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Freedom Paper No. 5

By Celeste Colgan

Introduction

Variety in Higher Education Institutions

Administration of Higher Education: Typical American Structure

Coordinating and Evaluating Higher Education

Preserving Academic Freedom

Encouraging Student Participation

Building a Curriculum

Conclusion

Many Choices in One System: The University of Wisconsin

Liberal Arts Education: Mount Holyoke College

Financing Higher Education: Who Pays?

What Is Academic Tenure?

Hungarian Higher Education Reform Proposal

Financial Support for Students

Building Curriculum: A Democratic Process

Glossary

Organizations

Bibliography

About the Author

Introduction

To neglect an individual's education today is to condemn him or her to mediocrity tomorrow. So it is with

nations. Education is the cornerstone of a free society, the bedrock upon which a strong, healthy state is built

and sustained.

The demands of the modern era are being pushed at ever increasing speeds by extraordinary advances in

technology. Those societies which anticipate these advances and best prepare their children for the future are

likely to reap the most benefit from them. Those which do not, will not.

It was the third president of the United States, Thomas Jefferson, who said: "Enlighten the people generally

and tyranny and oppressions of both mind and body will vanish like evil spirits at the dawn of day."

Jefferson's may be a somewhat idealized view of the matter, but the connection between education,

democracy, and economic opportunity is vital to the well-being of any free society.

If there are no perfect democracies, there are successful ones, and useful lessons may be drawn from their

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experiences--including those in the field of education. The purpose of this paper is to point to specific

practices in the administration of higher education in the United States and other Western democracies that

may have applicability across national boundaries.

Ideally, an American university is a laboratory of democracy, in which teachers and students participate in a

free exchange of ideas drawn from an ever-expanding world of information. If students and teachers

sometimes fall short of the mark, the ideal is nonetheless important. An open dialogue is as fundamental to the

system of higher education in the United States as it is to the political system.

Naturally, there are many challenges to university life in the United States. First and foremost is finances. The

federal government contributes little to the country's universities and institutions of higher learning. While

this leaves them free to determine their own curriculum and policies, it nonetheless imposes substantial

financial demands on the institutions themselves.

There are other, related difficulties: maintaining high academic and research standards; ensuring the quality of

faculty appointments; assuring flexibility and rigor in a curriculum; maintaining political and intellectual

freedom; balancing a moral obligation to educating the poor and disadvantaged against the costs of financial

aid.

In the United States, it is not just the university administration which determines how these challenges are to

be met. Interested groups--faculty, students, alumni, professional associations, and employees--often influence

the discussion. These complementary--and sometimes competing-- voices help ensure that the process will

remain democratic, and in the end, enriching.

Variety in Higher Education Institutions

A characteristic of modern democracies is the freedom citizens have to select from a wide variety of goods

and services. Quality improves when competition is vigorous. The same principle of choice holds true with

institutions of higher learning; increasingly, it is being applied to primary and secondary schools as well.

Students in the United States have a larger number of colleges and universities to choose from than any other

country in the world. The existence of this number of choices directly benefits students, who can select--from

a vast array of sizes, programs, and locations--the colleges and universities which offer the best opportunities

to meet their academic and cultural goals.

The many choices available to students force schools to compete for qualified students. This leads some

schools toward specialization; for others, the competition obliges them to offer the widest possible selection

of courses. Schools which fail to meet student needs lose enrollment and can eventually be forced to close.

Those which offer the best choices and maintain the highest standards attract the most talented students.

There are approximately 600 public four-year colleges and universities in the United States. Over 1,550

colleges and universities are entirely private. (Although the two terms are often used interchangeably, a

college refers to an institution which offers students only one degree, typically, a bachelor's degree in liberal

arts or science. A university, on the other hand, can award more than one degree, and typically a number of

specialized graduate degrees as well.)

Public Higher Education. U.S. state colleges and universities are generally funded in part by the taxpayers

of an individual state. Student fees and tuition cover the remainder of the costs. These are public institutions;

by definition their primary purpose is to educate students who live within the borders of the state. Thus

students may transfer from one college to another within the state with little difficulty, provided they have the

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proper academic standing.

Out-of-state residents may be accepted to state schools, but in most instances they are required to pay higher

tuition costs.

State colleges and universities average one full-time teacher or research faculty for every 16.9 students. As of

the 1991-1992 school year, the average annual cost for a full-time student to attend a state school was about

$5,700, or about 15.5 percent of the average annual income per member of the labor force.

These public institutions vary greatly in size and enrollment. There are small-to-medium size four-year

colleges, ranging from 500 to 2,500 students; comprehensive state universities, with about 10,000 students;

and large multipurpose universities, where more than 20,000 students are enrolled.

U.S. Private Higher Education. While some private colleges may also receive support from state

legislatures, most of their revenues come from student tuition, private donations, foundation or corporate

funds, endowment revenues, and federal grants.

By and large, private colleges and universities have more full-time faculty and researchers per student than

state institutions, approximately one for every 12.8. This is in large measure attributable to the higher tuition

costs and larger endowments found at many private colleges.

In 1991-92, the average annual cost per full-time student at a private university was about $14,350, or

approximately 39 percent of the annual income of an average member of the labor force.

While the size of private institutions varies as much as that of public institutions, two-thirds of them have

enrollments of under 2,500 students.

Another distinguishing characteristic of private colleges is their diversity. Many were established for specific

religious or cultural missions. In many ways, these schools reflect the diversity of the United States and the

freedom of individual groups to pursue religious and academic experiences of their own choosing.

In the past, virtually every religious denomination in the United States had at least one college or university

affiliated with it. While many of these ties remain, in general, they are much looser than in the past, and the

students they attract come from widely diverse backgrounds.

A similar phenomenon is taking place in colleges and universities that were originally all-male or all-female.

Over the past two generations, many men's and women's institutions with long traditions have opened up their

doors to students of the opposite sex. This move corresponds to a general evolution in U.S. views on the

subject of co-education and, furthermore, has enabled many colleges with flagging enrollments to add

substantially to their numbers.

