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Freedom Paper No. 2

By Matthew Gandal and Chester E. Finn, Jr.

Introduction

Taking Root

Education for Democracy

What Is Democracy?

Democracy Education in the Schools

Democracy Education Outside the Schools

Conclusion

Australian Parliament "Packs"

Kids Voting

Democracy Through Economic Enterprise

Model United Nations

Conciencia Argentina

Nicaraguan Education Reform

Sources of Further Information

About the Author

Introduction

Democracy is in demand around the world. It even seems contagious. The collapse of totalitarian rule in

Eastern Europe; the victorious struggle against apartheid in South Africa; the courageous freedom movements

in China and Burma; the fight for free elections in numerous countries where dictatorship was the norm; and,

of course, the dramatic breakup of the Soviet Union--all demonstrate an innate and universal yearning for

liberty and political freedom.

Taking Root

As newly formed democratic societies attempt to rebuild their countries politically, economically, and

socially, and to extend to their citizens the rights and freedoms they deserve, one thing is apparent: their

long-term success will depend in large measure on how quickly and deeply the principles and institutions of

democracy take root in the hearts and minds of their citizens. If the ideals that fueled the popular struggles

against oppression are to be realized and remain secure over time, people must come to understand and

appreciate what democracy is, what life in a free society means, and what institutional arrangements and

personal behaviors are necessary for such a society to endure and prosper. They must develop the habits,

attitudes, and values that make democracy possible, and the commitment and enthusiasm necessary to nurture

and sustain it. Only if each generation comes to understand and appreciate democracy will this form of

governance prove to be stable and successful.

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This does not apply only to emerging democracies. Education for democracy is just as important in mature

democracies, but it is often taken for granted or ignored. People grow complacent about their political system

if it is working well, and they may question whether democracy even needs to be studied and learned. Some

bend so far in the direction of relativism or self-criticism that they lose their zeal for and confidence in

democracy. The result is that democracy gets very little attention; sometimes, it is even denounced.

Education for Democracy

Although the desire for freedom may be innate, knowledge of how democracy functions must be taught and

learned. Any society that wishes to remain free needs to ensure that its citizens are well educated in the theory

and practice of democracy. Part of the responsibility for such education lies with the schools, which may teach

children not only through the formal curriculum, but also through the conduct of their institutional affairs and

through various extracurricular activities. Yet, formal schooling is not the only educational influence in a free

society. Informal sources--courses and workshops for adults, programs on television and radio, articles in

newspapers and magazines, activities organized by community groups--can also help citizens of all ages learn

about democracy.

Anyone who doubts the political importance of education would do well to note how vigorously totalitarian

and authoritarian governments work to control the information that is passed through the schools, media, and

other sources. Those who have successfully struggled to overcome such regimes detest this practice of

indoctrination and want to avoid it in the future.

But the absence of a totalitarian government does not magically give rise to a strong, stable, and effective

democracy. Democracy does not teach itself. If the strengths, benefits, and responsibilities of democracy are

not made clear to the citizens, they will be ill-equipped to defend it. Education for democracy, therefore, must

be approached in a conscious and serious manner.

What makes democracy education different from the indoctrination practiced by totalitarians? Primarily the

habits of mind and discourse that democracy education confers, at least when properly done. A focus on

democracy does not preclude the open study of other doctrines or systems of government. Nor does it seek to

hide democracy's flaws. Democracies, in contrast to other governments, are honest about their own

shortcomings and truthful about those of other countries. If students are taught about the institutions, values,

promises, and problems that have historically characterized democracy, and those that have characterized

alternate forms of government, there is little doubt that they will come to appreciate and cherish the

democratic political system. They will not necessarily regard it as perfect. It seldom is. But they will realize

that it is the best system of government yet tried--and perhaps the most difficult to maintain.

Children in emerging democracies, having previously attended schools dedicated to ensuring that democratic

ideas did not take root, can be expected to understand and prize democracy only if their education system is

rapidly and thoroughly transformed. Yet where teachers and principals have not themselves lived in

democracy, nor even been allowed to study it, and where textbooks and other instructional materials have

been designed to suppress and undermine democratic ideas, such a transformation is an immense undertaking.

Much work thus lies ahead for those tending to the education systems of aspiring democracies. Fortunately,

they need not start from scratch. Democracy education has been practiced successfully in many lands,

including a number of the newer democracies, and the purpose of this paper is to highlight some noteworthy

examples. We do not attempt to provide a step-by-step manual for education reform. Such prescription is

neither possible nor desirable. In a sense, it would not even be democratic. Instead, we offer a broad array of

examples which may be adapted elsewhere to suit local cultures and conditions.

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What Is Democracy?

Any effort at democracy education must begin with a clear picture of what is to be taught and learned. It is,

therefore, crucial that those designing education programs, and those who will be teaching in them, possess an

informed understanding of democracy.

Unfortunately, despite its current vogue, "democracy" is a term that is often misunderstood and misused.

Totalitarian and military regimes, for example, may call themselves democratic republics and showcase

constitutions promising rights and freedoms that are, in reality, nonexistent. Furthermore, in countries

emerging from totalitarianism, where oppression has been the norm for decades, there may be a tendency to

view democracy simplistically, as a guarantee of individual freedom, even license, rather than as a complex

interplay of ideas, institutions, obligations, rights, and actions.

Democracy is a system of self-government where the citizens are equal and political decisions are made by

majority rule, but always with the protection of minority rights. In its purest form, democracy affords citizens

the opportunity to participate directly in the decision-making process. This is called direct democracy. But

given the size and complexity of today's societies, it is generally more practical for citizens to elect

representatives who will govern and make decisions on their behalf. Representative democracy relies on

regular, free, fair, and competitive elections to hold the government accountable to the people.

In a democracy, the government exists to serve the people, not the other way around. Since democratic

government derives its authority from the consent of the governed, the people have the capacity to change the

government peacefully when they lose confidence in it. And they need not fear a bullet if they try.

While majority rule is the bedrock principle upon which democracy rests, simple majoritarianism has its own

drawbacks. Hence it usually operates within a constitutional framework that limits the power of government

and safeguards individual and minority rights. In such constitutional democracies, all citizens possess certain

fundamental rights, and the exercise of those rights by minorities does not depend upon the goodwill of the

majority.

Such rights are guaranteed through mechanisms that are extremely difficult to alter. In the United States, for

example, the Constitution lists freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of assembly, and the right to a

fair trial as inalienable rights of all citizens. The state and national governments are forbidden from passing

any law that denies or erodes these rights.

Also fundamental to democratic government are the checks and balances that block any institution, group, or

individual from becoming too powerful. It is important, for example, to have an independent judiciary that

can prevent the executive and legislative branches from overstepping their bounds. In the United States, the

executive and the Congress operate separately to provide further checks on each other. In this way, no one

person or even a single branch of government can amass enough power to threaten or violate citizens' rights.

Although parliamentary and presidential systems differ in how they divide the powers of government, they all

provide some mechanisms to limit the power of any branch.

But just as democracy can fail if the government has too much power, it can also fail if government does not

have enough power. The democratic process is a formula for fairness, not passivity or anarchy. Leadership is

accordingly necessary for the success of democratic government, and citizens must abide by decisions of their

elected leaders and obey the laws of the society (provided they do not violate any fundamental rights).

Contrary to some perceptions, a healthy democratic society is not simply an arena where individuals pursue

their private agendas. It may be the promise of freedom and opportunity that makes democracy so attractive,

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but just as important to its success--and all too often ignored--are the responsibilities and habits of mind that

must accompany life in a democratic society.

Democratic citizens are, for example, expected to participate in the political life of their society and to lend

their influence to the public debate. They may do this in many ways, including: by choosing representatives to

the government; joining political parties, labor unions, and other voluntary organizations; serving on juries in

civil or criminal trials; even running for public office themselves. To participate effectively, people must

inform themselves about the issues affecting society and be able to weigh self-interest and factional interest

against concern for the public good. They must be tolerant of dissenting views and able to cooperate and

compromise. They must exhibit respect for law and legitimate authority as well as for privacy and property.

