, but believe it will meet nearly the list which other manufacturers would desire to standardize upon also. As a result of this meeting, simplified practice committees were appointed to represent the following

groups of textile machinery manufacturers: Winding

machines, carding and spinning machines, loom manufacturers, bobbin, spool and shuttle manufacturers,

paper-tube manufacturers, and worsted spinning mule

manufacturers.

The committee on paper cones and tubes completed

its program first, and this was given final approval at a general conference held in New York in June, 1932. The chairman of the committee in charge of the preparation of this recommendation was J. L. Coker, of

the Sonoco Products Co., Hartsville, S. C. In pre- senting the program to the conference for consideration he explained that it had been the purpose of this

committee to select the sizes of parallel tubes and

cones which were in sufficient demand to be listed for

regular stock jiurposes. He explained that it was not

the intention to discontinue the manufacture of other

sizes to meet special demand, as the committee survey

had disclosed that there were many other sizes made.

The items presented in the schedule were found to be

in greatest demand, and it was his belief that many

other slightly different sizes could be replaced by those

recommended. It would be the policy of his company,

he explained to the conference, to use every effort to

direct attention to the recommended sizes, so all con- cerned would derive the benefits from wide adoption

of the program. In the opinion of Mr. Coker, general

adoption of the recommended sizes in place of the

many now used for the same or similar purposes will

not only help to prevent increase in unnecessary variety, but will work toward the gradual elimination of

the many sizes now in use. As the demand increases

for the recommended sizes, the economies inherent in

simplification will be realized.

Other simjilified practice committees have not completed their studies covering other components, but

considerable work has already been done and it is ex- pected that the following items will be brought up

soon for consideration or possible adoption as simplified practice recommendations: Spindle sizes for

paper filling yarn tubes, spindle sizes for wooden fill- ing bobbins, and sizes of wooden cones for warp and

knitting yarns.

METRIC STANDARDS ADOPTED FOR SPORTS

On November 22, 1932, the Amateur Athletic Union

“ went metric.” It may, perhaps, be interesting to inquire what affect this action by the A. A. U. will be

likely to have upon athletic events, and records in

those countries in which,- up to this time, distances

for such events have very generally been expressed in

yards, feet, and inches.

First of all, it should be pointed out that from the

standpoint of measurement athletic events fall into

two general classes: First, field events in which meas- urements of distance only are involved; and second,

track events in which measurements of distance and

time are involved. The high jump, broad jump, pole

vault, shot put, discus throw, hammer throw, etc., fall within the first class, while the dashes, hurdles, and

other running events, of course, fall within the second

class. It is evident that field events will not be greatly

affected by the adoption of the metric system of

measurement. In all such events the height or dis- tance attained by the contestant, whether measured in

feet, inches, and fractions of an inch, or in meters

and fractions of a meter, can readily be converted

from one system of measurement to the other. Records of past performances can also be readily converted. All that is needed is a convenient and accurate table of equivalents.

When we consider track events, however, we find a quite different situation. In these events standard

distances are set up, in terms of a, unit of length,

either the yard or the meter, and the contest in each

event consists in running this standard distance in a minimum time. The standard distance chosen for

each event is some integral number of yards or of meters, depending upon the system of measurement employed. For example, 100 yards, 220 yards, 440 yards,

etc., or 100 meters, 110 meters, 200 meters, 400 meters,

etc.Obviously, the distances set up for a series of events under one system of measurement will not be approjiriate for a series of similar events under the other

system of measurement. Two entirely different series
FEBRUARY, 1933 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 191

of distances will therefore be necessary, and it will

not be possible to set up a table of equivalents for

track events held under the two systems of measurements, and records made under the two systems will

not be comparable. They represent, in fact, an entirely ditferent series of events.

It may reasonably be assumed that other athletic

organizations will follow the lead of the A. A. TJ. in

adopting metric distances ; and with the above situation in mind a question naturally arises as to what is likely to happen with reference to track records, for

distances measured in yards, that are now on the books

if and when these events are no longer run. Obviously, if the events are no longer run the present rec- ords can not be broken, and will stand indefinitely.