In general, small private colleges and universities strive to create an atmosphere of community and learning,

to define a clear mission and identity for themselves, and to ensure that their curriculum and programs reflect

this special tradition. Many of these smaller institutions focus specifically on undergraduate education.

Quality of instruction is their lifeblood and highly regarded professors are often the subject of vigorous

competition by rival institutions.

Admission Standards. Nothing defines an institution of higher learning more than the quality of its student

body. Naturally, in a country like the United States where competition is the norm, and there are many schools

to choose from, universities go to considerable lengths to attract the most talented and promising students they

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can. Others seek students with more specifically defined skills or interests, whether in science, the arts, or

athletics.

This same competitiveness and specialization defines the process of admissions in most of the country's

respected colleges and universities. Small religious colleges, for example, may emphasize the spiritual goals

of their incoming students as a part of admission consideration. Private colleges of all kinds tend to be highly

selective; that is, they scrutinize the academic preparation of the applicant, along with scores on national tests,

performance in secondary school, and the nature of their extracurricular activities.

With some notable exceptions, comprehensive state colleges and large public research universities generally

have somewhat lower standards of admissions. Generally, they will accept anyone who has earned a high

school diploma in their states. They offer a range of flexible undergraduate programs, stressing professional

training, technology, engineering, agriculture, and physical sciences. Typically, they offer hundreds of courses

to fulfill graduation requirements.

Administration of Higher Education: Typical American Structure

The President. The most visible administrator in American higher education is the college president, or

chancellor, who is the chief executive officer of the institution. His primary responsibility is the smooth

functioning and financial management of what are generally multimillion-dollar institutions.

The power and prestige accorded to a college president is a uniquely American tradition. As the university is

often the largest employer in a city, a local college president is one of the most visible members of the

community. He or she thus plays an important role in projecting the image of the university academically as

well as economically.

Hired by a board of trustees after an often arduous national competition, presidents generally come to their

positions from other institutions where they have served in a similar capacity or in another high-level

administrative position. A university vice president in the state of Alabama, for example, may become

president of an institution in North Carolina. Presidents must bring to the institution a track record, or at least

the potential, for raising funds; they must bring evidence of decisive leadership, strong moral character, and

commanding communication skills. To sustain respect from the faculty, the president should also have

acquired some renown as a scholar. The president exercises power mostly through influence and persuasion.

Almost all decisions that the president makes are backed by a series of recommendations and broad

consensus-building efforts by senior administrators.

Board of Trustees. The men and women who make up the board of trustees are often alumni of the institution

who have gained distinction in their professional life or individuals of prominence within the local

community. Trustees decide on policy as it affects the institution as a whole. They guide investment strategies;

they approve budgets to implement the policy; and they often decide on key personnel appointments. In the

best of institutions, the president works closely with the trustees, soliciting their advice on programs and

enlisting their efforts to raise funds.

The average number of trustees for a private institution is 30. When their terms expire, replacements are

generally selected by the sitting members. Many times, a special interest group will have an important voice,

or even selecting authority; for example, the alumni association may be in charge of selecting one or two seats

on the board.

In public colleges and universities, boards of trustees average about 11 members and are most often appointed

by the state governor and confirmed by the legislature. In some states, however, trustees are elected. In either

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case they serve for prescribed terms and come from different geographic areas of the state. They are usually

business executives or professionals, having gained success in corporations, small business, law, or medicine,

for example. Their careers equip them to steer the institution toward financial stability and continuing

professional integrity.

Senior Administrators. The operations and programs of the institution are managed on a day-to-day basis by

a senior administration team including, for example, academic, financial, and foundation vice presidents,

sometimes called provosts, who are responsible for education programs, budgets, and fundraising,

respectively.

The next level of administrators is the deans who manage the affairs of smaller units of the institution, such as

the colleges within the university or discrete administrative functions, such as the dean of the college of

commerce or liberal arts, or the dean of admissions.

Senior administrators often meet as a group to ensure consistency in policy matters and to advise the

president. Should a dispute among students escalate beyond ordinary procedures, for example, the president

would assemble senior administrators to advise a course of action that would best safeguard the integrity of

the institution.

Department Chairman. Academic departments are run by chairmen, sometimes called department heads,

who usually teach a course or two in addition to their administrative duties, and who report to the dean of

their college. For example, the college of engineering, governed by the dean of engineering, is likely to have

departments of civil, electrical, mechanical, and/or chemical engineering. Often the title of chairman rotates

among faculty members every three years.

Typically, the chairman of an academic department monitors the curriculum, coordinates teaching

assignments for the professors in his or her department, and carries out a host of administrative duties in

addition to teaching. He or she also convenes the department faculty to decide on routine matters of

department procedures and policy, and serves as a kind of informal judge in matters of dispute within the

department. From among the department faculty, subcommittees are often appointed to search for new faculty

and to make recommendations regarding promotion and tenure.

Faculty. A college or university's faculty has the largest role in deciding who will teach at the institution and

who will be made permanent among their number. Tenure, the guarantee of permanent position, is accorded

on the strength of a professor's teaching and the merit of his or her scholarship. Typically, tenure is

recommended for a professor who has been teaching full-time with distinction for seven years and who has

published a book or several significant articles. The department tenure committee, selected from among

tenured faculty members, evaluates the professor's work and makes its recommendation to the

institution-wide tenure committee, which makes the final decision. If the professor is not granted tenure, he or

she will likely move to another institution.

Faculty divide their intellectual energies between teaching and research. In research-intensive universities,

according to one recent survey, 29 percent of the faculty devote more than 20 hours per week to research. In a

teaching institution, such as a small liberal arts college, only two percent of the faculty spend over 20 hours

per week in research. Conversely, 81 percent of the faculty in a liberal arts college spend from five to 20 hours

per week teaching classes; whereas at a research university only 63 percent of the faculty are in the classroom

for that much time.