Democracy is thus more than a system of government. It is a way of living and working together. And it is

only when the manifold responsibilities of democratic life are taken seriously by citizens that its rights and

rewards will be meaningful.

Democracy Education in the Schools

In order for people to understand and appreciate their opportunities and responsibilities as democratic citizens,

they must receive a sound education. Such an education seeks not only to familiarize people with the precepts

and practices of democracy, but also to produce citizens who are principled, independent, inquisitive, and

analytic in their outlook and committed to democracy.

Education for democracy should not be viewed as an isolated subject, taught for a short time each day and

otherwise ignored. It is linked to nearly everything else that students learn in school--whether it be history,

civics, ethics, or economics--and to much that goes on outside of school. In short, good democracy education

is part of good education in general.

Education for democracy occurs in a variety of venues. The most common environment is the schools, which,

in a democracy, are not controlled by government alone. Democratic governments do provide schooling for

their citizens--which must be equally accessible to all, and not be used as a vehicle for government

propaganda--but democracy allows for alternatives as well. Churches and other religious groups are free to

create religious schools; private citizens may organize independent schools; and parents may even choose to

teach their children at home. This pluralism is part of democracy; it is healthy for the society. It may also

result in better education.

Curriculum. School-based democracy education can take many forms. Within the school curriculum, the

history, principles, and practice of democracy may be treated as a distinct course of study or worked into a

number of other disciplines (including history, geography, economics, literature, and social studies).

Alternatively, these ideas may be viewed as a theme around which an entire history/social studies curriculum

can be organized. However the curriculum is structured, it must cover four fundamental areas if students are

to have a sufficient understanding of and appreciation for democracy.

First, adequate attention must be paid to the roots and branches of the democratic idea as well as to the history

of its expansion throughout the world. Students must learn where and how the principles of democracy were

born, paying close attention to the circumstances in which they emerged. Democracy should be traced from its

various strands in the classical world of the Greeks and Romans and in the ethical thought of biblical Jews

and early Christians, through the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Reformation, the English Revolution,

the Enlightenment, and the American and French revolutions. This course of study includes the examination

of important historical documents such as the Magna Carta; the United States Declaration of Independence,

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Constitution, and Bill of Rights; and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. Students

should also be familiar with the history of 20th century struggle for democracy against Fascism, Communism,

and other forms of dictatorship.

Second, the curriculum must help students explore how the ideas of democracy have been translated into

institutions and practices around the world and through the ages. Examples of the growth and development of

democratic societies of the past and present should be introduced and questions raised:

Where has democracy flourished, where has it failed, and why?

What political, economic, social, and cultural conditions have helped shape democratic societies?

What conditions have hindered democratic development?

Who has defended democracy and who has sought its undoing?

How have democratic governments been organized to allow for majority rule? To protect individual and

minority rights? To provide law and order without suppressing freedom and individualism?

What types of non-governmental bodies have influenced the political process?

How have legal systems been structured to limit government control and ensure that all people have the

right to a fair trial?

How have the mass media functioned?

In answering questions such as these, students will be exposed to many practical elements of a functioning

democracy. They will learn how democracy works in reality--and how reality does and does not keep faith

with theory.

Third, the curriculum must explore the history of democracy in the students own nations, so that they may

answer questions such as: What forms of government have existed in my country in the past? Have we ever

tried democracy before? If so, why did it fail? What led to the establishment of our present democratic

government? How are the circumstances we now face similar to those faced by democratic societies in the

past? How are they different? What lessons can we learn from failed attempts at democracy in our own

society and in others?

Fourth, students need to understand the current condition of democracy in the world. They must know where

it exists, where it is being fought for, and what its alternatives are. They need to recognize that democracy has

taken different forms in different countries, and they should understand how and why this occurs. How is

Costa Rican democracy different from Australian democracy? How are they similar? What are the barriers to

democracy in countries such as China, Cuba, and Iraq? What has enabled so many other nations recently to

overcome these impediments? What dangers and choices lie ahead for aspiring democracies, and how can

they work together--and with other, more established democratic nations--to achieve success? (One useful

resource for measuring the spread of democracy around the world is the annual Freedom in the World series,

published by Freedom House, a human rights organization. See "Sources of Further Information.")

Curriculum and instruction can be approached in myriad ways, but these four elements are essential for any

strong democracy education program.

Even in established democracies, most schools pay too little attention to the history and principles of

democracy. As a result, generations of schoolchildren do not fully understand or appreciate the political

system in which they live. They have come to take democracy for granted. Recently, however, some U.S.

school systems have begun to adopt curriculum frameworks that offer guidelines on how better to integrate

the study of democratic ideas into the educational system, and their experiences can be instructive for new

democracies. A curriculum framework is not designed for classroom use. Rather, it serves as a foundation

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upon which classroom materials, lesson plans, teacher guides, assessment mechanisms, and teacher training

programs can be built.

For example, in 1987 the State of California adopted a new curriculum framework designed to strengthen the

teaching of history and social science in its elementary and secondary schools. The framework is an excellent

illustration of how democratic content may be built into the formal school curriculum. The introduction to the

framework states what types of knowledge and intellectual qualities students in a democratic society--and the

United States in particular--need to acquire. They must perceive the complexity of social, economic, and

political problems. They should know their rights and responsibilities as citizens and understand the

Constitution as a social contract that defines democratic government and guarantees individual rights. They

must respect the right of others to disagree with them. They must be active citizens, and know how to work

for peaceful change in society. They ought to understand the importance and the fragility of democratic

institutions. They should recognize the conditions that encourage democracy to prosper and those that work

against it. Finally, they should develop a keen sense of ethics and citizenship and care deeply about the quality

of life in their community, their nation, and their world. In their final year of high school, students take a

course that focuses specifically on the principles of American democracy.

Likewise, the Center for Civic Education, a private U.S. organization, recently published a curriculum

framework for civic education in an attempt to make it a more prominent part of the curriculum in secondary

schools throughout the country. Civitas, as the framework is called, features an interdisciplinary approach and

focuses on the nature and politics of democratic government and the fundamental values, rights, and

responsibilities of citizenship. A diverse and distinguished array of American historians, political scientists,

and educators contributed to Civitas, and their hope is that it will provide the basis for some very dynamic

textbooks and other curriculum materials.

Recently, the Center--working with numerous U.S. and international educators, professional organizations,

civic leaders, community groups and others--has completed the National Standards for Civics and

Government. These voluntary standards for students in kindergarten through grade 12 (K-12), are intended to

help schools develop competent and responsible citizens who possess a reasoned commitment to the

fundamental values and principles that are essential to the preservation and improvement of American

constitutional democracy. It is expected that this document will provide guidance in the development of U.S.

civic education programs for years to come.

Methods for Teaching Democracy. Education for democracy can be approached in a manner appropriate to

students at the elementary, secondary, or post-secondary levels. Whatever the age of the student, pedagogy is

naturally most effective when it captures his or her imagination. Teaching democracy lends itself well to such

creativity and excitement. Students can read textbooks, monographs, biographies, autobiographies, heroic

tales, poetry, and other works discussing and illuminating aspects of democracy. They may study primary

documents, such as democratic charters and constitutions. They may put on plays or skits dealing with

important issues or events. They may even play games, solve puzzles, and hold contests.

One useful way to inform students about their government and the democratic political system is to invite

government officials, critics, and analysts to visit the classroom and answer students questions. This will not

only teach children how government works, but it will also help bring it to life.

Another way to make democracy vivid for students is to incorporate it into everyday classroom activities.

Give students some say in matters affecting the class. Let them vote on certain issues. Allow them to work in

teams, teach other children, allocate resources, make presentations, and lead class discussions. All these

activities require skills vital to democratic life, skills that are often best learned through experience rather than

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didactically.

Teachers may encourage democratic behavior through their classroom techniques as well. Lecturing to a class

is not always the best way to reach students. Students should be involved in discussions and encouraged to

ask questions. If they are timid or cannot seem to come up with any questions or comments, the teacher must

ask questions and stimulate discussion. This is one of the most difficult things for students--and teachers--in

newly free societies to get used to, but it is an essential element of democracy education. Questioning is the

beginning of wisdom.