Such a record will, no doubt, when no longer subject

to assault, lose some of its significance and relative

value. To that extent the change can hardly fail to involve some disappointment to present record holders for distance events measured in yards. There is, however, a compensating advantage in that these rec- ords can not be broken, and are therefore safe for all time, no matter how future athletics may “burn up

the cinders.”

REAFFIRMATION OF STANDARD COLORS

FOR SANITARY WARE

The standing committee on the commercial standard for Colors for Sanitary Ware, CS30-31, after

careful consideration of the results disclosed in a re- cent survey to determine the degree of adherence, and

the benefits resulting from the voluntary establishment of this standard has recommended its reaffirmation without change for another year and announce- ment to this effect has been issued by the division of

trade standards. Bureau of Standards.

This standard designates six colors to be used as a guide in the production of colored sanitary ware, including plumbing fixtures and allied products made

of vitreous china, poi'celain, enameled iron, metals,

wood or glass.

Production of colored sanitary ware conforming

to the requirements of the standard represented an unweighted average of 47 per cent of production

based on replies from 40 manufacturers.

Six producers reported that all their colored ware was made according to the commercial standard,

while 10 manufacturers indicated that they did not

use the standard colors for any of their production.

Deviations from the commercial standard were at- tributed to varying demands from purchasers and the

use of color lines that were in vogue before July L, 1931, when the standard became effective. Actual di- rect benefits from the establishment of the standard were reported by 23 producers.

KEY TO MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS IN

BUILDING CODES

The Bureau of Standards announces a new letter circular, “ Key to Minimum Requirements Recommended by the Department of Commerce Building

Code Committee,” which is a guide by which the committee’s recommendations, issued at various times and

amended through various supplements, may be util- ized to the best advantage by local officials and code

committees pending the time when the recommendations are completely revised and reissued under one

cover. The committee has not yet covered all phases of

building regulation. It has, however, issued seven re- ports. Of these, that entitled “ Recommended Practice for Arrangement of Building Codes ” contains an approved arrangement for a code. Using this as an

index, the announced letter circular has been drawn up

showing what recommended requirements are to be

found in the committee’s other reports.
192 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY FEBRUARY, 1933 NEWS IN BRIEF

National standards for hydraulic agglomerations,

knurlings, rounded and beveled elbows, and rivets,

have been made mandatory for the use of Italian Government departments.

Amendment to section 3203, article 32, of the National Electrical Code, permits panel boards to be in- stalled in class 1, hazardous locations, if of the type

approved for use in explosive atmospheres.

More than 90 per cent of the oil-field equipment in

the mid-continent conforms to standard specifications

of the American Petroleum Institute, according to a survey made by the Tulsa, Okla., Purchasing Agents

Association.

The automotive technical commission of the Italian

national standardizing body (Ente Nazionale per

I’Unificazione nelP Industria) is working on a revision of the standard for automobile storage batteries, as well as studying questions relating to brakes and to

injection pumps for heavy-oil motors.

A new index of Federal specifications, dated November 1, 1932, has been issued by the Federal Specifications Board. Copies desired by those outside of

the Federal Government may be purchased from the

Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C., for 10 cents a copy.

The British Chemical Standards has issued a new

British chemical standard for cupro-nickel containing

68.85 per cent of copper, 30.1 per cent of nickel, and

small amounts of silicon, manganese, iron, magnesium,

carbon, sulphur, lead, and cobalt. The standard is expected to prove useful in connection Avith the analysis of cupro-nickel sheets and strips, and also for checking the analyses of copper-nickel condenser tubes, elec- trical rheostats, bullet envelopes, thermocouples, etc. New specifications applying to motor busses and their

operation and maintenance Avere announced to-day by

the State Board of Public Utility Commissioners.

Greater accessibility to emergency doors; a minimum

limit for seat spacing, allowing more knee room; a guard rail to prevent passengers from standing forAvard of the rear of the driver’s seat; wider aisles in

the city type busses and the prohibition of the use of

trailers are among the new provisions.

Standardization in the construction of concrete roads has been the result of efforts to increase effi- ciency, reduce costs, and attain a more durable concrete. To secure uniformity it is undoubtedly necessary to secure a method of measurement that will minimize

these conditions. Aggregates can be readily Aveighed

to a high degree of accuracy, and the resulting proXDortions will insure greater uniformity, better workability, and more uniform strength when combined

by mixing to make concrete. Many States, cities, and

subdivisions of States, require the proportioning of ag- gregates by weight, and the United States Bureau of

Public Roads require that all aggregates for concrete pavements used in Federal-aid projects must be proportioned by weight.