The faculty exercise a good deal of control over the curriculum and are, naturally, the main contact between

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the students and the permanent staff of the university itself. Faculty can also influence the senior

administration through their participation in the faculty senate. This body concerns itself with salaries and

benefits, budget, and institutional policy, and is the most important body to address academic standards. To

the faculty senate will go motions to reform curriculum, to raise admission requirements, or to impose

graduate requirements. In matters of institutional policy, such as student living arrangements, the faculty

senate votes on resolutions intended to advise the president and trustees.

Coordinating and Evaluating Higher Education

For most democratic countries, the task of coordinating and evaluating higher education is a function of a

central authority--a ministry of education, or a committee of provincial ministries. In the highly decentralized

and independent system existing in the United States, however, this is accomplished by the states themselves

and a few private nationwide educational organizations.

State coordinating boards, often called boards of regents or commissions of higher education, are appointed

by the governor in most states; in some others they are elected. These boards oversee the distribution of

education resources to the public colleges and universities of the state, so that costly programs, such as

veterinary medicine or metallurgical engineering, are not duplicated in several institutions. They decide which

institutions should award doctoral degrees and which should only award master's and bachelor's degrees. And

they see that all geographic areas of the state have reasonable access to general higher education.

The state of Colorado, for example, has a Commission on Higher Education consisting of nine members,

appointed by the governor with the consent of the Colorado Senate. The Commission members meet monthly,

are paid a modest fee, serve four-year terms, and together reflect a geographic and political balance. The

state's General Assembly appropriates the money to fund higher education and allocates it directly to the

governing boards of the state's 12 public colleges and universities. The Commission on Higher Education,

however, in consultation with the 12 boards of trustees, recommends the level of funding to the General

Assembly and establishes a formula for distributing it to the different institutions.

Other Geographic Coordination. Regional coordination among private colleges is another matter. Because

private institutions are not accountable to the state for their general operation, they are not obligated to

coordinate with other schools. However, in order to avoid having to compete unnecessarily with nearby

colleges, private colleges often coordinate their curricula and programs by means of alliances with

neighboring institutions, both public and private.

In central Massachusetts, for example, Amherst, Mount Holyoke, the University of Massachusetts at Amherst,

Smith, and Hampshire, have established a cooperative arrangement among themselves. All five offer courses

for the benefit of any student enrolled in any of the institutions. The responsibility for the courses to earn a

degree in Asian studies, for example, including the study of Japanese and Chinese languages, rests mainly

with Mount Holyoke College, a private college, while the courses in legal studies are offered at the University

of Massachusetts at Amherst, a public institution.

Accrediting Systems. Institutions of higher education in the United States are evaluated by a private,

nationwide accrediting system. Accreditation is thus a prerequisite for the establishment and credibility of any

institution. Receiving it signifies that a university or college curriculum is of university-level caliber, has

sufficient teachers and the necessary library, laboratories, and student facilities to maintain that level of

instruction. Being accredited means that the degrees the institution awards will be recognized across the

country.

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The loss of accreditation has serious financial implications for any college or university. Not only does it

mean the certain loss of student enrollment, but the loss of federal grants and loans as well. Some curriculum

grants offered by the federal government and private foundations, moreover, are available only to accredited

institutions.

U.S. Regional Accrediting Agencies. All U.S. higher education institutions, both public and private, fall

within the purview of six regional accrediting bodies. For example, the 550 institutions of higher education in

New York, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and the District of Columbia look to the Middle

States Association of Colleges and Schools for accreditation. After establishing guidelines by consensus

among the member institutions, each regional body goes about confirming that members meet agreed-upon

standards of quality.

No institution is permanently accredited, but must seek re-accreditation periodically. A candidate for

accreditation or re-accreditation submits a report on itself to the accrediting body. Outside committees made

up of volunteers from other institutions review the report and comment on how well the institution is meeting

its self-described short-term and long-term goals, as well as how closely it is adhering to its statement of

mission. Finally a team of outside professors and administrators visits the institution to inspect the physical

plant and to conduct interviews with the faculty, staff, students, and administrators. The reaction to the

institution's self-study as well as the evaluation made by the visiting team become the accrediting body's

report back to the institution. The entire process is designed to encourage continuous self-assessment, and to

provide an assessment of the educational effectiveness of the institution. The evaluators who volunteer to

provide the peer review of an institution's success generally agree that there are many ways of achieving

goals. The accrediting process is not designed to assure uniformity of means; rather, the intent is to assure that

standards of quality have been met.

Accreditation of Disciplines. In addition to regional accreditation, there is also national, subject-based

accreditation. Many individual programs within colleges and universities are accredited by those professional

associations to which the department belongs. The American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business, for

example, accredits the business administration programs at the University of Virginia; whereas the Southern

Association of Colleges and Schools--the regional accrediting body--accredits the University of Virginia

itself.

Professional discipline associations review programs by looking at the quality of course offerings and the

amount and substance of material that must be mastered by degree candidates. Music departments, for

example, seek accreditation from the National Association of Schools of Music. Colleges of education are

accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. By clearly defining the separate

requirements for a degree in music performance and for a degree in music education, or by explicitly

determining how much classroom practice is appropriate for teachers, the professions themselves monitor the

quality of preparation given to the men and women who will be joining their ranks.

Preserving Academic Freedom

Higher education is arguably one of democracy's most critical institutions. Just as an independent judiciary

and independent news media serve to preserve basic freedoms, higher education, when it sustains academic

freedom, serves the free marketplace of ideas and fosters the intellectual climate necessary for a dynamic and

responsive society.

Open discussion between teachers and students is one of the defining characteristics of American education.

Maintaining a climate where this can be done, however, is one of the continuing challenges facing higher

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education. Indeed, free speech has become one of the most divisive issues on American campuses over the

past few years, as views on race, ethnicity, politics, and sexuality have often pitted decency and respectful

discourse on one hand against the constitutional right of free speech on the other. Often these battles are

carried on in student-run newspapers and magazines, where even the university president is not free from

attack.