Education for Democracy and Extracurricular Activities. Schools may provide a forum for democratic

activities and learning outside the classroom. Extracurricular activities such as athletic teams, clubs, and youth

groups give students opportunities to work together toward a common goal, and often require them to select

leaders and make important decisions. Students interested in theater, dance, photography, computers, and

other hobbies may organize clubs for these activities, where democratic norms can be put into practice.

Particularly effective at imparting democratic knowledge and skills are debate clubs, which encourage

students to take an active interest in public affairs, express their opinions, and respect the views of others.

Student newspapers are also an effective and popular way to involve students in important societal issues

while educating them about the role of the media.

In the United States, countrywide student competitions help promote civic knowledge. The Close Up

Foundation, a civic organization with a history of successful education programs, launched the Citizen Bee

competition in 1985 to encourage U.S. secondary-school students to increase their understanding of

government, history, geography, economics, and current events. (This competition is modeled on the

traditional spelling bee, in which students are tested on their spelling and are eliminated from competition as

they make mistakes.) To prepare for the annual contest, students work with a kit of classroom-based activities

and a study guide provided by Close Up. They are also expected to keep abreast of current events.

The competition itself has two parts. The first is a written examination. The second is an oral portion in which

students respond to four questions. The contest begins at the school level, with the top students moving on to

regional and state competitions. The winners from each state are brought to Washington, D.C., to compete in

the national finals for such prizes as college scholarships.

The U.S. Department of Education and the Center for Civic Education co-sponsor a similar democracy

education contest, but this one involves competition among school classes, not individuals. Its focus is limited

to the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights. Classes participating in this "We the People..." competition study

specially prepared units on the history and principles of the Constitution, and then compete as teams at the

district, regional, state, and national levels.

Students can also learn democratic methods by creating a model of the democratic process. One of the most

effective such models is student government, where students from each grade level are elected by classmates

to represent them in resolving important school-related issues. Through their involvement in campaigns,

elections, and the day-to-day operations of government, students learn first-hand about the democratic

process. In addition, student councils provide students with a voice in school administration--a means of

influencing decisions that will affect them directly.

Making the School Environment More Democratic. One important way to make the education system and

school environment more democratic is to decentralize the process of school governance--and to engage more

people in decision-making. Just as students should have a say in important decisions affecting them inside and

outside the classroom, so should principals, teachers, parents, and others with clear interests in the policies

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and practices of individual schools. This objective can be accomplished in various ways. Schools may form

administrator-teacher committees to make decisions on such issues as class scheduling, student testing, and

classroom discipline. Parent-teacher associations may make recommendations on curriculum or school

budgets. And broader governing bodies, perhaps including administrators, teachers, and parents, may oversee

these and other important issues. In each case, elections can be held to determine who will serve, and

meetings and forums may be called to engage a wider constituency in the issues under consideration.

In 1988, the City of Chicago embarked upon an ambitious plan to improve its school system, which had been

regarded as one of the nation's most troubled. Based on the widely held belief that the city's highly centralized

school system was not adequately meeting the needs of children or community, the Chicago School Reform

Act provided for every public school in the city to elect a Local School Council (LSC) consisting of two

teachers, six parents, two other community members, and the principal.

The LSC, which makes its decisions via majority rule, is responsible for many decisions previously made by

the central administration and Board of Education. Each LSC now has substantial control over its school's

budget, academic program, and internal organization and priority-setting. Perhaps most significant, the LSC

has the power to hire and fire the principal.

Chicago has a long way to go before these changes in structure and governance show a clear impact on

student performance. Nonetheless, more than 6,000 citizens are engaged in the processes of democratic school

governance: running for office, usually in contested elections; learning the procedures of orderly decisionmaking for a public enterprise; grappling with difficult issues and problems; and living with the consequences

of their decisions. By bringing many such decisions closer to the parents, children, and teachers directly

affected by them, the Chicago program also illustrates one approach to more participatory governance in an

area that had long been entrusted to distant bureaucracies and politicians.

It is important to recognize that decentralization of school decision-making does not automatically make the

process more democratic. Individual school heads may function in an authoritarian fashion, too. But

decentralization at least creates an opportunity for sharing of authority and responsibility, for introducing

more democratic forms of school governance, and for the active participation of teachers and parents.

Students observing these examples of democracy in action are also apt to get a clearer understanding of how it

works than those whose schools are just cogs in a vast bureaucratic wheel. Sometimes the students even

participate directly. In Chicago, for example, in each high school a student representative is chosen to serve on

the LSC.

Democracy Education Outside the Schools

Schools are not the only settings for democracy education. In fact, it is often through informal,

community-based programs that many members of the population--especially adults--are reached. In countries

emerging from totalitarianism, today's adults are products of schools that strove to denigrate democracy. Now

mostly beyond the reach of the schools, these adults must rely on other means--continuing-education courses,

employment-related programs, workshops, leadership seminars, radio and television, newspapers, posters,

brochures, unions, and various voluntary associations--to acquaint them with democratic principles and

practice.

Even where schools are involved in teaching democracy, informal programs serve as an important supplement

for young people as well as adults. Understanding democracy entails more than just learning about it. It

requires action. People of all ages must work to inform themselves about important issues, participate in the

political process, and become involved in the affairs of their communities. Community-based programs can

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provide citizens with these opportunities.

In addition, whereas the school-based version is usually in the hands of the state (which runs most of the

schools), one of the virtues of informal democracy education is that it can come from a variety of sources

under many different auspices.

Courses, Workshops, and Seminars. The most direct community-based approach to democracy education is

adult or continuing education. There is no substitute for a well-taught course on democratic government,

politics, history, and citizenship, one that adequately covers democratic tradition and practice inside and

outside the particular country and that makes use of some of the democratic teaching methods described

earlier.

Adult education is an important function in democracies, where responsible citizenship goes hand in hand

with lifelong learning. In some countries, courses for adults are offered by many different organizations,

including national or local governments, public or private schools and universities, civic and community

groups, churches, libraries, businesses, labor unions. These courses may be most useful when scheduled at

night or on weekends to allow people with regular jobs to attend.

Interactive workshops offer a more hands-on approach to democracy education. People may be brought

together in small groups to discuss current events and issues associated with life in a democracy. Group

leaders or instructors may be chosen to direct the discussion, but one advantage of working in small groups is

that everyone can participate in the dialogue. Some workshops may focus on specific democratic values or

skills, such as leadership or tolerance. Others may involve the study of particular institutions, such as the

media or the legal system. Perhaps a judge, lawyer, or journalist could be invited to participate.

Other useful educational tools--often effective in promoting community action as well--are seminars and

public forums, where members of the community can be brought together to discuss current issues and

problems in front of a larger audience. If a community is having problems with crime, for example, local

politicians, lawyers, judges, educators, parents, and representatives of the police force can be brought together

to work on ways to keep neighborhoods safe. The general public may be invited to attend the meeting and be

given a chance to raise points or ask questions. This is an efficient way to galvanize a community around

certain issues and to promote discussion, compromise, strategy, and action. Though perhaps less obvious to

participants, such meetings offer good practical lessons in democracy.

Dissemination of Materials. Perhaps the best way to get a message out, whether it be information about

candidates in an upcoming election in particular or about democratic citizenship in general, is through the

dissemination of educational materials such as books, pamphlets, brochures, leaflets, and posters. For

example, the distribution of brochures describing the candidates running for an upcoming election and

emphasizing the importance of voting can mean a big difference in voter turnout.

Libraries play an important role in a free society. By serving as a resource center and providing citizens with

ready access to information on a variety of subjects, usually at little or no cost to the reader, libraries can be

effective means of democracy education.

One tried and true way to learn about democracy is to read classic democratic texts--books that have

significantly contributed to democratic movements throughout history. In Central America, a civic

organization called Libro Libre has been making such works available in Spanish for years. Published in a

series called Classics of Democracy, the group has presented the writings of de Tocqueville, Montesquieu,

Kant, Jefferson, Madison, Lincoln, Thomas Paine, Adam Smith, Lord Acton, and Ortega y Gasset. Libro

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Libre has also created a series called Democracy Today, which focuses on more contemporary issues.