Recent Italian royal decrees have put into effect the

international conventions on the maximum load line j

of merchant vessels, which were signed at London, i

England, in July, 1930; and on the unification of^

various air transport regulations, which were signed : in October, 1929.

The standard for “ Measurement of Test Voltages in

Dielectric Tests,” No. 4, in the American Institute of

Electrical Engineers series, has been revised by rewriting the first paragraph of section 4^102. The revision concerns impedance of testing transformers. For ac- curate tests, the impedance of the testing transformer

should be not greater than 20 per cent based on volt- age and current at which the transformer is operated

for any test. The Standards Association of Australia has an- nounced the promulgation of a simplified practice

recommendation for fibrous plaster sheets. Contained

in the recommendation is a proviso that sheets manufactured in accordance with this recommendation may

be indelibly and clearly marked with the association’s

symbol adjacent to the maker’s trade-mark or name. The use of the symbol is intended to indicate strict compliance with the simplified practice recommendation. An Italian standard for magnetos and distributors

has been approved by the directive council of the

Italian national standardizing body (Ente Nazionale

per I’Unificazione nell’Industria). The standard

deals with magneto bases, height of axis from base,

radius of the cylindrical cradle upon which the magneto rests, bolt holes in base, couplings, and shaft-end

dimensions. For distributors of the Remy type, there

are given requirements for the size of the distributor,

location of grease cup, advancing adjustment, at- tachment to motor, and direction of rotation.

Requirements for magnetos and distributors of the

Society of Automotive Engineers of America were

considered in the preparation of the Italian standard.

A specification for manhole openings for chemical

plant has been published by the British Standards

Institution. To meet the varying conditions of service, vessels are classified as process, mobile, and storage

tanks. There has been no attempt to lay down a standard design, and the specification is couched in

general terms, the size and position only of the manhole coverings being specified. The specification is applicable only for pressures up to 185 pounds per

square inch.

Suggestions have recently been made by the National Hardware Association of London, England,

that considerable benefit could be derived from formulating standard specifications applicable to domestic

and other hardware, according to information re- ceived from American Trade Commissioner James

Somerville, at London. Informal discussions have

been taking place between the association and the

British Standards Institute with respect to the association’s joining the institute and considering the possibilities of standardization as applied to the hardware

trade.
To determine whether an applicable specification exists for any

commodity—consult—

National Directory of

Commodity Specifications, 1932

which indexes the standards and specifications of trade associations, technical societies,

and other organizations nationally representative of some branch of American industry,

as well as those of governmental agencies that represent the Federal Government.

Uses the decimal system. Cross-references related specifications. Defines uses

of commodities, if known, when not self-evident from the title. Contains

comprehensive index.

The direct purpose of any wise cooperative effort in the adoption of specifications is to secure constructive application of scientific knowledge to service requirements; to co- ordinate similar demands and eliminate unessential differences; to balance increases

in cost against probable service improvements, taking full advantage of existing commercial varieties; and to formulate adequate test or inspection methods—all this result- ing in the development of greatly improved products, vital support to the national

movement toward simplification of lines, processes, and business practices, and marked

lowering of costs and prices. —Herbert Hoover.

Price $1.75

Compiled by Bureau of Standards

IVI iscellaneous Publication No. 130

Cloth bound

554 pages

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

ROY D. CHAPIN, Secretary of Commerce

“ * * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field." —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal airports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt, and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton

wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Lyman J. Briggs, Acting Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at W^ashington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it. Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION AND STEAMBOAT INSPECTION, Arthur J. Tyrer and Dickerson N. Hoover,

Assistant Directors. Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen. Construction and administration of navigation laws covering

documentation, ship mortgage act, entry and clearance, move- ment of vessels, welfare of seamen, admeasurement, load line, adjudication of fines, collection of fees, tonnage tax, etc. Compilation of Federal statistics of tonnage and merchant seamen. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboatmen, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson*,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFiCEt 1933