Handbook for Public

Playground Safety

U.S. Consumer Product

Safety Commission

Washington, DC 20207 Pub. No. 325
U.S. CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20207 

Dear Colleague:

We’re pleased to provide you with the latest edition of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety

Commission’s (CPSC) Handbook for Public Playground Safety.

CPSC created its playground safety guidelines as a detailed working blueprint to help local

communities, schools, day care centers, corporations, and other groups build safe playgrounds. This

Handbook includes technical safety guidelines for designing, constructing, operating, and maintaining

public playgrounds. To highlight some of the most important safety issues for parents and community

groups, we’ve developed a “Public Playground Safety Checklist,” which can be found on the inside

back cover.

Playgrounds are a fundamental part of the childhood experience. They should be safe havens

for children. All of us have memories of playing on playgrounds in our neighborhood park and at

recess in the schoolyard.

Unfortunately, more than 200,000 children are treated in U.S. hospital emergency rooms each

year for injuries associated with playground equipment. Most injuries occur when children fall from

the equipment onto the ground.

Many of these injuries can be prevented. To address the issue of falls, these guidelines

emphasize the importance of protective surfacing around playground equipment. In this revised

edition, we’ve added information about using shredded tires as a protective surfacing material. Other

noteworthy changes here include revised or additional information about maximum equipment height,

maintenance, lead paint on playground equipment, use zones, and clothing entanglement on equipment.

For a more complete list, check Appendix E.

Since 1981, CPSC has issued its Handbook for Public Playground Safety. Communities all

across the country build their playgrounds to these safety specifications. We’ve included here

everything we know today about making playgrounds as safe as possible. As new information

becomes available, we are committed to getting it to you as soon as possible.

All of our children deserve a safe place to play. Let us work together to make that happen.

Sincerely,

Ann Brown

Chairman
Handbook for Playground Safety

Table of Contents

Page No.

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. Playground Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

3. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4. Surfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

5. Use Zones for Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

6. Layout and Design of Playgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

7. Installation & Maintenance of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

8. Materials of Manufacture & Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

9. General Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

10. Stairways, Ladders and Handrails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

11. Platforms, Guardrails and Protective Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

12. Major Types of Playground Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

12.1 Climbing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

12.2 Merry-Go-Rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

12.3 Seesaws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

12.4 Slides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

12.5 Spring Rockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

12.6 Swings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

12.7 Trampolines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

13. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

APPENDICES

Appendix A — Suggested General Maintenance Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Appendix B — Entrapment Recommendations and Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Appendix C — Characteristics of Surfacing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Appendix D — Description of Loose-Fill Surfacing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Appendix E — Noteworthy Revisions to the 1997 Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Public Playground Safety Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inside Back Cover
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope

This handbook presents safety information for public

playground equipment in the form of guidelines.

Publication of the handbook is expected to promote

greater safety awareness among those who purchase,

install, and maintain public playground equipment. 

“Public” playground equipment refers to equipment for

use in the play areas of parks, schools, child care facilities, institutions, multiple family dwellings, restaurants,

resorts and recreational developments, and other areas

of public use. The recommendations in this handbook

address the typical user ages 2 through 12 years. 

The handbook is intended for use by parks and 

recreation personnel, school officials, equipment 

purchasers and installers, and any other members of 

the general public concerned with public playground

safety such as parents and school groups. 

The guidelines are not intended for amusement park

equipment, equipment normally intended for sports use,

soft contained play equipment, equipment found in

water play facilities, or home playground equipment. 

The guidelines also do not apply to fitness trail exercise

equipment intended for adult use, provided that these

are not located on or adjacent to a children’s playground. Equipment components intended solely for the

disabled and modified to accommodate such users are

also not covered by these guidelines. 

Because many factors may affect playground safety, the

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC)

believes that guidelines, rather than a mandatory rule,

are appropriate. The guidelines are not a mandatory

standard. Therefore, the Commission is not endorsing

these guidelines as the sole method to minimize injuries

associated with playground equipment. The Commission

believes, however, that the recommendations in this

handbook will contribute to greater equipment safety. 

1.2 Background

These guidelines were first published in a two-volume

Handbook for Public Playground Safety in 1981. These

were superseded by a single-volume handbook in 

1991 which was republished in 1994 with some minor

revisions. The safety guidelines in the 1991 handbook

were based on recommendations provided to the CPSC

by COMSIS Corporation in a March 1990, report [1]*.

Falls and head injuries are the leading hazards associated with public playground equipment. 

This handbook contains revisions that are based in 

part on a staff review of recent changes to a voluntary

standard for public playground equipment, ASTM F1487

that was first published in 1993 and revised in 1995 [2].

ASTM F1487 contains more technical requirements than

this handbook and is primarily intended for use by

equipment manufacturers, architects, designers, and any

others requiring more technical information. A voluntary

standard for home playground equipment, ASTM F1148

[3], contains a number of provisions that are similar to

the recommendations in this handbook. 

The revisions also are based on inputs from interested

parties received during and after a playground safety

roundtable meeting held at CPSC in October 1996, and

letters received in response to a May 1997 request for

comments on the proposed revisions. 

Two significant changes in this revision are the criteria

used to evaluate certain protrusions to minimize 

clothing entanglement and a reduction in the use zone

(formerly fall zone) around certain pieces of playground

equipment. Other changes to the 1994 version of the 

handbook clarify certain recommendations and reduce

conflicts with the ASTM voluntary standard. Noteworthy

changes are listed in Appendix E.

1.3 General Discussion

The safety of each individual piece of playground 

equipment as well as the layout of the entire play area

should be considered when evaluating a playground for

safety. The installation and maintenance of protective

surfacing under and around all equipment is crucial.

Because all playgrounds present some challenge and

because children can be expected to use equipment in

unintended and unanticipated ways, adult supervision 

is recommended. The handbook provides some 

guidance on supervisory practices that adults should 

follow. Appropriate equipment design, layout, and

Handbook for Playground Safety

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*Numbers in brackets indicate references that are listed at the end of this

handbook.
maintenance, as discussed in this handbook, are essential for increasing public playground safety.

A playground should allow children to develop progressively and test their skills by providing a series of graduated challenges. The challenges presented should be

appropriate for age-related abilities and should be ones

that children can perceive and choose to undertake.

Preschool and school-age children differ dramatically,

not only in physical size and ability, but also in their 

cognitive and social skills. Therefore, age-appropriate

playground designs should accommodate these differences with regard to the type, scale, and the layout of

equipment. Recommendations throughout this handbook address the different needs of preschool and

school-age children; “preschool-age” refers to children 

2 through 5 years, and “school-age” refers to children 5

through 12 years. The overlap between these groups is

realistic in terms of playground equipment use, and 

provides for a margin of safety.

The recommendations in this handbook are based on

the assumption that the minimum user will be a 2-yearold child. Therefore, playground equipment fabricated in

accordance with these recommendations may not be

appropriate for children under 2 years of age.

Playground designers, installers and operators should be

aware that The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

(ADA) prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability

in employment, public services, transportation, public

accommodations (including many services operated by

private entities) and telecommunications. Title III of the

legislation includes within the definition of public accommodation: “a park, zoo, amusement park, or other place

of recreation; a school, including nursery schools; a day

care center; and a gymnasium, health spa, or other

places of exercise or recreation.” Specific Federal

requirements for accessibility to playgrounds by the 

disabled are expected to be published in the future.

These requirements could necessitate changes to existing playgrounds as well as when new playgrounds are

planned or existing playgrounds refurbished.

2. PLAYGROUND INJURIES

The U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has long

recognized the potential hazards that exist with the use

of public playground equipment. A Commission study

[4] of playground equipment-related injuries treated in

U.S. hospital emergency rooms indicated that the 

majority resulted from falls from equipment. These were 

primarily falls to the ground surface below the equipment rather than falls from one part of the equipment 

to another part.

Other hazard patterns involved impact by swings and

other moving equipment, colliding with stationary 

equipment, and contact with such hazards as protrusions, pinch points, sharp edges, hot surfaces, and 

playground debris. Fatal injuries reported to the

Commission involved falls, entanglement of clothing or

other items on equipment such as slides, entanglement

in ropes tied to or caught on equipment, head entrapment in openings, impact from equipment tipover or

structural failure, and impact by moving swings.

The recommendations in this handbook have been

developed to address the hazards that resulted in these

playground-related injuries and deaths. The recommendations include those which address the potential for

falls from and impact with equipment, the need for protective surfacing under and around equipment, openings

with the potential for head entrapment, the scale of

equipment and other design features related to user age,

layout of equipment on a playground, installation and

maintenance procedures, and general hazards presented

by protrusions, sharp edges, and pinch points.

3. DEFINITIONS

Composite Structure — Two or more play structures,

attached or directly adjacent, to create one integral unit

that provides more than one play activity (e.g., combination climber, slide, and horizontal ladder).

Critical Height — The fall height below which a lifethreatening head injury would not be expected to occur.

Designated Play Surface — Any elevated surface for

standing, walking, sitting or climbing, or a flat surface

greater than 2 inches wide having an angle less than 30°

from horizontal. 

Embankment Slide — A slide that follows the contour of

the ground and at no point is the bottom of the chute

greater than 12 inches above the surrounding ground.

Handbook for Playground Safety

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Entrapment — Any condition that impedes withdrawal of

a body or body part that has penetrated an opening.

Footing — A means for anchoring playground equipment

to the ground.

Guardrail — An enclosing device around an elevated

platform that is intended to prevent inadvertent falls

from the platform.

Infill — Material(s) used in a protective barrier to prevent

a user from passing through the barrier e.g., vertical

bars, lattice, solid panel, etc.

Loose-Fill Surfacing Material — A material used for 

protective surfacing in the use zone that consists of

loose particles such as sand, gravel, wood fibers, or

shredded rubber.

Non-Rigid Component — A component of playground

equipment that significantly deforms or deflects during

the normal use of the equipment.

Preschool-Age Children — Children 2 years of age

through 5 years of age.

Protective Barrier — An enclosing device around an 

elevated platform that is intended to prevent both 

inadvertent and deliberate attempts to pass through 

the barrier.

Protective Surfacing — Surfacing material in the use

zone that conforms to the recommendations in Section

4.5 of this handbook.

Roller Slide — A slide that has a chute consisting of a

series of individual rollers over which the user travels.

School-Age Children — Children 5 years of age through

12 years of age.

Slide Chute — The inclined sliding surface of a slide. 

Stationary play equipment — Any play structure which

does not move or does not have components that move

during its intended use.

Tot Swing — A swing generally appropriate for children

under 4 years of age that provides support on all sides

of the occupant.

Tube Slide — A slide in which the chute consists of a

totally enclosed tube or tunnel.

Unitary Surfacing Material — A manufactured material

used for protective surfacing in the use zone that may 

be rubber tiles, mats or a combination of rubber-like

materials held in place by a binder that may be poured

in place at the playground site and cures to form a 

unitary shock absorbing surface. 

Upper Body Equipment — Equipment designed to 

support a child by the hands only (e.g., horizontal ladder,

overhead swinging rings).

Use Zone — The surface under and around a piece of

equipment onto which a child falling from or exiting

from the equipment would be expected to land.

4. SURFACING

The surface under and around playground equipment

can be a major factor in determining the injurycausing potential of a fall. A fall onto a shock absorbing

surface is less likely to cause a serious injury than a 

fall onto a hard surface. Because head impact injuries

from a fall have the potential for being life threatening,

the more shock absorbing a surface can be made, the

greater is the likelihood of reducing severe injuries.

However, it should be recognized that some injuries 

from falls will occur no matter what playground 

surfacing material is used.

4.1 Determining Shock Absorbency of a

Surfacing Material

No data are available to predict precisely the threshold

tolerance of the human head to an impact injury.

However, biomedical researchers have established two

methods that may be used to determine when such an

injury may be life threatening.

One method holds that if the peak deceleration of the

head during impact does not exceed 200 times the

acceleration due to gravity (200 G’s), a life threatening

head injury is not likely to occur. The second method

holds that both the deceleration of the head during

impact and the time duration over which the head 

decelerates to a halt are significant in assessing head

impact injury. This latter method uses a mathematical

Handbook for Playground Safety

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formula to derive a value known as Head Injury 

Criteria (HIC) [5]. Head impact injuries are not believed

to be life threatening if the HIC does not exceed a 

value of 1,000.

The most widely used test method for evaluating the

shock absorbing properties of a playground surfacing

material is to drop an instrumented metal headform onto

a sample of the material and record the acceleration/

time pulse during the impact. Test methods are

described in an ASTM Standard Specification for Impact

Attenuation of Surface Systems Under and Around

Playground Equipment, ASTM F1292 [6].

4.2 Critical Height 

This is a term originating from Europe and is used to

describe the shock absorbing performance of a surfacing

material. As used in this publication, the Critical Height

for a surfacing material is defined as the maximum

height from which the instrumented metal headform,

upon impact, yields both a peak deceleration of no more

than 200 G’s and a HIC of no more than 1,000 when 

tested in accordance with the procedure described in

ASTM F1292. Therefore, the Critical Height of a surfacing

material can be considered as an approximation of the

fall height below which a life-threatening head injury

would not be expected to occur.

The surfacing material used under and around a particular piece of playground equipment should have a Critical

Height value of at least the height of the highest designated play surface on the equipment. This height is the

fall height for the equipment. 

4.3 Fall Heights for Equipment

Recommendations for the fall heights for various pieces

of playground equipment are as follows.