Use of the Media. The news media are among the most influential institutions in modern societies. Nothing

reaches more people than radio, television, newspapers, and magazines, and these can be potent educational

vehicles. Authoritarian and totalitarian governments understand this well and go to great lengths to control

and censor their press. In democratic societies, however, the media operate free of government control; they

provide coverage of important issues both in and out of the political arena and serve as a watchdog over

government and other powerful institutions.

Panama's Center for Democracy, formed in 1987 to help restore democracy, operates a number of excellent

programs that harness the power of the media for purposes of civic education. In conjunction with three

commercial television stations, the Center has produced a series of 30-second advertisements designed to

publicize its work and to convey important educational messages regarding democracy. One such spot, for

example, focuses on the role of the family in a democracy--in raising responsible democratic citizens. Another

reinforces the concept of community service. The Center is also working to create monthly television

programs that will speak to pertinent issues and foster a better understanding of democratic institutions and

principles.

The Center has conducted similar advertising campaigns by radio, which, in most cases, is less expensive and

less complicated than television. The Center also conducts a weekly, hour-long radio program on topics

related to the promotion of democratic values and issues of national interest. Subjects have ranged from

"culture and democracy" to "community development" to "democratic education."

The most successful piece of the Center's media campaign is a monthly newspaper supplement. Inserted

inside one of the leading national newspapers, this supplement serves as an advertisement for the Center and

its programs and contains articles promoting democratic principles and values. Each month, the supplement

focuses on a different topic, such as the history of Panama's judiciary, citizen participation in a democracy,

and civic voluntarism.

Community Involvement. Central to any functioning democracy are the many private organizations that

offer people avenues of political engagement in issues affecting their lives, their communities, and the nation

at large. By joining groups such as political parties, labor unions, neighborhood associations, and religious

groups, citizens are exercising their fundamental right of free association. Whatever their affiliation or focus,

such organizations can serve as mediating structures between individuals and the government and give people

greater leverage in their efforts to improve the life of their community.

Civic groups and others involved in democracy education can help facilitate the creation of such community

groups where they do not already exist. Citizens may organize labor unions and employer groups to look out

for the interests of specific occupational groups, organizations to address issues such as environmental

pollution or cruelty to animals, or consumer groups to protect the public from unfair practices or unsafe

products. They can create organizations to deal with such issues as public safety, services for the elderly, or

the maintenance of gardens and parks. There may be a group working to improve local libraries, an

organization interested in preserving a community's historical sites, or an association dedicated to finding a

cure for cancer, AIDS, or other diseases. Whatever their focus, such organizations empower citizens to take

responsibility for their communities and provide them with constructive avenues of involvement.

To the extent that they participate in interest groups and community organizations, citizens are also engaged in

informal democracy education. They are learning firsthand about the role of private associations in a

democracy and are seeing the democratic process itself being modeled within the governance of each

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organization.

Conclusion

The situations facing governments in emerging democracies today are similar in many ways to those Japan

and Germany faced after World War II. The need to rethink the way schools are governed, to make quality

education available to all, to retrain teachers, and to replace politicized curricula and teaching habits--these

are common concerns in countries recovering from years of oppression. Japan and Germany have shown that

it is possible to adopt education for democracy on a nationwide basis. The distinct advantage that modern

aspiring democracies have is that they have chosen democracy freely and of their own will. They are taking

reforms into their own hands.

This is not to say that success will come easily. Education for democracy is no quick fix. Creating the

educational infrastructure and the sorts of formal and informal programs crucial to good democracy education

will require hard work and a long-term commitment on the part of the government and the citizenry.

There will always be a need for civic education, no matter how advanced a democratic society becomes. The

longer democracy is in place in a country, the greater is the risk that citizens will take its principles,

institutions, and benefits for granted. Today, some of the most innovative programs in civic education are

being carried out in emerging democracies. These programs, like the recent democratic revolutions that made

them possible, have helped to reawaken the interest in civic education in the more established democracies.

We are now entering an exciting period when, through the sharing of the type of information contained in this

document, all societies can develop education programs that ensure the growth and continued health of

democracy.

AUSTRALIAN "PARLIAMENT PACKS"

Responding to students' lack of knowledge about the Australian government and the history and

characteristics of that country's form of democracy, the Australian Parliament established a Parliamentary

Education Office in 1987, and charged it with improving political literacy and historical awareness in the

schools. That office has produced numerous materials on democracy, including two packages of curriculum

materials, one for the elementary grades and one for secondary, and distributed them to all Australian schools.

The "Parliament Packs," as they are called, have two components, one dealing with Australian history, the

other focusing on the structure and process of Australian government. Each pack consists of a variety of

teaching resources, including reference booklets, student work-sheets, teachers' guides, charts, videos, and

games. The teachers' guides offer detailed instructional guidance and explain how the packs can be integrated

into different subject areas.

In addition to the "Parliament Packs," the Education Office has produced a variety of other materials in recent

years. Among these are "junior fact sheets" on Australian government, a "Parliamentary Activity Book" for

primary school students, "Parliamentary Government in Australia: A Student Guide to the Commonwealth

Parliament" and "Parliament: A Two Way Street," a multi-resource kit for investigating parliament's impact on

the life of young people.

KIDS VOTING

Since 1988, an impressive mock election program has been operating in Arizona. Modeled after a successful

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program in Costa Rica, Kids Voting offers specially prepared curricula for elementary and secondary schools

designed to educate students about important democratic principles and to instill in them lifelong voting

habits. The program culminates with children accompanying their parents to the polls on election day and

taking part in a simulated election while mom and dad participate in the real one.

Within the Kids Voting curriculum, students explore many important issues. They learn about the structure of

democratic government and politics, including the roles of political parties, interest groups and the media; the

qualifications for voting; the registration process; and the actual procedure that takes place at the polls. They

also study the history of the expansion of suffrage and examine factors that influence voter choices and

participation. When focusing on a particular election, the Kids Voting program describes the qualifications for

and responsibilities of specific offices, and discusses individual candidates' views on major issues.

The most interesting aspect of the Kids Voting program is that it actually involves students going to the polls

with their parents on election day and voting next to them. This not only allows children to experience how

the process works, but also motivates parents themselves to vote.

Kids Voting has been successful in Arizona and is being replicated in other U.S states. Ninety-five percent of

Arizona s elementary- and secondary-school students have been involved in the program, and it is strongly

supported by registered voters. In fact, 3 percent of Arizona voters said that Kids Voting was the only reason

they took part in the last election. (This is a significant number when one considers that three of the last eight

U.S. presidential elections were decided by a margin of less than 3 percent!)

DEMOCRACY THROUGH ECONOMIC ENTERPRISE

In the 1930s, in the midst of the Great Depression, the Skokie School, a public middle school (grades 6 8) in

Winnetka, Illinois, supported a group of successful student projects called "economic enterprises." Students,

with the help of the faculty, formed all kinds of "businesses." These included the Biology Bureau of Bees,

which raised bees, studied their habits, and sold honey for a profit; a bank and credit union, where students

could deposit and borrow money; a Greenhouse Committee that grew flowers and vegetables and sold them

for a profit; and an insurance company that insured children against loss from such mishaps as breaking

dishes in the cafeteria. These activities permeated the whole school and gave both motive and application to

many of the children's other studies.

A Credit Union was set up at the beginning of each school year by offering 500 shares to students at $1 each,

thereby getting the "capital" they needed to operate the business. Owning these shares made the participating

students owners of the business. With that capital in hand, the students managing the Credit Union would

decide what interest rates to charge to children who wanted to borrow money.

Student managers were also responsible, with some help from a faculty adviser, for doing the accounting for

these financial transactions. A brisk business in financing cafeteria lunches for students who had forgotten

theirs, or bus fare for those needing to get home, made the Credit Union's capital grow. At the year's end, the

profits made by charging interest were divided among the shareholders, and the company was dissolved, to be

started up again the next year.

Running the school newspaper was another source of economic "know-how." Students, in addition to serving

as editors and reporters and selling subscriptions, raised money for the paper by going out into the community

and soliciting advertisements from local merchants. The students also took trips to see how professional

newspapers were managed and published and came back with ideas for improving their own. The enterprise

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taught them about the basics of newspaper financing, production, and circulation.

