Trends in High School

Vocational/Technical

Coursetaking:

1982–1998

Statistical Analysis Report

DATA ON

VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION

U.S. Department of Education

Institute of Education Sciences

NCES 2003–025
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
U.S. Department of Education 

Institute of Education Sciences 

NCES 2003–025 

Trends in High School 

Vocational/Technical 

Coursetaking: 

1982–1998 

Statistical Analysis Report 

June 2003 

Karen Levesque 

MPR Associates, Inc. 

Lisa Hudson 

Project Officer 

National Center for 

Education Statistics 
U.S. Department of Education 

Rod Paige 

Secretary 

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director 

National Center for Education Statistics 

Val Plisko 

Associate Commissioner 

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reporting data related to education in the United States and other nations. It fulfills a congressional mandate 

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Suggested Citation 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Trends in High School Vocational/Technical Coursetaking: 1982–1998, NCES 2003–025, by Karen Levesque. Washington, DC: 2003. 

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iii 

Executive Summary 

Vocational/technical education is a common 

component of public high school education in the 

United States. Among 1998 public high school 

graduates, 96.5 percent earned at least some credits 

in vocational/technical education in high school. In 

addition, the number of credits earned in vocational/technical education by 1998 graduates was 

not significantly different on average from the 

number of credits they earned in English and in social studies, and they earned more credits in vocational/technical education than they did in mathematics, science, fine arts, or foreign languages. 

Purpose of the Report 

This report examines vocational/technical 

coursetaking among public high school graduates 

between 1982 and 1998. The report focuses on 

trends in vocational/technical coursetaking overall, in introductory technology and computerrelated coursetaking, and in the ways in which 

high school students combine vocational/technical 

and academic coursetaking. The report analyzes 

these trends by examining high school transcripts 

for the graduating classes of 1982, 1990, 1992, 

1994, and 1998.1 Transcripts provide information 

on the courses that graduates took in grades 9 

through 12. For simplicity’s sake, the report refers 

to this information as “high school coursetaking.” 

With the exception of the section on vocational/technical coursetaking by grade level, 

which examines coursetaking in each of grades 9 

 

1These transcript studies were conducted as part of the High 

School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore Cohort Study (1982 

graduates), the National Education Longitudinal Study of 

1988 (NELS, 1992 graduates), and the High School Transcript Study (HSTS) of 1990, 1994, and 1998 (1990, 1994, 

and 1998 graduates, respectively). 

through 12 separately, the report describes the 

cumulative coursework that graduates took in high 

school. The report uses the National Center for 

Education Statistics (NCES) Secondary School 

Taxonomy (SST) to classify courses into broad 

course groupings. As figure A shows, the SST 

classifies high school courses into three main areas (academic, vocational/technical, and enrichment/other) and their curricular subareas. 

The Vocational/Technical Curriculum 

High school vocational/technical education encompasses three subcurricula: specific labor market preparation or “occupational education,” 

general labor market preparation, and family and 

consumer sciences education (figure A). Occupational education consists of courses that teach 

skills and knowledge required in a particular occupation or set of related occupations. Based on 

SST classifications, occupational education in this 

report consists of the 10 broad and 18 narrow program areas shown in figure A. 

General labor market preparation consists of 

courses that teach general employment skills that 

are not specific to one occupational area, such as 

basic typewriting/keyboarding, introductory technology education, and career preparation and general work experience courses. Family and 

consumer sciences education consists of courses 

intended to prepare students for family and consumer roles outside of the paid labor market.2

 

2Home economics-related courses that prepare students for 

the paid labor market are included under occupational education, in the child care and education, food service and hospitality, and personal and other services program areas. 
Executive Summary 

iv 

Figure A.—Secondary school taxonomy

MathematicsScience English Social

Studies

Fine

Arts

NonEnglish

(Foreign)

Languages

Family

and

Consumer

Sciences

Education

General

Labor

Market

Preparation

Specific Labor

Market

Preparation

(Occupational

Education)

General

Skills

Health,

Physical,

and

Recreational

Education

Religion

and

Theology

Military

Science

Academic Vocational Enrichment/other

MathematicsScience English Social

Studies

Fine

Arts

NonEnglish

(Foreign)

Languages

Family

and

Consumer

Sciences

Education

General

Labor

Market

Preparation

Specific Labor

Market

Preparation

(Occupational

Education)

General

Skills

Health,

Physical,

and

Recreational

Education

Religion

and

Theology

Military

Science

SOURCE: Adapted from Bradby, D. and Hoachlander, E.G. (1999). 1998 Revision of the Secondary School Taxonomy (NCES 1999–06). U.S. Department of Education. Washington,

DC: National Center for Education Statistics Working Paper.

Academic Vocational/technical Enrichment/other

Food Service and Hospitality

Food services

Culinary arts

Hospitality sales

Hotel and motel management

Food Service and Hospitality

Food services

Culinary arts

Hospitality sales

Hotel and motel management

Child Care and Education

Child care services

Child development

Other education

Library science

Child Care and Education

Child care services

Child development

Other education

Library science

Personal and Other Services

Interior design

Cosmetology/barbering

Dry cleaning

Building and grounds maintenance

Custodial and housekeeping services

Clothing and textiles

Home economics occupations

General services occupations

Health Care

Health occupations

Health technology/

laboratory

Nursing assisting

Dental assisting

Dental technology

Public and

Protective

Services

Criminal justice

Fire fighting

Human services

Health Care

Health occupations

Health technology/

laboratory

Nursing assisting

Dental assisting

Dental technology

Protective

Services

(and Public

Services)

Criminal justice

Fire fighting

Human services

TECHNOLOGY

Other Technology

Electronic technology

Electromechanical technology

Industrial production technology

Chemical technology

Engineering technologies

Communications Technology

Yearbook production

Broadcast management

Film making and production

Telecommunications

Radio/television production

Videotape production

Other communications

Other communications technologies

Computer Technology

Computer appreciation

Computer mathematics

Computer applications

Computer programming

Data processing

Computer and information

sciences

Marketing and Distribution

Distributive education

Marketing and distribution

Insturance careers

Real estate marketing

Fashion merchandising

Entrepreneurship

Other marketing

Marketing

Distributive education

Marketing and distribution

Insurance careers

Real estate marketing

Fashion merchandising

Entrepreneurship

Other marketing

Business Management

Business management careers

Financial careers

Business administration

Business management

Banking and finance

Business economics

BUSINESS

Business Services

Bookkeeping

Accounting

Recordkeeping

Office machines

Secretarial

Office procedures

Word processing

Business data processing

Business computer programming

Data entry operator

Business Management

Business management careers

Financial careers

Business administration

Business management

Banking and finance

Business economics

Agriculture and Renewable Resources

Agricultural mechanics

Agricultural production

Agricultural occupations

Horticulture

Livestock

Animal sciences

Landscaping

Forestry

Environmental management

Agriculture

(and Renewable Resources)

Agricultural mechanics

Agricultural production

Agricultural occupations

Horticulture

Livestock

Animal sciences

Landscaping

Forestry

Environmental management

Print Production

Computer-assisted design

Drafting

Architectural drawing

Commercial art

Graphic arts

Sign painting

Graphic and printing communications

Aviation powerplant

TRADE AND INDUSTRY

Mechanics and Repair

Industrial mechanics

Radio and TV repair

Air conditioning,

refrigeration, and heating

Power mechanics

Small engine repair

Auto mechanics

Auto body/service

Aviation powerplant

Construction

Electricity

Bricklaying and masonry

Carpentry

Building construction

General construction

trades

Building maintenance

Plumbing

Housewiring

Print Production

Computer-assisted design

Drafting

Architectural drawing

Commercial art

Graphic arts

Sign painting

Graphic and printing

communications

Transportation

Aeronautics

Aviation technology

Aircraft parts management

Marine mechanics

Transportation technology

Vehicle and equipment

operation

Materials

Production

Machine shop

Metal

Welding

Foundry

Plastics

Woodworking

Cabinetmaking

Other Precision

Production

Electronics

Leatherwork and

upholstery

Meatcutting

Commercial photography

PRECISION PRODUCTION
Executive Summary 

v 

As of 1998, 90.7 percent of public high school 

graduates had earned credits in occupational education in high school, 58.8 percent in general labor 

market preparation, and 44.4 percent in family and 

consumer sciences education. 

Key Measures of Participation 

Seven measures were used to define participation in vocational/technical education: 

• Vocational/technical coursetakers: Graduates 

earning more than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education in high school. All 

of the following groups of students are subsets 

of this group. 

• Occupational coursetakers: Graduates earning 

more than 0.0 credits in occupational education in high school. This measure is a subset of 

the previous measure. 

• Vocational/technical investors: Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical 

education in high school. All of the following 

groups of students are subsets of this group. 

• Occupational investors: Graduates earning 3.0 

or more credits in occupational education in 

high school, regardless of whether they concentrate their occupational coursetaking in a 

single program area. This measure is a subset 

of the previous measure. 

• Occupational concentrators: Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in high school in one of 

the 10 broad occupational program areas in 

figure A.3 This measure is a subset of the pre-

 

3In the small number of cases where graduates earned 3.0 or 

more credits in more than one occupational program area, 

they were assigned to the program area in which they earned 

the most credits. 

vious measure. The report also provides information on graduates concentrating (earning 

3.0 or more credits) in one of the 18 narrow 

occupational program areas in figure A. 

• Advanced occupational concentrators: Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in high school 

in one of the 10 broad occupational program 

areas in figure A, with at least 1.0 advanced 

credit in that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higherlevel courses and cooperative education 

courses.4 This measure is a subset of the previous measure. 

• Advanced occupational concentrators with 

cooperative education: Graduates earning 3.0 

or more credits in high school in one of the 10 

broad occupational program areas in figure A, 

with at least 1.0 cooperative education credit 

in that program area.5 This measure is a subset 

of the previous measure. 

Figure B shows the percentage of 1998 public 

high school graduates who fell within each participation measure. According to the least restrictive measure—the percentage of public high 

school graduates who were vocational/technical 

coursetakers—almost all 1998 graduates (96.5 

percent) participated in the vocational/technical 

curriculum in high school. According to the most 

restrictive measure—the percentage of graduates 

who were advanced occupational concentrators 

with cooperative education—just 4.5 percent of 

1998 graduates were counted as participating in 

vocational/technical education. 

 

4The SST divides the occupational courses in each program 

area into four categories: first-level, second- or higher-level, 

cooperative education, and specialty courses. The first three 

categories generally represent sequential coursetaking. 

5Cooperative education awards school credit for work experience that is related to a student’s occupational program and 

typically alternates work placements and classroom time. 
Executive Summary 

vi 

Figure B.—Percentage of public high school graduates

Figure B.—meeting different measures of participation in

Figure B.—vocational/technical education: 1998

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical

education. 

2

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational

education. 

3

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical

education.

4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education,

regardless of whether they concentrate their occupational

coursetaking in a single program area. 

5

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 

broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business,

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and

industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and

personal and other services. 

6

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad 

occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 advanced credit in

that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes

second- or higher-level courses and cooperative education courses. 

7

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad 

occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 cooperative education 

credit in that program area. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 1998.

4.5

14.4

25.0

43.8

61.5

90.7

96.5

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Advanced

occupational

concentrators with

Occupational

concentrators

Vocational/technical

investors

Vocational/technical

coursetakers

Percent

Vocational/technical 

investors3

Vocational/technical 

coursetakers1

Occupational investors4

Occupational 

concentrators5

Advanced occupational 

concentrators6

Advanced occupational 

concentrators with 

cooperative education7

Occupational coursetakers2

Overall Trends in Vocational/ 

Technical Coursetaking 

Between 1982 and 1998, the primary change in 

vocational/technical coursetaking was not in the 

proportion of high school students participating in 

vocational/technical education but in the amount 

of vocational/technical education they took. That 

is, the breadth of vocational/technical coursetaking declined slightly, while the depth of this 

coursetaking declined more steeply. However, 

most declines in vocational/technical coursetaking 

occurred by the early 1990s. 

The average number of vocational/technical 

credits earned by graduates declined between 

1982 and 1990, after which there were no statistically significant changes. However, during the 

1990s, vocational/technical credits continued to 

represent a declining share of the total high school 

credits that graduates earned. This relative decline 

was due to the fact that public high school graduates earned on average more academic credits 

and—to a lesser extent—more enrichment/other 

credits over this decade. 

Trends in the Three Vocational/Technical 

Subcurricula 

The decrease since 1982 in average vocational/technical credits earned by graduates was 

due primarily to a decrease in general labor market preparation coursetaking. Furthermore, this 

decline was due primarily to a decrease between 

1982 and 1998 in the number of basic typewriting/keyboarding courses that graduates took in 

high school. The number of credits that graduates 

earned in family and consumer sciences education 

also declined over this period. 
 Executive Summary 

vii 

In contrast, there were no statistically significant changes between 1982 and 1998 in the average 

number of credits that graduates earned in occupational education in high school (about 3 credits for 

each graduating class). There was also no significant change between 1982 and 1998 in the breadth 

of occupational coursetaking, with most public high 

school graduates earning at least some occupational 

credits during the period studied. 

Vocational/Technical Coursetaking by 

Grade Level 

For the high school graduating class of 1998, 

the majority of vocational/technical coursetaking 

(about 60 percent) occurred in the 11th and 12th 

grades, while about 40 percent occurred in the 9th 

and 10th grades. Specifically, 1998 graduates 

earned 1.51 credits on average—the equivalent of 

about one and a half full-year courses—in the 12th 

grade. In contrast, 1998 graduates earned 1.01 

credits in the 11th grade, 0.75 credits in the 10th 

grade, and 0.71 credits in the 9th grade. 

The timing of occupational and family and 

consumer sciences education coursetaking was 

similar to that of overall vocational/technical 

coursetaking, with more of this coursetaking 

occurring in grade 12 than in earlier grades. However, general labor market preparation coursetaking was more likely to occur in grade 9. 

Trends in occupational coursetaking varied at 

the different grade levels over the period studied. 

The average number of occupational credits 

earned by public high school graduates in the 11th 

grade decreased between 1982 and 1998, whereas 

the average number earned in the 9th grade increased. There were no statistically significant 

changes in the average number of occupational 

credits earned in the 10th and 12th grades. The 

reduction in occupational coursetaking in the 11th 

grade may be related to graduates taking additional academic courses in that grade over the period studied, thereby having less time for occupational coursework. 

Trends in Occupational 

Coursetaking by Program Area 

The average number of occupational credits 

that 1998 graduates earned in high school was not 

statistically different from the average number 

earned by 1982 graduates. However, the percentage of public high school graduates who concentrated in occupational education—those who 

earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad 

occupational program areas in figure A—declined 

from 33.7 percent in 1982 to 27.8 percent in 1990. 

No significant changes were detected after 1990, 

however, with about 25 percent of 1992, 1994, 

and 1998 graduates concentrating in occupational 

education. Trends in occupational coursetaking 

varied widely by program area, however. The following sections examine program area trends 

between 1982 and 1998 in the breadth of occupational coursetaking (that is, the percentage of 

graduates taking at least one course in a program 

area) and in the depth of occupational coursetaking (including both the average credits earned and 

the percentage of graduates concentrating in a 

program area). 

Program Areas With Declining 

Coursetaking 

Among the 18 narrow occupational program 

areas in figure A, the areas of materials production, business management, and mechanics and 

repair exhibited declines in both the breadth and 

depth of high school coursetaking over the period 

studied. For example, materials production exhibited declines between 1982 and 1998 in the percentage of public high school graduates who took 
Executive Summary 

viii 

at least one course in the program area, in the average number of credits earned by public high 

school graduates in the program area, and in the 

percentage of graduates who concentrated (earned 

3.0 or more credits) in the program area. Declines 

in materials production and in mechanics and repair coincided with projected changes in occupational employment in precision production, craft, 

and repair occupations (Hurst and Hudson 2000). 

Paralleling the trends in vocational/technical 

education and in occupational education noted 

above, the business services program area exhibited less change in the breadth of coursetaking 

than in the depth of that coursetaking. There was 

no statistically significant difference in the percentage of 1982 and 1998 graduates who earned 

business services credits in high school. In contrast, 1998 graduates earned fewer credits on average in business services than did 1982 graduates, 

and fewer public high school graduates concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in business services over that period. 

Declines between 1982 and 1998 in business 

services coursetaking were due primarily to declines in average credits earned in non-computerrelated business services courses (including 

bookkeeping, accounting, secretarial, and general 

office procedures courses). In contrast, average 

credits earned in computer-related business services courses increased over the same period. 

Overall declines in business services coursework 

coincided with projections of below-average 

growth for secretary and typist occupations (Hurst 

and Hudson 2000). 

Program Areas With Increasing 

Coursetaking 

Two of the 18 narrow occupational program 

areas in figure A—computer technology and 

communications technology—generally exhibited 

increases in both the breadth and depth of coursetaking over the period studied. In addition, both 

health care programs and child care and education 

programs exhibited some increase in the depth—

but not the breadth—of coursetaking over the period studied. To some extent, these increases in 

occupational coursetaking reflect projected 

changes in employment for technicians and related 

support occupations, health service occupations, 

and child care workers and teacher aides (Hurst 

and Hudson 2000). 

A Closer Look at Trends in 

Occupational Concentrating 

Between 1982 and 1998, high school students 

were less likely to concentrate in occupational education. However, the decline in occupational concentrating was not due to changes in the percentage 

of 1982 and 1998 graduates who earned 3.0 or more 

occupational credits (who were occupational investors) in high school. Rather, the decline reflected a 

change in coursetaking among these occupational 

investors. The percentage of occupational investors 

who concentrated in occupational education in high 

school—who earned 3.0 or more credits in one of 

the 10 broad occupational program areas in figure 

A—declined from 72.8 percent in 1982 to 59.1 percent in 1992, after which no statistically significant 

changes were detected. 

Additionally, the percentage of public high 

school graduates who completed an advanced occupational concentration in high school—

occupational concentrators who earned at least 1.0 

credit in advanced coursework in their program 

area—declined from 24.0 percent in 1982 to 16.1 

percent in 1990, after which no statistically significant changes were detected. Part of this decline in advanced occupational concentrating 

among graduates was due to the fact that gradu-
 Executive Summary 

ix 

ates were less likely to concentrate in occupational 

education in general over the period studied. 

However, the percentage of occupational concentrators who completed an advanced concentration 

in their program area also declined from 1982 to 

1990, after which no statistically significant 

changes were detected. 

In order to understand changes in coursetaking 

and concentrating in some detail, the report compared trends among the 18 narrow occupational 

program areas in figure A. 

Shifts Away From Concentrated 

Occupational Coursetaking 

What types of occupational courses did occupational investors (graduates who earned 3.0 or 

more occupational credits in high school) take 

instead of concentrating in an occupational program area? Some of the decline in the propensity 

of occupational investors to concentrate in occupational education was due to a shift from concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in business 

services to taking more communications technology and computer technology courses. That is, 

occupational investors as a group took fewer business services courses over the period studied (specifically, fewer noncomputer-related business 

services courses)—enough to reduce their concentrating in this program area at a relatively high 

rate. At the same time, they took additional communications technology and computer technology 

courses—but not enough to increase their rates of 

concentrating on a par with their increased coursetaking in these program areas. Thus, the decline in 

occupational investors’ propensity to concentrate 

in business services coincided with an increase in 

their total computer-related coursetaking within 

the occupational education curriculum. 

Shifts Away From Completing an 

Advanced Occupational Concentration 

What types of occupational courses did occupational concentrators take in high school instead 

of completing advanced coursework in their area 

of concentration? In part, occupational concentrators took fewer courses in general in their respective areas of concentration between 1982 and 

1998. This decrease was due primarily to a decline 

in second- or higher-level coursetaking, rather 

than declines in first-level, cooperative education, 

or specialty courses. As a result of this change, 

occupational concentrators shifted the distribution 

of their occupational coursework toward specialty 

courses. (Typically, specialty courses either offer 

specialized occupational training or provide related skills that can be applied to a range of occupations and are not part of the usual sequence of 

courses in a program area.) 

Work-Based Learning 

About one-third of 1998 public high school 

graduates took at least some work-based learning 

courses—defined here as general work experience 

courses and cooperative education courses—in 

high school.6 There were no significant differences in either the percentage of 1982 and 1998 

graduates taking these courses or the average 

number of credits these graduates earned in workbased learning courses. Both 1982 and 1998 

graduates earned on average about 0.5 credits in 

 

6General work experience awards school credit for work that 

is not connected to a specific occupational program, while 

cooperative education awards school credit for work experience that is related to a student’s occupational program. This 

analysis focuses on these types of work-based learning, because they are awarded school credit and recorded on transcripts. In addition, as of 1997, cooperative education was 

one of the two most common forms of work-based learning in 

high schools, along with job shadowing (Levesque et al. 

2000). 
Executive Summary 

x 

work-based learning courses—equivalent to one 

half-year course. 

Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

and State High School Graduation 

Requirements 

The report examined changes in participation 

in vocational/technical education among states 

that had different changes in high school graduation requirements. Because of limitations in the 

data, the analysis was restricted to changes between 1990 and 1998.7 Although there were no 

significant differences between 1990 and 1998 in 

the percentage of graduates taking vocational/technical courses or in the average number 

of vocational/technical credits earned by graduates, coursetaking patterns varied somewhat with 

changes in state graduation requirements over this 

shortened period. 

There was some evidence that, in states that increased their total graduation requirements or their 

total nonvocational/technical requirements, students decreased their vocational/technical coursetaking. For example, students in states that 

increased their total high school graduation requirements by 2.0 or more credits between 1990 

and 1998 earned on average 1.0 fewer vocational/technical credits by the end of the period. 

Similarly, students in states that increased their 

total high school graduation requirements by 2.0 

or more credits between 1990 and 1998 were less 

likely by the end of the period to invest (earn 3.0 

or more credits) in vocational/technical education, 

to invest (earn 3.0 or more credits) in occupational 

education, or to concentrate (earn 3.0 or more 

credits) in one of the 10 broad occupational pro-

 

7It was not possible to link student transcripts to states in the 

High School and Beyond data set, which provided information on 1982 high school graduates for this report, and data 

on state graduation requirements were not available for 1992 

and 1994. 

gram areas in figure A. In contrast, students in 

states that increased their total high school graduation requirements by fewer than 2.0 credits, that 

did not increase these requirements, or that did not 

have applicable state requirements did not exhibit 

statistically significant decreases on any of these 

vocational/technical coursetaking measures. 

Trends in Computer-Related 

Coursetaking 

The SST currently includes all computerrelated courses (including those taught in mathematics and computer science departments) under 

the vocational/technical curriculum. Although 

some of these courses are classified as general 

labor market preparation (under basic typewriting/keyboarding and technology education), most 

computer-related courses are classified as occupational education. These latter courses are included 

under the business services, computer technology, 

and drafting/graphics areas. 

Computer-Related Coursetaking in 1998 

The 1998 public high school graduates earned 

on average 1.05 credits in computer-related 

courses in high school—equivalent to about one 

full-year computer-related course. Most of these 

credits were earned in the occupational curriculum, while the rest were earned in general labor 

market preparation. Within the occupational curriculum, 1998 public high school graduates earned 

more computer-related credits on average in the 

business services and the computer technology 

program areas than in computer-related drafting/graphics courses. Within the general labor 

market preparation curriculum, 1998 public high 

school graduates earned more credits in basic 

typewriting/keyboarding than in technology education. 
 Executive Summary 

xi 

Within the computer technology program area, 

1998 graduates earned more high school credits on 

average in computer applications courses than in 

any other computer technology area (including 

computer science and systems, computer programming, data processing, and computer mathematics). 

Trends in Computer-Related 

Coursetaking 

Due to inconsistencies over time in whether 

basic typewriting/keyboarding courses were classified as computer related (Alt and Bradby 1999), 

trends in computer-related general labor market 

preparation courses and in overall computerrelated coursetaking were examined from 1990 to 

1998. There was no significant difference in the 

average number of overall computer-related credits earned by 1990 and 1998 graduates or in the 

average number of computer-related credits they 

earned within the occupational curriculum. However, comparing 1998 graduates with their 1990 

counterparts, there was a decline in the average 

number of computer-related credits these graduates earned within the general labor market preparation curriculum. This decline was due primarily 

to graduates taking fewer basic typewriting/keyboarding courses in high school during the 

1990s. 

In contrast to trends in overall computer-related 

coursetaking and in computer-related general labor market preparation coursetaking, trends in 

computer-related occupational coursetaking cover 

the entire period from 1982 to 1998. Graduates 

earned on average 0.58 more computer-related 

occupational credits in high school in 1998 than in 

1982, equivalent to more than one additional halfyear course. Specifically, 1998 public high school 

graduates earned on average 0.32 more computerrelated credits in business services, compared with 

0.20 more credits in computer technology and 

0.06 more computer-related credits in drafting/graphics than their 1982 counterparts. 

Academic Coursetaking Trends 

Between 1982 and 1998, public high school 

graduates increased both the number and rigor of 

the academic courses they took in high school. On 

average, 1998 graduates earned 3.98 more credits 

in academic courses—equivalent to about four 

full-year academic courses—and they earned more 

credits in each core academic subject (English, 

mathematics, science, and social studies) than 

their 1982 counterparts. The 1998 graduates were 

also more likely to take advanced coursework in 

English, mathematics, and science than the 1982 

graduates. 

Graduates on average decreased their vocational/technical coursetaking by a relatively small 

amount while taking additional academic coursework over the period studied. In general, students 

made room for additional academic courses primarily by increasing the total number of credits 

they earned in high school rather than by reducing 

their vocational/technical coursetaking. The 1998 

public high school graduates earned 0.69 fewer 

vocational/technical credits on average than the 

1982 graduates, while they earned 3.98 more academic credits and 0.25 more enrichment/other 

credits than their 1982 counterparts (figure C). 

Trends in the Academic Coursetaking of 

Occupational Concentrators 

Both occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators (the latter including all public high 

school graduates except occupational concentrators) increased the number and rigor of the academic courses they took between 1982 and 1998. 

In some instances, the rate of increase was greater 
Executive Summary 

xii 

Figure C.—Average number of credits earned by public

Figure B.—high school graduates, by curriculum:

Figure B.—Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years

are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore

Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study,

1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88),

Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992;

and High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

2.64 2.68 2.65 2.63 2.89

4.68 4.19 3.99 3.96 3.99

14.28 16.66 17.22 17.58 18.26

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits

earned

Academic

Vocational/technical

Enrichment/other

21.60

23.53 23.86 24.17

25.14

for occupational concentrators, possibly because 

they took fewer and less rigorous academic 

courses than nonconcentrators at the beginning of 

the period. Nevertheless, as of 1998, occupational 

concentrators still took fewer and less rigorous 

academic courses than nonconcentrators. 

For example, although the increase between 

1982 and 1998 in mathematics credits earned by 

occupational concentrators was greater than the 

corresponding increase for nonconcentrators, occupational concentrators still earned fewer 

mathematics credits than nonconcentrators at the 

end of the period. In addition, although both occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators were 

more likely to take advanced mathematics 

coursework in 1998 than in 1982, nonconcentrators were more likely than concentrators to do so 

at the end of the period. 

However, as of 1998, coursetaking differences 

between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in English, mathematics, and social 

studies were fairly small (with differences of less 

than 0.4 credits on average), and the level of 

coursetaking for both groups was fairly high (with 

more than 75 percent meeting the New Basics 

standards in these subjects8), compared with the 

level of science coursetaking. As of 1998, the gap 

between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in science coursetaking was significantly larger in chemistry than in biology. 

Combining College-Preparatory and 

Occupational Coursework 

In keeping with increased academic coursetaking in general, high school students became more 

likely to complete college-preparatory coursework 

over the period studied.9 The percentage of public 

high school graduates completing collegepreparatory coursework in high school increased 

from 8.7 percent for the class of 1982 to 38.9 percent for the class of 1998. 

 

8The New Basics core academic standards include 4 years of 

English, and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social 

studies (National Commission on Excellence in Education 

1983). 

9College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or 

more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics at 

the Algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, 

chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies 

with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or 

more credits in a single foreign language. 
 Executive Summary 

xiii 

Students also became more likely to combine 

college-preparatory and occupational coursework 

over the period studied. Specifically, the percentage of public high school graduates completing 

both college-preparatory coursework and an occupational concentration in high school increased 

from 0.6 percent for the class of 1982 to 6.5 percent for the class of 1998. Similarly, the percentage of occupational concentrators who also 

completed college-preparatory coursework increased from 1.7 percent for 1982 graduates to 

25.9 percent for 1998 graduates. 

Related Academic and Occupational 

Coursetaking by Program Area 

The report identified specific mathematics and 

science courses that were judged to be related to 

the 18 narrow occupational program areas in figure A. The report then compared the relatedacademic coursetaking rates for concentrators in 

specific occupational programs with the overall 

coursetaking rate for 1998 public high school 

graduates. 

Based on this analysis, concentrators in several 

occupational program areas were found to have 

taken related academic courses at rates that were 

below the average rate for all 1998 public high 

school graduates. In particular, concentrators in 

construction, mechanics and repair, materials production, food service and hospitality, and personal 

and other services took all of the identified related 

academic courses at below-average rates. At the 

same time, concentrators in communications technology took some of their identified related academic courses at above-average rates. 

However, concentrators in most program areas 

took related academic courses at rates that were 

not statistically different from the average for all 

graduates, including concentrators in agriculture, 

business services, business management, marketing, health care, computer technology, print production, and other precision production. 
xiv 

Foreword 

In 1987, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) instituted a new approach to 

collecting and reporting data on vocational education. Under the new approach, vocational education data are collected primarily through general purpose surveys—including high school transcript studies—rather than separate vocational education questionnaires or studies. This 

arrangement allows NCES to situate vocational education activities within the broader education 

context. In 1998, a Technical Review Panel was formed to provide NCES with regular input on 

its Data on Vocational Education (DOVE) program, including surveys and reports. 

This report updates and expands upon trends in high school vocational/technical coursetaking that were published in previous NCES reports, including the comprehensive Vocational Education in the United States series (Levesque et al. 1995, 2000; and Hoachlander, Kaufman, and 

Levesque 1992) and Trends in Participation in Secondary Vocational Education: 1982–1992

(Tuma 1996). The current report provides a more detailed analysis of trends in high school vocational/technical coursetaking than was published previously, including trends in vocational/technical coursetaking overall, in technology education and computer-related coursetaking, 

and in the ways in which high school students combine vocational/technical and academic 

coursetaking. 

Information on NCES’ DOVE program and publications may be found at the following 

web site: http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/dove. Your comments about NCES vocational education 

publications are welcome and may be sent to Lisa Hudson, NCES, 1990 K Street NW, Suite 900, 

Washington, DC 20006 or lisa.hudson@ed.gov. 
xv 

Acknowledgments 

The author would like to thank several persons who contributed to this report. Foremost, 

the author is indebted to Lisa Hudson of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) for 

her thoughtful input, guidance, and encouragement. In addition, members of NCES’ Data on Vocational Education (DOVE) Technical Review Panel (TRP)—especially Marsha Silverberg of the 

U.S. Department of Education’s National Assessment of Vocational Education—provided clarity 

about and insight into the issues that should be addressed in this report and contributed to the interpretation of key findings. 

The author would like to thank Bill Hussar of NCES for his patient and careful technical 

review of this report. The author is also thankful for the thoughtfulness of those who served as 

peer reviewers of the report, including the adjudicator, Bruce Taylor, of NCES; as well as John 

Wirt and Janis Brown of NCES; Sara McPhee of the National Association of the State Directors 

of Career Technical Education Consortium; and James R. Stone III of the National Research 

Center for Career and Technical Education. 

Several MPR Associates staff—current and former—also contributed to the report. The author thanks Gary Hoachlander for his dynamic vision and understanding of vocational/technical 

education; Jin Kwon and Ellen Liebman for their technical assistance; Kathleen Mullen for her 

administrative assistance; and Barbara Kridl, Francesca Tussing, Wes Nations, Patti Gildersleeve, and Andrea Livingston for their production and editorial support. 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
xvii 

Table of Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. iii

Foreword................................................................................................................................... xiv

Acknowledgments..................................................................................................................... xv

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ xix

List of Figures........................................................................................................................... xxix

 I. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 1

Purpose of the Report ......................................................................................................... 2 

The Policy and Labor Market Context: 1982–98................................................................ 2 

Description of the Data ....................................................................................................... 7 

Terms Used in the Report ................................................................................................... 11 

 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking .............................................................. 17

Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking.................................................................... 17 

Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking by Grade Level.......................................... 24 

Trends in Coursetaking in Occupational Program Areas.................................................... 30 

A Closer Look at Trends in Occupational Concentrating................................................... 43 

Trends in Work-Based Learning......................................................................................... 52 

Vocational/Technical Coursetaking and State High School Graduation Requirements..... 55 

III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking ............... 65

Trends in Introductory Technology Coursetaking .............................................................. 65 

Trends in Computer-Related Coursetaking ........................................................................ 68 

 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking................. 81

The Context: Overall Academic Coursetaking Trends in Brief.......................................... 81 

The Relationship Between Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking................. 83 

Trends in the Academic Coursetaking of Occupational Concentrators.............................. 86 

Combining College-Preparatory and Occupational Coursework........................................ 97 

Related Academic and Occupational Coursetaking............................................................ 102 

References................................................................................................................................. 111
Table of Contents 

xviii 

Page 

Appendix A—Means Tables.................................................................................................... 115

Appendix B—Standard Error Tables.................................................................................... 151

Appendix C—Glossary ............................................................................................................ 235

Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology ................................................................. 241
xix 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

Text Tables 

1a Number of total credits required by each of the 50 states to graduate from high 

school with a standard diploma: 1980, 1990, and 1998................................................. 4 

1b Number of the 50 states meeting or exceeding the New Basics core academic 

requirements, by whether states met or exceeded the New Basics core academic 

requirements in each year: 1980, 1990, and 1998.......................................................... 5 

2 Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98 ........................................ 25 

3 Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by grade level of course: 1998 ...................................................................... 26 

4 Average number of credits earned in family and consumer sciences education by 

public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98.......... 27 

5 Average number of credits earned in general labor market preparation by public high 

school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98............................. 28 

6 Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school 

graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98 ........................................ 29 

7 Average credits earned in business services by public high school graduates, by 

computer-related area: Various years, 1982–98............................................................. 36 

8 Percentage distribution of occupational concentrators, by program area: 1998............. 39 

9 Average credits earned in computer-related occupational courses and in business 

services courses by graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits, by program 

area: Various years, 1982–98 ......................................................................................... 48 

10 Number of the 50 states with specified changes in state high school graduation 

requirements between 1990 and 1998............................................................................ 56 
List of Tables 

xx 

Table Page 

11 Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school 

graduates by vocational/technical curriculum, by change in state high school 

graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998 ....................................................................... 59 

12 Percentage of public high school graduates by different measures of participation 

in vocational/technical education, by change in state high school graduation 

requirements: 1990 and 1998 ......................................................................................... 61 

13 Percentage distribution of total credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

computer-related and noncomputer-related areas: Various years, 1982–98 .................. 74 

14 Average number of credits earned in academic subjects by public high school 

graduates, by subject: Various years, 1982–98 .............................................................. 82 

15 Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school 

graduates, by selected participation measures: Various years, 1982–98........................ 84 

16 Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school 

graduates, by occupational concentration status and subject area: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 87 

17 Percentage of public high school graduates meeting New Basics standards in core 

academic subjects, by occupational concentration status and academic subject area: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. 87 

18 Academic coursetaking judged to be related to coursework in specific occupational 

program areas................................................................................................................. 104 

Appendix A 

A1 Percentage of public high school graduates taking vocational/technical education 

courses, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various years, 1982–98 .......................... 116 

A2 Percentage of public high school graduates meeting different definitions of 

participation in vocational/technical education: Various years, 1982–98...................... 117 

A3 Average number of credits earned in general labor market preparation by public high 

school graduates, by area: Various years, 1982–98........................................................ 118 

A4 Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98 ........................................ 119 

A5 Percentage of public high school graduates earning credits in occupational education, 

by program area: Various years, 1982–98...................................................................... 120 
 List of Tables 

xxi 

Table Page 

A6 Average number of occupational credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

program area: Various years, 1982–98........................................................................... 121 

A7 Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in occupational education, 

by program area: Various years, 1982–98...................................................................... 122 

A8 Percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating in occupational education, by 

program area in which they took courses: Various years, 1982–98............................... 123 

A9 Percentage distribution of occupational concentrators, by program area: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 124 

A10 Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits 

who concentrated in occupational education, by various concentration definitions: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. 125 

A11 Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits 

who concentrated in occupational education, by program area of concentration: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. 126 

A12 Percentage distribution of occupational credits earned by public high school 

graduates who earned 3.0 or more occupational credits, by program area: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 127 

A13 Average number of credits earned by occupational concentrators in their area of 

concentration, by level of course: Various years, 1982–98............................................ 128 

A14 Percentage distribution of credits earned by occupational concentrators in their area 

of concentration, by level of course: Various years, 1982–98 ....................................... 129 

A15 Percentage of total occupational credits earned by occupational coursetakers that 

were cooperative education credits: Various years, 1982–98 ........................................ 130 

A16 Average number of computer-related credits earned by public high school graduates, 

by vocational/technical curriculum and subarea: Various years, 1982–98 .................... 131 

A17 Percentage distribution of computer-related credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum and computer-related area: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 132 

A18 Percentage distribution of general labor market preparation and of occupational 

education credits earned by public high school graduates, by computer-related and 

noncomputer-related areas: Various years, 1982–98 ..................................................... 133 
List of Tables 

xxii 

Table Page 

A19 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to level of 

mathematics coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 134 

A20 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to level of 

science coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 135 

A21 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to level of 

English coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 136 

A22 Percentage of public high school graduates completing specific science courses, by 

occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98........................................... 137 

A23 Percentage of public high school graduates completing U.S. or world history courses, 

by type of course and occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98 ....... 138 

A24 Percentage of public high school graduates completing a college-preparatory course 

of study, by selected vocational/technical participation and nonparticipation 

measures: Various years, 1982–98................................................................................. 139 

A25 Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to collegepreparatory and occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98................. 140 

A26 Percentage of occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators completing collegepreparatory coursework, by subject: Various years, 1982–98........................................ 141 

A27 Average number of credits earned in vocational/technical education by public high 

school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum and whether graduates 

completed college-preparatory coursework: Various years, 1982–98............................ 142 

A28 Percentage of public high school graduates meeting selected definitions of 

participation in vocational/technical education, by college-preparatory coursework 

status: 1998..................................................................................................................... 143 

A29 Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in occupational education, 

by program area and college-preparatory status: 1998................................................... 144 

A30 Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or higher mathematics 

courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 145 

A31 Percentage of public high school graduates taking geometry courses, by occupational 

concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98 ................................... 146 
 List of Tables 

xxiii 

Table Page 

A32 Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or advanced biology 

courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 147 

A33 Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or advanced chemistry 

courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 148 

A34 Percentage of public high school graduates taking physics courses, by occupational 

concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98 ................................... 149 

Appendix B 

B1 Standard errors for figure 2: Average number of credits completed by public high 

school graduates, by type of coursework: 1998 ............................................................. 152 

B2 Standard errors for figures 6 and 8: Average number of credits earned by public high 

school graduates, by curriculum: Various years, 1982–98............................................. 153 

B3 Standard errors for figure 7: Percentage distribution of total credits earned by public 

high school graduates, by curriculum: Various years, 1982–98..................................... 154 

B4 Standard errors for figure 9: Average number of credits earned in vocational/ 

technical education by public high school graduates, by vocational/technical 

curriculum: Various years, 1982–98 .............................................................................. 155 

B5 Standard errors for figure 12: Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits 

earned by public high school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 156 

B6 Standard errors for figure 13: Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits 

earned by public high school graduates, by grade level of course: 1998 ....................... 157 

B7 Standard errors for figure 14: Average number of occupational credits earned by 

public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98.......... 158 

B8 Standard errors for figure 24: Percentage of occupational concentrators completing 

advanced coursework in their area of concentration: Various years, 1982–98 .............. 159 

B9 Standard errors for figure 29: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

work-based learning, by type of course: Various years, 1982–98.................................. 160 

B10 Standard errors for figure 30: Average number of credits earned in work-based 

learning by public high school graduates, by type of course: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 161 
List of Tables 

xxiv 

Table Page 

B11 Standard errors for figure 31: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

introductory technology courses, by area: Various years, 1982–98 ............................... 162 

B12 Standard errors for figure 32: Average number of credits earned in introductory 

technology courses by public high school graduates, by area: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 163 

B13 Standard errors for figure 48: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

algebra 1 or higher mathematics courses, by occupational concentration status: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. 164 

B14 Standard errors for table 2: Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by 

public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98.......... 165 

B15 Standard errors for table 3: Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by 

public high school graduates, by grade level of course: 1998........................................ 166 

B16 Standard errors for table 4: Average number of credits earned in family and 

consumer sciences education by public high school graduates, by grade level of 

course: Various years, 1982–98 ..................................................................................... 167 

B17 Standard errors for table 5: Average number of credits earned in general labor market 

preparation by public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 168 

B18 Standard errors for table 6: Average number of credits earned in core academic 

subjects by public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years: 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 169 

B19 Standard errors for table 7: Average credits earned in business services by public 

high school graduates, by computer-related area: Various years, 1982–98 ................... 170 

B20 Standard errors for table 9: Average credits earned in computer-related occupational 

courses and in business services courses by graduates earning 3.0 or more 

occupational credits, by program area: Various years, 1982–98.................................... 171 

B21 Standard errors for table 11: Average number of vocational/technical credits earned 

by public high school graduates by vocational/technical curriculum, by change in 

state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998 ........................................... 172 

B22 Standard errors for table 12: Percentage of public high school graduates by different 

measures of participation in vocational/technical education, by change in state high 

school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998............................................................ 175 
 List of Tables 

xxv 

Table Page 

B23 Standard errors for table 13: Percentage distribution of total credits earned by public 

high school graduates, by computer-related and noncomputer-related areas: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 178 

B24 Standard errors for table 14: Average number of credits earned in academic subjects 

by public high school graduates, by subject: Various years, 1982–98........................... 179 

B25 Standard errors for table 15: Average number of credits earned in core academic 

subjects by public high school graduates, by selected participation measures: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 180 

B26 Standard errors for table 16: Average number of credits earned in core academic 

subjects by public high school graduates, by occupational concentration status and 

subject area: Various years, 1982–98............................................................................. 182 

B27 Standard errors for table 17: Percentage of public high school graduates meeting 

New Basics standards in core academic subjects, by occupational concentration 

status and academic subject area: Various years, 1982–98............................................ 183 

B28 Standard errors for table A1: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

vocational/technical education courses, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 184 

B29 Standard errors for table A2: Percentage of public high school graduates meeting 

different definitions of participation in vocational/technical education: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 185 