Despite their diversity, American universities are not free from misperception and bias. No human institution

is. Hiring, promotion, and tenure decisions are often highly contentious, as ethnic, racial, and gender issues

receive a good deal of consideration in addition to academic achievement.

The primary responsibility of the faculty in a democratic society is to follow the academic ethic: that is, to

teach with an obligation to the truth and to base this truth on evidence, rational argument, and disinterested

investigation. Edward Shils, writing for the International Council on the Future of the University,

characterizes the obligations of the college professor: "By developing in his students the capacity to

participate in the great traditions of science and scholarship, in however minor a way, by getting them to

understand, at the very least, the modes of imagination and the characteristic forms of criticism which they

exhibit, a teacher demonstrates his reverence for truth and fulfills the consequential moral obligations, in a

manner specific to him as a university teacher. His obligations in relation to truth automatically generate a

sense of obligation to his students. If he leaves them with the impression that everything is settled and that

there are no longer any but minor problems, or with the belief that when problems were settled in the past it

was always either by deduction from dogma or by the application of established methods, then he has failed

not only in respect to those students as individuals but in respect to the maintenance of the spirit of inquiry,

which is at once rational and reflective."

Encouraging Student Participation

Students often have a voice in university affairs. Student leaders are sometimes appointed to search

committees for senior administrators, and on occasion are asked to sit in on departmental meetings. Most

public institutions provide for student senates. Historically, these organizations have been primarily concerned

with budgeting and planning student activities. But in some instances students can play a more decisive role,

through participation in task forces that study issues and make recommendations.

Student Orientation. Most U.S. colleges and universities make a strong effort to help incoming students feel

at home in their new surroundings. Orientation of first-year students is an important part of this process.

In a typical U.S. college orientation program, beginning students are invited to the campus a week before the

returning students arrive. The new students often meet in an informal setting to get acquainted with one

another and to learn about the practical aspects of student life, such as course selection, dormitory living,

social activities, and tips about managing time. They become acquainted with the credit-hour system and are

advised about the amount of outside class work that is expected of them.

Building a Curriculum

The American university curriculum has been under revision for most of the 20th century as ever more

complex and conflicting demands have been placed on higher education. Most U.S. institutions continue to

struggle with the matter. One of the most recent, although certainly not the last, of these debates has centered

around the question of "Eurocentrism" and the extent to which U.S. curriculum should be based on the

classics of European literature, history, and culture.

Answers to such questions are often provided by committees comprised of faculty and administrators. Almost

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by necessity, each institution arrives at a combination of courses which makes sense for its own student body

and the degree of specialization it wishes to maintain.

College curricula can be shaped in many ways. For example, the University of North Texas in Denton has

chosen to cluster required courses around the ideas of reason, virtue, and civility. Some curricula are governed

by sequential logic, such as the 10 courses at New York s Brooklyn College that set down a solid foundation

in art, ideas, science, and the values of Western and other civilizations.

Edwin Delatter, Dean and Olin Scholar in Applied Ethics at Boston University, in his study of the intellectual

and moral purpose of American education, describes the difficulty that attends curriculum deliberations.

Those involved in the process of defining a university's curriculum, he writes, should: "resolve to exclude the

shallow and trivial, and to include only that which requires intellectual rigor, truthfulness, accuracy, and

independence of mind. These standards are not entirely sufficient either, though, because disagreement will

persist over what they mean. After all, scholarship that some consider trivial is deemed important by others.

But if administrators and faculty remember that the time available for undergraduate study is limited and

precious, they may at least exclude some nonessentials. And if they truly want students to become adults who

can exercise judgment in a condition of liberty, they can avoid propaganda."

Conclusion

As countries reform and restructure their institutions of higher education, they must wrestle with many

difficult issues: Who should have access to higher education? What should be taught? How should it be taught

and learned? Who should govern, who should evaluate? And, last of all, how will the institution be financed?

In reflecting on these, educators may wish to keep in mind some basic principles:

Higher education should be highly accessible.

The curriculum should be regularly renewed and reviewed in a fair and open process.

An educational mission should be carefully articulated.

Academic ethics should be stressed so as to assure freedom to teach and freedom to learn.

Governance should be shared among all who participate in the academic enterprise.

Finally, the test of the quality of teaching and research is the long-term benefit of higher education to

the country.

Successful administration of higher education is based on a commitment to a process rather than on the

private ambitions of individuals. Ideally, issues do not get lost in the institution's own bureaucracy. Like

democracy itself, people who are affected by the decisions should have a voice in the decision-making. The

administrators, faculty, and students in these institutions should all think of the institution as a community

built on mutual benefit.

MANY CHOICES IN ONE SYSTEM: THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN

The state of Wisconsin, with a population of over 5 million, consolidated its many public colleges and

universities into one centrally administered system in 1971. This consolidation enhanced its efficiency while

preserving a wide range of choices.

The University of Wisconsin system includes 13 University of Wisconsin Centers, located throughout the

state, which offer the first two years of general education. Students may then transfer to other campuses to

complete their degrees.

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In addition, the Wisconsin system includes 13 comprehensive universities. Two of these four-year institutions,

at Madison and Milwaukee, are research-intensive. Between them they have several postgraduate professional

schools and award a variety of doctorate degrees. In its 26 separate locations, the system serves over 160,000

students.

The flagship institution is the University of Wisconsin at Madison. About 43,000 students are enrolled,

one-third of whom are pursuing graduate degrees. The campus at Milwaukee has over 25,000 students, and

the rest of the campuses have from 3,000 to 10,000 students.

There are many choices for study. Over 300 undergraduate majors (fields of academic concentration) are

offered, and each campus specializes to some extent in related majors. The River Falls campus, for example,

offers most of its majors in agricultural and natural resources. The university at Stout, on the other hand, is

strong in business and technology.

Besides choosing a major at the end of their first or second year, students also choose a "submajor" (often

called a minor at other universities) that complements the main area of study--a major in international

relations and a submajor in a foreign language, for example, or a major in computer technology with a

submajor in business administration.

In a system this large and varied, many combinations are possible, depending on a student's interests and

career expectations.

