U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Circular 1341

History of the Topographic Branch (Division)
2 Report Title

Cover: Rodman holding stadia rod 

for topographer George S. Druhot 

near Job, W. Va., 1921.

John F. Steward, a member of the Powell 

Survey, in Glen Canyon, Colorado River. Shown 

with field equipment including gun, pick, map 

case, and canteen. Kane County, Utah, 1872.
Photographs

We have included these photographs as a separate section to illustrate some of the ideas and 

provide portraits of some of the people discussed. These photographs were not a part of the 

original document and are not the complete set that would be required to appropriately represent the manuscript; rather, they are a sample of those available from the time period and 

history discussed.
Figure 1. The Aneroid barometer was 

used to measure differences in elevation. It 

was more convenient than the mercurial or 

cistern barometer but less reliable.

Figure 2. The Odometer was used to measure distance traveled by counting the 

revolutions of a wheel (1871).

Figure 3. The Berger theodolite was a precision instrument used 

for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. Manufactured by 

C.L. Berger & Sons, Boston (circa 1901).

Figure 4. Clarence King, the first Director of the U.S. Geological 

Survey (1879–81).
Figure 5. John Wesley Powell, the second Director of the U.S. 

Geological Survey (1881–94).

Figure 6. A U.S. Geological Survey pack train carries men and 

equipment up a steep slope while mapping the Mount Goddard, 

California, Quadrangle (circa 1907).

Figure 7. John Karl Hillers was the photographer with the Powell 

Surveys and later Chief Photographer of the U.S. Geological 

Survey (circa 1890s).

Figure 8. Copper plate engraving of topographic maps provided 

a permanent record.

Figure 9. U.S. Geological Survey printing presses for use of 

lithostones in printing topographic maps.
Figure 10. Topographic information was transferred from copper 

plates to a lithographic stone for printing.

Figure 11. Plane table 

mounted on a Johnson tripod. 

Inset shows Johnson tripod 

head. 

Figure 12. A 300-foot steel tape used for accurately 

measuring distances.

Figure 13A. Entrance to the Hooe Iron Building (1917). 

Figure 13B. View of the Hooe Iron Building, 

U.S. Geological Survey headquarters, 1330 F 

Street, NW., Washington, D.C. (1917).
Figure 14. Bench marks were established with bronze-stemmed 

disks (left and middle) and caps (right) were stamped with a 

rounded elevation and placed by U.S. Geological Survey survey 

crews.

 Figure 15. When 

a structure was not 

available for cementing 

a stemmed disk, a 4-foot 

long wrought iron post 

with a bronze bench 

mark cap riveted to 

the top was planted by 

survey crews.

Figure 16. Henry Gannett, U.S. Geological Survey Chief 

Geographer in 1882. He is often referred to as the father of 

American Topographic Mapping (1899).

Figure 17. U.S. Geological Survey flag with emblem, a design 

consisting of a white triangle and crossed hammers encircled by 

13 stars on a blue field.
Figure 18. A Keiffel & Esser high standard alidade was used in conjunction with a plane table. The inset shows detail of W.M. 

Beaman’s (U.S. Geological Survey topographer) improvement to the instrument, the Beaman Arc.

Figure 19. U.S. Geological Survey field crew using an automobile. The U.S. 

Geological Survey first used automobiles in the field in 1914 (1918).

Figure 20. Shaded relief maps use the artistic 

illusion of depth to emphasize elevation. They were 

first employed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1913. 
Figure 21. U.S. Geological Survey field crew (1952).

Figure 22. A helicopter is used to transport a U.S. Geological 

Survey survey crew to a remote triangulation station in Utah 

(1953). Helicopters were first used in this capacity by the U.S. 

Geological Survey in 1948.

Figure 23. Pen-and-ink drafting for map production was used 

from the early 1940s through the mid-1950s. Inking contours by 

hand required a light touch to maintain consistent line weight 

(1952).

Figure 24. The scribing method of map production supplanted 

pen-and-ink drafting in the mid-1950s and produced a more legible 

map in a shorter time, and at less cost.
Figure 25. Convergent photography for map 

production employed stereoscopic models projected 

onto a tracing table. This allowed elevations to be 

determined with more accuracy, and at less cost, 

than former methods.

Figure 26. Russell 

K. Bean of the U.S. 

Geological Survey 

patented the ER–55 

stereoplotting instrument, 

which proved superior to 

the Multiplex plotter in 

the compilation phase of 

topographic mapping.
History of the Topographic Branch 

(Division)

By Richard T. Evans and Helen M. Frye

Circular 1341

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2009

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living resources, 

natural hazards, and the environment, visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1-888-ASK-USGS

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visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod

To order this and other USGS information products, visit http://store.usgs.gov

Any use of trade, product, or fi rm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.

Suggested citation:

Evans, R.T., and Frye, H.M., 2009, History of the topographic branch (division): U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1341, 

196 p.

ISBN 978–1–4113–2612–5
iii

Foreword

This “History of the Topographic Branch” is being published to provide a view of the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) mapping program from its inception in the various Surveys of the 19th 

century to approximately 1954. The manuscript has existed as a draft document within the USGS 

since 1955 with several unsuccessful attempts during the 1960s and 1970s to review it and 

make it more complete and up to date. We have chosen not to attempt to update the history for 

the years from 1955 to the present (2009), but rather to preserve the document as it was written 

in the 1950s. We have incorporated peer review comments that were developed in the 1960s 

and 1970s, and effort has been placed on maintaining the manuscript in the voice in which it 

was written with minor reorganizations to aid the reader in following the topical headings of the 

history.

This manuscript utilizes a series of three asterisks separated by spaces (* * *) to indicate points 

of ellipsis. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary for complete grammatical construction, 

but unnecessary for comprehension in the context of a sentence. Ellipsis is also used in the 

omission of material from quotations. 

Tables included in the original manuscript have been referenced in the text, as is now required 

under USGS publication standards. We have included a set of photographs as a separate section 

to illustrate some of the ideas and provide portraits of some of the people discussed. These photographs were not a part of the original document and are not the complete set that would be 

required to appropriately represent the manuscript; rather, they are a sample of those available 

from the time period and history discussed. These photographs also are referenced in the text.

We caution the reader that this is not an interpretative history of the USGS mapping program 

placed in the context of other events; it is more of a non-interpretative chronology including 

facts, dates, and events taken from USGS reports, Survey Orders, memoranda, and other documentation. The writing is somewhat uneven and not wholly consistent, some items are emphasized more than others, and all facts in the document have not been completely verifi ed. In many 

cases, particularly in the latter one-half of the document, Survey Orders and memoranda are 

included verbatim in the manuscript. Notwithstanding these comments, we think the document 

provides a valuable contribution to understanding the history and methods of topographic mapping in the United States.

The USGS is indebted to Thomas C. Miller, a 37.5-year employee of the USGS. Upon his retirement, he took a copy of this manuscript and over a period of several years scanned the document, converted the scanned pages to text, performed an exhaustive edit of the manuscript 

incorporating peer review comments that had been marked on the paper manuscript, and 

brought it to the USGS in March 2009, asking if it could be published. It is somewhat fortuitous 

that the year he brought the manuscript forward for publication is the 125th anniversary of the 

USGS topographic mapping program.

About the authors: Richard Tranter Evans served more than 50 years with the USGS before his 

retirement in 1951 as the Survey’s senior topographer. He drew the fi rst topographic maps of 

Pikes Peak, the Grand Canyon, and Salt Lake City. He was an “instrumentman” in the Washington, D.C., surveys in 1910–11, and a fi eld engineer in 1915. He also was detailed to the National 
iv

Park Service as an Acting Superintendent in Zion National Park in 1925–26, and in Hawaii in 

1927. He was a member of the Cosmos Club, the Explorer’s Club of New York, the American 

Society of Civil Engineers, and a Member Emeritus of the American Society for Photogrammetry. 

After his retirement, he served as secretary and executive treasurer for the American Congress 

on Surveying and Mapping. He received the Meritorious Service Award of the Department of 

Interior in 1951.

Helen M. Frye served the USGS more than 40 years. She was in the Administrative Services 

Section of the Topographic Branch of the USGS and contributed the Administration chapter to “A 

Manual of Topographic Instructions” published in 1928. She was a member of the Special Committee, which supported employee issues such as retirement notifi cations.

Eric W. Constance

Chief, Applied Research and Technology

National Geographical Technical Operations Center
v

Preface

This book is the result of many hours of research and personal recollections of Richard T. Evans 

and Helen M. Frye and was compiled and organized during the mid-1950s. Included are a number of documents that were considered worthy of preservation, as well as several diary excerpts 

from the early days. The draft had undergone one or more peer reviews but was never published; however, it is apparent that the peer review process continued for nearly 20 years. This 

editor, sensing the importance of this work, decided to take the old, age-blackened manuscript, 

and scan it. By using modern optical character recognition, and recovering text that had faded, 

a digital fi le was produced. Where practical, the peer review notes were incorporated into the 

fi nal text.

This is a history of the U.S. Geological Survey, Topographic Branch (as it was then called), from 

its inception through the mid-1950s. No attempt has been made to extend the work to the present day (2009); this would be a monumental undertaking.

The original charter of the U.S. Geological Survey, Topographic Branch, authorized the completion of the entire country on a large scale. At the time this manuscript was compiled the task 

was still far from completion, and would not be realized for more than 30 years.

The editor’s interest in history, especially of an organization with which he had spent nearly 40 

years of a career that included most phases of topographic mapping, provided the incentive for 

the task of scanning and proofi ng the manuscript. Both content and form have been preserved 

from the original. In addition, an index has been compiled by the editor and appended to the 

work.

This history includes many warm personal glimpses of those who pioneered the organization 

that has contributed so much to the development of this great Nation, as well as insight into 

the many instrumentation and procedural inventions that were the products of a host of brilliant 

minds.

The reward of my work on this manuscript is simply the interest of others who might read it.

Thomas C. Miller
vi

Contents

Foreword ........................................................................................................................................................iii

Preface ............................................................................................................................................................v

Predecessor Surveys ....................................................................................................................................1

Introduction............................................................................................................................................1

King Survey (1867–79) ..........................................................................................................................2

Hayden Survey (1867–79).....................................................................................................................2

Powell Survey (1869–79) ......................................................................................................................3

Wheeler Survey (1868–79) ...................................................................................................................3

Early Mapping Methods................................................................................................................................3

Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey ................................................................................5

Events Leading to the Creation of the Geological Survey ..............................................................5

Organization of the Geological Survey ..............................................................................................6

Clarence King, Director ..............................................................................................................6

Region of the Public Lands in the West ..........................................................................6

Division of the Rocky Mountains .............................................................................7

Division of the Colorado ............................................................................................8

Division of the Great Basin .......................................................................................8

Division of the Pacifi c ...............................................................................................8

John Wesley Powell, Director ...................................................................................................9

The Wingate Division .........................................................................................................9

Previous Federal, State, etc. Surveys .............................................................................................11

District of the North Atlantic ....................................................................................................12

District of the South Atlantic ....................................................................................................12

South Mississippi District .........................................................................................................14

District of the Rocky Mountains ..............................................................................................14

District of the Great Basin ........................................................................................................14

District of the Pacifi c .................................................................................................................14

First State Cooperation—Massachusetts .............................................................................15

Base Map of the United States ...............................................................................................15

Mapping in Texas, Missouri, and Kansas ..............................................................................16

Astronomic and Computing Section .......................................................................................17

Instrument Repairs ....................................................................................................................18

William H. Griffi n’s Diary ...........................................................................................................19

Section of Editing .......................................................................................................................22

Photography................................................................................................................................23

Section of Topographic Drafting .............................................................................................23

Map Scales and Symbols .........................................................................................................23

Engraving of Maps .....................................................................................................................24

Sale of Topographic Maps .........................................................................................................................25

Investigation by Congress ..........................................................................................................................25

Area Surveyed ..............................................................................................................................................29

The General Systems of Maps Needed ...................................................................................................32
vii

The Best Method of Constructing Topographic Maps ..........................................................................32

The Facts to be Represented ............................................................................................................32

Method of Representing Topographic Facts ..................................................................................33

The Scale..............................................................................................................................................33

The Planetable and Alidade ..............................................................................................................33

The Bumstead Tripod .........................................................................................................................34

Base Lines ............................................................................................................................................34

Traversing with Wheelbarrow ..........................................................................................................35

Washington Clubs and Societies ..............................................................................................................35

The Cosmos Club.................................................................................................................................35

The National Geographic Society ....................................................................................................36

The Triangle Club ................................................................................................................................36

The Quadrangles .................................................................................................................................36

Twenty-Year Club ................................................................................................................................36

Powell Irrigation Survey .............................................................................................................................38

The Hydraulic Branch of Powell’s Irrigation Survey .....................................................................38

Tenth Anniversary ........................................................................................................................................40

State Cooperation ........................................................................................................................................40

Mapping in Idaho .........................................................................................................................................41

Mapping Accomplished (1889–90) ............................................................................................................41

Mapping in North and South Dakota ........................................................................................................41

Appropriations and Reorganization ..........................................................................................................41

The Cuvier Prize ...........................................................................................................................................42

Primary Traverse ..........................................................................................................................................42

First Map Revision .......................................................................................................................................43

Manual of Topographic Methods ..............................................................................................................43

Walcott Becomes Director .........................................................................................................................43

Division of Triangulation ....................................................................................................................44

Division of Topography .......................................................................................................................44

Indian Territory Surveys (1896) .........................................................................................................44

Leveling—Wilson-Douglas (1896) ...........................................................................................47

Mapping Forest Reserves—Wilson-Douglas, 1897 (Henry Gannett) .........................................49

Geography and Forestry Survey ..............................................................................................50

Division of Geography and Forestry .......................................................................................50

Idaho–Montana Boundary Line ........................................................................................................52

Northwest Boundary Survey ............................................................................................................53

River Surveys .......................................................................................................................................53

Grand Canyon Maps, Arizona ...........................................................................................................54

Reorganization.....................................................................................................................................56

Survey Pennant and Button ..............................................................................................................57

Twenty-Fifth Anniversary ...................................................................................................................57

Suggestions and Awards ..........................................................................................................58

The Beaman Arc .................................................................................................................................58

The Baldwin Solar Chart ....................................................................................................................59

Government Employees Mutual Benefi t Association ...................................................................59
viii

The Harrison Letter .............................................................................................................................60

First Booklet of Field Assignments ...................................................................................................60

Printed Bulletins ..................................................................................................................................61

Swamp Lands in Minnesota ..............................................................................................................61

Earthquake ...........................................................................................................................................61

Marshall, Chief Geographer ..............................................................................................................62

Special Forest Maps...........................................................................................................................62

Transfers to General Land Offi ce .....................................................................................................62

Alaska Mapping ..................................................................................................................................63

George Otis Smith, Director .......................................................................................................................65

Section of Cartography ......................................................................................................................65

Idaho–Washington Boundary Line ..................................................................................................65

Foreign Assignment, Canada ............................................................................................................65

Mapping the Hawaiian Islands .........................................................................................................66

National Park Service ........................................................................................................................67

Maryland–West Virginia Boundary Line .........................................................................................68

North Carolina–Tennessee Boundary Lines ...................................................................................68

Mapping Mount Rainier, Washington ..............................................................................................68

Mapping Costs..............................................................................................................................................68

Potomac River Survey .................................................................................................................................69

Washington and Vicinity Map ....................................................................................................................70

Survey Order No. 5.......................................................................................................................................70

Survey Order No. 11.....................................................................................................................................70

Winter Work in the White Mountains .......................................................................................................71

Motorcycles and Motorcars ......................................................................................................................72

New Building Authorized ............................................................................................................................72

Shaded Relief Maps ....................................................................................................................................73

The Panama–Pacifi c International Exposition and The Panama–California Exposition .................74

Temporary Field Employment .....................................................................................................................75

Ohio–Michigan Boundary Line ..................................................................................................................76

Survey Order No. 67.....................................................................................................................................76

Survey Order No. 69.....................................................................................................................................76

Survey Order No. 70.....................................................................................................................................76

Survey Order No. 77.....................................................................................................................................76

World War I ...................................................................................................................................................77

Allotments (1907–18)....................................................................................................................................82

Survey Order No. 94.....................................................................................................................................82

Survey Order No. 97.....................................................................................................................................83

Division of West Indian Surveys ................................................................................................................84

Santo Domingo ....................................................................................................................................84

Haiti .......................................................................................................................................................84

Cuba ......................................................................................................................................................86

Puerto Rico...........................................................................................................................................86

American Society of Military Engineers ..................................................................................................87

Board of Surveys and Maps.......................................................................................................................87
ix

Schoolcraft Quadrangle..............................................................................................................................88

Survey Order No. 100...................................................................................................................................89

Vocational Training under the Veterans Bureau ....................................................................................89

Arkansas–Mississippi Boundary Line ......................................................................................................89

Minnesota–Wisconsin Boundary Line .....................................................................................................90

Survey Order No. 106...................................................................................................................................90

Survey Order No. 99 Amendment ..............................................................................................................90

The Brazilian Centennial Exposition (1922) ..............................................................................................90

Colorado River Surveys...............................................................................................................................91

Survey Order No. 114...................................................................................................................................92

Temple Act ....................................................................................................................................................92

Training Films ................................................................................................................................................93

Topographic Instructions ............................................................................................................................95

Topographic Branch Memo ..............................................................................................................95

Maine–New Hampshire Boundary Line ...................................................................................................95

Oklahoma–Texas Boundary Line ...............................................................................................................95

Fiftieth Anniversary......................................................................................................................................96

Fifty Years of Service ...................................................................................................................................96

New Mexico–Texas Boundary Line ..........................................................................................................96

Survey Order No. 128...................................................................................................................................97

Appropriations and Personnel (1929) .......................................................................................................97

Map of Roseau River Valley, Minnesota—Staack and Sadler (1929–30) ...........................................97

Aerial Photography ......................................................................................................................................99

Public Works Administration Projects ...................................................................................................100

Louisiana–Mississippi Boundary Line ....................................................................................................101

Personnel Notes.........................................................................................................................................101

Vermont–New Hampshire Boundary Line .............................................................................................101

Mapping of the Tennessee River Basin .................................................................................................102

Science Advisory Board ...........................................................................................................................103

American Society of Photogrammetry ...................................................................................................104

Topographic Mapping Policy Committee ...............................................................................................105

Special Committee .....................................................................................................................................106

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping ..................................................................................106

World War II................................................................................................................................................106

World War II Record..................................................................................................................................107

Contour and Relief Mapping ..........................................................................................................107

Personnel ...........................................................................................................................................108

Photo Mapping Section ...................................................................................................................108

Relief Shaded Maps .........................................................................................................................108

Survey Order No. 140 Modifi cation ................................................................................................108

Appropriations and Personnel (1943) ............................................................................................108

Pan American Institute of Geography and History ..............................................................................109

Technical Memorandum No. 51 ...............................................................................................................110

Noteworthy Events (1945) .........................................................................................................................110

Memorandum for Field Offi ces ................................................................................................................110
x

Survey Order No. 148.................................................................................................................................110

Memorandum for Division and Section Chiefs .....................................................................................111

Dallas H. Watson, Atlantic Division Engineer .......................................................................................112

Survey Order No. 150.................................................................................................................................112

Survey Order No. 151.................................................................................................................................112

Survey Order No. 152.................................................................................................................................113

Survey Order No. 157.................................................................................................................................113

Survey Order No. 160.................................................................................................................................113

Survey Order No. 162.................................................................................................................................116

Aid for Downed AAF Plane .......................................................................................................................116

Regional Conferences ...............................................................................................................................116

Map Exhibits ...............................................................................................................................................118

Foreign Visitors ...........................................................................................................................................119

Survey Order No. 173.................................................................................................................................122

Survey Order No. 186.................................................................................................................................124

Tours of Duty at Division Headquarters .................................................................................................124

Letter from Chief, Topographic Division .................................................................................................125

Survey Order No. 192.................................................................................................................................125

Survey Order No. 193.................................................................................................................................125

Memorandum to Trimetrogon Section ...................................................................................................126

Topographic Division Bulletin ..................................................................................................................127

Training Course in Topographic Mapping Methods .............................................................................127

Survey Order No. 213.................................................................................................................................128

Topography—The Lay of the Land ..........................................................................................................128

Topography Streamlined and Modernized ............................................................................................129

With New Instruments a More Exact Science .....................................................................................129

Map Information Offi ce .............................................................................................................................130

Systematic Appraisal of Mapping Needs ..............................................................................................130

An Assist to the Air Force .........................................................................................................................130

Foreign Activities of the Topographic Division .....................................................................................130

Summary of Progress ................................................................................................................................131

Inventions ....................................................................................................................................................131

Suggestions Awards .................................................................................................................................132

Award of Excellence .................................................................................................................................132

Superior Accomplishment or Merit Promotion Awards ......................................................................133

Honor Awards .............................................................................................................................................133

Contract Mapping ......................................................................................................................................134

Production Schedule Requirements ..............................................................................................134

American Society of Civil Engineers ......................................................................................................134

Survey Order No. 219.................................................................................................................................135

Survey Order No. 220.................................................................................................................................135

Memorandum from Director to Division Chiefs ....................................................................................136

Topographic Division Personnel Serving on Committees ...................................................................137

State Mapping Advisory Committees .....................................................................................................137

State Cooperation ......................................................................................................................................140
xi

Seventy-Fifth Anniversary ........................................................................................................................143

U.S. Geological Survey 75th Anniversary Observance .......................................................................144

Topographic Mapping (1879–1954) .........................................................................................................144

Gerald FitzGerald, Chief Topographic Engineer ...........................................................................144

“The Helicopter and the Walkie-Talkie in Field Surveys” .................................................147

“Scribing”..................................................................................................................................147

“Convergent Aerial Photography” ........................................................................................148

“The Special Maps Branch” ..................................................................................................148

“The National Topographic Atlas” ........................................................................................149

“Rate of Production of Topographic Maps” ........................................................................149

Summary of Current (1952) Trends In Topographic Mapping Procedures .......................................149

Aerial Photography ...........................................................................................................................149

Basic Horizontal and Vertical Control ...........................................................................................150

Supplemental Vertical Control (Fourth-Order) .............................................................................150

Stereocompilation.............................................................................................................................150

Field Completion ................................................................................................................................150

Map Finishing ....................................................................................................................................150

Tribute to Survey Wives ............................................................................................................................151

Selected Biographies ................................................................................................................................151

Marcus Baker ....................................................................................................................................151

Edward C. Barnard............................................................................................................................151

William M. Beaman ..........................................................................................................................152

Claude H. Birdseye ...........................................................................................................................152

Sumner H. Bodfi sh ............................................................................................................................153

George R. Davis .................................................................................................................................154

Edward M. Douglas ..........................................................................................................................154

Conrad A. Ecklund.............................................................................................................................154

Gerald FitzGerald...............................................................................................................................154

Henry Gannett....................................................................................................................................155

Publications of Henry Gannett ...............................................................................................156

“The Public Domain and an Outline of the History of Changes Made Therein” ..156

“Cessions by the States” ......................................................................................156

“Washington Territory” .........................................................................................156

“A Manual of Topographic Methods” ................................................................157

“Plan of the Map of the United States” .............................................................157

“Scale” ....................................................................................................................157

“Contour Interval” .................................................................................................158

“Size of Sheets” .....................................................................................................158

“Geometric Control” ..............................................................................................158

“Classifi cation of Work” .......................................................................................158

“Origin of Topographic Features” .......................................................................159

Tribute to Henry Gannett .........................................................................................................159

Thomas G. Gerdine ...........................................................................................................................159

Richard U. Goode ..............................................................................................................................160

Fred Graff, Jr ......................................................................................................................................160
xii

William H. Herron ..............................................................................................................................161

Herbert H. Hodgeson ........................................................................................................................161

Willard Drake Johnson ....................................................................................................................161

Daniel Kennedy .................................................................................................................................162

Robert B. Marshall ............................................................................................................................163

T.P. Pendleton .....................................................................................................................................164

Albert Pike ..........................................................................................................................................164

John H. Renshawe ............................................................................................................................165

Carl L. Sadler......................................................................................................................................166

Rufus H. Sargent ...............................................................................................................................166

Glenn S. Smith ...................................................................................................................................167

John G. Staack ..................................................................................................................................167

Frank Sutton .......................................................................................................................................168

Sledge Tatum .....................................................................................................................................168

Almon H. Thompson..........................................................................................................................168

Gilbert Thompson ..............................................................................................................................169

Tribute to Gilbert Thompson ...................................................................................................170

Dallas H. Watson ...............................................................................................................................170

Herbert M. Wilson.............................................................................................................................170

Robert S. Woodward ........................................................................................................................171

Index.............................................................................................................................................................173

Figures

 1–10. Photographs showing—

 1. The Aneroid barometer was used to measure differences in elevation. 

It was more convenient than the mercurial or cistern barometer but 

less reliable.

 2. The Odometer was used to measure distance traveled by counting the

revolutions of a wheel (1871).

 3. The Berger theodolite was a precision instrument used for measuring

horizontal and vertical angles. Manufactured by C.L. Berger & Sons, 

Boston (circa 1901).

 4. Clarence King, the fi rst Director of the U.S. Geological Survey (1879–81)

 5. John Wesley Powell, the second Director of the U.S. Geological Survey

(1881–94).

 6. A U.S. Geological Survey pack train carries men and equipment up a 

steep slope while mapping the Mount Goddard, California, Quadrangle 

(circa 1907).

 7. John Karl Hillers was the photographer with the Powell Surveys and later

Chief Photographer of the U.S. Geological Survey (circa 1890s).

 8. Copper plate engraving of topographic maps provided a permanent record.

 9. U.S. Geological Survey printing presses for use of lithostones in printing

topographic maps.

 10. Topographic information was transferred from copper plates to a

lithographic stone for printing.
xiii

 11–26. Photographs showing—

11. Plane table mounted on a Johnson tripod. Inset shows Johnson tripod 

head.

 12. A 300-foot steel tape used for accurately measuring distances.

 13A. Entrance to the Hooe Iron Building (1917).

 13B. View of the Hooe Iron Building, U.S. Geological Survey headquarters, 

1330 F Street, NW., Washington, D.C. (1917).

 14. Bench marks were established with bronze-stemmed disks (left and 

middle) and caps (right) were stamped with a rounded elevation and 

placed by U.S. Geological Survey survey crews.

 15. When a structure was not available for cementing a stemmed disk, a 

4-foot long wrought iron post with a bronze bench mark cap riveted to the 

top was planted by survey crews.

 16. Henry Gannett, U.S. Geological Survey Chief Geographer in 1882. He is 

often referred to as the father of American Topographic Mapping (1899).

 17. U.S. Geological Survey fl ag with emblem, a design consisting of a white

triangle and crossed hammers encircled by 13 stars on a blue fi eld.

 18. A Keiffel & Esser high standard alidade was used in conjunction with a 

plane table. The inset shows detail of W.M. Beaman’s (U.S. Geological 

Survey topographer) improvement to the instrument, the Beaman Arc.

 19. U.S. Geological Survey fi eld crew using an automobile. The U.S. Geological

Survey fi rst used automobiles in the fi eld in 1914 (1918).

 20. Shaded relief maps use the artistic illusion of depth to emphasize 

elevation. They were fi rst employed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1913.

 21. U.S. Geological Survey fi eld crew (1952).

 22. A helicopter is used to transport a U.S. Geological Survey survey crew to 

a remote triangulation station in Utah (1953). Helicopters were fi rst used in 

this capacity by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1948.

 23. Pen-and-ink drafting for map production was used from the early 1940s

through the mid-1950s. Inking contours by hand required a light touch to

maintain consistent line weight (1952).

 24. The scribing method of map production supplanted pen-and-ink drafting 

in the mid-1950s and produced a more legible map in a shorter time, and at 

less cost.

 25. Convergent photography for map production employed stereoscopic 

models projected onto a tracing table. This allowed elevations to be 

determined with more accuracy, and at less cost, than former methods.

 26. Russell K. Bean of the U.S. Geological Survey patented the ER–55

stereoplotting instrument, which proved superior to the Multiplex plotter 

in the compilation phase of topographic mapping.
xiv

Tables

 1. First personnel roster of U.S. Gological Survey.......................................................................7

 2. Error sources in barometric observations..............................................................................13

 3. Areas surveyed during fi scal year 1885 ..................................................................................17

 4. Individuals listed in the 1917 banquet programs ...................................................................37

 6. Topographic Division Sections .................................................................................................38

 5. Geographic Branch, Rocky Mountain Divisions and Chiefs ...............................................38

 7. Area surveyed by Geographic Branch....................................................................................40

 8. Mapping completed from October 8, 1888, to June 30, 1890 ...............................................41

 9. Appalachian Mountain Region mapped at 1:125,000 ............................................................43

 10. Mapping trends ...........................................................................................................................43

 11. Topographic Branch Organization ...........................................................................................44

 12. Field surveys completed June 30, 1898 ...................................................................................46

 13. Spirit leveling completed July 1, 1896, to June 30, 1897 .......................................................48

 14. Record set by E.L. McNair, 1925 ...............................................................................................48

 15. Reserves examined and reported on, 1897–1905 ..................................................................51

 16. Reorganization of the Topographic Branch, May 1, 1903 ....................................................56

 17. Reorganization of the Topographic Branch, July 1, 1903 .....................................................56

 18. Topographic divisions ................................................................................................................56

 19. Organization and number of persons employed on March 3, 1904 ....................................57

 20. Appropriations and areas mapped, April 30, 1904.................................................................58

 21. Divisions and Chiefs, April 6, 1907 ............................................................................................62

 22. Members of the Topographic Branch who were transferred or detailed to the

National Park Service ................................................................................................................67

 23. Selected 15-minute quads completed in January 1911........................................................69

 24. Funds appropriated for topographic mapping for the fi scal year ending 

June 20, 1911 ...............................................................................................................................69

 25. Field engineers who worked on the Washington, D.C., and vicinity map .........................70

 26. Topographers assigned to the winter work in the White Mountains ................................71

 27. U.S. Geological Survey employees who served in the military ..........................................80

 28. Roster of Topographic Branch employees that served in the military ..............................81

 29. U.S. Geological Survey employees who chose to remain in the Army .............................80

 30. Topographic mapping allotments for fi scal years 1907–18 ..................................................83

 31. Allotments contributed by States for military surveys .........................................................83

 32. Field work accomplished in the 12 months ending June 30, 1918 ......................................83

 33. Santa Domingo personnel .........................................................................................................85

 34. Articles prepared by Survey topographers for The Military Engineer ..............................88

 35. U.S. Geological Survey appointments to veterans wounded in France ............................89

 36. Contributions to U.S. Gological Survey Bulletin No. 788 ......................................................95

 37. Summary of mapping for 1929 ..................................................................................................97

 38. Appropriations for 1929 ..............................................................................................................97

 39. Appropriations by state for topographic surveys during fi scal year 1929 ........................98

 40. Expended appropriations for 1929 ...........................................................................................99

 41. Science Advisory Board Committee members ....................................................................103
xv

42. Topographic Division employees who served with the American Society of

Photogrammetry .......................................................................................................................105

43. Articles by Topographic Division employees published in “Photogrammetric

Engineering” ..............................................................................................................................105

44. Topographic Division employees who served on The American Congress on

Surveying and Mapping ...........................................................................................................107

45. Members of the Topographic Branch who died with the Armed Services ....................107

46. Stereophotogrammetric map compilation from aerial photographs, as of

September 1945 .........................................................................................................................108

47. Appropriations to be expended, 1943 ....................................................................................109

48. Organizational titles in the Topographic Division, as of January 1, 1944 ........................123

49. Revised listing of the states and territories in each region ...............................................128

50. U.S. patents issued to U.S. Geological Survey photogrammetrists .................................131

51. Selected members of the Topographic Branch who won Suggestions Awards

through 1954 ..............................................................................................................................132

52. Members of the Topographic Branch who have received Superior

Accomplishment or Merit Promotion rewards from February 1944 to June 1954 .........133

53. Personnel of the Topographic Branch who have received Honor Awards ....................133

54. First members of the Topographic Branch admitted to membership in the

American Society of Civil Engineers .....................................................................................135

55. Topographic Branch members who served on various committees of the

Surveying and Mapping Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers ...............135

56. Topographic Division personnel serving on committees ...................................................137

57. Cooperators with the Topographic Branch ..........................................................................140

58. Areas mapped in 1954 ..............................................................................................................144

59. Funds expended annually in fi scal years..............................................................................145
xvi

Conversion Factors and Datums

Inch/Pound to SI

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.)

inch (in.)

foot (ft)

mile (mi)

mile, nautical (nmi)

2.54

25.4

 0.3048

1.609

1.852

centimeter (cm)

millimeter (mm)

meter (m)

kilometer (km)

kilometer (km)

Area

acre

acre

acre

acre

square foot (ft2

)

square foot (ft2

)

square inch (in2

)

section (640 acres or 1 square mile)

square mile (mi2

)

square mile (mi2

)

4,047

0.4047

0.4047

0.004047

929.0

 0.09290

6.452

259.0

259.0

 2.590

square meter (m2

)

hectare (ha)

square hectometer (hm2

) 

square kilometer (km2

)

square centimeter (cm2

)

square meter (m2

)

square centimeter (cm2

)

square hectometer (hm2

) 

hectare (ha)

square kilometer (km2

) 

Mass

ounce, avoirdupois (oz)

pound, avoirdupois (lb)

ton, short (2,000 lb)

ton, long (2,240 lb)

28.35

0.4536

 0.9072

1.016

gram (g) 

kilogram (kg) 

megagram (Mg) 

megagram (Mg) 

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

 °C=(°F-32)/1.8

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1929 

(NAVD 29).

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to theNorth American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27).

Elevation, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.
History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

By Richard T. Evans and Helen M. Frye

Predecessor Surveys

Introduction

From a very early period of the world’s existence, man 

has endeavored to represent the earth’s surface in a graphic 

form for the information of his fellow men, realizing that no 

oral or written description is capable of setting forth topographic facts so vividly and so clearly as a map.

Mapping of the areas of the United States began with the 

charting of portions of its coast line by early explorers; the 

need for topographic maps was first recognized during the war 

of the Colonies for independence from Great Britain. On July 

22, 1777, Congress authorized General Washington to appoint:

“Mr. Robert Erskine, or any other person that he 

may think proper, geographer and surveyor of the 

roads, to take sketches of the country and the seat of 

war.”

By several acts during the Revolutionary War, Congress 

provided “geographers” for the armies of the United States, 

some of them with the pay of a colonel, amounting to $60 

a month and allowances. At the end of the War, a resolution 

of May 27, 1785, continued in service the “geographer of 

the United States” for a period of 3 years. The War Department recognized the necessity of “geographical engineers” 

and requested Congress to authorize their appointment, but it 

was not until the next war that Congress authorized on March 

3, 1813, the appointment of eight topographic engineers and 

eight assistant topographic engineers under the direction of the 

General Staff of the Army. These officers formed the nucleus 

of the first Corps of Topographic Engineers in the Army, and 

that Corps continued to function as an independent unit until 

it was absorbed by the Corps of Engineers in 1863, during the 

Civil War between the States.

Between the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, and the 

outbreak of the Civil War, more than a hundred exploring 

and mapping expeditions were sent into the vast territory 

lying west of the Mississippi River to investigate the natural 

resources of this newly acquired country and to find possible 

locations for wagon roads to the Pacific Coast. These expeditions were sent out by the War Department and were in charge 

of Army officers. It is interesting to note that such generals 

as George G. Meade, J.C. Fremont, Joseph E. Johnston, 

W.F. Smith, John Pope, A.W. Whipple, J.G. Parke, G.K. Warren, and H.L. Abbott, all officers of the Corps of Topographic 

Engineers, had charge of expeditions and were among our 

earliest map makers. Unfortunately, the data obtained by these 

editions were not of sufficient accuracy to serve as a basis 

for topographic maps of value other than in illustrating their 

voluminous reports.