Climbers and Horizontal Ladders — The fall height is the

maximum height of the structure.

Elevated Platforms Including Slide Platforms — The fall

height is the height of the platform.

Merry-Go-Rounds — The fall height is the height above

the ground of any part at the perimeter on which a child

may sit or stand.

See-Saws — The fall height is the maximum height 

attainable by any part of the see-saw.

Spring Rockers — The fall height is the maximum height

above the ground of the seat or designated play surface.

Swings — Since children may fall from a swing seat at its

maximum attainable angle (assumed to be 90° from the

“at rest” position), the fall height of a swing structure is

the height of the pivot point where the swing’s suspending elements connect to the supporting structure.

4.4 Equipment to Which Protective Surfacing

Recommendations Do Not Apply

Equipment that requires a child to be standing or sitting

at ground level during play is not expected to follow the

recommendations for resilient surfacing. Examples of

such equipment are sand boxes, activity walls, play 

houses or any other equipment that has no elevated 

designated playing surface. 

4.5 Acceptability of Various Surfacing

Materials

Hard surfacing materials, such as asphalt or concrete, 

are unsuitable for use under and around playground

equipment of any height unless they are required as a

base for a shock absorbing unitary material such as a

rubber mat. Earth surfaces such as soils and hard packed

dirt are also not recommended because they have poor

shock absorbing properties. Similarly, grass and turf are

not recommended because wear and environmental 

conditions can reduce their effectiveness in absorbing

shock during a fall. 

Acceptable playground surfacing materials are available

in two basic types, unitary or loose-fill.

Unitary Materials — are generally rubber mats or a 

combination of rubber-like materials held in place by a

binder that may be poured in place at the playground

site and then cured to form a unitary shock absorbing

surface. Unitary materials are available from a number 

of different manufacturers, many of whom have a range

of materials with differing shock absorbing properties.

Persons wishing to install a unitary material as a playground surface should request test data from the 

manufacturer identifying the Critical Height of the

desired material. In addition, site requirements should

Handbook for Playground Safety

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be obtained from the manufacturer because, as stated

above, some unitary materials require installation over a

hard surface while some do not.

Loose-Fill Materials — can also have acceptable shock

absorbing properties when installed and maintained at a

sufficient depth. These materials include, but are not

confined to, sand, gravel, shredded wood products and

shredded tires. Loose-fill materials should not be

installed over hard surfaces such as asphalt or concrete.

Because loose-fill materials are generally sold for 

purposes other than playground surfacing, many vendors

are unlikely to be able to provide information on the

materials’ shock absorbing performance. For that reason,

CPSC has conducted tests to determine the relative

shock absorbing properties of some loose-fill materials

commonly used as surfaces under and around playground equipment. Appendix D contains a description

of the tested materials. The tests were conducted in

accordance with the procedure in the voluntary standard

for playground surfacing systems, ASTM F1292. Table 1,

above, lists the critical height (expressed in feet) for each

of eight materials when tested in an uncompressed state

at depths of 6, 9, and 12 inches. The table also reports

the critical height when a 9 inch depth of each material

was tested in a compressed state. 

Table 1 should be read as follows: If, for example, uncompressed wood chips is used at a minimum depth of 6

inches, the Critical Height is 7 feet. If 9 inches of uncompressed wood chips is used, the Critical height is 10 feet.

It should be noted that, for some materials, the Critical

Height decreases when the material is compressed.

The Critical Heights shown in the above table may be

used as a guide in selecting the type and depth of 

loose-fill materials that will provide the necessary safety

for equipment of various heights. There may be other

loose-fill materials such as bark nuggets that have shock

absorbing properties equivalent to those in the above

table. However, CPSC has not conducted any tests on

these materials.

The depth of any loose fill material could be reduced

during use resulting in different shock-absorbing 

Handbook for Playground Safety

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TABLE 1 — CRITICAL HEIGHTS (in feet) OF TESTED MATERIALS

MATERIAL UNCOMPRESSED DEPTH COMPRESSED DEPTH

6 inch 9 inch 12 inch 9 inch

Wood Chips* 7 10 11 10

Double Shredded Bark Mulch 6 10 11 7

Engineered Wood Fibers** 6 7 >12 6

Fine Sand 5 5 9 5

Coarse Sand 5 5 6 4

Fine Gravel 6 7 10 6

Medium Gravel 5 5 6 5

Shredded Tires*** 10-12 N/A N/A N/A

* This product was referred to as Wood Mulch in previous versions of this handbook. The term Wood Chips more accurately describes the

product. 

** This product was referred to as Uniform Wood Chips in previous versions of this handbook. In the playground industry, the product is more

commonly known as Engineered Wood Fibers.

*** This data is from tests conducted by independent testing laboratories on a 6 inch depth of uncompressed shredded tire samples produced

by four manufacturers. The tests reported critical heights which varied from 10 feet to greater than 12 feet. It is recommended that persons

seeking to install shredded tires as a protective surface request test data from the supplier showing the critical height of the material when

it was tested in accordance with ASTM F1292.
properties. For this reason, a margin of safety should be

considered in selecting a type and depth of material for

a specific use. When loose-fill materials are used, it is

recommended that there be a means of containment

around the perimeter of the use zone. Also, depending

on playground location, weather conditions and frequency of use, frequent maintenance may be necessary

to insure adequate depth and to loosen the materials

which may have become packed (see additional 

maintenance discussion in Appendix C).

Installers of playground equipment are encouraged to

attach markers to the equipment support posts that 

indicate the correct level of loose-fill protective surfacing

material under and around the equipment. Such markers

will assist maintenance workers in determining when

replenishment of the material is necessary.

4.6 Other Characteristics of Surfacing 

Materials

Selection of a surfacing material for a specific location

may be governed by the environmental conditions at

that location. Appendix C lists some characteristics of

surfacing materials that may influence the choice for a

particular playground.

5. USE ZONES FOR EQUIPMENT 

The use zone is an area under and around the equipment where protective surfacing is required. Other than

the equipment itself, the use zone should be free of

obstacles that children could run into or fall on top of

and thus be injured. 

5.1 Recommendations for Use Zones for

Different Types of Playground Equipment

5.1.1 Stationary Equipment (excluding slides)

The use zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet in all

directions from the perimeter of the equipment.

The use zones of two stationary pieces of playground

equipment that are positioned adjacent to one another

may overlap if the adjacent designated play surfaces of

each structure are no more than 30 inches above the

protective surface (i.e., they may be located a minimum

distance of 6 feet apart). If adjacent designated play 

surfaces on either structure exceed a height of 30 inches,

the minimum distance between the structures should be

9 feet.

5.1.2 Slides 

The use zone in front of the access and to the sides of 

a slide should extend a minimum of 6 feet from the

perimeter of the equipment. Note: This does not apply

to embankment slides. However, the following recommendation applies to all slides, including embankment

slides.

The use zone in front of the exit of a slide should extend

a minimum distance of H + 4 feet where H is the vertical

distance from the protective surface at the exit to the

highest point of the chute (see Figure 1). However, no

matter what the value of H is, the use zone should never

be less than 6 feet but does not need to be greater than

14 feet. The use zone should be measured from a point

on the slide chute where the slope is less than 5° from

the horizontal. If it cannot be determined where the

slope is less than 5° from the horizontal, the use zone

should be measured from the end of the chute.

The use zone in front of the exit of a slide should never

overlap the use zone of any other equipment. 

Handbook for Playground Safety

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H + 4 ft. 6 ft.

6 ft.

Min.

H

Denotes Use Zone with Protective Surfacing

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

Figure 1. Use Zone for Slides
5.1.3 Single-Axis Swings

Because children may deliberately attempt to exit from a

single-axis swing while it is in motion, the use zone in

front of and behind the swing should be greater than to

the sides of such a swing. It is recommended that the

use zone extend to the front and rear of a single-axis

swing a minimum distance of twice the height of the

pivot point above the surfacing material measured from

a point directly beneath the pivot on the supporting

structure (see Figure 2). The use zone to the sides of a

single-axis swing should follow the general recommendation and extend a minimum of 6 feet from the perimeter

of the swing structure in accordance with the general 

recommendation for use zones. This 6 foot zone may

overlap that of an adjacent swing structure.

The use zone to the front and rear of tot swings should

extend a minimum distance of twice the height of the

pivot point measured from a point directly beneath the

pivot to the lowest point on the occupant seating surface

when the swing is occupied.

The use zone to the front and rear of single-axis 

swings should never overlap the use zone of any other

equipment.

5.1.4 Multi-Axis Swings

The use zone should extend in any direction from a

point directly beneath the pivot point for a minimum 

distance of 6 feet + the length of the suspending 

members (see Figure 3). This use zone should never

overlap the use zone of any other equipment. In 

addition, the use zone should extend a minimum of 

6 feet from the perimeter of the supporting structure. 

This 6 foot zone may overlap that of an adjacent swing

structure or other playground equipment structure in

accordance with the recommendations in Section 5.1.1.

5.1.5 Merry-Go-Rounds

The use zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet

beyond the perimeter of the platform. This use zone

should never overlap the use zone of any other 

equipment.

5.1.6 Spring Rockers

The use zone should extend a minimum of 6 feet from

the “at rest” perimeter of the equipment. 

Handbook for Playground Safety

7

Denotes Use Zone with Protective Surfacing

2H

H

2H

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

6 ft.

Figure 2. Use Zone for Single-Axis Swings

Denotes Use Zone with Protective Surfacing

L

6 ft.

L+6 ft.

6 ft.

Figure 3. Use Zone for Multi-Axis Swings
5.1.7 Composite Play Structures

The above recommendations for individual pieces of

equipment should be used as a guide in establishing the

use zone around the perimeter of a composite play

structure. Note that in Sections 12.6.2 and 12.6.4 it 

is recommended that swings not be attached to a 

composite structure.

In playgrounds where occasional overcrowding is likely, 

a supplemental circulation area beyond the use zone is

recommended. Whether to provide such a supplemental

circulation area should be based on the professional

judgement of the playground designer and/or

owner/operator.

6. LAYOUT AND DESIGN OF PLAYGROUNDS

6.1 Choosing a Site 

When planning a new playground, it is important to 

consider hazards or obstacles to children traveling to or

from the playground. A barrier surrounding the playground is recommended if children may inadvertently

run into a street. Such a barrier should not prevent

observation by supervisors. If fences are used for such

barriers, it is recommended that they conform to 

applicable local building codes.

When selecting a site, consideration should be given to

slope and drainage, especially if loose-fill surfacing 

materials are going to be installed. While a gentle slope

may aid in drainage, steep slopes could result in loose

fill materials becoming washed away during periods of

heavy rain. Such sites may require re-grading. 

6.2 Locating Equipment 

The playground should be organized into different areas

to prevent injuries caused by conflicting activities and

children running between activities. Active, physical activities should be separate from more passive or quiet

activities. Areas for play equipment, open fields, and

sand boxes should be located in different sections of the

playground.

In addition, popular, heavy-use pieces of equipment or

activities should be dispersed to avoid crowding in any

one area. The layout of equipment and activity areas

should be without visual barriers so that there are clear

sight lines everywhere on the playground to facilitate

supervision.

Moving equipment, such as swings and merry-gorounds, should be located toward a corner, side or 

edge of the play area while ensuring that the use zones

around the equipment, as recommended in Section 5,

are maintained. Slide exits should be located in an

uncongested area of the playground. Use zones for 

moving equipment, such as swings and merry-go-rounds,

and at slide exits should not overlap the use zone of

other equipment, regardless of height.

Composite play structures have become increasingly

popular on public playgrounds. Care should be taken 

to ensure that the play and traffic patterns of children

using adjacent components on composite structures 

are complementary. 

6.3 Age Separation of Equipment 

It is recommended that for younger children, playgrounds have separate areas with appropriately sized

equipment and materials to serve their developmental

levels. The following items of playground equipment are

not recommended for preschool-age children (2 through

5 years):

• Chain or Cable Walks

• Free Standing Arch Climbers

• Free Standing Climbing Events with Flexible

Components

• Fulcrum Seesaws

• Log Rolls

• Long Spiral Slides (more than one turn — 360°)

• Overhead Rings

• Parallel Bars

• Swinging Gates

• Track Rides

• Vertical Sliding Poles

In this handbook, there are several specific recommendations for equipment designed for preschool-age 

children. These recommendations, together with 

references to the sections in which they are discussed,

are as follows:

• Rung Ladders, Stepladders, Stairways and Ramps

(Table 2)

Handbook for Playground Safety

8
• Handrail Height (10.3.1)

• Guardrails and Protective Barriers (11.3, 11.4, and 11.5)

• Stepped Platforms (11.7)

• Climbers (12.1.2)

• Horizontal Ladders and Overhead Rings (12.1.5)

• Merry-Go-Rounds (12.2)

• Spring Rockers (12.5)

• Single-Axis Swings (12.6.2)

• Tot Swings (12.6.3)

The intended user group should be obvious from the

design and scale of equipment. Some playgrounds, often

referred to as “tot lots,” are designed only for preschoolage children, so separation is not an issue.

In playgrounds intended to serve children of all ages 

the layout of pathways and the landscaping of the playground should show the distinct areas for the different

age groups. The areas should be separated at least by a

buffer zone, which could be an area with shrubs or

benches. Signs posted in the playground area can be

used to give some guidance to adults as to the age

appropriateness of the equipment.