B30 Standard errors for table A3: Average number of credits earned in general labor 

market preparation by public high school graduates, by area: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 186 

B31 Standard errors for table A4: Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits 

earned by public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 187 

B32 Standard errors for table A5: Percentage of public high school graduates earning 

credits in occupational education, by program area: Various years, 1982–98 ............... 188 

B33 Standard errors for table A6: Average number of occupational credits earned by 

public high school graduates, by program area: Various years, 1982–98 ...................... 190 

B34 Standard errors for table A7: Percentage of public high school graduates 

concentrating in occupational education, by program area: Various years, 1982–98 .... 192 
List of Tables 

xxvi 

Table Page 

B35 Standard errors for table A8: Percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating 

in occupational education, by program area in which they took courses: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 194 

B36 Standard errors for table A9: Percentage distribution of occupational concentrators, 

by program area: Various years, 1982–98...................................................................... 196 

B37 Standard errors for table A10: Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 

or more occupational credits who concentrated in occupational education, by various 

concentration definitions: Various years, 1982–98........................................................ 198 

B38 Standard errors for table A11: Percentage of public high school graduates earning 

3.0 or more occupational credits who concentrated in occupational education, by 

program area of concentration: Various years, 1982–98................................................ 199 

B39 Standard errors for table A12: Percentage distribution of occupational credits earned 

by public high school graduates who earned 3.0 or more occupational credits, by 

program area: Various years, 1982–98........................................................................... 201 

B40 Standard errors for table A13: Average number of credits earned by occupational 

concentrators in their area of concentration, by level of course: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 203 

B41 Standard errors for table A14: Percentage distribution of credits earned by 

occupational concentrators in their area of concentration, by level of course: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 204 

B42 Standard errors for table A15: Percentage of total occupational credits earned by 

occupational coursetakers that were cooperative education credits: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 205 

B43 Standard errors for table A16: Average number of computer-related credits earned 

by public high school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum and subarea: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. 206 

B44 Standard errors for table A17: Percentage distribution of computer-related credits 

earned by public high school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum and 

computer-related area: Various years, 1982–98............................................................. 207 

B45 Standard errors for table A18: Percentage distribution of general labor market 

preparation and of occupational education credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by computer-related and noncomputer-related areas: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 208 
 List of Tables 

xxvii 

Table Page 

B46 Standard errors for table A19: Percentage distribution of public high school 

graduates according to level of mathematics coursetaking achieved, by occupational 

concentration status: Various years, 1982–98................................................................ 210 

B47 Standard errors for table A20: Percentage distribution of public high school 

graduates according to level of science coursetaking achieved, by occupational 

concentration status: Various years, 1982–98................................................................ 212 

B48 Standard errors for table A21: Percentage distribution of public high school 

graduates according to level of English coursetaking achieved, by occupational 

concentration status: Various years, 1982–98................................................................ 213 

B49 Standard errors for table A22: Percentage of public high school graduates completing 

specific science courses, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 214 

B50 Standard errors for table A23: Percentage of public high school graduates completing 

U.S. or world history courses, by type of course and occupational concentration 

status: Various years, 1982–98....................................................................................... 215 

B51 Standard errors for table A24: Percentage of public high school graduates completing 

a college-preparatory course of study, by selected vocational/technical participation 

and nonparticipation measures: Various years, 1982–98............................................... 216 

B52 Standard errors for table A25: Percentage distribution of public high school 

graduates according to college-preparatory and occupational concentration status: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. 218 

B53 Standard errors for table A26: Percentage of occupational concentrators and 

nonconcentrators completing college-preparatory coursework, by subject: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 219 

B54 Standard errors for table A27: Average number of credits earned in vocational/ 

technical education by public high school graduates, by vocational/technical 

curriculum and whether graduates completed college-preparatory coursework: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. 220 

B55 Standard errors for table A28: Percentage of public high school graduates meeting 

selected definitions of participation in vocational/technical education, by collegepreparatory coursework status: 1998.............................................................................. 221 

B56 Standard errors for table A29: Percentage of public high school graduates 

concentrating in occupational education, by program area and college-preparatory 

status: 1998..................................................................................................................... 222 
List of Tables 

xxviii 

Table Page 

B57 Standard errors for table A30: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

algebra 1 or higher mathematics courses, by occupational concentration status and 

program area: Various years, 1982–98........................................................................... 224 

B58 Standard errors for table A31: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

geometry courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 226 

B59 Standard errors for table A32: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

regular or advanced biology courses, by occupational concentration status and 

program area: Various years, 1982–98........................................................................... 228 

B60 Standard errors for table A33: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

regular or advanced chemistry courses, by occupational concentration status and 

program area: Various years, 1982–98........................................................................... 230 

B61 Standard errors for table A34: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

physics courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various 

years, 1982–98................................................................................................................ 232 
xxix 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

Executive Summary Figures 

A Secondary school taxonomy........................................................................................... iv 

B Percentage of public high school graduates meeting different measures of 

participation in vocational/technical education: 1998.................................................... vi 

C Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates, by curriculum: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. xii 

Text Figures 

1 Percentage of public high school graduates taking vocational/technical education 

courses, by vocational/technical curriculum: 1998 ........................................................ 1 

2 Average number of credits completed by public high school graduates, by type of 

coursework: 1998 ........................................................................................................... 2 

3 Secondary school taxonomy........................................................................................... 9 

4 Percentage of public high school graduates meeting different measures of 

participation in vocational/technical education: 1998.................................................... 13 

5 Percentage of public high school graduates who were vocational/technical 

coursetakers and investors: Various years, 1982–98...................................................... 18 

6 Average number of credits earned in vocational/technical education by public high 

school graduates: Various years, 1982–98 ..................................................................... 18 

7 Percentage distribution of total credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

curriculum: Various years, 1982–98 .............................................................................. 19 

8 Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates, by curriculum: 

Various years, 1982–98.................................................................................................. 20 

9 Average number of credits earned in vocational/technical education by public high 

school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various years, 1982–98............ 21 
List of Figures 

xxx 

Figure Page 

10 Average number of credits earned in general labor market preparation by public high 

school graduates, by area: Various years, 1982–98........................................................ 22 

11 Percentage of public high school graduates participating in occupational education, 

by different definitions of participation: Various years, 1982–98.................................. 23 

12 Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various years, 1982–98....................... 24 

13 Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by grade level of course: 1998 ...................................................................... 25 

14 Average number of occupational credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98............................................................... 29 

15 Change in the percentage of public high school graduates taking at least one 

occupational course, by program area: 1982 and 1998 .................................................. 32 

16 Change in the average number of occupational credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by program area: 1982 and 1998................................................................... 33 

17 Change in the percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in 

occupational education, by program area: 1982 and 1998 ............................................. 34 

18 Change in the percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating in occupational 

education, by program area: 1982 and 1998 .................................................................. 35 

19 Average number of occupational credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

program area: 1998......................................................................................................... 37 

20 Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in occupational education, 

by program area: 1998.................................................................................................... 38 

21 Percentage of public high school graduates earning occupational credits, by program 

area: 1998 ....................................................................................................................... 40 

22 Percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating in occupational education, by 

program area: 1998......................................................................................................... 41 

23 Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits 

who concentrated those credits in a single occupational program area: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 44 

24 Percentage of occupational concentrators completing advanced coursework in their 

area of concentration: Various years, 1982–98 .............................................................. 45 
 List of Figures 

xxxi 

Figure Page 

25 Changes in the percentage distributions of occupational credits earned by 

occupational investors and of occupational investors concentrating in occupational 

education, by program area: 1982 and 1998 .................................................................. 47 

26 Average number of credits earned by occupational concentrators in their area of 

concentration: Various years, 1982–98 .......................................................................... 49 

27 Change in the average number of credits earned by occupational concentrators in 

their area of concentration, by level of course: 1982 and 1998...................................... 50 

28 Change in the percentage distribution of credits earned by occupational concentrators 

in their area of concentration, by level of course: 1982 and 1998.................................. 51 

29 Percentage of public high school graduates taking work-based learning, by type of 

course: Various years, 1982–98 ..................................................................................... 53 

30 Average number of credits earned in work-based learning by public high school 

graduates, by type of course: Various years, 1982–98 ................................................... 54 

31 Percentage of public high school graduates taking introductory technology courses, 

by area: Various years, 1982–98 .................................................................................... 66 

32 Average number of credits earned in introductory technology courses by public high 

school graduates, by area: Various years, 1982–98........................................................ 67 

33 Classification of computer-related courses in the Secondary School Taxonomy .......... 69 

34 Average number of computer-related credits earned by public high school graduates, 

by vocational/technical area: 1998 ................................................................................. 72 

35 Percentage distribution of computer-related credits earned by public high school 

graduates, by computer-related area: 1998..................................................................... 73 

36 Average number of computer-related credits earned by public high school graduates, 

by general labor market preparation and occupational education curricula: Various 

years, 1990–98................................................................................................................ 73 

37 Percentage of total general labor market preparation credits and total occupational 

credits earned by public high school graduates that were computer-related: Various 

years, 1990–98................................................................................................................ 74 

38 Average number of computer-related credits earned in occupational education by 

public high school graduates, by occupational program area: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 76 
List of Figures 

xxxii 

Figure Page 

39 Average number of computer-related credits earned in the computer technology 

program area by public high school graduates, by course type: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 78 

40 Percentage of public high school graduates taking advanced academic coursework, 

by academic subject: Various years, 1982–98................................................................ 82 

41 Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school 

graduates, by selected vocational/technical coursetaking measures: Various years, 

1982–98.......................................................................................................................... 85 

42 Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school 

graduates, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98 .................... 88 

43 Percentage of public high school graduates meeting the New Basics standards in core 

academic subjects, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98....... 89 

44 Percentage of public high school graduates earning 4.0 or more credits in English, by 

occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98........................................... 90 

45 Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in 

mathematics, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98 ............... 91 

46 Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in science, by 

occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98........................................... 91 

47 Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in social 

studies, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98......................... 92 

48 Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or higher mathematics 

courses, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98........................ 93 

49 Percentage of public high school graduates completing specific science courses, by 

occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98........................................... 93 

50 Percentage of public high school graduates completing specific history courses, by 

occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98........................................... 94 

51 Percentage of public high school graduates completing advanced mathematics 

coursework, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98 ................. 95 

52 Percentage of public high school graduates completing advanced science 

coursework, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98 ................. 96 
 List of Figures 

xxxiii 

Figure Page 

53 Percentage of public high school graduates completing advanced English 

coursework, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98 ................. 96 

54 Percentage of public high school graduates completing a college-preparatory course 

of study, by whether graduates completed college-preparatory coursework only or 

also an occupational concentration: Various years, 1982–98 ........................................ 97 

55 Percentage of public high school graduates completing college-preparatory 

coursework, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98 ................. 98 

56 Percentage of public high school graduates completing college-preparatory 

coursework, by academic subject and occupational concentration status: 1998............ 99 

57 Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in vocational/ 

technical education, by vocational/technical curriculum and whether graduates 

completed college-preparatory coursework: 1998 ......................................................... 100 

58 Percentage of public high school graduates participating in vocational/technical 

education, by selected participation measures and whether graduates completed 

college-preparatory coursework: 1998 ........................................................................... 101 

59 Difference between college-preparatory completers and other graduates in the 

percentage of graduates concentrating in occupational education, by program area: 

1998................................................................................................................................ 103 

60 Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or higher mathematics 

courses, by related occupational concentration area: 1998 ............................................ 105 

61 Percentage of public high school graduates taking geometry courses, by related 

occupational concentration area: 1998........................................................................... 106 

62 Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or advanced biology 

courses, by related occupational concentration area: 1998 ............................................ 107 

63 Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or advanced chemistry 

courses, by related occupational concentration area: 1998 ............................................ 108 

64 Percentage of public high school graduates taking physics courses, by related 

occupational concentration area: 1998........................................................................... 108 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
1 

I. Introduction 

Vocational/technical education is a common component of public high school education in 

the United States. In 1998, more than half (28) of the 50 states required some vocational/ 

technical education for high school graduation.1 Vocational/technical coursetaking is more extensive than these requirements would indicate, however, with most public high school graduates 

taking some vocational/technical education between grades 9 and 12. Among 1998 public high 

school graduates, 96.5 percent earned at least some credits in vocational/technical education in 

high school (figure 1 and table A1). In addition, 1998 graduates earned numbers of credits in vocational/technical education that were not significantly different on average from the numbers of 

credits they earned in English and in social studies, and they earned more credits in vocational/technical education than they did in mathematics, science, fine arts, or foreign languages 

(figure 2). 

Figure 1.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking vocational/technical education courses,

Figure 1.—by vocational/technical curriculum: 1998

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS),

1998.

96.5 90.7

58.8

44.4

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

Total Occupational education General labor market

preparation

Family and consumer

sciences education

Vocational/technical curriculum

Percent

 

1These states variously required coursework in career education (including guidance), practical arts, computer education, free 

enterprise, technology, consumer education, and “vocational education.” For the complete list of 1998 state graduation requirements, see Snyder and Hoffman (2001), table 154. 
I. Introduction 

2 

Figure 2.—Average number of credits completed by public high school graduates, by type of coursework: 

Figure 2.—1998

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

4.25 3.99 3.74

3.40 3.12

1.90 1.85

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

English Vocational/

technical

education

Social studies Mathematics Science Fine arts Foreign

languages

Type of coursework

Credits

completed

Purpose of the Report 

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act Amendments of 1998 (Perkins III) requires that the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) collect and report information on vocational/technical education as part of its assessments. This report updates and 

expands upon trends in vocational/technical coursetaking that were published in the NCES report 

Vocational Education in the United States: Toward the Year 2000 (Levesque et al. 2000). Specifically, this report examines vocational/technical coursetaking among public high school 

graduates between 1982 and 1998 by focusing on trends in three areas: in vocational/technical 

coursetaking overall, in technology education and computer-related coursetaking, and in the ways 

in which high school students combine vocational/technical and academic coursetaking. A companion report, Public High School Graduates Who Participated in Vocational/Technical Education: 1982–1998 (Levesque forthcoming), examines trends in the participation of special and 

protected populations compared with other students. 

The Policy and Labor Market Context: 1982–98 

To set the stage for this analysis, the report first reviews education policy and labor market 

trends that form the background for students’ vocational/technical coursetaking over the period 

studied. 
 I. Introduction 

3 

School Reform Efforts 

In 1983, A Nation at Risk focused attention on shortcomings in the nation’s public schools 

(National Commission on Excellence in Education 1983). The bipartisan report linked poor economic productivity and worker skill deficits to a lack of rigor in public education. While the report made specific recommendations for high school graduation requirements, it also sounded the 

education alarm generally. Many state policymakers responded during the 1980s by increasing 

high school graduation requirements. From 1980 to 1990, 39 states increased the total number of 

credits they required for high school graduation,2 although the number of states meeting the 

Commission’s recommendations for core academic subjects3 only rose from 1 to 3 states (tables 

1a and 1b). During the 1990s, state reform efforts continued. By 1998, for example, 2 more (net) 

states had increased their total graduation requirements, and 10 additional states had met the core 

academic recommendations specified in A Nation at Risk. 

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act Amendments of 1990 (Perkins II) called for reforming vocational/technical education in ways that reflected national efforts 

to improve academic achievement. Perkins II required that states develop performance measures 

and standards for evaluating vocational/technical programs, including a measure of the academic 

achievement gains of vocational/technical participants. Perkins II also called for integrating academic and vocational/technical education and developing tech-prep programs that span the last 2 

years of high school and the first 2 years of college.4 The Perkins II reforms intended in part to 

improve the academics that students received in their occupational courses as well as the academics they took in combination with their occupational courses. That is, the reforms envisioned 

participation in vocational/technical education partly as a vehicle for improving academic 

achievement, separate from and combined with academic reforms. 

In 1994, the School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA) was passed to encourage states 

to better prepare all students for college and work. It emphasized three key practices: integrating 

academic and vocational/technical education, integrating school- and work-based learning, and 

developing secondary and postsecondary linkages. While STWOA reflected the national emphasis on academic achievement (that is, preparation for college or further education), it also provided an equal emphasis on education for work. Among its provisions, STWOA called for better 

 

2This number includes 8 states that instituted high school graduation requirements where previously there were none. 

3The report recommended that all high school graduates take 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and 

social studies. 

4Perkins III repeated these reform directives, while also fine-tuning them. The most recent high school transcript study that was 

available when this analysis was undertaken was conducted in 1998, however, so it was not possible for this report to examine 

trends in vocational/technical coursetaking following implementation of Perkins III. 
I. Introduction 

4 

Table 1a.—Number of total credits required by each of the 50 states to graduate from high school with a 

Table 1a.—standard diploma: 1980, 1990, and 1998

Year Change

1980 1990 1998 1980 to 1990 1990 to 1998 1980 to 1998

Alabama 20 22 24 2 2 4 

Alaska 19 21 21 2 0 2 

Arizona 16 20 20 4 0 4 

Arkansas 16 20 21 4 1 5 

California — 13 13 † 0 † 

Colorado — — — † † † 

Connecticut — 20 20 † 0 † 

Delaware 18 19 19 1 0 1 

Florida — 24 24 † 0 † 

Georgia 20 21 21 1 0 1 

Hawaii 20 20 22 0 2 2 

Idaho 18 21 21 3 0 3 

Illinois 16 16 16 0 0 0 

Indiana 16 20 20 4 0 4 

Iowa — — — † † † 

Kansas 17 21 21 4 0 4 

Kentucky 18 20 22 2 2 4 

Louisiana 20 23 23 3 0 3 

Maine — 16 16 † 0 † 

Maryland 20 20 21 0 1 1 

Massachusetts — — — † † † 

Michigan — — — † † † 

Minnesota 15 20 — 5 † † 

Mississippi 16 18 20 2 2 4 

Missouri 20 22 22 2 0 2 

Montana 16 20 20 4 0 4 

Nebraska — — — † † † 

Nevada 19 23 23 4 0 4 

New Hampshire 16 20 20 4 0 4 

New Jersey — 22 22 † 1 † 

New Mexico 20 23 23 3 0 3 

New York 16 19 21 3 2 5 

North Carolina 16 20 20 4 0 4 

Northa Dakota 17 17 17 0 0 0 

Ohio 17 18 18 1 0 1 

Oklahoma 18 20 21 2 1 3 

Oregon 21 22 22 1 0 1 

Pennsylvania 13 21 21 8 0 8 

Rhode Island 16 16 16 0 0 0 

South Carolina 18 20 20 2 0 2 

South Dakota 16 20 20 4 0 4 

Tennessee 18 20 20 2 0 2 

Texas 18 21 22 3 1 4 

Utah 15 24 24 9 0 9 

Vermont — 16 15 † -1 † 

Virginia 18 21 22 3 1 4 

Washington — 19 19 † 0 † 

West Virginia 18 21 21 3 0 3 

Wisconsin — 13 22 † 9 † 

Wyoming 18 18 13 0 -5 -5 

—Indicates that local school boards set high school graduation requirements.

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: Education Commission of the States (1990); Snyder and Hoffman (1992), table 145, and Snyder and Hoffman

(2001), table 154.
 I. Introduction 

5 

Table 1b.—Number of the 50 states meeting or exceeding the New Basics core academic requirements,1 by

Table 1b.—whether states met or exceeded the New Basics core academic requirements in each year: 1980, 

Table 1b.—1990, and 1998

1980 1990 1998 

 Total 1 3 13 

Alabama "

Alaska

Arizona — — — 

Arkansas "

California — 

Colorado — — — 

Connecticut — 

Delaware

Florida — "

Georgia "

Hawaii " "

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa — — — 

Kansas

Kentucky "

Louisiana " "

Maine — 

Maryland "

Massachusetts — — — 

Michigan — — — 

Minnesota — 

Mississippi "

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska — — — 

Nevada

New Hampshire

New Jersey — 

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina "

Northa Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania " "

Rhode Island

South Carolina

South Dakota

Tennessee "

Texas

Utah

Vermont — 

Virginia "

Washington — 

West Virginia

Wisconsin — 

Wyoming "

—Indicates that local school boards set high school graduation requirements.

"State graduation requirements met or exceeded the New Basics core academic requirements. 1

The New Basics core academic requirements include 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies.

SOURCE: Education Commission of the States (1990); Snyder and Hoffman (1992), table 145, and Snyder and Hoffman (2001), table

154.
I. Introduction 

6 

career preparation, through career guidance and work experience activities, and the development 

of high school programs of study called “career majors” or “career pathways.” 

The focus on academic achievement during the 1980s and 1990s may have influenced vocational/technical coursetaking over this period in a number of different ways. After taking more 

academic courses, students may have had less time to devote to other coursework, including vocational/technical education. However, attention to the academic achievement of participants in 

vocational/technical education may have made vocational/technical education an alternative path 

for learning academics during the 1990s. In addition, emphasis on preparing all students for both 

college and work may have bolstered vocational/technical coursetaking in recent years. Although 

this report does not seek to evaluate the impact of particular federal policies, these policies set 

the context in which the trends examined in this report occurred. 

Labor Market Trends 

Long-term trends in labor market demand for higher skills may also have influenced vocational/technical coursetaking over the period studied (Levesque et al. 2000). On the one hand, 

increased demand for academic skills and higher levels of education may have reduced vocational/technical coursetaking. Some graduates who may previously have terminated their education with high school or a postsecondary certificate or associate’s degree may now pursue a 

bachelor’s or higher degree.5 Thus, students may take fewer vocational/technical courses in high 

school as they shift their educational plans and aspirations toward 4-year or higher degrees. 

On the other hand, demand for greater technical skills and degrees—particularly resulting 

from the technology boom of the 1990s—may have increased vocational/technical coursetaking. 

These increases may have occurred for all students because all workers may arguably need technology-related skills regardless of when they enter the labor market. Alternatively, increases in 

technology-related coursework in high school may be greater for students planning to enter the 

labor market directly after high school or after completing 1- or 2-year postsecondary programs 

because these students have less time in which to acquire technology-related skills before obtaining employment. 

Changes in the demand for specific types of jobs may also lead to occupational coursetaking changes, and these changes may not reflect overall vocational/technical coursetaking patterns. 

For example, labor market shifts away from manufacturing toward services and information in-

 

5The trend toward higher educational attainment among the U.S. population is well documented. See, for example, Levesque et 

al. (2000), pp. 149–151. Vocational/technical education is defined at the federal level as preparing students for careers requiring 

less than a bachelor’s degree. 
 I. Introduction 

7 

dustries have been accompanied, to some extent, by corresponding changes in coursetaking in 

related vocational/technical program areas (Levesque et al. 2000; Hurst and Hudson 2000). 

Research Questions 

It is not possible in this analysis to determine the causal impact of education policies and 

labor market trends on vocational/technical coursetaking. However, based on the policy and labor 

market trends discussed above, this report seeks to address the following research questions: 

1. What have been the trends in vocational/technical coursetaking between 1982 and 

1998? Are changes evident across the board or focused in particular areas of the vocational/technical curriculum? 

2. Has the nature of vocational/technical coursetaking changed, and, if so, how? What 

types—and what mix—of vocational/technical courses were students taking as of 

1998? 

3. What vocational/technical areas exhibit increases in coursetaking? In particular, has 

coursetaking in technology education and computer-related areas risen? What vocational/technical areas exhibit decreases in coursetaking? 

4. How have students combined academic and vocational/technical coursetaking over the 

period studied? To what extent have the rates of academic coursetaking among participants in vocational/technical education risen between 1982 and 1998, and how does 

this increase compare with the rates of academic coursetaking among other students? 

To what extent do students take academic coursework that is related to their occupational coursework? 

Description of the Data 

This report analyzes trends in vocational/technical and academic coursetaking by examining high school transcripts for the graduating classes of 1982, 1990, 1992, 1994, and 1998.6 The 

analysis focuses on public high school graduates who earned regular or honors diplomas.7 A detailed description of the data surveys and the rules for including students in the analysis population are provided in appendix D. Trends are limited to the years studied; that is, although the data 

 

6These transcript studies were conducted as part of the High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore Cohort Study (1982 

graduates), the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS, 1992 graduates), and the High School Transcript Studies 

(HSTS) of 1990, 1994, and 1998 (1990, 1994, and 1998 graduates, respectively). 

7The HS&B and NELS studies excluded students with the most severe disabilities, where it was determined by school staff that 

these students were unable to complete the lengthy student questionnaires that were a part of these studies. In order to ensure

comparability across the data sets, graduates with special education diplomas were excluded from the HSTS samples (Gifford et 

al. 1989; Tuma 1996). Thus, the samples used for this trend analysis were consistent with the population of public high graduates, including students with disabilities, who earned regular or honors diplomas in each of the study years. This restriction is 

consistent with NCES reports on high school vocational/technical coursetaking published over the last decade and is consistent 

with NCES procedures for transcript studies (Alt and Bradby 1999). In addition, there are some minor coding differences between NELS and the other transcript data that may affect the data for 1992. See appendix D for more information. 
I. Introduction 

8 

may indicate a decline from 1982 to 1992 after which no significant changes were detected, the 

low point may have been reached in 1991 or 1993, or there may have been unobservable spikes 

(highs or lows) in unexamined years. It is assumed in this report, however, that if a consistent 

trend appears in the data, then a trend existed throughout the period highlighted by the survey 

years. 

Transcripts provide information on the courses that public high school graduates took in 

grades 9 through 12. For simplicity’s sake, the report refers to this information as “high school 

coursetaking.” With the exception of the section on vocational/technical coursetaking by grade 

level, which examines coursetaking in each grade 9 through 12 separately, the report describes 

the cumulative coursework that graduates took in high school. 

Researchers assigned codes to each course on a transcript according to the Classification of 

Secondary School Courses (CSSC) (Westat 1992). The analysis for this report then used the Secondary School Taxonomy (SST) to classify these codes into broader course groupings (Bradby 

and Hoachlander 1999). As figure 3 shows, the SST classifies high school courses into three 

main areas (academic, vocational/technical, and enrichment/other) and their curricular subareas. 

The same course classification was applied to each of the five data surveys used in the analysis so 

that coursetaking was defined consistently over time. 

In addition to the name of a course, the transcripts also provide the number of credits a student earned for each course. Credits have been standardized across the survey years, so that 1.0 

credit is equivalent to completing a course that meets one period per day for an entire school 

year. This is equivalent to a standard Carnegie unit. However, for simplicity’s sake, the report 

refers to credits rather than Carnegie units. 

Some Limitations of Transcript Studies 

Transcript studies provide a reliable source of information on student coursetaking. These 

studies do have some limitations, however. First, transcript studies can describe the intended—

but not the actual—curriculum. That is, researchers classify the courses listed on transcripts 

based on course catalogs provided by participating schools. Teachers may or may not adhere 

strictly to the official catalog description when teaching a course. Often, different teachers in a 

school will cover different materials on any given day—and even over an entire semester or 

school year—and may use different instructional practices. When examining courses with similar 

names and descriptions from schools across the nation, researchers are likely to find an even 

wider variation in content than is present in a single school. Thus, they cannot determine from 

transcript studies the actual content students were exposed to when they took a particular course. 
 I. Introduction 

9 

Figure 3.—Secondary school taxonomy

MathematicsScience English Social

Studies

Fine

Arts

NonEnglish

(Foreign)

Languages

Family

and

Consumer

Sciences

Education

General

Labor

Market

Preparation

Specific Labor

Market

Preparation

(Occupational

Education)

General

Skills

Health,

Physical,

and

Recreational

Education

Religion

and

Theology

Military

Science

Academic Vocational Enrichment/other

MathematicsScience English Social

Studies

Fine

Arts

NonEnglish

(Foreign)

Languages

Family

and

Consumer

Sciences

Education

General

Labor

Market

Preparation

Specific Labor

Market

Preparation

(Occupational

Education)

General

Skills

Health,

Physical,

and

Recreational

Education

Religion

and

Theology

Military

Science

SOURCE: Adapted from Bradby, D. and Hoachlander, E.G. (1999). 1998 Revision of the Secondary School Taxonomy (NCES 1999–06). U.S. Department of Education. Washington,

DC: National Center for Education Statistics Working Paper.

Academic Vocational/technical Enrichment/other

Food Service and Hospitality

Food services

Culinary arts

Hospitality sales

Hotel and motel management

Food Service and Hospitality

Food services

Culinary arts

Hospitality sales

Hotel and motel management

Child Care and Education

Child care services

Child development

Other education

Library science

Child Care and Education

Child care services

Child development

Other education

Library science

Personal and Other Services

Interior design

Cosmetology/barbering

Dry cleaning

Building and grounds maintenance

Custodial and housekeeping services

Clothing and textiles

Home economics occupations

General services occupations

Health Care

Health occupations

Health technology/

laboratory

Nursing assisting

Dental assisting

Dental technology

Public and

Protective

Services

Criminal justice

Fire fighting

Human services

Health Care

Health occupations

Health technology/

laboratory

Nursing assisting

Dental assisting

Dental technology

Protective

Services

(and Public

Services)

Criminal justice

Fire fighting

Human services

TECHNOLOGY

Other Technology

Electronic technology

Electromechanical technology

Industrial production technology

Chemical technology

Engineering technologies

Communications Technology

Yearbook production

Broadcast management

Film making and production

Telecommunications

Radio/television production

Videotape production

Other communications

Other communications technologies

Computer Technology

Computer appreciation

Computer mathematics

Computer applications

Computer programming

Data processing

Computer and information

sciences

Marketing and Distribution

Distributive education

Marketing and distribution

Insturance careers

Real estate marketing

Fashion merchandising

Entrepreneurship

Other marketing

Marketing

Distributive education

Marketing and distribution

Insurance careers

Real estate marketing

Fashion merchandising

Entrepreneurship

Other marketing

Business Management

Business management careers

Financial careers

Business administration

Business management

Banking and finance

Business economics

BUSINESS

Business Services

Bookkeeping

Accounting

Recordkeeping

Office machines

Secretarial

Office procedures

Word processing

Business data processing

Business computer programming

Data entry operator

Business Management

Business management careers

Financial careers

Business administration

Business management

Banking and finance

Business economics

Agriculture and Renewable Resources

Agricultural mechanics

Agricultural production

Agricultural occupations

Horticulture

Livestock

Animal sciences

Landscaping

Forestry

Environmental management

Agriculture

(and Renewable Resources)

Agricultural mechanics

Agricultural production

Agricultural occupations

Horticulture

Livestock

Animal sciences

Landscaping

Forestry

Environmental management

Print Production

Computer-assisted design

Drafting

Architectural drawing

Commercial art

Graphic arts

Sign painting

Graphic and printing communications

Aviation powerplant

TRADE AND INDUSTRY

Mechanics and Repair

Industrial mechanics

Radio and TV repair

Air conditioning,

refrigeration, and heating

Power mechanics

Small engine repair

Auto mechanics

Auto body/service

Aviation powerplant

Construction

Electricity

Bricklaying and masonry

Carpentry

Building construction

General construction

trades

Building maintenance

Plumbing

Housewiring

Print Production

Computer-assisted design

Drafting

Architectural drawing

Commercial art

Graphic arts

Sign painting

Graphic and printing

communications

Transportation

Aeronautics

Aviation technology

Aircraft parts management

Marine mechanics

Transportation technology

Vehicle and equipment

operation

Materials

Production

Machine shop

Metal

Welding

Foundry

Plastics

Woodworking

Cabinetmaking

Other Precision

Production

Electronics

Leatherwork and

upholstery

Meatcutting

Commercial photography

PRECISION PRODUCTION
I. Introduction 

10 

Second, the CSSC and the SST rarely make it possible to identify courses taught using particular instructional methodologies. To classify the courses listed on transcripts, researchers may 

consider both content and instructional methodology and then assign an appropriate CSSC code 

to a course. For example, they may assign one CSSC code to courses teaching general mathematics, while they may assign a different code to courses teaching general mathematics through applied methods. However, it is not always possible to determine the instructional methodology 

used from a course title or even from a course description. Therefore, not all CSSC codes distinguish among instructional methodologies. The SST organizes these CSSC codes into broader 

course groupings, and the 1998 revision of the SST focused on content rather than pedagogy in 

assigning courses. For example, both general mathematics and applied general mathematics 

courses are included under the General Mathematics content area of the SST. Although experts 

considered adding flags to course codes to indicate instructional methodology, they decided not 

to do so because of the limitations mentioned here (see Bradby and Hoachlander 1999, pp. 50–

51). 

A final limitation of transcript studies is that they cannot provide reliable information about 

what students have learned from a course. Rather, they can only indicate the content that students 

may have been exposed to by taking a particular course. For example, although a student may 

have earned 1.0 credit in algebra 1, it is not possible to infer the level of algebra competency a 

student achieved through this coursework. Even examining grades in combination with coursetaking does not produce reliable information about student achievement. Although one might assume that students earning A’s in algebra 1 courses achieved a higher level of competency than 

students earning C’s in these courses, it is impossible to infer a particular level of competency 

because of inconsistency in grading practices and course content. Generally, one must use standardized achievement test results to describe the actual achievement levels of students in the areas tested. 

Despite these limitations, transcript studies are a useful tool for examining trends in the 

types and combinations of courses that students take over time. To do so, researchers using transcripts make a couple of assumptions. First, they assume that variation in content occurs less 

within courses with the same course code or classification than it does across courses with different codes or classifications. Second, they assume that the variation within courses with the same 

course code or classification remains relatively constant over time. By making such assumptions, 

they can infer whether students are taking different types of courses or more or less rigorous 

coursework in a subject area or are combining coursework in different ways over time. 
 I. Introduction 

11 

Terms Used in the Report 

Many terms used in the report are defined in appendix C, which provides a quick reference. 

The Vocational/Technical Curriculum 

High school vocational/technical education encompasses three different subcurricula: specific labor market preparation or “occupational education,”8 general labor market preparation, 

and family and consumer sciences education (figure 3). Occupational education consists of 

courses that teach skills and knowledge required in a particular occupation or set of related occupations. For example, health care programs may prepare students specifically for dental assisting 

or nursing assisting, or more broadly for general health occupations. Although traditionally the 

main purpose of occupational education was to prepare students for entering specific occupations, occupational education may also prepare students for entering a related vocational/technical program in college. Based on SST classifications, occupational education in this 

report consists of the 10 broad and 18 narrow program areas shown in figure 3. 

Occupational courses within a program area are divided into four categories: first-level, 

second- or higher-level, cooperative education, and specialty courses. The first three categories 

generally represent sequential coursetaking. For example, in some high schools, a planned occupational program of study may include health occupations 1 in the 10th grade, health occupations 

2 in the 11th grade, and health occupations cooperative education in the 12th grade. In other high 

schools, health occupations cooperative education may follow health occupations 1, either with 

or without concurrent enrollment in health occupations 2. Other high schools may offer 2 years 

of health occupations cooperative education courses following a first and/or second course. In 

addition to these generally sequential courses, some high schools offer specialty courses in a program area. In some cases, specialty courses offer more specialized occupational training (such as 

home health aide), while in others they provide related skills that can be applied to a range of occupations (such as medical terminology). Students may take specialty courses to satisfy a particular interest in a topic or to obtain skills that are broadly applicable to a career field or for other 

reasons. For purposes of this analysis, second- or higher-level and cooperative education courses 

were considered to represent advanced coursework in a program area. 

General labor market preparation consists of courses that teach general employment skills 

that are not specific to one occupational area, such as basic typewriting/keyboarding, introductory 

technology education, and career preparation and general work experience courses. Family and 

 

8For simplicity’s sake, this report uses the term “occupational education” in place of “specific labor market preparation.” 
I. Introduction 

12 

consumer sciences education consists of courses intended to prepare students for family and consumer roles outside the paid labor market.9 

As of 1998, 90.7 percent of public high school graduates earned credits in occupational 

education in high school, 58.8 percent in general labor market preparation, and 44.4 percent in 

family and consumer sciences education (figure 1 and table A1). 

Key Measures of Participation 

Although vocational/technical coursetaking is prevalent in high schools, students take varying amounts and types of these courses and take them for different purposes. Some students seek 

only to meet the minimum high school graduation requirements. Others take typewriting or keyboarding to help them complete homework assignments in either high school or college or to obtain a general employability skill. Some take consumer education courses with an eye toward 

future homemaking. Others take computer education courses to prepare generally for the labor 

market. Some take a sequence of related occupational courses to prepare for work in a specific 

occupation and/or entry into a related vocational/technical program in college, while others take 

occupational courses from one or more program areas to help identify a possible college major or 

future career. Still others “shop around” in high school, sampling courses from both the vocational/technical and academic curricula with no clear goals in mind (Powell, Cohen, and Farrar 

1985). 

Because of the many ways that students participate in the vocational/technical curriculum, 

it is important to examine a range of measures when analyzing participation trends. Figure 4 and 

table A2 show the main measures that are used in this report. Because policymakers are most 

concerned about participation in vocational/technical education overall, and in occupational education in particular, the listed measures provide several lenses for examining these two curricula. 

According to the least restrictive measure—the percentage of public high school graduates who 

were vocational/technical coursetakers—almost all 1998 graduates (96.5 percent) participated in 

the vocational/technical curriculum. According to the most restrictive measure—the percentage 

of graduates who were occupational concentrators with cooperative education—just 4.5 percent 

of 1998 graduates were counted as participating in vocational/technical education. The measures 

are defined in ascending order of restrictiveness below, and there is considerable overlap among 

the measures. 

 

9Home economics-related courses that prepare students for the paid labor market are included under occupational education, in 

the child care and education, food service and hospitality, and personal and other services program areas. 
 I. Introduction 

13 

Figure 4.—Percentage of public high school graduates meeting different measures of participation in 

Figure 4.—vocational/technical education: 1998

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education.

2

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education. 

3

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education.

4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education, regardless of whether they concentrate their occupational 

coursetaking in a single program area.

5

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

6

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 advanced credit in 

that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higher-level courses and cooperative education 

courses. 

7

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 cooperative 

education credit in that program area. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS),

1998.

4.5

14.4

25.0

43.8

61.5

90.7

96.5

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Concentrators with cooperative education

Advanced occupational concentrators

Occupational concentrators

Occupational investors

Vocational/technical investors

Occupational coursetakers

Vocational/technical coursetakers

Percent

3

1

Occupational investors4

Occupational concentrators5

Advanced occupational concentrators6

Advanced occupational concentrators

with cooperative education7

Occupational coursetakers2

Vocational/technical coursetakers—Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education in high school. All of the following groups of students are subsets of this group. 

Occupational coursetakers—Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational 

education in high school. This group is a subset of the previous group. 
I. Introduction 

14 

Vocational/technical investors10—Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education in high school. All of the following groups of students are subsets of this group. 

Occupational investors—Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education 

in high school, regardless of whether they concentrate their occupational coursetaking in a 

single program area. This measure is a subset of the previous measure. 

Occupational concentrators—Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in high school in one 

of the 10 broad occupational program areas listed in figure 3.11 This measure is a subset of 

the previous measure. In some cases, the report also provides information on graduates 

concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in one of the 18 narrow occupational program 

areas in figure 3.12

Advanced occupational concentrators—Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in high 

school in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas listed in figure 3, with at least 1.0 

advanced credit in that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes secondor higher-level courses and cooperative education courses, as described above. This measure is a subset of the previous measure. For simplicity’s sake, this group is sometimes referred to in the report as “advanced concentrators.” 

Advanced occupational concentrators with cooperative education—Graduates earning 3.0 

or more credits in high school in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas listed in 

figure 3, with at least 1.0 cooperative education credit in that program area.13 This measure 

is a subset of the previous measure. For simplicity’s sake, this group is sometimes referred 

to in the report as “concentrators with cooperative education.” 

In addition to tracking the percentages of public high school graduates satisfying the participation 

measures mentioned above, the report also examines trends in the average number of credits 

earned by public high school graduates in vocational/technical areas. 

 

10The terms “investor” and “concentrator” refer to specific patterns of coursetaking rather than to students’ intentions. 

11This classification was also used in Levesque et al. (2000), in which students were referred to as “vocational concentrators.” 

12Students concentrating in one of the 18 narrow occupational program areas in figure 3 represent a majority of all occupational 

concentrators. However, in some cases, graduates earned 3.0 or more credits in “mixed” business, technology, precision production, and trade and industry areas without earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the narrow programs within these broad areas. 

Where applicable, information on these “mixed” concentrators is provided. 

13Cooperative education awards school credit for work experience that is related to a student’s occupational program and typically alternates work placements and classroom time. 
 I. Introduction 

15 

Although all of the above measures are discussed in this report, the report emphasizes the 

coursetaking patterns of occupational concentrators because this group is a common focus of 

federal and state accountability and research efforts for vocational/technical education (Office of 

Vocational and Adult Education 2002; Silverberg et al. 2002).14 

 

14The Office of Vocational and Adult Education (2002) and Silverberg (2002) refer to this group as “vocational” concentrators. 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
17 

II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

This chapter examines trends in vocational/technical coursetaking in high school overall, as 

well as trends in vocational/technical coursetaking by grade level, occupational coursetaking by 

program area, concentrating in occupational education, and work-based learning. It also explores 

the relationship between changes in vocational/technical coursetaking and state high school 

graduation requirements. 

Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

Overall Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

Over the period studied, the primary change in vocational/technical coursetaking was not in 

the proportion of high school students participating in vocational/technical education but in the 

amount of vocational/technical education they took. That is, the breadth of vocational/technical 

coursetaking declined slightly, while the depth of this coursetaking declined more steeply. However, most declines in vocational/technical coursetaking occurred by the early 1990s. 

Between 1982 and 1998, almost all public high school graduates (between 98.2 percent and 

96.5 percent) earned at least some credits in vocational/technical education in high school (figure 

5 and table A2).15 However, the average number of credits that public high school graduates 

earned in vocational/technical education decreased from 4.68 credits for the class of 1982 to 4.19 

credits for the class of 1990, after which no significant changes were detected (figure 6). Similarly, the percentage of graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education in 

high school (defined as “vocational/technical investors” in chapter I) declined from 71.3 percent 

for 1982 graduates to 63.7 percent for 1990 graduates (figure 5 and table A2). As of 1998, 61.5 

percent of graduates invested 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education in high 

school.16

 

15The slight decrease from 98.2 percent for 1982 graduates to 96.5 percent for 1998 graduates was statistically significant. 