During this early period, numerous surveys were undertaken within the original Thirteen States, by the Federal 

government and by the States. The most important were those 

carried on by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, which 

made an accurate survey of the Atlantic Coastline and established a triangulation system that was of so high a standard as 

to constitute the first and only accurate data for topographic 

mapping obtained before the Civil War. The Coast and Geodetic Survey, while charting the coast and rivers, also mapped 

a strip of country extending a few miles inland, the relief being 

shown by means of hachures, together with contour lines, until 

1846 when the first government topographic map on which 

the relief was shown by contours alone was made, covering an 

area in the vicinity of Boston Harbor. In 1835, however, the 

Geological and Topographical Survey of Maryland had issued 

a map on which the relief was shown by contours, and this is 

believed to be the first contoured map issued in this country.

The outbreak of the Civil War stopped all mapping 

activities other than those needed by the U.S. Army. During 

the war, topographic surveys were carried on throughout the 

war zone under the supervision of the Corps of Engineers, 

the topographers being civilian employees. After the war, the 

country west of the Mississippi again became the center of the 

mapping activities of the government, which had in view the 

development of the national resources of this vast area.

Although between 1867 and 1878 numerous surveys 

were carried on in all parts of the United States, of great value 

for the specific purposes for which they were planned, especially in the survey of proposed railroad, canal, and wagon 

routes, there were only four large, well-equipped organizations 

carrying on systematic topographic surveys under government supervision and support. These were the U.S. Geological 

Exploration of the 40th Parallel (Clarence King, 1867–79), 

under the War Department; the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (Professor F.V. Hayden, 

1867–79), under the Interior Department; the U.S. Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region 
2 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

(Maj. J.W. Powell, 1869–79), under the Smithsonian Institution; and the Geographical Surveys west of the 100th meridian (Capt. George E. Wheeler, C.E., 1868–79), under the War 

Department.

King Survey (1867–79)

The U.S. Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel, 

under the War Department, was authorized by Congress on 

March 2, 1867, by the following act:

“And be it further enacted, That the Secretary of War 

is hereby authorized to direct a geological and topographical exploration of the territory between the 

Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 

including the route or routes of the Pacific Railroad: 

Provided, That the same can be done out of existing 

appropriations.”

This Survey was because of the personal efforts of Clarence King, a 25-year old enthusiast in geology, and he was 

placed in charge of it.

King, a New Englander and graduate of Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University in 1862, set out the following 

year on a horseback trip across the continent in order to study 

the then practically unknown Rocky Mountains. This trip, 

which he and his friend James T. Gardner made on an immigrant train, began in St. Joseph, Mo., occupied several months, 

and was full of incidents. He traveled to California where he 

worked as a volunteer assistant with the Geological Survey 

of that State. When, in 1866, it appeared that the State would 

discontinue appropriations for his work, he decided to return 

to Washington and enlist Federal aid for his survey plan.

Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys, then Chief of Engineers, 

became interested in King’s plan and provided for the start of 

the work, an unexpended balance of appropriations previously 

made for the survey of a military road across the continent. He 

instructed King1

 to examine and describe the geological structures, geographical conditions, and natural resources of a belt 

of country extending from the 120th meridian eastward to the 

105th meridian along the 40th parallel with sufficient expanse 

north and south, approximately 100 miles wide, to include the 

line of the Central and Union Pacific railroads. He also was to 

collect material for detailed maps of the chief mining districts, 

coal fields, salt basins, etc., as well as for a topographic map 

of the region traversed. The latter formed the basis of the 

geologic work. The mapping methods accepted as standard for 

those days and followed by Hayden, Powell, and to a certain 

extent by Wheeler, will be described later.

On July 27, 1867, field work was started with a force 

of 11 professional men consisting of 4 geologists, including 

King, 4 topographers, 1 botanist, 1 zoologist, and 1 photographer. In addition to the military escort of 20 men, there 

were teamsters, cooks, laborers, etc., necessary for the camp 

1

See: “A History of the Water Resources Branch” by Robert Follansbee, 

p. 3, etc.

equipage, transportation, subsistence, and medical attendants. 

Field work was continued during the open seasons of each 

year and was completed November 13, 1872; however, the 

final reports were not completed until 1879, when the King 

Survey was closed.

In 1873, James T. Gardner, Chief Topographer of the 

King Survey, was employed by Hayden. Gardner established a 

topographical base for the mapping by first measuring a base 

line between 6 and 7 miles long near Denver, Colo., chiefly 

along the track of the Kansas Pacific Railroad, and from its 

two ends extending a net of triangulation to control the mapping. To strengthen the net, he later measured baselines at 

Colorado Springs and in the San Luis Valley.

Hayden Survey (1867–79)

The Hayden Survey was conducted in Colorado during the field seasons of 1873 and 1876, and in Wyoming and 

Idaho during 1877 and 1878. A total area of 107,000 square 

miles was covered. The largest portion was in Colorado and a 

map was published on the scale of 4 miles to the inch, with a 

200-foot contour interval. Hayden published 11 annual reports, 

each covering a season’s work. When the Hayden Survey was 

terminated in 1879, much material remained unpublished and 

Hayden was appointed as a geologist in the U.S. Geological 

Survey, in order to prepare the data for publication.

When Nebraska was granted statehood in 1867, the legislature set aside an unexpended balance of $5,000 for a geological survey of Nebraska, said survey to be prosecuted under 

the direction of the Commissioner of the General Land Office; 

upon the recommendation of the Secretary of the Smithsonian 

Institution, Professor Ferdinand V. Hayden was given charge 

of the work.

Hayden was born in Westfield, Mass.; graduated from 

Oberlin College, Ohio; studied at Albany Medical College; 

employed as a geologist and physician with the Warren (1857) 

and Reynolds (1859) explorations of the War Department; 

served as a surgeon in the Union Army during the Civil War; 

and as a professor of mineralogy and geology at the University 

of Pennsylvania.

In 1868, Congress supported the work with an appropriation and directed that his geological explorations be extended 

to Wyoming. In 1869, Hayden was instructed by the Secretary of the Interior to pay special attention to the geological, 

mineralogical, and agricultural resources of Colorado and 

New Mexico, and in 1870 were shifted to Wyoming. In 1871, 

Hayden presented a plan for the geological and geographical 

exploration of the territories of the United States. Congress 

approved and increased the appropriation, and changed the 

name to the U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the 

Territories. The scene of activities became Montana and one 

important result of that season’s field work was the creation of 

Yellowstone National Park. The following year, an ascent of 

the Grand Teton peak in Wyoming was made.
Early Mapping Methods 3

Powell Survey (1869–79)

Maj. John Wesley Powell lost his right arm at the Battle 

of Shiloh, but not his zest for adventure and search for scientific knowledge. As professor of geology and natural history 

in the State Normal University of Illinois, he made a trip with 

students to Colorado in the summer of 1867 for the purpose of 

increasing the geological and zoological collections. The trip 

was repeated the following summer but, instead of returning 

with the students, he pushed farther west with several hunters and trappers and spent the winter on the White River near 

a camp of Ute Indians. There he developed an interest in the 

history and customs of the Indians and in the geography and 

geology of the Colorado River Basin.

Combining his own resources with contributions from 

his scientific friends, Powell organized his famous exploration 

of the Colorado River. On May 24, 1869, Powell’s party of 

10 courageous men in 4 specially constructed boats, began the 

first voyage through the canyons of the Green and Colorado 

Rivers, starting from Green River, Wyo. to the mouth of the 

Virgin River, a distance of 1,000 miles. The party safely navigated this most hazardous and daring river journey and solved 

the mysteries of the mile-deep canyons.

On May 22, 1871, a second voyage was made under a 

Congressional appropriation obtained through the aid of Powell’s associates of war days, then in Congress. Appropriations 

were continued each year for the explorations of the Colorado 

River and adjacent territory, under the supervision of the 

Smithsonian Institution until 1874, when the supervision was 

assigned to the Interior Department. That year Powell’s plan to 

connect his surveys with those of King on the north and those 

of Hayden on the east was approved, and his survey acquired 

the official title of “Geographical and Geological Survey of 

the Rocky Mountain Region.” Powell’s territory embraced the 

spectacular temples and chasms of the Grand Canyon and the 

painted cliffs of southern Utah. His parties included such artists as John H. Renshawe and William H. Holmes, whose colored illustrations enhanced his reports. The value that Powell 

placed upon topographic mapping is shown by the fact that for 

the work of one or two geologists he employed four topographers. The topographic base maps were published as 1 degree 

sheets with contour interval of 250 feet. The total area covered 

from 1867 to 1878 was 67,000 square miles.

Wheeler Survey (1868–79)

Early in 1871, the War Department resumed explorations 

of the West, which had been interrupted by the war between 

the States, and inaugurated the “U.S. Geographical Survey of 

the 100th Meridian.” Lt. George E. Wheeler, an engineer officer, was placed in charge of the Survey. The assigned territory 

was south of the Central Pacific Railroad in eastern Nevada 

and Arizona, and in 1872 it was extended to include the entire 

region west of the 100th meridian.

Lieutenant Wheeler realized the importance of topographic maps. He knew that foreign governments were having 

their domains topographically mapped as a military necessity 

and that U.S. Army officers had charge of such work. He considered “The topographic as the indispensable, all-important 

survey * * * which underlies every other, including also the 

graphic basis for the economic and scientific examinations of 

the country * * * This has been the main or principal general 

survey in all civilized countries.”

The Wheeler Survey in eight field seasons covered 

333,000 square miles in Southern California, New Mexico, 

Arizona, Utah, and Nevada. Mapping was done on the scale 

of 2 miles to 1 inch. Topographic atlas sheets to the number of 

75, chiefly hachure maps on the scale of 8 miles to 1 inch were 

issued, and the final results of the Survey were published by 

the War Department in seven volumes.

Early Mapping Methods

When the King Survey began in 1867, King and several 

of his assistants (J.T. Gardner, A.D. Wilson, and F.A. Clark) 

already had some years of mapping experience in California. 

Soon after the Geological Survey of California was started 

in 1860, Director Whitney secured the services of a young 

German engineer, Charles F. Hoffman, who possessed artistic 

talents, and who devised the methods of topographic mapping 

and taught them to others. He was the first to carry triangulation from peak to peak without special signal stations, and the 

first to use a planetable in the mountains for recording sight 

lines graphically, instead of reading horizontal angles with a 

transit.

A heavy planetable, not suitable for mountain work, was 

used by the Army Engineers in surveying sites for the construction of fortifications2

 and by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey for small open areas near the coast.3 The one used by 

Hoffman was a folding table.4 An 18-inch open sight alidade 

completed the planetable outfit.

By far the greater amount of the field work was accomplished with the gradienter, a small transit, having a small telescope with striding level, 3-inch vertical and 3-inch horizontal 

circles both reading to minutes, mounted on a planetable 

tripod. With it the topographer, from primary and secondary 

triangulation stations that usually were on the highest peaks, 

read many horizontal and vertical angles to peaks, summits, 

ends of ridges, forks of creeks, and other salient features. The 

angles and descriptions of points sighted were duly recorded 

in a notebook by the topographer’s assistant, who also made a 

drainage sketch and a profile sketch of the surrounding country. The area covered was a complete sweep of 360 degrees, 

2

 “Elements of Surveying (1830),” by Charles Davies, Professor of Mathematics at West Point Military Academy.

3

 “The Planetable,” U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Annual Report for 

1880.

4

 Description given under “The Planetable and Alidade,” 1886.
4 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

and the stations were so selected that the limits of work from 

one would reach the limits from those around it. The assistant 

usually was an artist and his panoramic sketches were beautiful and accurate. Another duty of the assistant was to care for 

the barometer, and record its readings.

The four surveys based the elevations for their mapping 

upon a railroad elevation near the starting point for a season’s 

mapping, and checked the elevation, if practicable, before 

accepting it. From there on, dependence was placed upon the 

mercurial, or cistern barometer, for the elevations of multiple 

points. Two mercurial barometers were used, one remaining 

stationary at a known elevation, such as at camp, while the 

other was carried to various points, the heights of which were 

to be determined. They were read synchronously, as were two 

thermometers, at hourly, or other intervals by prearrangement. 

The difference between the two barometric readings gave the 

data for computing the differences in height. Besides the barometric readings, the notes required the entry of the date, time 

of day, and temperature, and then from tables the difference in 

height was computed.

The Guyot’s (Arnold Guyot, 1807–84) and Williamson’s 

(Lt. Col. R.S. Williamson, U.S. Engineers) Tables, from which 

the computations were made, were based on several factors 

involved in atmospheric pressure. Mr. Grove K. Gilbert,5

geologist, devised a new method of computing differences of 

elevation barometrically based on an “atmospheric gradient,” 

involving fewer factors, but requiring two base barometer stations, one as high as the highest of the points the elevations of 

which are to be determined, and the other as low as the lowest 

point. The moving barometer is corrected by reduction, not to 

one base barometer, but to two.

The mercurial barometer, about 30 inches long and a delicate instrument, required careful handling. The safest mode of 

transportation was in a sling on a man’s shoulder, whether the 

man was walking or riding a horse. It frequently was broken, 

but extra glass tubes and a flask of mercury were carried for 

repairs. More convenient was the aneroid barometer (fig. 1), 

a small watchlike instrument, and it gained in favor, notwithstanding its results were less reliable.

In exploring across country, linear distances between 

camps, or astronomic stations or meander stations, were 

determined by elapsed time taken in travel, or by counting the 

paces of men or horses. On the Wheeler Survey, measurements 

along the roads, trails, and water courses were obtained from 

“the number of revolutions, indicated by an odometer (fig. 2), 

of a single wheel attached by shafts and other rigging to an 

animal, usually a mule, ridden by the observer. The actual 

number of revolutions to the mile made by the wheel was 

found, from practical tests, on different classes of traversed 

routes, tables were prepared, and from them the number of 

revolutions could be quickly converted into miles.”

From the combined data recorded in the field notebooks, 

the topographer in the office, during the winter season, plotted 

and drafted the topographic map.

5

 U.S. Geological Survey, Second Annual Report, 1880–81, p. 405–566.

Topographic mapping methods were described in detail 

when Hayden, Powell, Wheeler, Gardner, and others testified 

in hearings before the Committee on Public Lands in Washington on May 13, 1874. The following quotations are taken from 

the testimony of J.T. Gardner, who then was Hayden’s chief 

topographer.

“As a topographer on the State Geological Survey 

of California under Professor Josiah D. Whitney, 

I made, in connection with Mr. Clarence King, 

Assistant Geologist, a series of experiments on the 

methods of surveying mountain regions, to produce 

maps suited to geological purposes. These experiments were continued from 1863 to 1867. We tried 

the meandering method—the method of a compasstriangulation resting on a meandered base; of anunsystematic triangulation, with a theodolite, the whole 

resting on an astronomical base; then the rectangular 

method of sectionizing as used by the General Land 

Office, and lastly a regularly developed system of 

well-conditioned and carefully observed triangles 

resting on an astronomical base. The last was the 

best of all the methods tried, and the meandering 

was the poorest.

“We found that topography taken by the meandering method was utterly unreliable, except the minor 

details along the routes traveled.

“Inaugurating the trigonometric method of mapping 

for Professor Hayden in 1873, a base line between 

6 and 7 miles long was carefully measured in the 

vicinity of Denver, chiefly along the tracks of the 

Kansas Pacific Railroad. It was twice measured with 

a steel tape, under 20 pounds strain, and the temperature taken every 5 minutes. The base was leveled 

and duly corrected for temperature and level. The 

latitude and longitude of one end of the base had 

been determined by astronomic observations, as also 

the azimuth of the line. From the two ends of the 

base line a system of primary triangles was carefully 

expanded by observing upon signals erected for the 

purpose. All the angles of the triangles were repeatedly observed with a 15-inch theodolite (fig. 3) with 

an 8-inch circle graduated to 10 inches and reading easily to 5 inches The quality of the work was 

determined by the test whether the three observed 

angles of the triangles when corrected for spherical 

excess sum up to 180 degrees. That by which they 

vary from 180 degrees is error.

“A secondary triangulation, resting upon the primary, was carried by the topographers over the same 

area. The primary triangles ranged from 30 to 60 

miles in the length of their sides, while the secondary averaged 8 miles. The triangulation network 

extended over 17,000 square miles and was con-
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 5

nected with check bases at Colorado Springs and in 

San Luis Valley * * *.

“Experience has clearly demonstrated that the topography must be taken from the peaks looking down 

on the country, not from the valleys looking up * * *. 

Also, the geologist or topographer finds no difficulty 

in doing his large share of personal scientific labor 

besides guiding the general movements of the party. 

The energizing effect of a leader who is doing a large 

part of the practical scientific work is found most 

beneficial upon the others engaged. All are stimulated by his example.”

In a report by Gardner, a few years later, he stated that 

in an area of about 16,800 square miles in Colorado, topographers found it necessary for their work to locate and measure 

about 7,000 points. For a similar area, the Wheeler Survey, 

doing its work from below and along its route of travel, published on its map only 40 elevations.

Inception and Early Years of the 

Geological Survey

Events Leading to the Creation of the 

Geological Survey

In the spring of 1874, the mounting rivalry of the three 

Surveys for territory and for appropriations became a serious 

concern of the Congress. The King Survey had completed its 

field work in 1872. The three remaining Surveys were engaged 

in broadly similar work in the same general region, carried 

on by two separate Departments, War and Interior. None had 

been limited to districts. Authorizations indicated vaguely that 

Hayden’s area included the Territories, Powell’s the Rocky 

Mountain Region, and Wheeler’s simply “west of the 100th 

meridian.” They were duplicating one another’s work in many 

places and were presenting claims for appropriations in a manner to provoke the Congress into discontinuing the Surveys.

King’s influence with leading scientific men and his tactful handling of the situation before the Congress averted the 

threatened cessation of the western surveys.6

 As a result, the 

House of Representatives on April 15, 1874, passed the following resolution:

Resolved “That the President of the United States 

be requested to inform the House what geographical and geological surveys, under different departments and branches of the Government, are operating in the same and contiguous areas of territory 

west of the Mississippi River, and whether it be not 

6

 Biographical sketch of Clarence King: U.S. Geological Survey, 23d 

Annual Report, 1902, p. 203.

practicable to consolidate them under one department, or to define the geographical limits to be 

embraced by each.”

In response to this inquiry, the Secretary of War and the 

Secretary of the Interior each claimed that the consolidation 

of the work in his department would make for efficiency and 

economy. The Congress deferred a decision until the continued 

unabated rivalry reached a crisis. King again came forward 

and his advice was accepted by the Congress and the National 

Academy of Sciences was requested to act as referee and make 

definite recommendations.

The following rider was attached to the Sundry Civil Act 

of June 20, 1878.

“And the National Academy of Sciences is hereby 

required at their next meeting to take into consideration the methods and expenses of conducting all 

surveys of a scientific character under the War or 

Interior Department, and the surveys of the Land 

Office, and to report to Congress as soon thereafter as may be practicable, a plan for surveying and 

mapping the Territories of the United States, on such 

general system as will in their judgment secure the 

best results at the least possible cost.”

In order to lessen the rivalry between the Powell and 

Hayden Surveys, pending the report of the National Academy, 

the appropriations in the same bill limited each survey to separate areas as follows:

“Under Professor Ferdinand V. Hayden- - - -$75,000

Provided: That the money hereby appropriated shall 

be expended only in prosecuting said surveys north 

of the 42d parallel and west of the 100th meridian.

Under Professor John W. Powell - - - - - - - -$50,000

Provided: That the money hereby appropriated shall 

be expended only in prosecuting said surveys south 

of the 42d parallel and west of the 100th meridian.”

Before formulating a plan as directed by the Congress, 

the National Academy of Sciences called upon the Secretaries 

of War and Interior for reports of the survey activities under 

the direction of each. Major Powell’s report was lengthy and 

impressive.

A committee of the National Academy, consisting of: 

Othniel Charles Marsh, paleontologist; vice president, James 

D. Dana, mineralogist, naturalist; William B. Rogers, geologist, physicist; John S. Newberry, geologist; William P. Trowbridge, engineer; Simon Newcomb, astronomer; and Alex 

Agassiz, biologist, zoologist, an illustrious group of scientists, 

considered the problem. On November 6, 1878, the committee 

made the following recommendations, which were adopted by 

the Academy and transmitted to the Congress.

1. That the Coast and Geodetic Survey be transferred to 

the Interior Department and, in addition to its former 

work, be charged with the preparation of a geodetic 

survey of the whole public domain, a topographic 
6 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

survey comprising detailed topographic mapping and 

rapid reconnaissance, and land parceling surveys.

2. That the Congress establish, under the Interior 

Department, an independent organization to be 

known as the U.S. Geological Survey to be charged 

with the study of geological structures and economic 

resources of the public domain.

After considerable debate, especially in the Senate, the 

Congress rejected the first recommendation and accepted the 

second. The law approved March 3, 1879, was carried in the 

Sundry Civil Bill, as follows:

“For the salary of the Director of the Geological 

Survey, which office is hereby established under 

Interior Department, who shall be appointed by the 

President, by and with the advice and consent of the 

Senate - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $6,000. 

Provided, that this officer shall have the direction 

of the Geological Survey and the classification of 

the public lands, and examination of the geological 

structures, mineral resources, and products of the 

national domain.

“And that the Director and members of the Geological Survey shall have no personal or private interest 

in the lands or mineral wealth of the region under 

survey, and shall execute no private surveys or 

examinations for private parties or corporations.

“And the Geological and Geographical Survey of 

the Territories, and the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Regions, under 

the Department of the Interior, and the Geographical 

Surveys west of the 100th meridian, under the War 

Department, are hereby discontinued to take effect 

on the 30th day of June, 1879.

“And all collections of rocks, minerals, soils, fossils 

and objects of natural history, archaeology, and ethnology, made by the Coast and Interior Survey, the 

Geological Survey, or by any other parties for the 

Government of the United States, when no longer 

needed for investigations in progress shall be deposited in the National Museum.

“For the expenses of the Geological Survey, and 

the classification of the public lands, and the 

examination of the geological structures, mineral 

resources, and products of the National domain, to 

be expended under the direction of the Secretary of 

the Interior - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - $100,000.”

Organization of the Geological Survey

Hayden, King, and Powell, the three civilian heads of 

the surveys abolished by the Act of March 3, 1879, were able 

scientists and masterful organizers, and on their records, each 

was eligible for appointment as Director of the newly created 

Geological Survey. King was nominated by President Hayes 

on March 21, 1879, was confirmed by the Senate on April 3, 

and entered on the duties of the office on May 24, 1879. It was 

understood in some quarters that King accepted the appointment with the understanding that he would remain only long 

enough to appoint the staff, organize the work, and guide 

the forces into full activity. On July 19, 1879, Hayden was 

appointed as a geologist, and Powell was already organizing 

the Bureau of Ethnology, of which he became the Director in 

1879.

Clarence King, Director

Director King (fig. 4) organized the new Bureau with 

the greatest care, gathering about him prominent members 

of the four predecessor surveys as the nucleus of a technical 

staff upon which the success of the new organization would 

so largely depend. By the sanction of the Secretary of the 

Interior,7

 appointments to the Geological Survey were divided 

into two classes: first, these of the regular or permanent corps, 

who were nominated by the Director and appointed by the 

Secretary; and second, those that were temporary, which the 

Director was authorized to make and terminate (table 1).

Region of the Public Lands in the West

The organic act creating the Geological Survey contained 

two ambiguities in the wording and Director King resolved 

their interpretation. The term “The Classification of the Public 

Lands” was interpreted to mean that such classification was 

not to infringe upon the work of the General Land Office, 

which was sectionizing, classifying, and selling lands of the 

public domain to homesteaders. The term “national domain” 

was interpreted to mean the region of the public lands in 

the West. The House of Representatives disagreed with this 

interpretation and passed a joint resolution on June 28, 1879, 

extending the operations of the Survey over the country as 

a whole. The resolution was not passed by the Senate, and 

Director King, in view of the small appropriation ($100,000 

when he had requested $500,000) and the possibility of legal 

difficulties, considered it best to confine operations to the 

region of the public lands.

The region west of the 101st meridian was divided into 

four districts, each in charge of an eminent geologist, with 

headquarters established at a nearby convenient city where 

winter office work would be carried on instead of in Washington, D.C. This arrangement, based on Director King’s past 

experience and observation, would save the valuable time 

otherwise consumed in breaking up the western camps and 

bringing the corps to Washington, in returning them again 

to the field the following year, would avoid the cost of the 

transportation involved and would minimize the uncertainties 

7

 U.S. Geological Survey, First Annual Report, 1879–80, p. 13.
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 7

caused some years by the delay in the 

appropriations, sometimes weeks later 

than June 30.

The four field divisions, the geologist-in-charge, their headquarters, and 

topographic assistants are described in 

the following sections.

Division of the Rocky Mountains

Samuel F. Emmons, Geologist-inCharge, Denver, Colo.—Allen D. Wilson, chief topographer, under orders of 

July 17, reported for duty in charge of the 

topographic survey of Leadville, Colo.—

a detailed map of the Leadville mining 

district, comprising an area of 25 or more 

square miles, on a scale of 800 feet to 

the inch, with contour lines at vertical 

distances of 25 feet. When completed, 

work was to be undertaken on three other 

mining districts in Colorado.

Mr. Emmons was instructed to prepare to extend, in 1880, precisely similar 

studies over all the mining districts of 

New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, 

Dakota, and Montana. The importance of 

topographic maps to geologic studies was 

emphasized in his report dated October 

20, 1881:

“Experience in the case of

 the Leadville, Colo., report 

 has shown that the commenc

 ing of such work, without accu

 rate maps already prepared, 

 results in great loss of time, 

 and renders one liable to 

 annoying misconceptions and 

 delays.”

Field work was completed April 

1, 1881, and the whole corps returned 

to the Denver office and worked upon 

the final preparation of numerous maps 

and illustrations for the engraver. Mr. 

Wilson assisted with the Leadville report. 

A.D. Wilson had been appointed chief 

topographer on July 10, 1879, worked 

on the Leadville mining district from 

1879 to 1881, and resigned on October 

31, 1881, as Professor Raphael Pumpelly 

offered him a position with the Northern 

Transcontinental Survey. Mr. Wilson had 

been a topographer with both the King 

and Hayden Surveys and was considered 

outstanding in his chosen work.

Table 1. First personnel roster of U.S. Gological Survey.

[*, Secretary’s appointment; K, King; an., annual; P, Powell; W, Wheeler; H, Hayden: NA, not applicable; p.d., per day; mo., month]

Name Position Predecessor

survey

Date of 

appointment Salary

King, Clarence* Director K May 24, 1879 6,000 an.

Emmons, Samuel F.* Geologist K Aug.15, 1879 4,000 an.

Hague, Arnold* Geologist K April 9, 1880 4,000 an.

Gilbert, G.K.* Geologist P, W July 10, 1879 4,000 an.

Hayden, F.V.* Geologist H July 19, 1879 4,000 an.

Pumpelly, Raphael* Geologist NA July 16, 1879 4,000 an.

Becker, Geo. F.* Geologist NA July 22, 1879 2,500 an.

Wilson, A.D.* Chief Topographer. H, K July 10, 1879 3,000 an.

Clark, Fred A.* Topographer K July 9, 1879 2,500 an.

Lord, Eliot* Clerk NA July 9, 1879 1,800 an.

Bangs, Jas. E.* Clerk disburs. NA July 9, 1879 1,800 an.

Bodfish, Sumner H.* Topographer P July 10, 1879 1,800 an.

Foote, Arthur D.* Asst. geol. NA July 25, 1879 1,800 an.

Renshawe, John H.* Topographer P July 10, 1879 1,700 an.

Goode, Richard U.* Topographer NA July 12, 1879 1,200 an.

Wright, Philo B.* Topographer NA July 10, 1879 800 an.

Smith, Chas. E.* Clerk NA July 10, 1879 840 an.

Wilson, C.C.* Clerk NA July 9, 1879 600 an.

Wallace, H.S.* Clerk NA July 10, 1879 600 an.

Walcott, Chas. D.* Asst. Geol. NA July 21, 1879 600 an.

Meador, Leake S.* Messenger NA July 9, 1879 480 an.

Mason, Anthony* Messenger NA July 9, 1879 2.25 p.d.

Blair, Andrew A.* Geologist NA Sept. 10, 1879 3,000 an.

Kimball, J.P.* Geologist NA Sept. 10, 1879 3,000 an.

McChesney, John D.* Chief Disb’g Clerk W Jan. 1, 1880 2,400 an.

Price, Gran* Watchman NA Feb.1, 1880 600 an.

Wheeler, Patrick* Watchman NA Feb.1, 1880 600 an.

Baldwin, Jeremiah Messenger NA Jan. 16, 1880 600 an.

Hanford, Chas. B.* Watchman NA Feb. 1, 1880 600 an.

Manners, Edw’d C.* Clerk NA April 1,1880 1,100 an.

Reade, Francis R. Asst. Geol. NA April 7, 1880 100 mo.

Thompson, Gilbert* Topographer W May 1, 1880 2,500 an.

Leffingwell, Wm. H.* Asst. Geol. NA May 1, 1880 75 mo.

Jacob, Ernst* Asst. Geo. NA July 1, 1880 1,200 an.

Hilebrand, W.F.* Chemist NA July 1, 1880 2,000 an.

Lakes, Arthur Asst. Geol. NA July 1, 1880 100 mo.

Wilson, Geo. H. Asst. Topogr. NA June 23, 1880 100 mo.

Iddings, Jos. P. Asst. Geol. NA July 1, 1880 75 mo.

O’Sullivan, T.H. Photographer NA July 16, 1880 100 mo.
8 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Division of the Colorado

Capt. Clarence E. Dutton, Geologist-in-Charge, Salt 

Lake, Utah.—In order to complete the surveys that were 

inherited from the Geographical and Geological Surveys of 

the Rocky Mountain Region in southern Utah and northern 

Arizona, about 70,000 square miles in extent, two detailed 

maps of special districts in northern Arizona were required, on 

a scale of 1 inch equals 1 mile, with curves representing levels 

of 50 feet.

Sumner H. Bodfish, topographer, began the survey of 

1,900 square mile sections of the Grand Canyon, a labyrinth of

deep gorges and towering cliffs, and of the Kaibab Plateau, a 

lofty flat mass without a single peak or pronounced elevation, 

and densely forest clad with gigantic pines and spruces. It is 

loftier by 1,500 to 4,000 feet than the surrounding regions and 

it is extremely difficult to circumvent, for it is nearly 100 miles

long, and from 15 to 40 miles wide. To the eye and mind of 

the topographer it is merely an obstruction which cannot be 

crossed by his lines of triangulation.

John H. Renshawe, topographer, began the survey of 

1,475 square miles in the Uinkaret Mountains, a collection of 

volcanic cones and lava flows.

Richard U. Goode, topographer, was sent from the town 

of Kanab, Utah, on August 13, 1879, upon the “dismal” journey across the Colorado River to the San Francisco Mountains, for the purpose of accomplishing the work of second, 

and some primary triangulation, in that district. A year later, 

to the day, he set out on the identical trip, this time for the 

purpose of making a topographic map of the district.

Division of the Great Basin

Grove K. Gilbert, Geologist-in-Charge, Salt Lake City, 

Utah.—Willard D. Johnson, topographer, for the double purpose of study and illustration, made a number of local maps, 

and made preparations for a new, and probably final, map of 

ancient Lake Bonneville. His instrument was the planetable 

and his method that of intersection. Mr. Gilbert, in his report, 

took occasion to advocate the use of the planetable for work of

this class.

The following year, on July 16, 1880, the corps left Salt 

Lake City in two parties. The topographic party comprised 

Gilbert Thompson, topographer-in-charge; Albert L. Webster, 

assistant topographer; and R.I. Gill, barometer observer. The 

work of the topographic party was partly geographic and 

partly geologic. Triangulation was extended westward into the 

dessert from the peaks of the Wasatch Mountains; their other 

duty consisted of the tracing of the ancient shorelines of Lake 

Bonneville.

Division of the Pacific

Arnold Hague, Geologist-in-Charge, San Francisco, 

Calif. Charles D. Walcott and Jos. P. Iddings, geologic 

assistants.—Frederick A. Clark, topographer, arrived at 

Eureka, Nev., on August 5, 1879, to begin mapping an area 

of perhaps 400 square miles. In Spring Valley, some 4 miles 

northwest of town, a base of 9,000 feet in length, of over 

183 feet range of levels, was twice measured with a Stackpole compensated steel tape. Triangulation, with an average 

length of side of 1 mile, was developed, primarily upon the 

pentagonal plan. Owing to lateness of season and consequent 

small party, both triangulation and topography were carried 

on together—an undesired coincidence. A gradienter was 

used in triangulation; in topography, a planetable. The survey 

was made on a scale of 1:10,000 and 50 foot interval between 

contours. A furnished house was rented in Eureka and, during 

the winter a survey was made of the town, and office work of 

computation and compilation was performed.

In the following spring, on May 10, 1880, under Mr. 

Clark’s direction, camp was formed and two extra parties took 

the field; a topographic party under George H. Wilson, and 

a triangulation party under G. Olivio Newman. By June 30, 

1880, the total work accomplished was: Triangulation stations—188; square miles of topography—61. Mr. Hague in his 

annual report dated October 1, 1881, stated that the topographical party, although working under great difficulties, the 

mountains being covered with snow, were obliged to remain 

in camp till December 12 to complete their field surveys. 

Upon the completion of the work, Mr. Clark, with his assistants, proceeded immediately to San Francisco, and began the 

compilation of the map from the 64 planetable sheets prepared 

in the field.

The instructions issued to Mr. Clark were to prepare a 

grade-curve survey of 20 miles square, adopting a scale of 

1:10,000 with 50 feet vertical interval between contours, this 

scale being deemed ample to furnish sufficient detail to lay 

down all desired geological formations with precision, and 

to express geologic structure in its relation to the varied and 

characteristic topography of mountain and valley. Upon this 

map may be accurately located all the mines of the district. By 

close application to office work, the map, covering a broad, 

handsome sheet nearly 11 feet square, was compiled by the 

first of March, 1881, and immediately forwarded by express to 

the Washington office. Clark resigned on June 30, 1881.

The following sentences also were included in Mr. 

Hague’s annual report:

“As rapidly, however, as the planetable sheets of the 

Eureka, Nev., mining district were completed, copies 

were made on tracing linen, and photographic duplicates prepared by the “blue process” were placed in 

the hands of the geological worker.

“For purposes of accurate geological work, it 

seems to me indispensable for the geologist, on 

taking the field, that he should be furnished with 

completed maps of the district to be surveyed. It 

not only gives him clearer ideas of the main structural features of the country, and consequently the 

problems presented to him, but saves much time in 

his own instrumental work. Geological structure is 

so intimately connected with, and dependent upon, 
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 9

topographical features that the better the geologist 

sees the mutual relations of every hill, ridge and 

ravine, the better equipped is he for the work placed 

before him!”8

John Wesley Powell, Director

On March 11, 1881, Mr. Clarence King addressed the following letter to President Garfield:

“Finding that the administration of my office leaves 

me no time for personal geological labors, and 

believing that I can render more important service 

to science as an investigator than as the head of 

an executive Bureau, I have the honor herewith to 

offer my resignation as Director of the Geological 

Survey.”