Average class sizes and the makeup of the student body vary from campus to campus. At the Madison campus

many classes enroll over 100 students, while on smaller campuses classes average 22 to 27 students. The

campuses in large cities, such as Milwaukee, serve a significant number of part-time students who have

full-time jobs and are over 24 years of age. At Madison the greatest number of students are of the traditional

age (18 to 22 years old) and attend the university full time.

Students may move freely among the campuses within the system, since all credits are recognized by all other

locations. Because living at home can save money, some may elect to commute to a University of Wisconsin

Center for the first two years. Students also have the flexibility of changing their declared major or moving to

a different campus if they choose.

In addition to the University of Wisconsin system, the state offers 16 technical colleges to provide vocational

training opportunities. These offer over 300 programs that take from one to three years to complete and

include such choices as nursing, food-service management, automotive technology, and computer

programming. Many of the credits earned in the Wisconsin Technical College system are accepted by the

University of Wisconsin system, so a student can enroll in either system and eventually receive both technical

training and an academic degree.

LIBERAL ARTS EDUCATION: MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE

Founded in 1837 when higher education for women was still rare in the United States, Mount Holyoke

College is a private women's liberal arts institution located in central Massachusetts. About 2,000

undergraduate women are enrolled.

The school is an example of an institution administered by collegium, a self-governing community that makes

decisions by consensus. According to its Faculty Study Committee on the Principles of the College, Mount

Holyoke is dedicated to "freedom, learning, and community of purpose." It seeks to realize these principles in

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its curriculum, in its faculty and students, and in the continuing involvement of alumnae in its activities and

governance.

Mount Holyoke offers one undergraduate degree, the bachelor of arts, and 28 majors. To earn a degree,

students must complete 128 credits (most semester-long courses are either 3 or 4 credit hours), demonstrating

both breadth and depth of learning. One-fourth of the credits are to be taken from seven designated areas:

language, third-world culture, physical education, two areas of humanities, laboratory science and

mathematics, and social science. Another third of the courses are in the student's declared major and minor.

Although almost a third of the students who attend Mount Holyoke come from the surrounding area, the rest

of the students come from all over the United States and from 57 different countries. International students

make up 11 percent of the enrollment. Members of American minority groups make up 15 percent of the

student body as a result of Mount Holyoke's active recruitment. All students live and eat together in the

college's residence halls, each of which houses between 65 and 135 first-year through fourth-year students.

Admission to Mount Holyoke is based on the applicant's high school records, achievement on national tests,

recommendations from high school teachers, and, importantly, a personal interview conducted on campus or

with an alumna close to where the applicant lives. Getting admitted is highly competitive. Over 1,800 women

applied for the 465 first-year slots in 1991-1992.

Entrance into Mount Holyoke does not depend on ability to pay. Tuition, room and board, and other fees at

Mount Holyoke were $23,900 for the 1992-1993 school year. Sixty-five percent of the students, however,

receive some form of financial aid.

The faculty-student ratio is 1:9, allowing for a much higher degree of personal interaction. And students

participate along with faculty in governance. For example, students sit on the Academic Policy Committee,

the Board of Admissions, and the Academic Deans' Advisory Committee.

The Mount Holyoke Alumnae Association launched a $125-million fundraising campaign in 1986 and

achieved its goal in five years. The purpose of the campaign was to increase the support for student financial

aid and faculty salaries, to improve campus facilities, and to support academic and technological research.

Almost 25,000 alumnae in 92 alumnae clubs throughout the world continue an active association with the

college. Of the 21 members of the board of trustees, six are voted in directly by the alumnae.

In a close, focused atmosphere, the women who make up the student body of Mount Holyoke are part of a

community of learners and teachers. They are exposed to cultures and perspectives from around the world and

across time. And after graduating, they can continue to participate actively as alumnae in supporting this

liberal arts college community.

FINANCING HIGHER EDUCATION: WHO PAYS?

Questions about financing higher education continue to cause wide debate within the United States and other

democratic societies. Higher education broadly benefits society as a whole. Should its expenses therefore be

paid from general government funds? What about the students themselves? They stand to benefit from going

to college. Should students and their families pay for what they receive? And what about the commercial and

service interests that are served by higher education? Should universities receive substantial, secure funding

from the private sector?

Each country answers these questions differently. Japan, for instance, tends to think that students and their

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families should bear the major part of the burden of supporting higher education, and the burden is heavy

indeed. According to one estimate, education expenditures account for over a third of total family

expenditures for the years children are in school. Not surprisingly, higher education in Japan is substantially

dependent upon student tuition; it makes up 67 percent of the revenues for the private universities, which

enroll about 85 percent of college students.

In contrast, the Scandinavian countries, Germany, and France, charge students either nothing or a small

service fee. These nations have decided that the substantial burden for the costs of higher education is the

responsibility of the public. Ninety percent of the revenues of French universities, for example, are from

general public funds.

Other countries mix public and private funding. The universities in Spain, for example, receive 80 percent of

their income from the public, but the balance comes from the students themselves. All mixes are possible.

German institutions in the mid-1980s derived about 70 percent of their revenues from the government. The

remaining 30 percent came from industry, commerce, and medical services--and none from students.

Australia is an interesting case. With higher education dependent on the government for about 90 percent of

its revenues, Australian policy-makers are considering ways to diversify its funding. The government is

looking at challenge grants (a grant given on the condition that a matching amount be secured from another

source), offsets provided to industry for contributions of funds and equipment, and collective bargaining to

include support for higher education in wage negotiations.

The United States has a complex structure for financing education. Everyone who benefits from higher

education pays for a portion of it. Tuition accounts for 20 percent of the revenues of public institutions and 55

percent of the revenues of private institutions. Government funds in several forms--outright grants,

programmatic grants, or contracts for services--account for 70 percent of public institution revenue and 20

percent of private. The private sector--through unrestricted gifts, grants for projects, and endowment

contributions--provides 10 percent of the funds for public institutions and 25 percent for private ones.