16The difference in rates of investing in vocational/technical education for 1990 and 1998 graduates was not statistically significant. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

18 

Figure 5.—Percentage of public high school graduates who were vocational/technical coursetakers and

Figure 5.—investors: Various years, 1982–98

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

98.2 98.0 97.7 97.2 96.5

71.3

63.7 61.9 61.1 61.5

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Vocational/technical coursetakers

Vocational/technical investors

1

2

Figure 6.—Average number of credits earned in vocational/technical education by public high school 

Figure 6.—graduates: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

4.68

4.19 3.99 3.96 3.99

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits

earned
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

19 

Although most of the decline in average number of vocational/technical credits earned by 

graduates occurred by 1990, vocational/technical credits represented a declining share of the total 

high school credits that graduates earned throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Specifically, the share 

of total credits earned in high school by graduates that were vocational/technical credits decreased from 21.8 percent for 1982 graduates to 17.9 percent for 1990 graduates and then decreased further to 15.9 percent for 1998 graduates (figure 7). These relative declines were due to 

public high school graduates earning on average more academic credits and, to a lesser extent, 

more enrichment/other credits in high school over the period studied. Specifically, the number of 

academic credits earned on average by public high school graduates increased from 14.28 credits 

for 1982 graduates to 17.22 credits for 1992 graduates, and then to 18.26 credits for 1998 graduates (figure 8).17 Between 1982 and 1998, the average number of credits that graduates earned in 

enrichment/other courses increased from 2.64 credits to 2.89 credits.18

Figure 7.—Percentage distribution of total credits earned by public high school graduates, by curriculum: 

Figure 8.—Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

11.4 10.9 11.5

66.1 70.7 72.1 72.7 72.6

21.8 17.9 16.8 16.5 15.9

12.1 11.1

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Percent

Vocational/technical

Academic

Enrichment/other

 

17The apparent increase between 1992 and 1994 was not statistically significant, although all other increases over this period 

were statistically significant. 

18The change in enrichment/other credits earned was smaller than the changes in credits earned in academic and vocational/technical courses. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

20 

Figure 8.—Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates, by curriculum: Various 

Figure 8.—years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

2.64 2.68 2.65 2.63 2.89

4.68 4.19 3.99 3.96 3.99

14.28 16.66 17.22 17.58 18.26

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned

Academic

Vocational/technical

Enrichment/other

21.60

23.53 23.86 24.17

25.14

Trends in the Three Vocational/Technical Subcurricula 

As explained in chapter I, vocational/technical education consists of occupational education, general labor market preparation, and family and consumer sciences education. Relative 

changes in coursetaking in these three subcurricula signal changes in the nature of vocational/technical coursetaking in high school. 

The decrease in vocational/technical credits earned over the period studied was due primarily to a decrease in general labor market preparation coursetaking in high school. Comparing the 

classes of 1982 and 1998, the number of general labor market preparation credits earned by public high school graduates declined by 0.34 credits on average (figure 9). In contrast, over this period, the number of credits that graduates earned in family and consumer sciences education 

declined by 0.18 credits on average, while there was no statistically significant change in the 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

21 

Figure 9.—Average number of credits earned in vocational/technical education by public high school 

Figure 9.—graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

3.03 2.89 2.84 2.79 2.87

0.69

0.95

0.73

0.57 0.54 0.52 0.51

0.62 0.64 0.61

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits

 earned

General labor

market preparation

Family and consumer

sciences education

Occupational education

4.68

4.19 3.99 3.96 3.99

average number of credits that graduates earned in occupational education.19 Paralleling declines 

in vocational/technical coursetaking overall, declines in general labor market preparation coursetaking occurred primarily by the early 1990s. The average number of credits that public high 

school graduates earned in general labor market preparation decreased from 0.95 credits for the 

class of 1982 to 0.62 credits for the class of 1992, after which no significant changes were detected. 

The decrease in general labor market preparation credits earned was due primarily to a decrease in the number of basic typewriting/keyboarding courses that graduates took in high school 

(figure 10 and table A3). Comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, the number of credits that 

public high school graduates earned in basic typewriting/keyboarding declined by 0.26 credits on 

average, about three-quarters of the total general labor market preparation decline of 0.34 credits. 

As with vocational/technical coursetaking overall, the breadth of occupational coursetaking 

was fairly high over the period studied. Most public high school graduates (between 88.7 percent 

 

19Although the average number of credits that graduates earned in occupational education appeared to decline by 0.16 credits 

between 1982 and 1998, this apparent decline was not statistically significant. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

22 

Figure 10.—Average number of credits earned in general labor market preparation by public high school 

Figure 10.—graduates, by area: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

0.23 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.20

0.17

0.11 0.12 0.12

0.12

0.55

0.45

0.34 0.37 0.29

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits

earned

Basic typewriting/keyboarding

Industrial arts/technology education

Career preparation/general work

experience

0.95

0.73

0.62 0.64 0.61

and 92.2 percent) earned at least some occupational credits in high school during this period (figure 11 and table A2).20 However, compared with vocational/technical coursetaking, the amount

of occupational education that graduates took remained relatively steady between 1982 and 1998. 

The average number of occupational credits that 1998 public high school graduates earned in 

high school (2.87 credits) was not statistically different from the average number earned by 1982 

graduates (3.03 credits) (figure 9). Similarly, the percentage of 1982 public high school graduates 

who earned 3.0 or more credits in occupational education in high school (defined as “occupational investors” in chapter I) was not statistically different from the percentage for 1998 graduates (46.2 percent and 43.8 percent, respectively) (figure 11 and table A2).21

With declines in general labor market preparation and family and consumer sciences education coursetaking—and relatively steady patterns of occupational coursetaking—occupational 

 

20The percentage of graduates earning at least some occupational credits in high school (occupational coursetakers) actually 

increased slightly from 88.7 percent in 1982 to 92.2 percent in 1992, after which no significant changes were detected. However, 

the apparent difference between the classes of 1982 and 1998 was not statistically significant. 

21The percentage of graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits in high school (occupational investors) actually declined 

slightly from 46.2 percent in 1982 to 42.2 percent in 1992, after which no significant changes were detected. However, the apparent difference between the classes of 1982 and 1998 was not statistically significant. 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

23 

Figure 11.—Percentage of public high school graduates participating in occupational education,

Figure 12.—by different definitions of participation: Various years, 1982–98

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education, regardless of whether they concentrate their occupational 

coursetaking in a single program area.

3

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 advanced credit in 

that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higher-level courses and cooperative education 

courses. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

88.7 90.6 92.2 90.8 90.7

46.2 43.0 42.2 42.0 43.8

27.8 24.9 25.4 25.0

24.0

16.1 16.2 14.5 14.4

33.7

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Occupational coursetakers

Occupational investors

Occupational concentrators

Advanced occupational

concentrators

1

2

3

4

education became a more prominent part of high school vocational/technical coursetaking over 

the period studied. The share of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school graduates that were occupational credits increased from 59.4 percent for 1982 graduates to 68.4 percent (about two-thirds of all vocational/technical coursetaking) for 1998 graduates (figure 12). In 

comparison, the share of vocational/technical credits earned by graduates that were general labor 

market preparation credits decreased from 25.4 percent for the class of 1982 to 18.1 percent for 

the class of 1998. The share of vocational/technical credits earned by 1982 graduates that were 

family and consumer sciences education credits was not statistically different from the share of 

these credits earned by 1998 graduates (15.2 percent and 13.5 percent, respectively). The 1998 

public high school graduates earned about 2.87 credits in occupational education in high school, 

in contrast with about 0.61 credits in general labor market preparation and 0.51 credits in family 

and consumer sciences education (figure 9). 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

24 

Figure 12.—Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school graduates,

Figure 11.—by vocational/technical curriculum: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

59.4 64.2 67.9 67.1 68.4

25.4 21.5 18.2 19.1 18.1

15.2 14.3 13.9 13.7 13.5

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Percent

Family and consumer

sciences education

General labor

market preparation

Occupational education

Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking by Grade Level 

The Timing of Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

For the high school graduating class of 1998, about 60 percent of vocational/technical 

coursetaking occurred in the 11th and 12th grades, while about 40 percent occurred in grades 9 

and 10 (figure 13 and table A4). Specifically, more than one-third (36.2 percent) of the vocational/technical credits earned by 1998 public high school graduates were earned in grade 12. In 

comparison, graduates earned 23.6 percent of their vocational/technical credits in grade 11, 19.5 

percent in grade 10, and 20.7 percent in grade 9. These proportions translate into 1998 public 

high school graduates earning 1.51 credits on average—the equivalent of about one and a half 

full-year vocational/technical courses—in the 12th grade. In contrast, graduates earned 1.01 credits in the 11th grade, 0.75 credits in the 10th grade, and 0.71 credits in the 9th grade (table 2). 

For the graduating class of 1998, the timing of occupational and family and consumer sciences education coursetaking was similar to that of overall vocational/technical coursetaking, 

with more of this coursetaking occurring in grade 12 than in earlier grades. In contrast, general 

labor market preparation coursetaking was more likely to occur in grade 9. The 1998 public high 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

25 

Figure 13.—Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school graduates, 

Figure 15.—by grade level of course: 1998

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

41.8

23.1

16.0

20.7

24.9

19.9

18.5

19.5

15.0

20.8

25.8

23.6

18.4

36.2

39.7

36.2

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

General labor market

preparation

Family and consumer

sciences education

Occupational education

Total

Percent

Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12

Table 2.—Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school graduates, by grade

Table 2.—level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 4.68 4.19 3.99 3.96 3.99

Grade level

 9 0.71 0.67 0.69 0.68 0.71

 10 0.93 0.77 0.76 0.73 0.75

 11 1.40 1.13 1.04 1.02 1.01

 12 1.62 1.61 1.50 1.53 1.51

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

26 

school graduates earned 39.7 percent of their occupational credits and 36.2 percent of their family and consumer sciences education credits in the 12th grade, compared with 18.4 percent of 

their general labor market preparation credits (figure 13 and table A4). In contrast, graduates 

earned 41.8 percent of their general labor market preparation credits in the 9th grade, in comparison with 16.0 percent of their occupational credits and 23.1 percent of their family and consumer 

sciences education credits. For 1998 graduates, 65.5 percent (about two-thirds) of occupational 

coursetaking and 57.0 percent of family and consumer sciences education coursetaking occurred 

in the 11th and 12th grades, compared with 33.4 percent of general labor market preparation 

coursetaking. 

The 1998 graduates took more occupational coursework than either family and consumer 

sciences education or general labor market preparation coursework at each grade level in high 

school (table 3). For example, in the 9th grade, public high school graduates earned on average 

0.38 occupational credits, compared with 0.22 credits in general labor market preparation and 

0.11 credits in family and consumer sciences education. In the 12th grade, graduates earned on 

average 1.19 occupational credits, compared with 0.14 credits in general labor market preparation and 0.18 credits in family and consumer sciences education. The 1.19 occupational credits 

that 1998 graduates earned in the 12th grade were the equivalent of more than one full-year occupational course. 

Table 3.—Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school graduates, by grade

Table 3.—level of course: 1998

Vocational/technical General labor Family and consumer Occupational

total market preparation sciences education education

 Total 3.99 0.61 0.51 2.87

Grade level

 9 0.71 0.22 0.11 0.38

 10 0.75 0.14 0.11 0.51

 11 1.01 0.11 0.11 0.79

 12 1.51 0.14 0.18 1.19

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

27 

Trends in Family and Consumer Sciences Education and General Labor Market 

Preparation by Grade Level 

The average number of credits that public high school graduates earned in family and consumer sciences education declined by 0.18 credits over the period studied, from 0.69 credits for 

1982 graduates to 0.51 credits for 1998 graduates (table 4). This decline occurred mainly in the 

9th and 11th grades (0.06 credits in each year). 

As reported earlier, the average number of credits that public high school graduates earned 

in general labor market preparation declined by 0.34 credits over the period studied, from 0.95 

credits for 1982 graduates to 0.61 credits for 1998 graduates (table 5). Most of this decline occurred in the 10th, 11th, and 12th grades, where the average credits that public high school 

graduates earned in general labor market preparation declined by 0.15 credits, 0.10 credits, and 

0.07 credits, respectively, between 1982 and 1998. There was no significant change detected in 

the average number of general labor market preparation credits earned in the 9th grade by graduates over this period. 

Trends in Occupational Coursetaking by Grade Level 

As reported earlier in this chapter, there was no significant difference in the numbers of occupational credits earned on average by 1982 and 1998 public high school graduates.22 However, 

Table 4.—Average number of credits earned in family and consumer sciences education by public high 

Table 4.—school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 0.69 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.51

Grade level

 9 0.17 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11

 10 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.11

 11 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.12 0.11

 12 0.22 0.19 0.20 0.17 0.18

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

 

22Although there were some declines for the graduating classes in interim years, the difference in credits earned on average by 

1982 and 1998 graduates was not statistically significant. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

28 

Table 5.—Average number of credits earned in general labor market preparation by public high school 

Table 5.—graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 0.95 0.73 0.62 0.64 0.61

Grade level

 9 0.24 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.22

 10 0.29 0.22 0.18 0.17 0.14

 11 0.21 0.13 0.10 0.11 0.11

 12 0.21 0.17 0.11 0.13 0.14

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

trends in occupational coursetaking varied at the different grade levels over the period studied 

(figure 14). The 1998 public high school graduates earned on average 0.23 fewer occupational 

credits in the 11th grade and 0.08 more occupational credits in the 9th grade than did 1982 

graduates. In contrast, there were no statistically significant changes in the average number of 

occupational credits earned in the 10th and 12th grades by 1982 and 1998 graduates. 

Graduates earned more core academic credits in the 11th grade than in any other grade in 

high school in each year studied. The reduction in occupational coursetaking in the 11th grade 

may be due to graduates taking additional academic courses over the period in that grade, thereby 

having less time for occupational coursework. Specifically, 1998 public high school graduates 

earned 0.84 more credits in core academic subjects (English, mathematics, science, and social 

studies) in the 11th grade—equivalent to almost one additional full-year core academic course—

than did 1982 graduates (table 6). 

The decline noted earlier in 9th-grade family and consumer sciences education coursetaking 

may have made room for some additional occupational coursetaking, making it possible for 

graduates to shift some of their occupational coursetaking from higher grades (particularly grade 

11) to grade 9. Such a shift may have mitigated any overall decline in occupational coursetaking 

in high school. 

As a result of these coursetaking changes in the three vocational/technical subcurricula, the 

distribution of vocational/technical credits earned across the grade levels shifted somewhat from 

grade 11 to grade 9. Specifically, comparing 1998 graduates with their 1982 counterparts, the 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

29 

Figure 14.—Average number of occupational credits earned by public high school graduates, by grade level 

Figure 81.—of course: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

0.51 0.45 0.48 0.51

1.02 0.87 0.83 0.79 0.79

1.19

1.25 1.19 1.23 1.19

0.30 0.32 0.34 0.33 0.38

0.44

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned

Grade 12

Grade 11

Grade 10

Grade 9

3.03

2.89 2.84 2.79 2.87

Table 6.—Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school graduates, 

Table 6.—by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 11.87 13.57 13.88 14.21 14.51

Grade level

 9 3.38 3.59 3.59 3.67 3.73

 10 3.15 3.53 3.61 3.70 3.77

 11 2.97 3.48 3.59 3.69 3.81

 12 2.34 2.97 3.06 3.15 3.21

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Core academic subjects include English, mathematics, science, and 

social studies.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

30 

share of total vocational/technical credits that graduates earned in the 11th grade decreased by 5.1 

percentage points over the period, while the share earned in the 9th grade increased by 3.7 percentage points (table A4). (There were no significant changes detected in the shares of vocational/technical credits earned in the 10th and 12th grades.) 

Trends in Coursetaking in Occupational Program Areas 

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, most public high school graduates in each graduating 

class studied (between 88.7 percent and 92.2 percent) earned at least some occupational credits in 

high school (figure 11 and table A2). Similarly, there was no significant difference in the average 

number of occupational credits earned in high school by 1982 and 1998 graduates (2.87 credits 

versus 3.03 credits) (figure 9). However, the percentage of public high school graduates who 

concentrated in occupational education—those who earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 

broad occupational program areas in figure 3—declined from 33.7 percent for 1982 graduates to 

27.8 percent for 1990 graduates (figure 11 and table A2). As of 1998, 25.0 percent of graduates 

concentrated in occupational education.23 

To examine occupational coursetaking in detail, the remainder of this section compares 

trends in the breadth of occupational coursetaking (that is, the percentage of graduates taking at 

least one course in a program area) and in the depth of occupational coursetaking (including both 

the average credits earned and the percentage of graduates concentrating in a program area) 

among the 18 narrow program areas in figure 3. Trends in occupational coursetaking varied 

widely among these program areas.24 On the one hand, many key measures of participation 

showed declines in coursetaking in materials production (including metals, woods, and plastics), 

mechanics and repair, business management, and business services. On the other hand, many key 

measures showed increases in coursetaking in computer technology, communications technology, health care, and child care and education. In some of these program areas, both the breadth 

and depth of coursetaking changed, while in others, patterns were more varied. However, many 

of the coursetaking measures did not exhibit statistically significant changes between 1982 and 

1998. This lack of change could reflect constant rates of coursetaking; however, in some program 

areas (for example, in personal and other services, construction, and computer technology) small 

sample sizes may have made it difficult to detect some changes that may have occurred. 

 

23The difference in concentration rates for 1990 and 1998 graduates was not statistically significant. 

24As explained in chapter I, the majority of occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the 18 narrow occupational program areas in figure 3. However, some concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in “mixed” business, technology, 

precision production, and trade and industry program areas without earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the narrow programs 

within these broad areas. Where appropriate, tables also provide information on concentrators in the four “mixed” program areas. 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

31 

An Overview of Program Areas With Declining Coursetaking 

The occupational program areas of materials production, business management, and mechanics and repair exhibited declines in both the breadth and depth of coursetaking over the period studied. Comparing the graduating classes of 1982 and 1998, the percentage of public high 

school graduates who took at least one course declined over the period in materials production 

(by 8.8 percentage points), business management (by 7.7 percentage points), and mechanics and 

repair (by 3.1 percentage points) (figure 15 and table A5). Similarly, the average number of credits earned by public high school graduates declined in these three areas (by 0.17 credits, 0.08 

credits, and 0.09 credits, respectively) (figure 16 and table A6). The percentage of graduates who 

concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the program area also declined by 1.7 percentage 

points in materials production and 1.2 percentage points in mechanics and repair (figure 17 and 

table A7). These declines in both the breadth and depth of coursetaking suggest that these program areas—particularly materials production and mechanics and repair—became a relatively 

less prominent part of occupational education over the period studied. Declines in some of these 

program areas appear to reflect changes in occupational employment as well; in particular, between 1983 and 1996, precision production, craft, and repair occupations were projected to have 

below-average growth (Hurst and Hudson 2000). 

Paralleling the trends in vocational/technical education and occupational education noted 

earlier in this chapter, the business services program area exhibited less change in the breadth of 

coursetaking than in the depth of that coursetaking. There was no significant difference in the 

percentage of 1982 and 1998 graduates who earned business services credits, a measure of the 

breadth of this coursetaking. About 42.0 percent of 1982 graduates and 44.0 percent of 1998 

graduates earned business services credits in high school (table A5).25 In contrast, 1998 graduates 

earned 0.23 fewer credits on average in business services than did 1982 graduates (figure 16 and 

table A6), and fewer public high school graduates concentrated in business services over that period (a decline of 6.0 percentage points) (figure 17 and table A7). This indicates that the amount, 

or depth, of graduates’ coursetaking in business services declined between 1982 and 1998. In 

fact, of the 18 narrow occupational program areas, business services exhibited the largest decline 

in the percentage of graduates concentrating in the program area over the period studied (figure 

17 and table A7). 

 

25The percentage of graduates earning business services credits actually increased between 1982 and 1994 and then decreased to 

a level in 1998 that was not statistically different from that in 1982. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

32 

Figure 15.—Change in the percentage of public high school graduates taking at least one occupational 

Figure 17.—course, by program area: 1982 and 1998

*These changes between 1982 and 1998 were statistically significant. All other changes in the figure were not statistically

significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982, and High School Transcript Study 

(HSTS), 1998.

2.3

2.1

1.5

1.3

1.3

1.0

0.6

0.5

0.1

-0.9

-1.6

-1.7

21.1*

4.4*

-3.1*

-7.6*

-8.8*

-25.0 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

Percent

Materials production 

Other precision production

Construction

Personal and other services

Mechanics and repair

Business management

Health care

Other technology

Marketing

Food service and hospitality

Transportation

Agriculture

Child care and education

Protective services

Print production

Business services

Communications technology

Computer technology

0.0
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

33 

Figure 16.—Change in the average number of occupational credits earned by public high school graduates, 

Figure 18.—by program area: 1982 and 1998

*These changes between 1982 and 1998 were statistically significant. All other changes in the figure were not statistically

significant.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982, and High School Transcript Study 

(HSTS), 1998.

0.03

0.02

0.01

-0.01

-0.01

-0.03

-0.03

0.00

0.00

0.00

-0.23*

-0.17*

-0.09*

-0.08*

0.02*

0.08*

0.09*

0.20*

-1.00 -0.80 -0.60 -0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

Credits earned

Business services 

Construction

Personal and other services

Business management

Mechanics and repair

Materials production

Child care and education

Other technology

Print production

Marketing

Protective services

Transportation

Agriculture

Other precision production

Food service and hospitality

Communications technology

Health care

Computer technology
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

34 

Figure 17.—Change in the percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in occupational 

Figure 17.—education, by program area: 1982 and 1998

*These changes between 1982 and 1998 were statistically significant. All other changes in the figure were not statistically

significant. Health care was not statistically significant due to large standard errors.

NOTE: Details are provided for graduates who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed. 

Because percentages for transportation and protective services were too small to report in 1982, the change between 1982 and

1998 could not be calculated for these two program areas.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982, and High School Transcript Study 

(HSTS), 1998.

1.3

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

-0.2

-0.5

-1.2

-1.7

0.0

0.0

-0.2

-0.2

0.7*

0.4*

-1.2*

-25.0 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

Percent

Marketing

Print production

Business services 

Communications technology

Child care and education

Business management

Food service and hospitality

Other technology

Other precision production

Agriculture

Construction

Personal and other services

Mechanics and repair

Materials production

Computer technology

Health care
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

35 

Thus, in the business services program area (unlike materials production and mechanics 

and repair), declines in coursetaking did not result from fewer students taking business services 

courses in high school, but from business services coursetakers taking less extensive coursework 

in the program area. Specifically, the proportion of business services coursetakers who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the program area in high school declined by 14.7 percentage 

points between 1982 and 1998 (figure 18 and table A8). 

Figure 18.—Change in the percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating in occupational 

Figure 18.—education, by program area: 1982 and 1998

*These changes between 1982 and 1998 were statistically significant. All other changes in the figure were not statistically

significant. Health care was not statistically significant due to large standard errors.

NOTE: Occupational coursetakers earned greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education. Details are provided for

occupational coursetakers who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982, and High School Transcript Study 

(HSTS), 1998.

15.0

3.4

2.9

1.9

1.9

-0.1

-0.5

-0.7

-0.8

-2.1

-2.8

-3.0

-3.2

-3.5

-5.2

5.0*

4.5*

-14.7*

-25.0 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

Percent

Business services 

Child care and education

Communications technology

Food service and hospitality

Protective services

Business management

Construction

Computer technology

Transportation

Print production

Other technology

Marketing

Personal and other services

Materials production

Agriculture

Mechanics and repair

Other precison production

Health care
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

36 

In addition, declines between 1982 and 1998 in business services coursetaking were due 

primarily to declines in average credits earned by graduates in noncomputer-related business services courses (including bookkeeping, accounting, secretarial, and general office procedures 

courses) (table 7). In contrast, average credits earned in computer-related business services 

courses increased over the same period. Overall declines in business services coursework coincided with projections of below-average growth for secretary and typist occupations (Hurst and 

Hudson 2000). 

Table 7.—Average credits earned in business services by public high school graduates, by computer-related

Table 7.—area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 0.79 0.72 0.65 0.71 0.56

Noncomputer-related 0.78 0.44 0.36 0.33 0.23

Computer-related 0.01 0.28 0.29 0.38 0.33

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

Despite the declines in the amount of business services coursetaking over the period studied, 1998 public high school graduates earned more credits in business services than in any other 

occupational program area in high school (figure 19 and table A6). Similarly, 1998 graduates 

were more likely to concentrate in business services than in most other occupational program areas (figure 20 and table A7).26 Among 1998 graduates, 13.1 percent of all occupational concentrators were in the business services program area (tables 8 and A9). 

An Overview of Program Areas With Increasing Coursetaking 

The occupational program areas of computer technology and communications technology 

generally exhibited increases in both the breadth and depth of coursetaking over the period studied. Comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, the percentage of public high school graduates who 

earned credits in computer technology increased by 21.1 percentage points, and the percentage 

who earned credits in communications technology increased by 4.4 percentage points (figure 15 

and table A5). Similarly, the average number of credits earned by public high school graduates 

 

26The percentage of 1998 graduates concentrating in business services was not statistically higher than the percentage of 1998 

graduates concentrating in agriculture, print production, and health care. 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

37 

Figure 19.—Average number of occupational credits earned by public high school graduates, by program 

Figure 21.—area: 1998

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

0.01

0.01

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.07

0.10

0.10

0.14

0.14

0.16

0.16

0.17

0.17

0.20

0.27

0.31

0.56

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

Protective services

Transportation

Other technology

Other precision production

Food service and hospitality

Personal and other services

Construction

Child care and education

Business management

Health care

Marketing

Communications technology

Mechanics and repair

Materials production

Agriculture

Print production

Computer technology

Business services

Credits earned

increased in these two program areas over the period (by 0.20 credits and 0.08 credits, respectively) (figure 16 and table A6).27 In both cases, increases were greater for computer technology 

than for communications technology. Finally, the percentage of graduates who concentrated 

(earned 3.0 or more credits) in communications technology in high school also increased by 0.7 

percent (figure 17 and table A7). 

 

27The average number of credits earned in the “other technology” area also increased (by 0.02 credits) between 1982 and 1998, 

although none of the other coursetaking changes discussed in this section was statistically significant in this program area. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

38 

Figure 20.—Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in occupational education,

Figure 22.—by program area: 1998

NOTE: Details are provided for graduates who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.8

0.8

1.3

1.3

1.8

1.8

1.9

2.0

2.6

3.3

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Transportation

Protective services

Other technology

Other precision production

Business management

Food service and hospitality

Child care and education

Computer technology

Personal and other services

Communications technology

Construction

Materials production

Marketing

Mechanics and repair

Health care

Print production

Agriculture

Business services

Percent
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

39 

Table 8.—Percentage distribution of occupational concentrators, by program area: 1998

1998 

 Total 100.0 

Transportation 0.3 

Protective services 0.3 

Other technology 0.6 

Other precision production 0.9 

Business management 1.7 

Food service and hospitality 1.8 

Child care and education 2.4 

Mixed technology1 2.4 

Computer technology 2.5 

Personal and other services 3.2 

Communications technology 3.4 

Mixed business1 4.6 

Construction 5.1 

Materials production 5.3 

Mixed precision production1 5.5 

Mixed trade and industry1 7.0 

Marketing 7.2 

Mechanics and repair 7.2 

Health care 7.4 

Print production 7.9 

Agriculture 10.2 

Business services 13.1 

1

“Mixed” categories include students who earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the broad occupational program areas listed,

but fewer than 3.0 credits in any one of the associated sub-areas. That is, students earned 3.0 or more credits in business, but 

fewer than 3.0 credits in either business management or business services; 3.0 or more credits in technology, but fewer than 

3.0 credits in either communications technology, computer technology, or “other” technology; 3.0 or more credits in precision 

production, but fewer than 3.0 credits in either materials production, print production, or “other” production; or 3.0 or more 

credits in trade and industry, but fewer than 3.0 credits in either construction, mechanics and repair, transportation, or precision 

production.

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in the occupational program areas listed. In the few cases where 

graduates earned 3.0 or more credits in more than one program area, they were assigned to the area in which they earned 

the most credits. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

The increases noted in computer technology coursetaking suggest that this program area 

became a relatively more prominent part of occupational education over the period studied. 

About one-third (34.3 percent) of 1998 public high school graduates earned credits in computer 

technology courses in high school, a higher percentage than that in all other program areas except 

business services (figure 21 and table A5).28 Similarly, 1998 graduates earned more credits on 

average in computer technology than in most other program areas (figure 19 and table 

 

28The difference between computer technology and business services was not statistically significant. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

40 

Figure 21.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning occupational credits, by program area: 1998

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

1.0

1.3

2.7

3.0

3.2

4.6

5.6

6.7

7.8

10.0

10.5

10.6

11.6

15.1

16.1

20.5

34.3

44.4

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Transportation

Protective services

Other technology

Other precision production

Food service and hospitality

Personal and other services

Construction

Health care

Child care and education

Mechanics and repair

Marketing

Agriculture

Materials production

Communications technology

Business management

Print production

Computer technology

Business services

Percent

A6).29 However, the percentage of public high school graduates who concentrated in computer 

technology in high school was relatively low (figure 20 and table A7).30 Among 1998 graduates, 

2.5 percent of all occupational concentrators were in computer technology (tables 8 and A9). 

While computer technology coursetaking became more widespread over the period studied, 

evidence about the depth of that coursetaking was mixed. The average number of credits that 

 

29The exceptions were business services, agriculture, and print production. The average number of credits earned by 1998 graduates in agriculture and print production was not statistically different from that earned in computer technology by 1998 graduates. 

In addition, 1998 graduates earned more credits on average in business services than in computer technology. 

30Rates of concentrating in a program area were higher in business services (3.3 percent), marketing (1.8 percent), mechanics 

and repair (1.8 percent), and print production (2.0 percent) than in computer technology (0.6 percent). All other differences between computer technology and other program areas were not statistically significant. 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

41 

graduates earned in computer technology in high school increased, but the percentage of graduates concentrating in computer technology did not. Among 1998 graduates, 1.9 percent of computer technology coursetakers concentrated in this program area in high school, a lower 

occupational concentration rate than that for coursetakers in most other program areas (figure 22 

and table A8).31 

Figure 22.—Percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating in occupational education, by program

Figure 24.—area: 1998

NOTE: Occupational coursetakers earned greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education. Details are provided for 

occupational coursetakers who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas in which they took 

courses.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

1.9

2.6

5.2

5.5

5.6

6.5

7.4

7.6

7.7

9.7

11.4

14.2

17.2

17.3

18.1

22.4

24.0

28.0

0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0

Computer technology

Business management

Protective services

Other technology

Communications technology

Transportation

Business services

Child care and education

Other precision production

Print production

Materials production

Food service and hospitality

Marketing

Personal and other services

Mechanics and repair

Construction

Agriculture

Health care

Percent

 

31The percentage of computer technology coursetakers who concentrated in this program area was not statistically different from 

the percentage of coursetakers concentrating in business management, protective services, other precision production, transportation, and other technology areas. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

42 

As with computer technology, the increases in coursetaking noted in communications technology suggest that this program area also became a relatively more prominent part of occupational education over the period studied, although the breadth of communications technology 

coursetaking was less extensive than that of computer technology. About one in seven 1998 public high school graduates (15.1 percent) earned credits in communications technology, compared 

with one-third (34.3 percent) in computer technology (figure 21 and table A5). 

There is mixed evidence about how communications technology and computer technology 

compared in terms of the depth of coursetaking. The 1998 public high school graduates earned 

about half the number of credits on average in communications technology in high school as they 

did in computer technology (0.16 credits versus 0.31 credits) (figure 19 and table A6). However, 

the percentage of 1998 graduates who concentrated in communications technology (0.8 percent) 

was not statistically different from the percentage who concentrated in computer technology (0.6 

percent) (figure 20 and table A7). Although fewer 1998 graduates took communications technology courses than computer technology courses in high school, graduates who took communications technology courses were more likely than computer technology coursetakers to concentrate 

(earn 3.0 or more credits) in their respective program areas. Specifically, among 1998 graduates, 

5.6 percent of communications technology coursetakers concentrated in their program area in 

high school, while 1.9 percent of computer technology coursetakers did so (figure 22 and table 

A8). 

As explained in chapter III, the 1998 Secondary School Taxonomy (SST) classifies computer-related courses according to content rather than pedagogy and includes some courses under 

the computer technology occupational program area that may have been taught in mathematics or 

other departments. Consequently, courses classified by the SST under computer technology may 

not constitute planned sequences of occupational courses to the same extent that courses in other 

occupational program areas do. It is not possible to determine from the available data to what extent the lower concentration rate among computer technology coursetakers than among communications technology coursetakers may be due to this difference in classification or to other 

factors. 

In addition to increases in coursetaking in the computer and communications technology 

program areas, both health care and child care and education exhibited some increase in the 

depth—but not the breadth—of coursetaking over the period studied. The percentage of 1982 

public high school graduates earning credits in health care in high school was not statistically different from the percentage of 1998 graduates earning health care credits (4.5 percent and 6.7 percent, respectively) (figure 15 and table A5). Similarly, the percentage of 1982 graduates earning 

credits in child care and education in high school was not statistically different from the percent-
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

43 

age of 1998 graduates earning such credits (7.6 percent and 7.8 percent, respectively). In contrast, 

comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, the average number of credits earned by graduates increased in health care by 0.09 credits over the period (figure 16 and table A6), equivalent to 

health care coursetakers taking about one additional health care course over the period. Additionally, the percentage of graduates who concentrated in child care and education in high school increased by 0.4 percentage points (figure 17 and table A7). 

To some extent, the increases in occupational coursetaking discussed in this section reflect 

changes in employment over the period studied. Projected demand for workers in technical and 

related support occupations, health service occupations, and child care and teacher aide occupations increased at above-average rates between 1983 and 1996 (Hurst and Hudson 2000). 

A Closer Look at Trends in Occupational Concentrating 

Public high school graduates were less likely to concentrate in occupational education in 

high school over the period studied. This trend was not due to an overall decline in occupational 

coursetaking, however. As mentioned earlier, there was no significant difference between the 

percentage of 1982 public high school graduates taking occupational courses in high school and 

the percentage of 1998 graduates taking such courses (88.7 percent and 90.7 percent, respectively) (figure 11 and table A2). Similarly, there was no significant difference between the percentages of 1982 and 1998 public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in 

occupational education in high school (defined as “occupational investors” in chapter I) (46.2 

percent and 43.8 percent, respectively). However, the percentage of graduates who concentrated 

in occupational education—those who earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas in figure 3—declined from 33.7 percent for 1982 graduates to 25.0 percent 

for 1998 graduates. This decline meant that graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits 

were less likely to concentrate that coursetaking in an occupational program area over the period 

studied. Specifically, the percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits who concentrated in occupational education declined from 72.8 percent for 1982 

graduates to 59.1 percent for 1992 graduates. Among 1998 graduates, 57.0 percent of occupational investors concentrated in occupational education (figure 23 and table A10).32 

Additionally, the percentage of public high school graduates who completed an advanced 

occupational concentration—occupational concentrators who earned at least 1.0 credit in advanced coursework in their program area—declined from 24.0 percent for 1982 graduates to 16.1 

percent for 1990 graduates. For the class of 1998, 14.4 percent of graduates completed an 

 

32The difference between 1992 and 1998 graduates in the concentration rates of occupational investors was not statistically significant. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

44 

Figure 23.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits who 

Figure 23.—concentrated those credits in a single occupational program area: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Concentrating in occupational education refers to earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad 

occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry,

food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

72.8

64.6

59.1 60.6 57.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

advanced concentration (figure 11 and table A2).33 Part of this decline in advanced occupational 

concentrating was due to the fact that graduates were less likely to concentrate in occupational 

education in general over the period studied. However, the percentage of occupational concentrators who completed an advanced concentration in their program area also declined from 69.9 

percent for 1982 graduates to 55.9 percent for 1990 graduates, after which no significant changes 

were detected.34 Among 1998 graduates, 56.3 percent of concentrators completed an advanced 

occupational concentration (figure 24). 

What types of occupational courses did these students take instead of completing concentrated or advanced occupational coursework in high school? To answer this question, it is most 

meaningful to restrict the analysis to occupational investors and concentrators, respectively. The 

prerequisite for concentrating one’s occupational coursework in a single program area is taking at 

least 3.0 occupational credits. Similarly, the prerequisite for completing an advanced concentration is concentrating in occupational education. Without these restrictions, the analysis of shifting 

 

33The difference in advanced concentration rates for 1990 and 1998 graduates was not statistically significant. 

34Although the percentage of occupational concentrators who completed an advanced concentration increased from 1990 to 

1992, neither the 1990 nor 1992 percentage was statistically different from the corresponding 1998 percentage. 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

45 

Figure 24.—Percentage of occupational concentrators completing advanced coursework in their area of 

Figure 14.—concentration: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higher-level 

courses and cooperative education courses.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

69.9

55.9

63.5

55.3 56.3

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

coursework becomes confounded with general changes in occupational coursetaking over the period studied. 

Shifts Away From Concentrated Coursetaking 

What types of occupational courses did 1998 graduates who earned 3.0 or more occupational credits (occupational investors) take instead of concentrating this coursetaking in an occupational program area?35 In order to understand changes in coursetaking patterns in some detail, 

the report compared trends in coursetaking and concentrating in the 18 narrow program areas in 

figure 3. Specifically, comparing changes in the percentage distributions of occupational investors who concentrated in occupational education and of the occupational credits that investors 

earned in the 18 program areas offers some insights into the changing nature of occupational 

coursetaking over the period studied. 

 

35As explained in chapter I, occupational concentrators are a subset of all graduates who earned 3.0 or more occupational credits

(occupational investors). 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

46 

Comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, the percentage of occupational investors who 

concentrated in business services declined more steeply than did the share of total occupational 

credits earned by these investors that were business services credits (a decline of 12.6 percentage 

points versus 7.9 percentage points) (figure 25 and tables A11 and A12). This pattern means that, 

over time, occupational investors reduced their concentrating more than they reduced their average coursetaking in business services. In contrast, over the same period, the share of total occupational credits earned by occupational investors that were computer technology and 

communications technology credits increased more steeply than did the percentage of investors 

who concentrated in these technology programs (by 6.1 percentage points versus 0.9 percentage 

points for computer technology and by 3.5 percentage points versus 1.6 percentage points for 

communications technology) (figure 25 and tables A11 and A12). This pattern means that, over 

time, occupational investors increased their coursetaking more than they increased their concentrating in these technology programs, particularly in computer technology.36 

There were no significant differences between the two trend measures in the occupational 

program areas of mechanics and repair, materials production, health care, and child care and education. The first two programs exhibited declines both in the percentage of occupational investors 

who concentrated and in the shares of total occupational credits that occupational investors 

earned in these program areas, while the latter two programs exhibited increases on both measures. In most of the remaining occupational program areas, there were neither significant changes 

over time in the percentage of occupational investors concentrating nor in the shares of total occupational credits that occupational investors earned in the program areas.37

Together, these findings indicate that some of the decline in occupational investors’ propensity to concentrate in occupational education was due to a shift from concentrating in business services to taking more communications technology and computer technology courses.38

That is, occupational investors as a group took fewer business services courses—specifically, 

fewer noncomputer-related business services courses—in high school over the period studied, 

 

36In addition, occupational investors decreased their coursetaking more than they decreased their concentrating in the business 

management program area. In this case, no significant difference was detected in the percentage of 1982 and 1998 occupational 

investors who concentrated in business management, while the share of total occupational credits earned by these investors that

were business management credits declined significantly over the period. 

37Program areas not exhibiting significant changes over time on either measure included agriculture, marketing, protective services, construction, print production, other precision production, transportation, food service and hospitality, and personal and 

other services. Although the share of total occupational credits that occupational investors earned in “other technology” increased 

significantly for 1998 graduates compared with 1982 graduates, there was no significant difference in the percentage of occupational investors who concentrated in this program area between 1982 and 1998, and there was no significant difference between 

the two trend measures for the program area. 

38The discussion of shifting coursetaking in this section refers to changes among occupational investors as a group, not to individual students shifting from one program area to another. 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

47 

Figure 25.—Changes in the percentage distributions of occupational credits earned by occupational investors

Figure 27.—and of occupational investors concentrating in occupational education, by program area: 

Figure 27.—1982 and 1998

*The differences between change in percentage concentrating and change in percentage of credits earned for these program areas were 

statistically significant. All other differences in the figure were not statistically significant.

NOTE: Occupational investors earned 3.0 or more credits in occupational education, regardless of whether they concentrated their

occupational coursetaking in a single program area. Details are provided for occupational investors who concentrated (earned 3.0 or 

more credits) in the narrow program areas listed and for the percentage of occupational credits they earned in those program areas.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore

Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982, and High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 1998.

Percentage change

6.2

3.5

3.5

1.1

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.4

-0.7

-0.6

-0.9

-2.0

-2.5

-5.2

-7.9

0.9

0.5

0.2

0.2

0.3

0.1

0.1

-0.1

-0.4

-0.4

-0.9

0.6

1.6

3.0

0.9

-2.5

-3.6

-12.6

-25.0 -20.0 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

Computer technology1

Communications technology1

Health care

Child care and education

Food service and hospitality

Other technology

Print production

Marketing

Transportation

Protective services

Agriculture 

Percent

Change in percentage concentrating

Change in percentage of credits earned

Business services* 

Business management*

Construction

Personal and other services

Mechanics and repair

Materials production

Other precison production

Communications technology*

Computer technology*
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

48 

enough to reduce their rate of concentrating in this program area at a relatively high rate. At the 

same time, they took additional communications technology and computer technology courses—

but not enough to increase their rates of concentrating on a par with their increased coursetaking 

in these program areas. 

Chapter III discusses in some detail graduates’ computer-related coursetaking. Table 9 

shows the three occupational program areas in which students took such coursework in high 

school. As the table indicates, the credits that occupational investors earned in noncomputerrelated business services courses (such as bookkeeping, accounting, secretarial, and general office procedures courses) decreased by 0.88 credits on average, from 1.27 credits for 1982 graduates to 0.39 credits for 1998 graduates. At the same time, the credits that these investors earned in 

computer-related business services courses increased by 0.44 credits. The credits that occupational investors earned on average in computer technology and in computer-related drafting/graphics also increased (by 0.27 credits and 0.10 credits, respectively) over the period 

studied. Thus, the decline in occupational investors’ propensity to concentrate in business services coincided with an increase in their total computer-related coursetaking within the occupational education curriculum. 

Table 9.—Average credits earned in computer-related occupational courses and in business services courses

Table 8.—by graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits, by program area: Various years,

Table 8.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Computer-related, total 0.16 0.78 0.90 0.83 0.97

 Business services1 0.02 0.41 0.41 0.51 0.46

 Drafting/graphics1 ‡ 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.10

 Computer technology 0.14 0.35 0.46 0.28 0.41

Business services, total1 1.29 1.19 1.04 1.11 0.85

 Computer-related 0.02 0.41 0.41 0.51 0.46

 Noncomputer-related 1.27 0.76 0.62 0.60 0.39

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.)

1

Only a subset of courses in the business services and drafting/graphics areas were considered to be computer-related. See 

figure 33.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

49 

Shifts Away From Completing an Advanced Concentration 

What types of occupational courses did 1998 occupational concentrators take instead of 

completing advanced coursework in their area of concentration? As explained in chapter I, occupational courses are categorized into first-level, second- or higher-level, cooperative education, 

and specialty courses, with the first three categories usually representing sequential coursetaking. 