6.4 Supervision

Playgrounds that are designed, installed and maintained

in accordance with safety guidelines and standards can

still present hazards to children in the absence of adequate supervision.

Depending on the location and nature of the playground,

the supervisors may be paid professionals (full-time 

park or school/child care facility staff), paid seasonal

workers (college or high school students), volunteers

(PTA members), or the parents of the children playing in

the playground. The quality of the supervision depends

on the quality of the supervisor’s knowledge of safe play

behavior. Therefore, supervisors should understand the

basics of playground safety.

Playground supervisors should be aware that not all 

playground equipment is appropriate for all children

who may use the playground. Supervisors should look

for posted signs indicating the appropriate age of the

users and direct children to equipment appropriate 

for their age. Supervisors may also use the information

in Section 6.3 of this handbook to determine the 

suitability of the equipment for the children they are

supervising.

It is important to recognize that preschool-age children

require more attentive supervision on playgrounds than

older children.

7. INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE OF 

EQUIPMENT

7.1 Assembly and Installation 

Proper assembly and installation of playground 

equipment are crucial for structural integrity, stability,

and overall safety. The people who assemble and install

playground equipment should not deviate from the 

manufacturer’s instructions. After assembly and before

its first use, equipment should be thoroughly inspected

by a person qualified to inspect playgrounds for safety.

The manufacturer’s assembly and installation instructions, and all other materials collected concerning the

equipment, should be kept in a permanent file.

7.1.1 Stability

When properly installed as directed by the manufacturer’s instructions and specifications, equipment should

withstand the maximum anticipated forces generated by

active use which might cause it to overturn, tip, slide, or

move in any way. Secure anchoring is a key factor to 

stable installation, and because the required footing

sizes and depths may vary according to equipment type,

the anchoring process should be completed in strict

accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. 

7.2 Maintenance

Inadequate maintenance of equipment has resulted 

in injuries on playgrounds. Because the safety of playground equipment and its suitability for use depend on

good inspection and maintenance, the manufacturer’s

maintenance instructions and recommended inspection

schedules should be strictly followed.

A comprehensive maintenance program should be 

developed for each playground. All equipment should

be inspected frequently for any potential hazards, for

corrosion or deterioration from rot, insects, or weathering. The playground area should also be checked 

frequently for broken glass or other dangerous debris.

Loose-fill surfacing materials should be inspected to

Handbook for Playground Safety

9
insure they have not become displaced or compacted in

high traffic areas such as under swings and at slide exits.

Any damage or hazards detected during inspections

should be repaired immediately in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions for repair and replacement 

of parts.

For each piece of equipment, the frequency of thorough

inspections will depend on the type of equipment, the

amount of use, and the local climate. Based on the 

manufacturer’s recommendations regarding maintenance

schedules for each piece of equipment, a maintenance

schedule for the entire playground can be created. The

detailed inspections should give special attention to

moving parts and other components which can be

expected to wear. Inspections should be carried out in 

a systematic manner by trained personnel.

One possible procedure is the use of checklists. Some

manufacturers supply checklists for general or detailed

inspections with their maintenance instructions. These

can be used to ensure that inspections are in compliance

with the manufacturer’s specifications. Inspections 

alone do not constitute a comprehensive maintenance

program. All hazards or defects identified during 

inspections should be repaired promptly. All repairs 

and replacements of equipment parts should be 

completed in accordance with the manufacturer’s

instructions. A general checklist that may be used as 

a guide for frequent routine inspections of public playgrounds is included at Appendix A. This is intended to

address only general maintenance concerns. It does 

not provide a complete safety evaluation of a specific

equipment design and layout. For example, it does not

address the risk of falls from equipment, moving impact

incidents, or head entrapment. Therefore, the use of this

checklist is only for general maintenance purposes. The

detailed design recommendations contained in this

handbook can be used to evaluate the safety of each

piece of equipment and the playground as a whole.

Records of all maintenance inspections and repairs

should be retained, including the manufacturer’s 

maintenance instructions and any checklists used. When

an inspection is performed, the person performing it

should sign and date whatever form is used. A record of

any accident and injury reported to have occurred on 

the playground should also be retained. This will help

identify potential hazards or dangerous design features

that should be corrected.

8. MATERIALS OF MANUFACTURE AND 

CONSTRUCTION

8.1 Durability and Finish 

Purchasers should be sure that the equipment is 

manufactured and constructed only of materials that

have a demonstrated record of durability in the playground or similar outdoor setting. Any new materials

should be documented or tested accordingly for 

durability by the playground equipment manufacturer.

A major concern for playground equipment materials is

corrosion or deterioration. Metals should be painted,

galvanized, or otherwise treated to prevent rust.

All paints and other similar finishes must meet the 

current CPSC regulation for lead in paint [7] (0.06% [600

ppm] maximum lead by dry weight). The manufacturer

should ensure that, as a result of contact with playground equipment, the users cannot ingest, inhale, or

absorb potentially hazardous amounts of preservative

chemicals or other treatments applied to the equipment.

Purchasers and installers of playground equipment

should obtain documentation from the manufacturer that

the preservatives or other treatments that have been

used do not present a health hazard to the users.

Testing by CPSC and various state and local agencies

revealed that some older playground equipment in

schools, parks, and communities across the U.S. has

leaded paint that over time has deteriorated. When

playground equipment paint deteriorates, the resulting

chips and dust may be ingested by young children who

regularly touch the equipment while playing and then

transfer the paint chips or dust from their hands to

their mouths. The amount of paint that may be ingested

can contribute to a hazardous and unnecessarily high

lead exposure.

A strategy for identifying and controlling leaded paint

on playground equipment is available from CPSC. A

case-by-case approach is recommended since there are

many factors to consider when developing a hazard

assessment and plans for appropriate controls.

Playground managers should consult an October 1996

report, CPSC Staff Recommendations for Identifying

and Controlling Lead Paint on Public Playground

Equipment [8].

Handbook for Playground Safety

10
Wood should either be naturally rot and insect-resistant

or treated to avoid such deterioration. The most common wood treatments used in playground equipment are

the inorganic arsenicals. Chromated copper arsenate

(CCA) is acceptable for use as a treatment of playground

equipment wood, if the dislodgeable arsenic (arsenic

that might be removable from the wood surface by skin

contact or wiping with testing materials) on the surface

of the wood is minimized. Inorganic arsenicals should be

applied by the manufacturer or wood preserver in accordance with the specifications of the American Wood

Preservers Association C17 standard. This standard

states that the treated wood should be visibly free of

residues which may contain high levels of arsenic (the

greenish coloration of CCA treated wood is acceptable).

Wood preservers and playground equipment manufacturers should practice technologies and procedures that

minimize the level of dislodgeable arsenic. CPSC has

found that technology and practices exist to treat playground equipment wood with CCA so that dislodgeable

arsenic is below detectable levels [9].

Installers, builders, and consumers who perform 

woodworking operations such as sanding, sawing, or

sawdust disposal on pressure treated wood should read

the consumer information sheet often available at the

point of sale [10]. The sheet contains important health

precautions and disposal information. Creosote, petachlorophenol, and tributyl tin oxide are too toxic or 

irritating and should not be used as preservatives for

playground equipment wood. Pesticide-containing 

finishes should also not be used. Other preservatives

that have low toxicity and may be suitable for 

playground equipment wood are copper or zinc 

naphthenates, and borates.

8.2 Hardware

When installed and tightened in accordance with the

manufacturer’s instructions, all fasteners, connectors 

and covering devices should not loosen or be removable

without the use of tools. Lock washers, self-locking nuts,

or other locking means should be provided for all nuts

and bolts to protect them from detachment. Hardware 

in moving joints should also be secured against unintentional or unauthorized loosening. In addition, all 

fasteners should be corrosion resistant and be selected

to minimize corrosion of the materials they connect.

Bearings used in moving joints should be easy to 

lubricate or be self-lubricating. All hooks, including 

S-hooks, should be closed (see also Section 12.6.1). 

A hook is considered closed if there is no gap or space

greater than 0.04 inches. It is appropriate to measure

this gap with a feeler gauge but, in the absence of such 

a gauge, the gap should not admit a dime.

8.3 Metal Surfaces

To avoid the risk of contact burn injury, bare or painted

metal surfaces on platforms and slide beds should be

avoided unless they can be located out of direct sun.

Alternatively, platforms may be wood, plastic or vinyl

coated metal and slide beds may be plastic (see also

Slides in Section 12.4.4).

9. GENERAL HAZARDS

There are a variety of general hazards common to many

types of playground equipment. The guidelines in this

section apply to all elements of the playground.

9.1 Sharp Points, Corners, and Edges

There should be no sharp points, corners, or edges on

any components of playground equipment that could cut

or puncture children’s skin. Frequent inspections are

important to prevent injuries caused by sharp points,

corners, or edges that could develop as a result of wear

and tear on the equipment. The exposed open ends of

all tubing not resting on the ground or otherwise covered

should be covered by caps or plugs that cannot be

removed without the use of tools.

Wood parts should be smooth and free from splinters.

All corners, metal and wood, should be rounded. All

metal edges should be rolled or have rounded capping.

There should be no sharp edges on slides. Metal edges

on the exit end and the sides along a slide bed can

result in serious lacerations if protective measures are

not taken (see also Section 12.4.5).

9.2 Protrusions and Projections

Handbook for Playground Safety

11

WARNING: Children have died when hood or

neck drawstrings on their jackets or sweatshirts caught

on slides or other playground equipment. Parents are

advised to remove hood and neck drawstrings from

clothing to prevent entanglement and strangulation.
Protrusions or projections on playground equipment

should not be capable of entangling children’s clothing,

because such entanglement can cause death by strangulation. Particular attention should be given to avoid 

protrusions or projections on slides to minimize the risk

of entanglement with clothing. Jackets and sweatshirts

with hoods and/or drawstrings have been involved in

such entanglement/strangulation incidents. Jewelry, such

as necklaces and rings, has also resulted in injuries from

entanglement. The diameter of a protrusion should not

increase in the direction away from the surrounding 

surface towards the exposed end (see Figure 4).

When tested in accordance with the procedure in

Paragraph 9.2.1, no protrusion should extend beyond

the face of any of the three gauges having dimensions

shown in Figure 5. These gauges may be purchased 

from the National Recreation and Park Association

(NRPA) [12].

9.2.1 Protrusion Test Procedure

Successively place each gauge (see Figure 5) over any

protrusion or projection and determine if it projects

beyond the face of the gauge (see Figure 6).

Handbook for Playground Safety

12

Diameter has

increased

Figure 4. Protrusion Increases in Diameter 

From Plane of Initial Surface

3.0 in. Dia.

1.5 in. Dia.

0.50 in. Dia.

0.25 in.

1.0

in. Diameter

0.75 in.

2.0

in. Diameter

1.5 in.

3.5

in. Diameter

Figure 5. Protrusion Test Gauges
9.3 Protrusions on Suspended Members of

Swing Assemblies

Because protrusions on swings can be extremely 

hazardous, given the potential for impact incidents, a

special test gauge (see Figure 7) and procedure are 

recommended. No bolts or components in the potential

impact region on suspended members should protrude

through the hole beyond the face of the specified gauge,

when tested in accordance with the following method.

Conduct the test with the suspended member in its rest

position. Place the gauge over any protrusion on the

front or rear surface of the suspended member such that

the axis of the hole in the gauge is parallel to both the

intended path of the suspended member and a horizontal plane. Visually determine if the protrusion penetrates

through the hole and beyond the face of the gauge.

9.4 Protrusions that Project Upwards and

Protrusions on Slides

To minimize the likelihood of clothing entanglement, 

protrusions that fit within any one of the three gauges

shown in Figure 5 and also have a major axis that 

projects upwards from a horizontal plane should not

have projections perpendicular to the plane of the 

surrounding surface that are greater than 1/8 inch 

(see Figure 8). This recommendation also applies to 

protrusions on slides no matter what their orientation if

the protrusions fall within the area depicted in Figure 9.

NOTE: The underside of a slide chute is not subject to

the protrusion recommendation in this section but is 

subject to the general recommendations for protrusions

in Section 9.2. For a slide chute with a circular cross 

section, the portion of the underside not subject to the

protrusion recommendation in this section is shown 

in Figure 19. 

Handbook for Playground Safety

13

Gauge

Protrusion fails

Protrusion must not

Extend Beyond Face

of Gauge

Figure 6. Protrusion Test 

HORIZONTAL PLANE

1/8 inch maximum

Figure 8. Upwards Facing Protrusion

1 1/4 Inches

Minimum

1/8 Inch

Maximum

2 Inches 

Maximum

Note: gauge made of any

rigid material

Axis; must be 

parallel to 

intended path 

of suspended 

member

during test

Figure 7. Protrusion Test Gauge for 

Suspended Swing Assemblies
9.5 Pinch, Crush, and Shearing Points

There should be no accessible pinch, crush, or shearing

points on playground equipment that could injure children or catch their clothing. Such points can be caused

by components moving relative to each other or to a

fixed component when the equipment moves through its

anticipated use cycle. To determine if there is a possible

pinch, crush or shear point, consider the likelihood of

entrapping a body part and the configuration and closing force of the components. Additional information on

pinch, crush, and shear points is provided in the recommendations addressing specific pieces of equipment in

Section 9.