WHAT IS ACADEMIC TENURE?

The peculiarly American tradition of connecting academic tenure to academic freedom was codified in 1915

by the newly formed American Association of University Professors (AAUP), an independent professional

association. Responding to threats and dismissals of professors whose transgressions were their opinions

rather than their classroom or research competence, AAUP issued a public declaration of principles. It insisted

that the freedom to teach and research, the freedom to pursue the truth, was necessarily linked with protection

from economic coercion.

In subsequent conference reports these guarantees have been restated. For example, AAUP s "1940 Statement

of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure" defines academic tenure this way: "After the expiration of a

probationary period, teachers or investigators should have permanent or continuous tenure, and their service

should be terminated only for adequate cause...."

In exchange for this protection, so it is assumed, professors will engage in the disinterested pursuit of truth.

The 1940 document goes on to clarify: "Tenure is a means to certain ends--specifically, (1) freedom of

teaching and research and of extramural activities and (2) a sufficient degree of economic security to make the

profession attractive to men and women of ability. Freedom and economic security--hence, tenure--are

indispensable to the success of an institution in fulfilling its obligations to its students and to society."

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Although academic tenure has widespread support among American professors, and qualified support from

administrators and Americans in general, it is the focus of considerable debate. On the one hand, tenure is

consistent with American principles of fairness and justice. It embodies general Jeffersonian ideas about the

importance of knowledge and pursuit of truth to the future of a free society. On the other hand, lifetime

guarantee of employment is an anathema to a society that values merit and excellence and that functions in a

competitive market economy.

Those who argue that tenure is relevant and necessary say that the tradition bolsters personal courage and

relieves teachers from ideological conformity. Academic tenure, it is argued, serves to support professional

autonomy whereby senior professors monitor quality within their ranks.

According to AAUP recommendations, a new faculty member must be granted tenure after a seven-year

probationary period or move on. It is a system of "up or out." Tenure committees usually comprise a selection

of tenured faculty within a department who make recommendations to the entire department's tenured faculty.

Once the department agrees to grant tenure, it is customary for a university-wide tenure committee to review

the recommendation. If the recommendation is affirmed, the appropriate dean takes that recommendation to

the president who confers tenure.

Tenure in and of itself does not mean promotion, nor increase in salary. These matters are handled in a

separate process. Tenure is sought for its own end, and as such it becomes a paramount rite of passage, a mark

of approval from respected colleagues. It has a certain mystique about it that is a mainstay of American

academic culture.

Those who argue that tenure has become irrelevant and unnecessary cite differences between American

universities at the beginning of the century and now. Due process has become commonly assured to all

professionals. The fact of tenure does not in itself guarantee economic stability, it is argued, so much as the

professional's seniority and reputation for academic achievement.

Protection from ideological pressure from the outside, furthermore, has been displaced by pressure from

inside the institution to conform to certain ideological tenets. Senior, tenured professors may sift challenges to

their political views from among those applying for tenure. Tenure may guard against meddlesome trustees

and legislators, but it does not against pressures to conform inside the institution.

The argument against tenure, furthermore, points out that security can not only breed incompetence and sloth,

but also encourage insurgency. In other bureaucratic institutions, job security is offered in exchange for the

relinquishing of certain freedoms. The difference is instructive. In the civil service and in the military,

employees are sensitive to the fact that they are a part of the public face of their institutions. Their private

opinions remain private. In the university, by contrast, opinions are freely expressed and made public. The

university remains neutral, above the fray, but the individuals who make up the institution freely expound on

public policy without peril.

Most historians of American higher education agree that academic tenure has served to encourage the

development of an independent, autonomous higher education that is at once a source of support for the

betterment of society and a source of commentary on the society. Whether the custom continues to enjoy the

general support of the academic community in the future, however, remains to be seen.

HUNGARIAN HIGHER EDUCATION REFORM PROPOSAL

In October 1992, the Hungarian Parliament's Subcommittee on Higher Education requested that the Citizens

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Democracy Corps (CDC) review a draft education bill under consideration by the Parliament. Derek Bok, on

the executive committee of CDC and president emeritus of Harvard University, traveled to Hungary together

with a few colleagues to meet with members of the subcommittee, officials from the Ministry of Education

and other ministries, representatives of the Academy of Sciences and the Conference of University Rectors,

professors, students, and others.

Bok and his colleagues asked the Hungarian legislation a number of questions which might serve as guides

for countries contemplating the reform of their higher education system. Among them were the following:

How well does the draft law succeed in securing appropriate autonomy or freedom from inappropriate

state interference?

Does the draft law adequately safeguard the legitimate rights and freedoms of teachers and students?

Does the draft law adequately encourage consolidation to achieve economies of scale and other

measures by universities to achieve more efficient use of resources?

Does the draft legislation adequately encourage a proper reintegration of teaching and research in the

nation's universities?

How well will the draft law serve to meet the manpower needs of the nation?

How well does the draft law provide for the long-term financing of higher education?

Does the draft law provide adequate encouragement, incentives, and safeguards to promote education

and research of high quality?

Does the draft law provide adequately for the reintegration of Hungarian higher education with foreign

universities and other institutions of higher learning and with the international scholarly community?

FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR STUDENTS

As countries make fundamental decisions regarding support for their institutions of higher education, they

must also deal with a separate and equally important financing issue: how to pay for the living expenses of

university students. In a democratic society purporting to provide equal opportunity, taking care of deserving

students is an important task. To assure that higher education is extended not just to affluent families, even

those countries that charge no tuition have a plan of some kind for supporting students.

Most countries have worked out a combination of outright grants on the basis of need and loans that are

repaid after graduation.

Great Britain links subsistence grants to its mandatory grants given to all students. The subsistence part of the

grant is given only to needy students, awarded by local education authorities and funded by the central

government. Full-time students in a degree-level program receive a mandatory grant with an appropriate

subsistence portion. This student-grant plan, although modified recently with repayable loans, has a 30-year

tradition.