Students may take specialty courses to obtain more specialized occupational training or related 

skills not taught through sequential courses. For purposes of this analysis, second- or higher-level 

and cooperative education courses were considered to represent advanced coursework in a program area. 

Comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, occupational concentrators—graduates earning 

3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas in figure 3—earned on average 0.37 fewer credits in their respective areas of concentration by the end of the period (figure 

26 and table A13). This decrease was due primarily to a decline in second- or higher-level 

Figure 26.—Average number of credits earned by occupational concentrators in their area of concentration:

Figure 28.—Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

4.76 4.60 4.57 4.40 4.39

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

50 

coursetaking. Specifically, 1998 occupational concentrators earned 0.54 fewer credits in secondor higher-level courses in their areas of concentration than did 1982 graduates, equivalent to 

about one less half-year course (figure 27 and table A13). While credits earned in first-level 

courses also appeared to decrease and credits earned in cooperative education and in specialty 

courses appeared to increase, these changes were not statistically significant. 

Because of these changes in the types of courses taken, occupational concentrators shifted 

the distribution of their coursetaking somewhat away from second- or higher-level courses toward specialty courses in their respective areas of concentration over the period studied.39 Comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, the share of total credits earned by occupational 

Figure 27.—Change in the average number of credits earned by occupational concentrators in their area of 

Figure 29.—concentration, by level of course: 1982 and 1998

*This change between 1982 and 1998 was statistically significant. All other changes in the figure were not statistically

significant.

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982, and High School Transcript Study 

(HSTS), 1998.

-0.13

0.09

0.22

-0.54*

-1.00

-0.80

-0.60

-0.40

-0.20

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

Specialty course Cooperative education

course

Credits earned

First course Second or higher course

 

39The discussion of shifting coursetaking in this section refers to changes among occupational concentrators as a group, not to 

individual students shifting from one type of course to another. 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

51 

concentrators in their areas of concentration that were second- or higher-level credits decreased 

by 8.7 percentage points (figure 28 and table A14). Over the same period, the share of total credits earned by occupational concentrators in their areas of concentration that were specialty credits 

increased by 2.9 percentage points. (Again, changes in first-level and cooperative education 

courses were not statistically significant.) 

The decline in 11th-grade occupational coursetaking discussed earlier in the chapter may 

have affected second- or higher-level occupational coursetaking more than other occupational 

coursetaking. In some schools, the second course in an occupational sequence occurs in the 11th 

grade, with first-level courses occurring in the 10th grade and cooperative education courses in 

the 12th grade. 

Figure 28.—Change in the percentage distribution of credits earned by occupational concentrators in their 

Figure 28.—area of concentration, by level of course: 1982 and 1998

*This change between 1982 and 1998 was statistically significant. All other changes in the figure were not statistically

significant.

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982, and High School Transcript Study 

(HSTS), 1998.

1.0

2.9* 4.8

-8.7*

-10.0

-9.0

-8.0

-7.0

-6.0

-5.0

-4.0

-3.0

-2.0

-1.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

First course Specialty course Cooperative education

course

Percent

Second or higher course
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

52 

Trends in Work-Based Learning 

Background and Definitions 

Work-based learning is a common component of vocational/technical education in high 

school. Until recent years, the main forms of work-based learning have been general work experience and cooperative education.40 General work experience awards school credit for work 

that is not connected to a specific occupational program. Traditionally, general work experience 

allowed students who might otherwise drop out of school to earn credit toward graduation for 

their employment. In other cases, students gain general work or leadership experience or explore 

career options through work. Typically, however, general work experience is not linked to classroom learning. 

In contrast, cooperative education awards school credit for work experience that is related 

to a student’s occupational program. Cooperative education is usually more formal than general 

work experience. Typically, students are placed in cooperative education jobs rather than find 

their own employment. The teacher and employer usually sign an agreement covering the nature 

of the work-based placement, with employers agreeing to evaluate students on their work performance. Typically, cooperative education alternates work placements and classroom time. The 

degree and nature of the work and classroom linkages involved in cooperative education vary, 

and it is not possible to determine from transcripts the particular configuration of such a course. 

Although other forms of work-based learning exist, this report focuses on trends in general 

work experience and cooperative education because these types of work-based learning traditionally are awarded school credit and recorded on transcripts.41 

Trends in Overall Work-Based Learning 

About one-third (31.6 percent) of 1998 public high school graduates took at least some 

work-based learning courses in high school (figure 29). There was no significant difference in the 

percentage of graduates taking cooperative education (16.3 percent) and general work experience 

courses (18.9 percent).42 On average, 1998 public high school graduates earned 0.53 credits in 

 

40Differences between general work experience and cooperative education were discussed by experts during both the creation 

and revision of the Secondary School Taxonomy (SST) and are reflected in the current SST (Bradby and Hoachlander 1999). See 

also Westat (1992). 

41In addition, as of 1997, cooperative education was one of the two most common forms of work-based learning in high schools, 

along with job shadowing (Levesque et al. 2000). 

42Percentages sum to greater than the total for work-based learning because some students may have participated in both general 

work experience and cooperative education courses. 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

53 

Figure 29.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking work-based learning, by type of course:

Figure 29.—Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Details may sum to greater than the totals because some graduates took both general work experience and cooperative

education courses.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

26.6 28.3 26.8 25.9

31.6

12.4 13.8 12.2 15.2 16.3

18.9 16.8 13.3 17.6 17.1

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Total

General work experience

Cooperative education

work-based learning courses in high school (figure 30), an amount that was not significantly different from the average number of credits that they earned in family and consumer sciences education (0.51 credits) (figure 9). However, graduates earned more credits on average in 

cooperative education (0.33 credits) than in general work experience courses (0.20 credits). For 

the class of 1998, this translates into cooperative education participants taking the equivalent of 

about two full-year cooperative education courses on average, in comparison with general work 

experience participants taking the equivalent of about one full-year general work experience 

course on average. 

Over the period studied, participation in work-based learning, overall, remained relatively 

steady. Although the percentage of public high school graduates taking any work-based learning 

appeared to increase from 26.6 percent for 1982 graduates to 31.6 percent for 1998 graduates, 

this difference was not statistically significant (figure 29). Similarly, no difference was detected 

in the number of credits that 1982 and 1998 graduates earned on average in work-based learning 

in high school (0.47 credits and 0.53 credits, respectively) (figure 30). 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

54 

Figure 30.—Average number of credits earned in work-based learning by public high school graduates, 

Figure 30.—by type of course: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

0.47

0.24 0.23

0.46

0.28

0.17

0.42

0.26

0.16

0.50

0.35

0.15

0.53

0.33

0.20

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

Total Cooperative education General work experience

Type of course

Credits

earned

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

No significant differences between 1982 and 1998 public high school graduates were detected either in the percentage of graduates earning general work experience credits (17.1 percent 

versus 18.9 percent) (figure 29), or in the average number of credits that graduates earned in general work experience courses (0.23 credits versus 0.20 credits) (figure 30). However, the percentage of public high school graduates taking cooperative education courses increased from 12.4 

percent for 1982 graduates to 16.3 percent for 1998 graduates (figure 29). The average number of 

credits that graduates earned in cooperative education also appeared to increase over the period, 

but this difference was not statistically significant (figure 30). 

Because participation in cooperative education increased while overall occupational coursetaking held steady, cooperative education represented a growing share of all occupational coursetaking over the period studied. Comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, the percentage of total 

occupational credits earned by public high school graduates that were cooperative education 

credits increased slightly from 6.3 percent to 8.5 percent (table A15). 
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

55 

Vocational/Technical Coursetaking and State High School Graduation 

Requirements 

This section examines the relationship between changes in vocational/technical coursetaking and changes in state high school graduation requirements. Because of limitations in the data, 

the analysis was restricted to changes between 1990 and 1998.43 

As previously discussed, although vocational/technical coursetaking declined between 1982 

and 1998, it remained relatively steady during the 1990s. Specifically, 98.0 percent of 1990 

graduates and 96.5 percent of 1998 graduates took at least one vocational/technical course in 

high school (figure 5 and table A1).44 There was also no significant difference between 1990 and 

1998 graduates in the numbers of credits they earned on average in vocational/technical education in high school (4.19 credits and 3.99 credits, respectively) (figure 6).45 However, vocational/technical coursetaking may have varied during this decade among the 50 states, possibly 

associated with changes in state high school graduation requirements. Between 1990 and 1998, 

12 states increased their total high school graduation requirements (table 1a), and 10 additional 

states met the National Commission on Excellence in Education’s core academic recommendations advocated in A Nation at Risk46 (table 1b). During the same period, 10 states increased and 

8 states decreased their vocational/technical credit requirements for graduation.47 These different 

changes in state requirements could have contributed to state-level differences in participation in 

vocational/technical education during the 1990s. 

To examine this issue, this section of the report examines trends in vocational/technical 

coursetaking among states that did and did not change their high school graduation requirements 

between 1990 and 1998. Specifically, this section asks: Were increases in total graduation requirements, academic requirements, and other nonvocational/nontechnical requirements associated with decreased vocational/technical coursetaking? Were increases in vocational/technical 

credit requirements associated with increased vocational/technical coursetaking? Table 10 summarizes state high school graduation requirements and the number of states that exhibited various 

changes in these requirements between 1990 and 1998. The graduation requirement measures are 

defined as follows: 

 

43It was not possible to link student transcripts to states in the High School and Beyond data set, which provided information on

1982 high school graduates for this report, and national data on state graduation requirements were not available for 1992 and 

1994. 

44The small apparent decline between 1990 and 1998 was not statistically significant. 

45Although the average number of vocational/technical credits that graduates earned in 1990 appeared to decline by 1992 and 

then hold steady thereafter, the small apparent declines between 1990 and 1992 and between 1990 and 1998 were not statistically

significant. 

46The Commission’s core academic recommendations included 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and 

social studies. See the National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983). 

47See Education Commission of the States (1990) and Snyder and Hoffman (2001), table 154. 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

56 

Table 10.—Number of the 50 states with specified changes in state high school graduation requirements 

Table 10.—between 1990 and 1998

Number of states

 Total 50 

Change in vocational/technical requirements1

 Increase 10 

 No change 25 

 Decrease 8 

 Not applicable 7 

Change in specific nonvocational/technical, nonelective requirements2

 Increase 18 

 No increase (no change or decrease) 25 

 Not applicable 7 

Change in total nonvocational/technical requirements3

 Increase 17 

 No increase (no change or decrease) 26 

 Not applicable 7 

Change in total graduation requirements

 Increase of 2 or more credits 6 

 Increase of less than 2 credits 6 

 No increase (no change or decrease) 32 

 Not applicable 6 

Change in New Basics core academic requirements4

 Met in 1998 only 11 

 Met in both years 2 

 Not met in 1998 30 

 Not applicable 7 

1

Includes career education (including guidance), practical arts, computer education, free enterprise, vocational education, 

technology and consumer requirements. Does not include home/personal management or life skills requirements. 2

Includes all nonvocational/technical requirements except for unspecified elective requirements.

3

Includes all nonvocational/technical requirements, such as English/language arts, social studies, mathematics, science, physical

education/health, fine arts, foreign languages, humanities, oral communication or speech, home/personal management, life skills,

and unspecified elective requirements.

4

Includes 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies.

NOTE: In cases where students could choose how to meet a credit requirement, the requirement was split evenly among the 

optional subjects. For example, where students could earn 1.0 credit of vocational education and/or fine arts, 0.5 credits were

assigned to both subjects for analysis purposes. “Not applicable” means that states allowed local school districts to set their own

high school graduation requirements.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 

1990 and 1998.
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

57 

Vocational/technical requirements—Include credit requirements in career education (including guidance), industrial arts, home economics, practical arts, computer literacy or education, keyboarding, free enterprise, vocational education, technology, and consumer 

education requirements. When students could choose how to meet a credit requirement, the 

requirement was split evenly among the optional subjects. For example, when students 

could earn 1.0 credit of vocational education and/or fine arts, one-half credit was assigned 

to both subjects for analysis purposes. 

Specific nonvocational/nontechnical requirements—Include all nonvocational/nontechnical 

requirements, except unspecified elective requirements. For example, a state may require 

2.0 credits of electives, a requirement that could be met by taking vocational/technical or 

other courses. These unspecified electives are not included; instead, this measure includes 

all specific nonvocational/nontechnical requirements, such as credit requirements in English, social studies, mathematics, science, physical education/health, fine arts, foreign languages, humanities, oral communication or speech, and life skills requirements. 

Total nonvocational/nontechnical requirements—Include all nonvocational/nontechnical 

requirements, such as credit requirements in English, social studies, mathematics, science, 

physical education/health, fine arts, foreign languages, humanities, oral communication or 

speech, life skills requirements, and unspecified electives. 

Total graduation requirements—Include all credit requirements for high school graduation. 

New Basics core academic requirements—Include 4 years of English and 3 years each of 

mathematics, science, and social studies. 

On the one hand, vocational/technical coursetaking may be expected to increase in states 

increasing their vocational/technical requirements or, alternatively, decline in states decreasing 

such requirements. On the other hand, vocational/technical coursetaking may be expected to decrease in states that increased other types of graduation requirements, as defined by the last four 

measures listed above. In particular, vocational/technical coursetaking may be expected to decrease in states increasing their specific nonvocational/nontechnical requirements and core academic requirements, because increases in these courses might crowd out vocational/technical 

coursetaking. Factors other than state graduation requirements may also contribute to coursetaking changes. 

With several notable exceptions, changes in graduation requirements examined in this report were not related to coursetaking patterns, possibly due to the relatively small number of students in some graduation-requirement categories. However, there was some evidence that, in 
II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

58 

states that increased their total graduation requirements and/or their total nonvocational/nontechnical requirements, students decreased their vocational/technical coursetaking. 

Specifically, graduates in states that increased their total high school graduation requirements by 

2.0 or more credits between 1990 and 1998 earned on average 1.00 fewer vocational/technical 

credits in high school—equivalent to one less full-year vocational/technical course—by the end 

of the period (table 11). Specifically, graduates in these states earned 0.62 fewer occupational 

credits and 0.23 fewer family and consumer sciences education credits between the 2 years. Similarly, graduates in states that increased their total high school graduation requirements by 2 or 

more credits between 1990 and 1998 were less likely by the end of the period to invest 3.0 or 

more credits in vocational/technical education, invest 3.0 or more credits in occupational education, and concentrate in occupational education (earn 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad 

occupational program areas in figure 3) (with decreases of 13.8 percentage points, 12.1 percentage points, and 9.6 percentage points, respectively) (table 12). In contrast, students in states that 

increased their total high school graduation requirements by fewer than 2.0 credits, that did not 

increase these requirements, or that did not have applicable state requirements did not exhibit 

statistically significant decreases on any of these vocational/technical coursetaking measures. 

In addition, graduates in states that increased their total nonvocational/nontechnical requirements for graduation between 1990 and 1998 earned on average 0.50 fewer vocational/technical credits in high school—equivalent to one less half-year vocational/technical 

course—by the end of the period (table 11). Graduates in these states were also less likely by the 

end of the period to invest 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education and concentrate 

in occupational education (earn 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program 

areas in figure 3) (with decreases of 7.7 percentage points and 6.5 percentage points, respectively) (table 12).48

In contrast, students in states that exhibited no increase (either no change or a decrease) in 

high school graduation requirements sometimes increased their vocational/technical coursetaking. Specifically, graduates in states that had no increase in their total high school graduation requirements between 1990 and 1998 were more likely by the end of the period to invest 3.0 or 

more credits in occupational education in high school (an increase of 6.0 percentage points) (table 12). Similarly, graduates in states that had no increase in their total nonvocational/nontechnical requirements between 1990 and 1998 were more likely by the end of the 

period to invest 3.0 or more credits in occupational education (an increase of 5.5 percentage 

points). 

 

48Although graduates in states that increased their total nonvocational/nontechnical requirements for graduation between 1990 

and 1998 also appeared to be less likely over the period to invest 3.0 or more credits in occupational education, this difference 

was not statistically significant. 
Table 11.—Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school graduates by vocational/technical cur

Table 10.—state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 

 Total 4.19 3.99 -0.20 0.73 0.61 -0.12* 0.57 0.51 -0.06 

Change in vocational/technical requirements1

 Increase 4.28 4.27 -0.01 0.72 0.68 -0.04 0.65 0.59 -0.06  No change 3.78 4.07 0.29 0.75 0.68 -0.07 0.70 0.70 ‡  Decrease 4.09 3.81 -0.28 0.71 0.59 -0.12* 0.53 0.45 -0.08  Not applicable 4.55 4.16 -0.39 0.81 0.49 -0.32* 0.55 0.47 -0.08 Change in specific nonvocational/technical, nonelective requirements2 Increase 4.33 4.29 -0.04 0.75 0.62 -0.13* 0.65 0.55 -0.10  No increase 3.99 3.77 -0.22 0.70 0.62 -0.08 0.53 0.49 -0.04  Not applicable 4.55 4.16 -0.39 0.81 0.49 -0.32* 0.55 0.47 -0.08 Change in total nonvocational/technical requirements3 Increase 4.25 3.75 -0.50* 0.72 0.59 -0.13* 0.57 0.46 -0.11  No increase 4.03 4.09 0.06 0.72 0.64 -0.08 0.58 0.54 -0.04  Not applicable 4.55 4.16 -0.39 0.81 0.49 -0.32* 0.55 0.47 -0.08 Change in total graduation requirements Increase of 2 or more credits 4.06 3.06 -1.00* 0.73 0.59 -0.14 0.47 0.24 -0.23*  Increase of less than 2 credits 4.51 4.14 -0.37 0.71 0.51 -0.20* 0.62 0.54 -0.08  No increase 3.98 4.09 0.11 0.72 0.66 -0.06 0.58 0.56 -0.02  Not applicable 4.55 4.16 -0.39 0.81 0.49 -0.32* 0.55 0.47 -0.08 

See notes at end of table.

Vocational/technical General labor Family and consumer

total sciences education market preparation 
Table 11.—Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school graduates by vocational/technical cur

Table 10.—state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998—Continued

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 

Change in New Basics core academic requirements4

 Met in 1998 only 4.68 4.45 -0.23 0.82 0.68 -0.14 0.69 0.55 -0.14  Met in both years 4.42 4.50 0.08 0.90 0.58 -0.32* 0.66 0.55 -0.11  Not met in 1998 3.95 3.76 -0.19 0.67 0.61 -0.06* 0.54 0.50 -0.04  Not applicable 4.55 4.16 -0.39 0.81 0.49 -0.32* 0.55 0.47 -0.08 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.)*These changes were statistically significant; all other changes were not statistically significant.

1Includes career education (including guidance), industrial arts, home economics, practical arts, computer literacy or education, keyboarding, free ent

education, technology, and consumer education requirements. 

2Includes all nonvocational/technical requirements except for unspecified elective requirements.3Includes all nonvocational/technical requirements, such as English/language arts, social studies, mathematics, science, physical education/health, fin

humanities, oral communication or speech, life skills, and unspecified elective requirements.

4Include 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies.

NOTE: In cases where students could choose how to meet a credit requirement, the requirement was split evenly among the optional subjects. For exa

students could earn 1.0 credit of vocational education and/or fine arts, 0.5 credits were assigned to both subjects for analysis purposes. “Not applicabl

allowed local school districts to set their own high school graduation requirements. Calculations are based on unrounded numbers.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990 and 1998.

Vocational/technical General labor Family and consumer

total market preparation sciences education
Table 12.—Percentage of public high school graduates by different measures of participation in vocational/technical education

Table 11.—high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998

Occupational concentrators1

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 1990 

 Total 27.8 25.0 -2.8* 43.0 43.8 0.9 63.7 Change in vocational/technical requirements4

 Increase 28.1 25.0 -3.1 43.6 47.0 3.4 66.1  No change 20.6 20.5 -0.1 34.8 41.5 6.7 62.2  Decrease 27.8 24.8 -3.1 41.7 41.8 0.1 61.0  Not applicable 29.5 29.6 0.1 49.1 48.7 -0.5 69.7 Change in specific nonvocational/technical, nonelective requirements5 Increase 31.2 29.0 -2.2 44.7 50.1 5.4 66.3  No increase 25.1 21.6 -3.5 39.9 39.0 -0.9 60.1  Not applicable 29.5 29.6 0.1 49.1 48.7 -0.5 69.7 Change in total nonvocational/technical requirements6 Increase 30.9 24.4 -6.5* 45.2 40.3 -4.9 65.3  No increase 24.9 24.4 -0.5 39.3 44.8 5.5* 60.5  Not applicable 29.5 29.6 0.1 49.1 48.7 -0.5 69.7 Change in total graduation requirements Increase of 2 or more credits 30.3 20.6 -9.6* 44.0 31.8 -12.1* 61.4  Increase of less than 2 credits 33.8 28.7 -5.1 48.6 46.2 -2.4 69.0  No increase 24.2 24.0 -0.2 38.5 44.6 6.0* 60.1  Not applicable 29.5 29.6 0.1 49.1 48.7 -0.5 69.7 

See notes at end of table.

Occupational investors2 Vocati
Table 12.—Percentage of public high school graduates by different measures of participation in vocational/technical education

Table 11.—high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998—Continued

Occupational concentrators1

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 1990 

Change in New Basics core academic requirements7

 Met in 1998 only 35.3 30.4 -4.9 49.5 53.4 3.9 71.3  Met in both years 26.1 33.1 7.1 41.4 47.4 6.0 65.9  Not met in 1998 25.5 21.5 -4.0* 39.8 39.5 -0.3 59.9  Not applicable 29.5 29.6 0.1 49.1 48.7 -0.5 69.7 

*These changes were statistically significant; all other changes were not statistically significant.

1Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing, health care, pub

technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and other services.

2Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education.3Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education.4Includes career education (including guidance), industrial arts, home economics, practical arts, computer literacy or education, keyboarding, free ent

education, technology, and consumer education requirements. 

5Includes all nonvocational/technical requirements except for unspecified elective requirements.6Includes all nonvocational/technical requirements, such as English/language arts, social studies, mathematics, science, physical education/health, fin

humanities, oral communication or speech, life skills, and unspecified elective requirements.

7Includes 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies.

NOTE: In cases where students could choose how to meet a credit requirement, the requirement was split evenly among the optional subjects. For exa

could earn 1.0 credit of vocational education and/or fine arts, 0.5 credits were assigned to both subjects for analysis purposes. “Not applicable” meanlocal school districts to set their own high school graduation requirements. Calculations are based on unrounded numbers.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990 and 1998.

Occupational investors2 Vocati
 II. Trends in Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

63 

While 1998 public high school graduates earned on average fewer general labor market 

preparation credits than their 1990 counterparts, there were generally no significant declines in 

the amounts of general labor market preparation coursework that graduates took in states that exhibited no increase (either no change or a decrease) in graduation requirements over the period. 

Specifically, there were no significant declines in general labor market preparation credits earned 

by 1990 and 1998 graduates in states that had no increase in their total high school graduation 

requirements, no increase in total nonvocational/nontechnical requirements, no increase in specific nonvocational/nontechnical requirements, and no change in vocational/technical requirements between 1990 and 1998 (table 11). Generally, declines in general labor market preparation 

coursetaking were restricted to states with increasing graduation requirements or states that allowed local school districts to set their own high school graduation requirements (termed “not 

applicable” in table 11).49 

 

49Exceptions to this general pattern include the following. Graduates in states that met the New Basics core academic requirements in both 1990 and 1998 earned fewer general labor market preparation credits over the period. In addition, graduates in 

states that increased their vocational/technical requirements between 1990 and 1998, increased their total graduation requirements by 2.0 or more credits over the period, and changed to meet the New Basics core academic standards in 1998 all earned 

similar numbers of general labor market preparation credits in 1990 and 1998. 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
65 

III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related 

Coursetaking 

Many high school courses incorporate the use of technology. Students use the Internet to 

conduct research and use computers to type and design reports. Students also use various technologies in the vocational/technical curriculum, including computerized and other “hightechnology” production techniques in agriculture, instrumentation in health care, and machinery 

in trade and industrial program areas. However, it is not usually possible to determine from transcript records what kinds of specific technology and equipment are being used in a course. Consequently, this chapter focuses on courses whose primary objective is to teach students particular 

technologies or technology principles in general. It is not possible to determine how technology 

was used in these courses, nor is the intent here to imply that technology-related learning only 

takes place in these courses. With that caveat, this chapter examines two main technology-related 

areas: introductory technology and computer-related coursetaking. These two curricular areas are 

defined and discussed below. 

Trends in Introductory Technology Coursetaking 

Within the vocational/technical curriculum, general labor market preparation consists of 

basic typewriting/keyboarding, career preparation/general work experience, and technology education/industrial arts courses. In this section, technology education and industrial arts courses are 

referred to collectively as “introductory technology” courses. The 1998 public high school graduates earned 0.12 credits on average in these introductory technology courses in high school, 

which constituted about 20 percent of the 0.61 general labor market preparation credits they 

earned (figure 10 and table A3). These 0.12 credits are the equivalent of about one in four graduates taking a half-year technology education/industrial arts course in high school. 

No significant difference was detected in the percentages of 1982 and 1998 public high 

school graduates who took introductory technology coursework in high school (14.1 percent and 

11.4 percent, respectively) (figure 31). In contrast, the amount of introductory technology 

coursework that graduates took declined over the period, although—in keeping with the overall 

declines in vocational/technical coursetaking cited in chapter II—most of this decline had occurred by 1990. The average number of credits that graduates earned in introductory technology 
III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

66 

Figure 31.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking introductory technology courses, by area: 

Figure 37.—Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Details may sum to greater than the totals because some graduates took both industrial arts and technology education

courses.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

14.1

9.6 9.8 11.3 11.4

3.9

8.5

14.0

9.0

7.9

1.6 0.2 0.8 4.2

8.0

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Total

Industrial arts

Technology education

courses declined from 0.17 credits for 1982 graduates to 0.11 credits for 1990 graduates (figure 

32). As of 1998, graduates earned 0.12 introductory technology credits on average in high 

school.50 

The Shift From Industrial Arts to Technology Education 

Industrial arts grew out of the manual training movement in the late 1800s and rested on the 

belief that all students—at least, all male students—should learn to work with their hands as well 

as their minds (Gallinelli 1979). During much of the 20th century, industrial arts courses served 

to introduce students to the equipment and practices of mechanized industry. During the 1980s 

and 1990s, many schools began replacing industrial arts with technology education, which 

 

50The difference in introductory technology credits earned by 1990 and 1998 graduates was not statistically significant. 
 III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

67 

Figure 32.—Average number of credits earned in introductory technology courses by public high school 

Figure 38.—graduates, by area: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

0.04

0.08

0.17

0.10

0.10 0.08

0.04

0.02 0.01 0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits

earned

Industrial arts

Technology education

0.17

0.12 0.11 0.12 0.12

emphasizes introducing students to the “high technology” of the information age.51 While some 

technology education courses are intended as an introduction to technology for all students, others are configured as pre-engineering courses for a more select group of students. It is not usually 

possible to determine from transcript records the particular orientation of the technology education courses that students took during the period studied.52 

Previous research showed that between 1982 and 1994, industrial arts coursetaking declined while technology education coursetaking increased (Levesque et al. 2000). Specifically, 

the percentage of public high school graduates who took industrial arts courses declined by 6.1 

percentage points, from 14.0 percent for 1982 graduates to 7.9 percent for 1994 graduates (figure 

31). In addition, the average number of credits that graduates earned in industrial arts declined by 

about half, from 0.17 credits for the class of 1982 to 0.08 credits for the class of 1994 (figure 32). 

In contrast, the percentage of public high school graduates who took technology education 

courses increased by 4.0 percentage points, from 0.2 percent for 1982 graduates to 4.2 percent for 

 

51The International Technology Education Association (ITEA) defines technology education as “problem-based learning utilizing math, science, and technology principles” (see http://www.itea.org). 

52However, the Center for Occupational Research and Development’s Principles of Technology course is included under physics 

rather than under technology education in the taxonomy used for this report, because the course is configured as an applied physics course (Bradby and Hoachlander 1999). 
III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

68 

1994 graduates (figure 31). The average number of credits that graduates earned in technology 

education also increased, from virtually no credits (0.00 credits) for the class of 1982 to 0.04 

credits for the class of 1994 (figure 32). 

The 4 years between 1994 and 1998 followed earlier trends, with industrial arts coursetaking continuing to decline and technology education coursetaking continuing to increase. In fact, 

between 1994 and 1998, industrial arts and technology education were almost perfect substitutes. 

Between the 2 years, the percentage of public high school graduates taking industrial arts courses 

declined by 3.9 percentage points, while the percentage of graduates taking technology education 

increased by 3.9 percentage points (figure 31). Similarly, between 1994 and 1998, the average 

number of credits that public high school graduates earned in industrial arts in high school declined by 0.04 credits, while the average number earned in technology education increased by 

0.04 credits (figure 32). In 1998, about twice as many graduates took courses in technology education as took courses in industrial arts (8.0 percent versus 3.9 percent) (figure 31), and graduates 

earned about twice as many credits in technology education as in industrial arts (0.08 credits versus 0.04 credits) (figure 32). However, it is not possible to determine from the available data to 

what extent the shift from industrial arts to technology education reflected real changes in course 

content and methodology or a relabeling of industrial arts courses. 

Trends in Computer-Related Coursetaking 

Classification of Computer-Related Courses 

The standard NCES procedures for transcript studies currently include all computer-related 

courses under the vocational/technical curriculum (Alt and Bradby 1999). Although some of 

these courses are included in general labor market preparation (under basic typewriting/keyboarding and under technology education), most computer-related courses are included in 

occupational education. Most of these courses are included under the business services and computer technology program areas, while some are included under the agriculture, business management, and drafting/graphics program areas. Figure 33 summarizes the location of all 

computer-related courses in the Secondary School Taxonomy (SST). Only a subset of courses in 

technology education, agriculture, business management, business services, and drafting/graphics 

areas were classified as computer related.53 In contrast, virtually all courses in basic typewriting/keyboarding and computer technology were so classified. 

 

53In all years studied, there was no detectable computer-related coursetaking in agriculture and business management. Therefore, 

these program areas are dropped from the rest of the discussion. 
 III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

69 
III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

70 

Although virtually all basic typewriting/keyboarding and computer technology courses 

were classified as computer related, there was one main exception to this rule. According to recommendations made by experts during revision of the SST, all basic typewriting/keyboarding 

courses in 1982 were assumed not to be computer related (Alt and Bradby 1999). In contrast, in 

1990 and subsequent years, all of these courses were classified as computer related. These 

courses were classified in this way because it is not usually possible to determine from transcript 

records what kind of equipment—whether a standard electric typewriter, an electric typewriter 

with computerized memory, or a computer—was used in a basic typewriting/keyboarding course. 

This decision may have resulted in an undercount of computer-related coursetaking in 1982 and 

an overcount in the 1990s, particularly in the early 1990s. The magnitude of these potential miscounts is not known. Because of the difficulty of determining the computer-related nature of basic typewriting/keyboarding courses, discussion of trends in overall computer-related 

coursetaking in this report focuses on the years 1990 to 1998. In contrast, to describe trends in 

computer-related occupational coursetaking and in computer technology coursetaking, the report 

covers the entire period from 1982 to 1998. 

It also was decided during the 1998 revision of the SST to categorize all computer-related 

courses according to content rather than pedagogy. This revision involved shifting six courses 

that had previously been categorized under applied mathematics to the computer technology program area within occupational education.54 Consequently, all computer-related courses taught in 

mathematics departments or computer education departments are currently included under the 

computer technology program area, which encompasses courses in five subareas: computer applications, computer data processing, computer programming, computer science and systems, and 

computer mathematics (figure 33).55 This revision was applied to all years in the analysis. 

Overall trends in the computer technology program area were discussed in the context of 

trends in all occupational program areas in chapter II. In contrast, this chapter discusses trends in 

computer technology within the context of all computer-related coursetaking—of which computer technology coursetaking is only a part. In addition, this chapter examines trends in 

the subareas within computer technology. 

 

54The six courses included Introduction to Computers, Computer Mathematics 1 and 2, Other Information Sciences and Systems, 

Other Systems Analysis, and Other Computer and Information Sciences (Bradby and Hoachlander 1999, p. 29). 

55One consequence of this decision is that the courses classified under computer technology may not constitute planned sequences of courses to the same extent that courses in other occupational program areas do. In particular, computer technology 

students may be less likely than those in other occupational areas to complete three or more courses in computer technology (the 

standard that many states use to identify vocational/technical completers). In addition, computer technology teachers may be less 

likely to arrange cooperative education experiences, so that students taking computer technology courses may be less likely to 

participate in cooperative education as part of that coursework. 
 III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

71 

An Overview of Computer-Related Coursetaking in 1998 

The 1998 public high school graduates earned on average 1.05 credits in computer-related 

courses in high school—equivalent to about one full-year computer-related course (figure 34 and 

table A16). Most of these credits (0.70 credits) were earned in the occupational curriculum, while 

the rest (0.35 credits) were earned in general labor market preparation. Within the general labor 

market curriculum, 1998 public high school graduates earned more credits in basic typewriting/keyboarding courses than in technology education (0.29 credits versus 0.06 credits). Within 

the occupational curriculum, 1998 public high school graduates earned more computer-related 

credits on average in the business services and the computer technology program areas (0.33 

credits and 0.31 credits, respectively) than in computer-related drafting/graphics courses (0.06 

credits).56 The largest proportions of computer-related credits earned in high school by 1998 

graduates were in basic typewriting/keyboarding (33.5 percent), business services (30.5 percent), 

and computer technology (27.2 percent) (figure 35 and table A17).57

Within the computer technology program area, 1998 graduates earned more credits on average in computer applications courses than in any other area. Specifically, 1998 public high 

school graduates earned 0.16 credits in computer applications courses, compared with 0.09 credits in computer science and systems, 0.04 credits in computer programming, and 0.01 credits 

each in data processing and computer mathematics (figure 34 and table A16). 

Trends in Overall Computer-Related Coursetaking 

During the 1990s, overall computer-related coursetaking was relatively stable. Specifically, 

no significant change was detected in the average credits earned by 1990 and 1998 public high 

school graduates in computer-related courses in high school (1.03 credits and 1.05 credits, respectively) (figure 36 and table A16). Throughout the 1990s, computer-related coursetaking represented at least 4 percent of the total number of credits that public high school graduates earned 

in high school (table 13). 

Computer-related coursetaking within the occupational curriculum was also relatively stable. There was no significant difference between the 1990 and 1998 graduates in the average 

number of computer-related credits they earned in occupational education in high school (figure 

36 and table A16).58 Computer-related occupational coursetaking represented between 31 and 35 

percent of total occupational coursetaking during this same period (figure 37 and table A18).59 

 

56The slight difference between business services and computer technology was not statistically significant. 

57There were no statistically significant differences among these three computer-related areas. 

58Although the increase between 1990 and 1992 was statistically significant, the difference between 1990 and 1998 was not. 

59Again, although the increase between 1990 and 1992 was statistically significant, the difference between 1990 and 1998 was 

not. 
III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

72 

Figure 34.—Average number of computer-related credits earned by public high school graduates,

Figure 34.—by vocational/technical area: 1998

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

0.31

0.16

0.70

0.09

0.35

0.33

0.06

0.04

0.29

0.06

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

0.50

0.55

0.60

0.65

0.70

0.75

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

1.05

Total, by curriculum Total, by curriculum and area Total computer technology,

by course type

Credits

earned

Occupational

education

General 

labor

market 

preparation

1.05

Business

services

Computer

technology

Drafting and

graphics

Basic 

typewriting/

keyboarding

Technology

education

0.31

Computer

science and 

systems

Computer

programming

0.01 

Computer 

math

0.01

Data 

processing

Computer

applications

1.05
 III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

73 

Figure 35.—Percentage distribution of computer-related credits earned by public high school graduates, 

Figure 35.—by computer-related area: 1998

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

Computer technology

27.2%

Basic 

typewriting/keyboarding

33.5%

Business services

30.5%

Technology education

4.8%

Drafting and graphics

4.1%

Figure 36.—Average number of computer-related credits earned by public high school graduates, by general 

Figure 36.—labor market preparation and occupational education curricula: Various years, 1990–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

0.59 0.68 0.64 0.70

0.34 0.40 0.35

0.45

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits

earned

General labor market preparation

Occupational education

1.04 1.03 1.04 1.05
III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

74 

Table 13.—Percentage distribution of total credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

Table 13.—computer-related and noncomputer-related areas: Various years, 1982–98

19821 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total † 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Noncomputer-related † 95.6 95.7 95.7 95.8 

Computer-related, total † 4.4 4.3 4.3 4.2 

†Not applicable.

1

In 1982, all basic typewriting/keyboarding courses were assumed not to be computer-related, while in subsequent years all

of these courses were classified as computer-related. Therefore, 1982 estimates for basic typewriting/keyboarding, total general 

labor market preparation and total computer-related courses are not comparable with other years.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

Figure 37.—Percentage of total general labor market preparation credits and total occupational credits 

Figure 37.—earned by public high school graduates that were computer-related: Various years, 1990–98

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

65.4

73.2 68.5

34.7 33.9 33.3

72.1

30.8

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

General labor market

preparation

Occupational
 III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

75 

Computer-related coursetaking within the general labor market preparation curriculum declined, however, from an average of 0.45 credits for 1990 graduates to 0.35 credits for 1998 

graduates (figure 36 and table A16).60 This decline was due primarily to a decrease in basic 

typewriting/keyboarding coursework. The number of credits that public high school graduates 

earned on average in basic typewriting/keyboarding courses in high school (all of which were 

considered to be computer related during the 1990s) declined from 0.45 credits for 1990 graduates to 0.29 credits for 1998 graduates (table A16). In comparison, computer-related technology 

education coursetaking was first detected in 1994. The 1994 public high school graduates earned 

on average 0.03 credits in computer-related technology education, after which the average number of credits that 1998 graduates earned in these courses increased to 0.06 credits (table A16). 

Trends in Computer-Related Coursetaking Within the Occupational Curriculum 

As explained earlier, the discussion of trends in the rest of this chapter covers the entire period from 1982 to 1998. Over this time period, computer-related coursetaking within the occupational curriculum increased. Comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, graduates earned on 

average 0.58 more computer-related occupational credits in high school, equivalent to more than 

one additional half-year course (table A16). 

The largest growth in computer-related occupational credits earned by graduates over the 

period studied was in the business services program area. Comparing the classes of 1982 and 

1998, public high school graduates earned on average 0.32 more computer-related credits in 

business services, compared with 0.20 more credits in computer technology and 0.06 more credits in drafting/graphics (figure 38 and table A16). 

Computer-related business services coursetaking increased between 1982 and 1990, although no significant difference was detected between 1990 and 1998.61 Between 1982 and 1990, 

public high school graduates earned on average 0.27 more computer-related credits in business 

services, increasing from 0.01 credits for 1982 graduates to 0.28 credits for 1990 graduates (figure 38 and table A16). As of 1998, graduates earned 0.33 such credits. 

Computer-related drafting/graphics coursetaking also increased over the period studied, although half of this increase occurred between 1994 and 1998. Specifically, between 1982 and 

1994, public high school graduates earned 0.03 more credits in computer-related drafting/graphics in high school, increasing from 0.00 credits for 1982 graduates to 0.03 credits for 

 

60The apparent increase between 1992 and 1994 was not statistically significant. 

61Although the average credits earned by graduates in these courses increased significantly between 1992 and 1994, the difference between 1990 and 1998 graduates was not statistically significant. 
III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

76 

Figure 38.—Average number of computer-related credits earned in occupational education by public high

Figure 38.—school graduates, by occupational program area: Various years, 1982–98

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

Business services

0.01

0.28 0.29

0.38

0.33

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned

Computer technology

0.11

0.30

0.37

0.23

0.31

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned

Drafting and graphics

0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.06

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned

‡
 III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

77 

1994 graduates (figure 38 and table A16). The average number of credits that graduates earned in 

computer-related drafting/graphics then increased by another 0.03 credits to 0.06 credits for 1998 

graduates. 

Similar to computer-related business services, coursetaking in computer technology in high 

school increased between 1982 and 1990, although no significant difference was detected between 1990 and 1998.62 The average number of credits that public high school graduates earned 

in computer technology increased by 0.19 credits, from 0.11 credits for 1982 graduates to 0.30 

credits for 1990 graduates (figure 38 and table A16). There was no significant difference in the 

average number of computer technology credits earned by 1990 and 1998 graduates (0.30 credits 

and 0.31 credits, respectively). 

Trends Within the Computer Technology Program Area 

Trends in coursetaking also varied among the five computer technology subareas. Although 

virtually no 1982 graduates took computer applications courses in high school, 1998 graduates 

earned more credits in computer applications than in any other computer technology field (figure 

39 and table A16). The 1982 public high school graduates earned 0.00 credits on average in 

computer applications, in contrast with 0.05 credits for 1990 graduates. As of the class of 1998, 

graduates had increased the average number of credits they earned in computer applications 

courses in high school to 0.16 credits. 

Graduates also earned more credits in computer science and systems courses in the 1990s 

than in 1982. The average number of credits that public high school graduates earned in computer science and systems courses increased from 0.01 credits for 1982 graduates to 0.10 credits 

for 1990 graduates, and then to 0.20 credits for 1992 graduates (figure 39 and table A16). After 

1992, the average number of such credits earned by graduates declined to between 0.08 and 0.09 

credits for the classes of 1994 and 1998, respectively. However, the average number of computer 

science and systems credits that 1994 and 1998 graduates earned was still higher than the average 

number of such credits earned by 1982 graduates. 

Computer programming coursetaking increased between 1982 and 1990 and then returned 

to the same level of coursetaking as that in 1982. Specifically, public high school graduates 

earned 0.09 more credits in computer programming courses in high school between 1982 and 

1990, increasing from 0.04 credits for 1982 graduates to 0.13 credits for 1990 graduates (figure 

 

62Although average credits earned in computer technology increased between 1990 and 1992, they decreased again by 1994 to a 

level that was not statistically different from 1998, and the overall change between 1990 and 1998 was not statistically significant. 
III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

78 

Figure 39.—Average number of computer-related credits earned in the computer technology program area 

Figure 39.—by public high school graduates, by course type: Various years, 1982–98

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Years are not spaced proportionally.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B)

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

Computer applications

0.00 0.05 0.03 0.07

0.16

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Credits earned

Computer science and systems

0.01

0.10

0.20

0.08 0.09

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Credits earned

Computer programming

0.04

0.13 0.09 0.05 0.04

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Credits earned

Data processing

0.04 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Credits earned

Computer mathematics

0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Year

Credits earned

‡
 III. Trends in Introductory Technology and Computer-Related Coursetaking 

79 

39 and table A16). The average number of credits that graduates earned in computer programming courses declined back to 0.04 credits for 1998 graduates.63

Finally, comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, data processing coursetaking showed a 

slight decline, while there was no significant difference in computer mathematics coursetaking 

(figure 39 and table A16). Public high school graduates generally earned small numbers of credits (0.04 or fewer credits) on average in each of these areas over the entire period studied. 