The resignation was accepted. On March 14, the President nominated John W. Powell (fig. 5) as Director. Congress 

confirmed the nomination on March 18, and on the next day he 

took the oath of office. Major Powell was in complete accord 

with the plan of operations and methods of investigations as 

followed by Mr. King and his wisely selected corps of geologists and specialists, and proposed to continue the work begun 

and in progress.

In providing for the work of the Survey during the fiscal 

year July 1, 1882, to June 30, 1883, Congress adopted the 

recommendation of the Director and extended the operations 

of the Survey to encompass the entire country. The Sundry 

Civil Appropriation Act of 1882 provided that the Geological Survey “continue the preparation of a geologic map of 

the United States.”9

 It was not until August 7, 1882, that the 

act was passed and approved, but the Director, mindful of the 

enlarged duties in prospect, on July 1, 1882, appointed Henry 

Gannett Chief Geographer to take charge of the topographic 

mapping. As yet, there was no authority for the publication of 

topographic maps as such, but their production as bases for 

geologic and economic maps illustrating the resources and 

classification of the land was of such primary importance that 

they were given first place in the annual reports.

The Wingate Division

In the spring of 1881, the construction of the Atlantic 

and Pacific Railroad (later a part of the Santa Fe System) had 

progressed to Fort Wingate, N. Mex., so plans were made to 

fill in the unmapped area in the northeast corner of Arizona 

and the southeast corner of Utah. Professor J. Howard Gore 

was directed to proceed to Fort Wingate, and there measure a 

baseline for trigonometric expansion and determine its geographical position. He borrowed a pair of 4-meter bars, with 

8

 U.S. Geological Survey, Second Annual Report, 1880–81, p. 21–22.

9

 This was undoubtedly interpreted by many of the Congressmen as meaning “topographic map.” This authority was there, but King failed to recognize 

it originally and it died by default.

all accessories, from the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and 

started on July 25, accompanied by Richard U. Goode, topographer, and E.V. McElhone, recorder, arriving at Fort Wingate 

on August 2. The instruments did not arrive until August 11 

and McElhone immediately prepared his barometers for observation, of which he made eight each day. Extensive reconnaissance was necessary before selection of a base site. Progress 

had been seriously affected by the prolonged rainy season 

when Gilbert Thompson and party arrived on August 28. As 

all details had been carefully arranged beforehand, work on 

the line was commenced with the assistance of some members of Thompson’s party. The line was cleared of all weeds 

and bushes, making an unobstructed roadway about 5 feet 

wide, and first measured with a steel tape, then with the base 

apparatus. A level line was extended by Goode from a railroad 

bench mark to the eastern extremity, and thence over the entire 

course. Latitude observations were made at each extremity, 

and azimuth marks erected. Before each observation, local 

time was determined so as to know the chronometer correction. The work was finished on September 30 and Professor 

Gore returned to Washington.

At Salt Lake City, on July 5, Gilbert Thompson received 

orders to organize a party and proceed to Fort Wingate, 

N. Mex., and take charge of topographic mapping in that 

vicinity. John K. Hillers was sent as assistant to take charge 

of the party until Thompson could join it, as he had first to 

complete all drawings in hand illustrating the monograph on 

Lake Bonneville by Grove K. Gilbert, geologist, in whose 

division Thompson was at the time. Hillers arrived July 17 

and reached Kanab on August 1 with 5 men, 2 wagons, and 

19 animals, having followed the route along the Sevier River, 

a distance of 320 miles. He immediately started collecting 

Survey property and making necessary preparations. With A.L. 

Webster, assistant topographer, Gilbert Thompson joined Hillers at Kanab on August 7, making the journey from Salt Lake 

City in 4 days, traveling by rail and special conveyance. The 

following morning, they left Kanab, a party of 11 men, 4 wagons, and 34 animals, several of which had been hired. On 

August 20, they crossed the Colorado River at Lee’s Ferry. In 

the distance of 1.5 miles, a descent and an ascent of 800 feet 

was encountered. They followed the wagon tracks of a party, 

which had recently passed on the north side of the river, to the 

Mormon settlement at Sunset Crossing. After a day’s rest, they 

put the whole wagon train across, including that of Lieutenant Burke’s party, in 3 hours, through the quicksand and swift 

current, without being obliged to unload the wagons. They left 

the Little Colorado at the Puerco, which was followed to Fort 

Wingate, arriving after 37 days of actual travel and a distance 

of 710 miles.

Mr. Thompson, and the members of his party who were 

not assisting Professor Gore, began the triangulation work. 

He was somewhat familiar with the country, having been 

through it in 1873 as a topographer with the Wheeler Survey, 

and knew that artificial stations would be required, such as 

rock cairns and wooden towers or tripods. Mount Taylor and 

Chusca Knoll, about 80 miles apart, were the only two sharp 
10 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

prominent peaks that were readily identifiable. The ultimate 

objective was the connection of the Wingate base with the 

Kanab base. Mr. Thompson made topographic sketches at each 

occupied station, reading the desired angles with a gradienter. 

Soon Messrs. Goode and Webster were sketching topography, 

using a planetable. At the request of James Stevenson, of the 

Bureau of Ethnology, and formerly with the Hayden Survey, 

Mr. Webster was sent with him to map the Moki towns, which 

he mapped between September 13 and October 3, on a scale 

of 1.5 miles to the inch. Parties were disbanded, the property 

boxed and stored at the quartermaster’s storehouse at Fort 

Wingate, and Messrs. Thompson and Webster left for Washington on December 24. There, in the office, field observations 

were computed and topographic sketches were compiled into a 

map. The work executed was then summarized:

Square miles covered by triangulation...............1,500

Square miles covered by topography....................775

Triangulation stations occupied ..............................15

Number of observations.....................................3,500

Barometric observations ....................................1,380

Points determined by barometric observations.....320

Theodolite used, No. 172, Kubel, maker.

In July 1882, Professor A.H. Thompson was appointed 

by Henry Gannett, Chief Geographer, to take charge of the 

Wingate Division. On August 16, Professor Thompson and his 

assistants were ordered to the field and, upon arrival at Fort 

Wingate, a division was organized as follows: the triangulation 

party, in charge of Professor Thompson, and two topographic 

parties in charge, respectively, of H.M. Wilson and E.M. 

Douglas. A pair of barometric stations was established, one 

at Fort Wingate, and the other upon Mount Bradley, upon the 

Zuni Mountains, and the difference of elevations was obtained 

by means of the spirit level. Work was begun early in September and progressed favorably, though somewhat slowly, owing 

to bad weather and the unfavorable nature of the country for 

topographic and geodetic work. The two topographic parties were both assigned to work within the square degree 

included between the 35th and 36th parallels and 108th and 

109th meridians, Wilson being assigned to the northeastern 

part of this area and Douglas to the southern portion. The area 

covered by Wilson was about 700 square miles and that by 

Douglas about 500. Professor Thompson occupied three primary stations for geodetic work, from which good results were 

obtained, and three points occupied for topographic purposes 

and for secondary triangulation. On account of heavy snows, 

field work was closed late in November.

Early in May 1883, preparations were commenced for 

placing parties in the field, headquarters being, as during 

previous years, at Fort Wingate, N. Mex. These parties were 

organized, two for topographic work under charge of E.M. 

Douglas and H.M. Wilson, and one for triangulation, under the 

immediate charge of Professor Thompson. A.P. Davis, Ensign 

C.C. Marsh, and John D. Atkins acted as assistants, respectively, in these parties. A base barometric station was established at the Fort Wingate camp with S.A. Garlick as observer.

These parties continued work until July 15, at which time 

W.M. Reed and Edmund Shaw joined the division. Reed was 

assigned to Douglas’s party, as assistant, in place of Davis, 

and Shaw to Mr. Wilson’s party in place of Marsh. Davis took 

charge of a third topographic party, with Samuel Schmelzkopf 

as assistant. Ensign Marsh became assistant in the triangulation party as Atkins had been ordered to the Washington office. 

The permanent camp and base barometric station were moved 

to Fort Defiance, Ariz., that point being more central and 

accessible to the work thereafter than Fort Wingate.

This organization was continued until the close of the 

field season with but one change, the detachment of Shaw 

from Wilson’s party and his assignment as base barometric 

observer at the rendezvous camp, thus relieving Garlick, who 

was given charge of a small party and directed to meander, 

by courses and distances, all of the wagon roads in the area 

surveyed by the topographic parties. Douglas’s party was 

assigned the completion of field work in the southern part of 

the atlas sheet 35–108 degrees, and later the survey of atlas 

sheets 35–109 degrees and 35–110 degrees. Wilson’s party 

completed the work in the northern part of atlas sheet 35–108 

degrees and later the whole of atlas sheets 36–109 degrees and 

36–110 degrees, besides small outlying areas.

Davis’s party was assigned the completion of field work 

in atlas sheets 37–110 degrees and 37–109 degrees. However, 

on account of threatened difficulties with Navajo Indians, he 

was recalled and assigned atlas sheet 35–107 degrees, where 

he commenced work about September 10.

In the early part of the season, the triangulation party 

extended its work over the area included in atlas sheets 

35–107 degrees and 35–108 degrees. This was finished July 1, 

but, owing to the press of administrative duties, Professor 

Thompson was unable to take the field with his party again 

until the middle of August, and on account of Indian trouble, 

it was September 15 before the parties were able to proceed in 

earnest. From this time until December 1, work was continued by Professor Thompson and Messrs. Marsh, Wilson, and 

Davis. Douglas finished work about November 1 and his party 

was disbanded.

The party under Mr. Garlick, detailed for the purpose 

of traversing the roads, was continuously employed in that 

work from September 15, to November 20, covering some 

700 square miles of route.

During the season, the following areas were covered: Douglas’ party, 8,800 square miles; Wilson’s party 

10,400 square miles; and by Davis’ party 3,800 square miles; 

total 23,000. Professor Thompson had been instructed, upon 

the close of field work, to remain at Fort Wingate and determine its astronomical coordinates, connecting for longitude 

with the Washington Observatory at St. Louis, Mo.; he was 

assisted in this work by A.P. Davis.

It was effected during the month of December, telegraphic signals being exchanged upon 5 nights, with the requisite observations for time. Latitude was determined by zenith 

distances from observations upon 87 pairs of stars, obtained 

during 12 nights. Upon the completion of this work, Professor 
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 11

Thompson and Davis returned to Washington. The reductions 

of the observations for latitude and longitude were made by 

S.S. Gannett with satisfactory results.

Previous Federal, State, etc. Surveys

In order to accomplish a topographic survey in the shortest time and with the greatest economy, advantage had to 

be taken of all work previously done by the Federal government, by the several states, counties, townships, etc., and by 

industrial corporations and individuals. The early military 

surveys and two-thirds of the work of the Wheeler Survey 

were known to be unsuitable, due to the use of scales as small 

as 8 miles to the inch, and to the use of hachures instead of 

contours. But the remaining one-third of the Wheeler Survey, 

about 115,000 square miles, and the work done by the King, 

Hayden, and Powell Surveys was suitable. Other sources of 

material are listed herewith.

The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey was organized 

on February 10, 1807, during the administration of President Thomas Jefferson, as the U.S. Coast Survey, and began 

operation on June 18, 1816. Except for periods 1818–32 and 

1834–36, this Bureau of the Treasury Department carried out 

its functions without interruptions. In 1878, the Bureau was 

assigned the continuation of control surveys across the continent and its name was changed to “U.S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey”.

The U.S. Geological Survey has always looked to the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for primary horizontal and 

vertical control and, during many years, has maintained cordial and effective cooperation.

The Lake Survey had mapped the shores of the Great 

Lakes, carrying triangulation around them, and connecting the 

head of Lake Michigan with the foot of Lake Erie. Hydrographic surveys were conducted at the same time as the small 

amount of shoreline topography, done generally at scales of 

2 inches and 4 inches to the mile, and extending inland about 

0.5 miles. The work was begun in 1841, as authorized by 

an act of Congress, and was in charge of the Corps of Topographical Engineers until that Corps was consolidated with the 

Corps of Engineers in 1863.

The Engineer Corps had completed a number of small 

pieces of topographic work in different parts of the country 

and had also made numerous surveys in connection with river 

improvements in many other parts of the country. In 1879, an 

act of Congress provided for the creation of the “Mississippi 

River Commission” whose function was to improve the Mississippi River from its mouth to its headwater near Lake Itasca 

in Minnesota. Of first importance was an accurate survey of 

the entire length of the river upon a foundation of primary 

geodetic control and precise levels. Topographic maps were 

being prepared showing the shoreline of the river and a narrow strip of contiguous territory on a scale of 1:10,000 with 

contour interval of 5 feet.

The General Land Office already had accumulated 

township plats covering about 1,500,000 square miles, plats 

that were nominally topographic maps but lacked longitudes, 

latitudes, and altitudes except at rare intervals. The plats and 

final field notes constitute the official records of the cadastral 

surveys made for the parceling of public lands to homesteaders and others.

After the Revolutionary War, the original Thirteen States 

ceded to the Federal Government lands extending westward 

from their western boundaries to the Mississippi River, and 

the Continental Congress, by the ordinance of May 20, 1785, 

inaugurated the rectangular system of surveys, providing for 

townships 6 miles square, containing 36 sections of 1 mile 

square.10 As the primary purpose of the surveys was the 

disposal of the public lands by sale, these activities eventually 

were placed under the supervision of the Secretary of the Treasury. By the Act of March 3, 1849, the General Land Office 

was transferred to the Department of the Interior.

The township plats, generally accurate along the surveyed 

lines, the section lines, and the monuments on the ground 

marking the corners of sections and the 0.5-mile points, 

were to become indispensable aids to the topographers of the 

Survey.

The principal regions surveyed by state organizations, 

usually the State Geological Survey, were as follows:

New Hampshire.—Entirely mapped under Professor 

C.H. Hitchcock, and the results were published on a scale of 

2.5 miles to an inch with contour interval of 100 feet.

Massachusetts.—Entirely mapped under Henry F. Walling, who, with much additional original work, assembled by 

compilation, various scattered maps, some produced between 

1830 and 1842 by the Borden Survey.

New York.—A geodetic survey in progress under James 

T. Gardner, presumably for the purpose of fitting local maps 

of counties and townships to a scheme of triangulation and 

producing a map of the State.

New Jersey.—One sheet of the state map, comprising 

1,250 square miles, already published on a scale of 1 mile to 

1 inch and 20-foot contour interval. The field work was prosecuted with the planetable and level.

Pennsylvania.—Topography was being mapped of coal 

and iron regions, on diverse scales, by traverse lines, by odometer, and by stadia.

North Carolina.—A state map was published in 1882 on 

a scale of 10 miles to the inch, the product of compilation and 

additional original surveys under the supervision of Professor 

W.C. Kerr and Professor Arnold Guyot.

Georgia.—The abrupt termination of topographic work 

had left the accumulated material unpublished.

Michigan.—Maps of certain small areas in the iron and 

copper regions of the Upper Peninsula were published with 

contours.

10 Although this may be true, a number of the earlier townships were 5 miles 

square and contained 25 sections, each 1 mile square.
12 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Missouri.—Maps were published of the iron regions of 

Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob.

Most of the state maps enumerated above possessed good 

geographical position as determined by the U.S. Coast and 

Geodetic Survey, but small scales and general lack of vertical 

relief rendered them of restricted value to the U.S. Geological 

Survey. A map of the United States showing areas surveyed 

on a scale suitable for the purposes of the U.S. Geological 

Survey accompanied the Fourth Annual Report (1882–83) of 

the Director.

Also, many counties and towns of other states had been 

mapped and much map work had been done by private enterprise, but the maps and atlases, although on an amply large 

scale, were entirely wanting in two elements, namely, general 

geographic position and vertical relief.

Throughout the United States there were many maps of 

railroad, canal, and turnpike surveys, which could be utilized 

to great advantage. The railroad maps, especially, furnished 

important material. A vast network of trial and located lines 

had been run, which, by judicious adjustment, could be used to 

advantage. They were control traverse and level lines combined. All the railroad companies, of whom the maps were 

asked, responded promptly and favorably, although in many 

cases they were put to much expense thereby.

In addition to the work of compilation and adjustment of 

existing source material, it was found practicable to conduct 

field operations to a limited extent during the season of 1882. 

For convenience of administration, but controlled by geologic 

considerations, the area of the United States was divided into 

seven districts as follows:

District of the North Atlantic.—Comprising Maine, New 

Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and the District of Columbia.

District of the South Atlantic.—Comprising Virginia, 

North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 

Tennessee, Kentucky, and West Virginia.

District of the North Mississippi.—Comprising Ohio, 

Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dakota, 

Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, and Missouri.

District of the South Mississippi.—Comprising Indian 

Territory, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas.

District of the Rocky Mountains.—Comprising Montana, 

Wyoming, Colorado, part of Utah, New Mexico, and part of 

Arizona.

District of the Great Basin.—Comprising parts of Washington Territory, Oregon, California, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, 

and Idaho.

District of the Pacific.—Comprising part of Washington 

Territory, part of Oregon, and the greater portion of California.

In later years these Districts were modified, or combined, 

to accommodate varying administrative requirements, and 

they became known as Divisions. In 1882, work was started in 

five Districts but not in No. 1 (District of the North Atlantic) 

and No. 3 (District of the North Mississippi).

District of the North Atlantic

It was decided to commence a topographic map of New 

England to be published upon a scale of 1:125,000. The first 

step was to compile and collate the large body of valuable 

material already in existence. This compilation, though not 

complete, was carried so far that certain areas could be selected 

for field work; upon one of these, in the Berkshires in western 

Massachusetts, a single party, comprising R.D. Shepard, S.R. 

Duval, H.S. Selden, and William T. Griswold under the direction of Professor Henry F. Walling, began work. The State was 

covered with the triangulation of the old Borden Survey, which 

required slight adjustment to fit it to the geodetic control of the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Furthermore, the traverse work 

that had been completed in the State, mainly under the direction of Professor Walling, promised to relieve the Survey of the 

necessity of surveying much of the level country, leaving as the 

principal work to be accomplished the proper connection of the 

old traverse work with the geodetic points, the filling in of the 

drainage in the hills, and the addition of the element of relief 

contours throughout the country.

District of the South Atlantic

Topographic mapping in the East was started in the 

southern Appalachian Mountains through the personal appeal 

of Professor Washington C. Kerr, State Geologist of North 

Carolina. Professor Kerr had charge of triangulation and was 

assisted by John W. Hays and Sam S. Gannett. Charles M. 

Yeates, in charge of one topographic party, with Robert C. 

McKinney as assistant, was assigned that portion of western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee lying south of the 

Smoky Mountains, east of the south fork of the Holston, and 

west of the Blue Ridge, with instructions to work as far to the 

northeast as the season would permit. Morris Bien’s area lay 

around the heads of the Watauga and New Rivers, and Frank 

M. Pearson’s area was in Virginia and eastern Kentucky.

For this work Henry Gannett, Chief Geographer, put 

into use Dr. Grove K. Gilbert’s new system of barometric 

hypsometry. Dr. Gilbert, as a geologist, in his early investigations, often was compelled to make his necessary preliminary 

maps, and in using thermometers for the determination of 

altitudes, evolved a new method that eliminated from the intricate formulas the two annoying factors for temperature and 

humidity, elements of the intervening air column between two 

barometric stations that caused oscillations in the air pressure. 

Barometric observations in a area being mapped were referred 

to synchronous observations made at some distant base station 

maintained by the Signal Service, U.S. Army, at the end of the 

field season, and corrections then made to the altitudes.

Six sources of errors11 are recognized in barometric 

observations, and Dr. Gilbert listed them in table 2, in which are 

presented the probable errors in feet arising from each of the 

indicated sources, and in the second column the possible error.

11 U.S. Geological Survey Second Annual Report, 1880–81, p. 435.
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 13

The new system12 proposed a new method of observation and a new method of computation. Two base stations 

are established, one high, the other low. Their difference in 

altitude is made as great as practicable, and their horizontal 

distance is made as small as practicable. Each is furnished 

with a barometer, and a barometer only, and observations are 

made at frequent intervals through each day, as in the ordinary 

system. At each new station a barometer is observed, and no 

other instrument; the psychrometer and all thermometers, 

except that attached to the barometer, being discarded. The 

difference in altitude of the two base stations is determined 

by spirit level and constitutes a vertical base line by which all 

altitudes are gaged.

The field notes thus consist of three series, of barometric 

readings, pertaining respectively to the upper base station, the 

lower base station, and the new mapping stations.

To inaugurate the new system of barometric hypsometry, 

a group of four barometric base stations was established upon 

and around Roan Mountain, N.C. These stations were under 

the general charge of Arthur P. Davis, with directions to see 

that they were properly maintained, to obtain, by leveling, the 

difference in height between them, and by connecting them 

with some station upon the nearest railroad (Roan Mountain 

Station on the East Tennessee and Western North Carolina 

Railroad) to establish their height above sea level. Further, he 

was directed to establish the heights of neighboring mountain 

summits by means of levels, in order that comparison might 

be made between them and heights determined by barometer. Among the seven men detailed as barometric observers at these stations were Robert H. Chapman and Abner F. 

Dunnington.13

Mr. Gannett, who personally superintended the outfitting 

of this division (Appalachian) and spent several days with 

each party in the field in order to get them well started in their 

work, noted “that the dense forest cover extending over the 

highest mountain summits made it necessary for the triangulation party to erect artificial signals upon all stations; that it 

12 The first publication of the new system was made in a communication by 

Dr. Gilbert to the Philosophical Society of Washington, D.C., in 1877.

13 Mr. Yeates’ letter to Director Mendenhall, dated November 30, 1931, published in Topographic Division Bulletin, June 1951.

rendered unprofitable the use of planetables; that the parties 

were considerably handicapped by not being outfitted with 

pack trains, which would enable them to go anywhere over the 

country, but with wagons, which necessarily confined them to 

the roads and therefore necessitated long trips away from the 

wagon in order to reach mountain stations. The topographic 

work was done very largely by means of traverse lines and 

by sketching from any and all points from which an outlook 

could be obtained.”

Mr. Yeates, a native of North Carolina, continued topographic mapping toward the Great Smokies in succeeding 

field seasons and was eager to determine the elevations of the 

high peaks. In his office in the Survey building in Washington 

in the winter of 1884–85, he was visited by a fellow North 

Carolinian, General Clingman, a graduate of University of 

North Carolina, a member of Congress and the U.S. Senate 

with Clay, Webster, and Calhoun, who suggested that a line 

of levels be run to the top of Clingman’s Dome. It might be 

shown to be higher than Mitchell’s Peak.

The elevation of Mitchell’s High Peak (as it was then 

called) in the Black Mountains had been established as 

6,711 feet by a line of levels extended from a railroad bench 

mark at Swannanoa; that was about 1853. Professor Guyot, of 

Princeton University, using a single barometer, had reached 

the figure 6,707; Mr. Yeates, 30 years later, using Dr. Gilbert’s 

double barometric method, made the elevation 6,717 feet.

Though not sharing General Clingman’s views, Yeates 

was glad to receive authority to resolve the question of the 

relative heights of the two peaks, something like 75 miles 

apart. He employed a competent civil engineer, named 

Ramseur, who ran a line of levels from a railroad bench mark 

on the Tuckasegee River to Clingman’s Dome and back to the 

bench mark, making the height of the peak 6,615 feet above 

sea level. General Clingman was very much disappointed at 

the result.

It was almost 50 years later that revised elevations were 

determined for the two peaks. A Survey Press Bulletin of January 22, 1930, stated:

“Accurate level lines have now been run by the 

Geological Survey to six of the high peaks in the 

eastern part of the United States. Mount Mitchell, in 

North Carolina, which is probably the highest point 

in the United States east of the Mississippi River, is 

6,684 feet above mean sea level.

Three peaks in the proposed Great Smoky Mountains National Park are Clingman’s Dome, elevation 

6,642 feet; Mount Guyot, 6,621 feet; and Mount Le 

Conte (Myrtle Top), 6,593 feet.

Mount Washington, in New Hampshire, is 6,288 

feet.

Mount Katahdin, in Maine is 5,267 feet.

Mount Marcy, in the Adirondacks, N.Y., is 

5,344 feet.”

Table 2. Error sources in barometric observations.

Source Probable

(feet)

Possible

error 

(feet)

Annual gradient 6 20

Diurnal gradient 8 30

Non-periodic gradient 20 50

Temperature (by thermometer) 100 300

Moisture (by psychrometer) 10 20

Imperfection of observation 10 No limit

 Total 154 420
14 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

South Mississippi District

Preparatory to commencing geodetic and topographic 

work in Arkansas, Professor J. Howard Gore, astronomer, 

with Sam S. Gannett as assistant, was detailed to measure a 

base line in the Ozark Hills. After a careful examination of 

the country about the Hot Springs, they decided that the most 

practical location for this base was along the tracks of the 

St. Louis, Iron Mountain, and Southern Railroad, commencing at the town of Malvern and running southwestward for 

approximately 4 miles. The line was measured August 16–31, 

6,406 meters in length, by means of a pair of 4-meter secondary basebars belonging to the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 

kindly loaned to the Geological Survey for the purpose. The 

base was not favorably located for expansion, as the country 

to the west was of low relief and timbered, necessitating the 

erection of high signals.

District of the Rocky Mountains

Work in this district was started in May 1882, by John H. 

Renshawe, who recovered the terminal points of the base that 

was measured near Bozeman, Mont., in 1877 by the Wheeler 

Survey, and effected a most admirable system of expansion. 

About September 1, he organized two topographic parties, 

under the supervision of Paul Holman and H.S. Chase, who 

succeeded in covering a small area in the Gallatin Valley. He 

continued triangulation up the Yellowstone to the south, but, 

like the others, was held to slow progress by severe snow 

storms. In the course of his work, he climbed Electric Rock 

and also Mount Washburn three times, but each time was prevented by stormy weather from doing any work.

In Colorado the survey of the mining region, Silver Cliff, 

Rosita, and Querida, was assigned to Anton Karl. The area was 

about 50 square miles, to be mapped on the scale of 1:20,000 

with contour interval of 25 feet. The base line measured for 

the inception of the triangulation was 4,051 feet in length. The 

instruments employed were for the triangulation, a gradienter; 

for the topography, the planetable, stadia, and level. All the 

roads, trails, beds of gulches, and main water courses were 

meandered.

Upon completion of this work, Karl proceeded to Golden 

for the purpose of completing the survey of a small area comprising the two Table Mountains and the coal outcrops west 

of Golden. The scale of this map was 1:10,000 with contours 

50 feet apart.

Work on the “Denver map”, projected to cover about 

1,000 square miles, with Denver slightly east of the center, 

was commenced during the winter by compilation of a large 

amount of topographic material from various sources.

Work was resumed early in September, 1882, at Fort 

Wingate, N. Mex., under the supervision of Professor Almon H. 

Thompson, who continued the triangulation begun the previous 

year. Two topographic parties were organized to work in the 

“square degree’ included between the 35th and 36th parallels and 108th and 109th meridians, in charge, respectively, of 

Edward M. Douglas and Herbert M. Wilson. Before heavy snow 

stopped the work about November 20, the former had mapped 

about 500 square miles, the latter about 700 square miles.

District of the Great Basin

Geographic work was prosecuted in Nevada under the 

general supervision of Dr. Grove K. Gilbert, geologist. Topographers Albert L. Webster and Willard D. Johnson mapped 

about 8,000 square miles around lakes Pyramid, Winnemucce, 

and Walker.

District of the Pacific

Gilbert Thompson was placed in charge of the work in 

California, with headquarters at Red Bluff. He left Washington 

on June 15, 1882, in order to get the work started from the 

point established by the Wheeler Survey and the U.S. Coast 

and Geodetic Survey on the summit of Lassen’s Butte. He 

made three ascents in July, but was able to obtain but few 

observations on account of the haze and smoke from forest 

fires. A fourth ascent, after several days of waiting for storms 

to pass, was made on October 18, a beautiful day overhead 

with 3 feet of snow on the ground. The required observations 

were made.

About September 1, Thompson organized a second topographic party under the supervision of John D. Hoffman, with 

Albert Noerr as assistant, and Eugene V. McElhone as an aid, 

for work in the mountains to the north and northeast. Thompson, with Mark B. Kerr (formerly with the Wheeler Survey) as 

assistant, and Charles C. Bassett as an aid, extended triangulation and sketched topography to the northeast and east. Both 

parties had a cook, teamster, and packer, with wagon and pack 

train (fig. 6).

A barometric base station was established at Red Bluff 

for the field season and observations were made hourly from 

6 a.m. to 7 p.m., and in addition, one at 9 p.m. One of the two 

observers was relieved from this monotonous duty later in the 

season by Robert F. Cummins.

During the working field season of about 2 months, 

which was broken by frequent storms, some 2,000 square 

miles were mapped, two primary triangulation stations occupied, and the altitude of 125 points determined barometrically.

Mapping of the four quicksilver districts of California 

was started in July, 1882, by Sumner H. Bodfish, who completed areas about the Sulphur Bank and the New Almaden by 

October 16, when bad health compelled him to give up further 

field work. The Knoxville district was mapped in the winter, 

and work on the New Idria was begun in the following June 

by John D. Hoffman, assisted by Mark B. Kerr, Charles C. 

Bassett, and W.H. Robertson. 

The map of each district comprised about 12 square 

miles, on a scale of 800 feet to 1 inch, with a suitable contour 

interval, and was based an a line of 2,000–3,000 feet measured 
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 15

with a steel tape. The details of the topography were worked in 

by the use of the planetable and telemeter.

The gathering of pertinent map information, such as elevations and profiles of railroads, occupied the time of some topographers during 1882, in the spring months and even further.

During the summer of 1883, fieldwork was actively 

prosecuted in the districts of the previous season, and also was 

extended into District No. 1.

First State Cooperation—Massachusetts

In order to expedite the work, the Massachusetts State 

Legislature, in the spring of 1884, passed an act appropriating 

$40,000, which amount was estimated to be one-half of that 

required for making a map of the State in 3 years in sufficient 

detail to be published on a scale of 1:62,500. This was arranged 

on the condition that the Geological Survey should pay the other 

one-half. The interests of the State were placed in the hands of 

a commission, which agreed to the proposition of the Director 

of the Survey that 2 months work be done as a trial, which upon 

examination would be accepted or rejected. The commission’s 

acceptance followed in October and the surveying was continued as the first project of State cooperative mapping.

The work, begun in the northwestern part of Berkshire 

County, was extended southward over nearly the whole of the 

county. During the winter E.W.F. Natter and J.H. Jennings 

were left in the field, the former to begin the survey of the 

Boston 15-minute quadrangle, the latter to make traverse surveys and run level lines in the valley of the Housatonic. The 

following summer Natter and Jennings completed the Boston 

map. To complete the mapping of Plymouth and Bristol Counties three members of the field parties were left during the 

winter to survey, while frozen over, the many areas of swamp, 

marsh, ponds etc.

The areas mapped, for publication at a scale of 1:62,500 

with 20-foot contour intervals, were: in the fiscal year 1885, 

1,250 square miles; in fiscal year 1886, 2,500 square miles.

Anton Karl, Sumner H. Bodfish, and John D. Hoffman 

spent the winters in Washington finishing their maps, making 

transcripts of them for deposit with the State of Massachusetts, 

and compiling the surveys of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey, on and near the coast, for future use.

The mapping of the State proceeded: 2,215 square miles 

in 1887, and 2,350 square miles in the fiscal year of 1888, 

completing its total area of 8,315 square miles. In addition 

to the regular atlas sheets, a small map of Massachusetts was 

compiled on a scale of 1:300,000, with 100-foot contours, 

reduced from the atlas sheets.

Base Map of the United States

The general plan adopted by Director Powell for the great 

basic map of the United States was a very simple one. The 

country was divided into quadrangles bounded by parallels of 

latitude and meridians of longitude. As experience had shown 

that the intelligent presentation of the principal facts of structural geology required a scale of 1:250,000, or about 4 miles 

to 1 inch, it was decided to continue the square degree type of 

map.

Mining districts of intense development would be 

mapped on large special scales, such as 1:10,000, as had 

already been the practice. However, it was soon realized 

that densely populated and culturally developed areas in 

the eastern states could not be mapped adequately on the 

1:250,000 scale, so two larger scales were adopted, the 

1:125,000 and 1:62,500, making a set of three different scales. 

These were to be the publication scales and were to be printed 

on the same size paper, 16.5 by 20 inches.

The maps published on the smallest of these scales, 

1:250,000, each cover, on an average, about 3,600 square 

miles of territory (the areas naturally decrease gradually 

northward, as the meridians converge). The maps on the 

scale of 1:125,000, or approximately 2 miles to the inch, each 

comprise a quadrangle measuring 30 minutes of latitude by 

30 minutes of longitude, and covering on an average about 

900 square miles. The maps on the scale of 1:62,500, or 

approximately 1 mile to the inch, each cover, on an average, 

about 225 square miles. Each map is usually designated by the 

name of a city, town, or prominent natural feature within it.

A map, as representing on a flat sheet of paper a section 

of the earth’s spheroidal surface, needs to be made on a projection that best preserves relations of features on the earth’s 

surface regarding area, distance, and direction, in their true 

values. For the quadrangle maps, the projection adopted was 

the polyconic, which is based on the development of a large 

number of cones, one of which is conceived to be tangent to 

the earth’s surface at each parallel of latitude to be represented 

on the map. Meridional distances and abscissas and ordinates 

to the arc of the developed cones were computed for every 

minute of latitude from zero to 90 degrees. Published tabular 

values make the construction of the polyconic projection easy.

Experience also had shown that vertical relief can best 

be expressed by contours, with varying vertical intervals 

grading from 200 feet in rugged mountain areas down to 

25 feet in broad valleys and prairie areas of gentle slopes. 

The objections to the use of hachures and brush shading are 

manifold: hachures, particularly, obscure the map and conceal 

the conventions employed for the representation of other facts 

and features of the terrain; they lack definiteness and easily degenerate into generalized conventions for imperfectly 

ascertaining facts of relief; they lead to the development of 

special artistic styles by the several draftsmen employed 

upon the work, and thus do not have a uniform meaning from 

sheet to sheet; the cost of drawing and engraving hachures is 

excessive, almost equalling the expense of the field work by 

which the facts are collected. The contours need not be run out 

on the ground but can be placed with sufficient accuracy by 

skillful topographers from salient and controlling points whose 

position and elevation have been previously determined. A 

contour line on the map represents an imaginary line on the 

ground, all of which are of the same elevation above some 
16 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

adopted reference plane, usually mean sea level. For instance, 

the 25-foot contour would be the coast line were the sea to rise 

25 feet. Or, if a plane 25 feet above the parallel to sea level 

were passed through a section of the earth, its intersection with 

the ground surface would trace the 25-foot contour. A series of 

such parallel planes at successive vertical intervals of 25 feet 

is what is assumed, or imagined, when a map is drawn with 

25-foot contours. Besides showing the form and inequalities of 

the ground at their levels, contours permit one to read from the 

map the approximate elevation of any point on the ground and 

also the slope of the ground by using the map scale.

The organization set up to execute the work consisted 

of: first, an astronomic and computing division, the officers of 

which were engaged in determining the geographical coordinates of certain primary points; second, a triangulation corps, 

engaged in extending a system of triangulation over various 

portions of the country from measured base lines; and third, 

a topographic corps, much the largest, engaged in collecting 

topographic data in field surveys and drawing the quadrangle 

maps in the office the following winter.

The work of the first two divisions consists largely of 

mathematics and trigonometry for the reduction of the limited 

and accurate observations in the field to the geographic coordinates of two or more selected points on each quadrangle to 

be mapped. Starting with these two or more control points, the 

work of the topographer consists of two parts, clearly distinguished, one from the other, in character. These are, first, the 

geometric control, which furnishes the skeleton of the map, 

and, second, the sketching, which furnishes the map itself. The 

geometric control, or the location of many secondary points in 

their proper relation to the first two or more primary points, is 

affected by one or the other of two methods, either by angular 

measurement alone or by the measurement of direction and 

distance, the former being generally known as that of intersection, the latter as the traverse, or meander method.