The children participated in these groups with great enthusiasm and pleasure, and were perhaps unaware of

how much they were absorbing the values and skills needed to live in a democratic society. Through these

extracurricular activities, the youngsters were learning both independence of thought and cooperation with

others. They were learning tolerance, compromise, responsibility, and initiative. At the same time, they were

also learning about economic organization--primarily about capitalism, the economic system that so often

seems to be wedded to successful democratic governments.

In the United States today, there are many organizations dedicated to the development of effective programs

of economic education. For example, the National Council on Economic Education, founded in 1949, is an

important source of teacher training, educational materials, and curriculum reform. The National Council's

program Economics America provides economic education for over 120,000 teachers serving eight million

students each year. Among other publications, the National Council has developed "A Framework for

Teaching Basic Economic Concepts with Scope and Sequence Guidelines, K-12," which is widely accepted

by U.S. educators, educational policymakers, administrators, and economists.

MODEL UNITED NATIONS

One exercise in democracy popular in a number of countries is the Model United Nations program. This

activity asks students to assume the roles of "ambassadors" from various countries to the United Nations and

debate current issues on the world agenda, including the environment, economic development, conflict

resolution, disarmament, and human rights. Operating within a framework of diplomacy, negotiation, and

parliamentary rules, students in the Model U.N. program learn firsthand some important lessons in

democracy.

The program has two basic components. First, students go through an intensive preparation process, in which

they research the countries they will represent, prepare policy papers, draft resolutions, and practice rules of

procedure and skills of public speaking. Second, they take part in the simulation experience itself, a process of

formal debate and negotiation that can last up to five days.

Model U.N. programs may take several forms. The simplest occurs within the classroom and involves 15 to

50 students. Groups of this size often simulate a particular U.N. body such as the Security Council, rather than

the General Assembly. Another form of Model U.N. is the school-wide program involving some or all of the

students. In this case, the simulation can concentrate on the General Assembly or other U.N. bodies. A third

and more complex version is the interschool Model U.N. conference, where hundreds or even thousands of

students from many schools come together.

In the United States, more than 60,000 students are involved in the Model U.N. program, from the elementary

through the university levels. United Nations Associations have also operated Model U.N. programs in

Austria, Australia, Canada, Chile, China, Egypt, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia,

Ireland, Japan, Kenya, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, the Philippines,

Poland, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tanzania, Ukraine, and Venezuela.

CONCIENCIA ARGENTINA

Argentina is home to one of the most impressive civic organizations dedicated to democracy education. This

is Conciencia Argentina, founded in 1982 with the goal of transforming a passive populace accustomed to

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authoritarian governments into a mature, responsible citizenry, educated in the principles of democracy. It has

developed a wide range of programs, both formal and informal, that seek not only to educate the public about

democracy, but also to engage them in it.

Conciencia's initial efforts were directed toward informal courses in democracy and citizenship, courses that

continue to be offered today. The goal is to introduce people to the Argentine system of government and

explain how citizens can participate in political life. Courses examine the three branches of government and

try to relate each to the lives of citizens. When examining the legislative branch, for example, courses cover

its structure and operation and emphasize how people can remain informed about legislative activities and

communicate with representatives to ensure that their concerns are heard.

Local government is also covered by these courses. Citizens are informed about services they have a right to

expect from municipal organizations and about steps they can take to make themselves heard (such as

community councils and petitions). In all such courses, Conciencia goes to great lengths to bring students to

the setting where government is taking place, whether it is the national legislature or town hall.

To provide a more active learning environment, Conciencia also offers many workshops focusing on

particular democratic principles or skills, such as leadership, tolerance, and compromise. People are placed in

small groups where they learn to express their opinions, respect those of others, and work toward consensus.

Yet, too few people can be reached through courses and workshops, so Conciencia has developed another

approach--the direct sales method. By going door-to-door and organizing meetings of six to eight people in

homes, Conciencia representatives are able to provide people with a basic understanding of democratic

government. Two evenings are spent with the same small group, introducing them to principles and

institutions of democracy and describing ways they can participate in the political process.

In addition to these activities, Conciencia organizes seminars and round tables focused on important national

issues and, near election time, goes to great lengths to educate citizens about the importance of voting--and

the significance of the issues. In 1989, for example, the Legislature of the Province of Buenos Aires enacted

changes in the provincial constitution and called for a popular referendum to approve them. Conciencia

believed that the significance of the changes had not been properly conveyed to the people or the media, so

they published a study that forecast the effects of the proposed reform and distributed it to well-known

journalists. They also made it available to political parties, associations, schools, and the public. Round tables

were organized throughout the province, and testimony that illustrated the widespread public ignorance

regarding the referendum was videotaped and aired on cable television.

If success can be measured in terms of growth, Conciencia has done well indeed. Over the years, they have set

up local offices all over Argentina and have helped other Latin American countries create Conciencia groups

of their own. The result of these efforts has been the creation of the "Organizacion Civica Panamericana"

(Panamerican Civic Organization), a network of 17 civic associations throughout the Americas. This

organization, in partnership with Conciencia Argentina and Partners of the Americas, has recently published

the first edition of "Participacion Ciudadana" (Civic Participation), a resource guide describing the civic

education activities of 73 organizations in 19 countries in the Americas.

NICARAGUAN EDUCATION REFORM

Nicaragua is one example of a country that has made nationwide reforms in teacher training and curricula.

When the democratically elected government of Violeta Chamorro took office in 1990, it inherited a

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politically corrupt and economically drained nation. The education system had been financially deprived and

completely politicized by the Sandinistas. Everything was seen through Sandinista eyes, and neither children

nor teachers were allowed to question this authority. One elementary math textbook, for example, taught

students how to count using pictures of Sandinista guns.

A comprehensive education for democracy effort has been under way since 1992 that seeks to introduce

democratic content and teaching techniques into the tattered school system. The program is being developed

at the request of the Nicaraguan Ministry of Education by the American Federation of Teachers (a U.S.

teacher union) as part of its Education for Democracy/International project and is supported by the U.S.

Agency for International Development through the National Endowment for Democracy.

The reform program in Nicaragua has two main components: teacher training and the development of a new

teaching framework and materials. The materials will consist of an elementary/secondary curriculum

framework for democracy education, and a supplemental handbook for teachers containing background

materials on democracy and ideas for classroom activities. A curriculum commission consisting of educators,

scholars, business and civic leaders, parents, and others representing a cross section of Nicaraguan society

was assembled in 1992 to oversee the development of these materials. The work of the commission has been

important in creating consensus on how to portray and teach Nicaraguan history and democracy. The

curriculum commission, in cooperation with a group of international advisers, supported the efforts to develop

materials, which combine study of universal democratic principles with the study of the particular history and

culture of Nicaragua. Now complete, the materials are used by a corps of teachers who have been trained by

the project.

The teacher training process prepared 20 Nicaraguan secondary-school social-studies teachers in both

democratic content and pedagogy. The teachers who were trained in this project are now "education for

democracy specialists" training other Nicaraguan secondary school teachers. Over the course of three years,

every secondary-school social-studies teacher in the country has been exposed to the training program. As

part of their preparation, the teacher specialists have helped develop lesson plans, activities, and other

materials that are now part of the secondary school civic education program.

The project, now entering its fourth year, is seeking to consolidate its accomplishments through the creation

of an independent, non-profit, non-partisan civic education association. As well, a number of the original

trainers are now working in the Ministry of Education as technical experts in the fields of civic education and

teaching methodology.

SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION

Here is just a sample of the many resources available to help people learn more about civic education

programs.