 

63The decline between 1994 and 1998 was not statistically significant, although the declines between 1990 and 1992, between 

1992 and 1994, and overall between 1990 and 1998 were statistically significant. 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
81 

IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical 

Coursetaking 

As discussed in chapter I, several pieces of federal legislation in the 1990s focused attention on increasing the academic achievement of participants in vocational/technical education. 

The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act Amendments of 1990 (Perkins II) 

required that states implement a performance measure of the academic achievement gains of vocational/technical participants, as well as introduced the concepts of integration of academic and 

vocational/technical education and of tech-prep education. The School-to-Work Opportunities 

Act of 1994 continued the emphasis on academic achievement, calling for preparing all students 

for both college and work and further encouraging the integration of academic and vocational/technical education and linkages between secondary and postsecondary education. 

It is important to remember that almost all high school students take some vocational/technical education, although students take varying amounts and types of these courses and 

take them for different purposes. Similarly, students combine academic and vocational/technical 

education in different ways and for different purposes. This chapter examines the various ways 

that public high school graduates combined academic and vocational/technical education between 1982 and 1998, focusing primarily—although not exclusively—on the academic coursetaking of occupational concentrators. This group is the main focus of federal and state 

accountability for vocational/technical education. 

The Context: Overall Academic Coursetaking Trends in Brief 

Between 1982 and 1998, public high school graduates increased both the number and rigor 

of the academic courses they took in high school. On average, 1998 graduates earned 3.98 more 

credits in academic courses in high school—equivalent to about four full-year academic courses—

and they earned more credits in each academic subject than did 1982 graduates (table 14). In addition, more graduates took advanced coursework in mathematics, science, and English over the 

period studied (figure 40 and tables A19, A20, A21) (see also Chen et al. forthcoming).64

 

64Advanced mathematics coursework includes algebra 3, trigonometry, analytical geometry, linear algebra, probability, statistics,

pre-calculus, introduction to analysis, and/or calculus. Advanced science coursework includes some combination of chemistry 

and/or physics, other than consumer or introductory chemistry. Advanced English coursework includes at least some honors English courses. See the appendix D for a more detailed explanation of these measures. 
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

82 

Table 14.—Average number of credits earned in academic subjects by public high school graduates, by 

Table 13.—subject: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 14.28 16.66 17.22 17.58 18.26 

Core academics, total 11.87 13.57 13.88 14.21 14.51 

 English 3.93 4.19 4.24 4.29 4.25 

 Mathematics 2.62 3.15 3.23 3.33 3.40 

 Science 2.17 2.76 2.89 3.04 3.12 

 Social studies 3.14 3.48 3.53 3.55 3.74 

Foreign languages 0.95 1.54 1.67 1.71 1.85 

Fine arts 1.46 1.55 1.67 1.66 1.90 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

Figure 40.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking advanced academic coursework, by academic

Figure 40.—subject: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes chemistry 1 and 2 and physics 1 and 2.

2

Includes algebra 3, trigonometry, analytical geometry, linear algebra, probability, statistics, pre-calculus, introduction to 

analysis, and calculus.

3

Includes at least some English coursework in honors courses.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

27.7

45.5 47.8 51.8

57.2

19.0 22.8 23.8 24.3

38.3 36.3 34.0 28.7

22.6

12.1

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Advanced science

Advanced mathematics

Advanced English

1

2

3
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

83 

Was this increased academic coursetaking associated with a decline in vocational/technical 

coursetaking among students between 1982 and 1998?65 How did students combine academic 

and vocational/technical coursetaking over the period studied? To what extent did the academic 

coursetaking of participants in vocational/technical education increase compared with that of 

other students? To what extent did students take academic coursework related to their vocational/technical coursework? This chapter addresses these questions. 

The Relationship Between Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

Graduates decreased their average vocational/technical coursetaking by a relatively small 

amount while taking additional academic coursework over the period studied. In general, students made room for additional academic courses primarily by increasing the total number of 

credits they earned in high school rather than by reducing their vocational/technical coursetaking. 

As reported in chapter II, the average number of credits that public high school graduates earned 

in vocational/technical education decreased from 4.68 credits for 1982 graduates to 4.19 credits 

for 1990 graduates, with 1998 graduates earning 3.99 vocational/technical credits on average in 

high school.66 Thus, 1998 graduates earned 0.69 fewer vocational/technical credits on average 

than 1982 graduates, while they earned 3.98 more academic credits and 0.25 more enrichment/other credits than their 1982 counterparts (figure 8). Consequently, the total number of 

credits earned by public high school graduates increased by 3.54 credits on average, from 21.60 

credits for 1982 graduates to 25.14 credits for 1998 graduates. 

For each graduating class, participants in vocational/technical education earned fewer core 

academic credits in high school than nonparticipants, regardless of the particular measure of participation (table 15).67, 68 For example, among 1998 graduates, occupational coursetakers earned 

1.02 fewer core academic credits on average than graduates taking no occupational courses 

(14.42 credits versus 15.43 credits). Toward the other end of the participation spectrum, advanced occupational concentrators earned 0.87 fewer core academic credits than 1998 graduates 

who were not advanced occupational concentrators (13.77 credits versus 14.64 credits). 

 

65This is a different question than that examined in chapter I, which examined whether changes in states’ high school graduation 

requirements were associated with changes in vocational/technical coursetaking between 1990 and 1998. 

66No significant changes in average vocational/technical credits earned were detected after 1990. 

67The Secondary School Taxonomy includes non-English (foreign) languages and fine arts under the academic curriculum. 

However, many states consider these subjects as electives (Snyder and Hoffman 2001, table 154). The rest of this chapter, therefore, focuses primarily—although not exclusively—on the four core academic subjects of English, mathematics, science, and 

social studies. 

68There was one exception to this overall pattern. The difference between advanced occupational concentrators with cooperative 

education and all other 1998 graduates in the number of core academic credits earned was not statistically significant. 
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

84 

Table 15.—Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school graduates, by 

Table 14.—selected participation measures: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 11.87 13.57 13.88 14.21 14.51 

Vocational/technical participation measures

 Vocational/technical coursetakers1 11.82 13.54 13.85 14.17 14.47 

 Occupational coursetakers2 11.65 13.46 13.79 14.11 14.42 

 Vocational/technical investors3 11.21 12.91 13.27 13.60 14.00 

 Occupational investors4 10.89 12.58 13.02 13.33 13.88 

 Occupational concentrators5 10.78 12.28 12.73 13.06 13.68 

 Advanced occupational concentrators6 10.79 12.31 12.69 13.01 13.77 

 Advanced occupational concentrators with cooperative 10.82 12.25 12.40 12.75 14.08 

 education7 10.82 12.25 12.40 12.75 14.08 

Vocational/technical nonparticipation measures

 All graduates except vocational/technical coursetakers 14.13 15.00 15.26 15.62 15.81 

 All graduates except occupational coursetakers 13.57 14.68 14.99 15.22 15.43 

 All graduates except vocational investors 13.50 14.72 14.88 15.19 15.33 

 All graduates except occupational investors 12.70 14.32 14.51 14.85 15.01 

 All graduates except occupational concentrators 12.42 14.07 14.26 14.61 14.79 

 All graduates except advanced occupational concentrators 12.21 13.81 14.11 14.42 14.64 

 All graduates except advanced occupational concentrators

 with cooperative education 11.91 13.63 13.94 14.29 14.53 

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education. 

2

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education. 

3

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education. 

4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education, regardless of whether they concentrate their occupational 

coursetaking in a single program area. 

5

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

6

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 advanced credit in 

that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higher-level courses and cooperative education 

courses. 

7

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 cooperative 

education credit in that program area. 

NOTE: Core academic subjects include English, mathematics, science, and social studies.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

In addition, the average number of core academic credits earned by graduates decreased—

up to a point—as their involvement in the vocational/technical curriculum increased. For example, for the class of 1998, occupational concentrators earned 0.79 fewer core academic credits 

than vocational/technical coursetakers (13.68 credits versus 14.47 credits) (table 15). However, 
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

85 

the average number of core academic credits earned by vocational/technical participants appeared 

to increase with advanced occupational coursetaking,69 such that the difference in core academic 

credits earned by 1998 graduates who were vocational/technical coursetakers and those who were 

advanced occupational concentrators with cooperative education was not statistically significant. 

Like graduates in general, participants in vocational/technical education increased their 

academic coursetaking in high school over the period studied. According to all measures of vocational/technical participation presented in table 15, 1998 graduates earned more core academic 

credits than their 1982 counterparts. For example, occupational coursetakers earned 2.77 more 

core academic credits over the period, increasing from 11.65 credits for 1982 graduates to 14.42 

credits for 1998 graduates (figure 41 and table 15). Similarly, at the other end of the vocational/technical participation spectrum, advanced occupational concentrators with 1.0 or more 

Figure 41.—Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school graduates,

Figure 41.—by selected vocational/technical coursetaking measures: Various years, 1982–98

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 

cooperative education credit in that program area: agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, 

trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and other services. 

NOTE: Core academic subjects include English, mathematics, science, and social studies.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

11.65 10.82

13.46

12.25

13.79

12.40

14.11

12.75

14.42 14.08

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

Occupational coursetakers Advanced occupational concentrators with

cooperative education

Credits earned

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

1

2

 

69However, the difference in average number of core academic credits earned between occupational concentrators and advanced 

concentrators with cooperative education was not statistically significant. 
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

86 

credits of cooperative education in their area of concentration earned 3.26 more core academic 

credits, increasing from 10.82 credits for 1982 graduates to 14.08 credits for 1998 graduates. 

Trends in the Academic Coursetaking of Occupational Concentrators 

Overview 

Both occupational concentrators (graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 

broad occupational program areas in figure 3) and nonconcentrators (all graduates except occupational concentrators) increased the number and rigor of the academic courses they took between 

1982 and 1998. In some instances, the rate of increase was greater for occupational concentrators, 

possibly because they took fewer and less rigorous academic courses than nonconcentrators at the 

beginning of the period. Nevertheless, among 1998 graduates, occupational concentrators still 

took fewer and less rigorous academic courses in high school than nonconcentrators. 

However, differences between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in mathematics, English, and social studies coursetaking were fairly small, and the level of coursetaking 

for both groups was fairly high in these subjects, compared with the level of science coursetaking. For example, among 1998 graduates, differences between occupational concentrators and 

nonconcentrators in the number of credits earned in English, mathematics, and social studies 

were less than 0.40 credits (ranging from 0.18 credits to 0.27 credits), while the difference between these two groups in science was 0.40 credits (table 16). Similarly, among 1998 graduates, 

more than 75 percent of both occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators met the New Basics core academic standards70 in mathematics, English, and social studies, while less than 75 

percent of these groups met the standard in science (table 17).71 In addition, the gap between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in the percentage of graduates meeting the New 

Basics standards was larger in science than in English or social studies (15.2 percentage points 

versus 3.7 percentage points and 4.4 percentage points, respectively) (table 17).72 The gap between concentrators and nonconcentrators in science coursetaking was larger in chemistry than in 

biology (see the section on trends in specific academic coursetaking below). 

These general findings are reviewed in more detail in the remainder of this section. 

 

70The New Basics core academic standards include 4 years of English, and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies (National Commission on Excellence in Education 1983). 

71The 73.7 percent of nonconcentrators meeting the science standard was not statistically different from 75 percent. 

72The 6.8 percentage point gap between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in mathematics was not statistically 

different from the corresponding science gap of 15.2 percentage points. 
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

87 

Table 16.—Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school graduates,

Table 15.—by occupational concentration status and subject area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 11.87 13.57 13.88 14.21 14.51 

Occupational concentrators1

 All core academic subjects 10.78 12.28 12.73 13.06 13.68 

 English 3.79 4.02 4.11 4.16 4.12 

 Mathematics 2.25 2.80 2.87 3.02 3.21 

 Science 1.74 2.26 2.47 2.59 2.82 

 Social studies 3.00 3.19 3.28 3.30 3.54 

Nonconcentrators2

 All core academic subjects 12.42 14.07 14.26 14.61 14.79 

 English 4.01 4.26 4.28 4.33 4.29 

 Mathematics 2.80 3.29 3.35 3.44 3.46 

 Science 2.39 2.94 3.03 3.20 3.23 

 Social studies 3.22 3.58 3.61 3.64 3.81 

1

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing,

health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and

other services.

2

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore

Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88),

Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

Table 17.—Percentage of public high school graduates meeting New Basics standards in core academic 

Table 16.—subjects, by occupational concentration status and academic subject area: Various years, 

Table 16.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 13.1 38.1 42.1 50.2 56.0 

Occupational concentrators1

 All core academic subjects 5.0 18.5 24.4 33.2 45.7 

 English 57.7 78.7 82.1 88.7 82.0 

 Mathematics 29.4 57.1 59.5 70.7 78.7 

 Science 13.2 29.5 36.8 45.1 58.4 

 Social studies 62.1 77.4 82.3 84.1 90.9 

Nonconcentrators2

 All core academic subjects 17.1 45.7 47.9 56.0 59.4 

 English 65.5 85.5 86.6 88.6 85.8 

 Mathematics 54.7 78.0 80.6 84.5 85.5 

 Science 37.4 60.7 62.6 70.3 73.7 

 Social studies 70.8 89.0 88.6 91.3 95.3 

1

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing,

health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and

other services. 

2

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

NOTE: New Basics core academic standards include 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social studies.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore

Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88),

Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

88 

Overall Academic Coursetaking 

Occupational concentrators who were members of the class of 1998 earned 2.90 more credits in core academic subjects (English, mathematics, science, and social studies) than their 1982 

counterparts, a larger increase than the 2.37 additional core academic credits earned by nonconcentrators over the same period (figure 42 and table 16). However, as of 1998, occupational concentrators still earned 1.11 fewer credits—equivalent to about one less full-year course—in core 

academic subjects in high school than nonconcentrators. Among 1998 graduates, occupational 

concentrators earned 13.68 credits in core academic subjects, compared with 14.79 credits for 

nonconcentrators. 

Comparing the classes of 1982 and 1998, the percentages of occupational concentrators and 

nonconcentrators meeting all of the New Basics core academic standards increased by amounts 

Figure 42.—Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by public high school graduates, 

Figure 42.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

2

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

NOTE: Core academic subjects include English, mathematics, science, and social studies.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

10.78

12.28 12.42

14.07

12.73

14.26

13.06

14.61

13.68

14.79

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

Occupational concentrators Nonconcentrators 

Credits earned

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

1 2
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

89 

that were not statistically different from each other (by about 41 to 42 percentage points) (figure 

43 and table 17). However, the rates of increase differed because occupational concentrators 

were less likely than nonconcentrators to meet the New Basics core academic standards in 1982. 

The percentage of occupational concentrators who met all of the New Basics core academic standards increased by 800 percent between the classes of 1982 and 1998, compared with an increase 

of about 250 percent for nonconcentrators. Nevertheless, among 1998 graduates, occupational 

concentrators were still less likely than nonconcentrators to meet all of the New Basics core academic standards (45.7 percent versus 59.4 percent). 

Figure 43.—Percentage of public high school graduates meeting the New Basics standards in core academic

Figure 43.—subjects, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

NOTE: New Basics core academic standards include 4 years of English and 3 years each of mathematics, science, and social

studies. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

17.1

45.7 47.9

56.0 59.4

18.5

24.4

33.2

45.7

5.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

90 

Patterns were similar when examining trends in mathematics and science coursetaking. 

That is, increases between 1982 and 1998 in average credits earned (table 16) and in the percentage of graduates meeting New Basics standards (table 17 and figures 44–47) were greater for occupational concentrators than for nonconcentrators in these two subjects.73 In addition, among 

1998 public high school graduates, occupational concentrators generally earned fewer credits on 

average and were less likely to meet the New Basics standard in each core academic subject 

compared to nonconcentrators.74

Figure 44.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning 4.0 or more credits in English,

Figure 63.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

65.5

85.5 85.8

57.7

78.7 82.1 82.0

86.6 88.6

88.7

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2

 

73Apparent differences between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in English and in social studies were not statistically significant. 

74One exception was that the difference between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in the percentage of 1998 

graduates meeting the New Basics standard in English was not statistically significant. 
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

91 

Figure 45.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in mathematics,

Figure 45.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

54.7

78.0 80.6 84.5 85.5

29.4

57.1 59.5

70.7

78.7

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2

Figure 46.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in science,

Figure 47.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

37.4

60.7 62.6

70.3 73.7

13.2

29.5

36.8

45.1

58.4

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

92 

Figure 47.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in social studies,

Figure 53.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

70.8

89.0

95.3

62.1

77.4

82.3

90.9

91.3 88.6

84.1

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2

Trends in Specific Academic Coursetaking 

This section examines coursetaking trends for specific courses within the mathematics, science, and social studies subject areas. 

Trends in specific mathematics and science coursetaking generally followed the above patterns. The percentage of occupational concentrators who took algebra 1 or higher mathematics 

and who took biology increased at higher rates between 1982 and 1998 than the percentage of 

nonconcentrators who took these courses (figures 48 and 49 and table A22).75 In addition, although the increase was larger for occupational concentrators than for nonconcentrators, among 

1998 graduates, concentrators were still less likely than nonconcentrators to take these courses in 

high school. As of 1998, occupational concentrators were also less likely than nonconcentrators 

to take chemistry and physics courses. The largest increase in science coursetaking for both concentrators and nonconcentrators over the period studied was in chemistry. Despite this increase, 

 

75Apparent differences between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in chemistry and in physics were not statistically significant. 
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

93 

Figure 48.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or higher mathematics courses,

Figure 45.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

78.6

88.3 90.9 91.7 93.2

61.2

69.5 74.2 78.8

87.1

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2

Figure 49.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing specific science courses, by occupational

Figure 49.—concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent Biology

 Nonconcentrators1

 Occupational concentrators2

 Chemistry

 Nonconcentrators

 Occupational concentrators

 Physics

 Nonconcentrators

 Occupational concentrators
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

94 

the gap between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators as of 1998 was significantly 

larger in chemistry than in biology.76

With regard to social studies coursetaking, both occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators increased their coursetaking in both U.S. history and world history over the period studied. Moreover, occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators increased their U.S. history and 

world history coursetaking by statistically similar amounts between 1982 and 1998. As of 1998, 

there was no significant difference in the percentage of occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators who took either type of history in high school (figure 50 and table A23).77 

Figure 50.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing specific history courses, by occupational

Figure 53.—concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

94.1

36.3

96.6

91.1

96.0

86.7

87.0

95.1 93.3 96.2 94.0

66.5

45.6

60.6 67.1 67.4

59.2 60.5 56.8

49.9

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

 U.S. history

 Nonconcentrators1

 Occupational concentrators2

 World history

 Nonconcentrators

 Occupational concentrators

 

76The gap as of 1998 between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in physics was not statistically significant from 

the corresponding gap in chemistry. 

77The apparent difference as of 1998 between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in world history was not statistically significant. 
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

95 

Trends in Advanced Academic Coursetaking 

Finally, with regard to advanced academic coursetaking, the percentage of occupational 

concentrators and nonconcentrators who completed advanced coursework in mathematics 

(coursework beyond algebra 2), science (chemistry and/or physics), and English (at least some 

honors-level English coursework) increased by statistically similar amounts (figures 51, 52, and 

53 and tables A19–A21). However, among 1998 graduates, occupational concentrators were less 

likely than nonconcentrators to complete advanced coursework in each of these subjects in high 

school. 

Finally, the gap in mathematics coursetaking between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators was larger in terms of the rigor of this coursetaking than in the number of courses 

these graduates took. Specifically, the gap between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in the percentage of 1998 graduates completing advanced coursework in mathematics (including mathematics above algebra 2) was greater than the gap in the percentage of these 

graduates taking 3 years of mathematics (16.5 percentage points versus 6.8 percentage points) 

(table A19 and table 17). In contrast, the gaps between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in the percentage of 1998 graduates completing advanced coursework in English and 

Figure 51.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing advanced mathematics coursework,

Figure 46.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing,

health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and

other services. 

NOTE: Advanced mathematics coursework includes algebra 3, trigonometry, analytic geometry, linear algebra, probability and

statistics, precalculus, introduction to analysis, and/or calculus.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore

Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88),

Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

29.3 35.3 39.4 42.3 42.4

11.4

17.7 18.5

9.3

26.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

96 

Figure 52.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing advanced science coursework,

Figure 48.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing,

health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and

other services.

NOTE: Advanced science coursework includes chemistry 1 and 2 and physics 1 and 2.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore

Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88),

Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

35.2

54.8 54.8 59.2 62.2

12.8

21.2 27.0 30.0

42.0

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2

Figure 53.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing advanced English coursework,

Figure 63.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing,

health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and

other services. 

NOTE: Advanced English coursework includes at least some honors courses.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore

Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88),

Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

14.8

23.0 26.8

17.0

26.1 27.5

12.5 6.7 12.8 8.3 0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

97 

science were not statistically different from the corresponding gaps in the percentage of these 

graduates meeting the New Basics standards in these two subjects (tables A20–A21 and table 

17). 

Combining College-Preparatory and Occupational Coursework 

In keeping with increasing academic coursetaking in general, high school students were 

more likely to complete college-preparatory coursework over the period studied.78 The percentage of public high school graduates completing college-preparatory coursework in high school 

increased by about 4.5 times over this period, from 8.7 percent for 1982 graduates to 38.9 percent 

for 1998 graduates (figure 54 and table A24). The 1998 graduates were also more likely to comFigure 54.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing a college-preparatory course of study,

Figure 54.—by whether graduates completed college-preparatory coursework only or also an occupational 

Figure 54.—concentration: Various years, 1982–98

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more

credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry,

or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a

single foreign language. Concentrating in occupational education refers to earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10

broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and

industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and other services. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

38.9

32.4 8.7

36.7 32.0 28.7

8.1

28.7 32.2 25.9

4.5 6.5 3.4

0.6

2.8

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Total

College-preparatory coursework

only

Both college-preparatory

coursework and occupational

concentration

 

78College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics at the 

algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at least 

1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. These criteria were based on a review of 

entrance requirements at public 4-year postsecondary institutions in Flanagan (1992) and were first used in Levesque et al. 

(2000). 
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

98 

bine college-preparatory and occupational coursework than their 1982 counterparts. Specifically, 

the percentage of public high school graduates completing both college-preparatory coursework 

and an occupational concentration increased by about 11 times, from 0.6 percent for 1982 graduates to 6.5 percent for 1998 graduates (figure 54 and table A25). 

Occupational Concentrators and College-Preparatory Coursework 

The percentage of occupational concentrators (graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one 

of the 10 broad occupational program areas in figure 3) who completed college-preparatory 

coursework increased about 15 fold over the period studied, from 1.7 percent for 1982 graduates 

to 25.9 percent for 1998 graduates (figure 55 and table A24). Among the five relevant academic 

subjects, occupational concentrators who were members of the class of 1998 were most likely to 

Figure 55.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing college-preparatory coursework,

Figure 55.—by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at

least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

12.2

35.9

43.2

10.1 13.5

25.9

38.2

43.1

1.7

17.9

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000

Year

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

99 

meet the college-preparatory criteria in social studies (figure 56 and table A26). In contrast, they 

were less likely to meet the college-preparatory criteria in foreign languages than in social studies, English, or science.79 

Occupational concentrators were less likely than nonconcentrators to complete collegepreparatory coursework. Among 1998 graduates, 25.9 percent of occupational concentrators 

completed college-preparatory coursework, compared with 43.2 percent of nonconcentrators 

(figure 55 and table A26). Occupational concentrators were also less likely than nonconcentrators 

to complete the college-preparatory criteria in foreign languages, science, and mathematics (figure 56 and table A26). 

Figure 56.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing college-preparatory coursework,

Figure 56.—by academic subject and occupational concentration status: 1998

1

Includes all graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at

least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

42.0

48.1

54.8

82.0

93.1

67.1

66.0

73.4

85.8

92.9

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Foreign languages

Mathematics

Science

English

Social studies

Percent

Nonconcentrators

Occupational concentrators

1

2

 

79The apparent difference between foreign languages and mathematics was not statistically significant. 
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

100 

College-Preparatory Completers and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

As mentioned in chapter I, high school students take varying amounts and types of vocational/technical courses and take these courses for different purposes. This section briefly examines the vocational/technical coursetaking of public high school graduates who completed 

college-preparatory coursework. 

High school students completing college-preparatory coursework took fewer vocational/technical courses overall and in each of the three vocational/technical subcurricula than 

non-college-preparatory students. Among 1998 public high school graduates, those completing 

college-preparatory coursework earned 1.57 fewer vocational/technical credits on average than 

other graduates (figure 57 and table A27). Most of this difference was in occupational education, 

with college-preparatory completers earning 1.11 fewer occupational credits than other 1998 

graduates—the equivalent of about one full-year occupational course. However, a majority of 

Figure 57.—Average number of credits earned by public high school graduates in vocational/technical 

Figure 72.—education, by vocational/technical curriculum and whether graduates completed collegeFigure 72.—preparatory coursework: 1998

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at

least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

3.03

2.19

0.46 0.37

4.60

3.30

0.70 0.60

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

Total Occupational education General labor market

preparation

Family and consumer

sciences education

Vocational/technical curriculum

Credits

earned

College-preparatory Not college-preparatory
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

101 

college-preparatory completers (86.9 percent) who were members of the class of 1998 took at 

least one occupational course (earned at least some occupational credits) (figure 58 and table 

A28).80

Graduates completing college-preparatory coursework were also less likely than other 

graduates to be occupational concentrators. Among 1998 public high school graduates, 16.7 percent of graduates completing college-preparatory coursework were occupational concentrators, 

compared with 30.3 percent of graduates who did not complete such coursework (figure 58 and 

table A28). However, based on the strictest participation measure, there was no significant difference in vocational/technical coursetaking between college-preparatory completers and other 

graduates. Specifically, there was no significant difference between 1998 graduates who completed college-preparatory coursework and those who did not complete such coursework in their 

likelihood of completing an advanced occupational concentration with cooperative education 

(that is, earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas in figure 3 

with at least 1.0 credit in cooperative education in the area) (4.9 percent versus 4.0 percent). 

Figure 58.—Percentage of public high school graduates participating in vocational/technical education,

Figure 73.—by selected participation measures and whether graduates completed college-preparatory 

Figure 73.—coursework: 1998

1

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 cooperative 

education credit in that program area. 

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at

least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

4.0

16.7

86.9

4.9

30.3

93.0

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Advanced occupational concentration with

cooperative education

Concentration in occupational education

Earning any occupational credits

Percent

Not college-preparatory

College-preparatory

Earning any occupational credits

Concentration in occupational education1

Advanced occupational concentration with

cooperative education2

 

 

80This rate of coursetaking was lower than that for all other graduates (93.0 percent). 
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

102 

Looking at specific areas of occupational concentration, graduates completing collegepreparatory coursework were more likely than other graduates to concentrate (earn 3.0 or more 

credits) in the communications technology program area. Specifically, among 1998 graduates, 

1.3 percent of college-preparatory completers concentrated in communications technology, compared with 0.6 percent of graduates who did not complete college-preparatory coursework (figure 

59 and table A29). In contrast, college-preparatory completers were less likely than other 1998 

graduates to concentrate in the program areas of mechanics and repair, construction, agriculture, 

print production, marketing, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal 

and other services. However, there were no significant differences between the concentration 

rates of college-preparatory completers and other 1998 graduates in business management, business services, health care, other precision production, transportation, computer technology, and 

other technology program areas.81 

Related Academic and Occupational Coursetaking 

As described at the beginning of this chapter, both Perkins II and the School-to-Work Opportunities Act called for integrating academic and vocational/technical education. While integration can take many forms, one form that can be examined through transcript studies is whether 

occupational concentrators took academic courses related to their area of concentration. Table 18 

identifies academic courses that were judged to be related to the 18 narrow occupational program 

areas examined in this report, based on expert advice from members of NCES’ Technical Review 

Panel for vocational education about the academic knowledge required in high-quality programs 

in each occupational area. English courses were not included in the table because they were 

judged to be relevant to all program areas. Because of small sample sizes, only 15 occupational 

program areas had sufficient data to produce reliable estimates.82

One piece of evidence that occupational concentrators are pursuing an “integrated” vocational/technical and academic program would be above-average rates of coursetaking in related 

academic subjects. The following analysis compares related academic coursetaking rates for 

1998 graduates concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in specific occupational programs in 

high school with the overall academic coursetaking rate for 1998 public high school graduates. 

This comparison makes it possible to identify those occupational program areas in which concentrators took related academic courses at above- or below-average rates. It is important to remember, however, that some related academic skills may also be taught within occupational 

 

81There were too few college-preparatory completers concentrating in protective services and in materials production (including 

metals, woods, and plastics) to produce reliable estimates. 

82The three program areas with insufficient data included protective services, transportation, and “other” technology. There were

not enough graduates concentrating in these areas in the survey samples to produce reliable estimates. 
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

103 

Figure 59.—Difference between college-preparatory completers and other graduates in the percentage of 

Figure 74.—graduates concentrating in occupational education, by program area: 1998

*These differences were statistically significant; all others were not statistically significant. Health care was not statistically 

significant due to large standard errors.

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with at

least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. Details are provided for graduates 

who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed. Comparisons for protective services and 

materials production are not listed, because estimates were too small to report in these program areas. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

-0.1

-0.1

-0.1

-0.1

0.0

0.4

0.8

0.7*

-0.4*

-0.6*

-0.8*

-0.9*

-1.1*

-1.7*

-1.7*

-2.3*

-10.0 -8.0 -6.0 -4.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

Percent

Business management

Computer technology

Transportation

Construction

Other technology

Marketing

Mechanics and repair

Print production

Other precision production

Agriculture

Personal and other services

Food service and hospitality

Child care and education

Health care

Communications technology

Business services

Higher likelihood of 

college-preparatory 

completers concentrating

Lower likelihood of 

college-preparatory 

completers concentrating
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

104 

Table 18.—Academic coursetaking judged to be related to coursework in specific occupational program

Table 18.—areas

Regular or Regular or

Algebra 1 advanced advanced 

Occupational program area (or higher) Geometry biology1 chemistry1 Physics2

Agriculture " "

Business management "

Business services "

Marketing "

Health care " ""

Protective services

Construction " "

Mechanics and repair " "

Print production " "

Materials production " "

Other precision production " "

Transportation " "

Computer technology " "

Communications technology " "

Other technology " "3 "

Food service and hospitality "

Child care and education

Personal and other services "4

1

Because policymakers are concerned about whether students in occupational programs receive high-level related academics,

basic biology and basic chemistry courses were excluded from the analysis.

2

In the Secondary School Taxonomy (SST), the physics category includes Principles of Technology courses.

3

Chemistry is related to chemical technology coursework.

4

Chemistry is related to cosmetology coursework.

Mathematics

Science

courses. Because it is not possible to determine the extent of this teaching from transcript studies, 

the report does not address related academics that are embedded in occupational courses. 

Related Mathematics 

Coursework in algebra 1 or higher mathematics was identified as important for 12 out of 

the 15 occupational program areas with sufficient data (table 18). Among 1998 graduates, most 

occupational concentrators (87.1 percent) took algebra 1 or higher mathematics courses (table 

A30). However, coursetaking varied by program area. Among the 12 program areas in which algebra 1 or higher mathematics was identified as important, 1 exhibited a coursetaking rate that 
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

105 

was above the average for all 1998 graduates (communications technology) (figure 60 and table 

A30). In contrast, 3 of the 12 program areas exhibited below-average rates (construction, mechanics and repair, and materials production). In the remaining 8 program areas (computer technology, marketing, health care, business management, business services, print production, other 

precision production, and agriculture), coursetaking rates were not statistically different from the 

average for all 1998 graduates. For example, 99.1 percent of 1998 graduates concentrating in 

communications technology took algebra 1 or higher mathematics, a rate that was 7.4 percentage 

points higher than the average rate of 91.6 percent for all 1998 public high school graduates. In 

contrast, 71.6 percent of 1998 graduates concentrating in construction took algebra 1 or higher 

mathematics, a rate that was 20.0 percentage points lower than the average rate for all 1998 

graduates. 

Figure 60.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or higher mathematics courses,

Figure 75.—by related occupational concentration area: 1998

*These program areas were statistically different from the total; all others were not statistically different.

NOTE: Details are provided for graduates who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

91.3

91.4

92.1

92.3

91.6

71.6*

76.4*

79.9*

87.3

88.8

92.8

93.4

99.1*

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Construction

Mechanics and repair

Materials production

Agriculture

Other precision production

Print production

Business services

Business management

Health care

Marketing

Computer technology

Communications technology

Total

Percent

Occupational 

concentrators in:
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

106 

Coursework in geometry was identified as important for the construction and print production program areas (the latter including drafting programs). While 1998 graduates concentrating 

in print production took geometry at a rate that was not significantly different from the average 

rate for all 1998 graduates (72.7 percent versus 70.8 percent), 1998 graduates concentrating in 

construction exhibited a below-average geometry coursetaking rate (46.3 percent versus 70.8 

percent) (figure 61 and table A31). 

Related Science 

Concentrators in two occupational program areas were identified as benefiting from related 

coursework in regular or advanced biology: agriculture and health care. However, neither health 

care concentrators nor agriculture concentrators exhibited biology coursetaking rates that were 

statistically different from the average for all 1998 public high school graduates (figure 62 and 

table A32). 

Concentrators in three occupational program areas were identified as potentially benefiting 

from related coursework in regular or advanced chemistry: health care, food service and hospitality, and personal and other services (especially cosmetology). Among 1998 graduates, food 

Figure 61.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking geometry courses, by related occupational

Figure 61.—concentration area: 1998

*This program area was statistically different from the total, while the other was not.

NOTE: Details are provided for graduates who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

72.7

70.8

46.3*

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Construction

Print production

Total 

Percent

Occupational 

concentrators in:
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

107 

Figure 62.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or advanced biology courses,

Figure 76.—by related occupational concentration area: 1998

NOTE: Details are provided for graduates who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed.

Neither program area was statistically different from the total.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

87.2

84.7

89.1

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Health care

Agriculture

Total

Percent

Occupational 

concentrators in:

service and hospitality concentrators and personal and other services concentrators exhibited below-average chemistry coursetaking rates (figure 63 and table A33). For example, 16.4 percent of 

1998 graduates concentrating in food service and hospitality took regular or advanced chemistry, 

a rate that was 38.1 percentage points lower than the average rate of 54.5 percent for all 1998 

public high school graduates. In contrast, health care concentrators exhibited a chemistry 

coursetaking rate that was not statistically different from the average rate for all 1998 graduates. 

Several trade and industry program areas and technology program areas were identified as 

benefiting from related coursework in physics (table 18).83 Of the five related programs with sufficient data, two programs exhibited below-average rates of physics coursetaking (mechanics and 

repair and materials production) (figure 64 and table A34). For example, 9.3 percent of 1998 

graduates concentrating in mechanics and repair took physics, a rate that was 17.4 percentage 

points lower than the average rate of 26.7 percent for all 1998 graduates. In contrast, occupational concentrators in three program areas (computer technology, communications technology, 

and other precision production) exhibited rates of physics coursetaking that were not statistically 

different from the average rate for all 1998 graduates. 

 

83The physics category in the SST contains Principles of Technology, among other courses. 
IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

108 

Figure 63.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or advanced chemistry courses,

Figure 63.—by related occupational concentration area: 1998

*These program areas were statistically different from the total.

NOTE: Details are provided for graduates who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.

54.5

16.4*

25.7*

61.9

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Food service and hospitality

Personal and other services

Health care

Total

Percent

Occupational 

concentrators in:

Figure 64.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking physics courses, by related occupational 

Figure 64.—concentration area: 1998

*These program areas were statistically different from the total.

NOTE: Details are provided for graduates who concentrated (earned 3.0 or more credits) in the narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS),

1998.

26.7

9.3*

9.6*

29.9

32.1

33.6

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0

Mechanics and repair

Materials production

Other precision production

Communications technology

Computer technology

Total

Percent

Occupational 

concentrators in:
 IV. Trends in Combining Academic and Vocational/Technical Coursetaking 

109 

Summary of Related Academic Coursetaking 

Looking across the academic coursetaking areas, graduates concentrating in construction, 

mechanics and repair, materials production, food service and hospitality, and personal and other 

services took all of their identified related academic courses at below-average rates. These findings indicate that the programs in which occupational concentrators took related academic 

courses at below-average rates were generally clustered in the trade and industry and in the occupational home economics-related program areas.84 At the same time, concentrators in communications technology took some of their identified related academic courses at above-average rates. 

However, concentrators in most program areas took related academic courses at rates that 

were not statistically different from the average for all graduates, including concentrators in agriculture, business services, business management, marketing, health care, computer technology, 

print production, and other precision production. 

 

84As mentioned above, trade and industry programs include construction, mechanics and repair, print production, materials production, other precision production, and transportation. As described in chapter I, occupational home economics-related program

areas include food service and hospitality, personal and other services, and child care and education. 
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111 

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115 

Appendix A—Means Tables 
Table A1.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking vocational/technical education courses, by 

Table A1.—vocational/technical curriculum: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 98.2 98.0 97.7 97.2 96.5

Occupational education 88.7 90.6 92.2 90.8 90.7

Family and consumer sciences education 50.2 48.1 45.0 45.1 44.4

General labor market preparation 77.6 68.8 60.0 61.1 58.8

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A2.—Percentage of public high school graduates meeting different definitions of participation in 

Table A2.—vocational/technical education: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 

Vocational/technical coursetakers1 98.2 98.0 97.7 97.2 96.5 

Occupational coursetakers2 88.7 90.6 92.2 90.8 90.7 

Vocational/technical investors3 71.3 63.7 61.9 61.1 61.5 

Occupational investors4 46.2 43.0 42.2 42.0 43.8 

Occupational concentrators5 33.7 27.8 24.9 25.4 25.0 

Advanced occupational concentrators6 24.0 16.1 16.2 14.5 14.4 

Advanced occupational concentrators

 with cooperative education7 4.2 4.1 3.9 5.2 4.5 

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education. 

2

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education. 

3

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education.

4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one or more of the following 10 broad occupational program areas, regardless

of whether they concentrate their occupational coursetaking in a single program area: agriculture, business, marketing,

health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education,

and personal and other services. 

5

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

6

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 advanced credit in 

that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higher-level courses and cooperative education 

courses. 

7

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 cooperative 

education credit in that program area. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A3.—Average number of credits earned in general labor market preparation by public high school 

Table A3.—graduates, by area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 0.95 0.73 0.62 0.64 0.61

Basic typewriting/keyboarding 0.55 0.45 0.34 0.37 0.29

Industrial arts/technology education, total 0.17 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.12

 Industrial arts 0.17 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.04

 Technology education ‡ 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.08

Career preparation/general work experience 0.23 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.20

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A4.—Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school graduates,

Table A4.—by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Grade level

 9 17.0 18.1 19.3 19.7 20.7 

 10 19.9 18.7 19.7 19.1 19.5 

 11 28.8 24.9 24.4 23.9 23.6 

 12 34.4 38.3 36.6 37.3 36.2 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A5.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning credits in occupational education, by 

Table A5.—program area: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total 88.7 90.6 92.2 90.8 90.7 2.0 

Materials production 20.3 14.9 12.4 9.7 11.6 -8.8 

Business management 23.8 18.6 18.9 18.8 16.1 -7.6 

Mechanics and repair 13.1 10.1 9.4 8.9 10.0 -3.1 

Personal and other services 6.3 5.4 6.6 5.8 4.6 -1.7 

Construction 7.3 5.5 5.3 6.5 5.6 -1.6 

Other precision production 3.9 4.1 3.1 2.2 3.0 -0.9 

Protective services 1.3 0.6 1.4 1.3 1.3 0.0 

Child care and education 7.6 5.8 5.8 6.1 7.8 0.1 

Agriculture 10.1 9.1 9.7 11.3 10.6 0.5 

Transportation 0.5 1.1 1.1 1.3 1.0 0.6 

Food service and hospitality 2.3 2.3 2.3 3.1 3.2 1.0 

Marketing 9.2 9.3 8.3 10.3 10.5 1.3 

Print production 19.2 18.7 19.0 17.5 20.5 1.3 

Other technology 1.2 0.9 2.4 1.2 2.7 1.5 

Health care 4.5 2.8 4.0 4.6 6.7 2.1 

Business services 42.1 46.9 47.3 51.4 44.4 2.3 

Communications technology 10.8 9.7 9.7 10.6 15.1 4.4 

Computer technology 13.2 38.6 44.6 28.7 34.3 21.1 

NOTE: Rows sum to greater than the total because graduates may have taken courses in more than one program area. 

Calculations are based on unrounded numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A6.—Average number of occupational credits earned by public high school graduates, by program 

Table A6.—area: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

average number

 from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total 3.03 2.89 2.84 2.79 2.87 -0.16

Business services 0.79 0.72 0.65 0.71 0.56 -0.23

Materials production 0.34 0.23 0.19 0.14 0.17 -0.17

Mechanics and repair 0.26 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.17 -0.09

Business management 0.22 0.16 0.18 0.17 0.14 -0.08

Construction 0.13 0.10 0.12 0.10 0.10 -0.03

Personal and other services 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.09 0.07 -0.03

Other precision production 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.04 -0.01

Agriculture 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.24 0.20 -0.01

Marketing 0.16 0.16 0.13 0.18 0.16 0.00

Protective services 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00

Transportation 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00

Print production 0.26 0.25 0.26 0.23 0.27 0.01

Other technology 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.02

Food service and hospitality 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.02

Child care and education 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.03

Communications technology 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.16 0.08

Health care 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.14 0.09

Computer technology 0.11 0.30 0.37 0.23 0.31 0.20

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding and because a small number of occupational courses recorded on the

transcripts did not specify an occupational program area with which they were associated. Calculations are based on unrounded

numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A7.—Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in occupational education, by program

Table A7.—area: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total 33.7 27.8 24.9 25.4 25.0 -8.7 

Business services 9.3 6.5 4.8 5.4 3.3 -6.0 

Materials production 3.0 1.8 1.5 1.1 1.3 -1.7 

Mechanics and repair 3.0 2.3 1.9 1.6 1.8 -1.2 

Personal and other services 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 0.8 -0.5 

Construction 1.5 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.3 -0.2 

Agriculture 2.8 2.5 2.3 3.2 2.6 -0.2 

Other precision production 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 -0.2 

Print production 2.0 1.8 2.2 1.8 2.0 0.0 

Marketing 1.8 2.1 1.3 2.2 1.8 0.0 

Transportation ‡ 0.1 # 0.1 0.1 † 

Protective services ‡ ‡ 0.1 0.1 0.1 † 

Other technology 0.1 ‡ 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.1 

Food service and hospitality 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.2 

Business management 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 

Computer technology 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.4 

Child care and education 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.4 

Communications technology 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.8 0.7 

Health care 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.9 1.3 

Mixed programs 

 Business 2.1 1.8 2.4 2.0 1.2 1.0 

 Precision production 2.5 1.9 1.3 1.1 1.4 1.2 

 Trade and industry 2.3 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 -0.5 

 Technology ‡ 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.6 † 

†Not applicable.