The former is the preferable one, being accurate and 

rapid, but in flat, timbered regions, it cannot be economically 

employed, and for the purpose of reaching the details of roads, 

streams, and other obscure features, the latter method is found 

to be a useful adjunct to it. In practice, both methods are used 

as supplying the desired number of instrumentally located 

points, distributed in each square mile or in each square inch 

of map surface, so as to reduce the errors of sketching to a 

minimum. The building of the control skeleton is mathematical and comparatively easy to master, but the sketching is 

artistic and to a large degree is dependent upon the topographer’s natural talent in that direction.

The methods of topographic surveying, as finally 

developed, and described by James T. Gardner, in 1874, and 

thereafter followed, were considered the best so far devised, 

and were adopted. It was expected that the methods would 

be varied and modified to meet peculiar conditions in different portions of the country, and that refinements would 

constantly be introduced. The purpose for which the map was 

to be constructed was the representation of the areal geology 

of the United States but it was realized that in showing the 

geographic distribution of phenomena many other important 

purposes would be served.

Once constructed and engraved, the plates could serve for 

new editions from time to time, to be used for such purposes 

as the study of drainage systems, the regimen of rivers, the 

great subject of irrigation, the distribution of forests, the 

distribution of artesian water, catchment areas for the supply 

of water to cities, drainage of swamps and overflowed lands, 

soils and the classification of lands for agricultural purposes, 

the laying out of highways, railroads, and canals, for strategic 

and administrative purposes in the event of war, and as authentic and fundamental data for subsidiary maps and atlases 

for commercial, statistical, and instructional uses. All these 

purposes would be subserved by maps made to meet the more 

exacting demands of the geologists.

The magnitude of the undertaking made it of prime 

importance that the survey should be conducted with the 

utmost regard for economy, and at the same time to be so well 

executed that frequent resurveys would be avoided. This dual 

requirement called for the daily exercise of the topographer’s 

ingenuity and judgment. Satisfaction was his only if he felt 

reasonably sure that his work was done sufficiently well to 

please the critical geologist and to stand for all time without 

need for a resurvey unless on a larger scale.

The economical and time-saving procedures for mapping 

the United States would have been to establish one astronomic 

station, then measure a base line, then from it expand a triangulation net, and from this control center have topographic 

parties begin their surveys and work outwardly in all directions, completing quadrangles and leaving none unmapped 

behind them. In this way a state could be completely mapped. 

However, some quadrangles of little or no importance at the 

time would be mapped. Moreover, in several states and in 

widely separated sectors in a state, there arose requests for 

mapping. The needs of each locality had to be given careful 

consideration in order to extend the mapping over the United 

States. The quadrangles selected for mapping were listed in 

the Survey’s plan for the year’s work, which the Director 

would submit to the Secretary of the Interior for examination 

and approval at the commencement of each fiscal year. The 

Secretary then submitted them to Congress.

Mapping in Texas, Missouri, and Kansas

The enlarged appropriation for 1884–85 ($489,040) 

with the consequent increased allotment for geographic work 

($83,950 to $144,665) rendered it possible to commence 

mapping in Texas, Missouri, and Kansas. In Texas the work 

consisted of the measurement of a base near Austin, 6.2 miles 

in length, and an expansion made for the immediate purpose 

of furnishing topographers with located points. As soon as the 

control party under Edward M. Douglas had determined the 

needed locations, the topographic parties in charge of Abner F. 

Dunnington and Charles H. Fitch, thus supplied with locations, began their work and, during the season, covered about 

4,000 square miles.
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 17

The new work in Missouri and Kansas was based on the 

plats of the General Land Office. These plats had been found, 

by tests in various parts of the country, to furnish at least the 

major part of the drainage in sufficient detail for maps upon a 

scale of 1:125,000. Geographic position was usually lacking. To supply this control for the area selected to be mapped, 

Professor Robert S. Woodward, formerly assistant on the U.S. 

Lake Survey, was appointed and detailed to make astronomic 

stations (five) near the limits of the area and connect them by 

triangulation with township corners.

The mapping was done by townships, the assistant 

topographers following section lines and adding all missing 

drainage and determining the placing of contours by recording 

slope angles and other vertical angles with a gradienter. The 

initial elevations were established by mercurial barometers set 

at the nearest railroad elevation. The chief of the party, besides 

following selected section lines, went into the sections to 

obtain topographic details, carrying a barometer for the determination of elevations as a check upon the gradienter.

The topographic work, which consisted almost entirely of 

hypsometry, went on with great rapidity. Topographers Richard U. Goode and William J. Peters surveyed 13,600 square 

miles. The cost of this work in both the field and the office was 

less than $1.00 per square mile.

The total area surveyed during the fiscal year ending June 

30, 1885, was 57,508 square miles, distributed among the 

several areas of work projects shown in table 3.

Astronomic and Computing Section

The importance of geodetic control and the computation 

of geographic positions, and the necessity for the adoption 

of uniform standards for the work, led to the organization in 

1885 of an Astronomic and Computing Section, and Professor 

Robert S. Woodward was placed in charge.

The preceding year, the increased allotment for geographic work made it possible to commence work in Kansas, 

Missouri, and Texas. Much of Kansas and Missouri had been 

surveyed by the public land system and it seemed probable 

that the mapping could be expedited by a proper use of the 

plats of the General Land Office. It appeared that by applying 

a proper system of correction for these surveys, by supplying the missing drainage wherever it was necessary, and by 

adding the vertical element, the resulting maps would be fully 

up to the proposed scale of 1:125,000 in point of accuracy and 

detail.

For the control and correction of the surveys of the General Land Office it was decided tentatively to use astronomic 

locations, and during the field season Professor Woodward 

made five determinations of positions: Elk Falls, Oswego, 

and Fort Scott, Kans.; and Springfield and Bolivar, Mo., using 

St. Louis Observatory as the base station for longitude determinations. The stations selected were near the limits of the 

area to be surveyed and at the same time as near as possible 

to correction lines and guide meridians of the land surveys. 

These stations were connected by triangulation with township 

corners.

During the winter and spring months, Professor Woodward was engaged in Washington computing his astronomic 

work. In June 1885, he was detailed to establish an astronomic 

station at Albuquerque, N. Mex. Again, for the determination 

of longitude, telegraphic connection was made with the Washington Observatory, St. Louis, Mo., where the observations 

were taken by Professor H.S. Pritchett, Director. This arrangement and cooperation of Professor Pritchett were depended 

upon for many such longitude determinations in subsequent 

years. For latitude at Albuquerque, observations were made on 

10 nights upon 32 independent pairs of stars.

The scope of the work of the section may be indicated by 

excerpts from two annual reports of Professor Woodward, the 

first one for the fiscal year ending July 1, 1887. Of the various 

computations that have been made or completed within the 

year were:

1. A set of tables giving the coordinates for the 

polyconic projection of maps for each of the scales 

1:30,000; 1:62,500; 1:63,360; 1:125,000; 1:126,720; 

and 1:250,000.

2. A table giving the areas in square miles of quadrilaterals of the earth’s surface bounded by meridians 

and parallels.

3. A table for facilitating the computation of differences 

of height from angles of elevation or depression.

4. A table giving differences in elevation from telemeter measures.

5. A table similar to 4, but adapted to a special scale for 

planetable work.

6. Two sets of tables for facilitating the determination 

of azimuth from observations of Polaris.

Table 3. Areas surveyed during fiscal year 1885.

[The average cost of all the work done was about $3 per 

square mile]

Region Scale of 

publication

Area

(square miles)

Massachusetts 1:62,500 1,250

New Jersey 1:62,500 1,286

Appalachian 1:125,000 17,640

Missouri–Kansas 1:125,000 13,600

Texas 1:125,000 4,000

Plateau 1:250,000 15,000

Yellowstone Park 1:125,000 1,000

Northern California 1:250,000 3,750

 Total 57,750
18 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Tables 3, 4, and 5 were reprints of tables already in use by 

topographers in the field.

Another activity that was directly contributory to the 

division of geography was the collection, classification, and 

arrangement for ready reference of geographical positions 

of points throughout the country. The chief sources from 

which these were drawn were the reports of the U.S. Coast 

and Geodetic Survey, the U.S. Lake Survey, the various U.S. 

geographical and geological surveys, the Mississippi River 

Commission, and the state surveys of Massachusetts and 

New York. The list of such positions embraced upwards of 

7,000 entries, of which about 200 were added during the year. 

Constant attention was needed to keep the list up to date.

In August 1886, Professor Woodward made a survey of 

the Falls of Niagara,14 the object of which was to determine 

their rates of recession by comparing the positions of the 

crests with their positions as determined by the New York 

State Geological Survey in 1842 and by the U.S. Lake Survey 

in 1875. The work embraced the fixation by intersection of 

30 points on the crest of the Horse Shoe Falls and 25 points on 

the crest of the American Falls. The heights of both falls were 

also measured.

During the winter, the coordinates of the points fixed on 

the crests of the falls were computed and prepared for publication. The survey indicated that the average rate of recession 

along the whole crest line of the Horse Shoe Falls had been 

about 2.4 feet a year since 1842; in the central portion of the 

channel, the rate had been about twice as great. The recession 

of the American Falls during the same period had been slight.

During the two following years the work of Professor 

Woodward’s Mathematical Division continued to fall under 

the following two classes: First, that which was directly 

auxiliary to the operations of the Division of Geography; and 

second, that miscellaneous work, of a mathematical character 

chiefly, which arose in the various branches of the geologic 

and irrigation work of the Survey. Professor Woodward prepared for publication:

• The U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 48 (1888), a 

treatise on the form and position of sea level;

• Bulletin No. 49 (1889), the determination of latitudes 

and longitudes of certain points in Missouri, Kansas, 

and New Mexico; and

• Bulletin No. 50 (1889), 124 pages of tables required in 

the work of geographers and draftsmen.

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, the work 

of the Mathematical Division was more varied. The usual 

attention was given to current computations to aid topographic 

work, and much time was given to consultations with topographers and geographers of the Survey concerning the technical 

details of their operations, and the following activities were 

noteworthy.

14 Assisted by P.C. Warman, loaned from Mr. Gilbert’s party.

Professor Woodward examined and tested six new theodolites made by Fauth and Co. in accordance with specification drawn by him, and prepared specifications for two new 

astronomical transits of the best modern type. As a member 

of the Survey board of special examiners for the U.S. Civil 

Service Commission, he drew up several sets of examination 

papers for use in the topographic aid examinations conducted 

by the Commission, examined the papers submitted by candidates, and rated them.

In October 1889, he went into the field and established 

astronomic stations at: Speareville, Kans., where he was 

assisted by Harry L. Baldwin, Jr.; Boise City, Idaho, where 

William T. Griswold assisted him and then continued with the 

first topographic mapping in Idaho; and Cisco, Tex., where 

Mr. Richard U. Goode was the assistant. In May 1890, Professor Woodward was again in the field, in El Paso County, Tex., 

where with Arthur P. Davis’ assistance, he established Sierra 

Blanca astronomic station and from it extended triangulation 

for the purpose of locating a point on the 105th degree meridian. The longitudes of the four stations were determined with 

reference to St. Louis, Mo., where the observations were made 

by Professor Pritchett.

Upon the resignation of Professor Woodward, to accept 

an appointment with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Sam 

S. Gannett was given charge of the Astronomic and Computing Section. As a preliminary to topographic work in South 

Dakota he established an astronomic station at Rapid City, 

October 23 to November 20, 1890, being assisted with his 

observations by Abner F. Dunnington. The determination of 

longitude was made by exchanging time signals with Professor Pritchett at St. Louis.

Instrument Repairs

The supply and repair of instruments had been, from the 

inception of topographic work, unsatisfactory and the necessity for having a mechanic connected with the Survey had 

been long apparent. Finally, on March 1, 1885, Edward Kubel, 

a well known instrument maker who, from long association 

with the Survey and its predecessors, was well acquainted with 

the instruments and methods in use, was appointed mechanic. 

The work connected with the adjustment and repair of instruments warranted the employment of two assistants, and during 

the spring months, a third assistant. Even so, though it was 

necessary to purchase nearly all new instruments in the next 

3 years, Mr. Kubel found time to make 6 first-class telescopic 

alidades and 24 traverse planetables with ruler alidades. In the 

fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, he made 6 alidades and an 

8-inch theodolite. This arrangement was discontinued on July 

1, 1891, and repairs to instruments were made again by contract, on an hourly basis. Mr. Douglas, Geographer, was now 

in charge, assisted by Stephen A. Aplin, Jr., who, in 1896, was 

made custodian of instruments. In December of that year, Mr. 

Aplin, under the general direction of Mr. Wilson, Geographer, 

began the indexing and cataloguing of topographic records. 

These records were divided into six separate classes, namely: 
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 19

astronomic and baseline measurement notebooks, primary triangulation notebooks, spirit level notebooks, field sheets, and 

miscellaneous map material. Each book or map was numbered 

and filed and a cross index card catalogue was prepared for all 

the separate entries. There were about 10,000 entries; annual 

accumulations amounted to about 1,000.

In 1898, Mr. Aplin was placed in charge of the purchase 

and repair of instruments, relieving Mr. Douglas of that work. 

A more rigid system of accountability had been established 

and instruments were returned from the field in better condition. Repair work, during the year ending June 30, 1899, was 

given to private instrument makers, at hourly labor. G.W. 

Saegmuller of Washington, D.C., and W. Gurley and L. Gurley 

of Troy, N.Y., being the principal contractors.

During the fiscal year 1899–1900, the plant of Ernest 

Kubel was acquired for the use of the Survey, and he was 

employed as an expert instrument mechanic on May 2, 1900. 

Kubel was in immediate charge of the repairs not only of the 

surveying instruments, but also of the presses and machinery 

belonging to the Section of Engraving and Printing. The chief 

engraver, who was the brother of Ernest Kubel, had administrative charge of the broadened enterprise.

In July 1903, the Section of Instruments and Topographic 

Records was organized and placed in charge of Mr. Aplin, 

with Powell P. Withers as assistant. Mr. Aplin was transferred 

to the Accounts Division on June 1, 1907, and Mr. Withers 

became custodian of instruments and topographic records. 

W.H.S. Morey, topographic engineer, was transferred to the 

Section of Field Equipment as custodian on July 1, 1920. He 

returned to the Topographic Branch on July 1, 1928, and was 

assigned to the Computing Section.

William H. Griffin’s Diary

The broad open prairies of Kansas offered a natural 

training ground for young topographers. For the season of 

1889 there came a youth from a southeastern state filled with 

enthusiasm for topographic surveying, based on a few months 

of instruction, and for new and strange places. Travel and new 

experiences were such a delight that he undertook to keep a 

diary, which he was to continue faithfully throughout a long 

and honorable career. As hundreds of young men starting out 

with the Geological Survey had similar experiences, but kept 

no diary, excerpts from his diary are considered pertinent to 

this history.

William H. Griffin, born and raised in Lake City, Fla., 

and educated in the public schools and Florida State College, was 21 years of age when, in early September 1888, 

he boarded a train for Washington, D.C. to seek a job with 

the U.S. Geological Survey. The journey, in old time day 

coaches, consumed 3 days and 2 nights, with frequent stops 

while health inspectors examined all passengers to prevent the 

spread of yellow fever, which that summer was worse than in 

previous summers.

In the late afternoon he arrived in Washington, at the old 

Pennsylvania, or Union Station, Sixth and B streets, found 

lodging in the nearby Howard House, and that evening called 

on his Senatorial sponsor. The Senator was surprised to see 

him but the Sundry Civil Bill, which carried the appropriations for the Geological Survey, had been passed and Griffin’s 

appointment need not be delayed.

The next forenoon, the Senator introduced him to Major 

Powell, who turned him over to Henry Gannett. After reporting to the Survey office every morning for 10 days and seeing 

the sights of the Capital by day, and attending the theaters, 

the first real theaters he had ever seen, at night, he received 

instructions to report to Louis Nell at Columbiana, Ala. Railroad transportation was furnished.

Louis Nell had been a member of the Wheeler Survey 

and is mentioned in the reports for 1871 and 1875. With Lieutenant Birnie, and F. Brockdorf, he climbed Mount Whitney in 

California on October 13, 1875.

Nell established a single-handed record, for seasonal 

production, which has never been equalled. His remarkable 

achievement was cited by Major Powell in his Annual Report 

No. 10 (1888–89).

“On the 14th of August (1888) Mr. Louis Nell was 

ordered to the field in Alabama, and to his party 

were assigned Messrs. R.L. Longstreet and Charles 

W. Goodlove as assistants, and subsequently Messrs. 

Wm. H. Griffin, Duncan Hannagan, F.P. Metzger, 

and B. Peton Legare; he was instructed to survey 

the Bessemer and Talladega sheets with certain 

unfinished parts of sheets lying immediately north of 

them, an area of about 2,300 square miles. Shortly 

after he had commenced work Mr. Longstreet, his 

principal assistant, met with a serious accident, 

breaking his wrist and rendering him incapable of 

affording further assistance during the season. In 

spite of his serious loss Mr. Nell succeeded in finishing the area assigned him and disbanded his party in 

November.”

Nell cordially greeted the new arrival and found out that 

Griffin knew how to hitch, unhitch, saddle, ride, and drive a 

horse or mule, and Griffin soon became Nell’s recorder and 

orderly. What he needed to know about the camp curriculum 

was imparted by members of the camp, especially by Goodlove, an 18-year old veteran of two seasons. Life in the Survey 

camp was a cherished hope realized, in daytime, a ride over 

mountains with stops at commanding lookouts, a healthy 

appetite for a well-cooked supper, an hour or two around a big 

blazing fire in the long, fall evenings when each would exploit 

his daring escapades and extol the virtues of his home town, 

and finally a sound sleep in a real Army tent.

The season ended and after a 2 days’ trip, Talladega was 

reached. The camp equipage was stored then and the animals 

pastured until the next field season. All technical assistants 

returned to Washington, but Griffin accompanied Nell to 

Cincinnati, where profiles and elevations were to be obtained 

in the railroad offices.
20 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

In Washington, for the winter, the hours at the office were 

from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., and were devoted to inking drainage 

on the manuscript sheets, then contours, and finally margin 

lettering and names of features. Six newcomers, including 

Griffin, Goodlove, Hannagan and Hersey Munroe, definitely 

in pursuit of careers as topographers, requested Nell to give 

them instructions. He had them at his home, 3 nights a week, 

for lessons in mathematics and contour construction. For the 

latter, he made a helpful plaster relief model.

Other activities of Griffin’s during the early months of 

1889 are indicated by the following excerpts from his diary.

Diary—1889

January 14 (Monday)—Went around to Corcoran 

Cadet Armory with Hersey Munroe.

January 20 (Sunday)—Saw my first snow today—a 

fall of 2 inches.

February 16 (Saturday)—Left the office at 2 and 

went to the White House to Mrs. Cleveland’s last 

public reception. Near the head of the line which 

extended way out on the Avenue, I had just gotten under the porte cochere when a heavy rain 

fell * * * . In the East Rooms people were wedged 

together in a tight mass * * * Mrs. Cleveland was 

sweet and pretty and had a smile for every handshake. She looked strange, though, without a bustle.

March 4 (Monday)—Inauguration of Benjamin 

Harrison and Levi P. Morton, President and VicePresident. Goodlove and I were together all day and 

we did not miss a trick between the White House 

and Capitol, and Capitol and White House. Snow in 

morning, turning to sleet and then rain * * * Pennsylvania National Guard paraded 10,000 strong * * * 

Saw Mary Anderson in Pygmalion and Galatea at 

Albaugh’s Theater.

March 7 (Thursday)—saw Mary Anderson again, 

this time as Hermione and Perdita in “A Winter’s 

Tale.” America’s greatest and most beloved actress, 

she did not again appear on a Washington stage and 

shortly afterward retired.

May 31 (Friday)—Received official orders transferring me from Appalachian (Maj. Gilbert Thompson) 

to the North-central division (Mr. John H. Renshawe); also travel orders to Wichita, Kans., where 

I report to W.H. Herron whom I have met and like. 

Too, I like the prospect of going West to new scenes 

* * * Mr. Nell was mad as the devil at the transfers, losing thereby one he had spent so much time 

training.

June 1 (Saturday)—Met a traveling companion at 

B. and 0. depot for the 3 o’clock train, but no train 

was going out on account of great flood * * * Went 

to Monument to look at river and had to ride across 

C Street on 15th on account of water * * * Extras 

told of the devastating Johnstown, Pa., flood which 

took more than 10,000 lives.

June 2 (Sunday)—Joined crowds on Pennsylvania 

Avenue to see the high water. From Peace Monument to 9th Street the wheels of the horse-cars were 

under water. Around Center Market and south of the 

avenue, in deeper water, sight-seeing gondolas did a 

rushing business.

June 4 (Tuesday)—Left Washington on B. and O. at 

3:30

June 6 (Thursday)—Kansas City, where I spent 

3 days with a chum who left home a year before I 

did. I had built up a yearning to come here to see the 

metropolis of the cowboys and Robin Hoods of the 

prairie land—the hideout particularly of the Dimenovel hero, Jesse James.

June 10 (Monday)—Wichita, Carey House. Three 

Parties here and all at train when I arrived this evening. Lamar and self with Herron, Legare, and Seely 

with Towson. All leave here tomorrow and live on 

the country.

June 13 (Thursday)—Have been out with Mr. Herron watching him sketch. Sketched 34 square miles 

today and got here (Mount Hope) at 7. Saw my first 

binder at work and also a woman and three girls 

with crocus bags in pasture picking up “cow-chips”. 

For fuel, Herron says. Later I was to see this fuel 

stacked in pyramids beside sod houses as meticulously as a Yankee’s woodpike. Saw, too, for the first 

time, straight roads; and a few days later a prairiedog town, a windmill; and learned that, though I 

was from the South, friendly greetings and cordial 

hospitality were invariably extended one.

June 15 (Saturday)—Went out alone for first time. 

Missed Herron. Saw first real cowgirl—big hat, 

boots and chaps—tough looking mug.

June 21 (Friday)—Am with a Hoosier family 

tonight * * * Old man was in the Oklahoma run on 

April 22 and says he got away at sound of bugle but 

when he reached his claim a fellow had a couple of 

furrows plowed round it.

June 24 (Monday)—At Norwich. Worked on sheets 

till midnight.

July 4 (Thursday)—In Kingman. Big parade, heard 

for first time “Marching through Georgia” and saw 

fireworks on 4th of July. Dance on main street with 

caller who sings the figures, and in “Opry House” in 

evening.
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 21

July 10 (Wednesday)—Got news of fight held in 

Richberg, Miss. on Monday. Sullivan won over Kilrian in 75th round. Possible last big fight with bare 

knuckles * * * Worked 32 square miles and never 

saw so many sod houses!

July 26 (Friday)—Wichita—Baldwin’s, Herron’s 

and Towson’s parties here getting outfit and stock 

for camp. H.L. Baldwin, Jr. was straw boss for 

Kansas and only did triangulation; other two parties, 

topography. The shipment of buckboards was 4 days 

late, but we got the tents up and moved into camp on 

second day. We assembled the buckboards on depot 

platform and pushed them over to a blacksmith to 

have odometers put on * * * got our two wagons 

packed and away at 10:30, we following at 5. This 

our first real camp and they made good time to get 

this far, 15 miles, over much sticky mud * * * Our 

Negro cook, Charlie, was a good cook, but tough. 

Our teamster whom we called “Pa” wore a big 

bunch of whiskers and was quite a character.

July 31 (Wednesday)—Runnymede. English neighborhood and large store stocked with fancy pipes, 

riding habits, jams, marmalade, etc. Alluring ads in 

English papers attracted young people to come and 

enjoy life on ranches hereabouts.

August 4 (Sunday)—Tents blown down at night.

August 6 (Tuesday)—Emry, Mr. Herron came in 

afoot. His buggy horse had played out and died.

August 12 (Monday)—A tough day. Creeks up all 

morning. Swam one where bridge was out and went 

200 feet downstream before I found place for horse 

to get out. Less than an hour later crossed bridge 

covered with water and horse got front foot caught 

in floor and fell. Thought I’d never get him up * * * 

Creeks down in afternoon.

August 13—Found a 5-inch centipede when we 

got up. On my telescope between heads of our 

cots * * * . We’re camped at Caldwell, not far from 

Cherokee Strip line. Some tough looking hombres 

on street.

August 20 (Tuesday)—A horseback from 8 a.m. to 

7 p.m. Awful sore. Always thought kindly of General 

McClelland, (sic) but not of the McClelland (sic) 

saddle. Many times today had to let down barbed 

wires and fence posts, some rotten.

September 15 (Sunday)—at that farmer’s where I 

stayed last night owing to a storm. Husband and 

wife, 2 kids, another man and I slept in one room.

September 17—Left home 1 year ago today. I’ve 

sure seen a lot since.

September 23 (Monday)—Had prairie chickens 

(Charlie killed) for supper. First I ever ate. Fine. 

Charlie had served prairie dogs before. Delicious.

September 25–27—Camps at Calista, Ninnescah 

and Cairo.

October 4 (Friday)—Pratt. Went to baseball game 

after supper. Pratt defeated Cairo 31 to 17.

October 10 (Thursday)—Haviland. Three 50-pound 

watermelons for 5 cents. For some days now we’ve 

been working in the sandhills which extend from the 

buffalo-grass plateau to the Arkansas River, 10 to 20 

miles. These glorified anthills vary in elevation from 

10 to 60 feet. Many of them were perfectly bare with 

deep blowouts on top, but the greater percent were 

sparsely covered with bunch-grass. Through this 

grass we could detect the section line furrow going 

over some high hill ahead and thus keep oriented. 

We carried neither compass nor tripod and sketched 

drainage and 20-foot contours on a lap board. Elevations were determined on an aneroid which was 

set at the morning starting point and checked on 

the river. The wind blew hard from sunup to sunset 

which added 50 to 100 additional feet to be adjusted 

in elevations each night, and incidently caused sore 

eyes.

The steepness of the hills and deep sand made it 

impossible to keep a straight course, and to re-orient 

oneself after detouring the base of dunes was not an 

easy job. The traverseman (Griffin or Lamar) started 

from a located section corner on the flat, followed 

line from that corner to the river, and jogged up 

or down a mile to the next section line. To follow 

that angling river and find the line and get properly 

oriented for the return trip, without compass or companion, was as exasperating a job as ever puzzled a 

green beginner. And he had better get out of the sand 

dunes before dark!

Mr. Herron, chief of party, laid out the work each 

week. His part of the mapping consisted of running 

vertical angle lines with a gradienter (and seldom 

with a rodman) about every 4 miles, establishing 

elevations at section corners with which to check the 

two traversmen’s aneroids, and sketching the interior 

of sections.

October 21 (Monday)—Cold rain with wind. 

Worked on sheets all day by stove in dining tent. 

Fuel: cobs, corn and cowchips, the latter gathered 

yesterday. Corn, bringing only 6–10 cents a bushel, 

was burned instead of coal all through the country.
22 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

October 26 (Saturday)—East on Section 7, R. 16, 

T. 26. Invited to lunch. The hospitable people don’t 

like to see a man eating lunch alone outside!

October 29 (Tuesday)—Cold rain. Got turned 

around in sandhills. Old Bo, the horse, given his 

head, couldn’t help.

November 4 (Monday) Two wagon loads of our 

scattered neighbors in the Quaker settlement came 

by this evening and took George Lamar and me 

to their little sod “meeting-house,” a mile north of 

camp.

November 5—Cold. Worked, and slept in nearby 

store instead of in tent. (Later moved into boxcar 

with stove.)

November 17 (Sunday)—Camp at end of W. and 

W. Railroad (later the Chicago, Rock Island, and 

Pacific) on the Kiowa-Ford County Line.

November 25 (Monday)—Heaviest snow yet, still 

falling. George and I drove into Dodge City to hear 

Gilmore’s Band at the Old Skating Rink. The Band 

was America’s best then and made the 1-night stop 

as a break in a long trip.

November 28—Thanksgiving. Our last day’s work, 

and the coldest, windiest. Camp was moved into 

Dodge City.

November 29—Charlie, the cook, celebrated the 

end of the season with a bang-up Thanksgiving—

Farewell dinner of eight big, brown stuffed prairie 

chickens, ham, cranberry sauce, canned vegetables, 

big blazing aromatic plum pudding, etc., etc.

During the season, June 15 to November 29, Mr. 

Herron with two assistants, or traversemen, mapped 

seven 30-minute quadrangles or about 6,500 square 

miles: Spearville, Kinsley, Pratt, Kingman, Cheney, 

Anthony, Caldwell.

Before breaking camp Mr. Herron, took some pictures with one of the new Eastman Kodaks. Members of the party were shown in their 4-months old 

beards and camp with Old Glory pushed straight out 

by a Kansas patriotic but devilish wind and displaying on its blue shield but 32 stars.

December 1—Left Dodge City at 5:25 a.m. on the 

Santa Fe, after a night in the Delmonico Hotel which 

was still the best but nothing to brag of. Stopped in 

Wellington to get county data, plats of towns, villages, etc.

The return trip to Washington was circuitous for 

the purpose of more sightseeing. On Mr. Herron’s 

invitation I spent December 6 and 7 at his home near 

Homer, Ill. Spent the 5th in Springfield visiting the 

Lincoln Monument, and museum.

December 9–10—In Chicago. Met Dabney Harrison 

and visited Marshall Fields, the Palmer House, the 

stockyards, etc.

December 11 (Wednesday)—Enroute to Niagara 

Falls in Wagner Sleeper (compartments).

December 12—New York. The Battery, Central 

Park, Brooklyn Bridge, Delmonico’s. Streets 

crowded. Horses of all weights. Saw Denman 

Thompson in the “Old Homestead.”

December 13—With Charley (Slick) Moncrief at his 

home in Brooklyn.

December 15 (Sunday)—Back to Howard House in 

Washington.

December 16—Back to office to meet field friends 

and settle down to drafting.

December 22 (Sunday)—To Unitarian Church with 

Herron.

December 23—Got promotion to $840.

December 31 (Tuesday)—Clear and cold. Holiday 

in afternoon. Rented a bicycle for first ride on one. 

Herron too * * * to Albaugh’s to see Crane in “The 

Senator.” New Year’s Eve on the Avenue.

Section of Editing

A manuscript map was inked, usually by the topographer 

who had made the original field surveys, was then checked 

by another topographer for gross errors, and was submitted as 

completed to the geographer of his division who examined it 

and certified that it was ready for engraving. This practice prevailed until 1894, when it was realized that the maps should 

be subjected to closer examination. They were produced by 

many unequal in character and quality. It was decided to have 

every topographic manuscript, before publication, referred to 

an editor for his close scrutiny. Marcus Baker was assigned to 

this position.

He was responsible for the original manuscript topographic maps as they were given to him upon completion. The 

maps were to be carefully examined and prepared for engraving, the examination consisting of comparison with other maps 

and published material relating to the region. The preparation 

consisted of the correction of such errors or defects as were 

discovered during the examination, and in proper uniformity, especially in geographic nomenclature, which included 

research into the origin and authenticity of place names and 

geographic features. The editorial work covered not only the 

new maps but all the old ones when a revision was made for 
Inception and Early Years of the Geological Survey 23

the purpose of printing a new edition, or when any sheet was 

prepared for use as a topographic base for maps of one of the 

geologic folios. After the sheets had successfully undergone 

examination and criticism, they were approved for engraving 

and sent to the Division of Engraving and Printing, through 

the office of the Director. After engraving, proofs were submitted and carefully read, before the sheets were approved for 

printing.

Mr. Baker found the accumulated work so great that he 

secured the assistance of a proof-reader (Herbert W. Elmore) 

from the Division of Engraving and Printing. Mr. Elmore 

was transferred on December 1, 1894. Other transfers were 

made in the next year or two so that the group constituted 

a section—the Section of Editing, composed of Mr. Baker, 

Mr. Elmore, Wm. Stranahan, John W. Brashears, and James 

McCormick who, in May 1896, was permanently assigned and 

eventually became chief of the editorial work.

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1895, the 

manuscripts of 125 new maps were critically examined and 

approved for engraving. Proofs, usually two, but occasionally 

three, were read of 41 new maps. Old maps, to the number of 

91 were revised, corrected, and the correction proof read. All 

known correction material was collected and systematically 

arranged.

Mr. Baker was able to exercise only a general supervision 

over the map editing at times, for he continued to serve as Secretary of the U.S. Board on Geographic Names, the work of 

which was so closely related to that of the Geological Survey 

and so useful to it. He also prepared a map for the Venezuelan 

Boundary Commission and on May 11, 1896, at the request of 

the chairman of that body, he was detailed to the Commission 

and, since that date, devoted most of his time to its work. On 

July 29, 1899, he was relieved of the duties of editor of topographic maps by Mr. Kubel, chief engraver, who continued in 

charge of the editing through 1901.

A part of the work of the Section was preparation 

of 11 maps by July 1, 1899, for publication on a scale of 

1:125,000 by combining maps that had originally been published on a scale of 1:62,500.

During one of Mr. Baker’s longer absences, December 

1896 to June 30, 1897, Bailey Willis served as acting editor.

Photography

Photography early became an important factor in the 

work of the Survey. Many negatives were taken in the field by 

geologists for the purpose of illustrating geologic phenomena. 

A photographic laboratory was organized, with J.K. Hillers 

(fig. 7) (who was the photographer with the Powell Survey 

on and after 1871) in charge, in which photography was used 

in preparing various illustrations for the reports, for changing 

the scale of charts, for copying unfinished topographic maps 

and charts for use in the field during succeeding seasons, and 

for the guidance of editors and engravers. During the fiscal 

year ending June 30, 1884, there were made in the laboratory 

536 negatives, 6,231 prints and 94 transparencies. Mr. Hillers 

made occasional trips to scenic areas and secured some fine 

photographs.

The laboratory was a unit in the Division of Illustrations, which at first was in charge of Wm. H. Holmes, then 

DeLancey W. Gill, from 1889 to his resignation July 16, 

1898, and then John L. Ridgeway. In 1899, the laboratory 

had the following personnel: J.K. Hillers, chief photographer, 

C.C. Jones, John Erbach, Charles A. Ross, Nelson H. Kent, 

Edgar M. Bane, and Ernest A. Shuster, Jr.

The Photographic Laboratory, after study and recommendation by a committee, on November 23, 1899, was 

placed in the Division of Engraving and Printing, S.J. Kubel, 

was chief engraver and on May 1, 1900, Norman W. Carkhuff 

was appointed chief photographer. J.K. Hillers retired, but 

remained on a per diem basis until about 1919.

Section of Topographic Drafting

Although the topographers employed by the Survey were 

necessarily competent draftsmen, and usually would pencil 

and ink their own manuscripts, it was found desirable to organize a section of topographic drawing, in order (1) to handle 

tasks of a miscellaneous nature, (2) to obviate the necessity of 

employing topographers in the office during months in which 

they might more profitably be employed in the field, and (3) to 

secure uniformity in style and character of drawing.

During the winter of 1883–84 the compilation of a 

map of the United States upon a scale of 16 miles to an inch 

(1:1,000,000) was commenced, almost all of the material for 

its construction being at hand, or easily accessible. Also, index 

maps showing the progress of the field surveys were prepared. 

Other duties related mainly to the preparation of map illustrations for the geologic divisions, to the revision of maps of the 

Hayden Survey, with a view to engraving them on copper, and 

to the transcripts of the original maps of the Massachusetts 

Survey for deposit with the State authorities in accordance 

with the terms of the contract. The work was keeping from 

five to seven draftsmen busy and the section was placed in 

charge of Harry King.