A similar grant program was available to German students until the mid-1970s, when the method of providing

subsistence support shifted to loans. To qualify for a loan in Germany, students must show not only need but

also satisfactory academic progress. The loans are interest-free and must be paid back within 20 years. Only

about 30 percent of German students, however, are eligible for support.

Repayment after graduation does not always work as planned. In the United States high default rates on

student loans are being addressed with an integrity plan that, among other measures, links student-loan status

to income tax returns. If a student loan has lapsed into default, the person's federal income tax is increased

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proportionately. Australia has given consideration to a plan to collect some of the costs of education through a

retrospective taxation system. When a former student's taxable income reaches the national average, he or she

pays the government a percentage of the costs incurred while studying.

Besides offering grants and loans, countries attempt to support students through a variety of plans. Subsidies

and indirect aid provide support in some countries. Greece and Portugal, for example, subsidize meals and

housing and provide books and services at minimal cost to students.

Some universities in the United States offer work-study programs. Most schools hire financial-aid students to

perform jobs on campus that pay for part of that aid: shelving books in libraries, cleaning laboratories, raking

leaves on the grounds.

In the United States student financial aid is administered by the institution itself. Every college and university,

private as well as public, has its own financial aid office. After a student has been admitted, he or she can be

considered for a combination of grants, loans, and, if appropriate, work-study.

If the applicant is dependent upon his or her family, the amount of aid awarded is the difference between what

the institution determines the family can pay and what it costs to attend. For example, a student going to the

University of Wisconsin at Eau Claire in 1992-1993 was expected to spend $7,400 in nine months. If the

office of financial aid determined that the family could contribute $3,000, the student would have been

offered a package that totaled $4,400, perhaps $2,400 in a loan and $2,000 in a grant.

In order for the officials to determine the level of family contribution, applicants must submit family financial

data, including parents' income and assets, the number of children attending college, and the number of other

dependents in the household. The financial aid office uses standardized guidelines to calculate the amount that

they judge the family can afford to contribute to the applicant's college expenses.

Naturally students shop for the best financial-aid package, just as the universities offer the most favorable aid

packages to attract the most promising students.

BUILDING CURRICULUM: A DEMOCRATIC PROCESS

Curriculum, the collection or body of courses offered at a college or university, is often under pressure from a

variety of sources. The interests of faculty, employers, students, administrators, benefactors, and social

philosophers seldom coincide completely.

In large public research-intensive universities, curriculum must accommodate the needs of a highly diverse

student body. For colleges having a student body of 10,000 or fewer, however, and for private research

universities (Stanford, Chicago, Princeton, and Yale, for example) a focused or specialized curriculum

becomes a way of defining the character of the institution.

Sometimes institutions are forced to rethink their curriculum in order to survive. New York's Brooklyn

College, for example, responded to the threat of severe funding cuts, and the possibility of closing, by

restructuring its curriculum and streamlining course requirements. It consolidated seven separate schools into

one coordinated general education curriculum that improved its reputation, reduced the numbers of faculty

and administrators, and made better use of facilities.

Another institution that restructured its curriculum is Fairleigh Dickinson University in Rutherford, New

Jersey. As revised, its undergraduate curriculum is based on a sequence of four courses:

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"Perspectives on the Individual" focuses on the singular consciousness grappling with forces in the

universe--readings include Elie Wiesel, Night; Pico della Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man;

The Autobiography of Malcolm X; and Plato, Apology and Crito.

1. 

"The American Experience: The Quest for Freedom" stresses the founding documents and later

commentary on the identity of the American people--readings include the Declaration of Independence;

the Bill of Rights; The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin; Sojourner Truth, Ain't I a Woman; and

Upton Sinclair, The Jungle.

2. 

"Cross-Cultural Perspectives" explores the shape of several countries' traditions--readings include The

Bhagavad-Gita; Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart; Gregorio Lopez y Fuentes, El Indio; and Oscar

Lewis, Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the Culture of Poverty.

3. 

"Global Issues" focuses on social and political issues that cross borders and continents--readings

include John Hersey, Hiroshima; Martin Buber, I and Thou; Albert Camus, The Plague; and Aids and

the Third World.

4. 

In its guidebook for curriculum planners, Core Curriculum and Cultural Pluralism, the Association of

American Colleges stresses that the "process is as important as the product; a good planning and

implementation process improves chances for success." Strong programs are constantly being evaluated and

refined: "They are vital, alive and ever-changing as a result of constant review and improvement." By

cooperative teamwork an institution can be in a state of continuous improvement.

Building curriculum, then, is an activity that draws together the faculty and administrators in a process at the

heart of deliberative democracy.

GLOSSARY

academic freedom -- freedom granted to faculty members to teach their subjects as they know them and to

pursue areas of research unrestrained by politics or ideology. It is also the freedom of students to learn and to

pursue the truth without being pressured to subscribe to political or ideological perspectives.

accreditation -- process by which an educational institution is given nationally recognized credentials.

bachelor's degree -- baccalaureate degree, usually earned after four years of higher education. It is designated

by general area of study: for example, bachelor of arts, bachelor of science.

campus -- geographic area of a college or university including its buildings and grounds. A typical American

college campus has administration buildings, classroom buildings, dormitories, gymnasiums, a student center

with meeting rooms, a sports stadium and other playing fields, and open places with benches and walking

paths.

credit hour -- a unit of academic work. A typical American full-time student completes 16 or more credit

hours each semester in order to earn a bachelor's degree that requires 128 successfully completed credit hours.

dean -- administrative official in charge of a school, faculty, or unit of operations; for example, dean of the

nursing school, dean of the graduate school, dean of admissions. Deans may also represent special concerns,

for example, dean of women, dean of academic affairs.

liberal arts college -- an institution that offers a general four-year curriculum, including such subjects as

literature, philosophy, language, history, mathematics, and physical science, leading to a bachelor's degree. It

is to be distinguished from an institution that offers professional or technical training.