9.6 Entrapment

9.6.1 Head Entrapment

A component or a group of components should not

form openings that could trap a child’s head. A child’s

head may become entrapped if the child enters an 

opening either feet first or head first. Head entrapment

by head-first entry generally occurs when children place

their heads through an opening in one orientation, turn

their heads to a different orientation, then are unable to

withdraw from the opening. Head entrapment by feetfirst entry involves children who generally sit or lie down

and slide their feet into an opening that is large enough

Handbook for Playground Safety

14

SLIDING SURFACE

21" R

21" R

42"

22"

TRANSITION

AREA

SHADED AREA REPRESENTS

NON-ENTANGLEMENT/PROTRUSION

ZONES

EXIT

SECTION

SIDEWALL

60"

STANDING

HEIGHT

21" R

PERPENDICULAR

SURFACE

1/8 Inch maximum

Figure 9. Area on Slides Subject to Protrusion Recommendations in Section 9.4
to permit passage of their bodies but is not large enough

to permit passage of their heads.

Generally, an opening presents an entrapment hazard if

the distance between any interior opposing surfaces is

greater than 3.5 inches and less than 9 inches. When one

dimension of an opening is within this range, all dimensions of the opening should be considered together to

evaluate the possibility of entrapment. This recommendation applies to all completely-bounded openings (see

Figure B-1 in Appendix B) except where the ground

serves as an opening’s lower boundary. Further, it

applies to all openings regardless of their height above

the ground (see Figure B-1). Even openings that are low

enough for children’s feet to touch the ground can present a risk of strangulation for an entrapped child,

because younger children may not have the necessary

cognitive ability or motor skills to extricate their heads

especially if scared or panicked.

To determine whether an opening is hazardous, use 

the recommended test fixtures, test methods and 

performance recommendations described in Appendix

B. These recommendations apply to all playground

equipment for both preschool-age and school-age 

children. Fixed equipment as well as moving equipment

(in its stationary position) should be tested for entrapment hazards. There are two special cases for which 

separate procedures are given: completely bounded

openings where depth of penetration is a critical issue

(see Section B5), and openings formed by non-rigid

climbing components (see Section B6).

9.6.2 Angles

The angle of any vertex formed by adjacent components

should be greater than 55 degrees, unless the lower leg

is horizontal or projects downwards (see Figure 10). An

exception to this recommendation can be made if a 

rigid shield is attached to the vertex between adjacent 

components and the shield is of sufficient size to prevent

a 9 inch diameter circular template from simultaneously

touching components on either side of the vertex 

(see Figure 11).

9.7 Tripping Hazards

All anchoring devices for playground equipment, such 

as concrete footings or horizontal bars at the bottom of

flexible climbers, should be installed below ground level, 

beneath the base of the protective surfacing material, to

eliminate the hazard of tripping. This will also prevent

children who may fall from sustaining additional injuries

due to exposed footings. 

Low retaining walls are commonly used to help contain

loose surfacing materials. In order to minimize trip 

hazards, retaining walls should be highly visible and any

Handbook for Playground Safety

15

Angle A should exceed 55°

Angle A is not subject to the greater than 55°

recommendation if one leg of the vee is

horizontal or slopes downward from the apex

A

A A

Figure 10. Recommendations for Angles

Less Than 55°

Large Head

Template

(see Appendix B)

Figure 11. Shield for Angle Less than 55°
change of elevation should be obvious. The use of bright

colors can contribute to better visibility.

9.8 Suspended Hazards

Cables, wires, ropes, or similar flexible components 

suspended between play units or from the ground to a

play unit within 45 degrees of horizontal should not be

located in areas of high traffic because they may cause

injuries to a running child. It is recommended that these

suspended members be either brightly colored or 

contrast with surrounding equipment to add to their 

visibility. This recommendation does not apply to 

suspended members that are located 7 feet or more

above the playground surface.

10. STAIRWAYS, LADDERS AND HANDRAILS 

10.1 General

Access to playground equipment can take many forms,

such as conventional ramps, stairways with steps, and

ladders with steps or rungs. Access may also be by

means of climbing components, such as climbing nets,

arch climbers, and tire climbers (see Figure 12). Such

climbing components are generally intended to be more

challenging than stairways and stepladders, and so

require better balance and coordination of the children.

Rung ladders are generally considered to present a 

level of challenge intermediate between stairways or

stepladders and climbing components.

Rung ladders and climbing components such as climbing

nets, arch climbers, and tire climbers, should not be used

as the sole means of access to equipment intended for

preschool-age children.

Platforms over 6 feet in height (with the exception of

free-standing slides) should provide an intermediate

standing surface where a decision can be made to halt

the ascent and to pursue an alternative means of

descent.

10.2 Stairways and Ladders

Stairways, stepladders, and rung ladders are distinguished by the range of slopes permitted for each of

these types of access. However, in all cases the steps or

rungs should be evenly spaced, including the spacing

between the top step or rung and the surface of the 

platform. Table 2 contains recommended dimensions for: 

Handbook for Playground Safety

16

Arch Climber

Chain Net Climber

Tire Climber

Figure 12. Examples of More Challenging Modes of Access
access slope, tread or rung width, tread depth, rung

diameter, and vertical rise for rung ladders, stepladders,

and stairways. Table 2 also contains slope and width 

recommendations for ramps. However, these recommendations are not intended to address ramps designed for

access by wheelchairs.

Openings between steps or rungs and between the top

step or rung and underside of a platform should prevent

the possibility of entrapment. Risers on stairways and

stepladders should be closed if the distance between

opposing interior surfaces of consecutive steps is

between 3.5 and 9 inches (see Section 9.6). Since the

design of rung ladders does not permit risers to be

closed, the space between rungs should not be between

3.5 and 9 inches.

When risers are closed, treads of stairways and ladders

should prevent the accumulation of sand, water, or other

materials on or between steps.

10.2.1 Rungs and Other Handgripping Components

Whereas the steps of stairways and stepladders are 

used only for foot support, the rungs of rung ladders 

are used for both foot support and for hand support by

a climbing child since rung ladders generally do not 

have handrails.

Rungs are generally round in cross section and 

should have a diameter or maximum cross sectional

dimension between 0.95 and 1.55 inches. Other 

components intended to be grasped by the hands such

as the bars of climbers should also have a diameter or

maximum cross sectional dimension between 0.95 and

1.55 inches.

To benefit the weakest child in each age group, a 

diameter of 1.25 inches is preferred. All rungs should be

secured in a manner that prevents them from turning.

10.3 Handrails

Handrails on stairways and stepladders are intended 

to provide hand support and to steady the user.

Continuous handrails extending over the full length of

the access should be provided on both sides of all 

stairways and stepladders, regardless of the height of 

the access. Rung ladders do not require handrails since

rungs or side supports provide hand support on these

more steeply inclined accesses.

10.3.1 Handrail Height

Handrails should be available for use at the appropriate

height, beginning with the first step. The vertical distance

between the top front edge of a step (tread nosing) and

Handbook for Playground Safety

17

TABLE 2

Recommended Dimensions for Access Slope, Tread or Rung

Width, Tread Depth, Rung Diameter, and Vertical Rise for

Rung Ladders, Stepladders, Stairways, and Ramps.

Age of Intended User

Type of Access 2-5 Years 5-12 Years

Rung Ladders

Slope 75°–90° 75°–90°

Rung Width ≥ 12" ≥ 16"

Vertical rise (tread to tread) ≤ 12"** ≤ 12"**

Rung Diameter 0.95"–1.55" 0.95"–1.55"

Stepladders

Slope 50°–75° 50°–75°

Tread Width – Single File 12"–21" ≥ 16"

– Two-Abreast * ≥ 36"

Tread Depth – Open Riser ≥ 7" ≥ 3"

– Closed Riser ≥ 7" ≥ 6"

Vertical Rise (tread to tread) ≤ 9"** ≤ 12"**

Stairways

Slope ≤ 35° ≤ 35°

Tread Width – Single File ≥ 12" ≥ 16"

– Two-Abreast ≥ 30" ≥ 36"

Tread Depth – Open Riser ≥ 7" ≥ 8"

– Closed Riser ≥ 7" ≥ 8"

Vertical Rise (tread to tread) ≤ 9"** ≤ 12"**

Ramps (not intended for access by the disabled)***

Slope (vertical:horizontal) ≤ 1:8 ≤ 1:8

Width – Single File ≥ 12" ≥ 16"

– Two-Abreast ≥ 30" ≥ 36"

* Not recommended for preschool-age children

** Entrapment provisions apply

*** For information on requirements for access to playground

equipment by disabled children contact the U.S.

Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance 

Board [11].

Note: ≥ means equal to or greater than and 

≤ means equal to or less than
the top surface of the handrail above it should be as 

follows:

• Preschool-Age Children: between 22 and 26 inches.

• School-Age Children: between 22 and 38 inches.

10.3.2 Handrail Diameter

The diameter or maximum cross-sectional dimension of

handrails should be between 0.95 and 1.55 inches. To

benefit the weakest child in each age group, a diameter

of 1.25 inches is preferred.

10.4 Transition from Access to Platform

On any transition from an access mode to a platform,

handrails or handholds should be adequate to provide

support until the child has fully achieved the desired

posture on the platform. Any opening between a

handrail and an adjacent vertical structure (e.g., vertical

support post for a platform or vertical slat of a protective

barrier) should not pose an entrapment hazard (see

Section 9.6).

On accesses that do not have handrails, such as rung 

ladders, flexible climbers, arch climbers, and tire

climbers, hand support should provide for the transition

between the top of the access and the platform. Options

include vertical handrails and loop handgrips extending

over the top of the access.

11. PLATFORMS, GUARDRAILS AND 

PROTECTIVE BARRIERS

11.1 Design Considerations

Platforms should be within ±2° of a horizontal plane

and openings should be provided to allow for drainage. 

11.2 Guardrails and Protective Barriers

Either guardrails or protective barriers may be used to

prevent inadvertent or unintentional falls off elevated

platforms. Protective barriers, however, to provide

greater protection, should be designed to prevent intentional attempts by children seeking to defeat the barrier

either by climbing over or through the barrier.

For example, guardrails may have a horizontal top rail

with infill consisting of vertical bars having openings that

are greater than 9 inches. Such openings would not present an entrapment hazard but would not prevent a child

from climbing through the openings. A protective barrier

should prevent passage of a child during deliberate

attempts to defeat the barrier. Any openings between

uprights or between the platform surface and lower edge

of a protective barrier should prevent passage of the

small torso template (see Figure B-3 in Appendix B).

11.3 Minimum Elevation Requiring Guardrails

and Protective Barriers

Guardrails or protective barriers should be provided on

platforms, walkways, landings, and transitional surfaces

in accordance with the following minimum elevation recommendations.

Preschool-Age Children: Since younger children have

poorer coordination and balance and are more 

vulnerable to injury than school-age children, guardrails

or protective barriers are warranted at lower elevations.

An elevated surface that is more than 20 inches above

the protective surfacing should have a guardrail or protective barrier to prevent falls. Guardrails are acceptable

for platforms over 20 inches but not over 30 inches high,

but a full protective barrier may be preferable for this

age group since it affords a greater degree of protection

from falls. Protective barriers should always be used for

platforms that are over 30 inches above the protective

surfacing. 

School-Age Children: An elevated surface that is more

than 30 inches above the protective surfacing should

have a guardrail or protective barrier to prevent falls. For

platforms over 30 inches but not over 48 inches high,

guardrails are acceptable, although a full protective barrier always provides greater protection. Platforms that are

over 48 inches above the protective surfacing should

always have a protective barrier.

An elevated surface is exempt from these recommendations if a guardrail or protective barrier would interfere

with the intended use of the equipment; this includes

most climbing equipment, and platforms that are layered

so that the fall height does not exceed 20 inches on

equipment intended for preschool-age children or 30

inches on equipment intended for school-age children.

Handbook for Playground Safety

18
11.4 Minimum Height of Guardrails

The minimum height should prevent the largest child

from inadvertently falling over the guardrail. In addition,

the guardrail should extend low enough to prevent the

smallest child from inadvertently stepping under it (see

Figure 13). 

Preschool-Age Children: the top surface of guardrails

should be at least 29 inches high and the lower edge

should be no more than 23 inches above the platform.

School-Age Children: the top surface of guardrails

should be at least 38 inches high and the lower edge

should be no more than 28 inches above the platform.

11.5 Minimum Height of Protective Barriers

The minimum height should prevent the largest child

from inadvertently falling over the protective barrier. In

addition, because the protective barrier should not 

permit children to climb through or under it, openings in

the barrier should preclude passage of the small torso

template (see Section 9.6).

Preschool-Age Children: the top surface of protective

barriers should be at least 29 inches high. Vertical infill

for protective barriers may be preferable for younger

children because the vertical components can be

grasped at whatever height a child chooses as a 

handhold.

School-Age Children: the top surface of protective 

barriers should be at least 38 inches high.

11.6 Other Design Considerations for

Guardrails and Protective Barriers

Guardrails or protective barriers should completely 

surround an elevated platform except for entrance and

exit openings necessary to access a play event. 

Both guardrails and protective barriers should be

designed to prevent inadvertent or unintentional falls 

off the platform, preclude the possibility of entrapment,

and facilitate supervision. Horizontal cross-pieces should

not be used as infill for the space below the top rail

because they provide footholds for climbing. When solid

panels are used as infill, it is recommended that there 

be some transparent areas to facilitate supervision and

to permit viewing from the platform. To prevent head

entrapment, guardrails should conform to the entrapment recommendations in Section 9.6.