Map Scales and Symbols

By the spring of 1885, a plan had been established for 

map scales and for cartographic representation. Whereas, in 

1879, the mapping was accomplished for publication on a 

scale of 1:250,000, or 4 miles to 1 inch, with special large 

scale maps for small mining areas, it was recognized that the 

small scale of 4 miles to 1 inch was suitable only for deserts 

and uninhabited mountains. Various sections of the country 

required the larger scales of 1:125,000 (2 miles equals 1 inch), 

and 1:62,500 (1 mile equals 1 inch), as determined by considerations given to (1) present or prospective density of settlement; (2) economic importance; (3) complexity of geologic 

phenomena; and (4) degree of detail in topographic features. 

A contour interval, whether 10, 20, 50, 100 or 200 feet, was 
24 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

selected for each map after consideration for the scale of the 

map and the magnitude of relief features.

A system of colors, conventional signs, and lettering was 

established for topographic maps. Culture (works of man) 

such as towns, cities, roads, railroads, and boundaries were 

printed in black; water features (hydrography), such as streams 

and canals, were represented in blue; relief (hypsography) 

was shown by contour lines printed in brown. Lettering was 

in black, of various styles and sizes, which were set forth in 

a chart of conventional signs and symbols. Such cartographic 

conventions were reduced to the greatest possible simplicity, 

in order that the maps might be easily understood and be of 

value to all classes of people.

Engraving of Maps

Under the statutes relating to the Geological Survey, there 

was no provision for the general publication of topographic 

maps. They could be published only as a basis for “geologic 

and economic maps illustrating the resources and classification 

of the lands.” A small edition (250 copies) was necessary for 

the use of the employees and collaborators of the Survey in 

the prosecution of the field and the office work. After careful 

study, plans were formulated for the printing of these maps.

The cartographic conventions—the symbols to be used 

on the maps for the representation of the cultural, hydrographic, and hypsographic facts—were reduced to the greatest 

possible simplicity, in order that the maps be easily understood 

and be of value to not only scientists and engineers, but to all 

classes of people.

The maps were to be engraved on copper (fig. 8), three 

plates being required for each. On one was to be engraved the 

hydrography, for printing in blue; on the second, the hypsography, as represented by contours, for printing in brown; and on 

the third, the projection lines, lettering, and public culture, to 

be printed in black. Plans were matured by the Public Printer 

and, in the spring of 1885, a contract was made with Messrs. 

Bien & Co., of New York, for the engraving of 100 maps. 

Of these, 17 were transmitted to Bien & Co. before June 

30, 1885, while the manuscript maps for the rest were then 

completed and were ready for transmission. It was believed 

that, with the current appropriation for topographic work, 

areas comprising 100 maps could be surveyed each year and 

the manuscripts prepared for the engraver.

The first maps issued by the Geological Survey as 

topographic maps only and on which no geology was shown 

were photolithographs of areas in northeastern Arizona and 

northwestern New Mexico. Small editions of these maps were 

printed in 1883 and each map included an area of 2 square 

degrees of latitude and longitude.

The engraved maps for these areas were published 

as regular 1 degree quadrangles. The first was the Canyon 

De Chelly, Ariz., Quadrangle, dated March 1886; the second 

was the Marsh Pass, Ariz., Quadrangle, dated April 1886. 

The maps of the remainder of the area—Fort Defiance and 

Tusayan, Ariz., and Wingate and Mount Taylor, N. Mex., 

quadrangles—were dated May or June 1886.

By June 30, 1886, the engraving firm been furnished 

with the manuscripts of 76 maps, and had delivered to the 

Survey completed copper plates of 55 maps, also small printed 

editions (250 copies) of 49 of them. Of the 55 maps, 35 were 

degree quadrangles in the far western states: Arizona—11, 

California—1, Montana—3, Nevada—2, New Mexico—2, 

and Utah—16. The other 20 maps were 30-minute quadrangles: Alabama—2, Kansas—6, Missouri—6, Tennessee—4, 

and Texas—2. The locations of the quadrangles mapped were 

indicated on a Progress Map of the United States, printed by 

T. Sinclair & Son, Philadelphia, and attached to the Survey’s 

Seventh Annual Report.

The engraving of maps continued under the contract system. The Public Printer entered into contracts: in October 1888 

with Messrs. Sinclair & Son of Philadelphia, for engraving 

100 maps of the general atlas; in April 1889, with H.C. Evans 

of Washington, D.C., for engraving 30 maps; in June 1889, 

with Harris & Co. of Philadelphia, for engraving 21 maps. 

Competition between engraving firms for contracts was keen, 

price levels had been greatly lowered, and with them the 

quality of the product, uniformity of execution was out of the 

question; vexatious delays in the delivery of the work were 

frequent.

As the topographic maps were engraved, proof copies 

were placed in the hands of geologists, to use in connection 

with their work; they also were given to engineers and other 

persons whose work demanded local topographic data. Errors 

and omissions were discovered and corrected. Moreover, 

the cultural elements of topography—such as names, towns, 

roads, and railroads—undergo changes, and so far as these 

changes supervene between the engraving of maps and their 

publication, the plates should be revised so as to conform 

thereto. It was estimated then that the general atlas of the 

United States would comprise about 7,000 maps. In 1887, consideration for the publication of the first maps of the geologic 

atlas developed the fact that the old classification and color 

symbolism must be abandoned and that, in order to devise 

and establish a satisfactory and enduring scheme, an extensive study of, and experimentation with, colors and processes 

would be necessary. These operations, in addition to the modification of the topographic plates by way of correction and 

revision, constituted work which could not advantageously be 

performed under the contract system. While the topographic 

features of a quadrangle receive three impressions, each with 

a different color, for the delineation of the geology, each sheet 

will receive from 2 to 20 different impressions.

A Division of Engraving and Printing (fig. 9) within the 

Survey was deemed necessary. The first legislative step in this 

direction was taken when Congress, by Act of March 2, 1889, 

made an appropriation of $45,000 for engraving and printing 

the maps of the Geological Survey and placed the same under 

the control of the Director. Stephen J. Kubel, of the Hydrographic office, U.S. Navy, was appointed chief engineer on 

February 15, 1890, and he organized this important Division.
Investigation by Congress 25

By June 30, 1890, the plant of the Division consisted of 

two Parke lithographic presses, a full supply of lithographic 

stones, (fig. 10) inks, colors, papers, engraving desks, and 

instruments, and arrangements were made for the purchase of 

a stone-grinding machine, a routing machine, a plate press, 

and a motor. As soon as the plant was installed, the work of 

engraving and printing was begun and by the above date, revision and correction of different kinds had been made on 60 

different maps, including the entire set of Rhode Island maps. 

Four new maps had been taken up for original engraving, viz.; 

Tipton and Durant, Iowa, the Larned and Cheney, Kans. The 

first two were finished and a proof edition of the Tipton was 

printed. Preliminary studies of methods, experiments with 

materials, a system of cost accounting, the care and handling 

of copper plates, etc., were all given close attention. When 

appointed, the chief engraver was made custodian of the 

engraved copper plates for 240 topographic maps, the plates 

of a wall map of the United States, and those of a wall map of 

Massachusetts, which had been engraved under the contract 

system.

During the following year, new contacts were made 

with three private firms for the engraving of 146 manuscripts, 

and the map of the State of Connecticut in four sheets. The 

Survey’s new engraving Division engraved 28 quadrangle 

maps. The force had grown to seven engravers, two printers 

and two assistants, and considerable additional equipment had 

been acquired. The Survey expected to build the Division to a 

size capable of doing all its engraving and printing, and after 

July 1, 1894, no new contracts were made.

Sale of Topographic Maps

On February 18, 1897, Congress authorized the publication and distribution, by sale of the topographic maps, at a 

price which would cover the cost of printing and materials. 

The price fixed for single copies was 5 cents, and for large 

orders 3 cents per copy. Editions of 1,000 copies were printed. 

In a few years, under a stimulating demand, editions were 

increased to 3,000.

Topographic maps engraved by the Division in its 

10th year, 1899–1900, numbered 72; in 1902–03, 101. The 

total number engraved by contractors and office force by 1904 

was 1,450. The total number of topographic maps printed 

during the first 10 years was 533,655; by 1904 the total was 

3,434,424.

Investigation by Congress

The rapidly growing appropriations for the Geological 

Survey, as well as for two other large scientific bureaus of 

the government—the Signal Service (which then performed 

the functions vested in the Weather Bureau), and the Hydrographic Office, became, beginning in 1883, the subject of 

discussion in Congress and in 1884, provision was made in the 

sundry civil appropriation act for a joint congressional commission to “consider the present organization” of the bureaus 

mentioned, “with the view to secure greater efficiency and 

economy in the administration of the public service in said 

Bureaus.” The commission appointed held numerous hearings 

in 1885 and 1886, Director Powell appearing for the Survey.15

The main questions regarding the Survey’s work raised 

in hearings related to the value of topographic maps executed 

on so small a scale as 1:250,000, the rate of progress toward 

completion and publication of the Survey’s geological maps, 

and the propriety of the wide scope of the Survey’s scientific 

investigations and publications.

While the minority of the commission, consisting of two 

of the six members, submitted a report criticizing the Survey, the majority expressed the opinion that the Survey as a 

whole was “well conducted, and with economy and care, and 

discloses excellent administrative and business ability on the 

part of its chief.”16

The investigation demonstrated that the Survey’s work 

was built on sound principles and, further, that Major Powell, well known as an excellent artillery officer and fearless 

explorer, was also a fighter and great leader. Every year he was 

called upon to justify before the appropriations committee, and 

sometimes on the floor of the House and Senate, the continuation of the Survey’s work.

Some members of the Congress disapproved of the 

Survey, as a new scientific Bureau, and were ready to reduce 

its appropriations or discontinue them. When these reverses 

happened, Major Powell furloughed topographers, as well as 

others, assuring them that he was sorry to have to do so and 

would recall them as soon as he obtained sufficient funds to 

carry on the work. He always succeeded. Topographers, more 

than once, worked late into the night to prepare charts and diagrams showing the progress of topographic mapping for Major 

Powell’s use before Congress the following day.

Appropriations depended upon a good showing of square 

miles mapped the previous season. This put a premium on 

speed and undue emphasis on the small scale of 1:250,000 as 

yielding the most mileage at less cost.

Excerpts from “Testimony before the Joint Commission 

on the Signal Service, Geological Survey, Coast and Geodetic 

Survey and the Hydrographic Office—U.S. 49th Congress, 1st 

Session, Senate Miscellaneous Document 82.” (1886) Hearings began Thursday, December 4, 1884.

From Major Powell’s testimony:

Q. How many years do you think that it will take to 

make the geological map of the compass and scope 

that you contemplate now?

A. About 24 years.

15 Service Monographs of the U.S. Government No. 1 (Geological Survey) 

by Institute for Government Research, 1919, p. 15.

16 S. Misc. Doc. 82, 49th Cong., 1st sess. (v. 4 of misc. doc.) S. Rept. 1285, 

49th Cong., 1st sess.
26 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Q. That will be all-embracing; it will take in the 

entire area of the United States?

A. Yes sir.

Q. Including States and Territories?

A. Yes, sir.

Q. Including Alaska?

A. Not including Alaska * * *

Q. Major Powell, have you in your mind any plan of 

operations for the completion of this map? How do 

you propose to carry on the work; where first, where 

next, and in what order?

Q. In the first place, I am trying to connect detached 

portions of work in the far West. Parties are at work 

in that region. Then I expect to expand from these 

districts where work has already been done (indicating upon the map).

Q. Please describe in words, so that the stenographer 

can take it.

A. It is proposed, then, to start from several centers 

where base lines have been measured, and where 

base lines are yet to be measured, in the eastern portion of the United States, and to extend from these 

several places until the work shall come together. 

The number of places already selected are about 15, 

but more are yet to be chosen.

Q. Please state where they are.

A. There is one in Massachusetts, one in New 

Jersey, one in Pennsylvania, one near where the five 

great States meet—Virginia, West Virginia, North 

Carolina, Tennessee, and Kentucky. Another of 

these starting points is in Alabama, still another in 

Texas, still another in southwest Missouri, northwest 

Arkansas, northeast corner of Indian Territory, and 

southeast corner of Kansas. Those mentioned are the 

only ones established at present.

Q. What was the purpose of establishing these different bases of operations?

A. The fundamental work of the survey cannot be 

properly executed from one base line with sufficient 

accuracy. The distance between base lines should 

be about 200 miles, in order that the triangulation of 

one may check that of the other. Should the work be 

extended to a great distance from one base line and 

an error be made in the work, it could not be detected, 

and would be propagated and multiplied, and thus 

subsequent work would be vitiated; that is, an error 

would propagate itself indefinitely and multiply itself.

Q. The principle is that you should begin different 

points and come together so as to check errors?

A. Yes, sir; to secure accuracy.

Q. On what principal did you select these bases? 

Why did you select these particular places for them?

A. First, I have selected districts for the beginning of 

operations that are of special importance by reason 

of their being mining districts, districts in which 

coal and iron or other minerals are found. Second, 

districts are selected at proper intervals, and positions are determined by certain topographic characteristics—places where base lines can be easily 

measured and the triangulation most economically 

expanded therefrom. Third, the particular spot for 

the beginning of a base line is selected so that it 

shall be convenient to some telegraph station, in 

order that telegraphic connection may be made 

with the Observatory in Washington, or some other 

observatory, the latitude and longitude of which has 

been accurately determined; and this is done that the 

longitude of the spot may be obtained by the most 

accurate method.

Q. That is what I wanted to know. You spoke about 

the appropriation made by the State of Massachusetts, but you did not explain fully how you were 

connected with that survey. Does the State of Massachusetts have its officers and employees by whom 

and through whom this money is expended?

A. The State of Massachusetts appoints a commission to take charge of this work. This commission 

arranges with me to supervise the same; to furnish 

plans for carrying on the operations; to appoint the 

persons to do the work; to supervise it in its progress; to audit and approve the accounts which are 

sent to the commission and paid by the State.

Q. And that commission pays for it?

A. Yes, sir.

Q. The State of New Jersey, also?

A. Yes, sir; but by a somewhat different plan. Instead 

of being managed by a commission in New Jersey it 

is managed by the State Geologist.

Q. Do they go on with the work?

A. I had commenced work in Massachusetts before 

the State determined to make a state survey. Without 

my solicitation and without my knowledge, certain 

gentlemen in Massachusetts presented this matter to 

the governor of the State. The governor in his message recommended that the State seize the opportunity to do work conjointly with the United States and 
Investigation by Congress 27

make a more elaborate map than the United States 

was doing. It was for the purpose of serving certain 

local interests. The legislature took up the matter 

and made provision for a commission, as already 

explained, and also made an appropriation. In the 

meantime I was called before the legislature and 

explained to them the methods of operation, and gave 

them estimates of the cost. In the previous years, the 

Legislature of Massachusetts had discussed the matter 

of the construction of a topographic map of the State 

but the scientific men of the State who were called 

in as experts for their opinions disagreed as to the 

method upon which it should be made, and also as to 

the probable cost; so that the State was already ripe 

for action when the U.S. Geological Survey commenced operations in the commonwealth. I have telephoned for the sheets of a part of the work to brought 

here, and they are now present for examination.

Q. I understand you were proceeding to make that 

geological map on a scale of 2 miles to 1 inch, and 

the State of Massachusetts said, “If you will enlarge 

that to 1 mile to 1 inch we will pay for it.”

A. Yes, sir; that they would pay the additional cost 

which I estimated at $40,000 * * *.

Q. Major Powell have you completed any section of 

this map which you are preparing?

A. Oh, yes, sir; a good many sheets.

Q. As it will be in the end?

A. Not of the geologic work.

Q. That is what I mean?

A. The topography goes first * * *.

Q. What is your idea as to the particular form that the geological map of the United States will take for public use?

A. I thank you for asking that question. I expected 

yesterday to explain some things of that nature which 

the general conversation prevented. I wish to explain 

that subject so that it may be understood just what 

we have in view and what we are planning. In the 

first place, we, too, make triangulation; in the second 

place, we make topographic maps as preliminary and 

incident to the Geological Survey. Now, to go on and 

answer your question, the map of the United States, 

as planned at the present time, contemplates one sheet 

for each degree of territory—each degree of latitude 

and longitude. The work is being prosecuted on that 

plan for a large part of the territory of the United 

States. The scale of work to be represented on such 

sheets is 1:250,000, that is, the distances on the map 

multiplied by 250,000 will represent the distances 

in nature. The size of the sheets will be 20 by 16 1/2 

inches, and they will represent the topography as a 

basis for areal geology.

Q. About the size of that (indicating)?

A. I can show you the sheets (after getting sheets) 

that will cover a degree of latitude and longitude. 

The general plan is one sheet for every degree; 

but there are certain districts of country where the 

topography is too intricate to be properly done on 

that scale, and it is proposed that in such districts 

the scale shall be enlarged to 1:125,000; that is, 

that a distance on the map must be multiplied by 

125,000 to equal the distance in nature. There are 

reasons other than intricacy of topography which 

determine the enlarged scale; certain districts are 

important because of the great mining interests, and 

more elaborate maps are demanded; other districts 

are important because their watersheds must be 

accurately delineated in planning works for the 

supply of water to cities and towns. Again, in other 

areas where the topography is exceedingly intricate, 

and especially where assisted by state funds, it is 

proposed to enlarge the scale to 1:62,500, or about 

one inch to the mile. This is the scale adopted in 

Massachusetts and in New Jersey, and will probably 

be adopted in Pennsylvania, though as yet no final 

arrangement has been made with regard to this State. 

These are the three scales upon which the work is 

being carried on, and upon which a little more than 

600,000 square miles have already been surveyed. 

The United States, exclusive of Alaska, has an area 

of about 3,000,000 square miles, and more than 

600,000 square miles has been thus mapped, or 

surveyed for the construction of maps. It is thus that 

I have a fair basis for an estimate of the ultimate cost 

and it is upon this experience that I made the statement yesterday that I thought the work would be 

completed in a time not greater than 24 years.

Q. How many sheets on the plan that you have 

described will be required in the finally completed 

work of the geological maps?

A. About 2,600 sheets.

Q. Not to be a map, then spread out like this (indicating)?

A. No, sir; only a map in small sheets. The purpose 

is eventually to have them for sale. As soon as we get 

them done they will be called for in separate sheets. 

The people of the country will want more sheets of 

their own districts, but they will be in such a shape 

that they can be bound, if so desired, by states.

Q. I was about to ask you that. If you make these 

in sections comprising the latitude and longitude, 
28 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

taking, for instance, the State of Massachusetts, with 

which State you seem to be in accord, won’t they 

also be glad to have you get into one section the 

whole State of Massachusetts there?

A. Yes, sir; but when that is done the, preparation of 

maps on smaller scales is a trivial matter in regard 

to expense. That is only a question of executing it in 

the office and having it lithographed. It is a trivial 

matter under present methods.

Q. Out of this any state can get a complete map of 

its own territory at very small cost?

A. Yes sir.

Q. When this map is completed will it be only a 

nature map, or will it take culture too?

A. It will take certain features of culture. It takes 

all the highways, roads, and railroads, and it takes 

county line, town lines, etc. It does not take all the 

particulars of culture.

Q. Does it take bridges?

A. No sir.

Q. But it takes 24 years to complete it. What do you 

think of the accuracy of the first part of a map which 

you have taken 24 years to complete?

A. The culture will always have to be kept up. So 

far as the natural features are concerned, it will 

never have to be changed. So far as changing the 

culture is concerned, after you have established 

natural points, the change of the culture part of the 

map from time to time is a small expense. Further, 

and in connection with that particular point, it may 

be stated that up to the organization of the present 

Geological Survey, that work was put on stone. The 

work of Wheeler, Powell, King, etc.—that work 

was put on stone. That was due to the vigor with 

which this work was progressing and the demand 

for immediate results. That was one of the evils of 

the system and one of the arguments which I made 

for a coordination of the systems, which was finally 

accomplished. One of the arguments was that we 

were doing ephemeral work. Since that, these sheets 

go on copper, and the copper belongs to the Government. In the printing on stone, one edition is printed 

off, and this stone is then cleaned off and smoothed 

down, and a new edition must have a new engraving, but the work is now permanent. On the present 

plan, those sheets go on copper. Now, copper is of 

such a nature, you can make changes at any time. 

It is a soft metal, malleable and mobile, so that you 

may erase a line or put a new line upon it, as the 

case may be, so that a practical mechanician can cut 

that town out or put a new town in, or if a road has 

been changed, he can change that road on the map; 

the natural features will remain—the rivers, the 

valleys, the hills, and so on; and it is easy to change 

the artificial features, because you already have the 

natural features to which they are related.

Q. Twelve years, do you say, or 24, to complete it?

A. Twenty-four; I have given that as the longest time.

Q. Of course that time could be shortened by enlarging the appropriations?

A. Yes; it is only, a question of appropriations.

Q. That is to say, you have an appropriation of 

$300,000. That enabled you to have five or six parties in the field?

A. I have 27.

Q. But you have them in five different portions of 

the country?

A. Yes sir.

Q. If you double the appropriation, of course you 

would double your force in the field?

A. Yes sir; but much would depend upon the division of the appropriation. At present a little more 

than one-third, I think, of the appropriation is used 

topographically * * *.

Letter from the Director of the Geological Survey, December 6, 1884, furnishing certain information to the committee.

Sir: In response to your request of the 5th instant I 

have the honor to submit herewith a statement showing the appropriation and expenditure by fiscal years 

of the several surveys of Hayden, Powell, King, and 

Wheeler, and the number of square miles covered 

respectively by each of those organizations.

Appropriations for fiscal year 1884.

Recipient Amount

Wheeler Survey $599,316.72

King Survey of the 40th parallel 386,711.85

Hayden Survey of the Territories 720,000.00

Powell Survey 279,000.00

U.S. Geological Survey, 1880 106,000.00

U.S. Geological Survey, 1881 156,000.00

U.S. Geological Survey, 1882 156,000.00

U.S. Geological Survey, 1883 254,940.00

U.S. Geological Survey, 1884 339,640.00

U.S. Geological Survey, 1885 489,040.00
Area Surveyed 29

Area Surveyed

U.S. Geographical Surveys West of 100th Meridian (Wheeler).—Gross area surveyed by this organization, 

359,000 square miles. Of this area, 227,500 square miles was 

of the nature of reconnaissance work, and was published on a 

scale of 8 miles to 1 inch. The remaining area, 131,500 square 

miles, was of a more exact and detailed nature, and was 

published on a scale of 4 miles to 1 inch. Nearly all work was 

published in hachures.

U.S. Geological Exploration 40th Parallel 

(King).— Gross area surveyed by this organization, 86,390 

square miles. This was published on a scale of 4 miles to 1 

inch in 300 foot contours.

U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (Hayden).—Area surveyed in systematic manner, 

100,000 square miles. This was on a scale of 4 miles to 1 inch 

in 200 foot contours. Besides this there was, during the years 

1869 to 1872, inclusive, much reconnaissance work done, 

the area comprised in which, however, it is impracticable to 

estimate.

U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey Rocky Mountain Region (Powell).—Area surveyed, 67,000 square miles; 

published on a scale of 1:250,000, or about 4 miles to 1 inch, 

in 250 foot contours.

U.S. Geological Survey.—Area surveyed up to date, 

184,200 square miles. This is embraced in the following States 

and Territories: Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New 

Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, 

Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, Missouri, Kansas, 

Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, California, and Washington. That portion of this area 

lying in the sparsely settled Western States and Territories is 

to be published on a scale of 1:250,000, or 4 miles to 1 inch. 

That in the Mississippi Valley and the Southern Appalachian 

Region on a scale of 1:125,000, or 2 miles to 1 inch, while that 

in the densely settled districts, when states assist, is to be published on a scale of 1:62,500, or about 1 mile to 1 inch. The 

interval between contours depends on the scale of the map, 

and amount of relief in the country, ranging from 200 feet in 

the mountains of the West to 10 feet in low coast regions.

On December 18, 1884, Maj. J.W. Powell, Director of the 

Geological Survey, then appeared and made a further statement 

as follows: (relating to transfer of topographic work of the 

Geological Survey to the Coast and Geodetic Survey) * * *.

“Some 4 years ago, when it was found that the 

wording of the organic law of the Geological Survey 

did not permit that survey to come into the eastern 

portion of the United States, and when a proposition 

was introduced into Congress to correct that defect, 

the Coast Survey antagonized that proposition, and 

for the first year it was defeated. During this time 

the Coast Survey commenced a new class of work, 

namely that small piece of topographic work proper 

to which I called the attention of the Commission 

the other day, the tract in Maryland and Virginia. 

But, as soon as the work of the Geological Survey 

was extended into the eastern third of the United 

States, from which it had been previously excluded, 

the Coast Geodetic Survey immediately withdrew 

from the class of work. It will thus be seen that that 

organization has, with the single exception I have 

mentioned, not attempted to do the class of work 

which the Geological Survey is doing; and, more 

than that, it has never had authority to do the class of 

work which I have defined as topographic.

“On the other hand, the geologic surveys have 

executed topographic work to the extent of carrying 

it over about one-fifth of the United States, exclusive 

of Alaska. The geodetic work does not require the 

construction of a final map; the geologic work does 

require the construction of a final map. The Geodetic 

Survey requires the determination of many points, 

a few of which it uses in its grand triangulation; 

the Geological Survey requires a vast multiplicity 

of points; the number of points necessary for the 

Geodetic Survey has to be multiplied by thousands 

to subserve the purposes of the Geological Survey; 

but both surveys need more or less of this work as 

preliminary to their fundamental functions. * * *.

“As military engineers were the inventors of early 

topography, they developed methods of constructing 

maps suitable for their science. In later years, topographic methods and plans of mapping have been 

changed; and these changes are radical, and are due 

to the influence of geologists, who have demanded 

better maps than those of the old military engineers. The military engineers have yielded to this 

demand by reason of the change in military science 

which I have previously mentioned. I will confine 

my statements now to the United States. The Coast 

Survey has constructed charts of the coast. These 

maps are very elaborate and represent a vast system 

of cultural or artificial details; they are, therefore, 

very expensive; they are also difficult to understand. 

The geologic organizations of the Government have 

made topographic surveys in the interior to the 

extent of one-fifth of the territory. In the course of 

these surveys, they have invented new methods of 

exhibiting the work, and, to a very important extent, 

new methods of doing the work, and to a very 

important extent, new methods of exhibiting the 

results on maps; by which the maps have become 

greatly simplified, and much more easily understood 

by geologists, engineers, and the common people.

“Topography is no longer occult, and a topographic 

map is no longer a system of hieroglyphics; it is 

a plain representation of facts that all people may 

easily read. The experience in the United States, up 
30 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

to the present time, warrants this statement, that, if 

the topography is kept under control of geologists, 

it will be executed better and at less expense than if 

placed under some other organization. * * *.

“For more than 15 years, topographic work has 

been connected with geologic surveying under the 

auspices of the General Government. The Hayden, 

Wheeler, King, and Powell Surveys were conducted 

in this manner. When the present organization was 

formed, it was not merely a nominal, but a real consolidation. All of the experts of the four antecedent 

corps were ultimately brought into the new work, 

and the men who originated the new topographic 

methods are still employed. I beg permission to 

express this opinion, that there has never been 

another such a corps organized in any country or 

at any time. The vigor and enthusiasm with which 

they push this work is tempered only by a scientific 

knowledge which comes thorough training. The 

topographers constituting this corps were trained 

in their work by geologists, and some of them have 

acquired much knowledge in geology, and can render valuable assistance in the simpler portions of the 

geologic work. * * *.

“Again, in the topographic survey, the topographers 

are draftsmen, for the man who does topographic 

work in the field must be able to put it upon the 

map. The geologists who perform the work of the 

Geological Survey are specialists of a high grade, 

to whom the highest salaries are paid. Such specialists are rarely draftsmen, and when they are, it is 

not wise to employ them in drafting work, from the 

very fact that they are high-salaried men. But for the 

construction of their sections and other illustrations 

necessary to set forth the geology of the country, 

the topographers of the topographic survey are 

employed as draftsmen for the Geological Survey. 

Again, geology demands more refined and accurate 

topography then any other science, and no other 

industrial need demands better work than economic 

geology * * *.

“There is yet another reason why the Geological 

Survey should control the topographic survey. The 

problems which arise in a geologic survey do not 

appear in some systematic geographic order, as from 

east to west, or from north to south; but they arise in 

the course of research relating to geologic formation * * *.

“I think that the facts which I have laid before the 

Commission warrant the following statement: First, 

the topography is more essential to the Geological 

Survey than to the Geodetic Survey; second, that 

the Geological Survey can execute the work more 

economically than the Geodetic Survey; third, that 

the efficiency of the Geological Survey will be 

greatly impaired by having the topography taken 

from it; fourth, that a topographic survey should 

precede a geodetic survey, and that in the prosecution of a geodetic survey economy will result therefrom; fifth, that if the topography be placed under 

the Geodetic Survey, the relations between the two 

organizations will be rendered more complex than 

at present. For these reasons it would appear that the 

recommendation of the committee of the National 

Academy is wise. That recommendation is as follows: 2. The Geological Survey (should) comprise 

the present Geological Survey with its organization 

unchanged.’ * * *.

With regard to the comparative cost of map making by 

the two organizations.

“It is necessary to state that a proper comparison 

cannot be made. It is much like comparing the 

cost of a horse with the cost of a house, as the two 

organizations make maps of a different character 

and for different purposes With regard to the general 

triangulation or geodetic survey of the interior of the 

United States, the cost would greatly vary according 

to the plan adopted. If it is proposed to extend over 

the country a grid-iron of triangulation belts, say at 

a distance of about 100 miles apart, the cost of such 

a geodetic survey would probably not be far from 

$2 a square mile, including in that all the astronomic 

work, the hypsometry, or leveling, measuring of 

bases, triangulation, and gravity determinations. 

Such a system would perhaps be sufficient for purely 

geodetic purposes, but in order that this triangulation 

may ultimately be used for cadastral purposes, as I 

have explained in a former communication, it must 

eventually be developed over the whole country 

instead of in narrow belts across it, in which case it 

will cost probably not less than $12 per square mile.

“The cost of the topographic survey, which is precedent to the geological survey, and which makes 

maps subserving the purposes above enumerated, is 

greatly variable in different portions of the country. 

There are very large areas of the prairies and plains 

where the cost will not exceed $1.50 per square 

mile. In the mountainous and arid regions of the 

country west of the 100th meridian, the cost will 

vary from $1.50 per square mile to $3.00 per square 

mile.

“In those portions of Oregon and western Washington Territory which are densely covered with forests 

the cost will be about $5 per square mile. In the 

eastern portion of the United States where forests 

prevail, but where the rectangular surveys have been 

extended so that the roads, in the main, follow right 
Area Surveyed 31

lines, the cost will be from $2.50 to $3.50 per square 

mile. Still farther east, where forests prevail, and 

where the roads meander through the country, the 

cost will be about $5 per square mile.

“These estimates include all elements of cost in the 

production of topographic maps—leveling work, 

topographic work, astronomic work, triangulation, 

etc.—but do not include engraving and printing. 

These estimates are based upon experience in surveying, upon various scales, areas comprising some 

300,000 square miles. The above statements are 

made on the theory that maps are to be constructed 

in the far West on the scale of 4 miles to the inch. 

But in some portions of the East the Geological Survey is, in conjunction with State surveys, constructing maps upon a scale of 1 mile to the inch. These 

maps will cost $10.00 per square mile, only one-half 

of the expense being borne by the United States.

“It may be asked whether the scales adopted by 

the Geological Survey are sufficient for practical 

purposes, and the reply to this should be that for 

all purposes except geology the scale is probably 

ample, but that there will be limited localities where 

this scale will be insufficient for geologic purposes, 

and to some slight extent, maps on a larger scale 

must be constructed. It should further be noted that 

should it be found advisable in the future to enlarge 

the scale of the maps of any district of country, by 

reason of the development of the country and the 

dense settlement of certain districts, the topographic 

maps constructed on the scales now adopted will not 

be thrown away; the new surveys can take up the 

work from the basis of the old surveys, and all the 

work of the old surveys can be utilized, and the new 

surveys can be made with relative diminution of 

expense. This has been proved by actual experience 

in many parts of the world. It must be understood 

that this statement depends on the fact that the topographic work of the Geological Survey deals chiefly 

with natural features; if it dealt chiefly with cadastral features the statement would not be true. But it 

should be stated that in the event of a new survey 

by reason of a change of scale, a re-engraving of the 

maps becomes necessary, and to this extent there is 

an additional expense.

“The estimates above given for the cost of a topographic map do not include the engraving and printing of the maps. At the present stage of the work it is 

impossible for me to give estimates of this element 

of expense. For 10 or 12 years I have been carefully 

studying this branch of the subject, and making 

many experiments for the purpose of discovering the 

best methods of representing topographic features 

and the most economic methods of reproducing 

maps from the drawings of the topographers, and 

have not yet reached a conclusion. The experiments 

made within the past 3 years have cost $5,580, but 

the work produced is not quite satisfactory. The following are the fundamental considerations that enter 

into the problem: first, the maps should represent 

those characteristics which will be more permanent, 

in order that it may have more enduring value; 

second, the maps should represent all the important 

characteristics that are needed for industrial and scientific purposes; third, the system of representation 

should be simple so that the maps may be intelligible to all people; fourth, the method of representation and engraving should be economic, for the area 

to be mapped is great, and the total expense will be 

considerable. I am sanguine that the problem of the 

reproduction of maps is practically solved, and that 

experiments now nearly complete will prove satisfactory and fulfill the conditions enumerated above.

“In planning the work for a topographic survey of 

the United States it has been necessary to consider 

that the area to be surveyed is very large—about 

3,000,000 square miles, exclusive of Alaska, and 

with Alaska about 3,500,000 square miles. The 

survey of a region so vast must necessarily be at 

a great aggregate cost, and the economics relating 

thereto should be duly weighed. The area and cost 

being great, the time for the execution of such a 

survey must necessarily be long, that the cost may 

be distributed over many years; but the needs for 

topographic maps are so many and so great that the 

time for its completion should be shortened as much 

as possible. All of these considerations have been 

carefully weighed, and the result is the plan which 

I have presented to the Commission. I have stated 

to the Commission that the map can be completed 

on the present plan, with the present organization, 

within 24 years, but the demands for such a map are 

so urgent that the work ought properly to be completed in a shorter period. Since the organization of 

the Geological Survey, Congress has, by increased 

appropriations, expended its work from year to year, 

and the Director has earnestly desired and hoped 

that this growth would continue, so that a map of 

the whole country could be completed by the year 

1900, and he has steadily and vigorously worked to 

that end. He has tried hard to develop a plan which 

should not be impracticable on account of excessive 

cost, and which should not be without substantial 

value by reason of imperfect methods and results. 

He has also endeavored to develop the plan in such a 

manner that no work would be lost, though the needs 

of the distant future should demand more elaborate 

work than the wants of the present time, and that all 

work done should have enduring value.”
32 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Q. Is your work benefited practically by the geodetic 

work of the Coast Survey or not?

A. If the geodetic survey was extended over the 

United States precedent to the topographic survey, 

it would reduce the cost of the topographic survey 

from 5 to 10 percent.

Q. But the cost of the geodetic work would be a 

great deal more than it would save your work?

A. Yes sir * * *.

Q. You stated that the topography of one-fifth of the 

United States is complete. That includes the Western 

Territories and some portions of the older regions of 

the country?

A. Yes sir.

Q. State, in a general way, what portions of the East 

have been completed.