Books and Educational Materials Mentioned in This Paper

Australian Parliament Packs

Parliamentary Education Office

Commonwealth Parliament

Department of the Senate

Parliament House

Canberra, ACT 2600

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Australia

Phone: 06 277 3508

Fax: 06 277 5775

California's History-Social Science Framework

California Department of Education

P.O. Box 271

Sacramento, California 95812 USA

Phone: (916) 657-2451

Civitas and National Standards for Civics and Government

Center for Civic Education

5146 Douglas Fir Road

Calabasas, California 91302 USA

Phone: (818) 591-9321

Fax: (818) 591-9330

Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties. Adrian Karatnycky, et. al. New York: Freedom

House, 1995. Freedom House, a nonprofit human rights organization, conducts an annual survey designed to

measure and monitor political rights and civil liberties in every country in the world. The results are published

in the Freedom in the World series, where countries are categorized as free, partly free, or not free, and

indicated as such on a world map. Brief discussions of the political and social conditions provide the basis for

each country's ranking. The most recent volume may be purchased from Freedom House, 120 Wall Street,

New York, New York 10005 USA. Phone: (212) 514-8040

Fax: (212) 514-8045

Organizations Mentioned in This Paper

Center for Civic Education

5146 Douglas Fir Road

Calabasas, California 91302 USA

Phone: (818) 591-9321

Fax: (818) 591-9330

The Center for Civic Education designs and implements innovative curriculum programs in civic education

for elementary and secondary schools throughout the United States. It also cosponsors, with the U.S.

Department of Education, a student competition called "We the People..." Its programs have been used in

cooperation with educators and government officials in Eastern and Western Europe and other countries.

Centro Pro Democracia

(Center for Democracy)

Apartado 55-1993

Patilla, Panama

Phone: (507) 64 7160

Fax: (507) 64 6921

A coalition of business, labor, professional, civic, and rural organizations, the Center was founded in 1987 to

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aid in the restoration of democracy to a nation dominated for years by dictatorship. It operates educational

programs, such as workshops and seminars, and uses the media to promote democratic ideas.

Close Up Foundation

44 Canal Center Plaza

Alexandria, Virginia 22314 USA

Phone: (703) 706-3300

Fax: (703) 706-0001

The Close Up Foundation is designed to help citizens of all ages gain a practical understanding of how public

policy affects their lives and how individual and collective efforts affect public policy. Its many activities

include the Citizen Bee, a social-studies competition for students, and programs that bring groups of citizens

to Washington, D.C., to see the government in action.

Conciencia Argentina

Florida 633,

3er. Piso1005

Buenos Aires, Argentina

Phone: (54) (1) 393-7196

Fax: (54) (1) 393-7196

Conciencia Argentina is a civic organization designed to get the citizens of Argentina involved in democracy.

It runs both formal and informal programs to educate citizens about national, local, and community

government.

Education for Democracy/International Project

American Federation of Teachers

555 New Jersey Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20001 USA

Phone: (202) 393-7484

Fax: (202) 879-4502

In 1989, following the democratic revolutions in Central Europe, the American Federation of Teachers

initiated the Education for Democracy/International Project to help educators, independent teacher

organizations, and newly elected government officials build democratic education systems in emerging

democracies. The project has held training workshops and conferences in Central and Eastern Europe and the

NIS. It is currently helping the Nicaraguan government introduce democratic ideas and techniques into its

education system.

Kids Voting USA, Inc.

398 South Mill Avenue, Suite 304

Tempe, Arizona 85281 USA

Phone: (602) 921-3727

Fax: (602) 921-4008

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Kids Voting USA offers curricula designed to teach elementary- and secondary-school students about

democratic principles. It involves a mock election program in which students accompany their parents to the

polls and participate in a simulated election.

Libro Libre

Apartado 1154-1250 Escazu

San Jose, Costa Rica

Phone (506) 282 2333

Fax: (506) 228 6028

Libro Libre makes classic democratic texts available to readers in Spanish.

National Council on Economic Education

1140 Avenue of the Americas

New York, New York 10036 USA

Phone: (212) 730-7007

Fax: (212) 730-1793

United Nations Association of the United States of America

485 Fifth Avenue

New York, New York 10017-6104 USA

Phone: (212) 697-3232

Fax: (212) 682-9185

The United Nations Association of the USA (UNA-USA) has been the national coordinator of Model United

Nations programs in the United States for 25 years. It also serves as an international clearinghouse, offering

practical guides and other materials for those interested in building programs in their own countries.

Additional Sources on Education for Democracy

1) Building a History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in Schools. The Bradley Commission on

History in the Schools. Washington, D.C.: The Educational Excellence Network, 1988.

The Bradley Commission on History in the Schools was created in 1987 in response to widespread concern

over the inadequacy of history education in American elementary and secondary schools. This report

summarizes the Commission's findings about the purpose of history education; the content of history classes

in elementary, junior high, and high schools; and the place of history in the curricula as a whole. Also

included are the Bradley Commission's recommendations for improving history education in a democratic

school system. Copies of this booklet can be obtained from the National Council for History Education, 26915

Westwood Rd., Suite B2, Westlake, Ohio 44145 USA, Phone: (216) 835-1776, Fax: (216) 835-1295.

2) The Democracy Reader. Diane Ravitch and Abigail Thernstrom, Eds. New York: HarperCollins Publishers,

1992.

This anthology of classic and modern speeches, essays, poems, declarations, and documents on freedom

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provides an excellent overview of the development of democratic thought and political philosophy. More than

one-third of the book is devoted to the democratic ideas of contemporary authors, leaders, and academics. To

purchase, contact: Special Markets Department, HarperCollins Publishers, Inc., 10 East 53rd Street, New

York, New York 10022 USA, Phone: (212) 207-7528, Fax: (212) 207-7222.

3) The Democratic Revolution, Struggles for Freedom and Pluralism in the Developing World. Larry

Diamond, Ed. New York: Freedom House, 1992.

This book contains excellent examples of civic organizations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America that are

involved in democracy education. To purchase, contact: Freedom House, 120 Wall Street, New York, NY

10005 USA, Phone: (212) 514-8040, Fax: (212) 514-8045.

4) Lessons from History: Essential Understandings and Historical Perspectives Students Should Acquire.

Charlotte Crabtree, Gary B. Nash, Paul Gagnon, and Scott Waugh, Eds. The National Center for History in the

Schools. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1992.

This work describes in detail what students across the United States need to learn about American and world

history and why the subjects are so important. It makes the case for a strong history curriculum from the early

grades through high school, and stresses the importance of students' acquiring intellectual skills and

democratic "habits of mind" along with factual knowledge. Copies may be ordered from the National Center

for History in the Schools, University of California at Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles,

California 90024-1521 USA, Phone: (310) 825-4702, Fax: (310) 206-6293.

5) What is Democracy? Howard Cincotta. Washington, D.C.: United States Information Agency, 1991.

This 32-page primer, published by the United States Information Agency, describes the complex system of

principles, practices, and institutions that is democracy. The text begins with a look at the status of democracy

worldwide and then moves quickly into a discussion of citizens' rights, the rule of law (due process,

constitutions, etc.), elections, culture (including education), government, political participation (via

associations, political parties, etc.), the media, and economics. The booklet has been translated into more than

30 languages. Copies may be obtained by contacting local U.S. Information Service offices or American

embassies worldwide.

The following publications can be obtained from the Education for Democracy/International Project at

this address:

Education for Democracy/International Project

American Federation of Teachers

555 New Jersey Avenue, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20001 USA

Phone: (202) 393-7484

Fax: (202) 879-4502

1) Education for Democracy: A Statement of Principles. Washington, D.C.: The American Federation of

Teachers, 1987.

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This influential manifesto sets forth the proposition that the teaching of democracy is important, has often

been neglected and ineffectual, and should be strengthened in the future. Signed by more than 150 prominent

Americans of varied political views, this concise booklet provides guidelines for strengthening the teaching of

democratic values and ideals in the United States.

2) Democracy's Untold Story: What World History Textbooks Neglect. Paul Gagnon. Washington, D.C.: The

American Federation of Teachers, 1989.

This book reviews five world-history textbooks widely used in the United States, and, in the process, details

what knowledge students should, but often fail to, learn in school. Gagnon suggests how world-history

curricula should be developed to educate for democracy.

3) The Free Society Papers (a series of five papers). Washington, D.C.: The American Federation of Teachers,

1989.

The Economy in a Free Society. Ezra Solomon

This paper details the relationship between free societies and their economic systems, centering on the

important aspects of a free-market economy. Topics examined include the role of prices; the concepts of

supply and demand; the role of the government in the economy; inflation; taxes; and the impact of Smithian

and Keynesian economic theories.

Education in a Free Society. Mary Butz

This paper describes the importance of education in a democracy, paying close attention to democratic

teaching methods. It includes examples of lesson plans used to teach about democracy.