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tenure -- guarantee of a lifetime position as a faculty member of the granting institution. In conjunction with

academic freedom, tenure theoretically ensures that higher education is a free marketplace of ideas.

tuition -- money paid for instruction. Sometimes fees are added to tuition as a separate cost, for example,

laboratory fees and fees for admission to athletic events.

university -- a collection of several undergraduate colleges in combination with graduate and professional

schools, granting a variety of degrees. A university may comprise a college of agriculture, college of

engineering, college of liberal arts, college of commerce, as well as a medical school and a law school.

ORGANIZATIONS

American Academy for Liberal Education

1015 18th Street, N.W., Suite 204

Washington, D.C. 20036

An institutional membership organization dedicated to ensuring high standards for liberal education among its

member colleges. One standard, for example, is "Liberty of thought and freedom of speech are supported and

enforced, bounded only by such rules of civility and order as to facilitate intellectual inquiry and the search

for truth."

Association of American Colleges

1818 R Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20009

Having a membership of over 600 public colleges and universities, AAC seeks to enhance liberal education

and secure its integration with professional programs and courses of study.

Citizens Democracy Corps

2021 K Street, N.W., Suite 215

Washington, D.C. 20006

A nonprofit organization that encourages and assists American private corporations and foundations in their

efforts to promote free-market economies and democratic institutions in Central and Eastern Europe and the

Commonwealth of Independent States.

Council of Colleges of Arts and Sciences

The Ohio State University

186 University Hall

230 North Oval Mall

Columbus, Ohio 43210-1319

A national association of baccalaureate degree-granting colleges and universities whose purpose is to sustain

the arts and sciences as a leading influence in American higher education.

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The Foundation Center

1) 1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 938

Washington, D.C. 20036

2) 79 Fifth Avenue

New York, New York 10003

A nonprofit organization maintaining four libraries in the United States for the public. It serves as a

clearinghouse for information on grant-making activities; for example, it houses directories of international

foundations and grant-makers.

Independent Sector

1828 L Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20036

A coalition of 830 corporations, foundations, and voluntary organizations having national interests in and

impact on philanthropy. As part of its research function, it tracks the role and function of nonprofit

organizations worldwide.

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

1)2, rue Andre-Pascal

75775 Paris CEDEX 16

France

2)OECD Publications and Information Center

2001 L Street, N.W., Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

OECD aims to promote economic and social welfare of its 24-member countries by coordinating policies. It

publishes the journal of the Programme on Institutional Management in Higher Education, Higher Education

Management, three times a year.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Altbach, Philip G. and Robert O. Berdahl, Eds. Higher Education in American Society. Rev. ed. Buffalo, New

York: Prometheus Books, 1981.

Barzun, Jacques. The American University: How It Runs, Where It Is Going. 2nd Edition. Chicago: University

of Chicago Press, 1993.

Ben-David, Joseph. Centers of Learning: Britain, France, Germany, United States. New Brunswick, New

Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1992.

Bok, Derek. Higher Learning. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1986.

Boyer, Ernest L. College: The Undergraduate Experience in America. New York: Harper & Row, 1987.

Boyer, Ernest L. and Arthur Levine. A Quest for Common Learning: The Aims of General Education.

Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1981.

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Cheney, Lynne V. 50 Hours: A Core Curriculum for College Students. Washington, D.C.: National

Endowment for the Humanities, 1989.

Delattre, Edwin J. Education and the Public Trust: The Imperative for Common Purposes. Washington, D.C.:

Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1988.

Eurich, Nell P. Systems of Higher Education in Twelve Countries: A Comparative View. New York: Praeger,

1981.

Financing Higher Education: Current Patterns. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development, 1990.

Flexner, Abraham. Universities: American, English, German. New York: Oxford University Press, 1930.

General Education in a Free Society: Report of the Harvard Committee. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard

University Press, 1945.

Integrity in the College Curriculum: A Report to the Academic Community. Washington, D.C.: Association of

American Colleges, 1985.

Kells, H. R. Self-Study Processes: A Guide for Postsecondary Institutions. Second edition. New York:

Macmillan Publishing Company, 1983.

Levine, Arthur. Handbook on Undergraduate Curriculum. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1978.

Levine, Arthur, Ed. Higher Learning in America, 1980-2000. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press,

1993.

McCarthy, Kathleen D., Virginia A. Hodgkinson, Russy D. Sumariwalla and Associates. The Nonprofit Sector

in the Global Community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1992.

Oakley, Francis. Community of Learning: The American College and the Liberal Arts Tradition. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1992.

Pelikan, Jaroslav. The Idea of the University: A Reexamination. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.

Riesman, David. On Higher Education: The Academic Enterprise in an Era of Rising Student Consumerism.

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1981.

Rudolph, Frederick. The American College and University: A History. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia

Press, 1990.

Rudolph, Frederick. Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1977.

Schmitz, Betty. Core Curriculum and Cultural Pluralism: A Guide for Campus Planners. Washington, D.C.:

Association of American Colleges, 1992.

Shils, Edward. The Academic Ethic: The Report of a Study Group of the International Council on the Future

of the University. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.

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Smith, Page. Killing the Spirit: Higher Education in America. New York: Penguin Books, 1990.

Tough Choices: A Guide to Administrative Cost Management in Colleges and Universities. Washington, D.C.:

U.S. Department of Education, 1990.

About the Author: Celeste Colgan is a fellow at the Hudson Institute based in Indianapolis, Indiana. She

received her bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Wyoming and her Ph.D. from the

University of Maryland. She served in federal government from 1986 to 1993, her last post as deputy

chairman of the National Endowment for the Humanities.

_________________________

Project management and editing by the Institute for Contemporary Studies (ICS)

Vice President -- Kenneth L. Adelman

Editor -- Heidi Fritschel

The mission of ICS is to promote the self-governing and entrepreneurial way of life. Through its imprint, ICS

Press, ICS publishes a wide range of books on public issues. For a catalog or more information, write: ICS,

243 Kearny Street, San Francisco, California 94102 USA.

Freedom Papers Series:

Editor: Howard Cincotta

Associate Editor: Rick Marshall

Design: Barbara Morgan

July 1994

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