A. You will remember, perhaps, Mr. Chairman, that 

I presented a map to the joint commission some 

days ago, setting forth this matter very fully, and as 

directed by yourself I have had that map engraved so 

that it will accompany my former statement.

Further statement by the Director of the Geological Survey, 

February 6, 1885: * * *.

The General Systems of Maps Needed

It has been mentioned that topographic maps were originally made for military purposes. As wants were developed for 

scientific, industrial, and cadastral maps, an attempt was made 

in various countries to construct a single map that should subserve all wants, and maps constructed on this theory have been 

made from time to time. But experience has abundantly shown 

that all of these purposes cannot be subserved by one map. 

The facts that it is necessary to represent cannot be included 

on one sheet, as they obscure each other and render the map 

unintelligible.

Experience also has shown that these maps cannot be 

constructed on the same scale. Three general classes of maps 

have been developed and pretty thoroughly distinguished from 

each other, namely general topographic maps, cadastral maps, 

and military maps. General topographic maps are usually 

constructed in such a manner that many subsidiary charts may 

be derived therefrom. Thus, from the general map, drainage 

maps, hill maps, road maps, etc., may be directly compiled 

and the general maps may be used as a basis for geological 

maps, agricultural maps, forestry maps, sanitary maps, statistical maps, etc., on the same, or on reduced scales. Such maps 

require no additional expense for topographic surveying in the 

field.

The Best Method of Constructing 

Topographic Maps

The Facts to be Represented

The first question of importance is a plan for a topographic survey (that) relates to the facts that would be represented upon the map. For all purposes for which a topographic 

map is made, except the functions of a military map, the natural features of the country are of prime importance. The natural features, therefore, should be represented. Of the artificial 

features there are two classes. Those which may be included 

under the term public culture, relating to the sites of towns and 

cities, and of highways of all classes—canals, railroads, and 

wagon roads; all of these should be put upon the map.

There is another class of artificial features that relate to 

private properties. These are houses, fields, orchards, etc., 

and as they relate to private property, or estates, they may be 

called cadastral features. These should not be placed upon 

general topographic maps because they are so minute that they 

cannot be properly represented without enormously increasing the scales, and their delineation upon the map obscures the 

conventional characters used to represent natural and public 

topography and, to the extent that they are introduced, the 

more important features are obscured; the map becomes more 

complex and less easily interpreted.

There is yet another potent reason for their exclusion. 

When a map has been constructed it must be maintained to be 

of permanent value. The natural features remain, the cultural 

features are changeable, and those cultural features that have 

been denominated “cadastral” are the most changeable. If they 

are represented upon the topographic map constant revision 

becomes necessary, and this can be accomplished only at great 

cost. For all these reasons it is manifest that cadastral topography should not be placed upon a general topographic map.

Method of Representing Topographic Facts

The exclusion of many facts from topographic maps 

greatly simplifies the system of conventional signs necessary 

for use. Wide experience has led to a system from which there 

is little departure in the various countries of the world. The 

more important points to be mentioned are the following: 

First, relief features are no longer represented by 

hachures, but by contour lines, which more thoroughly convey 

specific facts relating to elevation, and a contouring system is 

much less expensive than a hachuring system.

Second, to clearly distinguish the different elements of 

topography, colors are introduced upon maps. There is yet 

some diversity in the methods of using colors, but the best 

systems adopt blue for the drainage and all bodies of water, 

black for culture and names, and brown for contours. This is 

the system adopted by the Geological Survey.
The Best Method of Constructing Topographic Maps 33

The Scale

The next point of importance to be considered is the scale 

on which topographic maps should be made. It is necessary to 

consider the subject from two aspects, namely, the best method 

of representing the facts, and the most economic method of 

accomplishing the purpose. With respect to the representation of the necessary facts upon a topographic map, these two 

fundamental principles are controlling: First, the scale should 

be sufficiently large to clearly represent all the necessary 

facts; second, the scale should be as small as possible consistent with the proper representation of facts, in order that the 

largest possible area may come under one view, because all 

the important purposes for which topographic maps are made 

include large areas of country * * *.

The Planetable and Alidade

Six years of topographic surveying were enough to convince the Geological Survey that the planetable and alidade 

constituted the best instruments for mapping at the time. These 

instruments were not new, but they had been considered suitable only for mapping small areas, such as sites for military 

fortifications. The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, engaged 

in mapping a narrow strip of coast terrain, devoted pages of its 

annual report for 1879–1880 to the description and use of the 

planetable (fig. 11). It was a heavy and cumbersome instrument for mapping operations over a large area where much 

travelling over rough country was required.

Among the instruments inherited by the Survey in 1879 

were folding planetables. They were made of a series of pine 

slats 1.5 inches wide by 2 feet long, glued to heavy canvas 

so as to roll up to a diameter of 6 inches. When in use heavy 

wooden cross pieces were attached to the under side by means 

of thumbscrews, and a light folding tripod was screwed into a 

plate on the cross pieces. The planetable sheets were 12 inches 

square, of single mounted paper, and were taken off the table 

each time it was packed for traveling. When the table was 

in place at a station the sheets were attached to it by special 

tacks, officially named B and BD (blow and be d--) tacks, 

which were similar to ordinary thumb tacks, but had tapered 

screw threads in place of sharpened stems. The heads of these 

screw-tacks were one-half-inch in diameter with two small 

holes in each, and a two-pronged steel pin was used in screwing them in or out of the planetable. An 18-inch open-sight 

alidade completed the planetable outfit.

Vertical angles were read with a small transit, called a 

gradienter, having a small telescope with striding level, 3-inch 

vertical and 3-inch horizontal circles, both reading to minutes. 

When in use, the gradienter was mounted on the planetable 

tripod. The gradienter in the early surveys had been used for 

both vertical and horizontal angles, but the folding planetable 

had come into use as possessing definite advantages for secondary triangulation and graphic intersection work. Topographers found it easier in the field to read horizontal angles to a 

recorder for writing down in a notebook than to draw fine lines 

with a sharp pencil on drawing paper, stations usually being on 

summits exposed to a wind. Experience enabled the reading 

of angles rapidly and speed in covering square-mileage was 

achieved.

It was a matter of routine, in a comfortable office during 

the winter season, to plot the horizontal angles on a map sheet, 

work out the elevations from the vertical angles or from barometric readings, and with the profile sketches before one, to 

compile the map. However, one often found that he wished for 

more locations and elevations in order to compile a satisfactory map. Such a dilemma would not exist if the map details 

were drawn in the field on a planetable while the topographer 

was on the ground with the country in clear view.

Improvements in instruments and methods were constantly sought. Solid planetable boards were substituted for 

the folding ones. In 1886, Almon H. Thompson, Edward M. 

Douglas, and Willard D. Johnson were assigned to a study of 

instruments. After a lot of planning, they designed a telescopic 

alidade that was adapted to the survey use. Mr. Douglas went 

to Troy, N.Y., and engaged W. Gurley and L.E. Gurley’s most 

expert instrument man to make the final full-scale drawing.

The alidade consisted of a ruler of brass 18 inches in 

length, and carrying upon a column, 3 inches in height, a telescope having a focal distance of 12 to 15 inches, and a power 

of about 15 diameters. It had a vertical arc reading by vernier 

to single minutes, and a delicate level upon the telescope. To 

the reticule of the telescope were added two fixed horizontal 

wires, above and below and equidistant from the center horizontal wire, and so placed as to subtend one foot on a stadia 

rod at a distance of 100 feet.

The Survey proceeded, as fast as funds permitted, to 

acquire alidades for its field parties. The instrument, as then 

designed, proved satisfactory though slight changes and refinements have been made in later years.

Mr. Johnson invented the tripod that bears his name—a 

tripod that combined the elements of stability, lightness, and 

facility of operation in a remarkable degree. The movement 

was essentially an adaptation of the ball and socket principle, 

and consisted of two cups, one set inside the other, the inner 

surface of one, and the outer surface of the other being ground 

so as to fit accurately to one another. The inner cup was in two 

parts, or rather consisted of two rings, one inside the other, the 

one controlling the movement in level and the other that in 

azimuth. From each of these rings there projected beneath the 

movement a screw, and upon each screw was a nut by which it 

was clamped. There was no tangent screw for either the leveling or the azimuth motion, as none was required. The movement was sustained by a light hardwood tripod with split legs.

Mr. Johnson was granted a patent on the tripod dated 

May 3, 1887, but waived all claims to royalties. A plate, countersunk in the board, secured the board firmly to the tripod. 

Boards were of three sizes: 24 by 31 inches to accommodate a 

full atlas sheet and used for planetable control; 18 by 24 inches 

to accommodate a one-half size atlas sheet and used for 

mapping; 15 by 15 inches for traverses. Still a smaller board, 
34 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

9 by 9 inches, was used for traverses in timber and brush, but 

the tripod (Bumstead) was lighter and the sighting instrument 

was an open-sight alidade. Mr. Johnson also eliminated the 

despised B and BD tacks for holding the drawing paper to the 

board and substituted instead corner holding screws in metal 

sockets, which continue to be standard.

The studies revealed that vertical angulation with the telescopic alidade was better for station elevations than elevations 

from mercurial barometer readings, so that much despised 

instrument was discarded. Vertical angle tables were prepared 

so that recorders as well as topographers became adept at computing differences in elevation. For the determination of critical elevations or distant points, readings were observed with 

the alidade and striding level in four different positions and the 

mean of the four resulting quantities was accepted as the mean 

elevation within a maximum error of 5 feet.

Though some types of country were more economically mapped with other instruments, the Survey, as rapidly 

as possible, installed the planetable with Johnson tripod and 

telescopic alidade as its chosen mapping outfit. The alidade 

was light, easily carried in the crook of one arm, extremely 

durable, and quickly adjusted. The planetable and Johnson tripod was not as bulky and cumbersome as one might suppose. 

Topographers soon became accustomed to transporting the 

outfit in their daily fieldwork whether they traveled in a buggy, 

ahorseback, or afoot. One topographer, working in western 

mountain, prairie and desert areas, estimated that during the 

period 1900 to 1914 he performed stadia traverse ahorseback 

in excess of 10,000 miles, covering more than 10 miles on 

some days.

The Bumstead Tripod

Further research resulted in the development, of a lighter, 

simpler tripod (Bumstead), suitable for tape and stadia traverse 

work. As this work concerned only the details of topography, and the traverse line, made up of short sights subject to 

constant checks by means of points located by intersection, 

a lesser degree of accuracy, was required than in intersection 

work. The tripod head, fitted to the board with clamp for azimuth motion, has no arrangement for leveling the board other 

than movement of tripod legs.

The usual board was 15 inches square, or 9 inches square 

for use in brush, and had a compass set in one edge of it, in a 

narrow box, by means of which it is oriented by reference to 

the magnetic meridian. The alidade for direction was a simple 

brass ruler with raised sights at the ends. An aneroid barometer 

was used for elevations and the traverseman usually carried a 

Locke hand level. By June, 1889, there were fully 100 traverse 

planetables in use in the Geographic and Irrigation Surveys, 

and some were being used by geologists.

Base Lines

Efforts were constantly made to achieve efficiency in 

mapping operations—the accomplishment of desired results 

in less time and cost. By 1887, it was found that the required 

degree of accuracy in the measurement of base lines was easy 

to attain by the use of long steel tapes, and it was decided 

to drop the use of bars. The metal bars, 4 meters in length, 

required many contacts to be made in each mile of measurement, each contact afforded the possibility of a trifling error, a 

number of men were needed, and it often took 4 to 6 weeks to 

measure and remeasure a base 5 miles in length.

With the 300-foot steel tape (fig. 12), carefully compared, at an observed temperature, with the standard of the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, both before and after its 

use, a base could be measured in 1 week by a party of four. 

Preferably, the site for the base line should be selected along a 

railway tangent, as such a location is approximately level, and 

the railway ties afford an excellent support for the tape. If such 

a location cannot be obtained, it should be selected in comparatively level country, cleared of brush and undergrowth, 

and its sharp inequalities should be leveled. The tape should 

be supported by a series of low stools, whose legs are pressed 

into the ground at intervals of not more than 25 feet, while 

similar stools should sustain each end of the tape.

On the first measurement, a board about 5 feet long and 

4 inches in width is nailed to two stools or railroad ties, so that 

the end of the tape falls near its center where is nailed a block 

of wood about 8 inches long and 1 inch in width, covered 

with a numbered zinc strip. The end of the tape is marked on 

the zinc strip. For insuring a uniform tension of the tape, an 

end spring balance is attached to the forward end of the tape, 

where a tension of 20 pounds is applied. Harry L. Baldwin, Jr., 

devised an apparatus consisting of a wheel, worked by a lever 

and held by ratchets in any desired position, for attachment to 

the spring balance to control the tension and prevent the tape 

from slipping.

The personnel, required in an ordinary case, was as 

follows:

1. The chief of the party, who exercised a general 

supervision over the work, marked the extremities 

of the tape, and provided the necessary precautions 

against errors in the measurement.

2. The rear chairman, who adjusted the rear end of the 

tape to the contact marks and who carried and read 

one of the thermometers.

3. The head chainman, who adjusted the forward end 

of the tape, exerted the requisite tension upon it, and 

carried and read the second thermometer.

4. A recorder.

The base should be measured at least twice, at night or 

during cloudy days, and the two results compared by sections 

of 1,200 feet, or four tape lengths. The base, whose two ends 
Washington Clubs and Societies 35

must be intervisible, could be nearer 10 miles in length to permit easier expansion. Wherever possible, the base line should 

form a side or diagonal of a closed quadralateral or pentagonal 

figure.

Computations included: (1) reduction to standard; 

(2) correction for inclination, the data for which are obtained 

by running a line of levels over the base line; (3) the correction 

for temperature, as steel expands for each degree of temperature 0.0000063596 of its length, and this factor multiplied by 

the average number of degrees of temperature above or below 

62 degrees, which is taken as the normal temperature, gives 

the proportion in which the base line is to be diminished or 

extended on account of this factor; and (4) the reduction to 

sea-level datum.

The diminished cost attendant upon the use of the 

300-foot tape made it practicable to measure much longer 

bases, and to measure many more bases at shorter intervals in 

the triangulation net.

Traversing with Wheelbarrow

Toward a more accurate alignment of roads on topographic maps, the idea was adopted for experimentation, 

of using a wheelbarrow, which was often used in measuring roads for county maps in the New England States. The 

wheelbarrow was an apparatus that only slightly resembled 

its household namesake. It consisted of a lighter, larger 

wheel whose perimeter was one half a rod, with tire and axle 

bearings of brass; an odometer that accurately recorded the 

revolutions of the wheel; a sight compass mounted on a staff 

that attained a vertical position when the wheelbarrow was stationary on its two legs; and a box in which was carried lunch, 

a canteen, notebook, etc. Bearings of foresights and backsights 

along the road were read on the compass; corresponding distances were noted on the odometer, both being recorded in the 

notebook so that the traverse could be plotted at night or when 

rain prevented work out of doors.

Traversing roads with the wheelbarrow was tried out 

on the quadrangles during the season of 1888 and 1889, by 

Merrill Hackett, W.T. Griswold, and Charles W. Goodlove. 

It was recognized as the one undeniably humorous operation in the careers of the three topographers. To the picture of 

stalwart, dignified Charles Goodlove pushing a wheelbarrow 

was added, one day, his arrest for trespass. He was traversing 

along the B and O Railroad near Point of Rocks, Md., when he 

was stopped by a railroad detective and detained until he succeeded in establishing his identity and convincing the railroad 

officials that he was not a scout for a rival railroad. It was the 

age when new railroads were being built by enterprising individuals and small companies in all parts of the United States.

A.E. Murlin bore another distinction: that of having 

established the only Survey camp in the District of Columbia—near Anacostia. These distinctions deserve mention 

because they contrasted so vividly with the many subsequent 

seasons that Mr. Murlin set up camps in the remote mountains 

of the West where there were few roads and not many trails. 

His last field assignment, in 1913, was on the Arlington Quadrangle, in the Cascade Mountains of Washington–Oregon; 

there he had a near serious experience with a bear and endured 

the maximum of hard physical labor. He retired October 

2, 1925, after 42 years of faithful service, and lived to enjoy 

20 years of leisure.

Washington Clubs and Societies

The Geological Survey is essentially a Field Service 

performing original work in various sections of the country. 

However, the investigations of geologists and ground surveys 

of topographers required considerable time for completion 

and preparation for publication. The Survey tried to have 

the results of its fieldwork in the hands of the public within 

2 years. The finishing touches to the field work were performed during the winter season in Washington (figs. 13A

and 13B). Then the field men, who perhaps worked alone in a 

wilderness area, had opportunities to become acquainted with 

their fellow workers, to compare notes and practices. Geologists, scientists, and topographers were individual authors with 

professional reputations for quality and accuracy to be attained 

and sustained.

There was much to be learned about their work and how 

it fitted into the work of others. So, meetings of professional 

clubs and societies were combined with social parties and 

entertainment.

The Cosmos Club

In Washington, D.C., in 1878, a growing desire among 

scientific men for the establishment of a social club composed 

of men interested in science, professionally or otherwise, led 

to the formation of the Cosmos Club. Henry Gannett was one 

of a dozen men who assembled at the home of Maj. John W. 

Powell, on the evening of November 16, 1878, and after a 

mutual exchange of views, effected a preliminary organization, with Major Powell as temporary president, which, the 

following January, took on a permanent character.

Membership in the Club was restricted by high qualification requirements and candidates were admitted only if 

they (1) had performed meritorious original work in science, 

literature, or the fine arts; (2) though not occupied in science, 

literature, or the fine arts, were well known to be cultivated 

in a special department thereof; and (3) were recognized as 

distinguished in a learned profession or in public service.

Topographers, as authors of particular maps, which they 

had executed in the field, were eligible for membership under 

the first classification.

The membership of the Club increased steadily. When 

it celebrated its 25th Anniversary on November 16, 1903, the 

membership numbered 567 (408 resident, 159 non-resident), 
36 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

the Geological Survey being represented by 32 geologists and 

22 topographic members.

The National Geographic Society

Called by a group of 6 men, among whom were Henry 

Gannett and Professor Almon H. Thompson, 33 scientists met 

at the Cosmos Club on January 13, 1888, and organized the 

National Geographic Society. Its purpose was to establish a 

bond for the geographers in Washington, and to circulate a 

technical magazine among professional geographers. After 

10 years of struggle and obscurity, the magazine was vitalized 

by the adoption of Alexander Graham Bell’s idea of utilizing 

it for popularizing the science of geography. It grew into a 

powerful, popular agency for “the increase and diffusion of 

geographic knowledge.”

In 1914, the Society numbered 350,000 members in all 

countries of the globe. For years, its income was sufficient to 

enable the Society to financially aid geographical explorations, 

as chosen by a Research Committee of which Henry Gannett was the chairman. He was the first recording secretary, 

and continued to serve the society as manager, treasurer, vice 

president, and as the fifth president, from 1910 to his death in 

1914.

The Triangle Club

The three inspectors lost no time in imparting their 

mature knowledge of topographic mapping to the corps of 

topographers. During the field season of 1907, every party was 

visited by one of the inspectors who spent a day or more with 

each instrument man, and during the following winter, the 

inking of the field material was closely watched. There seemed 

to be a need for supplemental instruction also, for a plan was 

devised, with the approval of Mr. Marshall, for the formation 

of clubs where members could exchange ideas, discuss them, 

and become better acquainted socially.

The first of the clubs was the Triangle Club, composed 

of assistant topographers and topographic aids. A constitution 

was drawn up that provided for a president, elected for a term 

of 1 year. Regular meetings were held on two Monday evenings in the month, in the Director’s conference room, or elsewhere on special occasions. The first regular meeting was held 

on January 27, 1908, attended by about 30, among whom were 

the inspectors and several geographers. They all approved of 

the club and believed that unlimited benefits could be derived 

from the meetings. Until the time arrived for departures on 

field assignments, club enthusiasm ran high. Many interesting 

papers were presented and discussions were lively.

The Quadrangles

The ferment that bubbled over to produce the Triangle Club spread to a small exclusive group of five upper 

classmates who thought it wise to form a higher association to which eventually the youthful members of the junior 

group might graduate. So Robert H. Chapman, William 

M. Beaman, Albert H. Sylvester, B. Harvey Sargent, and 

Francois E. Matthes organized themselves and on January 28, 1908, adopted a constitution, and called themselves 

“The Quadrangles.” The society would devote itself to the 

study and advancement of the art and science of topographic 

mapping, and only members of the Geological Survey who 

received a salary of $1,800 or more would be eligible for 

membership. The meetings would be presided over by the 

Chief of Party. The host of one meeting was to be the presiding officer at the next meeting. A recorder would be elected 

annually, and later the Chief of Party was similarly elected. 

Wm. M. Beaman was elected the first recorder. Regular 

meetings were held fortnightly on Tuesday evenings, and the 

order of proceedings were:

• Reading of notes of previous meetings

• Selection of next camp site

• Addition to membership

• Reports from side camps

• New observations

• Technical discussions

• At 10 p.m., adjournment to the dining tent

Twenty-Year Club

In the winter of 1910–11, the 20-Year Club was formed 

in the Topographic Branch. Any topographer who had served 

20 years or more in the U.S. Geological Survey, the greater 

part of this time having been spent in topographic work (the 

beginning of service dating from his first regular employment 

in office or field, and service in any 1 calendar year, whether 

continuous or not, being counted as 1-year’s service) and who 

was still with the Topographic Branch, was eligible for active 

membership; there were 35.

Any topographer with a similar length of service but 

who had been detached from the organization or Topographic 

Branch was eligible for associate membership only and was 

not entitled to vote or hold office; there were 18.

The sole object of the Club was the promotion and 

perpetuation of good fellowship, which was celebrated in an 

annual banquet, held at the old Shoreham Hotel, 15th and H 

streets, the last, or next to last, Saturday night in February.

The gentlemen, attired in tuxedos, were seated about the 

banquet table in the order of their years of service and dined to 

the strains of selected music by the U.S. Marine Band. Afterwards, there were toasts, original poems, oratory, and tales of 

glaciers, torrents, swamps, deserts, and forests encountered 

and conquered during the past field season in the remotest 

parts of the United States.
Powell Irrigation Survey 37

John E. Renshawe, as having the longest service, was 

the first president, and the annual banquets were continued 

through 1917. Members included in the 1917 Banquet 

Programs are listed in table 4.

Our beloved John H. Renshawe paid the following 

tribute to:

“The 20-Year Topographers”

“A little band of men brought together for the promotion and perpetuation of good fellowship, and for 

the renewal of happy associations incident to years 

of companionship in field and office.

“As each new member joins the band, having qualified by his allotted time of service, he brings with 

him twenty years of progress, twenty years nearer 

perfection. And so the band marches on, the thinning 

ranks always renewed by vigorous manhood.

“And where can there be found a finer body of men 

in all that goes to make up brave and sturdy manhood! Year after year they go out into the world, 

often into untrodden wilds, and hold themselves 

ready to meet every danger and to overcome every 

obstacle that may lie in the way of the accomplishment of their allotted tasks.

“So it must be that all can look backward with self 

satisfaction for duties well done; and as the end must 

come for each one, he can, as he goes over the last 

divide, look back across the dark canyons of hardship and toil and see only the sunlit peaks of good 

fellowship.”

Powell Irrigation Survey

The act approved October 2, 1888, creating the 

Irrigation Survey, at Major Powell’s request, made the 

money immediately available and he was prepared to 

begin the special surveys of the western one-half of the 

United States; an undertaking of unprecedented magnitude, novelty, and urgency. He organized the work under 

two divisions. The Topographic Survey was to prepare 

the necessary topographic maps; the Hydraulic Survey 

was headed by Capt. Clarence E. Dutton, Chief Engineer. 

The Hydraulic Survey was divided into the Hydrographic 

Survey to measure stream flow and ascertain the water 

supply, and the Engineering Branch to locate and design 

the necessary dams and canals.

The first division (Topographic) of the Irrigation 

Survey was set up through the reorganization of the 

Geographic Branch. To the first division was transferred 

all that part of the personnel of the Western Division, 

including its chief, Professor A.H. Thompson, which was 

working within the limits of the arid region, and its force 

Table 4. Individuals listed in the 1917 banquet programs.

[--, unkown]

Active Members

A.E. Murlin, President

Past Presidents

Member Year Member Year

John H. Renshawe 1911 Henry Gannett 1914

Hersey Munroe 1913 A.B. Searle 1915

Robert H. Chapman 1912 R.C. McKinney 1916

Glenn S. Smith, Chairman

1 John H. Renshawe 1879 40 C.F. Urquhart 1887

3 Robert H. Chapman 1879 41 Robert Muldrow 1887

4 Hersey Munroe 1880 42 W.H. Griffin 1888

7 A.B. Searle 1882 43 Glenn S. Smith 1888

10 S.S. Gannett 1882 44 Duncan Hannegan 1888

13 E.M. Douglas 1882 47 R.B. Marshall 1889

14 R.C. McKinney 1882 48 Jas. McCormick 1889

16 Merrill Hackett 1883 49 W.M. Beaman 1889

21 A.E. Murlin 1883 50 Albert Pike 1890

23 Chas. E. Cooke 1884 51 A.M. Walker 1890

25 Geo. L. Hawkins 1884 52 W.J. Lloyd 1890

26 Frank Tweedy 1884 53 J.M. Whitman 1892

27 J.H. Jennings 1884 55 T.G. Gerdine 1893

34 W.H. Herron 1885 56 Oscar Jones 1895

35 W.L. Miller 1885 58 J.E. Blackburn 1895

36 J.H. Wheat 1885 59 E.L. McNair 1896

37 Frank Sutton 1886 61 T. Foster Slaughter --

38 Basil Duke 1886 62 D.C. Whitherspoon --

39 C.W. Goodlove 1886 63 J.F. McBeth 1897

Associate Members

5 H.S. Wallace 1880 24 C.H. Fitch 1884

8 S.A. Aplin 1882 28 E.T. Perkins 1884

9 C.C. Bassett 1882 29 H.L. Baldwin, Jr. 1884

11 H.M. Wilson 1882 30 E.C. Barnard 1884

12 A.P. Davis 1882 31 W.J. Peters 1884

15 A.F. Dunnington 1882 33 Van H. Manning 1885

18 W.T. Griswold 1883 45 R.A. Farmer 1888

19 R.D. Cummin 1883 54 J.R. Ellis 1893

20 Jeremiah Ahern 1883 60 F.E. Matthes 1896

22 D.C. Harrison 1884

Deceased Members

17 L.C. Fletcher 1883–1911 6 Henry Gannett 1882–1914

32 W.H. Lovell 1885–1913 57 Sledge Tatum 1895–1916

46 T.M. Bannon 1888–1917 2 W.D. Johnson 1879–1917
38 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

was increased by numerous transfers of personnel from eastern 

divisions.

The Geographic Branch of the Survey became limited 

to that part of the country lying east of the Rocky Mountains, 

more specifically east of the 100th meridian, and consisted of 

the following divisions and chiefs of divisions (table 5):

The Topographic Division of the Irrigation Survey consisted of four sections (table 6).

The topographic mapping of quadrangles that previously 

has been executed in the arid regions with a view to the problems of irrigation was now done with particular attention to 

the areas of drainage basins, the position of possible reservoir 

sites, the location of dams and canal lines, and the altitude, 

position, and general character of irrigable lands. The mapping was prepared on planetables at the scales of 1 inch equals 

1 mile, or 1 inch equals 2 miles.

Though the topographic surveys were to be conducted 

generally as during preceding years, Major Powell had the following instructions distributed to party chiefs:

Maps.—All field work for the general map to be sketched 

on planetables on a scale of 1 inch to 1 mile, and in contours 

having a vertical interval of 100 feet in high mountains, 

50 feet in the lower or less rough country, and 20 feet in all 

areas of possible irrigable lands or sites of possible reservoirs. 

A larger scale and smaller contour interval might be used for 

special maps.

The work being in a sparsely settled or entirely uninhabited region, it was necessary for the parties to subsist in 

camps. The organization for this purpose was nearly the same 

in all localities. The means of transportation was usually one 

large four-mule wagon for camp equipage and supplies, and 

buckboards or saddle animals for the persons engaged in the 

map work.

Usually each party employed, in addition to the regularly appointed assistants, one or two persons as traversemen 

or rodmen to assist in the field work. One cook, one teamster, 

and one laborer usually furnished sufficient force for camp 

duties.

Horizontal Control.—To be secured by primary triangulation, secondary triangulation, planetable intersections and 

sketches, and planetable traverses between located points. Primary triangulation to be executed with accurate instruments, 

and at least two stations should be located on each quadrangle. 

All roads, streams, and important topographic features must be 

traversed and sketched by planetable methods.

Vertical Control.—One or more points on each quadrangle to be accurately determined in altitude and used as primary reference, or bench marks, for the area, the “Y” spirit 

level to be used in determining the gradients of streams, 

reservoirs sites, etc. Gradienters and altitudes might be used 

in angular leveling, aneroid and mercurial barometers in 

traversing.

The Hydraulic Branch of Powell’s Irrigation 

Survey

The Hydraulic Branch of Powell’s Irrigation Survey 

prosecuted its phases of the work with equal vigor. Within a 

little more than a year it segregated 127 reservoir sites, having 

an area of over 2,500 square miles, and, in addition, about 

46,875 square miles of irrigable land located in five distinct 

basins—the Snake River, Bear River, Upper Missouri and 

Yellowstone, Owens River Valley, and the Rio Grande Valley. Vested as it was, for the first time, with powers of direct 

administration with respect to the public domain, the Survey’s 

sweeping action provoked a widespread protest from persons 

in the arid region who were adversely affected. As a result, a 

special committee of the Senate was appointed to investigate 

the entire subject, and its report severely criticized the policy 

adopted by the Survey.17 By the Act of August 30, 1890, the 

whole of the Act of 1888 was accordingly repealed except as 

to reservoir sites, the segregation and reservation of which was 

expressly continued.

The short-lived Powell’s Irrigation Survey terminated 

through congressional disapproval, achieved results of enduring value—topographic maps of the arid regions and stream 

measurements, the basis upon which the subsequent work of 

the Survey, in connection with reclamation, was largely based.

17 The report of the committee and hearings, was printed as S. Rept. 928, 

51st Cong., lst sess.

Table 5. Geographic Branch, Rocky Mountain Divisions 

and Chiefs.

[Henry Gannett, chief geographer, in charge]

Division Chief

Northeastern Marcus Baker

Southeastern Gilbert Thompson

Central, of four sections John H. Renshawe

Southern Central, 

of two sections after May, 1889

Richard U. Goode

Drafting Harry King

Table 6. Topographic Division Sections.

[Professor Almon H. Thompson, in charge]

Area Personnel

1. California–Nevada Herbert M. Wilson Sundry Civil Bill

August 30, 1890 

7 Sections

2. Colorado Willard D. Johnson (1) = E.M. Douglas

3. Montana Edward M. Douglas (3) = Frank Tweedy

4. New Mexico Arthur P. Davis (6) = Kansas–Texas

= R.U. Goode

5. Idaho, added in 1889 Wm. T. Griswold (7) = North Dakota

Morris Bien
Tenth Anniversary 39

A month before the act of Congress that terminated 

the Irrigation Survey, Capt. (now Maj.) Clarence E. Dutton 

received orders from the War Department to report to the 

Ordnance Office on July 23, 1890, terminating his detail of 

15 years with the Geological Survey and one of its predecessors. The training camp at Embudo, N. Mex., was closed, and 

the equipment, mules, and horses in use by hydrographers 

were transferred to the nearest topographic field parties. Of 

the nine hydrographers, Thomas M. Bannon, W.A. Farish, 

A.C. Lane, and Wm. P. Trowbridge, Jr., were transferred to the 

Topographic Branch and continued in that Branch for a year 

or more. No fieldwork was carried on during the remainder 

of 1890 except on the Rio Grande at El Paso, where measurements were made by the local hydrographer.

Stream gaging was too important to abandon, and Frederick H. Newell contrived early in 1891 to secure a small fund 

from the Topographic Branch. Newell’s title was changed 

at the end of September 1890 from assistant engineer to 

topographer, and a little later, in order to relieve the strain on 

topographic funds, he was transferred temporarily (6 months 

or more) to the Census Office to direct a census of irrigation 

in the United States. While so employed, he was still able to 

supervise the small amount of possible stream gaging.

Newell felt that if he was to succeed in obtaining future 

funds for hydrography it would be necessary to enlist support by showing the value of stream-flow records. The first 

of his proposed gaging stations in the East was attempted at 

Chain Bridge on the Potomac above Washington, D.C., April 

13, 1891, while an unusual flood was raging, and was successfully established a month later, on May 1.

Through Newell’s persistence, untiring zeal, and 

resourcefulness, a specific appropriation of $12,500 was 

secured by the Survey in the Act of August 18, 1894, “for 

gaging streams and determining the water supply of the U.S., 

including the investigation of underground currents and artesian wells in arid and semi-arid sections.”

The item in the bill was originally $25,000, but as appropriations generally were reduced throughout the Government, 

the cut was neither surprising, nor too discouraging. As small 

as this amount was, Mr. Gannett deemed it necessary to have 

it pay for the services of one topographer, and Arthur P. Davis, 

who was Major Powell’s nephew, was selected for the transfer.

The Division of Hydrography remained in the Topographic Branch for the first year and was transferred to the 

Geologic Branch in 1895. Interest in the value of stream 

gaging and the demands for records grew apace and appropriations increased to the figure of $50,000 in 1897, and to 

$100,000 in 1900. Not only did the Reclamation Act of June 

17, 1902, greatly increase the Survey work, but in the Sundry 

Civil Bill, enacted June 28, 1902, the Congress increased the 

appropriation for stream gaging from $100,000 to $200,000. 

To meet this situation, the Division of Hydrography was 

expanded into the Hydrographic Branch, ranking equally with 

the Geologic and Topographic Branches, “and surpassing them 

then and at other times in the amount of available funds.”

The Hydrographic Branch was divided into (1) the Division of Hydrography, which carried on the stream gaging; 

(2) the Division of Hydrology, which studied the occurrence 

of ground water; (3) the Division of Hydro-Economics, which 

examined the quality of water in its relation to agriculture and 

industry; and (4) the Reclamation Service, which selected and 

constructed irrigation projects in accordance with the Reclamation Act, the administration of which was entrusted to the 

Secretary of the Interior and by him delegated to the Director 

of the Geological Survey.

Mr. Newell was the logical man to direct the greatly 

enlarged work of the Hydrographic Branch and was placed in 

charge of it by the Director, with the title of chief hydrographer. He was also designated chief engineer of the Reclamation Service. In less than 2 years it became apparent to Newell 

that he could not give the required supervision to the enlarged 

work of the water resources investigation, and July 1, 1904, 

Nathan C. Grover was transferred from the field to Washington 

with the title of assistant chief hydrographer. On July 1, 1906, 

Marshall O. Leighton, who was specialized in chemistry and 

biology at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and, at the 

time was health officer at Montclair, N.J., was appointed chief 

hydrographer. One of his fist acts was to obtain the approval of 

Director Walcott to have the name of the Branch changed from 

“Hydrographic” to “Water Resources,” which more correctly 

defined the character of work performed and which could be 

more easily understood by the public.

The Water Resources Branch maintained cooperation 

with the Reclamation Service, the Forest Service, and, to a 

limited extent, with the Indian Service, all Federal agencies. 

Beginning in 1894, cooperation had been carried on informally with State engineers and other State officials. In 1907, 

with an appropriation of $20,000, State cooperation became 

formal and continuous. The work of the Branch is well told by 

Mr. Robert Pollansby in his “History of the Water Resources 

Branch.” (He died on July 22, 1952, aged 73, at Denver, 

Colo.) The First Irrigation Congress was held in Salt Lake 

City, September 15–17, 1891; the second in Los Angeles in 

1893; and the third in Denver in 1894.