11.7 Stepped Platforms

On some composite structures, platforms are layered or

tiered, so that a child may fall onto a lower platform

rather than the ground surface.

Unless there is an alternate means of access/egress, 

the maximum difference in height between stepped 

platforms should be:

• Preschool-Age Children: 12 inches.

• School-Age Children: 18 inches.

Handbook for Playground Safety

19

A = 38" minimum for school-age children

29" minimum for preschool-age children

B = 28" maximum for school-age children

23" maximum for preschool-age children

Note: Guardrails should be designed to prevent

inadvertent or unintentional falls off the

platform, to discourage climbing on the barrier,

to prevent the possibility of entrapment,

and to aid supervision. Refer to text for

detailed recommendations regarding infill.

A

B 









 







 

  

Figure 13. Guardrails on Elevated Platforms
The space between the stepped platforms should follow

the recommendations for entrapment in enclosed openings in Section 9.6. If the space exceeds 9 inches and 

the height of the lower platform above the protective

surfacing exceeds 30 inches for preschool equipment or

48 inches for school-age equipment, infill should be 

used to reduce the space to less than 3.5 inches.

12. MAJOR TYPES OF PLAYGROUND 

EQUIPMENT

12.1 Climbing Equipment

12.1.1 General

The term climbers refers to a wide variety of equipment,

including arch climbers, sliding poles, chain or net

climbers, upper body equipment (overhead horizontal

ladders, overhead rings), dome climbers, parallel bars,

balance beams, cable walks, suspension bridges, and 

spiral climbers, as well as composite structures with

linked platforms (see Figure 14 for examples). Climbing

equipment is generally designed to present a greater

degree of physical challenge than other equipment on

public playgrounds.

Older children tend to use climbing equipment more 

frequently and proficiently than younger ones. Because

very young children have not yet developed some of the

physical skills necessary for certain climbing activities

(including balance, coordination, and upper body

strength), they may have difficulty using more challenging climbing components such as rung ladders, non-rigid

climbers, arch climbers, and upper body devices.

12.1.2 Design Considerations 

Since the more challenging modes of access discussed in

Section 10 are also intended to be used as climbing

Handbook for Playground Safety

20

Simple Arch Climber Geodesic Dome Climber

*Overhead Hanging Rings *Overhead Horizontal Ladder

*Note: This design shows how upper body equipment is

typically integrated with multi-use equipment

Figure 14. Typical Climbing Equipment
devices, the recommendations for the size of handgripping components and stepped platforms covered in

that section are applicable to climbing equipment.

Climbers should not have climbing bars or other structural components in the interior of the structure onto which

a child may fall from a height of greater than 18 inches.

Climbing equipment should allow children to descend

as easily as they ascend. One way of implementing this

recommendation is to provide an easier, alternate means

of descent, such as another mode of egress, platform, or

piece of equipment. For example, a stairway can be

added to provide a less challenging mode of descent

than a vertical rung ladder or flexible climbing device.

The levels of challenge that characterize different types

of access are discussed in Section 10.

Preschool-Age Children: Offering an easy way out is 

particularly important on climbing devices intended for

preschoolers, since their ability to descend climbing

components emerges later than their ability to climb up

the same components.

12.1.3 Climbers With Non-Rigid Components

Net and chain climbers use a flexible grid of ropes or

chains for climbing. Tire climbers are also described as

flexible climbers. These may have the tires secured

tread-to-tread in the form of a sloping grid or the tires

may be suspended individually by chains or other means

to provide access to an elevated platform. Since net,

chain, and tire climbers have flexible components that

do not provide a steady means of support, they require

more advanced balance abilities than conventional 

ladders. 

Flexible grid climbing devices which provide access to

platforms should be securely anchored at both ends.

When one end is connected to the ground, the anchoring devices should be installed below ground level,

beneath the base of the protective surfacing material.

Connections between ropes, cables, or chains within the

climbing grid or between tires should be securely fixed.

Spacing between the horizontal and vertical components

of a climbing grid should satisfy all entrapment criteria

(see Section 9.6).

Flexible grid climbing devices are not recommended as

the sole means of access to equipment intended for

preschool-age children.

12.1.4 Arch Climbers

Arch climbers consist of metal or wood rungs attached

to convex side supports. They may be free standing (see

Figure 14) or be provided as a more challenging means

of access to other equipment (see Figure 12). Because of

this extra challenge, they should not be used as the sole

means of access to other equipment. A less challenging

option will ensure that children use the arch climber

because they are willing to assume the challenge and 

not because they are forced to use it. Free standing 

arch climbers are not recommended for preschool-age 

children.

The rung diameter and spacing of rungs on arch climbers

should follow the recommendations for rung ladders in

Table 2.

12.1.5 Horizontal Ladders and Overhead Rings

Four-year-olds are generally the youngest children 

capable of using upper body devices such as these. The

recommendations below are designed to accommodate

children 4 through 12 years of age.

The space between adjacent rungs of overhead ladders

should be greater than 9 inches to satisfy the entrapment recommendations (see Section 9.6). The centerto-center spacing of horizontal ladder rungs should be 

as follows:

• Preschool-Age Children: no more than 12 inches.

• School-Age Children: no more than 15 inches.

This recommendation does not apply to the spacing of

overhead rings because, during use, the gripped ring

swings through an arc and reduces the distance to the

gripping surface of the next ring.

Horizontal ladders intended for preschool-age children

should have rungs that are parallel to one another and

evenly spaced.

The first handhold on either end of upper body equipment should not be placed directly above the platform

or climbing rung used for mount or dismount. This 

Handbook for Playground Safety

21
minimizes the risk of children impacting rigid access

structures if they fall from the first handhold during

mount or dismount.

The maximum height of upper body equipment 

measured from the center of the grasping device to the

protective surfacing should be:

• Preschool-Age Children: 60 inches.

• School-Age Children: 84 inches.

If overhead swinging rings are suspended by chains, the

maximum length of the chains should be 12 inches. 

12.1.6 Sliding Poles 

Vertical sliding poles are designed to be more challenging than some other types of climbing equipment. They

are not recommended for preschool-age children who

may lack the upper body strength and coordination to

successfully slide down the pole. Furthermore, once

younger children have grasped the pole, they would be

forced to slide down it since there is no alternative

option.

Sliding poles should be continuous with no protruding

welds or seams along the sliding surface and the pole

should not change direction along the sliding portion.

The horizontal distance between a sliding pole and the

edge of the platform or other structure used for access to

the sliding pole should be at least 18 inches. This minimum distance applies to all points down the sliding pole.

No point on the sliding pole at or above the level of the

access structure, where a child is likely to reach for the

pole, should be more than 20 inches away from the edge

of the access structure.

The pole should extend at least 60 inches above the

level of the platform or other structure used for access to

the sliding pole.

The diameter of sliding poles should be no greater than

1.9 inches.

Sliding poles and their access structures should be located so that traffic from other events will not interfere with

the users during descent.

12.1.7 Climbing Ropes

A climbing rope should be secured at both ends and not

be capable of being looped back on itself creating a

loop with an inside perimeter greater than 5 inches.

12.1.8 Balance Beams 

To avoid injuries during falls, balance beams should be

no higher than:

• Preschool-Age Children: 12 inches.

• School-Age Children: 16 inches.

12.1.9 Layout of Climbing Components 

When climbing components are part of a composite

structure, their level of challenge and mode of use

should be compatible with the traffic flow from adjacent

components.

Upper body devices should be placed so that the 

swinging movement generated by children on this equipment cannot interfere with the movement of children on

adjacent structures, particularly other children descending on slides.

The design of adjacent play structures should not facilitate climbing to the top support bars of upper body

equipment.

12.2 Merry-Go-Rounds 

Merry-go-rounds are the most common type of rotating

equipment found on public playgrounds. Children 

usually sit or stand on the platform while other children

or adults push the merry-go-round to make it rotate. 

In addition, children often get on and off the merrygo-round while it is in motion.

Merry-go-rounds may present a physical hazard to

preschool-age children who have little or no control 

over such products once they are in motion. Therefore,

children in this age group should always be supervised

when using merry-go-rounds. Following are recommendations for merry-go-rounds:

The rotating platform should be continuous and approximately circular. The difference between the minimum

and maximum radii of a non-circular platform should not 

Handbook for Playground Safety

22
exceed 2.0 inches (see Figure 15). No components of the

apparatus, including handgrips, should extend beyond

the perimeter of the platform. The underside of the

perimeter of the platform should be no less than 9 inches above the level of the protective surfacing.

Children should be provided with a secure means of

holding on. Where handgrips are provided, they should

conform to the general recommendations for handgripping components in Section 10.2.1.

There should not be any accessible shearing or crushing

mechanisms in the undercarriage of the equipment. The

rotating platform of a merry-go-round should not have

any sharp edges. The surface of the platform should be

continuous with no openings between the axis and the

periphery that permit a rod having a diameter of 5/16

inch to penetrate completely through the surface.

A means should be provided to limit the peripheral

speed of rotation to a maximum of 13 ft/sec.

Merry-go-round platforms should not be provided with

an oscillatory (up and down) motion.

12.3 Seesaws 

The typical seesaw (also known as a “teeter totter”) consists of a board or pole supported at the center by a fulcrum and having a seat at each end (see Figure 16).

Seesaw use is quite complex because it requires two

children to cooperate and combine their actions.

Younger children do not generally have the skills

required to effectively use fulcrum seesaws. Therefore,

seesaws are not recommended for preschool-age children unless they are equipped with a spring centering

device to prevent abrupt contact with the ground should

one child elect to dismount.

There is a trend to replace fulcrum seesaws on public

playgrounds with spring-centered seesaws which have

the advantage of not requiring two children to coordinate their actions in order to play safely (see discussion

of Spring Rocking Equipment in Section 12.5).

The fulcrum of fulcrum seesaws should not present a

pinch or crush hazard.

Partial car tires, or some other shock-absorbing material,

should be embedded in the ground underneath the seats

of fulcrum seesaws, or secured on the underside of the

seats. This will help prevent limbs from being crushed

between the seat and the ground, as well as cushion the

impact. Fulcrum see-saws may also be equipped with a

spring centering mechanism to minimize the risk of

injury due to impact with the ground.

Handholds should be provided at each seating position

for gripping with both hands and should not turn when

grasped. Handholds should not protrude beyond the

sides of the seat. Footrests should not be provided on

fulcrum see-saws unless they are equipped with a spring

centering mechanism to minimize the likelihood of

impact with the ground.

Fulcrum seesaws should be constructed so that the 

maximum attainable angle between a line connecting 

the seats and the horizontal is 25°. 

Handbook for Playground Safety

23

The difference between dimensions AC

and AB should not exceed 2.0 inches.

A = Axis of Rotation

AB = Minimum Radius

AC = Maximum Radius

A

B

Base C

Figure 15. Minimum and Maximum Radii of 

Non-Circular Merry-Go-Round Platform

Automobile Tire

Figure 16. Typical Fulcrum Seesaw
12.4 Slides

12.4.1 General

Although children under 6 years of age may be more

likely to play on slides, older children will still use slides

depending on their availability relative to other types of

equipment. Children can be expected to descend slide

chutes in many different positions, rather than always 

sitting and facing forward as they slide. They will slide

down facing backward, on their knees, lying on their

backs, head first, and will walk both up and down the

chute. Younger children in particular often slide down 

on their stomachs, either head or feet first.

Slides may provide a straight, wavy, or spiral descent

either by means of a tube or an open slide chute. They

may be either free-standing (see Figure 17), part of a

composite structure, or built on the grade of a natural 

or man-made slope (embankment slide). The recommendations in this section do not apply to water slides or

swimming pool slides.

12.4.2 Slide Access 

With the exception of embankment slides, access to a

slide may be by means of a ladder with rungs or steps, a

stairway with steps, or the slide may be a component of

a composite play structure to which access is provided

by other means. Whatever means of access is provided

to a slide, it should conform to the guidelines specified

in the general discussion of access to all playground

equipment (see Section 10).

12.4.3 Slide Platform 

All slides should be provided with a platform with 

sufficient length to facilitate the transition from standing

to sitting at the top of the inclined sliding surface. The

length of the platform will usually not be an issue when

the slide is attached to the deck of a composite structure, because decks are generally at least 3 feet square.

However, in the case of a free-standing slide, it is 

recommended that the platform have a minimum length

of at least 22 inches.

The platform should be horizontal and have a width at

least equal to the width of the slide.

Guardrails or protective barriers should surround a slide

platform and should conform to the guidelines specified

in the general discussion of platforms (see Section 11).

Slides should not have any spaces or gaps between the

platform and the start of the slide chute.

With the exception of tube slides, handholds should be

provided at the entrance to all slides to facilitate the

Handbook for Playground Safety

24

Exit close to horizontal

Slide chute

Platform

Hood or other means to channel 

user into sitting position

Access ladder

or stairway

Figure 17. Typical Free-Standing Straight Slide
transition from standing to sitting and decrease the risk

of falls. These should extend high enough to provide

hand support for the largest child in a standing position,

and low enough to provide hand support for the smallest

child in a sitting position.

At the entrance to the chute there should be a means to

channel a user into a sitting position. This may be a

guardrail, a hood, or other device. Whatever means is

provided, it should be of a design that does not encourage climbing.

12.4.4 Sliding Section of Straight Slides 

It is recommended that the average incline of a slide

chute be no more than 30 degrees. This can be measured

by determining that the height to length ratio (as shown

in Figure 18) does not exceed 0.577. No span on the

slide chute should have a slope greater than 50 degrees.