#Rounds to zero.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on the 18 narrow program areas in which graduates

earned 3.0 or more credits. “Mixed” categories include students who earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad 

occupational program areas, but fewer than 3.0 credits in any one of the associated sub-areas. Detail may not sum to totals

because of rounding. Calculations are based on unrounded numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A8.—Percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating in occupational education, by program

Table A8.—area in which they took courses: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total 38.0 30.6 27.1 28.0 27.6 -10.4 

Business services 22.1 13.9 10.2 10.5 7.4 -14.7 

Mechanics and repair 23.3 22.7 19.8 18.4 18.1 -5.2 

Materials production 15.0 12.1 11.8 11.7 11.4 -3.5 

Agriculture 27.2 27.9 23.5 28.1 24.0 -3.2 

Personal and other services 20.4 23.8 19.9 18.8 17.3 -3.0 

Other precision production 10.5 9.6 6.0 6.6 7.7 -2.8 

Marketing 19.2 22.6 15.4 21.0 17.2 -2.1 

Other technology 6.3 4.2 7.0 3.3 5.5 -0.8 

Print production 10.3 9.6 11.4 10.1 9.7 -0.7 

Transportation 7.0 8.8 1.9 6.0 6.5 -0.5 

Computer technology 1.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.9 -0.1 

Construction 20.6 20.2 22.8 15.7 22.4 1.9 

Business management 0.6 0.9 1.5 1.6 2.6 1.9 

Protective services 2.3 ‡ 4.9 3.8 5.2 2.9 

Food service and hospitality 10.8 20.2 16.5 11.5 14.2 3.4 

Communications technology 1.1 2.8 2.7 3.2 5.6 4.5 

Child care and education 2.5 4.9 6.0 9.3 7.6 5.0 

Health care 13.0 20.4 15.6 21.1 28.0 15.0 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Occupational coursetakers earned greater than 0.0 occupational credits. Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more

credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective 

services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education, and personal and other services.

Detail is provided on occupational coursetakers who earned 3.0 or more credits in the narrow program areas in which they took 

courses. Rows sum to greater than the total because occupational coursetakers took courses in more than one program area.

Calculations are based on unrounded numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A9.—Percentage distribution of occupational concentrators, by program area: Various years, 

Table A9.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Transportation 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.3 

Protective services 0.1 ‡ 0.3 0.2 0.3 

Other technology 0.2 0.1 0.7 0.2 0.6 

Other precision production 1.2 1.4 0.7 0.6 0.9 

Business management 0.4 0.6 1.1 1.2 1.7 

Food service and hospitality 0.7 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.8 

Child care and education 0.6 1.0 1.4 2.2 2.4 

Computer technology 0.8 1.0 1.6 1.0 2.5 

Personal and other services 3.8 4.6 5.3 4.3 3.2 

Communications technology 0.4 1.0 1.1 1.3 3.4 

Construction 4.4 4.0 4.8 4.0 5.1 

Materials production 9.0 6.5 5.8 4.5 5.3 

Marketing 5.3 7.6 5.1 8.5 7.2 

Mechanics and repair 9.0 8.3 7.5 6.4 7.2 

Health care 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.8 7.4 

Print production 5.9 6.4 8.7 7.0 7.9 

Agriculture 8.2 9.2 9.2 12.5 10.2 

Business services 27.6 23.5 19.4 21.2 13.1 

Mixed programs

 Technology ‡ 0.8 1.7 0.9 2.4 

 Business 6.3 6.3 9.5 7.8 4.6 

 Precision production 7.5 7.0 5.2 4.4 5.5 

 Trade and industry 6.7 6.6 7.1 6.4 7.0 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on the narrow program areas in which graduates 

earned 3.0 or more credits. “Mixed” categories include students who earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad 

occupational program areas, but fewer than 3.0 credits in any one of the associated sub-areas. Detail may not sum to totals 

because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A10.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits who

Table A10.—concentrated in occupational education, by various concentration definitions: Various years, 

Table A10.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Occupational concentrators1 72.8 64.6 59.1 60.6 57.0 

Advanced occupational concentrators2 52.0 37.5 38.4 34.6 32.9 

Advanced occupational concentrators with

 cooperative education3 9.1 9.5 9.3 12.3 10.3 

1

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

2

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 advanced credit in 

that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higher-level courses and cooperative education 

courses. 

3

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 cooperative 

education credit in that program area. 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A11.—Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational credits who 

Table A11.—concentrated in occupational education, by program area of concentration: Various years, 

Table A11.—1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total 72.8 64.6 59.1 60.6 57.0 -15.8 

Business services 20.1 15.2 11.4 12.8 7.5 -12.6 

Materials production 6.6 4.2 3.5 2.7 3.0 -3.6 

Mechanics and repair 6.6 5.3 4.4 3.9 4.1 -2.5 

Personal and other services 2.8 3.0 3.1 2.6 1.8 -0.9 

Other precision production 0.9 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.5 -0.4 

Construction 3.2 2.6 2.9 2.5 2.9 -0.4 

Agriculture 6.0 5.9 5.4 7.6 5.8 -0.1 

Transportation 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 

Protective services 0.1 ‡ 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 

Other technology 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 

Print production 4.3 4.2 5.1 4.2 4.5 0.2 

Marketing 3.8 4.9 3.0 5.1 4.1 0.3 

Food service and hospitality 0.5 1.1 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.5 

Business management 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.6 

Computer technology 0.6 0.7 1.0 0.6 1.5 0.9 

Child care and education 0.4 0.7 0.8 1.4 1.3 0.9 

Communications technology 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.9 1.7 

Health care 1.3 1.3 1.5 2.3 4.2 3.0 

Mixed programs

 Precision production 5.5 4.5 3.1 2.6 3.1 -2.3 

 Business 4.6 4.1 5.6 4.7 2.6 -1.9 

 Trade and industry 4.9 4.3 4.2 3.9 4.0 -0.9 

 Technology ‡ 0.6 1.0 0.5 1.4 † 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on the narrow program areas in which graduates 

earned 3.0 or more credits. “Mixed” categories include students who earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad 

occupational program areas, but fewer than 3.0 credits in any one of the associated sub-areas. Detail may not sum to totals

because of rounding. Calculations are based on unrounded numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A12.—Percentage distribution of occupational credits earned by public high school graduates who

Table A12.—earned 3.0 or more occupational credits, by program area: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 

Business services 26.7 25.0 22.8 24.4 18.8 -7.9 

Materials production 11.3 8.2 7.2 5.2 6.0 -5.2 

Mechanics and repair 8.7 6.8 6.2 5.6 6.3 -2.5 

Business management 6.9 5.2 6.2 6.0 4.8 -2.0 

Personal and other services 3.4 3.5 3.9 3.3 2.6 -0.9 

Construction 4.3 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.6 -0.7 

Other precision production 1.8 2.0 1.4 0.9 1.2 -0.6 

Marketing 6.1 6.5 5.3 7.3 6.3 0.2 

Protective services 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.2 

Transportation 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.2 

Agriculture 7.2 7.2 7.6 9.2 7.6 0.4 

Print production 9.1 9.2 9.9 8.6 9.6 0.6 

Other technology 0.4 0.3 1.0 0.4 1.1 0.7 

Food service and hospitality 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.6 1.8 0.8 

Child care and education 2.2 2.0 1.9 2.9 3.3 1.1 

Communications technology 2.2 2.9 3.1 3.4 5.7 3.4 

Health care 1.6 1.6 2.2 3.2 5.1 3.5 

Computer technology 2.9 8.2 10.5 6.5 9.0 6.2 

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding and because a small number of occupational courses recorded on the

transcripts did not specify an occupational program area with which they were associated. Calculations are based on unrounded

numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A13.—Average number of credits earned by occupational concentrators in their area of concentration,

Table A13.—by level of course: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

average number from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total 4.76 4.60 4.57 4.40 4.39 -0.37 

Course level

 First 2.76 2.91 2.54 2.61 2.63 -0.13 

 Second or higher 1.42 1.01 1.15 0.85 0.88 -0.54 

 Specialty 0.29 0.29 0.45 0.37 0.38 0.09 

 Cooperative education 0.29 0.39 0.43 0.57 0.51 0.22 

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Calculations are

based on unrounded numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A14.—Percentage distribution of credits earned by occupational concentrators in their area of 

Table A14.—concentration, by level of course: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 0.0 

Course level

 First 58.6 63.4 57.2 59.4 59.6 1.0 

 Second or higher 28.3 20.9 23.6 18.2 19.5 -8.7 

 Specialty 6.5 6.8 10.1 8.8 9.4 2.9 

 Cooperative education 6.7 8.8 9.2 13.6 11.5 4.8 

NOTE: Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Calculations are

based on unrounded numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A15.—Percentage of total occupational credits earned by occupational coursetakers that were 

Table A15.—cooperative education credits: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Total 6.3 6.8 6.2 8.6 8.5

NOTE: Occupational coursetakers earned greater then 0.0 credits in occupational education.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A16.—Average number of computer-related credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

Table A16.—vocational/technical curriculum and subarea: Various years, 1982–98

19821 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total † 1.04 1.03 1.04 1.05 

General labor market preparation, total † 0.45 0.34 0.40 0.35 

 Basic typewriting/keyboarding † 0.45 0.34 0.37 0.29 

 Technology education2 ‡ ‡ ‡ 0.03 0.06 

Occupational education, total 0.12 0.59 0.68 0.64 0.70 

 Business services2 0.01 0.28 0.29 0.38 0.33 

 Drafting2 ‡ 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.06 

 Computer technology, total 0.11 0.30 0.37 0.23 0.31 

 Computer applications ‡ 0.05 0.03 0.07 0.16 

 Computer programming 0.04 0.13 0.09 0.05 0.04 

 Data processing 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 

 Computer science and systems 0.01 0.10 0.20 0.08 0.09 

 Computer mathematics 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

1

In 1982, all basic typewriting/keyboarding courses were assumed not to be computer-related, while in subsequent years all of 

these courses were classified as computer-related. Therefore, 1982 estimates for basic typewriting/keyboarding, total general 

labor market preparation and total computer-related courses are not comparable with other years. 2

Only a subset of courses in the technology education, business services, and drafting areas were considered to be 

computer-related. See figure 33.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A17.—Percentage distribution of computer-related credits earned by public high school graduates, 

Table A17.—by vocational/technical curriculum and computer-related area: Various years, 1982–98

19821 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total † 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 

General labor market preparation, total † 47.97 35.95 42.04 38.29 

 Basic typewriting/keyboarding † 47.97 35.96 39.91 33.48 

 Technology education † ‡ ‡ 2.13 4.81 

Occupational education, total † 52.03 64.05 57.97 61.71 

 Business services † 22.24 27.03 34.26 30.49 

 Drafting † 0.99 1.49 1.83 4.06 

 Computer technology, total † 28.79 35.49 21.87 27.16 

 Computer applications † 3.87 2.78 6.46 12.51 

 Computer programming † 10.92 7.19 4.43 3.08 

 Data processing † 0.72 2.32 0.40 0.65 

 Computer science and systems † 11.24 21.12 9.22 9.88 

 Computer mathematics † 2.04 2.08 1.38 1.04 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

1

In 1982, all basic typewriting/keyboarding courses were assumed not to be computer-related, while in subsequent years all of

these courses were classified as computer-related. Therefore, 1982 estimates are not comparable with other years.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A18.—Percentage distribution of general labor market preparation and of occupational education 

Table A18.—credits earned by public high school graduates, by computer-related and noncomputer-related 

Table A18.—areas: Various years, 1982–98

19821 1990 1992 1994 1998

General labor market preparation, total † 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

 Noncomputer-related † 27.9 34.6 26.8 31.5 

 Computer-related, total † 72.1 65.4 73.2 68.5 

 Basic typewriting/keyboarding † 72.1 65.4 70.1 60.4 

 Technology education † ‡ ‡ 3.0 8.1 

Occupational education, total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

 Noncomputer-related 93.7 69.2 65.3 66.1 66.7 

 Computer-related, total 6.3 30.8 34.7 33.9 33.3 

 Business services 0.4 12.7 14.1 19.9 15.9 

 Drafting ‡ 0.5 0.7 0.9 2.0 

 Computer technology, total 6.0 17.7 19.8 13.1 15.4 

 Computer applications 0.2 2.4 1.6 4.0 7.1 

 Computer programming 2.3 7.0 4.3 2.8 2.0 

 Data processing 1.3 0.5 1.3 0.2 0.3 

 Computer science and systems 0.8 6.3 11.2 5.2 5.3 

 Computer mathematics 1.4 1.5 1.4 0.9 0.7 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

1

In 1982, all basic typewriting/keyboarding courses were assumed not to be computer-related, while in subsequent years all

of these courses were classified as computer-related. Therefore, 1982 estimates for basic typewriting/keyboarding, total

computer-related general labor market preparation and total noncomputer-related general labor market preparation courses are

not comparable with other years.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A19.—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to level of mathematics 

Table A19.—coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Advanced mathematics1 22.6 28.7 34.0 36.3 38.3 

Upper-middle mathematics2 17.2 25.7 26.3 26.8 28.9 

Lower-middle mathematics3 30.9 26.5 24.6 23.4 21.7 

Low mathematics4 29.4 19.2 15.1 13.5 11.2 

Occupational concentrators5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

 Advanced mathematics 9.3 11.4 17.7 18.5 26.0 

 Upper-middle mathematics 13.3 20.1 21.6 25.0 28.3 

 Lower-middle mathematics 36.1 34.9 32.2 32.6 28.6 

 Low mathematics 41.3 33.6 28.4 24.0 17.2 

Nonconcentrators6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

 Advanced mathematics 29.3 35.3 39.4 42.3 42.4 

 Upper-middle mathematics 19.2 27.8 27.9 27.4 29.0 

 Lower-middle mathematics 28.2 23.3 22.0 20.3 19.3 

 Low mathematics 23.3 13.6 10.7 9.9 9.2 

1

Includes algebra 3, trigonometry, analytical geometry, linear algebra, probability, statistics, pre-calculus, introduction to 

analysis, and calculus.

2

Includes algebra 2 and unified mathematics 3, but no higher mathematics.

3

Includes algebra 1, plane and solid geometry, and unified mathematics 1 and 2, but no higher mathematics.

4

Includes no mathematics; remedial-level mathematics; general, basic or consumer mathematics; technical or vocational 

mathematics; and low-level “academic” mathematics, such as pre-algebra, algebra 1 taught over the course of two academic

years, and informal geometry; but no mathematics in higher categories.

5

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services.

6

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A20.—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to level of science 

Table A20.—coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Advanced science1 27.7 45.5 47.8 51.8 57.2 

Biology2 40.5 40.1 40.5 37.0 31.9 

Low science3 31.9 14.4 11.7 11.3 10.9 

Occupational concentrators4 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

 Advanced science 12.8 21.2 27.0 30.0 42.0 

 Biology 43.0 55.3 53.6 52.1 41.0 

 Low science 44.2 23.5 19.5 18.0 17.1 

Nonconcentrators5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

 Advanced science 35.2 54.8 54.8 59.2 62.2 

 Biology 39.2 34.3 36.1 31.8 28.9 

 Low science 25.6 10.9 9.1 9.0 8.9 

1

Includes chemistry 1 and 2 and physics 1 and 2.

2

Includes general biology 1, secondary life sciences (including ecology, zoology, marine biology, and human physiology), 

general or honors biology 2, and advanced biology, but no higher science. 3

Includes no science courses, remedial-level science, physical science, earth science, unified science, astronomy, geology,

environmental science, oceanography, general physics, basic biology 1, and consumer or introductory chemistry, but no 

higher science.

4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services.

5

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A21.—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to level of English 

Table A20.—coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

Advanced English1 12.1 19.0 22.8 23.8 24.3 

Middle English2 76.5 60.6 57.8 58.2 60.8 

Low English3 11.5 20.4 19.4 18.1 14.8 

Occupational concentrators4 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

 Advanced English 6.7 8.3 12.5 12.8 17.0 

 Middle English 79.6 64.9 60.6 65.1 63.8 

 Low English 13.8 26.8 26.9 22.1 19.3 

Nonconcentrators5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

 Advanced English 14.8 23.0 26.1 27.5 26.8 

 Middle English 74.9 59.0 56.9 55.8 59.9 

 Low English 10.3 18.0 17.0 16.7 13.4 

1

Includes at least some English coursework in honors courses.

2

Includes no honors and no low-level English coursework.

3

Includes at least some English coursework in low-level courses. 4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education,

and personal and other services.

5

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A22.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing specific science courses, by occupational 

Table A22.—concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Biology, chemistry, or physics, total 83.0 94.5 95.7 97.2 95.6 

Biology 79.3 92.9 94.0 95.7 94.1 

Chemistry 31.4 49.7 53.8 57.4 61.3 

Physics 16.7 23.1 25.1 27.4 30.2 

Occupational concentrators1

 Biology, chemistry, or physics, total 73.0 90.2 91.5 95.1 92.5 

 Biology 68.9 88.2 90.3 93.5 90.3 

 Chemistry 15.0 24.6 31.5 34.6 46.5 

 Physics 7.8 9.7 13.4 13.0 21.4 

Nonconcentrators2

 Biology, chemistry, or physics, total 88.0 96.1 97.0 97.8 96.6 

 Biology 84.6 94.7 95.3 96.5 95.4 

 Chemistry 39.8 59.4 61.3 65.1 66.2 

 Physics 21.3 28.3 29.0 32.3 33.1 

1

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education,

and personal and other services.

2

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A23.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing U.S. or world history courses, by type of

Table A23.—course and occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 91.8 96.9 96.1 97.9 95.5 

 U.S. history 86.9 95.4 92.7 96.3 94.0 

 World history 42.5 57.6 64.5 65.3 65.0 

Occupational concentrators1 90.4 96.9 94.7 98.2 95.7 

 U.S. history 86.7 96.0 91.1 96.6 94.1 

 World history 36.3 49.9 56.8 59.2 60.5 

Nonconcentrators2 92.5 96.9 96.6 97.8 95.5 

 U.S. history 87.0 95.1 93.3 96.2 94.0 

 World history 45.6 60.6 67.1 67.4 66.5 

1

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education,

and personal and other services.

2

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A24.—Percentage of public high school graduates completing a college-preparatory course of study, 

Table A24.—by selected vocational/technical participation and nonparticipation measures: Various years, 

Table A24.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 8.7 28.7 32.0 36.7 38.9 

Vocational/technical participation measures

 Vocational/technical coursetakers1 8.3 28.1 31.4 35.9 38.2 

 Occupational coursetakers2 6.8 27.0 30.4 35.1 37.3 

 Vocational/technical investors3 3.0 17.3 20.0 24.4 30.1 

 Occupational investors4 2.2 13.5 17.8 21.6 28.6 

 Occupational concentrators5 1.7 10.1 13.5 17.9 25.9 

 Advanced occupational concentrators6 1.4 10.9 14.0 18.4 26.7 

 Advanced occupational concentrators with cooperative

 education7 1.1 9.7 18.8 16.2 33.7 

Vocational/technical nonparticipation measures

 All graduates except vocational/technical coursetakers 32.5 59.9 60.1 63.6 57.7 

 All graduates except occupational coursetakers 23.4 45.4 51.7 53.1 54.3 

 All graduates except vocational/technical investors 22.9 48.8 51.6 56.0 52.9 

 All graduates except occupational investors 14.3 40.1 42.4 47.7 46.9 

 All graduates except occupational concentrators 12.2 35.9 38.2 43.1 43.2 

 All graduates except advanced occcupational concentrators 11.0 32.1 35.5 39.8 40.9 

 All graduates except advanced occupational concentrators

 with cooperative education 9.0 29.5 32.6 37.8 39.1 

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education.

2

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education. 

3

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education. 

4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education, regardless of whether they concentrate their occupational 

coursetaking in a single program area. 

5

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

6

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 advanced credit in 

that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higher-level courses and cooperative education 

courses. 

7

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 cooperative 

education credit in that program area. 

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in 

mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits

in social studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A25.—Percentage distribution of public high school graduates according to college-preparatory and 

Table A24.—occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 

College-preparatory only 8.1 25.9 28.7 32.2 32.4 

Occupational concentration only 33.1 25.0 21.6 20.9 18.5 

Both college-preparatory and

 occupational concentration 0.6 2.8 3.4 4.5 6.5 

Neither college-preparatory nor

 occupational concentration 58.2 46.3 46.4 42.4 42.6 

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in 

mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits

in social studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. An

occupational concentration is defined as earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program

areas: agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and 

hospitality, child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A26.—Percentage of occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators completing collegeTable A26.—preparatory coursework, by subject: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Occupational concentrators1

 College-preparatory, total 1.7 10.1 13.5 17.9 25.9 

 English 57.7 78.7 82.1 88.7 82.0 

 Mathematics 13.7 24.7 30.5 37.3 48.1 

 Science 16.5 30.8 38.6 43.2 54.8 

 Social studies 81.6 92.2 91.8 96.5 93.1 

 Foreign languages 10.1 23.9 27.5 32.5 42.0 

Nonconcentrators2

 College-preparatory, total 12.2 35.9 38.2 43.1 43.2 

 English 65.5 85.5 86.6 88.6 85.8 

 Mathematics 37.4 56.3 58.3 62.9 66.0 

 Science 43.2 64.4 66.3 71.1 73.4 

 Social studies 85.7 93.9 94.2 96.7 92.9 

 Foreign languages 37.1 59.5 62.2 64.9 67.1 

1

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and education,

and personal and other services.

2

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in 

mathematics at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits

in social studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A27.—Average number of credits earned in vocational/technical education by public high school 

Table A27.—graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum and whether graduates completed 

Table A27.—college-preparatory coursework: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Vocational/technical, total 4.68 4.19 3.99 3.96 3.99

 College-preparatory 1.99 2.51 2.57 2.59 3.03

 Not college-preparatory 4.93 4.87 4.66 4.75 4.60

 Occupational education 3.03 2.89 2.84 2.79 2.87

 College-preparatory 1.13 1.70 1.85 1.83 2.19

 Not college-preparatory 3.21 3.37 3.30 3.35 3.30

 General labor market preparation 0.95 0.73 0.62 0.64 0.61

 College-preparatory 0.64 0.54 0.43 0.45 0.46

 Not college-preparatory 0.98 0.81 0.70 0.75 0.70

 Family and consumer sciences education 0.69 0.57 0.54 0.52 0.51

 College-preparatory 0.22 0.28 0.29 0.31 0.37

 Not college-preparatory 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.65 0.60

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics 

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with 

at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. Detail may not sum to totals 

because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A28.—Percentage of public high school graduates meeting selected definitions of participation in 

Table A28.—vocational/technical education, by college-preparatory coursework status: 1998

College- Not collegepreparatory preparatory

 Total 100.0 100.0 

Vocational/technical coursetakers1 94.8 97.6 

Occupational coursetakers2 86.9 93.0 

Vocational/technical investors3 47.6 70.4 

Occupational investors4 32.3 51.2 

Occupational concentrators5 16.7 30.3 

Advanced occupational concentrators6 7.7 15.2 

Advanced occupational concentrators with

 cooperative education7 4.0 4.9 

1

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education. 

2

Graduates earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education. 

3

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical education. 

4

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education, regardless of whether they concentrate their occupational 

coursetaking in a single program area. 

5

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business, 

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. 

6

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 advanced credit in 

that program area. Advanced occupational coursework includes second- or higher-level courses and cooperative education 

courses. 

7

Graduates earning 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas, with at least 1.0 cooperative 

education credit in that program area. 

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics 

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies 

with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.
Table A29.—Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in occupational education, by

Table A29.—program area and college-preparatory status: 1998

College- Not collegepreparatory preparatory Difference

 Total 16.7 30.3 -13.6 

Health care 2.3 1.6 0.8 

Communications technology 1.3 0.6 0.7 

Business services 3.5 3.1 0.4 

Computer technology 0.6 0.7 0.0 

Transportation 0.0 0.1 -0.1 

Other precision production 0.2 0.3 -0.1 

Business management 0.4 0.4 -0.1 

Other technology 0.1 0.2 -0.1 

Child care and education 0.3 0.7 -0.4 

Food service and hospitality 0.1 0.7 -0.6 

Personal and other services 0.3 1.1 -0.8 

Marketing 1.2 2.2 -0.9 

Print production 1.3 2.4 -1.1 

Construction 0.3 1.9 -1.7 

Agriculture 1.5 3.2 -1.7 

Mechanics and repair 0.4 2.7 -2.3 

Protective services ‡ 0.1 † 

Materials production ‡ ‡ † 

Mixed programs

 Business 1.0 1.2 -0.2 

 Precision production 0.5 1.9 -1.4 

 Trade and industry 0.3 2.7 -2.3 

 Technology 0.7 0.6 0.1 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: College-preparatory coursework is defined as earning 4.0 or more credits in English; 3.0 or more credits in mathematics

at the algebra 1 or higher level; 2.0 or more credits in biology, chemistry, or physics; 2.0 or more credits in social studies with

at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 or more credits in a single foreign language. Occupational concentrators (the

“total” row) earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: agriculture, business,

marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, child care and 

education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on the narrow program areas in which graduates earned 3.0 or

more credits. “Mixed” categories include students who earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the 10 broad occupational program

areas, but fewer than 3.0 credits in any one of the associated sub-areas. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding.

Calculations are based on unrounded numbers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS),

1998.
Table A30.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or higher mathematics courses,

Table A30.—by occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 72.8 83.1 86.8 88.4 91.6 

Nonconcentrators1 78.6 88.3 90.9 91.7 93.2 

Concentrators, total2 61.2 69.5 74.2 78.8 87.1 

 Agriculture 52.2 60.7 62.5 78.5 87.3 

 Business management ‡ ‡ 87.1 72.6 92.1 

 Business services 69.4 80.1 87.2 84.7 91.4 

 Child care and education ‡ 65.1 55.2 72.1 92.8 

 Communications technology ‡ 95.8 91.9 89.6 99.1 

 Computer technology ‡ 86.3 88.9 92.7 93.4 

 Construction 38.9 51.0 58.2 60.5 71.6 

 Food service and hospitality ‡ 36.9 37.1 42.4 75.4 

 Health care 50.7 66.6 68.6 86.7 92.3 

 Marketing 71.4 77.5 70.8 85.9 92.8 

 Materials production 53.0 49.4 51.7 57.3 79.9 

 Mechanics and repair 48.3 50.1 53.5 62.6 76.4 

 Other precision production 59.3 62.4 ‡ 73.0 88.8 

 Other technology ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Personal and other services 61.9 56.6 70.7 74.2 83.2 

 Print production 71.2 85.6 89.8 90.3 91.3 

 Protective services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Transportation ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

1

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on graduates who earned 3.0 or more credits in the 

narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A31.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking geometry courses, by occupational 

TableA 31.—concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 45.5 61.5 65.4 68.6 70.8 

Nonconcentrators1 54.0 68.9 71.5 73.9 72.9 

Concentrators, total2 28.7 42.2 47.1 53.2 64.3 

 Agriculture 21.8 32.0 40.5 53.9 61.3 

 Business management ‡ ‡ 62.4 59.3 68.0 

 Business services 33.1 50.4 58.7 59.0 73.5 

 Child care and education ‡ 25.3 40.9 46.1 64.6 

 Communications technology ‡ 82.2 85.1 75.7 86.8 

 Computer technology ‡ 68.5 56.9 73.3 70.6 

 Construction 12.2 19.6 23.8 30.1 46.3 

 Food service and hospitality ‡ 25.2 21.4 16.3 45.1 

 Health care 21.4 30.0 27.5 56.2 79.3 

 Marketing 29.9 52.9 51.2 61.7 69.9 

 Materials production 20.0 22.2 25.4 34.5 46.5 

 Mechanics and repair 14.0 22.4 24.4 32.3 44.4 

 Other precision production 30.8 40.6 ‡ 47.1 62.4 

 Other technology ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Personal and other services 18.3 29.8 26.4 47.4 59.1 

 Print production 46.6 61.9 63.4 63.2 72.7 

 Protective services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Transportation ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

1

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on graduates who earned 3.0 or more credits in the 

narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A32.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or advanced biology courses, by 

Table A32.—occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 61.3 83.0 86.1 86.5 87.2 

Nonconcentrators1 66.1 86.2 88.4 88.5 89.4 

Concentrators, total2 51.8 74.6 78.9 80.5 80.6 

 Agriculture 52.4 75.6 81.8 86.6 84.7 

 Business management ‡ ‡ 83.7 82.9 85.1 

 Business services 56.2 78.4 87.3 84.9 84.8 

 Child care and education ‡ 74.7 72.3 77.5 91.6 

 Communications technology ‡ 95.8 94.4 88.3 94.6 

 Computer technology ‡ 88.4 92.8 78.1 82.9 

 Construction 44.1 63.7 66.0 73.3 64.8 

 Food service and hospitality ‡ 54.8 53.3 55.2 59.2 

 Health care 54.4 75.0 76.0 85.1 89.1 

 Marketing 60.1 82.4 87.2 83.7 89.0 

 Materials production 49.3 56.1 62.2 67.2 67.6 

 Mechanics and repair 42.9 68.3 63.6 64.2 68.0 

 Other precision production 48.3 54.7 ‡ 83.9 76.0 

 Other technology ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Personal and other services 49.2 70.0 78.6 75.9 74.7 

 Print production 61.9 79.3 77.4 85.1 80.6 

 Protective services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Transportation ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

1

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on graduates who earned 3.0 or more credits in the 

narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A33.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or advanced chemistry courses, by

Table A33.—occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 25.5 43.1 45.6 48.5 54.5 

Nonconcentrators1 32.6 52.0 52.6 55.6 59.4 

Concentrators, total2 11.7 20.0 24.4 27.7 39.6 

 Agriculture 13.2 16.9 28.0 27.9 39.8 

 Business management ‡ ‡ 31.9 26.9 45.2 

 Business services 11.5 25.1 30.4 35.3 47.3 

 Child care and education ‡ 9.7 16.6 24.9 28.4 

 Communications technology ‡ 40.0 54.9 47.2 70.8 

 Computer technology ‡ 49.9 45.6 39.5 62.4 

 Construction 3.7 8.8 11.8 15.9 20.0 

 Food service and hospitality ‡ ‡ 6.7 3.3 16.4 

 Health care 13.1 27.2 25.7 33.4 61.9 

 Marketing 9.2 21.8 22.0 26.7 46.8 

 Materials production 9.1 8.8 10.7 12.2 16.7 

 Mechanics and repair 3.0 6.3 5.3 11.7 21.2 

 Other precision production 13.5 12.4 ‡ 12.5 63.2 

 Other technology ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Personal and other services 5.6 7.3 15.4 12.3 25.7 

 Print production 24.7 29.8 30.4 38.5 40.3 

 Protective services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Transportation ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

1

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on graduates who earned 3.0 or more credits in the 

narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table A34.—Percentage of public high school graduates taking physics courses, by occupational

Table A34.—concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total 13.9 20.5 21.3 23.8 26.7 

Nonconcentrators1 17.9 25.6 24.7 28.4 29.7 

Concentrators, total2 6.1 7.4 11.0 10.3 17.7 

 Agriculture 8.5 7.0 5.9 8.2 13.9 

 Business management ‡ ‡ ‡ 2.9 11.0 

 Business services 3.1 6.2 12.5 9.8 18.7 

 Child care and education ‡ ‡ ‡ 5.2 13.3 

 Communications technology ‡ 19.4 18.4 21.9 32.1 

 Computer technology ‡ 34.3 37.7 31.0 33.6 

 Construction 4.0 1.5 3.9 1.3 6.7 

 Food service and hospitality ‡ ‡ ‡ 3.4 4.5 

 Health care 4.6 ‡ ‡ 10.7 33.2 

 Marketing 2.4 2.6 6.5 6.9 10.7 

 Materials production 7.9 4.5 12.0 8.4 9.6 

 Mechanics and repair 5.7 2.6 7.5 2.2 9.3 

 Other precision production ‡ 17.8 ‡ ‡ 29.9 

 Other technology ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Personal and other services 2.2 2.5 ‡ 1.8 8.5 

 Print production 12.9 16.6 18.1 22.6 30.2 

 Protective services ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

 Transportation ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

1

All graduates except occupational concentrators.

2

Occupational concentrators earned 3.0 or more credits in one of the following 10 broad occupational program areas: 

agriculture, business, marketing, health care, protective services, technology, trade and industry, food service and hospitality, 

child care and education, and personal and other services. Detail is provided on graduates who earned 3.0 or more credits in the 

narrow program areas listed.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript Studies

(HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
151 

Appendix B—Standard Error Tables 
Table B1.—Standard errors for figure 2: Average number of credits completed by public high school 

Table B1.—graduates, by type of coursework: 1998

Vocational/ Social Foreign

English technical studies Mathematics Science Fine arts languages

Total s.e. 0.037 0.098 0.038 0.024 0.026 0.079 0.039

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.
Table B2.—Standard errors for figures 6 and 8: Average number of credits earned by public high school 

Table B2.—graduates, by curriculum: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.080 0.127 0.094 0.144 0.162

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Academic s.e. 0.074 0.116 0.094 0.092 0.127

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Vocational/technical 0.059 0.079 0.063 0.068 0.098

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Enrichment/other s.e. 0.037 0.073 0.035 0.077 0.077

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B3.—Standard errors for figure 7: Percentage distribution of total credits earned by public 

Table B3.—high school graduates, by curriculum: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Academic s.e. 0.26 0.40 0.27 0.28 0.44 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Vocational/technical s.e. 0.24 0.32 0.24 0.27 0.34 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Enrichment/other s.e. 0.15 0.28 0.14 0.27 0.28 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B4.—Standard errors for figure 9: Average number of credits earned in vocational/technical 

Table B4.—education by public high school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various years,

Table B4.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.059 0.079 0.063 0.068 0.098

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Occupational education s.e. 0.053 0.065 0.050 0.057 0.074

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

General labor market s.e. 0.018 0.023 0.019 0.021 0.028

 preparation weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Family and consumer sciences s.e. 0.017 0.026 0.018 0.028 0.034

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B5.—Standard errors for figure 12: Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned by 

Table B5.—public high school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various years, 1982–98

Occupational General labor Family and consumer

Total education market preparation sciences education

1982 s.e. † 0.50 0.43 0.35 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,559 2,559 2,559 2,559 

1990 s.e. † 0.88 0.63 0.57 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,454 2,454 2,454 2,454 

1992 s.e. † 0.62 0.51 0.46 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,125 2,125 2,125 2,125 

1994 s.e. † 0.85 0.63 0.70 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,150 2,150 2,150 2,150 

1998 s.e. † 1.02 0.77 0.80 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,526 2,526 2,526 2,526 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B6.—Standard errors for figure 13: Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned 

Table B6.—by public high school graduates, by grade level of course: 1998

Family and

Vocational/ General labor consumer sciences Occupational

technical total market preparation education education

 Total s.e. † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,526 1,539 1,160 2,372 

Grade level

 9 s.e. 0.72 2.53 1.52 0.74 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,526 1,539 1,160 2,372 

 10 s.e. 0.54 1.57 1.14 0.60 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,526 1,539 1,160 2,372 

 11 s.e. 0.50 1.03 0.90 0.60 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,526 1,539 1,160 2,372 

 12 s.e. 0.61 1.28 1.63 0.64 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,526 1,539 1,160 2,372 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.
Table B7.—Standard errors for figure 14: Average number of occupational credits earned by public 

Table B7.—high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.053 0.065 0.050 0.057 0.074

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Grade level

 9 s.e. 0.011 0.015 0.012 0.013 0.020

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 10 s.e. 0.015 0.016 0.015 0.015 0.017

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 11 s.e. 0.021 0.025 0.019 0.019 0.025

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 12 s.e. 0.021 0.034 0.025 0.027 0.038

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B8.—Standard errors for figure 24: Percentage of occupational concentrators completing

Table B8.—advanced coursework in their area of concentration: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 1.23 1.90 1.59 1.76 2.52 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878.00 696.00 542.00 562.00 654.00 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B9.—Standard errors for figure 29: Percentage of public high school graduates taking work-based 

Table B9.—learning, by type of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.93 1.48 1.14 1.53 2.10 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Cooperative education s.e. 0.61 1.22 0.68 0.83 1.21 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

General work experience s.e. 0.85 1.38 1.07 1.56 2.03 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B10.—Standard errors for figure 30: Average number of credits earned in work-based learning by 

Table B10.—public high school graduates, by type of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.020 0.026 0.023 0.025 0.044

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Cooperative education s.e. 0.015 0.028 0.019 0.022 0.035

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

General work experience s.e. 0.014 0.015 0.011 0.011 0.022

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B11.—Standard errors for figure 31: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

Table B11.—introductory technology courses, by area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.73 0.74 0.67 0.83 0.98 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Industrial arts s.e. 0.73 0.78 0.61 0.67 0.57 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Technology education s.e. 0.09 0.22 0.31 0.72 0.89 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B12.—Standard errors for figure 32: Average number of credits earned in introductory technology 

Table B12.—courses by public high school graduates, by area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.010 0.008 0.012 0.010 0.010 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Industrial arts s.e. 0.010 0.008 0.011 0.008 0.006 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Technology education s.e. ‡ 0.002 ‡ 0.007 0.009 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B13.—Standard errors for figure 48: Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or 

Table B13.—higher mathematics courses, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.75 0.94 0.63 0.67 0.56 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational s.e. 1.33 1.71 1.26 1.45 0.93 

 concentrators weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Nonconcentrators s.e. 0.82 0.82 0.67 0.54 0.55 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B14.—Standard errors for table 2: Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by 

Table B14.—public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.059 0.079 0.063 0.068 0.098

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Grade level

 9 s.e. 0.015 0.022 0.019 0.019 0.028

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 10 s.e. 0.018 0.022 0.018 0.016 0.026

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 11 s.e. 0.022 0.028 0.021 0.022 0.032

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 12 s.e. 0.025 0.036 0.027 0.031 0.047

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B15.—Standard errors for table 3: Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by 

Table B15.—public high school graduates, by grade level of course: 1998

Vocational/

technical General labor Family and consumer Occupational

total market preparation sciences education education

 Total s.e. 0.098 0.028 0.034 0.074

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617

Grade level

 9 s.e. 0.028 0.019 0.010 0.020

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617

 10 s.e. 0.026 0.010 0.010 0.017

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617

 11 s.e. 0.032 0.010 0.009 0.025

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617

 12 s.e. 0.047 0.011 0.013 0.038

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,617 2,617 2,617 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.
Table B16.—Standard errors for table 4: Average number of credits earned in family and consumer 

Table B16.—sciences education by public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years,

Table B16.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.017 0.026 0.018 0.028 0.034

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Grade level

 9 s.e. 0.006 0.009 0.007 0.009 0.010

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 10 s.e. 0.006 0.007 0.005 0.008 0.010

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 11 s.e. 0.007 0.009 0.005 0.008 0.009

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 12 s.e. 0.008 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.013

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B17.—Standard errors for table 5: Average number of credits earned in general labor market 

Table B17.—preparation by public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.018 0.023 0.019 0.021 0.028

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Grade level

 9 s.e. 0.010 0.009 0.013 0.013 0.019

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 10 s.e. 0.009 0.015 0.009 0.009 0.010

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 11 s.e. 0.008 0.007 0.005 0.006 0.010

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 12 s.e. 0.009 0.013 0.006 0.007 0.011

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B18.—Standard errors for table 6: Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by

Table B18.—public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.055 # 0.056 # # 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Grade level

 9 s.e. # # # # # 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 10 s.e. # # # # # 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 11 s.e. # # # # # 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 12 s.e. # # # # # 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

#Rounds to zero.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B19.—Standard errors for table 7: Average credits earned in business services by public high 

Table B19.—school graduates, by computer-related area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.019 0.031 0.019 0.025 0.030

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Noncomputer-related s.e. 0.019 0.024 0.014 0.015 0.014

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Computer-related s.e. 0.002 0.016 0.012 0.019 0.024

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B20.—Standard errors for table 9: Average credits earned in computer-related occupational 

Table B20.—courses and in business services courses by graduates earning 3.0 or more occupational 

Table B20.—credits, by program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Computer-related, total s.e. 0.014 0.033 0.025 0.030 0.048 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Business services s.e. 0.004 0.023 0.019 0.025 0.035 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Drafting/graphics s.e. ‡ 0.004 0.004 0.011 0.012 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Computer technology s.e. 0.013 0.020 0.016 0.015 0.040 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Business services, total s.e. 0.036 0.049 0.034 0.035 0.047 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Computer-related s.e. 0.004 0.023 0.019 0.025 0.035 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Noncomputer-related s.e. 0.036 0.040 0.026 0.029 0.024 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B21.—Standard errors for table 11: Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school gradua

Table B21.—vocational/technical curriculum, by change in state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 

 Total s.e. 0.079 0.098 0.126 0.023 0.028 0.036 0.026 0.034 0.043 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,505 2,617 2,505 2,617 2,505 2,617 

Change in vocational/technical requirements Increase s.e. 0.201 0.236 0.310 0.036 0.081 0.089 0.066 0.069 0.095 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 593 662 593 662 593 662 

 No change s.e. 0.446 0.439 0.626 0.107 0.110 0.153 0.105 0.090 0.138 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 133 235 133 235 133 235 

 Decrease s.e. 0.126 0.167 0.209 0.034 0.035 0.049 0.032 0.042 0.053 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,385 1,424 1,385 1,424 1,385 1,424 

 Not applicable s.e. 0.177 0.277 0.329 0.065 0.067 0.093 0.060 0.077 0.098 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 395 296 

Change in specific nonvocational/technical, nonelective requirements Increase s.e. 0.166 0.191 0.253 0.036 0.046 0.058 0.061 0.059 0.085 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 821 880 821 880 821 880 

 No increase s.e. 0.113 0.187 0.218 0.034 0.045 0.056 0.029 0.048 0.056 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,289 1,441 1,289 1,441 1,289 1,441 

 Not applicable s.e. 0.177 0.277 0.329 0.065 0.067 0.093 0.060 0.077 0.098 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 395 296 

See notes at end of table.