Models of Democratic Government. John P. Frank

This paper discusses essential characteristics of governments in free societies. The composition, powers, and

limits on the powers of a government with legislative, executive, and judicial branches are defined. The paper

also examines the process of amending a national constitution; the fundamental right of equality; the freedoms

of speech, press, and religion; and the just administration of criminal law.

Politics in a Free Society. Chester E. Finn, Jr., John P. Crisp, Jr., Matthew Gandal, Andrew Forsaith, and

Theodor Rebarber

This paper examines the politics of a free society, focusing on four central themes: the role of the citizen; the

role of political parties and the conduct of election campaigns; the politician as policymaker; and the functions

of the media.

What is Democracy and How It Should Be Taught in the Schools. Diane Ravitch

This paper, presented to educators of the Ministry of National Education and Teachers Solidarity in Poland in

November 1989, discusses both the major components of a democratic society and the ways in which

democracy education can be taught in schools in emerging democracies.

4) Teaching Democracy: Why and How It Must Be Taught in a Democratic Society. Chester E. Finn, Jr.

Finn's remarks, which were presented at the June 1991 Nicaraguan Civic Education Conference in Managua,

Nicaragua, examine the profound influence of schools in democratic societies, and discuss the importance of

democracy education in maintaining a free society.

5) Teaching Democratic Citizenship: An International Guide.

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This document offers suggestions to civic educators around the world on the development of indigenous

education for democracy programs.

Additional Organizations Involved in Education for Democracy

Africa

Group for the Study and Research on Democracy and Economic and Social Development (GERDDES)

1) B.P. 8212

Abidjan 01, Côte d Ivoire

Phone: 225 44 67 09

Fax: 225 44 63 05

2) B. P. 7083

Cotonou, Benin

Phone: 229-33-03-75

Based in Benin and the Côte d'Ivoire, GERDDES conducts applied research to promote and monitor

democracy in West Africa. GERDDES's members provide training to local government and civic

organizations on election administration and monitoring in 15 countries. GERDDES also holds conferences

and forums enabling opposition political groups to discuss issues and interact.

Law Association of Zambia

P. O. Box 23215

Kitwe, Zambia

Phone: 260 1 225 884

Fax: 260 1 225 049

The Law Association of Zambia assists in Zambia's transition to multiparty democracy through a program of

election monitoring and civic and human rights education. This group has published a handbook detailing

election laws, produced a series of television shows on human rights and civic education, and inspected the

polls and ballot-counting during elections.

National Street Law Office

Private Bag x10

Dalbridge 4014, South Africa

Phone: 27-31-260-1291

Fax: 27-31-260-1540

Street Law provides practical law-related education to students and the broader community. Its services

include curriculum development, teacher training, and teaching assistance to secondary schools and

community organizations. Street Law produces books, pamphlets and posters on law-related education and

human rights. Working in cooperation with other organizations, including the National Institute for Citizen

Education in the Law, it recently published Democracy for All: Education Towards a Democratic Culture, a

textbook for South African secondary-school students.

A-BU-GI-DA: Ethiopian Congress for Democracy

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PO Box 7284, Higher 10 Kebele 04 H. No.220

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Phone: 251-1-121-781

Fax: 251-1-515-714

A-Bu-Gi-Da has undertaken a variety of adult education activities intended to build democracy. Among these

programs is a three-hour multi-media presentation on the fundamentals of democracy, a poster series on

democratic themes, monthly public policy forums, and a planned series of radio plays on human rights. Many

of these activities are carried out through "democracy clubs" established throughout the country.

Central and Eastern Europe

Democracy Advancement Center (DAC)

Valnu iela 2, Room 513a

Riga LV-1098, Latvia

Phone: (371-8) 229-410

Fax: (371-8) 820-176

The DAC is leading civic education reform efforts in Latvia through its delivery of in-service teacher training

workshops and the development of civics textbooks for secondary schools.

Education for Democratic Citizenship in Poland

1) Education for Democratic Citizenship in Poland Project

The Mershon Center

Ohio State University

1501 Neil Avenue

Columbus, Ohio 43210 USA

Phone: (614) 292-1681

Fax: (614) 292-2407

2) Center for Citizenship Education

01-593 Warsaw, ul. Sierpecka 6 m. 32

Poland

Phone/Fax: (48-22) 33 0409

This project began as a cooperative effort by the Polish Ministry of Education and the Mershon Center at

Ohio State University to promote democracy education in Polish schools. A team of Polish teachers, school

administrators, and university professors worked with American scholars to prepare curriculum guides that

present the rationale, instructional objectives, content outline, and supplementary materials for civics courses

in the 8th and 10th grades. The project also developed a two-semester college course on the principles of

democracy, established Centers for Civic and Economic Education to provide in-service training for primaryand secondary-school teachers, and produced a resource book on constitutional democracy.

Foundation for Education for Democracy

Podwale 5, Suite 30

Warsaw, Poland

Phone/Fax: (48 22) 27 76 36

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Since 1989, Poland's Foundation for Education for Democracy has worked to educate the public on the

principles and institutions of democracy and free-market economics. It offers courses for educators on how to

teach democracy in the schools, and for union and youth leaders and local government officials on democratic

leadership and the art of negotiation. The Foundation has held international conferences and seminars on the

history and philosophy of democracy. It has also published numerous books and brochures on the politics and

economics of a free society; methods of running union meetings and negotiating; and the teaching of history,

literature, and the Polish and English languages.

Foundation in Support of Local Democracy

Obywatelski Klub Parlamentarny

Krywickiego 9

Warsaw, Poland

Phone/Fax: 48 22 25 14 16

The Foundation educates citizens about effecting change through participatory democracy in Poland. Its

activities include organizing regional training for local mayors and government officials, elected school

officials, and local journalists in democratic institutions and values and how to be responsive to constituents.

The Foundation has centers around the country providing resources to those involved in local democracy.

Institute for Democracy in Eastern Europe (IDEE)

1) 2000 P Street, N.W., Suite 400

Washington, D.C. 20036 USA

Phone: (202) 466-7105

Fax: (202) 466-7140

2) P.O. Box 311, 00-950

Warsaw, Poland

Phone: (48-22) 20 83 44

Phone/Fax 20 83 58

IDEE is an organization composed of former members of the Polish Solidarity movement, Americans of East

European descent, trade unionists, and others who have assisted the democratic opposition in Eastern Europe.

Since 1985, IDEE has administered grants for programs in Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Romania,

Slovakia, Bulgaria, and former-Yugoslavia. IDEE also assists struggling independent publications in Central

and Eastern Europe, including the Baltic states, and aids independent student organizations.

Jan Hus Educational Foundation

Radnicka 8, P.O.Box 735

663 35 Brno, Czech Republic

Phone: 42 5 422 1234

Fax: 42 5 422 12084

This foundation provides lectures, discussions, seminars, books, articles, and periodicals to Czech citizens;

supports the free press in the country with grants and materials; and assists in the rebuilding of cultural and

educational institutions. Through its networking program, the Foundation links Western scholars with Czech

colleagues at universities, secondary schools, government agencies, and civic organizations.

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Comenius Center for Education and Democracy

Charles University

Myslikova 7, 110 00

Prague, Czech Republic

Phone: 42 2 2491 3898

Fax: 42 2 295 561

The Center is one of the leaders in the movement to reform and improve civic education in the Czech

Republic. It cooperates with numerous national and overseas civic education organizations in order to provide

in-service teacher training and develop new materials for the teaching social sciences.

Association for Teaching Civics (ATC)

Feyer Gyorgy utca 10

Budapest-1053 Hungary

Phone/Fax: (36-1) 117-4526

ATC is a nongovernmental, nonpartisan organization dedicated to the improvement of the teaching of

democracy at the secondary school level in Hungary. The Association, building on its prior involvement in the

development of civic education curricula and teaching materials is now engaged in a multi-year teacher

training project.

Russia

Grazhdanin (Citizen)

ul. Dovatora 5/9

Moscow 117312 Russia

Phone: (7-095) 144-6862

Grazhdanin is a Russian civic education network composed of over 20,000 members throughout the country.