Straight slides with flat open chutes should have sides

with a 4 inch minimum height extending along both

sides of the chute for the entire length of the inclined

sliding surface.

The sides should be an integral part of the chute, without any gaps between the sides and the sliding surface.

[Note: Roller slides are excluded from this 

recommendation.]

Slides may have an open chute with a circular, 

semicircular or curved cross section provided that:

a. the vertical height of the sides is no less than 4 inches

when measured at right angles to a horizontal line 

that is 12 inches long when the slide is intended for

preschool-age children and 16 inches long when the

slide is intended for school-age children (see 

Figure 19); 

or

b. the vertical height of the sides is no less than 4 inches

minus two times the width of the slide chute divided

by the radius of the slide chute curvature (see 

Figure 20).

Metal slides should be placed in shaded areas to prevent

burns caused by direct sun on the slide chute.

12.4.5 Exit region 

All slides should have an exit region to help children

maintain their balance and facilitate a smooth transition

from sitting to standing when exiting.

The exit region should be essentially horizontal and 

parallel to the ground and have a minimum length of 

11 inches.

Handbook for Playground Safety

25

Height (H)

of platform

above exit

Horizontal distance (D) of exit

from beginning of slide chute

No span with slope

greater than 50°

Platform

For average slope to be no more than 30°, 

H/D should be no greater than 0.577

Figure 18. Slide Slope
Handbook for Playground Safety

26

Slide Chute Width

Chute Radius

H

2 x Slide Chute Width

Slide Chute Radius H = 4 -

Figure 20. Formula for Minimum Vertical Side Height for Slide with Curved Chute

4 in. Min.

Slide Chute

12 in. Min. (2 – 5 year olds)

16 in. Min. (5 – 12 year olds)

Bottom of slide. Subject only to general 

requirements for protrusions in Section 9.2

90° 90°

Figure 19. Minimum Side Height for Slide with Circular Cross Section
For slides that are no more than 4 feet in height, the

height of the exit region should be no more than 

11 inches from the protective surfacing.

For slides that are over 4 feet in height, the exit region

should be at least 7 inches but not more than 15 inches

above the protective surfacing.

Slide exit edges should be rounded or curved, to 

prevent lacerations or other injuries which could result

from impact with a sharp or straight edge.

All slide exits should be located in uncongested areas 

of the playground.

12.4.6 Embankment Slides 

The slide chute of an embankment slide should have a

maximum height of 12 inches above the underlying

ground surface. Such a design basically eliminates the

hazard of falls from height. Embankment slides should

follow all of the recommendations given for straight

slides, where applicable, e.g., side height, slope, use

zone at exit, etc. It is important that some means be 

provided at the slide chute entrance to minimize the use

of these slides by children on skates, skateboards or

bicycles.

12.4.7 Spiral Slides

It is recommended that spiral slides follow the recommendations for straight slides (where applicable), with

special attention given to design features which may 

present problems unique to spiral slides, such as lateral

discharge of the user.

Preschool-Age Children: Because these children have

less ability to maintain balance and postural control, 

only short spiral slides, one turn (360°) or less, are 

recommended for this age group.

12.4.8 Tube Slides 

Tube slides should meet all the applicable recommendations for other slides.

Barriers should be provided or surfaces textured to 

prevent sliding on the top (outside) of the tube.

Handbook for Playground Safety

27

4-Way Spring-Centered Seesaw

Animal Spring Rocker

Figure 21. Examples of Spring Rockers
The minimum internal diameter of the tube should be 

no less than 23 inches.

It should be noted that children using tube slides may

not be visible to a supervisor. Consideration should be

given to extra supervision on playgrounds having tube

slides or to having transparent tube sections for 

observation and supervision.

12.4.9 Roller Slides 

Roller slides should meet applicable recommendations

for slides in Section 12.4. 

The space between adjacent rollers and between the

ends of the rollers and the stationary structure should be

less than 3/16 inch.

Frequent inspections are recommended to insure that

there are no missing rollers or broken bearings. 

12.5 Spring Rockers

Preschool-age children enjoy the bouncing and rocking

activities presented by this equipment, but older children

may not find it challenging enough.

Examples of spring rockers are shown in Figure 21.

Preschoolers are the primary users of such rocking

equipment. Therefore, the recommendations in this 

section address only preschool-age children.

Seat design should not allow the rocker to be used by

more than the intended number of users.

Each seating position should be equipped with 

handgrips and footrests. The diameter of handgrips

should follow the recommendations for handgripping

components in Section 10.

The springs of rocking equipment should minimize 

the possibility of children pinching their hands or their

feet between coils or between the spring and a part 

of the rocker.

12.6 Swings

12.6.1 General 

Children of all ages generally enjoy the sensations 

created while swinging. Most often, they sit on the

swings, and it is common to see children jumping off

swings. Younger children tend to also swing on their

stomachs, and older children may stand on the seats.

Swings may be divided into two distinct types: singleaxis of motion and multiple-axes of motion. A single-axis

swing is intended to swing back-and-forth in a single

Handbook for Playground Safety

28

D1 = 30" Min.

D2 = 24" Min.

D3 = 12" Min. for Preschool-Age Children

16" Min. for School-Age Children

24" Min. for Tot Swings

D4 = 20" Min.

60"

D3

D1

D2

D1

D4 D4

Figure 22. Minimum Clearances for Single-Axis Swings
plane and generally consists of a seat supported by at

least two suspending members each of which is connected to a separate pivot on an overhead structure. A 

multiple-axis swing consists of a seat (generally a tire)

suspended from a single pivot that permits it to swing in

any direction. Hardware used to secure the suspending

elements to the swing seat and to the supporting structure should not be removable without the use of tools. 

S-hooks are often part of a swing’s suspension system,

either attaching the suspending elements to the overhead support bar or to the swing seat. Open S-hooks 

can catch a child’s clothing and present a strangulation

hazard. S-hooks should be pinched closed. An S-hook is

considered closed if there is no gap or space greater

than 0.04 inches. It is appropriate to measure this gap

with a feeler gauge but, in the absence of such a gauge,

the gap should not admit a dime.

Swings should be suspended from support structures

that discourage climbing. A-frame support structures

should not have horizontal cross-bars.

Fiber ropes are not recommended as a means to 

suspend swings.

12.6.2 Single-Axis (To-Fro) Swings 

To help prevent young children from inadvertently 

running into the path of moving swings, swing structures

should be located away from other equipment or activities. Additional protection can be provided by means of

a low barrier, such as a fence or hedge. Such barriers

should not be an obstacle within the use zone of a swing

structure or hamper supervision by blocking visibility.

The use zone to the front and rear of single-axis swings

should never overlap the use zone of another piece of

equipment.

To minimize the likelihood of children being struck by a

moving swing, it is recommended that no more than two

single-axis swings be hung in each bay of the supporting

structure. 

Attaching single-axis swings to composite structures is

not recommended.

Swing seats should be designed to accommodate no

more than one user at any time. To help reduce the

severity of impact injuries, wood or metal swing seats are

not recommended. Lightweight rubber or plastic swing

seats are preferred. Edges of seats should have smoothly

finished or rounded edges and should conform to the

protrusion recommendations in Section 9.3.

The vertical distance from the underside of an occupied

swing seat to the protective surfacing should be no less

than 12 inches for swings intended for preschool-age

children and no less than 16 inches for swings intended

for school-age children. NOTE: If loose-fill material is

used as a protective surfacing, the seat height recommendations should be determined after the material has

been leveled.

To minimize collisions between swings or between a

swing and the supporting structure, the clearances

shown in Figure 22 are recommended. In addition, to

reduce side-to-side motion, swing hangers should be

spaced no less than 20 inches apart.

It is recommended that single-axis swings intended for

preschool-age children have the pivot points no greater

than 8 feet above the protective surfacing.

12.6.3 Tot Swings 

These are single-axis swings intended for children under

4 years of age to use with adult assistance. The seats 

and suspension systems of these swings, including the

related hardware, should follow all of the other criteria

for conventional single axis swings.

Handbook for Playground Safety

29

Figure 23. Example of Tot Swings
Full-bucket tot swing seats are recommended to provide

support on all sides of a child (see Figure 23). It is important that such supports do not present a strangulation

hazard. Openings in tot swing seats should conform to

the entrapment criteria in Section 9.6. It is recommended that tot swings be suspended from structures which

are separate from those for other swings, or at least 

suspended from a separate bay of the same structure.

The vertical distance from the underside of an occupied

tot swing seat to the protective surfacing should be no

less than 24 inches to minimize the likelihood that it will

be used by unsupervised young children who may

become stuck in the seat.

12.6.4 Multi-Axis Tire Swings 

Tire swings are usually suspended in a horizontal orientation using three suspension chains or cables connected

to a single swivel mechanism that permits both rotation

and a swinging motion in any axis.

A multi-axis tire swing should not be suspended from a

structure having other swings in the same bay. Attaching

multi-axis swings to composite structures is not recommended.

To minimize the hazard of impact, heavy truck tires

should be avoided. Further, if steel-belted radials are

used, they should be closely examined to ensure that

there are no exposed steel belts that could be a 

potential protrusion or laceration hazard. Plastic materials can be used as an alternative to simulate actual 

automobile tires. Drainage holes should be provided in

the underside of the tire.

The likelihood of hanger mechanism failure is increased

for tire swings, due to the added stress of rotational

movement and multiple occupancy. Special attention to

maintenance is warranted. The hanger mechanisms for

multi-axis tire swings should not have any accessible

pinch points.

The minimum clearance between the seating surface of a

tire swing and the uprights of the supporting structure

should be 30 inches when the tire is in a position closest

to the support structure (see Figure 24).

12.6.5 Swings Not Recommended for Public

Playgrounds 

The following types of swings are not recommended for

use in public playgrounds:

Animal Figure Swings – These are not recommended

because their rigid metal framework is heavy presenting

a risk of impact injury.

Multiple Occupancy Swings – With the exception of tire

swings, swings that are intended for more than one user

are not recommended because their greater mass, as

compared to single occupancy swings, presents a risk of

impact injury.

Rope Swings – Free swinging ropes that may fray or 

otherwise form a loop are not recommended because

they present a potential strangulation hazard.

Swinging Dual Exercise Rings and Trapeze Bars – 

These are rings and trapeze bars on long chains that are

generally considered to be items of athletic equipment

and are not recommended for public playgrounds.

NOTE: The recommendation against the use of exercise

rings does not apply to overhead hanging rings such as

those used in a ring trek or ring ladder (see Figure 14).

12.7 Trampolines

Trampolines are not recommended for use on public

playgrounds.

Handbook for Playground Safety

30

30" Min.

Figure 24. Multi-Axis Tire Swing Clearance
REFERENCES

1. Ratte, Donna J., Morrison, Melanie L., Lerner, Neil D.,

Development of Human Factors Criteria for Playground

Equipment Safety; COMSIS Corporation, March 1990.

2. Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for

Playground Equipment for Public Use, ASTM F1487;

ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken,

PA 19428-2959.

3. Standard Consumer Safety Performance Specification for Home

Playground Equipment, ASTM F1148; ASTM, 100 Barr

Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.

4. Tinsworth, Deborah Kale, Kramer, John T., Playground

Equipment-Related Injuries and Deaths; U.S. Consumer

Product Safety Commission, Washington D.C. 20207,

April 1990.

5. Collantes, Margarita, Evaluation of the Importance of Using

Head Injury Criterion (HIC) to Estimate the Likelihood of Head

Impact Injury as a Result of a Fall Onto Playground Surface

Materials; U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission,

Washington, D.C. 20207, October 1990.

6. Standard Specification for Impact Attenuation of Surface

Systems Under and Around Playground Equipment, ASTM

F1292; ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West

Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959.

7. Title 16, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 1303; Ban

of Lead-Containing Paint and Certain Consumer Products

Bearing Lead-Containing Paint; Superintendent of

Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, D.C. 20402.

8. CPSC Staff Recommendations for Identifying and Controlling

Lead Paint on Public Playground Equipment; U.S.

Consumer Product Safety Commission, Washington,

D.C., 20207, October 1996. Copies also available by

calling 1-800-638-CPSC or visiting the CPSC’s Internet

Web site at http://www.cpsc.gov (go to “What’s

Happening”). 

9. Lee, Brian C., Estimate of Risk of Skin Cancer from

Dislodgeable Arsenic on Pressure Treated Wood Playground

Equipment; U.S. Consumer Product Safety

Commission, Washington, D.C. 20207, January 1990.

10. Consumer Information Sheet: Inorganic Arsenical PressureTreated Wood; American Wood Preservers Institute,

1945 Gallows Road, Suite 550, Vienna, Virginia

22182.7. 

11. U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers

Compliance Board, 1331 F Street, NW, Washington,

DC 20001-1111. 

12. Entrapment Probes and Protrusion Gauges Kit; Safety

Products Dept., National Recreation and Park

Association, 22377 Belmont Ridge Road, Ashburn,

VA 20148-4501.

Handbook for Playground Safety

31
APPENDIX A

Suggested General Maintenance Checklist

The following checklist may be used to determine the

condition of a playground. Numbers in parenthesis refer

to sections in the handbook that discuss these issues.

Place a check mark next to each of the following items

that apply. 

Surfacing (4)

___ The equipment has adequate protective surfacing

under and around it and the surfacing materials

have not deteriorated.