Vocational/technical, General labor

total market preparation

Family and consumer

sciences education
Table B21.—Standard errors for table 11: Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school gradua

Table B21.—vocational/technical curriculum, by change in state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998—Contin

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 

Change in total, nonvocational/technical requirements Increase s.e. 0.155 0.171 0.231 0.033 0.045 0.056 0.049 0.070 0.085 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 890 819 890 819 890 819 

 No increase s.e. 0.119 0.151 0.192 0.031 0.046 0.055 0.033 0.039 0.051 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,220 1,502 1,220 1,502 1,220 1,502 

 Not applicable s.e. 0.177 0.277 0.329 0.065 0.067 0.093 0.060 0.077 0.098 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 395 296 

Change in total graduation requirements Increase of 2 or more s.e. 0.258 0.191 0.321 0.087 0.073 0.114 0.078 0.058 0.097 

 credits weighted n (in 1,000s) 281 296 281 296 281 296  Increase of less than 2 s.e. 0.169 0.322 0.364 0.035 0.066 0.075 0.070 0.097 0.120  credits weighted n (in 1,000s) 535 415 535 415 535 415  No increase s.e. 0.116 0.145 0.186 0.030 0.045 0.054 0.026 0.039 0.047 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,295 1,610 1,295 1,610 1,295 1,610 

 Not applicable s.e. 0.177 0.277 0.329 0.065 0.067 0.093 0.060 0.077 0.098 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 395 296 

See notes at end of table.

Vocational/technical, General labor

total market preparation

Family and consumer

sciences education
Table B21.—Standard errors for table 11: Average number of vocational/technical credits earned by public high school gradua

Table B21.—vocational/technical curriculum, by change in state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998—Contin

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 

Change in New Basics core academic requirements Met in 1998 only s.e. 0.157 0.213 0.265 0.049 0.054 0.073 0.091 0.074 0.117 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 413 526 413 526 413 526 

 Met in both years s.e. 0.268 0.365 0.453 0.064 0.095 0.115 0.096 0.123 0.156 

 weighted n (in 1,000s) 138 175 138 175 138 175  Not met in 1998 s.e. 0.112 0.154 0.190 0.029 0.044 0.053 0.030 0.047 0.056  weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,560 1,621 1,560 1,621 1,560 1,621  Not applicable s.e. 0.177 0.277 0.329 0.065 0.067 0.093 0.060 0.077 0.098 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 395 296 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990 and 1998.

Vocational/technical, General labor Family and consumer

total market preparation sciences education
Table B22.—Standard errors for table 12: Percentage of public high school graduates by different measures of participation in 

Table B22.—vocational/technical education, by change in state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998

Occupational concentrators

Total 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 19

 Total s.e. 1.01 0.87 1.33 1.25 1.24 1.76 1

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,505 2,617 2,505 2,617 2,5

Change in vocational/technical requirements Increase s.e. 2.10 2.23 3.06 2.66 3.06 4.05 3

weighted n (in 1,000s) 593 662 593 662 5

 No change s.e. 3.79 3.57 5.20 6.83 5.91 9.03 6

weighted n (in 1,000s) 133 235 133 235 1

 Decrease s.e. 1.58 1.61 2.25 1.95 2.28 3.01 1

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,385 1,424 1,385 1,424 1,3

 Not applicable s.e. 2.80 4.33 5.15 2.50 5.01 5.60 3

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 3

Change in specific nonvocational/technical, nonelective requirements Increase s.e. 1.65 2.05 2.63 2.30 3.05 3.82 2

weighted n (in 1,000s) 821 880 821 880 8

 No increase s.e. 1.43 1.61 2.16 1.75 2.34 2.92 1

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,289 1,441 1,289 1,441 1,2

 Not applicable s.e. 2.80 4.33 5.15 2.50 5.01 5.60 3

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 3

See notes at end of table.

Occupational investors Voc
Table B22.—Standard errors for table 12: Percentage of public high school graduates by different measures of participation in 

Table B22.—vocational/technical education, by change in state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998—Continu

Occupational concentrators

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 19

Change in total, nonvocational/technical requirements Increase s.e. 1.79 1.82 2.56 2.27 2.27 3.22 2

weighted n (in 1,000s) 890 819 890 819 8

 No increase s.e. 1.47 1.45 2.07 1.78 1.93 2.63 1

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,220 1,502 1,220 1,502 1,2

 Not applicable s.e. 2.80 4.33 5.15 2.50 5.01 5.60 3

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 3

Change in total graduation requirements Increase of 2 or more credits s.e. 2.91 1.71 3.37 3.75 2.93 4.76 4

weighted n (in 1,000s) 281 296 281 296 2

 Increase of less than 2 credits s.e. 1.82 3.47 3.91 2.27 4.51 5.05 2

weighted n (in 1,000s) 535 415 535 415 5

 No increase s.e. 1.43 1.31 1.94 1.81 1.88 2.61 1

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,295 1,610 1,295 1,610 1,2

 Not applicable s.e. 2.80 4.33 5.15 2.50 5.01 5.60 3

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 3

See notes at end of table.

Occupational investors Voc
Table B22.—Standard errors for table 12: Percentage of public high school graduates by different measures of participation in 

Table B22.—vocational/technical education, by change in state high school graduation requirements: 1990 and 1998—Continu

Occupational concentrators

1990 1998 Change 1990 1998 Change 19

Change in New Basics core academic requirements Met in 1998 only s.e. 1.72 2.06 2.68 2.29 3.32 4.03 2

weighted n (in 1,000s) 413 526 413 526 4

 Met in both years s.e. 3.32 4.86 5.88 5.22 4.90 7.16 5

weighted n (in 1,000s) 138 175 138 175 1

 Not met in 1998 s.e. 1.34 1.30 1.87 1.65 1.97 2.57 1 weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,560 1,621 1,560 1,621 1,5 Not applicable s.e. 2.80 4.33 5.15 2.50 5.01 5.60 3

weighted n (in 1,000s) 395 296 395 296 3

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Studies (HSTS), 1990 and 1998.

Occupational investors Voc
Table B23.—Standard errors for table 13: Percentage distribution of total credits earned by public high 

Table B23.—school graduates, by computer-related and noncomputer-related areas: Various years,

Table B23.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Noncomputer-related s.e. † 0.11 0.08 0.10 0.11 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Computer-related, total s.e. † 0.11 0.08 0.10 0.11 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B24.—Standard errors for table 14: Average number of credits earned in academic subjects by 

Table B24.—public high school graduates, by subject: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.074 0.116 0.094 0.092 0.127

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Core academics, total s.e. 0.055 0.077 0.056 0.063 0.081

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 English s.e. 0.019 0.034 0.019 0.028 0.037

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Mathematics s.e. 0.019 0.028 0.019 0.021 0.024

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Science s.e. 0.021 0.028 0.027 0.028 0.026

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Social studies s.e. 0.024 0.040 0.023 0.041 0.038

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Foreign languages s.e. 0.023 0.041 0.035 0.033 0.039

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Fine arts s.e. 0.030 0.045 0.046 0.041 0.079

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.

 

 
Table B25.—Standard errors for table 15: Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects 

Table B25.—by public high school graduates, by selected participation measures: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.055 0.077 0.056 0.063 0.081 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Vocational/technical participation measures

 Vocational/technical coursetakers s.e. 0.055 0.077 0.057 0.064 0.085 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,559 2,454 2,125 2,150 2,526 

 Occupational coursetakers s.e. 0.055 0.078 0.059 0.066 0.086 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Vocational/technical investors s.e. 0.060 0.074 0.066 0.077 0.108 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,859 1,595 1,346 1,351 1,609 

 Occupational investors s.e. 0.077 0.082 0.073 0.082 0.115 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Occupational concentrators s.e. 0.096 0.081 0.093 0.083 0.132 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Advanced occupational concentrators s.e. 0.123 0.089 0.094 0.093 0.166 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 626 404 353 321 378 

 Advanced occupational concentrators s.e. 0.312 0.135 0.135 0.125 0.353 

 with cooperative education weighted n (in 1,000s) 109 103 85 114 118 

Vocational/technical nonparticipation measures

 All graduates except vocational/ s.e. 0.224 0.164 0.265 0.168 0.184 

 technical coursetakers weighted n (in 1,000s) 48 51 50 62 90 

 All graduates except occupational s.e. 0.134 0.101 0.110 0.108 0.126 

 coursetakers weighted n (in 1,000s) 295 235 169 204 245 

 All graduates except vocational s.e. 0.077 0.094 0.067 0.070 0.088 

 investors weighted n (in 1,000s) 748 910 828 861 1,007 

 All graduates except occupational s.e. 0.060 0.089 0.062 0.063 0.077 

 investors weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,402 1,429 1,256 1,284 1,470 

 All graduates except occupational s.e. 0.057 0.094 0.058 0.064 0.078 

 concentrators weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 All graduates except advanced s.e. 0.054 0.083 0.057 0.063 0.079 

 occupational concentrators weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,981 2,101 1,821 1,892 2,239 

See notes at end of table.
Table B25.—Standard errors for table 15: Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects 

Table B25.—by public high school graduates, by selected participation measures: Various years, 1982–98

Table B25.——Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 All graduates except advanced

 occupational concentrators with s.e. 0.054 0.077 0.057 0.062 0.082 

 cooperative education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,498 2,403 2,089 2,098 2,499 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B26.—Standard errors for table 16: Average number of credits earned in core academic subjects by 

Table B26.—public high school graduates, by occupational concentration status and subject area:

Table B26.—Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.055 0.077 0.056 0.063 0.081 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational concentrators

 All core academic subjects s.e. 0.096 0.081 0.093 0.083 0.132 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 English s.e. 0.032 0.030 0.030 0.026 0.055 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Mathematics s.e. 0.034 0.031 0.033 0.029 0.037 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Science s.e. 0.029 0.041 0.040 0.033 0.051 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Social studies s.e. 0.035 0.042 0.028 0.050 0.047 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Nonconcentrators

 All core academic subjects s.e. 0.057 0.094 0.058 0.064 0.078 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 English s.e. 0.021 0.042 0.020 0.032 0.035 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Mathematics s.e. 0.020 0.032 0.019 0.022 0.024 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Science s.e. 0.024 0.032 0.030 0.030 0.027 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Social studies s.e. 0.025 0.044 0.026 0.041 0.039 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B27.—Standard errors for table 17: Percentage of public high school graduates meeting New 

Table B27.—Basics standards in core academic subjects, by occupational concentration status and 

Table B27.—academic subject area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.59 1.70 1.18 1.50 2.34 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational concentrators

 All core academic subjects s.e. 0.65 1.73 1.52 1.89 3.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 4 years of English s.e. 1.57 2.18 1.35 1.42 2.75 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 3 years of mathematics s.e. 1.19 2.11 1.66 2.04 1.77 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 3 years of science s.e. 0.89 2.01 1.69 1.93 2.32 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 3 years of social studies s.e. 1.59 2.34 1.39 2.70 1.98 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Nonconcentrators

 All core academic subjects s.e. 0.78 2.03 1.36 1.64 2.30 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 4 years of English s.e. 1.17 2.10 0.82 1.47 1.73 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 3 years of mathematics s.e. 0.98 1.56 1.00 0.94 0.94 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 3 years of science s.e. 0.93 1.45 1.32 1.15 1.37 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 3 years of social studies s.e. 1.18 1.22 0.84 1.32 0.79 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B28.—Standard errors for table A1: Percentage of public high school graduates taking 

Table B28.—vocational/technical education courses, by vocational/technical curriculum: Various years, 

Table B28.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.19 0.24 0.27 0.32 0.48 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational education s.e. 0.47 0.68 0.48 0.66 0.80 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Family and consumer sciences s.e. 0.91 1.64 1.19 1.74 2.29 

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

General labor market preparation s.e. 0.71 1.58 1.28 1.62 2.08 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B29.—Standard errors for table A2: Percentage of public high school graduates meeting different 

Table B29.—definitions of participation in vocational/technical education: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Vocational/technical coursetakers s.e. 0.19 0.24 0.27 0.32 0.48 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational coursetakers s.e. 0.47 0.68 0.48 0.66 0.80 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Vocational/technical investors s.e. 0.79 1.29 1.12 1.19 1.48 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational investors s.e. 0.85 1.25 1.02 1.06 1.24 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational concentrators s.e. 0.83 1.01 0.78 0.95 0.87 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Advanced occupational s.e. 0.71 0.64 0.63 0.72 0.81 

 concentrators weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Advanced occupational concentrators s.e. 0.33 0.49 0.33 0.45 0.61 

 with cooperative education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B30.—Standard errors for table A3: Average number of credits earned in general labor market 

Table B30.—preparation by public high school graduates, by area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.018 0.023 0.019 0.021 0.028 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Basic typewriting/keyboarding s.e. 0.009 0.016 0.011 0.016 0.018 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Industrial arts/technology education, s.e. 0.010 0.008 0.012 0.010 0.010 

 total weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Industrial arts s.e. 0.010 0.008 0.011 0.008 0.006 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Technology education s.e. ‡ 0.002 ‡ 0.007 0.009 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Career preparation/general work s.e. 0.014 0.015 0.011 0.011 0.022 

 experience weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B31.—Standard errors for table A4: Percentage distribution of vocational/technical credits earned 

Table B31.—by public high school graduates, by grade level of course: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,554 2,454 2,123 2,150 2,526 

Grade level

 9 s.e. 0.38 0.67 0.56 0.56 0.72 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,554 2,454 2,123 2,150 2,526 

 10 s.e. 0.34 0.58 0.57 0.49 0.54 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,554 2,454 2,123 2,150 2,526 

 11 s.e. 0.35 0.41 0.42 0.40 0.50 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,554 2,454 2,123 2,150 2,526 

 12 s.e. 0.41 0.57 0.52 0.48 0.61 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,554 2,454 2,123 2,150 2,526 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B32.—Standard errors for table A5: Percentage of public high school graduates earning credits in 

Table B32.—occupational education, by program area: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total s.e. 0.47 0.68 0.48 0.66 0.80 0.93 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Materials production s.e. 0.68 0.88 0.65 0.61 0.80 1.05 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Business management s.e. 0.82 1.10 0.75 1.31 1.33 1.56 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Mechanics and repair s.e. 0.57 0.77 0.51 0.63 0.81 0.99 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Personal and other s.e. 0.40 0.49 0.51 0.51 0.56 0.69 

 services weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Construction s.e. 0.41 0.58 0.38 0.43 0.55 0.68 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Other precision s.e. 0.33 0.53 0.28 0.31 0.62 0.70 

 production weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Protective services s.e. 0.29 0.31 0.25 0.50 0.34 0.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Child care and s.e. 0.52 0.68 0.48 0.73 0.80 0.96 

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Agriculture s.e. 0.59 0.93 0.65 0.94 1.33 1.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Transportation s.e. 0.09 0.21 0.22 0.29 0.24 0.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Food service and s.e. 0.25 0.34 0.30 0.54 0.55 0.61 

 hospitality weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Marketing s.e. 0.48 0.58 0.52 0.79 0.91 1.03 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Print production s.e. 0.71 0.89 0.77 0.68 1.06 1.27 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Other technology s.e. 0.23 0.19 0.27 0.22 0.52 0.57 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

See notes at end of table.
Table B32.—Standard errors for table A5: Percentage of public high school graduates earning credits in 

Table B31.—occupational education, by program area: Various years, 1982–98—Continued

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

Health care s.e. 0.47 0.61 0.44 0.46 0.82 0.95 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Business services s.e. 0.77 1.71 1.08 1.32 2.00 2.14 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Communications s.e. 0.64 0.70 0.62 0.93 1.08 1.26 

 technology weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Computer technology s.e. 0.59 1.40 1.20 1.73 2.56 2.63 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B33.—Standard errors for table A6: Average number of occupational credits earned by public high 

Table B31.—school graduates, by program area: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

average number

from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total s.e. 0.053 0.065 0.050 0.057 0.074 0.091

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Business services s.e. 0.019 0.031 0.019 0.025 0.030 0.036

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Materials production s.e. 0.016 0.017 0.013 0.011 0.014 0.021

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Mechanics and repair s.e. 0.018 0.016 0.016 0.011 0.013 0.022

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Business management s.e. 0.010 0.010 0.009 0.012 0.014 0.017

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Construction s.e. 0.010 0.008 0.017 0.009 0.010 0.014

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Personal and other s.e. 0.011 0.010 0.014 0.009 0.009 0.014

 services weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Other precision s.e. 0.006 0.013 0.004 0.003 0.008 0.010

 production weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Agriculture s.e. 0.016 0.022 0.015 0.023 0.031 0.035

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Marketing s.e. 0.011 0.012 0.009 0.015 0.014 0.018

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Protective services s.e. ‡ 0.002 ‡ 0.003 0.004 †

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Transportation s.e. ‡ 0.003 ‡ 0.004 0.003 †

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Print production s.e. 0.012 0.014 0.014 0.012 0.021 0.041

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Other technology s.e. 0.000 0.002 0.004 0.002 0.006 0.006

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Food service and s.e. 0.004 0.005 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.009

 hospitality weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

See notes at end of table.
Table B33.—Standard errors for table A6: Average number of occupational credits earned by public high 

Table B31.—school graduates, by program area: Various years, 1982–98—Continued

Change in

average number

from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

Child care and s.e. 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.009 0.010 0.011

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Communications s.e. 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.007 0.013 0.014

 technology weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Health care s.e. 0.005 0.005 0.007 0.007 0.030 0.030

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Computer technology s.e. 0.007 0.013 0.011 0.013 0.027 0.028

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B34.—Standard errors for table A7: Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in 

Table B32.—occupational education, by program area: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total s.e. 0.83 1.01 0.78 0.95 0.87 1.20 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Business services s.e. 0.41 0.52 0.32 0.35 0.35 0.53 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Materials production s.e. 0.26 0.24 0.16 0.14 0.22 0.34 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Mechanics and repair s.e. 0.26 0.25 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.32 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Personal and other s.e. 0.20 0.17 0.25 0.15 0.11 0.23 

 services weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Construction s.e. 0.16 0.14 0.18 0.13 0.16 0.23 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Agriculture s.e. 0.29 0.35 0.26 0.37 0.54 0.61 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Other precision s.e. 0.08 0.15 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.11 

 production weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Print production s.e. 0.21 0.19 0.26 0.17 0.27 0.34 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Marketing s.e. 0.19 0.29 0.18 0.23 0.22 0.29 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Transportation s.e. 0.02 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.04 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Protective services s.e. 0.02 ‡ 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.04 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Other technology s.e. 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.06 0.07 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Food service and s.e. 0.06 0.12 0.10 0.07 0.10 0.11 

 hospitality weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Business management s.e. 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.14 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

See notes at end of table.
Table B34.—Standard errors for table A7: Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in 

Table B32.—occupational education, by program area: Various years, 1982–98—Continued

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

Computer technology s.e. 0.07 0.06 0.08 0.06 0.18 0.19 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Child care and s.e. 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.11 

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Communications s.e. 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.12 0.13 

 technology weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Health care s.e. 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.46 0.48 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Mixed programs

 Precision production s.e. 0.26 0.23 0.15 0.14 0.19 0.33 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Business s.e. 0.21 0.21 0.24 0.21 0.14 0.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Trade and industry s.e. 0.20 0.22 0.18 0.15 0.17 0.26 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Technology s.e. ‡ 0.05 0.10 0.04 0.11 † 

 weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B35.—Standard errors for table A8: Percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating in 

Table A33.—occupational education, by program area in which they took courses: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total s.e. 0.88 0.98 0.83 1.00 0.88 1.25

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372

Business services s.e. 0.92 1.04 0.68 0.62 0.69 1.15

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,097 1,174 1,028 1,137 1,162

Mechanics and repair s.e. 1.80 2.17 1.93 1.86 1.71 2.48

weighted n (in 1,000s) 340 253 204 197 261 

Materials production s.e. 1.24 1.53 1.27 1.19 1.74 2.14

weighted n (in 1,000s) 530 372 269 215 303 

Agriculture s.e. 2.25 2.31 2.24 2.03 3.35 4.04

weighted n (in 1,000s) 264 228 212 249 278 

Personal and other s.e. 2.87 3.10 3.11 2.39 2.39 3.74

 services weighted n (in 1,000s) 163 135 144 127 120 

Other precision s.e. 1.87 3.24 1.58 1.63 1.99 2.74

 production weighted n (in 1,000s) 102 102 67 49 79 

Marketing s.e. 1.89 3.15 1.99 2.40 1.86 2.65

weighted n (in 1,000s) 240 234 181 228 273 

Other technology s.e. 2.67 2.42 2.35 1.78 2.29 3.52

weighted n (in 1,000s) 31 23 53 26 70 

Print production s.e. 0.99 0.99 1.31 0.88 1.06 1.45

weighted n (in 1,000s) 501 468 412 387 537 

Transportation s.e. 3.88 4.77 1.16 2.82 3.61 5.31

weighted n (in 1,000s) 12 27 23 28 26 

Computer technology s.e. 0.51 0.16 0.17 0.22 0.45 0.68

weighted n (in 1,000s) 344 968 970 635 896 

Construction s.e. 2.04 3.02 2.82 1.87 2.41 3.15

weighted n (in 1,000s) 190 139 115 145 147 

Business management s.e. 0.26 0.34 0.34 0.52 0.71 0.76

weighted n (in 1,000s) 619 466 411 416 422 

Protective services s.e. 1.51 ‡ 2.50 2.51 2.59 3.00

weighted n (in 1,000s) 35 14 31 29 35 

See notes at end of table.
Table B35.—Standard errors for table A8: Percentage of occupational coursetakers concentrating in 

Table B33.—occupational education, by program area in which they took courses: Various years, 1982–98

Table B33.——Continued

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

Food service and s.e. 2.58 4.79 4.06 2.54 2.69 3.73

 hospitality weighted n (in 1,000s) 59 58 49 69 84 

Communications s.e. 0.34 0.51 0.49 0.64 0.74 0.82

 technology weighted n (in 1,000s) 281 242 212 235 396 

Child care and s.e. 0.67 0.97 1.19 1.92 1.30 1.46

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 199 144 125 135 203 

Health care s.e. 2.43 5.70 2.58 2.43 5.10 5.65

weighted n (in 1,000s) 118 69 87 102 174 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Weighted n’s sum to greater than totals, because some graduates took courses in more than one occupational

program area.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B36.—Standard errors for table A9: Percentage distribution of occupational concentrators, by 

Table B34.—program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Transportation s.e. 0.06 0.17 0.05 0.17 0.15 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Protective services s.e. 0.06 ‡ 0.14 0.09 0.12 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Other technology s.e. 0.09 0.08 0.24 0.08 0.24 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Other precision s.e. 0.23 0.52 0.19 0.15 0.29 

 production weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Business management s.e. 0.19 0.23 0.26 0.37 0.51 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Food service and s.e. 0.17 0.40 0.39 0.27 0.41 

 hospitality weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Child care and s.e. 0.15 0.19 0.27 0.41 0.39 

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Computer technology s.e. 0.20 0.23 0.30 0.24 0.71 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Personal and other s.e. 0.59 0.59 0.96 0.54 0.42 

 services weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Communications s.e. 0.11 0.17 0.19 0.23 0.47 

 technology weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Construction s.e. 0.47 0.46 0.68 0.48 0.62 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Materials production s.e. 0.71 0.85 0.62 0.54 0.86 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Marketing s.e. 0.56 1.03 0.69 0.88 0.91 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Mechanics and repair s.e. 0.73 0.85 0.76 0.61 0.75 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

See notes at end of table.
Table B36.—Standard errors for table A9: Percentage distribution of occupational concentrators, by 

Table A34.—program area: Various years, 1982–98—Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Health care s.e. 0.31 0.32 0.38 0.41 1.74 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Print production s.e. 0.60 0.62 1.01 0.66 1.01 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Agriculture s.e. 0.84 1.22 1.02 1.33 2.14 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Business services s.e. 1.08 1.64 1.16 1.16 1.31 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Mixed programs

 Technology s.e. ‡ 0.18 0.38 0.15 0.41 

 weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Business s.e. 0.60 0.72 0.93 0.72 0.59 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Precision production s.e. 0.77 0.80 0.58 0.54 0.78 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Trade and industry s.e. 0.58 0.79 0.71 0.69 0.68 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B37.—Standard errors for table A10: Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or 

Table B36.—more occupational credits who concentrated in occupational education, by various

Table B36.—concentration definitions: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Occupational concentrators s.e. 1.03 1.35 1.21 1.48 1.10 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Advanced occupational s.e. 1.13 1.19 1.17 1.49 1.70 

 concentrators weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Advanced occupational

 concentrators with cooperative s.e. 0.69 1.09 0.76 0.97 1.38 

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B38.—Standard errors for table A11: Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or 

Table B38.—more occupational credits who concentrated in occupational education, by program area of 

Table B38.—concentration: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total s.e. 1.03 1.35 1.21 1.48 1.10 1.50 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Business services s.e. 0.81 1.11 0.71 0.71 0.75 1.10 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Materials production s.e. 0.54 0.57 0.38 0.34 0.49 0.73 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Mechanics and repair s.e. 0.55 0.55 0.46 0.40 0.43 0.69 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Personal and other s.e. 0.43 0.39 0.58 0.36 0.25 0.50 

 services weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Other precision s.e. 0.17 0.34 0.12 0.09 0.17 0.24 

 production weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Construction s.e. 0.35 0.32 0.41 0.31 0.36 0.50 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Agriculture s.e. 0.61 0.79 0.61 0.81 1.20 1.35 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Transportation s.e. 0.04 0.11 0.03 0.10 0.08 0.09 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Protective services s.e. 0.04 ‡ 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.08 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Other technology s.e. 0.07 0.05 0.14 0.05 0.14 0.15 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Print production s.e. 0.44 0.42 0.61 0.42 0.60 0.74 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Marketing s.e. 0.41 0.68 0.42 0.55 0.53 0.67 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Food service and s.e. 0.13 0.27 0.23 0.17 0.23 0.26 

 hospitality weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Business management s.e. 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.23 0.30 0.32 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

See notes at end of table.
Table B38.—Standard errors for table A11: Percentage of public high school graduates earning 3.0 or 

Table B37.—more occupational credits who concentrated in occupational education, by program area of 

Table B37.—concentration: Various years, 1982–98—Continued

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

Computer technology s.e. 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.14 0.41 0.43 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Child care and s.e. 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.25 0.23 0.25 

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Communications s.e. 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.26 0.27 

 technology weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Health care s.e. 0.22 0.21 0.23 0.26 1.03 1.05 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Mixed programs

 Precision production s.e. 0.56 0.51 0.34 0.33 0.45 0.72 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Business s.e. 0.44 0.47 0.56 0.47 0.33 0.55 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Trade and industry s.e. 0.42 0.48 0.42 0.38 0.37 0.56 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Technology s.e. ‡ 0.12 0.23 0.09 0.23 † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B39.—Standard errors for table A12: Percentage distribution of occupational credits earned by

Table B37.—public high school graduates who earned 3.0 or more occupational credits, by program area:

Table B37.—Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147

Business services s.e. 0.70 1.00 0.66 0.69 0.97 1.20 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Materials production s.e. 0.48 0.56 0.41 0.41 0.49 0.68 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Mechanics and repair s.e. 0.50 0.47 0.41 0.42 0.49 0.70 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Business management s.e. 0.33 0.36 0.34 0.44 0.48 0.58 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Personal and other s.e. 0.39 0.36 0.47 0.34 0.31 0.50 

 services weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Construction s.e. 0.29 0.31 0.36 0.32 0.38 0.47 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Other precision s.e. 0.19 0.35 0.15 0.14 0.29 0.35 

 production weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Marketing s.e. 0.42 0.51 0.45 0.61 0.59 0.73 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Protective services s.e. 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.15 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Transportation s.e. 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.16 0.11 0.12 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Agriculture s.e. 0.56 0.86 0.64 0.82 1.15 1.28 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Print production s.e. 0.49 0.52 0.58 0.49 0.77 0.91 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Other technology s.e. 0.08 0.08 0.14 0.08 0.23 0.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Food service and s.e. 0.14 0.23 0.22 0.26 0.33 0.36 

 hospitality weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

See notes at end of table.
Table B39.—Standard errors for table A12: Percentage distribution of occupational credits earned by

Table B37.—public high school graduates who earned 3.0 or more occupational credits, by program area:

Table B37.—Various years, 1982–98—Continued

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

Child care and s.e. 0.20 0.22 0.19 0.32 0.36 0.41 

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Communications s.e. 0.17 0.22 0.29 0.24 0.44 0.47 

 technology weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Health care s.e. 0.19 0.20 0.26 0.30 0.88 0.90 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

Computer technology s.e. 0.21 0.44 0.36 0.34 0.80 0.82 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B40.—Standard errors for table A13: Average number of credits earned by occupational 

Table B38.—concentrators in their area of concentration, by level of course: Various years, 1982–98

Change from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total s.e. 0.074 0.069 0.092 0.050 0.101 0.125 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Course level

 First s.e. 0.065 0.082 0.056 0.064 0.102 0.121 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Second or higher s.e. 0.044 0.068 0.051 0.047 0.054 0.070 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Specialty s.e. 0.023 0.025 0.051 0.025 0.026 0.035 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Cooperative education s.e. 0.025 0.051 0.047 0.049 0.091 0.094 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B41.—Standard errors for table A14: Percentage distribution of credits earned by occupational 

Table B39.—concentrators in their area of concentration, by level of course: Various years, 1982–98

Change in

percentage from

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998 1982 to 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Course level

 First s.e. 0.83 1.47 0.99 1.08 1.45 1.67 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Second or higher s.e. 0.72 1.21 0.80 0.93 1.23 1.43 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Specialty s.e. 0.50 0.61 0.65 0.58 0.66 0.83 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Cooperative education s.e. 0.57 1.15 0.83 1.10 1.69 1.79 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B42.—Standard errors for table A15: Percentage of total occupational credits earned by occupational 

Table B41.—coursetakers that were cooperative education credits: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Total s.e. 0.34 0.61 0.46 0.51 0.71 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B43.—Standard errors for table A16: Average number of computer-related credits earned by public 

Table B41.—high school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum and subarea: Various years, 

Table B41.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.007 0.027 0.019 0.025 0.029

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

General labor market preparation, s.e. † 0.016 0.011 0.019 0.019

 total weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Basic typewriting/keyboarding s.e. † 0.016 0.011 0.016 0.018

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Technology education s.e. † ‡ ‡ 0.007 0.009

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

Occupational education, total s.e. 0.007 0.022 0.016 0.023 0.033

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Business services s.e. 0.002 0.016 0.012 0.019 0.024

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Drafting s.e. ‡ 0.002 0.002 0.006 0.007

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Computer technology, total s.e. 0.007 0.013 0.011 0.013 0.027

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Computer applications s.e. 0.001 0.007 0.004 0.009 0.021

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Computer programming s.e. 0.003 0.011 0.005 0.005 0.005

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Data processing s.e. 0.005 ‡ 0.004 ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Computer science and systems s.e. 0.002 0.011 0.009 0.009 0.012

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

 Computer mathematics s.e. 0.002 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.005

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B44.—Standard errors for table A17: Percentage distribution of computer-related credits earned by 

Table B42.—public high school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum and computer-related area:

Table B42.—Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

General labor market preparation, total s.e. † 1.77 1.13 1.58 2.08 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Basic typewriting/keyboarding s.e. † 1.77 1.13 1.59 2.03 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Technology education s.e. † ‡ ‡ 0.41 0.71 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

Occupational education, total s.e. † 1.77 1.13 1.58 2.08 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Business services s.e. † 1.50 1.14 1.57 2.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Drafting s.e. † 0.22 0.19 0.35 0.50 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Computer technology, total s.e. † 1.15 0.94 1.28 2.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Computer applications s.e. † 0.63 0.33 0.97 1.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Computer programming s.e. † 0.77 0.44 0.44 0.35 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Data processing s.e. † 0.36 0.32 0.10 0.26 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Computer science and systems s.e. † 1.32 0.89 1.04 1.44 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

 Computer mathematics s.e. † 0.47 0.45 0.22 0.43 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 364 1,990 1,708 1,784 2,095 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B45.—Standard errors for table A18: Percentage distribution of general labor market preparation 

Table A43.—and of occupational education credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

Table A43.—computer-related and noncomputer-related areas: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

General labor market preparation, s.e. † † † † † 

 total weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,023 1,722 1,304 1,353 1,539 

 Noncomputer-related s.e. † 1.52 1.47 1.86 2.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,023 1,722 1,304 1,353 1,539 

 Computer-related, total s.e. † 1.52 1.47 1.86 2.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,023 1,722 1,304 1,353 1,539 

 Basic typewriting/keyboarding s.e. † 1.52 1.47 1.89 2.57 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,023 1,722 1,304 1,353 1,539 

 Technology education s.e. † ‡ ‡ 0.62 1.24 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,023 1,722 1,304 1,353 1,539 

Occupational education, total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Noncomputer-related s.e. 0.33 1.00 0.84 0.93 1.30 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Computer-related, total s.e. 0.33 1.00 0.84 0.93 1.30 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Business services s.e. 0.07 0.83 0.70 1.00 1.17 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Drafting s.e. ‡ 0.12 0.12 0.19 0.28 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Computer technology, total s.e. 0.33 0.76 0.69 0.81 1.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Computer applications s.e. 0.07 0.40 0.21 0.58 0.79 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Computer programming s.e. 0.22 0.53 0.29 0.27 0.26 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Data processing s.e. 0.18 0.24 0.18 0.06 0.11 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

See notes at end of table.
Table B45.—Standard errors for table A18: Percentage distribution of general labor market preparation 

Table A43.—and of occupational education credits earned by public high school graduates, by 

Table A43.—computer-related and noncomputer-related areas: Various years, 1982–98—Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Computer science and systems s.e. 0.13 0.72 0.55 0.63 0.74 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Computer mathematics s.e. 0.17 0.36 0.38 0.15 0.35 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

†Not applicable.

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B46.—Standard errors for table A19: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates 

Table B44.—according to level of mathematics coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status:

Table B44.—Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Advanced mathematics s.e. 0.70 1.13 0.94 1.06 1.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Upper-middle mathematics s.e. 0.62 0.86 0.98 0.83 1.17 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Lower-middle mathematics s.e. 0.75 0.79 0.80 0.78 0.97 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Low mathematics s.e. 0.78 0.98 0.66 0.68 0.63 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational concentrators s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Advanced mathematics s.e. 0.77 1.25 1.10 1.14 1.73 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Upper-middle mathematics s.e. 0.85 1.25 1.21 1.09 1.44 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Lower-middle mathematics s.e. 1.31 1.26 1.31 0.97 1.52 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Low mathematics s.e. 1.35 1.70 1.28 1.36 0.87 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Nonconcentrators s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Advanced mathematics s.e. 0.90 1.13 1.14 1.23 1.40 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Upper-middle mathematics s.e. 0.77 0.94 1.22 0.91 1.28 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Lower-middle mathematics s.e. 0.86 0.82 0.93 0.87 0.93 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

See notes at end of table.
Table B46.—Standard errors for table A19: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates 

Table B44.—according to level of mathematics coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status:

Table B44.—Various years, 1982–98—Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Low mathematics s.e. 0.85 0.91 0.70 0.61 0.67 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

†Not applicable.

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B47.—Standard errors for table A20: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates 

Table B45.—according to level of science coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status:

Table B45.—Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Advanced science s.e. 0.78 1.18 1.07 1.30 1.46 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Biology s.e. 1.05 1.46 1.06 1.35 1.16 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Low science s.e. 1.03 1.23 0.71 0.94 0.93 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational concentrators s.e. † † † † † 

 weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Advanced science s.e. 0.93 1.29 1.42 1.64 2.10 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Biology s.e. 1.62 2.07 1.63 1.91 1.87 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Low science s.e. 1.66 2.39 1.22 1.46 1.50 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Nonconcentrators s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Advanced science s.e. 0.95 1.33 1.27 1.31 1.50 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Biology s.e. 1.14 1.42 1.18 1.27 1.09 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Low science s.e. 1.03 0.94 0.79 0.95 0.94 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

†Not applicable.

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B48.—Standard errors for table A21: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates 

Table B46.—according to level of English coursetaking achieved, by occupational concentration status:

Table B46.—Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,602 2,489 2,164 2,195 2,585 

Advanced English s.e. 0.76 1.43 0.92 1.28 1.56 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,602 2,489 2,164 2,195 2,585 

Middle English s.e. 1.00 1.68 1.13 1.53 1.88 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,602 2,489 2,164 2,195 2,585 

Low English s.e. 0.75 1.53 0.92 1.41 1.57 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,602 2,489 2,164 2,195 2,585 

Occupational concentrators s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 875 688 535 554 13 

 Advanced English s.e. 0.76 1.12 1.08 1.23 1.97 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 875 688 535 554 644 

 Middle English s.e. 1.34 2.18 1.60 2.01 2.04 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 875 688 535 554 644 

 Low English s.e. 1.11 1.85 1.46 1.61 2.33 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 875 688 535 554 644 

Nonconcentrators s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,728 1,801 1,629 1,640 1,941 

 Advanced English s.e. 0.92 1.62 1.10 1.46 1.62 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,728 1,801 1,629 1,640 1,941 

 Middle English s.e. 1.11 1.81 1.30 1.57 2.05 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,728 1,801 1,629 1,640 1,941 

 Low English s.e. 0.80 1.66 1.02 1.53 1.46 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,728 1,801 1,629 1,640 1,941 

†Not applicable.