Tenth Anniversary

The Geological Survey approached its 10th year with the 

approval of its plans and accomplishments indicated by enlarged 

functions and increased appropriations. The appropriation for 

the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, reached a total of $737,240 

($605,240 Survey Service Monies, Topography $220,066), and, 

instead of being granted in one lump sum, was for the first time, 

itemized under eight heads. The date of the approval of the Sundry 

Civil Bill (October 8, 1888) is considered the beginning of three 

branches of the Geological Survey; the Geologic, the Topographic, 

and the Water Resources18 (known as the Hydrographic Branch 

18 The Reclamation Service became a Bureau March 9, 1907. The Branch 

moved into the Interior Building, second floor, May 1917.
40 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

until July 1906). The name Topographic was first applied to 

the first division of the Irrigation Survey, while the Geographic 

Branch, with name unchanged, still conducted the mapping operations east of the 100th meridian.

During the year ending June 30, 1889, the work of the 

Geographic Branch was carried on in 23 States and Territories. 

The entire area surveyed was 43,222 square miles; 6,472 was 

surveyed for the scale of 1:62,500, 26,850 for the scale of 

1:125,000, and 9,900 for that of 1:250,000. In addition to the 

area specified above, the Topographic Division of the Irrigation Survey surveyed 21,000 square miles, which, as a contribution to the general map of the United States, may be added, 

making a total of 64,222 square miles, and thus completing 

99 atlas sheets. The entire number of atlas sheets completed by 

survey and compilation was 406. Of these, 138 are at the scale 

of 1:62,500; 207 at 1:125,000; and 61 at 1:250,000.

The area surveyed by the Geographic Branch was distributed as listed in table 7.

State Cooperation

The idea of cooperation in public surveys between the 

Federal and State governments originated in 1884 (fiscal year 

1885), in connection with a plan to make a topographic map 

of the State of Massachusetts. The work was conducted under 

the direction of three topographic survey commissioners 

appointed by the governor. The total cost of mapping the State 

of Massachusetts was $107,845. This sum, however, does not 

include the cost of much of the primary triangulation, which 

was executed by the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The average 

cost of the completed work was $12.90 per square mile.

At the time the cooperative survey was begun in Massachusetts, the State of New Jersey was engaged in making a 

topographic map of its area, under the direction of the State 

Geologist. On July 15, 1884, (fiscal year 1885), the State of 

New Jersey asked the U.S. Geological Survey to cooperate in 

completing the map of the State. The Federal Survey took up 

the work but proceeded on lines different from those on which 

cooperation had been conducted elsewhere. About half of the 

State having been accurately mapped, the results were turned 

over to the Federal Survey, which took charge of the organization and of the personnel and carried the work to completion 

in 1887.

The State Geologist reported that the total expense of 

making the topographic survey was $54,744.58. Of this sum, 

the U.S. Geological Survey expended $35,073.98. The average 

cost of mapping the State was $6.93 per square mile, exclusive, however, of three-fourths of the primary triangulation, 

which had been previously executed by the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The topographic survey of Rhode Island was provided for 

by an act of the general assembly passed March 22, 1888, and 

immediately thereafter the governor appointed three commissioners to represent him in the work. Field work was commenced in June 1888, and the survey of the State was completed in the fall of the same year. The total cost of this work 

was $9,732.51, or about $8.97 per square mile.

Mapping in Idaho

As no topographic work had ever been attempted in 

Idaho, Wm.T. Griswold was directed to measure a baseline 

near Boise City. This was accomplished in July 1889. The 

location chosen for the line was on the mesa near the railroad 

station south of the city. The ground was first cleared of sage 

brush and measurements made with a steel tape for a distance 

of 25,066 feet. Together with E.T. Perkins, Jr., the mapping of 

the Mountain Home and Camas Prairie Quadrangles, scale of 

1:25,500 with 50- and 100-foot contour intervals, was completed by November 1.

Mr. Griswold remained until the end of November 

to assist Professor R.S. Woodward, Chief Geographer, in 

determining the geographic coordinates and azimuth of the 

baseline. In determining the longitude, time signals were 

exchanged through the courtesy of the Western Union Telegraph Company with the Washington University of St. Louis, 

through an arrangement with Professor H.S. Pritchett. The 

Table 7. Area surveyed by Geographic Branch.

State Field 

scale

Publication 

scale

Contour 

interval

(feet)

Area 

surveyed 

(squaremiles)

Alabama 1:63,360 1:125,000 100 2,300

Arkansas 1:62,500 1:125,000 50 3,500

California 1:63,360 1:125,000 100 2,200

Connecticut 1:45,000 1:62,500 20 550

Georgia 1:63,360 1:125,000 50 1,500

Iowa 1:31,680 1:62,500 20 1,500

Kansas 1:62,500 1:125,000 50 4,200

Kentucky 1:63,360 1:125,000 100 800

Maine 1:45,000 1:62,500 20 320

Maryland 1:63,360 1:125,000 50 400

Montana 1:126,720 1:250,000 200 4,400

New Hampshire 1:45,000 1:62,500 20 575

New Mexico 1:126,720 1:250,000 200 2,500

New York 1:45,000 1:62,500 20 645

Oregon 1:250,000 1:250,000 200 3,000

Pennsylvania 1:45,000 1:62,500 20 842

Rhode Island 1:45,000 1:62,500 20 1,000

Texas 1:62,500 1:125,000 50 6,250

Virginia 1:63,360 1:125,000 50–100 5,550

West Virginia 1:63,360 1:125,000 100 600

Wisconsin 1:31,680 1:62,500 20 590
The Cuvier Prize 41

latitude was determined by the method of zenith distances, 

observations being made on 26 pairs of stars on 3 different 

nights.

Mapping Accomplished (1889–90)

Mapping the western states during the year that mapping 

began in Idaho are shown in table 8.

Mapping in North and South Dakota

Field work in North Dakota was accomplished between 

August 15 and December 1, 1890. Morris Bien organized 

two level and two transit parties at Minot, and lines were 

extended primarily to ascertain the position and height of the 

lowest passes in the divide between the Missouri River and 

the Mouse and James Rivers. About 730 miles of levels were 

executed and many bench marks were established for use in 

the topographic surveys of that region.

As a preliminary to future topographic work in South 

Dakota, an astronomic station was established at Rapid City. 

Observations were made by Sam S. Gannett, assisted by 

Abner F. Dunnington, between October 23 and November 20, 

1890. For the purpose of determining longitude, signals were 

exchanged with Professor H.S. Pritchett, of the Washington 

University, St. Louis.19

Appropriations and Reorganization

The name “Topographic Branch” became established 

in place of “Geographic Branch” in the reorganization that 

followed the Act of August 30, 1890. By that act, a portion of 

the work of the Irrigation Survey was discontinued and the 

appropriation for topographic mapping was divided equally 

19 U.S. Geological Survey 12th Annual Report, 1890–91, p. 49.

between the country lying east and west of the 100th meridian. In conformity with this division of the appropriation, the 

Topographic Branch was organized into the Eastern Division 

with Mr. Gannett in charge and the Western Division with Professor Thompson in charge. One half of $325,000, a reduction 

in the amount heretofore appropriated for work on each side of 

the 100th meridian required an immediate reduction in force, 

changes in plans, and consolidation of Northern Central and 

Southern Central Sections into Central Section with Mr. Renshawe in charge. On November 1, 1890, Marcus Baker was 

made the General Assistant of the Director and H.M. Wilson 

was placed in charge of the Northeastern Section.

Appropriations continued to be made for specific purposes. For the fiscal years 1892 and 1893, two other meridians besides the 100th were made dividing lines. For the latter 

years:

1. $90,000 for mapping east of the 97th meridian;

2. $90,000 for mapping west of the 103d meridian; and

3. $60,000 for mapping west of the 97th meridian in 

the States of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, 

Kansas, and the Territory of Oklahoma. The $60,000 

was divided equally between the Eastern and 

Western Divisions, and each Division had to keep 

separate accounts of the two funds.

In addition, the seven statutory salaries (formerly aggregating $16,200) were reduced to four (aggregating $9,200): a 

chief geographer, a geographer, and two topographers.

Three of these persons to be in the Eastern Division—$7,200, and one of these persons to be in the Western 

Division—$2,000.

The Eastern Division remained unchanged with three 

sections, but the Western Division consisted of seven sections: 

Southern California, Texas, central California, Washington, 

Idaho–Oregon, Wyoming, Colorado–South Dakota.

The Cuvier Prize

The Geological Survey was accorded a high honor when 

the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of France, the foremost scientific body of that nation, awarded to it the Cuvier 

Prize for the year 1891. Commonly, the prize was awarded 

triennially for noteworthy work in science to investigators in 

France or neighboring countries, but in 1891 the Academy 

chose to honor collectively the scientific corps of the Geological Survey for its contribution to geological, botanical, 

ethnological, and geographical knowledge of large areas of the 

United States. The citation included the mapping operations of 

the numerous personnel of topographers and engineers under 

the direction of Mr. Henry Gannett, and mentioned that more 

than 600 maps had been surveyed and drawn, of which about 

400 already had appeared.

Table 8. Mapping completed from October 8, 1888, to June 

30, 1890.

[--, no data]

State To June 30, 1889

(square miles)

To June 30, 1890

(square miles)

Totals

(square miles)

California 4,848 3,250 8,098

Colorado 23,200 9,900 33,100

Idaho -- 1,900 1,900

Montana 5,270 1,600 6,870

Nevada 1,892 1,600 3,492

New Mexico 6,370 2,600 8,970

 Total 41,580 20,850 62,430
42 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

The value of the Cuvier Prize was 1,500 francs. Since the 

acceptance of pecuniary gifts by Federal employees is prohibited by law, the Academy substituted a gold medal, which was 

accepted, and the splendid souvenir is preserved in the Survey 

library.20

Primary Traverse

The determination of the geological positions of the two, 

or more, points required for the minimum horizontal control 

for a quadrangle was effected by triangulation. However, triangulation was not practicable in certain types of country—hilly 

country of low relief whose summits were covered with timber, and broad flat prairie lands. Extensive clearing for sight 

lines and the erection of tall towers for instrument stations, if 

not prohibitive, were expensive and time consuming.

Such types of country were encountered by Mr. George 

L. Hawkins in western Arkansas. During 1889, 1890, and 

1891, he extended triangulation from Little Rock northward 

to the Missouri state line, thence westward to near the Indian 

Territory line, thence southward, and tied to triangulation near 

Fort Smith, Ark. It was intended that this belt of triangulation be tied to the Indian Territory line, but about 50 miles 

before this line was reached, timbered country intervened. 

Mr. Hawkins, having experience with railroad survey methods, 

devised a plan of running an accurate transit traverse line from 

the most westerly triangulation station along the St. Louis and 

San Francisco Railroad to the Indian Territory line. This line, 

known as a “Primary Traverse Line”, is believed to be the first 

horizontal geodetic control of this character to be used by the 

Geological Survey, or by any other geodetic organization, and 

from this beginning the Survey developed a system of transit 

traverse that produces the entire horizontal control for many 

quadrangle maps. Such control in the prairie states consists 

of a line around the perimeter and one across the center of a 

quadrangle.

The instruments used were the theodolite, the same as for 

triangulation, having a circle 6 to 8 inches in diameter upon 

which angles could be read by vernier to ten seconds, and the 

transit which shortly superseded the theodolite; one 300-foot 

steel tape graduated to feet at either end; one spring balance 

for assuring a 20-pound tension on the tape; one 100-foot 

steel tape for the measurement of short lengths on slopes; two 

thermometers, as the temperature of the tape was required to 

be read and recorded at least once per hour; and four hand 

recorders, two flag poles; and one good watch, which had to 

be compared with standard time often enough to determine its 

error within ten seconds.

A line of transit traverse consists of a continuous series 

of straight courses, the length of each course being measured 

with a steel tape, and the angles between them being measured 

with a transit. The measured angles, and observations upon 

Polaris, preferably at elongation, at intervals of 10 to 20 miles, 

20 Annual Report No. 13, p. 61–66.

depending upon the number of courses to the mile, provide the 

means of determining the azimuths, or bearings, of all courses. 

With the lengths and bearings of the courses, the increase or 

decrease in latitude and in longitude may be computed for 

successive parts of the line. Then, with the line originating 

from a triangulation station, or possibly an astronomic station, 

and closing upon a similar station, the positions of all points 

established by the line can be computed.

The lines followed railroads, wherever practicable, in 

order to make use of the tangents and also obtain the easiest 

grades and thus avoid errors incident to slope. The record of 

each day’s work contained the location of each railroad station, mile post, and switch passed; every wagon road, stream, 

land or county line crossed; and connection with corners of the 

public land surveys in order to establish as close a relation as 

possible between the traverse line, which served as ultimate 

control, and the township system of surveys, which served as 

secondary control. At first it was required to locate by intersection, prominent houses, and natural features of any kind 

in sight from the line, as additional useful locations for the 

topographers who were to make the map.

Primary traverse parties consisted of: one chief, as transit 

man; one recorder; two tape men, either of whom could act 

as front or rear flagmen, and one flagman; also a cook and 

teamster when camping was necessary. In the early 1890’s 

primary traverse parties fairly raced along the railroads and 

main wagon roads, bent on supplying control for topographic 

maps of small scales, without much thought of tape tension, 

temperature, or permanent marks. A speed of 15 to 18 miles 

a day was usual, and there were occasional days when as 

much as 22 miles of traverse were completed. During the first 

6 fiscal years, the linear miles of primary traverse run were as 

follows:

1890—758 1892—480 1894—633

1891—362 1893—680 1895—500

The figures are estimated from the description of topographic 

mapping done in those years.

In later years when greater care was observed, and permanent marks established, transit men aspired to accomplish 

records for speed. The following records are selected from the 

notebooks:

• E.L. McNair ran 22 miles in 1 day in 1917 along the 

Atlantic Coastline Railroad between Savannah and 

Jacksonville (tangent all the way). He was first to discover for the Survey that observations on Polaris could 

be made in daylight.

• H.S. Senseney ran 12 miles, with two observations on 

Polaris, over a dirt road in Illinois in 1 day in 1922. 

S.E. Clement was recorder. He made 100 setups in 

about 5.5 miles in Wisconsin in 1 day in 1919; a 

record. R.H. Runyan was recorder. He was the first to 

introduce the standard stadia rod into a traverse party 

in 1916, to check against gross errors in chaining. 

Before then, distances were checked by readings on the 

range rod or by pacing.
Manual of Topographic Methods 43

First Map Revision

It will be remembered that Captain Wheeler declared that 

many areas would require remapping every 25 years in order 

to keep pace with development. The Survey found that in the 

much shorter space of 10 years, portions of the Appalachian 

Mountain Region had developed so rapidly as to render it 

advisable to undertake revisions, more or less extensive, of 

parts of the following quadrangles, which were mapped on the 

scale of 1:125,000 (table 9).

These quadrangles were the first to be mapped in the 

east when it was necessary for the Survey to produce maps 

in the shortest possible time at a minimum cost, at the risk of 

frequently rough and sketchy work. The scale of the surveys 

was small, often too small for certain areas, but the small 

scale, less accurate and less expensive maps, enabled the 

Survey to make a showing that won the support of the public 

and convinced Congress that continuing appropriations were 

justified.

At the end of 10 years, the requirements of the geologists and general public had increased to force the adoption 

of larger scales for the maps in many localities. The scale 

of 1:250,000, or about 4 miles to 1 inch, had been found 

not suitable for the areas under survey, and was practically 

abandoned. At the same time an increasing amount of work 

was being done on the mile scale (1:62,500) and a diminishing amount on the 2-mile scale (1:125,000). Thus while 

the number of maps produced per year was maintained, the 

area surveyed diminished. In other words, a smaller area 

was being mapped in greater detail. The trend is shown in 

table 10.

Manual of Topographic Methods

A “Manual of Topographic Methods,” 300 pages, by 

Henry Gannett, appeared in early 1894 as Monograph XXII, 

intended primarily for the information of the men engaged 

upon that work. The manual opened with an account of the 

various surveys made under the general and state governments 

and by private parties, followed by a statement of the plan of 

the atlas made by the Geological Survey, its scales, contour 

intervals, size of sheets, contents, etc.

The work of map making is classified into two parts, the 

geometric control and the sketching, and the principal instruments and methods used in the various steps are fully treated. 

The chapter devoted to sketching contains a brief outline of 

the origin of topographic forms.

Following the text is a body of tables for use in the various computations required in the work, and the book is illustrated with cuts of instruments and with specimen maps.21

21 Annual Report No. 15, 1893–94, p. 95.

Table 9. Appalachian Mountain Region mapped at 1:125,000.

Quadrangle States

Year 

mapping 

begun

Topographers

Pocahantas Va.–W. Va. 1883 Morris Bien and W.A. 

Shumway

Tazewell Va.–W. Va. 1883 Morris Bien and W.A. 

Shumway

Abingdon Va.–N.C. 1882 Morris Bien and W.A. 

Shumway

Wytheville Va.–N.C. 1883 Morris Bien and R.C. 

McKinney

Cumberland Gap Va.–Ky. 1882 Frank M. Pearson and 

Fred J. Knight

Jonesville Va.–Ky. 1882 Frank M. Pearson and 

Fred J. Knight

Cranberry N.C. 1882 Morris Bien, Chas. M. 

Yeates, and J.W. Hays

Nantahalah N.C. 1884 Chas. M. Yeates

Knoxville Tenn. 1884 Frank M. Pearson and 

C.G. Van Hook

Maynardville Tenn. 1883 Frank M. Pearson and 

C.G. Van Hook

Murphy Tenn. 1884 Frank M. Pearson amdChas. M. Yeates

Table 10.

[--, no data]

Mapping trends.

Year 

ending 

June 30

Percent of total area on scale of:

1:62,500 1:125,000 1:250,000

Square 

miles 

mapped

Appropriations

1883

1884

1885

1886

1887

1888

1889

1890

1891

1892

1893

1894

--

1

4

5

9

7

10

17

26

15

73

66

27

46

63

72

66

67

70

83

74

85

27

31

73

53

33

23

25

26

20

--

--

--

--

3

15,000

45,150

57,500

81,829

55,684

52,062

64,472

67,650

67,575

53,000

26,000

35,650

70,700

a 100,150

b 160,865

b 184,510

b 204,656

202,311

b 215,200

b 216,200

b 345,773

b 266,200

b 249,200

b 209,200

a

 Includes $16,200 for Scientific Assistants, a continuing item, but after 

1892 the amount was reduced to $9,200.

b

 These amounts were increased by State cooperative funds.
44 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Walcott Becomes Director

Major Powell resigned in May 1894, to take effect at the 

end of the fiscal year, thus terminating a service of 13 years 

as Director. His successor, taking office on July 1, 1894, was 

Charles D. Walcott, a geologist with the Survey since its 

organization.

As Director, Mr. Walcott proposed to make some readjustments in Survey policy in order to meet new conditions 

and bring the Survey more in touch with the economic and 

educational interests of the country. These adjustments, briefly 

outlined, were: (1) raising of the standard of quality of the 

topographic maps and the appointment of an editor, Marcus 

Baker; (2) the representation on all future maps in the public 

land states of the land subdivision lines, and, when possible, 

the location and elevation of township and section corners; 

(3) the resurvey of areas on existing maps that have proven 

defective or inadequate for the proper representation of a 

real and economic geology; (4) the planning of a system of 

triangulation to effectively supplement what had already been 

accomplished; (5) the placing of the entire topographic force 

within the classified service; (6) the obtaining of authority 

from Congress to print and sell topographic maps, with texts, 

for educational purpose, and to print more scientific reports 

for wider distribution of valuable information; (7) the enlargement and increase of the work of the Division of Hydrography 

and of the Division of Mineral Resources; and (8) the making 

of reconnaissance surveys, such as those made on the scale of 

1:250,000 (restored) of regions supposed to contain important economic resources, in order to obtain information more 

quickly.

To emphasize the urgency and importance of geodetic 

control, the topographic work was reorganized. The two 

independent divisions under which it had been carried on 

were consolidated, retaining the name Topographic Branch 

and Henry Gannett as Geographer-in-Charge. The branch was 

organized by class of work into two divisions, Triangulation 

and Topography, and by locality of work into four sections as 

shown in table 11.

Division of Triangulation

George T. Hawkins extended triangulation for control 

of quadrangles in Maine and Vermont, and under detail to 

the General Land Office, reran and double chained the north 

boundary of Nebraska as an excellent means of control of 

the system of land surveys in its vicinity, since the township 

corners were connected to the horizontal control.

Sam S. Gannett established, by triangulation, control 

points for quadrangles in New York and Pennsylvania, and, 

by primary traverse, control of the Monroe Quadrangle in 

Georgia. He also established an astronomic station in Eugene, 

Oreg., determining the longitude by telegraphic exchanges 

with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in San Francisco.

Professor Almon H. Thompson established 24 triangulation stations north and south of the Arkansas River east of the 

mountains in Colorado.

William T. Griswold measured a baseline in the neighborhood of Eugene, Oreg., 18,630 feet in length, and expanded 

southward to control 3 quadrangles by occupying 14 stations.

Division of Topography

In the Atlantic Section during the year ending June 30, 

1895, 11 topographers with assistants, mapped 7,000 square 

miles; in the Central Section, 6 topographers mapped 10,475 

square miles; in the Rocky Mountain Section, 9 topographers 

mapped 5,963 square miles; and in the Pacific Section, 11 

topographers mapped 6,975 square miles.

The following year Mr. Gannett was assigned to other 

duties and Director Walcott took active charge of the Topographic Branch, continuing as chairman of the topographic 

committee, composed of the chiefs of the four topographic 

sections and of the new Indian Territory Section.22

Indian Territory Surveys (1896)

Indian Territory had been attracting more attention for 

a decade than any other western state or territory when an 

appropriation of $200,000 was made by act of Congress, 

approved March 2, 1895, for the survey and subdivision of the 

lands of the Indian Territory with the provision that the Secretary of the Interior might entrust this work to the Director of 

the Geological Survey, instead of giving it out by contract as 

had heretofore been done.

In order to allow for expansion westward, southeastern 

states prevailed on the Government to enter into treaties with 

the Cherokee Indians (1817) and the Choctaw Indians (1820) 

to vacate their lands and migrate across the Mississippi River 

to new lands. Similar treaties with other tribes were drawn up, 

until by 1840, the Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Choctaw, 

Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole) were established west of the 

State of Arkansas. Tribes of the Plains Indians were allotted 

lands farther westward and an effort was made to create an 

Indian State.

However, the Indians were not populous and their broad 

undulating prairies, used for little else than hunting grounds, 

were coveted by frontiersmen and home seekers. The most 

22 See #17 for Permanent Bench Marks.

Table 11. Topographic Branch Organization.

Location Geographer-in-charge

Atlantic Section Herbert M. Wilson

Central Section John H. Renshawe

Rocky Mountain Section Edward M. Douglas

Pacific Section Richard U. Goode
Walcott Becomes Director 45

vociferous of these were known as “Boomers.” After a commission had studied the situation and made recommendations, 

the Congress passed the Dawes Act in 1887, providing for 

breaking up the Indian Reservations into individual allotments 

and opening the surplus lands to white settlement.

There followed one of the most thrilling events in the 

history of the West. At noon on Monday, April 22, 1889, the 

signal was given and the “Run” for townlots and farms in 

the “Oklahoma lands,” purchased by the government from 

the Creeks and Seminoles was made by thousands of home 

seekers and speculators who had been restrained for days 

and weeks behind cordons of soldiers. Those who got across 

the starting lines secretly before the signal were known as 

“Sooners.” On that eventful day, many towns and cities were 

founded, including Oklahoma City, the future Capitol of 

Oklahoma.

Other runs occurred as fast as Indian tribes accepted 

allotments in severalty and the surplus lands were opened to 

settlement. The Iowa, Sac and Fox, and Shawnee-Potawatomi 

Reservations to the east of “Old Oklahoma” were opened on 

September 22, 1891, and the Cheyenne–Arapaho lands to the 

west in 1892.

The greatest run of all occurred on September 16, 1893, 

when the Cherokee Outlet, together with the Tonkawa and 

Pawnee Reservations, were thrown open. The small Kickapoo 

Reservation followed in 1895.

Six years later on July 4, 1901, the Osage, Kaw, and 

Comanche–Kica Lands were opened, this time by lottery 

instead of a run. Drawings were made for 6,500 claims. Settlements prospered, and on November 16, 1907, Indian Territory, 

the area occupied by the Five Civilized Tribes, and the territory to the west were admitted as Oklahoma, the 46th State.

Plans and organization for the survey of Indian Territory 

were completed by March 21, 1895. The project, possessing 

the pleasing promise of topographic mapping as an inexpensive corollary to the cadastral surveys, was given to the 

Topographic Branch of the Geological Survey. A new unit was 

organized as a division with Charles H. Fitch in charge, and 

later Van H. Manning became second in charge.23

The requisite animals and camp equipage were purchased 

and shipped to South McAlester, in the Choctaw Nation, 

the headquarters selected for the work. Towards the close of 

March, two parties were placed in the field, one under George 

T. Hawkins to run the Indian Base Standard Parallel eastward 

50 miles from the Chickasaw Nation to near the Arkansas state 

line, the other under Wm. J. Peters to run the Second Guide 

Meridian southward to near the Texas state line. Thereafter, 

these parties continued the work of running standard lines.

Triangulation parties, under Samuel S. Gannett and 

Charles F. Urquhart, were soon in the field to extend primary 

triangulation over the area subdivided, and to connect their 

stations, permanently marked, with section and township corners as a check upon the running of the lines and as a means 

23 Seventeenth Annual Report (1895–96) of U.S. Geological Survey, General Land Office Report for 1895, p. 106.

of recovering lost corners. Other parties were added for other 

places of the work until, by September 1st, a maximum force 

was engaged.

In addition to those mentioned above, two parties were 

engaged in surveying township exteriors. Sixteen other parties 

were engaged in running subdivision lines. These 16 parties, 

the surveyors of which for the most part were men temporarily employed for the purpose, were grouped by fours, each 

group being under the immediate supervision of a topographer, 

who supervised and examined their work and at the same time 

prepared a topographic map of the country subdivided. Thus 

the work was executed by three independent sets of surveyors, 

the work of each of them testing that of the others.

In accordance with the requirement, made in the act providing for the topographic surveys for the fiscal year 1896–97, 

that two permanent bench marks (one in forest-clad and mountain areas) be established in each township or equivalent areas, 

level parties were put to work extending lines of accurate 

elevation over all township exteriors and establishing permanent bench marks at the corners of townships.

The topographers who had charge of subdivision parties during the first year, in addition to Van H. Manning, 

were Charles E. Cooke, Wm. B. Morse, Robert A. Farmer, 

R.H. McKee, Dabney C. Harrison, Wm. S. Post, and R.M. 

Towson. They prepared a topographic map and had charge, 

also, of camps where the men were sheltered in tents, where 

cooks prepared and served food, and where teamsters took 

care of the mules.

The method of mapping the topography was, first, to 

prepare on drawing paper, 15 by 15 inches square, the plat of 

a township 6 miles by 6 miles, on the scale of 2 inches equal 

1 mile, and enter upon the section lines all crossings of roads, 

streams, and ridges as described in the notes made by the 

line surveyors. This was done nightly by the two topographic 

assistants or aides assigned to the topographers in charge of 

each camp. With the prepared township drawing mounted on 

a 15 by 15 inch planetable, the aides, one usually assigned to 

the eastern one-half of the township, and the other assigned 

to the western one-half, astride mules, would ride along the 

newly-run and trimmed-out section lines, and add the necessary topographic details.

Section and half-mile corners recently established, were 

clearly visible and other details entered on the lines were usually easy to recognize. The aide determined contour crossings 

by reading an aneroid barometer that had been set in the morning to agree with the elevation established at camp by a line of 

Y-levels run from the nearest railroad, or by comparison with 

elevations marked up on the exterior lines of the township, 

likewise established by Y-levels.

The contour interval was 50 feet. Where the terrain had 

considerable relief, and there were many details to sketch, the 

aide dismounted and measured distances by pacing. He was 

warned at the outset that distances were not to be obtained 

by counting the paces of a mule because that cagey critter 

traveled away from camp with a reluctant, shortened step 
46 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

and towards camp, wherever it might be, with a springy step 

several inches longer.

The topographer was constantly busy. With a similar 

township plat bearing the line crossings, he drove over the 

roads with a buckboard and team of mules. His equipment 

consisted of a planetable, tripod, aneroid barometer, and 

alidade, but no stadia rod. Setting up at the intersection of 

the road with the section line, he traversed parts of the road, 

measuring distances by counting the revolutions of a front 

buckboard wheel, to which a rag or twig had been tied, and 

obtaining elevations by aneroid or by reading a vertical angle 

to a chosen spot on the road, to which he had, or would have, 

the distance. He surveyed parts of section lines, measuring the 

distances by pacing and determining elevations by gradienter 

or vertical angles, as a check upon both the line surveys and 

the traverses made by the aides. Responsible for the execution of the work in his allotted territory, he looked to the line 

surveyors to set the pace, and when they had completed the 

subdivision of a township, or a convenient group of townships, 

he directed that camp be moved to a new, selected location. 

Unmapped sections left behind required longer rides morning 

and evening by the aides.

The running of lines of levels was not commenced until 

the appropriation for that work was made available on July 1, 

1896, and the office work connected with the field surveys 

presented problems. The first draft of the line notes from the 

surveyor’s rough notes was prepared at South McAlester, the 

field headquarters, and its receipt in Washington controlled the 

preparation of the three typewritten copies for filing with the 

Land and Indian offices. The execution of township plats and 

topographic maps was retarded while awaiting the adjustment 

of spirit level lines and their connection with railroad or control lines. Improved organization accelerated the office work 

and a further helpful step was taken when the work that was 

being done in Washington was transferred to South McAlester 

in December 1896.

The Indian Territory project was extended when an 

appropriation of $141,500 was provided in the Indian Act, 

approved June 6, 1897, for the resurvey of the lands of the 

Chickasaw Nation, which had been sectionized several years 

previously by private surveyors under contract. To be more 

conveniently located for this work, and for the completion of 

the Denison Quadrangle, the larger part of which lay south 

of the Red River, the general headquarters were moved about 

the middle of June, from South McAlester, Indian Territory, to 

Denison, Tex.

The field surveys of Indian Territory were completed 

by June 30, 1898, with the results accomplished shown in 

table 12.

The completion of the office work at Denison, Tex., on 

December 31, 1898, brought to a close the survey of the Indian 

Territory, a highly profitable project, for the land surveys had 

been made at an estimated savings of $85,000, as derived 

from the comparison with the probable cost of such surveys 

by private surveyors under the contract system. Indeed, the 

contract system was thereafter abandoned by the General Land 

Office after it had been demonstrated that government personnel performed accurately and efficiently in running lines and 

marking corners.

Without additional cost, the Geological Survey established 138 geographical locations by triangulation and 

814 permanent bench marks by Y-leveling, prepared 26 topographic maps for publication on a scale of 1:125,000, and 

acquired valuable camp equipage consisting of tents, wagons, 

mules, and sundries.

Had the project been one-half or one-quarter as large as it 

was it would not have proved a financial success for the factor 

of travel expense would then have become relatively larger. 

As it was, the large Indian Territory project met with considerable added expense for travel and long moves of parties in 

reorganization when the progress of the survey was interrupted 

and furloughs became necessary by the lapse of funds for the 

periods June 1 to June 10, 1896, and April 17 to June 6, 1897.

The Indian Territory Survey enrolled a number of young 

men who continued on careers of a lifetime with the Geological Survey:

John E. Blackburn—Teamster, chainman, topographer

Pearson Chapman—Draftsman, topographer

Robert Coe—Levelman, topographer

Acheson F. Hassan—Levelman, cartographer

Francois E. Matthes—Draftsman, topographer, geologist

Sledge Tatum—Surveyor, topographer, geographer

Leveling—Wilson–Douglas (1896)

An important change affecting the work of the Survey and precipitated by the surveys in Indian Territory was 

the enactment by Congress of legislation providing for the 

monumenting of the topographic surveys. The provision was 

embodied in the Sundry Civil Appropriation Act, approved 

June 11, 1896, and was in the following words:

Table 12. Field surveys completed June 30, 1898.

[--; no data]

Activity Indian 

Territory

Chickasaw 

Nation

Standard lines run 1,931 532

Township exteriors run 6,181 1,863

Section and meander lines 49,961 12,554

Retracement of lines -- 188

Number of townships subdivided 730 --

Topography mapped (square miles) 23,533 7,352

Number of 30-minute quadrangles mapped 26 --

Level lines run along railways and township lines 2,813 2,316

Permanent bench marks established 814 --

Vertical angle lines, miles 10,321 2447

Triangulation stations occupied 138 --
Walcott Becomes Director 47

“Provided, that hereafter in such surveys west of the 

95th meridian elevations above a base level located 

in each area under survey shall be determined and 

marked on the ground by iron, or stone, posts, or 

permanent bench marks (fig. 14), at least two such 

posts or bench marks to be established in each township or equivalent area, except in the forest-clad and 

mountain areas, where at least one shall be established, and these shall be placed whenever practicable, near the township corners of the public land 

surveys; and in the areas east of the 95th meridian at 

least one such post or bench mark shall be similarly 

established, in each area equivalent to the area of a 

township of the public land surveys.”

The enactment above quoted did not provide for the 

protection of the monuments thus to be erected from removal 

or defacement, but such legislation was incorporated in the 

Indian Appropriation Act, approved June 10, 1896, in which 

occurs the following clause:

“Provided further, that hereafter it shall be unlawful 

for any person to destroy, deface, change, or remove 

to another place any section corner, quarter-section 

corner, or meander post, on any Government line of 

survey, or to cut down any witness tree or any tree 

blazed to mark the line of a Government survey; 

that any person who shall offend against any of the 

provisions of this paragraph shall be deemed guilty 

of a misdemeanor and, upon conviction thereof in 

any court, shall be fined not exceeding $250, or be 

imprisoned not more than one hundred days.”

The statutory authority for improving the topographic 

mapping as granted in the above legislation had been strongly 

advocated by Director Walcott. The original object of the 

topographic map was to serve as a basis for the geologic map 

of the United States, but, with the progress of the Survey from 

year to year, the public had become more and more acquainted 

with the maps, and a strong demand had developed for them. 

The value of the maps, steadily increasing as the quality of 

the surveys improved, might be enhanced 100 percent if 

permanent records were left on the ground, in the form of 

monuments to show the position of triangulation points and 

township corners, and their true elevation above sea level, or 

some fixed point. The utility and practical value of any survey 

is largely dependent upon the measures taken to preserve its 

results and to render possible the ready identification and practical use of these results.

The geologist often found it difficult to determine the 

exact location on his map of an important geologic feature. 

In the mountain regions, sharp summits of hills or mountains 

that have been used by the topographers as triangulation points 

could be used by a geologist to locate a given point, if a monument had been erected and was still standing. Less accurate 

locations could be obtained by the geologist from intersections of streams, valleys, and ridges, or of artificial features, 

such as roads, buildings, etc. On the Great Plains area his only 

recourse might be to township or section corners, when they 

could be found. The stake, or stone, over a buried handful of 

charcoal, between two shallow holes had often been destroyed, 

obliterated, or moved, and had an unknown error of location, 

as it was not connected with any system of measurement.