___ Loose-fill surfacing materials have no foreign

objects or debris.

___ Loose-fill surfacing materials are not compacted

and do not have reduced depth in heavy use areas

such as under swings or at slide exits.

General Hazards

___ There are no sharp points, corners or edges on the

equipment (9.1).

___ There are no missing or damaged protective caps

or plugs (9.1).

___ There are no hazardous protrusions and projections

(9.2).

___ There are no potential clothing entanglement 

hazards, such as open S-hooks or protruding bolts

(8.2, and 9.4).

___ There are no pinch, crush, and shearing points or

exposed moving parts (9.5).

___ There are no trip hazards, such as exposed footings

on anchoring devices and rocks, roots, or any other

environmental obstacles in the play area (9.7).

Deterioration of the Equipment (7.2)

___ The equipment has no rust, rot, cracks or splinters,

especially where it comes in contact with the

ground. 

___ There are no broken or missing components on the

equipment (e.g., handrails, guardrails, protective

barriers, steps or rungs on ladders) and there are

no damaged fences, benches, or signs on the 

playground.

___ All equipment is securely anchored.

Security of Hardware (7.2)

___ There are no loose fastening devices or worn 

connections, such as S-hooks.

___ Moving components, such as swing hangers or

merry-go-round bearings, are not worn. 

Drainage (6.1)

___ The entire play area has satisfactory drainage, 

especially in heavy use areas such as under swings

and at slide exits.

Leaded Paint (8.1)

___ The leaded paint used on the playground 

equipment has not deteriorated as noted by 

peeling, cracking, chipping or chalking. 

___ There are no ares of visible leaded paint chips or

accumulation of lead dust.

General Upkeep of Playgrounds (7.2)

___ The entire playground is free from miscellaneous

debris or litter such as tree branches, soda cans,

bottles, glass, etc.

___ There are no missing trash receptacles.

___ Trash receptacles are not full.

NOTES:

Handbook for Playground Safety

32
APPENDIX B

Entrapment Recommendations and 

Test Methods

B1. GENERAL — Any completely-bounded opening (see

Figure B-1) may be a potential head entrapment hazard

and should conform to the recommendations in this

appendix. One exception to these recommendations is

an opening where the ground serves as the lower boundary. Openings in both horizontal and vertical planes present a risk of entrapment. Even those openings which

are low enough to permit a child’s feet to touch the

ground present a risk of strangulation to an entrapped

child, because younger children may not have the necessary cognitive ability and motor skills to withdraw their

heads, especially if scared or panicked.

An opening may present an entrapment hazard if the 

distance between any interior opposing surfaces is

greater than 3.5 inches or less than 9 inches; when one

dimension of an opening is within this potentially hazardous range, all dimensions of the opening should be

considered together to fully evaluate the possibility of

entrapment. The most appropriate method to determine

whether an opening is hazardous is to test it using the

following fixtures, methods, and performance criteria.

These recommendations apply to all playground equipment, both for preschool-age and school-age children;

fixed equipment as well as moving equipment (in its 

stationary position) should be tested for entrapment hazards. There are two special cases for which separate procedures are given: completely-bounded openings where

depth of penetration is a critical issue (see Figure B-2);

and openings formed by non-rigid climbing components.

B2. TEST FIXTURES — Two templates are required 

to determine if completely bounded openings in rigid 

structures present an entrapment hazard.

B2.1 Small Torso Template — The dimensions (see

Figure B-3) of this template are based on the size of the

torso of the smallest user at risk, (5th percentile 2-yearold child). If an opening is too small to admit the template, it is also too small to permit feet first entry by a

child. Because children’s heads are larger than their torsos, an opening that does not admit the small torso

probe will also prevent head first entry into an opening

by a child. 

Handbook for Playground Safety

33

Ground Bounded

(Not Subject to

Entrapment

Requirements)

Low

High

Figure B-1. Examples of Completely 

Bounded Openings

Limiting Depth

Figure B-2. Completely Bounded Openings 

with Limited Depth

6.2 in.

3.5 in.

1.2 in. rad

Figure B-3. Small Torso Template
B2.2 Large Head Template — The dimensions (see

Figure B-4) of this template are based on the largest

dimension on the head of the largest child at risk (95th

percentile 5-year-old child). If an opening is large enough

to permit free passage of the template, it is large enough

to permit free passage of the head of the largest child at

risk in any orientation. In addition, openings large

enough to permit free passage of the Large Head

Template also will not entrap the chest of the largest

child at risk.

These templates can easily be fabricated from 

cardboard, plywood or sheet metal.

B3. RECOMMENDATION — When tested in accordance

with the procedure in B4. below, an opening meets the

recommendation if:

(1) the opening does not admit the Small Torso Template,

or

(2) the opening admits the Small Torso Template and also

admits the Large Head Template.

An opening fails to meet the recommendation if it admits

the Small Torso Template but does not admit the Large

Head Template.

B4. TEST PROCEDURE — Attempt to place the Small

Torso Template in the opening with the plane of the 

template parallel to the plane of the opening. While

keeping it parallel to the plane of the opening, the 

template should be rotated to its most adverse orientation i.e., major axis of template oriented parallel to the

major axis of the opening. If the Small Torso Template

can be freely inserted through the opening, place the

Large Head Template in the opening, again with the

plane of the template parallel to the plane of the opening, and attempt to freely insert it through the opening.

The test procedure is illustrated in Figure B-5.

Handbook for Playground Safety

34

9.0 in. dia.

Figure B-4. Large Head Template

Figure B-5. Entrapment Test for CompletelyBounded Openings

Test procedures and performance criteria for completelybounded openings.

Place the Small Torso Template in the opening with the plane of

the template parallel to the plane of the opening. Rotate the template while keeping it parallel to the opening.

If the Small Torso Template can be inserted into the opening,

place the Large Head Template into the opening so its plane is

parallel to the plane of the opening.

An opening can pass this test when tested in accordance with the

above procedures in one of two ways: 1) the opening does not

admit the Small Torso Template when it is rotated to any orientation about its own axis, or 2) the opening admits the Small Torso

Template and also admits the Large Head Template. An opening

fails the test under the following conditions: the opening admits

the Small Torso Template but does not admit the Large Head

Template.
B5. COMPLETELY-BOUNDED OPENINGS WHERE

DEPTH OF PENETRATION IS A CRITICAL ISSUE —

The configuration of some openings may be such that

the depth of penetration is a critical issue for determining the entrapment potential. This is a special case for

which separate test procedures are necessary.

For example, consider a vertical wall or some other barrier behind a stepladder. The entrapment potential

depends not only on the dimensions of the opening

between adjacent steps but also on the horizontal space

between the lower boundary of the opening and the barrier. A child may enter the opening between adjacent

steps feet first and may proceed to pass through the

space between the rear of the lower step and the barrier

and become entrapped when the child’s head is unable

to pass through either of these two openings. In effect,

there are openings in two different planes each of which

has the potential for head entrapment and should, therefore, be tested.

Figure B-6 illustrates these two planes for a stepladder as

well as for a generic opening. Plane A is the plane of the

completely bounded opening in question and Plane B is

the plane of the opening encompassing the horizontal

space between the lower boundary of the opening in

Plane A and the barrier that should also be tested

against the entrapment recommendations.

The procedures and performance criteria for testing

openings where the depth of penetration is a critical

issue depend on a series of questions, as described

below. 

The first step is to determine whether or not the smallest

user at risk can enter the opening in Plane A. The Small

Torso Template is used to test this opening as follows:

Place the Small Torso Template in the opening in Plane A

with its plane parallel to Plane A; rotate the template to

its most adverse orientation with respect to the opening

while keeping it parallel to Plane A. Does the opening in

Plane A admit the Small Torso Template in any orientation when rotated about its own axis?

NO — If the opening in Plane A does not admit the Small

Torso Template in any orientation, then the opening is

small enough to prevent either head first or feet first

entry by the smallest user at risk and is not an entrapment hazard. The opening meets the recommendations.

YES — If the opening in Plane A admits the Small Torso

Template, then the smallest user at risk can enter the

opening in Plane A. The entrapment potential depends

on whether or not the smallest user at risk can also enter

the opening in Plane B. The Small Torso Template is

again used to test this opening as follows: With the plane

of the Small Torso Template parallel to the opening in

Plane B and with the template’s major axis (i.e., the 6.2-

inch dimension) parallel to Plane A, does the opening in

Plane B admit the Small Torso Template?

NO — If the opening in Plane B does not admit the Small

Torso Template, then it is small enough to prevent head

or feet first entry by the smallest user at risk. Therefore

the depth of penetration into the opening in plane A is

insufficient to result in entrapment of the smallest user at

risk. The opening meets the recommendations.

YES — If the opening in Plane B admits the Small Torso

Template, then the smallest user at risk can enter the

opening in Plane B feet first. The entrapment potential

depends on whether or not the Large Head Template

can exit the opening in Plane A when tested as follows: 

Place the Large Head Template in the opening in Plane A

with its plane parallel to Plane A. Does the opening in

Plane A admit the Large Head Template?

Handbook for Playground Safety

35

Plane

B

Plane A

Plane A

Plane B

Figure B-6. Examples of Completely-Bounded

Openings Where Depth of Penetration is a 

Critical Issue
NO — If the opening in Plane A does not admit the

Large Head Template, then a child whose torso can

enter the opening in Plane A as well as the opening in

Plane B, may become entrapped by the head in the

opening in Plane A. The opening does not meet the

recommendations.

YES — If the opening in Plane A admits the Large Head

Template, then the largest user at risk can exit the opening in Plane A. The entrapment potential depends on

whether or not the largest user at risk can also exit the

opening in Plane B. The Large Head Template is used to

test this as follows:

With the plane of the Large Head Template parallel to

the opening in Plane B, does the opening in Plane B

admit the Large Head Template?

NO — If the opening in Plane B does not admit the Large

Head Template, then the largest user at risk cannot exit

the opening in Plane B. This presents an entrapment hazard because a child’s torso may enter the openings in

Plane A and Plane B, and a child’s head may pass

through the opening in Plane A but become entrapped

in the opening in Plane B. The opening does not meet

the recommendations.

YES — If the opening in Plane B admits the Large 

Head Template, then the largest user at risk can exit the

opening in Plane B so there is no entrapment hazard.

The openings in Plane A and Plane B meet the recommendations.

B6. Non-Rigid Openings — Climbing components such

as flexible nets are also a special case for the entrapment tests because the size and shape of openings on

this equipment can be altered when force is applied,

either intentionally or simply when a child climbs on or

falls through the openings. Children are then potentially

at risk of entrapment in these distorted openings. 

B6.1 Test Fixtures — The procedure for determining

conformance to the entrapment recommendations for

non-rigid openings requires two three-dimensional test

probes which are illustrated in Figures B-7 and B-8 and

are applied to an opening in a non-rigid component with

Handbook for Playground Safety

36

1.0 in.

6.2 in.

5.2 in.

4.0 in.

3.5 in.

1.2 in. Rad. 0.7 in. Rad.

0.5 in.

Figure B-7. Small Torso Probe

1.0 in.

4.0 in.

8.0 in.

9.0 in. dia.

Figure B-8. Large Head Probe
a force of up to 50 pounds. These test probes may be

purchased from NRPA [12].

B6.2 Recommendations — When tested in accordance

with the procedure in B6.3 below, a non-rigid opening

may meet the recommendations in one of two ways:

(1) The opening does not permit complete passage of

the Small Torso Probe when tested in accordance with

the procedure in B6.3 below.

(2) The opening allows complete passage of the Small

Torso Probe and the Large Head Probe when tested in

accordance with the procedure in B6.3 below.

A non-rigid opening does not meet the entrapment 

recommendations if it allows complete passage of the

Small Torso Probe but does not allow complete passage

of the Large Head Probe.

B6.3 Test Procedure — Place the Small Torso Probe in

the opening, tapered end first, with the plane of its base

parallel to the plane of the opening. While keeping its

base parallel to the plane of the opening, rotate the

probe to its most adverse orientation (major axis of

probe parallel to major axis of opening). Determine

whether the probe can be pushed or pulled through the

opening by a force no greater than 50 pounds. If the

Small Torso Probe cannot pass completely through the

opening, it meets the recommendations.

If the Small Torso Probe passes completely through the

opening, place the Large Head Probe in the opening

with the plane of its base parallel to the plane of the

opening. Again attempt to push or pull the probe

through the opening with a force no greater than 50

pounds. If the Large Head Probe can pass completely

through the opening, it meets the recommendations.

Handbook for Playground Safety

37
APPENDIX C

Summary Characteristics of Organic and

Inorganic Loose-Fill Materials, and Unitary

Synthetic Materials

ORGANIC LOOSE MATERIAL

wood chips, bark mulch, engineered wood fibers, etc.

Fall Absorbing Characteristics

• Cushioning effect depends on air trapped within and

between individual particles, and pre-supposes an adequate

depth of material. See Table 1 for performance data.

Installation/Maintenance

• Should not be installed over existing hard surfaces (e.g.,

asphalt, concrete). 

• Requires a method of containment (e.g., retaining barrier,

excavated pit).

• Requires good drainage underneath material.

• Requires periodic renewal or replacement and continuous

maintenance (e.g., leveling, grading, sifting, raking) to 

maintain appropriate depth and remove foreign matter. 

Advantages

• Low initial cost.

• Ease of installation.

• Good drainage.

• Less abrasive than sand.