Members deliver in-service training workshops on teaching democracy during the year and at annual summer

institutes. The organization has also developed a series of civic education textbooks for children in the

"middle school" grades.

Uchitelskaja Gazeta (Teachers Newspaper)

Vetoshny pereulok 13-15

Moscow 103012 Russia

Phone (7-095) 921-3025

Fax: (7-095) 928-8253

Uchitelskaja Gazeta is one of the major education-related periodicals in Russia. Its weekly issues regularly

contain materials on civic education. It is also involved in the initiative to create a national civic educators

association.

Latin America

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Movimiento Conciencia Colombia

Colombia, Cra. 5, #66-11

Bogota D.F. Colombia

Phone: 57-1-248-9511

Fax: 57-1-235-9245

This nonpartisan, nonprofit Colombian women's organization provides democracy education and promotes

citizen participation in public affairs. It organizes workshops and seminars for adults and elementary- and

secondary-school students fostering democratic participation in political processes and nonviolent methods of

conflict resolution.

Participa

Participa, Almirante Simpson 014

Santiago, Chile

Phone: 56-2-222-5384 or 56-2-229-2251

Fax: 56-2-222-1374

Participa fosters broad citizen participation in the democratic system through citizen education. Special

emphasis is placed on reaching out to women and youth. Participa researches and disseminates information

about the democratic electoral process, conflict resolution, and leadership and decision-making, and provides

classes and workshops for politicians, trade unions, civic organizations, businesses, and neighborhood groups.

Seminars and forums are also conducted to engage people in issues of national, regional, and local interest.

Organizacion Civica Panamericana (OCP)

Florida 633 3er.P (1005)

Buenos Aires, Argentina

Phone/Fax: (541) 314-5191 and 314-7196

OCP is a network of nongovernmental, nonpartisan civic education organizations spanning 17 countries in the

Americas.

Western Europe

Citizenship Foundation

Weddel House

13 West Smithfield

London EC1A 9HY United Kingdom

Phone (071) 236-2171

Fax: (071) 329-3702

This British nonpartisan, nonprofit organization conducts a variety of educational activities that encourage the

young to become more effective citizens by developing their capacity to understand social, moral, and

political issues and to make critical judgments based on a concern for democracy, justice, and the rights of

others. It publishes Citizenship, the only journal in the world exclusively devoted to the promotion of

democratic citizenship through education.

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Council of Europe (CE)

Directorate of Human Rights

Council of Europe, F-67075

Strasbourg Cedex, France

Phone: 88 41 20 00

Fax: 88 41 27 81/82/83

The CE has a long-standing interest in promoting education for human rights, including education for

democratic values. With the opening up of membership of the organization in recent years to countries of

Central and Eastern Europe, it is now actively engaged in human rights education programs throughout the

region.

Netherlands Helsinki Council (NHK)

Jansveld 44

Utrech 3512 BH

The Netherlands

Phone: (31 30) 302535

Fax: (31 30) 302524

Over the past several years, the NHK has developed a number of human rights education programs in

partnership with organizations throughout Central and Eastern Europe. The NHK organizes teacher training

workshops, seminars, conferences, and other activities that promote human rights and improved human rights

education programs.

United States

Constitutional Rights Foundation

601 South Kingsley Drive

Los Angeles, California 90005 USA

Phone: (213) 487-5590

Fax: (213) 386-0459

Since 1962, the Constitutional Rights Foundation (CRF) has educated young people to be responsible citizens

by offering teacher training, student conferences, and publications in areas such as law and government, ethics

and decision-making, and civic participation. CRF runs many programs, including youth community service

programs involving at-risk students; the Lawyer in the Classroom program, which places lawyers and judges

in the classroom as volunteers teaching about the U.S. justice system; and the Mock Trial Program in

California, which allows students to participate in simulated court cases playing the roles of the defense,

prosecution, and witnesses. In addition, CRF publishes an excellent newsletter for teachers, The Bill of Rights

in Action, which provides ideas for lesson plans and resources on constitutional issues.

ERIC/ChESS

Indiana University

2805 East Tenth Street, Suite 120

Bloomington, Indiana 47408-2698 USA

Phone: (812) 855-3838

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Fax: (812) 855-0455

ERIC/ChESS is the major clearinghouse on social studies/social science education in the U.S. Located at

Indiana University's Social Studies Development Center, ERIC/ChESS gathers, catalogues, and publishes

American and overseas information on all aspects of civic education.

National Center for History in Schools

University of California-Los Angeles

Moore Hall 231

405 Hilgard Avenue

Los Angeles, California 90024-1521 USA

Phone: (310) 825-4702

Fax: (310) 206-6293

This organization develops history curriculum materials for children and researches effective approaches in

the teaching of history. It also heads the federally-funded effort to create national standards in history for

American schools. The Center has published a large volume, Lessons from History, which is to serve as a

major resource for national and state standards-setting and assessment in history. Special curriculum units on

world and American history for grades 5-12 have also been prepared. Several emphasize the history of

democracy and the core values and institutions on which it depends. These units consist of collections of

lessons about "dramatic moments" in history, allowing an exploration of their wider historical context. In

addition to selections from primary sources, teachers are provided with background materials to help integrate

the unit into the curriculum; lesson plans, including a variety of ideas and approaches to using the unit;

student handouts; and a bibliography for each unit.

National Council for History Education (NCHE)

26915 Westwood Rd., Suite B-2

Westlake, Ohio 44145-4656 USA

Phone: (216) 835-1776

Fax: (216) 835-1295

NCHE provides a communications network for all advocates of history education in the United States,

whether in schools, colleges, museums, historical societies, humanities councils, or community organizations.

Besides producing a monthly newsletter detailing history activities and opportunities around the nation,

NCHE also conducts school staff development and teacher in-service workshops, gives public testimony

before hearings on state and local curriculum, and reviews newly published curriculum documents and

guidelines.

National Institute for Citizenship Education in the Law (NICEL)

711 G Street, S.E.

Washington, D.C. 20003 USA

Phone: (202) 546-6644

Fax: (202) 546-6649

This U.S.-based organization has been involved in law-related, human rights and education for democracy

programs in Africa, Asia, Latin America, Eastern and Central Europe, and the NIS. In the United States, the

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organization runs a highly successful "Street Law" program. Working in partnership with South African

organizations, it has developed Human Rights for All and Democracy for All.

About the Authors: Matthew Gandal is a Senior Associate in the Educational Issues Department of the

American Federation of Teachers (Washington, D.C.), where his responsibilities include working with the

AFT's Education for Democracy Project. He previously served as Assistant Director for International Affairs

of the Educational Excellence Network. Chester E. Finn, Jr., is a partner in the Edison Project of Whittle

Schools, L.P. He is on leave from his position as Professor of Education and Public Policy at Vanderbilt

University (Nashville, Tennessee). He previously served as Director of the Educational Excellence Network.

The authors wish to thank the former Educational Excellence Network Deputy Director Jean Bathurst for her

contributions and Stanford University student Charles Hokanson, whose research and dedication were

particularly valuable in assembling materials for this paper. The authors are also grateful to student intern

Lewis Goldberg and the other members of the Network staff who provided support for this project.

The Educational Excellence Network, associated with the Hudson Institute (Indianapolis, Indiana), is an

information exchange and clearinghouse on educational improvement and school reform servicing educators,

policy-makers, journalists, business leaders, parents, and other interested citizens. The Network has had a

long-standing interest in education for democracy at home and abroad, and this paper is a product of that

interest.

_______________________

Project management and editing by the Institute for Contemporary Studies (ICS)

Vice President -- Kenneth L. Adelman

Editor -- Heidi Fritschel

The mission of ICS is to promote the self-governing and entrepreneurial way of life. Through its imprint, ICS

Press, ICS publishes a wide range of books on public issues. For a catalog or more information, write: ICS,

243 Kearny Street, San Francisco, California 94108 USA

Freedom Papers Series:

Editor: Wayne Hall

Associate Editors: Stephen Burant, Susan O'Sullivan

Design: Thaddeus A. Miksinski, Jr.

October 1992

(Edited and revised by the staff of the International Affairs Department, American Federation of Teachers,

May 1995)

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