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B49.—Standard errors for table A22: Percentage of public high school graduates completing specific 

Table B47.—science courses, by occupational concentration status: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Biology, chemistry, or 

 physics, total s.e. 0.74 0.90 0.36 0.33 0.63 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Biology s.e. 0.80 0.96 0.41 0.59 0.68 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Chemistry s.e. 0.74 1.32 1.05 0.98 1.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Physics s.e. 0.69 0.96 0.89 1.12 1.43 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 Occupational concentrators

 Biology, chemistry, or s.e. 1.38 1.72 0.85 0.65 1.37 

 physics, total weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Biology s.e. 1.42 1.86 0.88 0.84 1.39 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Chemistry s.e. 0.97 1.40 1.37 1.49 2.01 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Physics s.e. 0.94 0.99 1.15 1.09 1.92 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Nonconcentrators

 Biology, chemistry, or s.e. 0.67 0.70 0.32 0.28 0.48 

 physics, total weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Biology s.e. 0.76 0.73 0.40 0.56 0.57 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Chemistry s.e. 0.93 1.44 1.22 1.03 1.30 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Physics s.e. 0.81 1.02 1.02 1.19 1.63 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B50.—Standard errors for table A23: Percentage of public high school graduates completing U.S. or

Table B48.—world history courses, by type of course and occupational concentration status: Various years,

Table B48.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.78 1.16 0.62 0.58 1.46 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 U.S. history s.e. 0.92 1.49 0.77 0.81 1.49 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 World history s.e. 1.37 2.73 1.46 2.62 3.32 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational s.e. 1.19 1.40 1.16 0.40 1.59 

 concentrators weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 U.S. history s.e. 1.29 1.64 1.32 0.70 1.68 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 World history s.e. 1.70 3.28 2.00 3.11 3.31 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Nonconcentrators s.e. 0.76 1.28 0.60 0.71 1.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 U.S. history s.e. 0.97 1.60 0.79 0.92 1.48 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 World history s.e. 1.52 2.78 1.59 2.67 3.49 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B51.—Standard errors for table A24: Percentage of public high school graduates completing a 

Table B49.—college-preparatory course of study, by selected vocational/technical participation and 

Table B49.—nonparticipation measures: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.49 1.18 1.06 1.11 1.69 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Vocational/technical participation measures

 Vocational/technical coursetakers s.e. 0.48 1.16 1.07 1.08 1.69 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,559 2,454 2,125 2,150 2,526 

 Occupational coursetakers s.e. 0.44 1.14 1.09 1.08 1.76 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,312 2,270 2,005 2,009 2,372 

 Vocational/technical investors s.e. 0.29 0.99 0.90 0.92 1.87 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,859 1,595 1,346 1,351 1,609 

 Occupational investors s.e. 0.29 0.98 0.99 0.95 1.93 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,205 1,076 918 928 1,147 

 Occupational concentrators s.e. 0.31 0.89 1.01 0.96 2.07 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Advanced occupational concentrators s.e. 0.31 1.01 1.31 1.19 2.42 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 626 404 353 321 378 

 Advanced occupational concentrators s.e. 0.53 1.53 3.62 1.49 4.53 

 with cooperative education weighted n (in 1,000s) 109 103 85 114 118 

Vocational/technical nonparticipation measures

 All graduates except vocational/ s.e. 4.56 4.08 5.83 3.24 5.68 

 technical coursetakers weighted n (in 1,000s) 48 51 50 62 90 

 All graduates except occupational s.e. 1.84 2.70 3.05 2.73 3.04 

 coursetakers weighted n (in 1,000s) 295 235 169 204 245 

 All graduates except vocational/ s.e. 1.27 2.25 1.87 1.86 2.52 

 technical investors weighted n (in 1,000s) 748 910 828 861 1,007 

 All graduates except occupational s.e. 0.79 1.69 1.45 1.57 2.02 

 investors weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,402 1,429 1,256 1,284 1,470 

 All graduates except occupational s.e. 0.68 1.54 1.28 1.42 1.88 

 concentrators weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 All graduates except advanced s.e. 0.61 1.36 1.19 1.30 1.76 

 occupational concentrators weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,981 2,101 1,821 1,892 2,239 

See notes at end of table.
Table B51.—Standard errors for table A24: Percentage of public high school graduates completing a 

Table B49.—college-preparatory course of study, by selected vocational/technical participation and 

Table B49.—nonparticipation measures: Various years, 1982–98—Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 All graduates except advanced occupational 

 concentrators with cooperative s.e. 0.51 1.24 1.09 1.18 1.74 

 education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,498 2,403 2,089 2,098 2,499 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B52.—Standard errors for table A25: Percentage distribution of public high school graduates 

Table B50.—according to college-preparatory and occupational concentration status: Various years,

Table B50.—1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. † † † † † 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

College-preparatory only s.e. 0.47 1.09 1.03 0.99 1.43 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Occupational concentration only s.e. 0.83 0.89 0.74 0.83 0.68 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Both college-preparatory and s.e. 0.11 0.28 0.27 0.29 0.63 

 occupational concentration weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Neither college-preparatory nor s.e. 0.83 1.40 1.05 1.35 1.53 

 occupational concentration weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B53.—Standard errors for table A26: Percentage of occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators 

Table B51.—completing college-preparatory coursework, by subject: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Occupational concentrators

 College-preparatory, total s.e. 0.31 0.89 1.01 0.96 2.07 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 English s.e. 1.57 2.18 1.35 1.42 2.75 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Mathematics s.e. 0.82 1.26 1.41 1.41 1.87 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Science s.e. 0.97 1.81 1.55 1.57 2.15 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Social studies s.e. 1.45 1.70 1.23 0.54 1.73 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Foreign languages s.e. 0.75 1.63 1.37 1.51 2.18 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

Nonconcentrators

 College-preparatory, total s.e. 0.68 1.54 1.28 1.42 1.88 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 English s.e. 1.17 2.10 0.82 1.47 1.73 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Mathematics s.e. 0.97 1.45 1.26 1.21 1.21 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Science s.e. 0.95 1.35 1.22 1.04 1.24 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Social studies s.e. 1.01 1.45 0.75 0.78 1.65 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

 Foreign languages s.e. 1.02 1.52 1.29 1.21 1.32 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B54.—Standard errors for table A27: Average number of credits earned in vocational/technical 

Table A52.—education by public high school graduates, by vocational/technical curriculum and whether 

Table A52.—graduates completed college-preparatory coursework: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

Vocational/technical, total s.e. 0.059 0.079 0.063 0.068 0.098 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 College-preparatory s.e. 0.071 0.077 0.062 0.066 0.114 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 227 719 697 812 1,017 

 Not college-preparatory s.e. 0.060 0.097 0.077 0.088 0.132 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,380 1,786 1,478 1,400 1,600 

 Occupational education s.e. 0.053 0.065 0.050 0.057 0.074 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 College-preparatory s.e. 0.055 0.062 0.053 0.054 0.094 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 227 719 697 812 1,017 

 Not college-preparatory s.e. 0.054 0.081 0.065 0.079 0.096 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,380 1,786 1,478 1,400 1,600 

 General labor market s.e. 0.018 0.023 0.019 0.021 0.028 

 preparation weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 College-preparatory s.e. 0.028 0.024 0.018 0.021 0.026 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 227 719 697 812 1,017 

 Not college-preparatory s.e. 0.019 0.028 0.024 0.024 0.037 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,380 1,786 1,478 1,400 1,600 

 Family and consumer s.e. 0.017 0.026 0.018 0.028 0.034 

 sciences education weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

 College-preparatory s.e. 0.025 0.017 0.020 0.021 0.034 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 227 719 697 812 1,017 

 Not college-preparatory s.e. 0.019 0.032 0.023 0.035 0.042 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,380 1,786 1,478 1,400 1,600 

NOTE: Weighted n’s may not sum to totals because of rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B55.—Standard errors for table A28: Percentage of public high school graduates meeting selected 

Table A53.—definitions of participation in vocational/technical education, by college-preparatory 

Table A53.—coursework status: 1998

College- Not collegepreparatory preparatory

 Total † † 

Vocational/technical coursetakers s.e. 0.77 0.50 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Occupational coursetakers s.e. 1.39 0.69 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Vocational/technical investors s.e. 2.29 1.78 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Occupational investors s.e. 1.89 1.43 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Occupational concentrators s.e. 1.35 1.07 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Advanced occupational concentrators s.e. 1.08 0.92 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Advanced occupational concentrators s.e. 0.98 0.54 

 with cooperative education weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

†Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.
Table B56.—Standard errors for table A29: Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in 

Table B54.—occupational education, by program area and college-preparatory status: 1998

College- Not collegepreparatory preparatory

 Total s.e. 1.35 1.07 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Health care s.e. 0.94 0.23 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Communications technology s.e. 0.20 0.11 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Business services s.e. 0.55 0.38 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Computer technology s.e. 0.24 0.18 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Transportation s.e. 0.02 0.05 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Other precision production s.e. 0.10 0.08 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Business management s.e. 0.17 0.12 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Other technology s.e. 0.07 0.07 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Child care and education s.e. 0.11 0.13 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Food service and hospitality s.e. 0.05 0.14 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Personal and other services s.e. 0.13 0.13 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Marketing s.e. 0.28 0.23 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Print production s.e. 0.20 0.40 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Construction s.e. 0.10 0.23 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

See notes at end of table.
Table B56.—Standard errors for table A29: Percentage of public high school graduates concentrating in 

Table B54.—occupational education, by program area and college-preparatory status: 1998—Continued

College- Not collegepreparatory preparatory

Agriculture s.e. 0.41 0.67 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Mechanics and repair s.e. 0.10 0.26 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Protective services s.e. ‡ 0.05 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Materials production s.e. ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

Mixed programs

 Business s.e. 0.18 0.16 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

 Precision production s.e. 0.11 0.27 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

 Trade and industry s.e. 0.06 0.27 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

 Technology s.e. 0.17 0.09 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,017 1,600 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School Transcript Study (HSTS), 

1998.
Table B57.—Standard errors for table A30: Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or 

Table B55.—higher mathematics courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various

Table B55.—years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.75 0.94 0.63 0.67 0.56 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Nonconcentrators s.e. 0.82 0.82 0.67 0.54 0.55 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

Concentrators, total s.e. 1.33 1.71 1.26 1.45 0.93 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Agriculture s.e. 4.91 3.65 3.26 3.17 1.72 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 72 64 50 70 67 

 Business management s.e. ‡ ‡ 5.56 8.16 3.12 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 4 4 6 7 11 

 Business services s.e. 1.94 2.20 1.89 1.96 1.51 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 242 163 105 119 85 

 Child care and education s.e. ‡ 6.88 9.21 4.58 2.37 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 5 7 8 13 15 

 Communications technology s.e. ‡ 2.65 4.57 3.44 0.72 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 3 7 6 8 22 

 Computer technology s.e. ‡ 7.01 4.30 3.80 3.11 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 7 7 9 6 17 

 Construction s.e. 4.74 5.59 5.89 4.51 3.44 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 39 28 26 23 33 

 Food service and hospitality s.e. ‡ 6.26 11.23 5.41 8.05 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 6 12 8 8 12 

 Health care s.e. 8.94 6.30 8.03 3.35 1.98 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 15 14 13 21 47 

 Marketing s.e. 4.20 3.17 7.24 2.38 1.78 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 46 53 28 48 47 

 Materials production s.e. 3.96 4.93 4.81 4.20 3.11 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 45 32 25 35 

 Mechanics and repair s.e. 4.24 3.88 4.94 2.78 2.96 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 57 40 36 47 

See notes at end of table.
Table B57.—Standard errors for table A30: Percentage of public high school graduates taking algebra 1 or 

Table A55.—higher mathematics courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various

Table A55.—years, 1982–98—Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Other precision production s.e. 9.11 13.70 ‡ 7.74 5.12 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 11 10 4 3 6 

 Other technology s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2 1 4 1 4 

 Personal and other services s.e. 7.10 5.05 6.60 4.13 3.22 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 33 32 29 24 21 

 Print production s.e. 5.19 2.91 2.98 1.89 1.46 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 52 45 47 39 52 

 Protective services s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 ‡ 1 1 2 

 Transportation s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 2 ‡ 2 2 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Weighted n’s for nonconcentrators and concentrators may not sum to totals because of rounding. Details do not sum to

the concentrators total, because the table does not include mixed business, mixed precision production, mixed trade and 

industrial and mixed technology program areas, for which related academic coursework was not identified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B58.—Standard errors for table A31: Percentage of public high school graduates taking geometry 

Table B56.—courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.87 1.61 1.14 1.56 2.07 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Nonconcentrators s.e. 1.02 1.65 1.26 1.61 2.22 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

Concentrators, total s.e. 1.19 2.12 1.58 2.07 2.16 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Agriculture s.e. 3.57 2.87 3.14 3.13 4.64 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 72 64 50 70 67 

 Business management s.e. ‡ ‡ 10.09 7.00 5.87 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 4 4 6 7 11 

 Business services s.e. 2.20 3.19 3.20 2.92 4.45 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 242 163 1,049 1,189 85 

 Child care and education s.e. ‡ 6.78 10.12 4.99 6.76 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 5 7 8 13 15 

 Communications technology s.e. ‡ 6.93 6.77 6.81 2.82 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 3 7 6 8 22 

 Computer technology s.e. ‡ 8.83 8.13 5.61 5.48 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 7 7 9 6 17 

 Construction s.e. 3.00 4.73 5.13 4.44 4.02 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 39 28 26 23 33 

 Food service and hospitality s.e. ‡ 7.01 9.67 3.08 8.53 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 6 12 8 8 12 

 Health care s.e. 6.37 6.66 5.76 5.67 4.75 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 15 14 13 21 49 

 Marketing s.e. 4.84 4.08 6.07 4.42 4.80 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 46 53 28 48 47 

 Materials production s.e. 3.45 3.74 3.81 4.29 5.58 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 45 32 25 35 

 Mechanics and repair s.e. 2.57 3.31 3.81 3.41 4.36 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 80 57 40 36 47 

 Other precision production s.e. 8.30 9.14 ‡ 8.53 11.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 11 10 4 3 6 

See notes at end of table.
Table B58.—Standard errors for table A31: Percentage of public high school graduates taking geometry 

Table B56.—courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

Table B56.——Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Other technology s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2 1 4 1 4 

 Personal and other services s.e. 5.48 4.51 7.57 5.59 7.71 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 33 32 29 24 21 

 Print production s.e. 4.77 4.64 5.55 5.04 3.59 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 52 45 47 39 52 

 Protective services s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 ‡ 1 1 2 

 Transportation s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 2 ‡ 2 2 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Weighted n’s for nonconcentrators and concentrators may not sum to totals because of rounding. Details do not sum to

the concentrators total, because the table does not include mixed business, mixed precision production, mixed trade and 

industrial and mixed technology program areas, for which related academic coursework was not identified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B59.—Standard errors for table A32: Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or 

Table B57.—advanced biology courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various

Table B57.—years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 1.20 1.49 0.79 1.20 0.95 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Nonconcentrators s.e. 1.28 1.19 0.89 1.27 1.04 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

Concentrators, total s.e. 1.69 2.65 1.29 1.56 1.41 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Agriculture s.e. 5.05 3.61 3.09 2.80 3.48 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 72 64 50 70 67 

 Business management s.e. ‡ ‡ 6.16 7.43 4.62 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 4 4 6 7 11 

 Business services s.e. 2.55 3.50 1.96 2.45 3.27 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 242 163 105 119 85 

 Child care and education s.e. ‡ 5.81 7.88 5.12 4.61 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 5 7 8 13 15 

 Communications technology s.e. ‡ 2.83 3.08 2.79 2.66 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 3 7 6 8 22 

 Computer technology s.e. ‡ 6.86 4.21 7.96 3.44 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 7 7 9 6 17 

 Construction s.e. 5.53 6.95 5.42 3.67 5.95 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 39 28 26 23 33 

 Food service and hospitality s.e. ‡ 6.18 12.87 7.32 8.66 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 6 12 8 8 12 

 Health care s.e. 9.30 8.27 5.26 3.00 2.53 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 15 14 13 21 49 

 Marketing s.e. 4.87 4.53 3.30 2.98 2.68 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 46 53 28 48 47 

 Materials production s.e. 4.06 6.55 5.36 5.31 4.56 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 45 32 25 35 

 Mechanics and repair s.e. 4.38 3.59 5.14 3.83 3.99 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 57 40 36 47 

See notes at end of table.
Table B59.—Standard errors for table A32: Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or 

Table B57.—advanced biology courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various

Table B57.—years, 1982–98—Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Other precision production s.e. 9.38 14.36 ‡ 5.95 8.67 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 11 10 4 3 6 

 Other technology s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2 1 4 1 4 

 Personal and other services s.e. 8.39 5.48 5.85 4.75 7.78 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 33 32 29 24 21 

 Print production s.e. 4.57 5.04 5.01 2.16 4.36 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 52 45 47 39 52 

 Protective services s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 ‡ 1 1 2 

 Transportation s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 2 ‡ 2 2 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Weighted n’s for nonconcentrators and concentrators may not sum to totals because of rounding. Details do not sum to

the concentrators total, because the table does not include mixed business, mixed precision production, mixed trade and 

industrial and mixed technology program areas, for which related academic coursework was not identified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B60.—Standard errors for table A33: Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or 

Table B58.—advanced chemistry courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various

Table B58.—years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.78 1.22 1.10 1.49 1.52 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Nonconcentrators s.e. 0.98 1.37 1.28 1.58 1.59 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

Concentrators, total s.e. 0.83 1.26 1.33 1.59 2.12 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Agriculture s.e. 3.06 2.79 4.43 2.66 3.41 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 72 64 50 70 67 

 Business management s.e. ‡ ‡ 8.25 6.89 6.75 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 4 4 6 7 11 

 Business services s.e. 1.35 2.39 3.24 2.74 3.78 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 242 163 105 119 85 

 Child care and education s.e. ‡ 4.05 5.51 6.07 6.64 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 5 7 8 13 15 

 Communications technology s.e. ‡ 7.83 8.84 6.66 4.73 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 3 7 6 8 22 

 Computer technology s.e. ‡ 9.75 9.49 9.47 5.59 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 7 7 9 6 17 

 Construction s.e. 1.83 1.63 6.87 3.47 4.24 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 39 28 26 23 33 

 Food service and hospitality s.e. ‡ 0.85 3.59 1.57 4.22 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 6 12 8 8 12 

 Health care s.e. 5.45 8.03 6.07 5.51 8.33 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 15 14 13 21 49 

 Marketing s.e. 3.50 3.48 3.75 4.03 5.37 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 46 53 28 48 47 

 Materials production s.e. 1.92 2.84 2.78 2.40 3.36 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 45 32 25 35 

 Mechanics and repair s.e. 1.30 1.64 1.77 1.91 4.10 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 57 40 36 47 

See notes at end of table.
Table B60.—Standard errors for table A33: Percentage of public high school graduates taking regular or 

Table B58.—advanced chemistry courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various

Table B58.—years, 1982–98—Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Other precision production s.e. 5.66 5.52 ‡ 5.98 10.90 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 11 10 4 3 6 

 Other technology s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2 1 4 1 4 

 Personal and other services s.e. 2.60 2.63 6.94 3.32 4.83 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 33 32 29 24 21 

 Print production s.e. 4.58 2.81 4.94 3.73 3.70 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 52 45 47 39 52 

 Protective services s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 ‡ 1 1 2 

 Transportation s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 2 ‡ 2 2 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Weighted n’s for nonconcentrators and concentrators may not sum to totals because of rounding. Details do not sum to

the concentrators total, because the table does not include mixed business, mixed precision production, mixed trade and 

industrial and mixed technology program areas, for which related academic coursework was not identified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
Table B61.—Standard errors for table A34: Percentage of public high school graduates taking physics 

Table B59.—courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Total s.e. 0.64 0.98 0.82 1.14 1.24 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2,607 2,505 2,174 2,213 2,617 

Nonconcentrators s.e. 0.79 1.14 0.95 1.28 1.44 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1,730 1,810 1,632 1,650 1,963 

Concentrators, total s.e. 0.77 0.61 1.08 0.89 1.73 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 878 696 542 562 654 

 Agriculture s.e. 2.94 1.57 1.75 1.11 3.70 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 72 64 50 70 67 

 Business management s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ 1.81 4.42 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 4 4 6 7 11 

 Business services s.e. 1.09 1.10 3.02 1.39 2.41 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 242 163 105 119 85 

 Child care and education s.e. ‡ 1.15 0.00 2.74 3.25 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 5 7 8 13 15 

 Communications technology s.e. ‡ 7.54 6.20 5.81 6.00 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 3 7 6 8 22 

 Computer technology s.e. ‡ 8.24 9.16 7.90 5.85 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 7 7 9 6 17 

 Construction s.e. 1.73 0.99 1.52 0.73 1.49 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 39 28 26 23 33 

 Food service and hospitality s.e. ‡ 2.61 0.00 1.92 2.43 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 6 12 8 8 12 

 Health care s.e. 3.06 2.40 ‡ 2.65 12.53 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 15 14 13 21 49 

 Marketing s.e. 1.27 0.97 2.21 2.04 1.34 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 46 53 28 48 47 

 Materials production s.e. 2.17 1.74 4.64 3.55 2.65 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 45 32 25 35 

 Mechanics and repair s.e. 1.95 1.11 3.57 0.95 2.38 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 79 57 40 36 47 

 Other precision production s.e. ‡ 5.99 ‡ 4.66 16.27 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 11 10 4 3 6 

See notes at end of table.
Table B61.—Standard errors for table A34: Percentage of public high school graduates taking physics 

Table B59.—courses, by occupational concentration status and program area: Various years, 1982–98

Table B60.——Continued

1982 1990 1992 1994 1998

 Other technology s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 2 1 4 1 4 

 Personal and other services s.e. 1.48 1.11 0.00 1.15 5.71 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 33 32 29 24 21 

 Print production s.e. 2.91 2.85 3.33 2.84 3.84 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 52 45 47 39 52 

 Protective services s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 ‡ 1 1 2 

 Transportation s.e. ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 

weighted n (in 1,000s) 1 2 ‡ 2 2 

‡Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases.).

NOTE: Weighted n’s for nonconcentrators and concentrators may not sum to totals because of rounding. Details do not sum to

the concentrators total, because the table does not include mixed business, mixed precision production, mixed trade and 

industrial and mixed technology program areas, for which related academic coursework was not identified.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, High School and Beyond (HS&B) 

Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; National Education Longitudinal 

Study of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and High School Transcript 

Studies (HSTS), 1990, 1994, and 1998.
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
235 

Appendix C—Glossary 

Academic subjects: The high school academic curriculum is divided into the main subject areas 

listed below, corresponding to the 1998 revised Secondary School Taxonomy categories (Bradby 

and Hoachlander 1999). The examples given are not exhaustive of the courses included in each 

subject area. 

Mathematics: Includes courses in general mathematics, consumer mathematics, prealgebra, algebra 1, geometry, algebra 2 and 3, trigonometry, analytic geometry, mathematical analysis, pre-calculus, calculus, Advanced Placement (AP) calculus, International 

Baccalaureate (IB) mathematics, probability and statistics, unified mathematics (an integrated course sequence usually taught over 2 or 3 years), and occupationally related 

mathematics. 

Science: Includes courses in survey science, biological science (including biology and 

some specialized courses such as botany, zoology, and anatomy and physiology), chemistry, physics, earth science, physical science, and engineering. 

English: Includes survey courses (including language skills courses and English 9–12), as 

well as courses in literature, composition and writing, speech, and English as a Second 

Language. 

Social studies: Includes courses in U.S. history, world history, government and politics, 

economics, behavioral sciences (including psychology and sociology), geography, social 

studies, American studies, area studies, women’s studies, law, anthropology, and philosophy. 

Fine arts: Includes courses in visual arts, music, dance, and theater arts. 

Foreign (non-English) languages: Includes courses in Spanish, French, German, Latin, 

Italian, and other non-English languages and literatures. 

Advanced English: Includes honors-level English courses. 

Advanced mathematics: Includes coursework in algebra 3, trigonometry, analytical geometry, 

linear algebra, probability, statistics, pre-calculus, introduction to analysis, and calculus. 
Appendix C—Glossary 

236 

Advanced occupational concentrator: Graduate earning 3.0 or more credits in high school in 

one of the 10 broad occupational program areas listed in figure 3, with at least 1.0 credit in a second- or higher-level or cooperative education course in that program area. 

Advanced occupational concentrator with cooperative education: Graduate earning 3.0 or 

more credits in high school in one of the 10 broad occupational program areas listed in figure 3, 

with at least 1.0 cooperative education credit in that program area. 

Advanced science: Includes coursework in chemistry 1 and 2 and physics 1 and 2.

Carnegie unit: A standard of measurement used for secondary or high school education that represents the completion of a course that meets 1 period per day for 1 year. See credit. 

College-preparatory coursework: Public high school graduates were classified as completing 

college-preparatory coursework if they completed 4.0 credits in English; 3.0 credits in mathematics at the algebra 1 level or higher; 2.0 credits in biology, chemistry, and/or physics; 2.0 credits in 

social studies with at least 1.0 credit in U.S. or world history; and 2.0 credits in a single foreign 

(non-English) language during high school. 

Cooperative education: Programs that allow students to earn course credit for paid or unpaid 

employment that is related to a specific occupational program of study. In contrast, general work 

experience is not connected to a specific occupational program. 

Core academic standards: See New Basics core academic standards.

Core academic subjects: Includes mathematics, science, English, and social studies, as defined 

under academic subjects. 

Credit: Term used in place of a “Carnegie unit” to represent the completion of a course that 

meets 1 period per day for 1 year. See Carnegie unit. 

Curriculum types: At its most aggregated level, the 1998 revised Secondary School Taxonomy 

divides the high school curriculum into the following curricula (excluding special education): 

Academic: See academic subjects. 

Vocational/technical: See vocational/technical education. 

Enrichment/other: See enrichment/other. 
Appendix C—Glossary 

237 

Enrichment/other: Includes courses designed for students’ personal enrichment, including 

courses in general skills; health, physical, and recreation education; religion and theology; and 

military science. 

Family and consumer sciences education: Consists of courses intended to prepare students for 

roles outside the paid labor market, including home economics, child development, foods and 

nutrition, and clothing. Home economics-related courses that prepare students for the paid labor 

market are included under occupational education, in the child care and education, food service 

and hospitality, and personal and other services program areas. 

General labor market preparation: Consists of courses that teach general employment skills 

but do not have as their primary objective preparing students for paid employment in a specific 

field. These courses include typewriting, word processing, industrial arts, career exploration, 

general work experience, and technology education. 

General work experience: Programs that allow students to earn course credit for paid or unpaid 

employment. Unlike cooperative education, general work experience is not connected to a specific occupational program of study. 

New Basics core academic standards: In the 1983 publication A Nation at Risk, the National 

Commission on Excellence in Education recommended that all high school students take 4 years 

of English; 3 years each of mathematics, science, social studies; and one-half year of computer 

science. The “core academic standards” referred to in this report include the recommendations 

for English, mathematics, science, and social studies. 

Occupational concentrator: Graduate earning 3.0 or more credits in high school in one of the 

10 broad occupational program areas listed under occupational programs. In some cases, the 

report also examines trends in concentrating (earning 3.0 or more credits) in the 18 narrow occupational program areas listed under occupational programs. 

Occupational coursetaker: Graduate earning greater than 0.0 credits in occupational education 

in high school. 

Occupational education: Also called specific labor market preparation, consists of courses 

that teach skills and provide information required in a particular occupation or cluster of occupations. Courses are organized into 10 broad and 18 narrow occupational program areas. See occupational programs. 

Occupational home economics-related programs: Includes coursework in food service and 

hospitality, child care and education, and personal and other services. 
Appendix C—Glossary 

238 

Occupational investor: Graduate earning 3.0 or more credits in occupational education in high 

school, regardless of whether the graduate concentrates his or her occupational coursetaking in a 

single occupational program area. 

Occupational programs: The 1998 Secondary School Taxonomy organizes high school occupational programs into the following 10 broad and 18 narrow program areas. The examples given 

are not exhaustive of the courses offered in each area. See also figure 3. 

Agriculture (and renewable resources): Includes courses in agricultural mechanics, 

horticulture, animal sciences, and environmental management. 

Business: Includes the following two narrow program areas of business management and 

business services: 

Business management: Includes courses in business and management and banking and finance. 

Business services: Includes courses in bookkeeping, accounting, data entry, secretarial administration, and office procedures. 

Marketing: Includes courses related to the selling and distribution of goods and services, 

including distributive education, distribution and marketing, fashion merchandising, and 

entrepreneurship. 

Health care: Includes courses intended to prepare students for careers in the health professions, such as health occupations, dental assistant, medical laboratory technologies, 

and practical nursing. 

Protective services (and public services): Includes courses in criminal justice, fire protection, public administration, and social work. 

Trade and industry: Includes the following four narrow program areas of construction, 

mechanics and repair, precision production, and transportation: 

Construction: Includes coursework in electricity, masonry, carpentry, plumbing, 

and building construction. 

Mechanics and repair: Includes coursework in industrial mechanics, radio and 

TV repair, air conditioning and heating, power mechanics, auto mechanics, and 

aviation powerplant. 
Appendix C—Glossary 

239 

Precision production: Includes the following three narrow program areas of print 

production, materials production, and other precision production: 

Print production: Includes coursework in drafting, graphics, and printing. 

Materials production: Includes coursework in metals, plastics, and 

woodworking. 

Other precision production: Includes coursework in electronics, leatherwork, meatcutting, and commercial photography. 

Transportation: Includes coursework in aeronautics, aviation technology, marine 

mechanics, transportation technology, and vehicle and equipment operation. Also 

referred to as transportation and materials moving. 

Technology: Includes the following three narrow program areas of computer technology, 

communications technology, and other technology: 

Computer technology: Includes coursework in computer applications, computer 

programming, data processing, computer science and systems, and computer 

mathematics. 

Communications technology: Includes coursework in broadcast management, 

film making, and radio and television production. 

Other technology: Includes coursework in electronic technology, industrial production technology, chemical technology, and engineering technologies. 

Food service and hospitality: Includes coursework in food marketing/distribution, hospitality sales, culinary arts, and hotel management. 

Child care and education: Includes coursework in child care services, child development, education, and library science. 

Personal and other services: Includes coursework in cosmetology, building and grounds 

maintenance, clothing and textiles, housing and interior design, and home economics occupations. 

Specific labor market preparation: Also called occupational education, consists of courses 

that teach skills and provide information required in a particular occupation or cluster of occupa-
Appendix C—Glossary 

240 

tions. Courses are organized into 10 broad and 18 narrow occupational program areas. See occupational programs. 

Vocational/technical coursetaker: Graduate earning greater than 0.0 credits in vocational/technical education in high school. 

Vocational/technical education: Organized educational programs, services, and activities that 

are directly related to the preparation of individuals for paid or unpaid employment or for additional preparation for a career that requires other than a bachelor’s or an advanced degree. This 

publication refers to the following three types of vocational education at the high school level: 

family and consumer sciences education, general labor market preparation, and specific 

labor market preparation or “occupational education.” 

Vocational/technical investor: Graduate earning 3.0 or more credits in vocational/technical 

education in high school. 
241 

Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

Sources of Data 

The data for this report came from five surveys conducted by NCES between 1982 and 

1998. These surveys are the High School and Beyond (HS&B) Sophomore Cohort, First Followup Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1982; the National Education Longitudinal Study 

of 1988 (NELS:88), Second Follow-up Survey and High School Transcript Study, 1992; and the 

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) High School Transcript Studies (HSTS) of 

1990, 1994, and 1998. 

For all transcripts and samples used in this report, a course identification code number, 

based on the Classification of Secondary School Courses (CSSC), was assigned to each course 

taken by a student. The 1998 Revision of the Secondary School Taxonomy (Bradby and Hoachlander 1999) further classified these CSSC codes. This taxonomy served to standardize all transcript data included in the analysis. 

The analysis sample from each survey was restricted to a subset of students who were public high school graduates and who had a complete set of transcripts. A complete transcript was 

defined as one that recorded 16 or more total credits (Carnegie units), with a positive, non-zero 

number of credits completed in English. 

One additional step was taken to ensure that the analysis samples were comparable across 

the 5 trend years. This was necessary because the HS&B and NELS studies excluded students 

with the most severe disabilities, where it was determined by school staff that these students were 

unable to complete the lengthy student questionnaires that were a part of these longitudinal studies. In order to ensure comparability, graduates with special education diplomas were excluded 

from the HSTS samples. This procedure was first determined by Gifford et al. (1989) and then 

again by Tuma (1996) to produce comparable samples across HS&B, NELS, and HSTS. Thus, 

the samples used for this trend analysis were consistent with the population of public high graduates, including students with disabilities, who earned regular or honors diplomas in each of the 

study years. This restriction is consistent with NCES reports on high school vocational/technical 

coursetaking published over the last decade and is consistent with NCES procedures for transcript studies (Alt and Bradby 1999). 
Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

242 

In addition, there are some minor coding differences between NELS and the other transcript 

data that may affect the data for 1992. NCES plans to study this issue. The following section 

provides a brief description of each study. 

High School and Beyond 

The High School and Beyond (HS&B) longitudinal survey was first administered in 1980 

to a stratified, nationally representative sample of approximately 30,000 high school sophomores 

and 28,000 high school seniors from more than 1,000 high schools. Follow-up surveys were administered in 1982, 1984, 1986, and 1992. This report focused on the sophomore cohort from the 

First Follow-up Survey conducted in 1982. For purposes of this report, the analysis sample was 

limited to public high school students using the variable HSTYPE. This group was reduced further by including only high school graduates, defined by using a composite of graduation status 

variables RESNLEFT, FUSTTYPE, and SY12 from the Transcript, First Follow-up and Second 

Follow-up surveys, respectively. 

The First Follow-up and High School Transcript Study were used to examine coursetaking 

patterns. The analysis sample included 9,598 public high school students who graduated in 1982 

and had complete transcripts available. Standard errors were computed using the Taylor series 

approximation method. More information on the First Follow-up and Transcript data files can be 

found in High School and Beyond, 1980 Sophomore Cohort, First Follow-Up (1982), Data File 

User’s Manual (Jones et al. 1983) and High School and Beyond Transcripts Survey (1982), Data 

File User’s Manual (Jones et al. 1984). 

National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 

The National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) is another major longitudinal study sponsored by NCES. The Base Year Survey was administered to about 24,000 8thgraders in more than 1,000 schools with an 8th-grade class. The First, Second, Third, and Fourth 

Follow-ups revisited the same sample of students in 1990, 1992, 1994, and 2000, when most of 

the 1988 8th-graders were in the 10th grade, 12th grade, and then, 2 and 6 years after they graduated from high school. Unlike HS&B, for each in-school follow-up (i.e., 1990 and 1992), the 

student sample was “freshened” to obtain a representative, cross-sectional grade-cohort sample 

(i.e., 10th-graders in 1990 and 12th-graders in 1992). In addition, as a part of the Second Followup Survey, high school transcripts were collected for the members of the 12th-grade cohort in the 

fall of 1992. Transcript data were available for about 17,200 students. For purposes of this report, 

the analysis sample was limited to public high school students using G12CTRL2. This group was 

reduced further by including only high school graduates using the variable F2REASL. 
 Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

243 

The report used the Second Follow-up and High School Transcript Study to examine 

coursetaking patterns. The analysis sample included 11,788 public high school students who 

graduated in 1992 and had complete transcripts available. Standard errors were computed using 

the Taylor series approximation method. For more information on the Second Follow-up Survey 

of NELS:88, see Second Follow-up: Transcript Component Data File User’s Manual (Ingels et 

al. 1995).

NAEP High School Transcript Studies of 1990, 1994, and 1998 

This report used three NAEP transcript studies conducted in 1990, 1994, and 1998. The 

NAEP is a congressionally mandated assessment program conducted by the National Center for 

Education Statistics in the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. The 

overall goal of NAEP is to determine the nation’s progress in education. Conducted in association with NAEP, the High School Transcript Studies (HSTS) provided coursetaking and demographic information for a stratified, nationally representative sample of high school seniors. The 

1990 transcript file included the high school transcripts of 21,531 seniors from about 330 

schools, while the 1994 transcript file included the high school transcripts of 24,844 seniors from 

340 schools. The 1998 HSTS collected transcript data from 25,422 seniors in 264 high schools. 

Like HS&B and NELS:88, the availability of complete high school transcripts and students’ 

graduation status defined the NAEP student samples included in this report. To assure comparability with the samples from HS&B and NELS:88, only public high school seniors who graduated with a “regular” or “honors” diploma were included, using the variable EXSTAT. 

The final analysis samples were 16,507 for 1990; 23,706 for 1994; and 23,176 for 1998. 

Standard errors were computed using the jackknife replication method. For further information 

about NAEP High School Transcript Studies, see The 1994 High School Transcript Study Tabulations: Comparative Data on Credits Earned and Demographics for 1994, 1990, 1987, and 

1982 High School Graduates (Revised) (Legum et al. 1998), and The 1998 High School Transcript Study User’s Guide and Technical Report (Roey et al. 2001). 

Description of Academic Pipeline Measures 

In each data set described above, composite coursetaking measures in mathematics, science, and English were constructed based on the transcripts of public high school graduates collected as part of HS&B, NELS:88, and NAEP. These measures place students in different levels 
Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

244 

of an academic “pipeline.”85 The pipeline generally organizes courses in each subject based on 

the normal progression and difficulty of courses within that subject area. For example, in mathematics, algebra 1 is less difficult than and is traditionally taken before algebra 2; thus, algebra 1 

is placed lower in the pipeline hierarchy than is algebra 2. In addition, the pipeline classifies 

graduates by the highest level of courses completed in a subject area, not the highest level attempted. Thus, the pipeline for a subject can be used to assess the rigor and difficulty of courses 

that high school graduates have completed during high school. Graduates at the high end of a 

pipeline have completed more advanced coursework than graduates at a lower level of the pipeline. 

For purposes of this report, the original pipeline measures were condensed into fewer categories that were more relevant for an analysis of participation in vocational/technical education. 

The following section describes how the pipeline measures used in this report were constructed 

for mathematics, science, and English. For more information on the construction of the original 

pipeline measures, see Mathematics, Foreign Language, and Science Coursetaking and the 

NELS:88 Transcript Data (Burkam, Lee, and Smerdon 1997) and English Coursetaking and the 

NELS:88 Transcript Data (Burkam 1998). 

Mathematics Pipeline 

The original mathematics pipeline had eight levels: No mathematics, Nonacademic, Low 

academic, Middle academic I, Middle academic II, Advanced I, Advanced II, and Advanced III.

The condensed mathematics pipeline used in this report contained four categories: the first three 

levels were collapsed into “low mathematics” and the last three levels into “advanced mathematics.” The middle two levels were kept as originally defined. The types of coursework used to define the four condensed categories are described below. 

Low mathematics. Includes students who completed no mathematics; remedial-level 

mathematics; general, basic or consumer mathematics; technical or vocational mathematics; and 

low-level “academic” mathematics, such as pre-algebra, algebra 1 taught over the course of 2 

academic years, or informal geometry; and who completed no mathematics in higher pipeline 

categories. 

Lower-middle mathematics. Includes students who completed algebra 1; plane and/or 

solid geometry; or unified mathematics 1 and/or 2; but no higher mathematics. 

 

85Researchers at the University of Michigan using the NELS:88 transcript file first developed these pipeline measures (Burkam, 

Lee, and Smerdon 1997 and Burkam 1998). Following the concept and logic of these original measures, Pinkerton Computer 

Consultants created similar pipeline variables using the HS&B and NAEP data files. 
 Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

245 

Upper-middle mathematics. Includes students who completed algebra 2 or unified 

mathematics 3, but no higher mathematics. 

Advanced mathematics. Includes students who completed algebra 3; trigonometry; analytical geometry; linear algebra; probability; statistics; pre-calculus; introduction to analysis; or 

calculus. 

Science Pipeline 

Unlike mathematics and other subjects such as foreign languages, coursework in science 

does not follow a common or easily defined sequence. Depending on a school’s curriculum, students may be able to choose from several courses with minimal sequencing. Consequently, the 

method used to construct the original science pipeline differed from that of the mathematics pipeline. First, all science courses were placed in one of four groups based on subject matter: 1) life 

science (biology); 2) chemistry; 3) physics; and 4) all other physical sciences (for example, geology, earth science, and physical science). Second, a pipeline was constructed for each of these 

four groups. Third, the pipelines for chemistry, physics, and all other physical sciences were 

combined into a single pipeline. The result was a pipeline with seven levels: no science; primary 

physical science; secondary physical science; biology; chemistry I or physics I; chemistry I and 

physics I; and chemistry II or physics II. 

For purposes of this report, this science pipeline was condensed into three categories. The 

first three categories were collapsed into “low science” and the last three into “advanced science.” The middle biology category was kept as originally defined. The types of coursework used 

to define the three condensed categories are described below. 

Low science. Includes students who completed no science courses; remedial-level science; 

physical science; earth science; unified science; astronomy; geology; environmental science; 

oceanography; general physics; basic biology 1; or consumer or introductory chemistry; but no 

higher science. 

Biology. Includes students who completed at least one of the following courses: general biology 1; secondary life sciences (including ecology, zoology, marine biology, and human physiology); general or honors biology 2; or advanced biology, but no higher science. 

Advanced science. Includes students who completed one of the following combinations of 

chemistry and physics: chemistry 1 or physics 1; chemistry 1 and physics 1; or chemistry 2 or 

physics 2. 
Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

246 

English Pipeline 

English language and literature courses also do not fit neatly into an ordered hierarchical 

framework. While the mathematics curriculum adds more challenging content to the content 

studied earlier, the hierarchy in the English curriculum is different. In general, the English curriculum is stratified by the level of difficulty and intensity of work required within a specific content area rather than among different courses. Within each area (such as literature or 

composition), the courses can be classified according to three tracks: below-grade courses, atgrade courses, and above-grade or honors courses. The original English pipeline was constructed 

to reflect the proportion of coursework students completed in each track. For example, the lowest 

category in the original English pipeline included students who completed 75 percent or more of 

their English coursework in low-level courses (below grade), and the highest category included 

students who completed 75 percent or more of their English courses at the honors level. Hence, 

the English pipeline departed somewhat from the “pipeline” concept that was developed for 

mathematics and science. It reflected the quality (or rigor) of a student’s English coursetaking 

rather than the progression from low-level to more challenging coursework. Using the proportion 

of coursework students completed in different tracks, a student’s overall English coursetaking 

was classified into seven categories. 

For purposes of this report, the original English pipeline was condensed into three categories. The first three levels were collapsed into “low English” and the last three into “advanced 

English.” The middle category was defined as in the original pipeline, and was labeled “other 

English.” 

Low English. Includes students who completed at least some English coursework in lowlevel courses. 

Other English. Includes students who completed no honors and no low-level English 

coursework. 

Advanced English. Includes students who completed at least some English coursework in 

honors courses. 

Accuracy of Estimates 

The estimates in this report are derived from samples and are subject to two broad classes 

of error—nonsampling errors and sampling errors. Nonsampling errors occur not only in sample 

surveys but also in complete censuses of entire populations. Nonsampling errors can be attributed 

to a number of factors: inability to obtain complete information about all students in all institu-
 Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

247 

tions in the sample (some students or institutions refused to participate, or students participated 

but answered only certain items); ambiguous definitions; differences in interpreting questions; 

inability or unwillingness to give correct information; mistakes in recording or coding data; and 

other errors of collecting, processing, sampling, and imputing missing data. Although nonsampling errors due to questionnaire and item nonresponse can be reduced somewhat by adjusting 

sample weights and imputation procedures, correcting all the forms of nonsampling errors that 

may be operating, or gauging the effects of these errors, is usually difficult. 

Sampling errors occur because observations are made only on samples, not on entire populations. Surveys of population universes are not subject to sampling errors. Estimates based on a 

sample will differ somewhat from those that would have been obtained by a complete census of 

the relevant population using the same survey instruments, instructions, and procedures. The 

standard error is a measure of the variability due to sampling when estimating statistics. Standard 

errors can be used as a measure of the precision expected from a particular sample. If all possible 

samples were surveyed under similar conditions, intervals of 1.96 standard errors below to 1.96 

standard errors above a particular statistic would include the true population parameter being estimated in about 95 percent of the samples. In addition, the standard errors for two sample statistics can be used to determine the precision of the difference between the two statistics and thus to 

determine whether the sample difference is large enough so that it can be assumed to represent a 

difference in the population. 

Because HS&B, NELS:88, and NAEP data were collected using complex sampling designs, the sampling errors of the estimates from these surveys are typically larger than would be 

expected if the samples were simple random samples and the observations were independent and 

identically distributed random variables. Not taking the complex sample designs into account can 

lead to an underestimate of the sampling variance associated with an estimate. In order to generate accurate standard errors for the statistics reported in this study, the Taylor series approximation method and jackknife replication method were used. In particular, standard errors of 

estimates from the HS&B and NELS:88 data were computed using the Taylor series approximation and standard errors of estimates from the NAEP data were computed using the jackknife replication method. For more information about these methods, see Wolter (1985). 

Statistical Procedures 

The comparisons in the text have all been tested for statistical significance to ensure that 

differences are larger than those that might be expected due to sampling variance. Two types of 

statistical tests have been used and reported in the text. 
Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

248 

Testing the difference between two means or percentages. The Student’s t statistic was 

used to test the likelihood that the differences between two independent means or percentages 

were larger than would be expected due to sampling error. The Student’s t values can be computed for comparisons using the estimates in the report’s tables with the following formula: 

t = E1− E2

(se1)

2 + (se2 )2 (1) 

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding standard errors. This formula is valid only for independent estimates. When the estimates are not independent (for example, when comparing any estimates that are parts of a percentage 

distribution), a covariance term must be added to the denominator of the t-test formula. Because 

the actual covariances were not known, it was assumed that the estimates were perfectly negatively correlated. Consequently, 2*(se1*se2) was added within the square root of the denominator 

of the t-test formula for dependent estimates. 

Testing the difference between differences. Another statistical test used in this report assessed the difference between two difference estimates. For example, to test whether the difference between occupational concentrators and nonconcentrators in a specific year (e.g., 1982) 

differed significantly from the difference between these two groups in another year (e.g., 1998), a 

test of differences between differences was performed using the following formula: 

 t = {(E11-E21)-(E12-E22)} / sqrt{(se11

2

+se21

2

)+(se12

2

+se22

2

)} (2) 

where E11 and E21 are the estimates for the two comparison groups at time 1 (e.g., E11-E21 is the 

difference between concentrators and nonconcentrators in 1982), E12 and E22 are the estimates for 

the two comparison groups at time 2 (e.g., E12-E22 is the difference between concentrators and 

nonconcentrators in 1998), and se11, se21, se12, and se22 are their corresponding standard errors. 

Generally, whether a difference is considered statistically significant is determined by calculating a t value for the difference, and comparing this value to published tables of values at certain critical levels, called alpha levels. The alpha level is an a priori statement of the probability 

of inferring that a difference exists when, in fact, it does not. The alpha level used in this report 

is .05; differences discussed in the text have been tested and found significant at this level. Twotailed tests were performed. 

In order to make proper inferences and interpretations from the statistics, several points 

must be kept in mind. First, comparisons resulting in large t statistics may appear to merit special 

consideration. However, this is not always the case because the size of the t statistic depends not 
 Appendix D—Technical Notes and Methodology 

249 

only on the observed differences between the two estimates being compared but also on the standard error of the difference. Thus, a small difference between two groups with a much smaller 

standard error could result in a large t statistic, but this small difference is not necessarily noteworthy. 

Second, when multiple statistical comparisons are made, it becomes increasingly likely that 

a finding of a statistically significant difference is erroneous. Even when there is no difference 

for a particular comparison in the population, at an alpha level of .05, there is still a 5 percent 

chance of concluding that an observed t value representing one comparison in the sample is large 

enough to be statistically significant. As the number of comparisons increases, so does the risk of 

making such an error in inference. 

To guard against errors of inference based upon multiple comparisons, the Bonferroni procedure to correct significance tests for multiple contrasts was used, where appropriate, in this report. This method corrects the significance (or alpha) level for the total number of contrasts 

made with a particular classification variable. For each classification variable, there are K possible contrasts (or nonredundant pairwise comparisons), where K=(N*(N–1)/2) and N is the number of categories in the variable (e.g., because the English pipeline has 3 categories (N=3), there 

are (3*2)/2=3 possible comparisons among the categories). The Bonferroni procedure divides the 

alpha level for a single t test (for example, .05) by the number of possible pairwise comparisons 

in order to provide a new alpha level that adjusts for all possible multiple comparisons.