• Less attractive to cats and dogs (compared to sand).

• Attractive appearance.

• Readily available.

Disadvantages

The following conditions may reduce cushioning potential:

• Rainy weather, high humidity, freezing temperatures.

• With normal use over time, combines with dirt and other 

foreign materials.

• Over time, decomposes, is pulverized, and compacts 

requiring replenishment.

• Depth may be reduced by displacement due to children’s

activities or by material being blown by wind.

• Can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes.

• Subject to microbial growth when wet.

• Conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g., broken glass,

nails, pencils, and other sharp objects that can cause cut 

and puncture wounds).

• Spreads easily outside of containment area.

• Can be flammable.

• Subject to theft by neighborhood residents for use as mulch.

INORGANIC LOOSE MATERIAL

sand and gravel 

Fall Absorbing Characteristics

• See Table 1 for performance data.

Installation/Maintenance

• Should not be installed over existing hard surfaces (e.g.,

asphalt, concrete). 

• Method of containment needed (e.g., retaining barrier, 

excavated pit).

• Good drainage required underneath material.

• Requires periodic renewal or replacement and continuous

maintenance (e.g., leveling, grading, sifting, raking) to 

maintain appropriate depth and remove foreign matter.

• Compacted sand should periodically be turned over, 

loosened, and cleaned.

• Gravel may require periodic break up and removal of 

hard pan. 

Advantages

• Low initial cost.

• Ease of installation.

• Does not pulverize.

• Not ideal for microbial growth.

• Nonflammable.

• Materials are readily available.

• Not susceptible to vandalism except by contamination.

• Gravel is less attractive to animals than sand.

Disadvantages

The following conditions may reduce cushioning potential:

• Rainy weather, high humidity, freezing temperatures.

• With normal use, combines with dirt and other foreign

materials.

• Depth may be reduced due to displacement by children’s

activities and sand may be blown by wind.

• May be blown or thrown into children’s eyes.

• May be swallowed.

• Conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g., broken glass,

nails, pencils, and other sharp objects that can cause cut 

and puncture wounds).

Sand

• Spreads easily outside of containment area.

• Small particles bind together and become less cushioning

when wet; when thoroughly wet, sand reacts as a rigid 

material.

• May be tracked out of play area on shoes; abrasive to floor

surfaces when tracked indoors; abrasive to plastic materials.

• Adheres to clothing.

• Susceptible to fouling by animals.

Handbook for Playground Safety

38
Gravel

• Difficult to walk on.

• If displaced onto nearby hard surface pathways, could 

present a fall hazard.

• Hard pan may form under heavily traveled areas.

INORGANIC LOOSE MATERIAL

shredded tires 

Fall Absorbing Characteristics

• See Table 1 for performance data. Manufacturer should be

contacted for information on Critical Height of materials

when tested according to ASTM F1292.

Installation/Maintenance

• Should not be installed over existing hard surfaces (e.g.,

asphalt, concrete).

• Method of containment needed (e.g., retaining barrier, 

excavated pit).

• Good drainage required underneath material.

• Requires continuous maintenance (e.g., leveling, grading, 

sifting, raking) to maintain appropriate depth and remove

foreign matter.

Advantages

• Ease of installation.

• Has superior shock absorbing capability.

• Is not abrasive.

• Less likely to compact than other loose-fill materials.

• Not ideal for microbial growth.

• Does not deteriorate over time.

Disadvantages

• Is flammable.

• Unless treated, may cause soiling of clothing.

• May contain steel wires from steel belted tires. 

Note: Some manufacturers provide a wire-free guarantee.

• Depth may be reduced due to displacement by 

children’s activities.

• May be swallowed.

UNITARY SYNTHETIC MATERIALS

rubber or rubber over foam mats or tiles, poured in place

urethane and rubber compositions

Fall Absorbing Characteristics

• Manufacturer should be contacted for information on Critical

Height of materials when tested according to ASTM F1292.

Installation/Maintenance

• Some unitary materials can be laid directly on hard 

surfaces such as asphalt or concrete. Others may require

expert under-surface preparation and installation by the

manufacturer or a local contractor. Materials generally

require no additional means of containment. Once installed,

the materials require minimal maintenance.

Advantages

• Low maintenance.

• Easy to clean.

• Consistent shock absorbency.

• Material not displaced by children during play activities.

• Generally low life cycle costs.

• Good footing (depends on surface texture).

• Harbor few foreign objects.

• Generally no retaining edges needed. 

• Is accessible to the handicapped.

Disadvantages

• Initial cost relatively high.

• Undersurfacing may be critical for thinner materials.

• Often must be used on almost level uniform surfaces.

• May be flammable.

• Subject to vandalism (e.g., ignited, defaced, cut).

• Full rubber tiles may curl up and cause tripping.

• Some designs susceptible to frost damage.

Handbook for Playground Safety

39
APPENDIX D

Description of Loose-Fill Surfacing 

Materials in Table 1

1. Wood Chips — Random sized wood chips, twigs, and

leaves collected from a wood chipper being fed tree

limbs, branches, and brush.

2. Double Shredded Bark Mulch — Similar to shredded

mulch commonly used by homeowners to mulch

shrubs and flower beds.

3. Engineered Wood Fibers — Relatively uniform sized

shredded wood fibers from recognized hardwoods.

Sample contained no bark or leaves.

4. Fine Sand — Particles of white sand purchased in

bags marked “play sand.” The material was passed

through wire-cloth screens of different sizes in accordance with ASTM Standard Method C136-84a and

yielded the following results:

Screen Size Percent Passing Through Screen

#16 100

#30 98

#50 62

#100 17

#200 0–1

5. Coarse Sand — Sample was obtained from a supplier

to the landscaping and construction trades. ASTM

C136-84a test results were:

Screen Size Percent Passing Through Screen

#4 98

#8 73

#16 4

#30 1

#50 0–1

6. Fine Gravel — Sample was obtained from a supplier

to the residential landscaping market. Gravel particles

were rounded and were generally less than 3/8 inch in

diameter. ASTM C136-84a test results were:

Screen Size Percent Passing Through Screen

3/8 inch 100

#3 1/2 93

#4 65

#8 8 

#16 5

#30 4 

7. Medium Gravel — Particles were rounded as found in

river washed or tumbled stone. ASTM C136-84a test

results were:

Screen Size Percent Passing Through Screen

1/2 inch 100

3/8 inch 80

5/16 inch 58

#3 1/2 20

#4 8

#8 7

#16 3

8. Shredded Tires — No impact attenuation tests have

been conducted by CPSC on these materials. The size

of the particles and the method by which they are

produced may vary from one manufacturer to another. Therefore, consumers seeking to install such 

materials as a protective surfacing should request test

data from the supplier showing the critical height of

the material when tested in accordance with ASTM

F1292. In addition, a guarantee should be obtained

from the supplier that the material is free from steel

wires or other contaminants. 

Handbook for Playground Safety

40
APPENDIX E

Noteworthy Changes to the 

1997 Handbook

Maximum Equipment Height

• Added maximum height recommendations for 

horizontal ladders for both preschool-age and 

school-age children (12.1.5) and a maximum height

recommendation for swings for preschool-age children

(12.6.2). These recommendations were added to 

minimize fall injuries. 

Surfacing

• Added information on the use of shredded tires as a 

protective surfacing material (Table 1 and Appendices 

C and D). CPSC has received many questions on the

shock absorbing properties of shredded tires. While

CPSC has not conducted tests on these materials, test

data obtained from manufacturers indicates they have 

superior shock absorbing properties and should be 

considered as a possible protective surfacing material. 

Maintenance

• Revised the maintenance checklist at Appendix A to

make it easier to keep public playgrounds maintained 

for greater safety.

Lead Paint

• Added information on how to address playground 

equipment with leaded paint (8.1). During 1996, it was

discovered that a number of older playgrounds had

equipment with paint containing a high level of lead.

This new information regarding lead in paint was 

added to draw attention to this problem and provide

information on how to eliminate it.

Use Zones

• Revised recommendations on use (fall) zones to 

permit use (fall) zones of certain equipment to overlap

(5.1.1). Requiring a 12 foot separation between 

individual pieces of stationary equipment is believed

to be excessive and has been burdensome to some

child care facilities with limited space for a playground. CPSC does not believe that the reduction 

in use zones will increase the likelihood of injuries

resulting from falls.

• Added use zone recommendations for tot swings

(5.1.3). The use zone to the front and rear of singleaxis swings is based on the maximum trajectory of a

child deliberately jumping from a swing. The CPSC

recognizes that children using tot swings are unlikely

to engage in this behavior and therefore recommends

use zones less than those for conventional singleaxis swings.

Protrusions

• Added recommendations addressing clothing 

entanglement hazard of protrusions on slides and 

protrusions that point upwards (9.4) and a warning

concerning drawstring entanglement (9.2). Incidents 

of clothing and drawstring entanglement on certain

protrusions and other configurations were not 

adequately addressed by the previous general protrusion recommendations in Section 9.2.

Climbing Ropes

• Added recommendation for acceptable climbing ropes

(12.1.7). The addition provides a means to determine

when a rope that is secured at both ends does not 

present a strangulation hazard. The previous edition of

the handbook did not provide a means to determine

when the rope was secured. 

41

Handbook for Playground Safety
Slides

• Changed recommendations for slides with curved

chute cross sections (12.4.4). This change harmonizes

the recommendations for these slides with the 

requirements in the ASTM F1487 voluntary standard.

• Added definition for embankment slides and added

an exit use zone recommendation (12.4.6). These

were added to clarify what is an embankment slide

and what use zone is recommended at the exit.

• Added recommendations for roller slides (12.4.9).

These were added to harmonize the CPSC recommendations with the ASTM F1487 voluntary standard. 

• Added new figure to clarify how to measure slide

slope (Fig. 18). This was added to clarify the intent 

of the previous recommendation.

Swings

• Added recommendation that fiber ropes not be used

to suspend swings (12.6.1). Fiber ropes that unraveled

during use have been involved in strangulation 

incidents. 

• Added swing seat height recommendations for all

swings (12.6.2 & 12.6.3). These recommendations are

intended to minimize cratering of loose-fill protective

surfacing under the swings.

Seesaws

• Added a recommendation for maximum angle of 

fulcrum seesaws (12.3). The addition is intended to

minimize the likelihood that a child will be propelled

forward when the seesaw reaches its maximum height.

Other Noteworthy Changes

• Revised the introduction to state that the guidelines 

in the handbook do not apply to adult fitness trail

equipment, soft contained play equipment, or water

play facilities (1). The maximum user of playground

equipment covered by the recommendations in this

handbook is a 95th percentile 12 year old. Therefore,

certain dimensions on adult fitness trail equipment

may not apply. Soft contained play equipment is 

generally designed to prevent falls, therefore, the 

surfacing and use zone recommendations may not

apply. Water play facilities are relatively new and 

were not considered when the recommendations in

the handbook were being drafted. 

• Added list of equipment not recommended for

preschool-age children and provided a list identifying

where to find specific recommendations for preschoolage equipment (6.3). These additions are for the 

convenience of persons seeking information on 

playground equipment for preschool-age children.

• Changed the recommendations for the diameter of

handgripping components (10.2.1). At the time the

recommendations for the 1991 handbook were being

drafted ladder rungs were commonly fabricated from

11

⁄4 inch steel pipe having an outside diameter (O.D.) 

of 1.66 inches. Since that time, steel pipe with an 

O.D. of 1.5 inches has become readily available and 

is closer to the optimum size recommended for 

components that will be grasped by a child to 

support full body weight. 

• Changed the recommendation for handrail height on

stairways (10.3.1). Handrail height more appropriate

for preschool-age children has been added.

This Handbook is in the public domain. This copy is in

camera-ready format. It may be reproduced in whole or

in part without permission and in unlimited quantities.

Also, the Handbook, in its entirety or in text only format,

is available for downloading/printing at CPSC’s World

Wide Web site on the Internet. The CPSC Web address

is: http://www.cpsc.gov 

If reproduced, the Commission would appreciate 

knowing how it is used. Send this information:

Office of Information and Public Affairs

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission

Washington, D.C. 20207. 

Handbook for Playground Safety

42
Public Playground Safety Checklist

Here are 10 important tips for parents and community groups to keep in mind to help

ensure playground safety.

1 Make sure surfaces around playground equipment have at least 12 inches of

wood chips, mulch, sand, or pea gravel, or are mats made of safety-tested

rubber or rubber-like materials.

2 Check that protective surfacing extends at least 6 feet in all directions from 

play equipment. For swings, be sure surfacing extends, in back and front, 

twice the height of the suspending bar.

3 Make sure play structures more than 30 inches high are spaced at least 9 feet apart.

4 Check for dangerous hardware, like open "S" hooks or protruding bolt ends. 

5 Make sure spaces that could trap children, such as openings in guardrails orbetween ladder rungs, measure less than 3.5 inches or more than 9 inches.

6 Check for sharp points or edges in equipment.

7 Look out for tripping hazards, like exposed concrete footings, tree stumps, and rocks.

8 Make sure elevated surfaces, like platforms and ramps, have guardrails toprevent falls.

9 Check playgrounds regularly to see that equipment and surfacing are in good condition.

10 Carefully supervise children on playgrounds to make sure they're safe.

For additional copies, write: Playground Checklist, CPSC, Washington, DC 20207; call

CPSC's toll-free hotline at 1-800-638-2772; or visit CPSC's web site at www.cpsc.gov.

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