In mining geology, a large part of the observations of the 

geologist are made underground, and their location is referred 

to a single point on the surface. The advantages would be 

tremendous for surface observations as well, if the point possessed exact geographical position and elevation and could be 

identified on the ground without any doubt. Such a point possessed, also, inestimable value to the surveyor and engineer as 

a starting or closing point for a project.

The extending level lines became, in 1896, an established 

phase in the basic control of topographic mapping. Permanent 

bench marks were set at stated intervals and, during 1896 and 

1897, consisted of a copper bolt 4 inches long, and 1 inch in 

diameter fastened into masonry or solid rock, by driving it on 

a brass wedge placed in the bottom of a vertical hole, so that 

the top of the bolt was horizontal, and thus formed the bench 

mark. Triangulation stations were also marked in this manner.

In 1898, two new disks were adopted, each presenting 

a circular plate of bronze or aluminum, 3.5 inches in diameter, and 1/4-inch thick, appropriately lettered. One disk had 

a 3-inch stem for cementing in a drill hole, generally in the 

vertical walls of public buildings, bridge abutments, or other 

substantial masonry structures, the other type consisted of a 

hollow wrought iron post 4 feet in length and 3.5 inches in 

outer diameter, split at the bottom and expanded to 12 inches, 

for planting in the ground and resisting both easy subsidence 

and malicious extraction. The bronze cap was riveted to the 

top of the post (fig. 15).

On the tablet was stamped the elevation above sea level, 

to the nearest foot. Engineers and others finding these bench 

marks could obtain, if desired, the accepted elevation to the 

hundredth, or thousandth of a foot by communicating with 

the Director. In the Washington office were prepared lists of 

bench marks with their descriptions and elevations. As lines 

of levels were closed in circuits, adjustments were made in 

elevations. The starting points of the lines had been selected 

in the field as being nearest to the quadrangles to be mapped, 

in the hope that the elevations would be ready in advance of 

the topographers. To aid them in properly placing contours, 

temporary bench marks were set at 1 mile intervals between 

the permanent posts or tablets, which were set between 5 and 

6 miles apart.

Instructions for spirit leveling were issued in 1896. The 

work was conducted as part of the topographic survey and was 

a part of the responsibility of the topographer in charge of the 

mapping. The work of the first year (July 1, 1896, to June 30, 

1897) is summarized in table 13.

The results of spirit leveling first appeared as a part of 

Annual Report No. 18, 1896–97, and after 4 years of similar 

treatment, in 1901, were issued as Bulletin No. 185. Triangulation and leveling in Indian Territory 1895–98, were treated for 

publication as Bulletin No. 175, dated 1900, and authored by 
48 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

C.H. Fitch. In 1906, Bulletin No. 281 was published, containing results of spirit leveling in New York State for the years 

1896 to 1905, inclusive, with values conforming to the readjustment, in 1903 of the precise level net in the eastern portion

of the United States by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

The adjustment and readjustment of levels became a function 

of the Triangulation and Computing Section and was first performed by Harry L. Baldwin, Jr. and Clyde B. Kendall under 

the supervision of the chief, Sam S. Gannett. As levels were 

adjusted to conform to the 1903 readjustment of the precise 

level net the results were summarized by states, or groups of 

states, and published from time to time in bulletin form.

In 1878, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey was authorized to run first order leveling, which was adjusted in 1929. 

Permission was given December 22, 1920, by the Treasury 

Department to put bench marks on Federal buildings. Hodgeson’s letter about concrete collars for bench marks was issued

on July 26, 1940. 

The following facts and performances of Survey leveling 

are selected from the annual reports and field notebooks:

• The start of Survey leveling in 1896 was made by A.B. 

Pomme on June 2 near Moravia, N.Y.; followed by 

E.L. McNair on June 3 at Medina, N.Y.

• L.F. Biggs extended 20 miles in one 10-hour day in 

1907 on the railroad between Las Vegas and Rhyolite, 

Nev. He used a prism level, and was assisted by B.A. 

Jenkins, recorder, Bayard Knock and Jake W. Muller, 

rodmen, and a man to set bench marks ahead. Mr. 

Biggs again extended 20 miles in one day in 1912 on 

the Norfolk and Western Railroad in Virginia.

• H.S. Senseney recommended, while at Ludowici, Ga., 

in 1917, that reference bench marks be set near every 

permanent bench mark, and the idea was incorporated 

into the regulations.

• R.G. Clinite extended 12.2 miles of 

 levels, making 124 setups, in 5-3/4 hours

 on June 22, 1926, along the C&0 Railway, 

 on the Coveville Quadrangle, Va.

• E.L. McNair, in 1925, leveling forward

 and backward over a course of 9.6 miles

 to the summit of Mount Washington, N.H.,

 (elevation 6,288 feet) with 9 bench mark

 tablets that had been previously set, and

 establishing 34 temporary bench marks 

 during the progress of the leveling, attained

 the record in table 14.

Some of the lines extended were so-called 

fly-levels, or fourth order levels. These were 

extended over the roads of a quadrangle for 

the use of the topographer. The levelman was 

allowed sights in excess of 300 feet and determined the elevation of road forks, railroad crossings, water surfaces, high and low points and contour crossings of roads, etc., painting such elevations with white paint 

on fence posts, telephone poles, and trees. The topographer, 

often with the roads already traversed and transferred to his 

map sheet, would drive over the roads with the planetable on 

his lap and sketch in the contours. He determined his locations 

and distances by counting the revolutions of a rag tied to a 

front wheel of the buggy. To fill in areas away from the road 

he had to walk, counting paces for distances and using a handlevel and aneroid for elevations.

The method of sketching contours while seated in a 

buggy did not possess the apparent luxurious ease. In front 

of the seated topographer was a harnessed horse who perhaps 

could not stand still, and in fly time, May to September, would 

keep up a continuous tap dance. When it came time to start 

off, the horse might have both reins clamped under his tail as 

tight as a vise.

Distances up to 15 miles were occasionally extended in a 

day by a fly-level man. Topographers sometimes sketched the 

contours on a 15-minute quadrangle in 2 days. Open, nearly 

flat country, such as found in the Mississippi Valley States, 

lent itself best to this method. In the summer of 1907, C.L. 

Sadler worked a quadrangle in Oklahoma on the fly-level, 

buggy-wheel-traverse method and H.H. Hodgeson mapped 

an adjoining quadrangle by the planetable stadia method. The 

Table 13. Spirit leveling completed July 1, 1896, to June 30, 1897.

[BM, bench mark; NA, not applicable; average cost of the leveling was $4.75 per linear 

mile; average cost of the topography was $1.40 per square mile; percent of country considered covered by topographic surveys was 25 percent]

Section Number 

of states

Number 

of level 

parties 

Linear 

miles

Square 

miles 

topography

Number 

of 

BMs

Atlantic Section 9 9 2,245 7,456 338

Central Section 7 7 1,622 6,144 227

Rocky Mountain Section 5 6 2,005 3,120 386

Pacific Section 4 5 794 3,048 169

Subtotals 25 27 6,666 19,768 1,120

Indian Territory NA NA 4,174 7,678 700

 Total 10,840 27,446 1,820

Table 14. Record set by E.L. McNair, 1925.

[Equipment: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey precision 

level and invar rods graduated in meters]

Total rise and fall 9,846 feet

Total setups 1,128

Total time 67 hours, 40 minutes

Average number set ups 16.7 per hour
Walcott Becomes Director 49

relative merits and costs of the two methods were discussed 

that winter at a Triangle Club meeting.

Mapping Forest Reserves—Wilson–Douglas, 

1897 (Henry Gannett)

With the Indian Territory project (1895–98) nearing a 

highly successful conclusion, the Geological Survey was 

soon to be engaged in another special task, the mapping of the 

forest reserves. The Sundry Civil Act, approved June 4, 1897, 

contained a provision for the survey of the forest reserves and 

the establishment of a forest policy on the part of the government. Since June 1883, the Geological Survey had been collecting forest statistics and overprints showing forests areas on 

every quadrangle.

Movements in favor of protection for the forests resulted 

in an act of Congress approved March 3, 1891, authorizing 

the President, by proclamation, to set aside and reserve any 

part of the public lands, wholly or in part, covered with timber 

or undergrowth. The first Forest Reserve (later to be called 

the Shoshone National Forest, in Wyoming) was established 

by President Harrison that same year, and by September 28, 

1893, 17 forest reservations were established, aggregating 

27,343 square miles in 7 western states and territories. Data 

accumulated by the Geological Survey helped to determine the 

areas and the boundaries of the new reserves. Their establishment attracted little attention and created little or no opposition, since no real protection was afforded and the wasteful 

methods of timber cutting and destructions by fires went on 

within their limits, as elsewhere.

The Secretary of the Interior, early in 1896, had requested 

the National Academy of Sciences to study forestry matters 

and to make recommendations. A committee of five, one of 

whom was Arnold Hague, geologist of the Geological Survey, 

was appointed and began work on July 2, 1896. In accordance 

with the recommendations of the committee, on February 22, 

1897, 13 additional reserves were established by Executive 

Order, containing an aggregate area of 34,918 square miles.

As was anticipated, the establishment of these reserves 

produced a strong protest from the residents of the states interested, resulting in the provision incorporated in the Sundry 

Civil Act approved June 4, 1897, suspending until March 1, 

1898, the Executive Orders and proclamations of February 22, 

1897, and providing for the examination and survey of the 

reserves by the Geological Survey during the intervening time, 

$150,000 being appropriated for this purpose. The object of 

this was to obtain for the use of the Department, and the President, the necessary information for revising the boundaries 

of the reserves, and subtracting from them such areas as were 

found to be more valuable for agriculture or mining than for 

the timber they contained.

The plans for this work, as approved by the Director, 

were ready by July 1, 1897, and provided that the special survey of the forest areas by expert foresters to determine the size 

and density of the timber, the leading economic species, the 

damage inflicted by forest fires, the amount of dead timber, the 

extent of the timber already cut, and the effects of the deforesting upon the springs and flow of streams, etc. was assigned to 

Henry Gannett (fig. 16; the topographic surveys were assigned 

to the Rocky Mountain (Edward M. Douglas in charge) and 

Pacific (Richard U. Goode in charge) Topographic Sections of 

the Geological Survey.

The purposes of the topographic surveys were defined as:

1. The preparation of topographic maps, on a scale of 

2 miles to 1 inch, with contour intervals of 100 feet, 

as base maps for the representation of forestry 

details; agricultural and mineral lands; and future 

geologic survey;

2. the establishment of bench marks indicating elevation above sea level, for vertical control in topographic mapping, and for all mining, engineering, 

and geologic work;

3. the subdivision of reserves, where necessary, by running township lines for the purpose of designating 

tracts of land;

4. the demarcation, by means of section lines, of tracts 

which are more valuable, as agricultural and mineral 

lands than for timber; and

5. the mapping by the topographer in charge of each 

party of the outlines of all wooded and forest areas.

It was anticipated that the 62,261 square miles of forests 

then included within the reserves could be thoroughly and 

economically surveyed within 5 years, provided adequate 

appropriations were made for the purpose.

Cadastral surveys were begun, or were contemplated for 

the ensuing year, in seven of the forest reserves. However, the 

Geological Survey was relieved of this class of work by the 

act of Congress approved March 3, 1899, which so changed 

the law authorizing surveys within forest reserves as to require 

township, and subdivisional surveys to be executed thereafter 

by the General Land Office.

The work of this nature already accomplished amounted 

to approximately 91 miles of standard lines, 43 miles of township lines, 101 miles of section lines, 69 miles of meander 

lines and 11 miles of retracements in five forest reserves in the 

Pacific Section; in the Rocky Mountain Section, four complete 

townships adjacent to the Lewis and Clark Reserve, Mont.; 

and all of the Black Hills Reserve, S. Dak.–Wyo., embracing 

12 complete townships. The 16 completed townships were 

surveyed by Wm. H. Thorn, who had previously made similar 

surveys in Indian Territory and brought with him some of his 

trained assistants, among whom was John E. Blackburn, who 

later, as a topographer with unlimited enthusiasm for hard 

work, surveyed many quadrangles in the roughest areas of the 

country.

The expert foresters to make the special studies with 

relation to the economic distribution of the forests were 

selected by Mr. Gannett chiefly from the Division of Forestry, 
50 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Department of Agriculture, a unit that had existed in that 

Department as far back as 1881, and had been given permanent statutory rank in 1886. In 1898, the unit acquired Mr. 

Gifford Pinchot as Chief and became the Bureau of Forestry 

by the act of Congress, March 21, 1901. Mr. Pinchot was an 

outstanding champion of forest conservation, shared his views 

with another outstanding champion, President Theodore Roosevelt, and vigorously administered a policy shaped to draw 

private lumbering into conservation practices and to train the 

personnel in practical forest management.

As the Secretary of the Interior had been recommending for several years, in order to effect better administrative 

results, the Forest Reserves were transferred to the Department 

of Agriculture, by act of Congress, approved February 1, 1905. 

The Agriculture Appropriation Act of March 3, 1905, designated the former Bureau of Forestry as the Forest Service.

Geography and Forestry Survey

Henry Gannett, as geographer of the Survey, continued 

in charge of the revision of the large map of the United States 

known as the “nine-sheet map.” The preparation of a Physical 

Atlas of the United States, upon which much work had been 

done in former years, was continued. The office collection of 

railroad profiles was also overhauled and an index prepared, 

and copies of them were made for publication.

As president of the Board on Geographic Names, Mr. 

Gannett was obliged to give much time to its deliberations. In 

order to secure information in relation to certain topographic 

features of which little is known, Mr. Gannett proceeded, 

under instructions, to the West and Southwest. He visited the 

Blue Mountains in northeastern Oregon for the purpose of 

obtaining a general idea of their structure, extent, and altitude. 

He also visited Mount Hood, to study the surrounding topography and its glaciers. On his return, by the southern route, he 

made investigations of the San Bernardino Mountains and the 

valley lying south of them, and of the Staked Plains of Texas.

Plans for the special survey of the forest areas with relation to the economic distribution of the forests were completed 

by Mr. Gannett in June 1897, preparatory to starting the field 

work in July.

During fiscal year 1898, Henry Gannett had compiled, 

from all available sources, a map of western United States 

showing on a scale of 40 miles to 1 inch, the distribution 

of woodland and of what was thought to be merchantable 

timber. For most of this area, the information obtainable was 

amply accurate for this representation, consisting as it did of 

maps prepared by the Geological Survey and by the Hayden, 

Wheeler, and Powell Surveys, together with much unpublished 

information.

In general geographic work, a folio on physiographic 

types, being folio 1 of the Topographic Atlas of the United 

States, was completed and published. A Gazetteer of Kansas, 

accompanied by a map of the States, on a scale of 1:750,000, 

with a contour interval of 100 feet, was completed to be published as Bulletin No. 154.

Forestry work consisted principally in the superintendence of the examination of seven of the forest reserves established by order of President Cleveland February 22, 1897. 

The work was placed in charge of Mr. Gannett June 14, 1897, 

and under his instructions, the following field assistants were 

employed: E.Z. Graves, for the examination of the Black Hills, 

S. Dak.; F.S. Town, for the Bighorn Reserve, Wyo.; Dr. T.S. 

Brandegee, for the Teton Reserve and the southern portion of 

the Yellowstone Reserve; J.B. Leiberg, for the Priest River 

Reserve and the eastern portion of the Bitterroot Reserve; 

W.G. Steele and N.W. Gorman, for the eastern portion of the 

Washington Reserve, and H.B. Ayres, for the western portion, 

the line of division between them being the summit of the 

Cascade Divide.

Mr. Gannett’s movements during the field season were 

directed toward familiarizing himself, so far as possible, 

with the areas and the forest conditions of the regions under 

examination. For this purpose, he proceeded directly to the 

Pacific Coast in July and, after a short trip in the Mount 

Rainier Reserve, went up Lake Chelan to the upper waters of 

Stehekin River, in the Cascade Range. Here he spent a number 

of days before crossing the range. Going down to the coast 

by way of the Cascade and Skagit Rivers, he came east to the 

Black Hills. After visiting them, several days were spent on 

the examination of the Bighorn Mountains; then 3 days were 

devoted to the accessible portion of the Bitterroot Reserve, 

after which he returned to the Pacific Coast, reentering the 

Washington Reserve at Monte Cristo. Thence he proceeded 

to the San Jacinto Reserve, in Southern California, and spent 

several days in the examination of that and the other reserves 

in that part of the State. On his way, east a stop of several days 

was made at Las Vegas for the purpose of examining a proposed addition to that reserve in the neighborhood. Reports on 

the examinations mentioned have been prepared and published 

as part of the 19th Annual Report, 1897–98.

Division of Geography and Forestry

Henry Gannett, geographer of the Survey, continued in 

charge of the revision of the large map of the United States, 

and also gave consideration to such geographic matters as 

were referred to him.

Forestry examinations of the western reserves were 

continued during the field season and, during the winter and 

spring, reports were prepared on the results of the work done. 

These reports are presented in Part V of the 21st Annual 

Report, 1899 to 1900. During the progress of the surveys 

of Indian Territory, the woodlands were mapped with great 

accuracy, and notes were made by the surveyors concerning 

the character and quality of the timber. A map of the Territory 

on a small scale, with contours, showing the woodland, was 

prepared and issued, with an abstract of the surveyor’s notes, 

as a reconnaissance of the region. It was intended to supplement this as soon as means were provided, by an examination 

of the forests by experts.
Walcott Becomes Director 51

During fiscal years 1901 and 1902, Henry Gannett continued in charge of the Division of Geography and Forestry, 

and the examination of the forest reserves.

Mr. Gannett, during the summer of 1902, was personally 

engaged in examining conditions in Central Utah, from which 

region many requests for the establishment of small reserves 

had been made for the protection of the farming industry 

against overgrazing by sheep. An agreement with the sheep 

grazers and farmers was reached by which the entire mountain region of Utah, which constituted the summer range for 

sheep, would be reserved. It stipulated that in such portions 

of these reserves as contributed to the water supply of the 

agricultural settlements sheep grazing was to be prohibited; 

that the remaining portions of the reserves would be allotted 

to the various sheep owners for extended periods, and that the 

number of sheep to be grazed upon a unit of area would be 

restricted far below the usual number.

In the fall of 1902, Mr. Gannett went to the Philippines, 

where he was engaged in taking the census, and the work of 

the Division of Geography and Forestry was temporarily transferred to the Hydrographic Branch, in charge of F.H. Newell. 

On Mr. Gannett’s return, late in September 1903, he resumed 

charge of the Division.

During the spring of 1905, the work of examining forest 

reserves, etc., together with the men employed upon it, was 

transferred to the Bureau of Forestry of the Department of 

Agriculture.

As this closes the work of the Geological Survey in the 

examination of forest lands, it may be well to make a brief 

resume of the results accomplished. The work was committed 

to the Survey by act of Congress in 1897, and has therefore 

been carried on for 8 years. During this time the reserves in 

table 15 have been examined and reported on.

The names listed in table 15 are in most cases those 

which were in use at the time of the examination. Many of 

them have since been changed through consolidation.

Besides these reserves, large areas were examined with 

a view to the formation of new reserves, or their inclusion in 

existing reserves. The total area examined during the 8 years 

amounted to 110,000 square miles.

Henry Gannett continued in charge of the Division of 

Geography and Forestry during fiscal year 1906, and was 

occupied mainly with the following duties:

• Assisting the Forest Service, particularly in matters 

relating to the geography and topography and in the 

organization of its reserve force.

• His work as chairman of the Board on Geographic 

Names took considerable time, especially after the 

Presidential order of January 23, 1906, which extended 

materially the powers the Board.

• Much time was devoted to assisting the committee on 

Departmental methods, first in the investigation of the 

Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture, 

and second in the investigation in the departments and 

bureaus of the government of the organization for carrying on scientific and routine processes.

• The editing of the report of the Eighth International 

Geographic Congress, published by the Public Printer, 

required considerable time during the first 3 months of 

the year.

• An outline map of North America, on a scale of 

1:5,000,000, was completed and engraved. All the atlas 

sheets published by the Survey were reduced and made 

ready for the engraver. On the unsurveyed areas, the 

county lines and railroads were revised and are also 

ready for engraving.

The Division of Geography and Forestry was continued 

under the direction of Henry Gannett during fiscal year 1907. 

The principal results were:

• The revision of the three-sheet map of the United 

States on a scale of 1:2,500,000 was continued and 

good progress was made.

• The preparation of sheets, as part of the World-map 

scheme, on a scale of 1:1,000,000 was continued. 

Seven such sheets have been projected, and all 

available surveyed material has been added to them. 

Separate maps of Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, 

New Mexico, West Virginia, Virginia, Maryland, and 

Delaware have been drawn, embodying all available 

surveyed material.

• Preparation of maps of the national forests has been 

continued in the form of township plats. These plats 

were at first made on a scale of 2 inches to 1 mile, and 

each township was published as an individual map. In 

order to better meet the needs of the Forest Service, the 

Table 15. Reserves examined and reported on, 1897–1905.

Arizona Colorado—Continued Oregon

Black Mesa South Platte Ashland

San Francisco Mountain White River Cascade Range

California Idaho South Dakota

Lake Tahoe Priest River Black Hills

Plumas Idaho and Montana Washington:

San Bernardino Bitterroot Mount Rainier

San Gabriel Montana Olympic

San Jacinto Flathead Washington

Santa Barbara Lewis and Clark Wyoming

Sierra Little Belt Bighorn

Stanislaus Yellowstone (part) Teton

Yosemite Park New Mexico Yellowstone (part)

Colorado Gila River

Battlement Mesa Lincoln

Pikes Peak Oklahoma

Plum Creek Wichita
52 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

scale was changed afterwards to 1 inch to 1 mile, and 

six townships are published together on an atlas sheet, 

on which is shown the land, timber, and alienation 

classification by color and by symbols.

• Additions to national forests that had been completed 

necessitated many changes in the manuscripts.

• The preparation of “The Areas of the United States, the 

States, and the Territories,” published as Bulletin No. 

302, which is the result of cooperation between the 

Census, the General Land Office, and the Geological 

Survey, is an attempt to bring the figures of areas into 

accord.

• A list and descriptions of 100 atlas sheets illustrating 

topographic forms was prepared and published.

Mr. Gannett continued as chairman of the Geographic 

Board. Much work was done for this organization in the preparation of lists of all towns in the United States where the post 

office name differs from the town name, a matter that has been 

taken up with the Post Office Department, and in the preparation of sheets showing different conventional symbols used by 

Government offices for the representation of the same object. 

An effort will be made to have one set of symbols adopted for 

Government use.

From June 1907 to October 1908, Henry Gannett was 

furloughed for work on a census of Cuba. Upon his return to 

Washington, he was selected as geographer to the National 

Conservation Commission. As editor of the report of the 

National Conservation Commission, Mr. Gannett had charge 

of the most important stock-taking of natural resources ever 

undertaken by any government. It was a “doomsday book” 

of an entirely new order. The three volumes of this report 

furnished the basis for the formulation along constructive lines 

of public policies of far reaching value, and the report became, 

and continues to be, a veritable arsenal of information on the 

topics covered.

Thus, within less than half a century after Henry Gannett 

began his topographic work on the millions of unsurveyed 

acres of our national domain, he was called to act as statistician of a Conservation Commission dedicated to the work of 

saving from spoilation the seemingly inexhaustible natural 

resources which his surveys opened up to settlement.24

From June 1909, to his death on November 5, 1914, 

Henry Gannet was occupied with his duties as chairman of the 

U.S. Geographic Board. He also handled any general geographic work that was referred to him.

Idaho–Montana Boundary Line

The various activities of the Astronomic and Computing Section were increased when the Sundry Civil Bill was 

24 Henry Gannett, President, National Geographic Society by S.N. North, 

1915.

approved June 4, 1897, providing for a survey of the northern 

portion of the boundary line between Idaho and Montana. The 

line was to be the 39th meridian west of Washington, D.C., or 

116 degrees, 3 minutes, and 2.30 seconds west of Greenwich, 

northward from the crest of the Bitterroot Mountains to the 

boundary between the United States and British possessions, a 

distance of approximately 72 miles.25

To establish an initial point in the boundary, a belt of 

triangulation was extended from the Spokane base eastward 

over a longitudinal distance of about 70 miles. In spite of 

adverse weather conditions and smoke alternating with storms 

throughout the field seasons, E.T. Perkins, Jr., established 15 

triangulation stations, of which one was a little over a mile 

east, and the other about the same distance west of the boundary line, the two being about 16 miles apart. On the basis 

of computations that winter, it was necessary the following 

summer to traverse along the crest of the mountains a distance 

corresponding to 6,072 feet in longitude in order to locate the 

initial point on the meridian line. This traversing was done by 

Samuel S. Gannett assisted by Dewitt L. Reaburn; distances 

being measured by chain and checked by stadia, and directions 

being controlled by azimuth observations at the beginning 

and ending of the traverse line. (In 1897, Mr. Gannett had 

determined, by astronomic observations, the intersection of 

the 107th meridian with the Colorado–New Mexico boundary 

line.)

From the initial point, Mr. Reaburn traversed the random line northward. Horizontal and vertical distances were 

checked by the triangulation and the differences of elevation 

by the profiles of the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern 

Railroads. The distance run was about 72 miles, the number of 

transit stations 1,051, and number of azimuth stations 17. The 

entire line was in very rough country and snow was encountered on the high ridges. The survey of the random line was 

completed on October 31, 1898, in snow 2.5 feet deep.

An adjustment of the random line to the triangulation was 

made during the winter office season. Tables were prepared 

showing the exact offsets to be applied at each transit station 

to locate the true line, and all available data were plotted on 

sheets to be used in sketching the topography. It then remained 

to establish the monuments on the true line, to cut out and 

blaze the line, to secure data for the preparation of the final 

map, and also to remeasure with the steel tape the northern 

section of the line, a distance of about 6 miles. Mr. Reaburn 

organized a party at Leonia, Idaho, June 15, and completed 

the work on October 5, 1899. That winter, in Washington, the 

map was drawn to the scale of 1 mile to 1 inch with 100-foot 

contours, and four copies of the notes and plats were prepared 

for filing; one with the General Land Office, one each in the 

offices of the Surveyor General of Idaho and of Montana, and 

one to be retained by the U.S. Geological Survey.

25 Survey Bulletins on boundaries no. 13 (1885); no. 171 (1900); no. 226 

(1904); no. 689 (1923); no. 817 (1930).
Walcott Becomes Director 53

Northwest Boundary Survey

At the request of the Department of State, E.C. Barnard, 

topographer, was detailed in 1901 to make certain surveys and 

investigations of the boundary between the United States and 

Canada, extending westward from the summit of the Rocky 

Mountains, and he was to cooperate with C.H. Sinclair of 

the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The object of the work of the 

joint parties being (1) to clearly define and temporarily mark 

the boundary in three localities where there was considerable 

uncertainty as to the line; and (2) to make an examination of 

the whole line and report upon its existing condition in conjunction with three geologic parties.

Having agreed that work should start in the westernmost 

locality, (the Mount Baker mining district) Messrs. Barnard 

and Sinclair, with an outfit using 20 pack horses, approached 

the line from Chilliwack, British Columbia, a station on the 

Canadian Pacific, on May 22, 1901, and from a camp on 

Silica Creek found and identified an old astronomic observatory post used by the Northwest Boundary Commission of 

1856 to 1860. From this point a transit line was extended 

carefully southwest a distance of about three-quarters of a 

mile to the supposed position of the boundary line, and after 

diligent search, a mound of stones was discovered, which was 

identified as a boundary monument by a cut in a nearby rock, 

corresponding in distance and bearing with those given in the 

records of the Boundary Commission.

Accepting the latitude of the astronomic point as determined by the Commission and verified by Mr. Sinclair, the 

measurements made by Messrs. Barnard and Sinclair gave the 

position of the rock mound as about 7 feet north of the 49th 

parallel. From points on the east and west tangent through the 

rock mound, as determined by an observed azimuth, offsets 

were made to the boundary line. Vistas were cut and iron posts 

were set over a distance of more than 2 miles. This was the 

locality in which there were many disputes, and it was impracticable to extend the line any farther as snow lay deep on the 

summits to the east and west.

Messrs. Barnard and Sinclair arrived, via the Canadian 

Pacific Railroad, at Midway, the second locality, on June 27. 

The next day they visited a Canadian boundary party camped 

in the vicinity, under Mr. O’Hara, who stated that he had been 

instructed to open the boundary line between existing monuments from Midway westward and also to make a topographic 

map of a strip of territory 10 miles in width on the Canadian 

side of the line. Messrs. Barnard and Sinclair surveyed and cut 

out the boundary line from Midway to Grand Forks, a distance 

of about 16 miles, and inspected the monuments for an additional 6 miles farther eastward to Cascade. The uncertainty in 

the stretch between Midway and Grand Forks was due to the 

existence of two lines; the old astronomic line that was cut out, 

but on which the monuments had been torn down, though not 

removed and the mean parallel, which was defined by monuments but only partially cut out. The uncertainty was removed 

by the Barnard-Sinclair party clearly and distinctly cutting out 

the line defined by the monuments on the mean parallel.

The third locality was north of Montana and the combined party reached Phillips, British Columbia, a point on the 

boundary line, on August 14, traveling by wagon from Elko on 

the Canadian Pacific Railroad. From a monument near Phillips, the line was surveyed and cut out eastward to Wigwam, 

another station on the old boundary survey, a distance of 

13 miles, and westward to a point about 4 miles west of the 

Kootenai River. The field work was completed on October 14.

Photographs were taken of all old marks and all new 

monuments and a topographic map was made on a scale of 

1:45,000 with 100-foot contours. The total of the work in the 

three localities was: the determination of the latitude of 9 stations; the clearing out and surveying of 42 miles of line; the 

rebuilding of 5 monuments and setting of 9 iron posts; and the 

mapping of 164 square miles along the axis of the line.

River Surveys

In March 1902, arrangements were made whereby 

surveys of certain rivers upon which hydrographic investigations were in progress were to be made under the direction of 

Herbert M. Wilson, Geographer-in-Charge of the Eastern Section of topography. The Survey, since April, 1891, had been 

making measurements of stream flow of eastern rivers. The 

measurements included profiles based on the annual reports 

of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, as well as railroad 

profiles and Geological Survey maps. The profiles differed 

from one another greatly in accuracy, as the elevations used 

were derived from level lines and barometric readings, and 

were shown on the very small scales of 100 miles to 1 inch 

for horizontal distance and 2,000 feet to 1 inch for vertical 

distance.26 These scales were maintained for low country and 

mountainous streams alike, in order that comparisons between 

the different rivers might be made directly.

Approval being given to the operations of the Hydrographic Division by the 100 percent increase in its appropriation for the fiscal year 1903, the Division was expanded into 

the Hydrographic Branch. One of its earliest endeavors was to 

improve the river surveys so they might render a greater service. The arrangement in 1903 provided that the Topographic 

Branch would have entire charge of the surveys, their supervision and administration; be charged only with one-half of the 

expense of surveying the areas not yet mapped topographically; and retain custody of the notes and maps.

Mr. Wilson designated Wm. O. Tufts, topographic aid, to 

organize the first party for surveys of certain rivers in Georgia, 

and J.R. Eakin, topographic aid, to organize a party for surveys of certain rivers in Georgia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. After several weeks of training, these parties were turned 

over to Fred A. Franck and Carroll Caldwell. Field and office 

supervision was assigned to W. Carval Hall, assisted by G.H. 

Guerdru, both topographers.

River surveys totaled 733 miles in Georgia, Tennessee, North and South Carolina; in Wisconsin, 42 miles of the 

26 U.S.Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 44, Henry Gannett, 1901.
54 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Chippewa River, surveyed by F.T. Fitch, field assistant, after 

James R. Ellis had extended level lines to supply elevations in 

Maine; 135 miles of the Kennebec River, surveyed by Alvah 

T. Fowler, topographic aid, assisted by Frank J. MacMaugh 

and F.T. Fitch, field assistants, after Mr. Fowler had extended 

the line of levels. After the field season, Messrs. Franck, 

Caldwell, and Fitch were retained in the Washington office for 

several months, inking the maps, plotting profiles, and writing 

reports.

The field manuscripts were plotted on the scale of 

1:22,500 and the profiles were drawn on the horizontal scale 

of 1 inch to 1 mile, and vertical scale of 1 inch to 100 feet. The 

maps were not published, but the profiles and tables of elevations and distances were published in Water-Supply Paper 115. 

The cooperation was discontinued at the end of 1903, as the 

surveys, made primarily as parts of topographic maps, did not 

present all of the engineering features of the water power sites 

desired by the Survey hydrographers and cooperating state 

engineers.

Grand Canyon Maps, Arizona

With the completion, in 1901, by the Santa Fe System of 

the 67-mile spur railroad from Williams, Ariz., to Grand Canyon, replacing the stage lines from Williams and Flagstaff, an 

increase in visitors to the Canyon was assured, and a demand 

was foreseen by the U.S. Geological Survey for a modern 

detailed map of the Grand Canyon for the information of the 

public and scientists. The map in existence had been made in 

the early 1880’s, under the direction of Major Powell, and was 

of the reconnaissance type, on a small scale.

The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River is a complex 

chasm 225 miles long as measured along the course of the 

river, from 4,000 feet to 6,000 feet in depth, and from 6 miles 

to more than 12 miles in width. Between its outer rims is a 

bewildering array of immense buttes or “temples”, colored 

cliffs, pinnacles, domes, amphitheaters, and many partly 

hidden side canyons. The outer walls are, in reality, a series 

of walls and terraces, the walls of distinctive coloring and 

extending unbroken for many miles. In a few places, where 

walls had been shattered by geologic faulting, trails had been 

built from the south rim down to the river. Only one trail, the 

Bass-Shinumo Trail, led from the river to the north rim. Thus, 

the Grand Canyon offered a greater obstacle to travel than any 

mountain range in the United States.

Two standard 15-minute quadrangles, Bright Angel and 

Vishnu, were to be mapped. F.E. Matthes was assigned the 

topographic mapping, and horizontal and vertical control were 

ready for him.

Early in 1902, H.L. Baldwin, Jr., extended triangulation 

northward from the primary triangulation net already existing in Central Arizona, occupying Bill Williams Mountain, 

several peaks north of the Santa Fe Railway, Red Butte on 

the Coconino Plateau, and projecting capes on the south rim 

of the canyon. In 1903, J.T. Stewart strengthened the system, 

occupied 10 stations on the north rim and controlled, in all, 

seven 15-minute quadrangles. Timber along much of the 

canyon rims made it necessary to resort to heliotroping for 

sighting from the peaks south of the canyon. Stations along the 

canyon rims were marked, if in timber areas, by tripods 12 feet 

high, if outside timber areas, by rock cairns 6 feet in diameter 

and 7 feet high, both kinds of signals covered with white cloth 

and displaying a white flag.

Starting in 1902, and continuing in 1903, J.T. Stewart 

extended a line of primary levels from a bench mark at Williams on the precise level line along the Santa Fe Railway 

and the Grand Canyon Railroad to the triangulation station 

on Hopi Point, down the Cameron Trail to the river, eastward by road through the woods to Grand View Point, for the 

control of the Bright Angel Quadrangle; farther eastward by 

road to the triangulation station on Comanche Point, down to 

the river along the Hance Trail, for the control of the Vishnu 

Quadrangle.

In leveling down the steep canyon trails, levelmen found 

it necessary, for long stretches, to set up the instrument in the 

trail and take back sights of 6 feet or less; and the canyon heat 

in summer, showing a minimum of 96 degrees some days, 

shrunk the level bubble to the vanishing point in mid-day and 

made the instrument and the ground too hot to touch.

The mapping required two radically different topographic 

methods. The plateaus back from the canyon rims, with an 

undulating surface of slight relief and devoid of commanding 

view points, lent themselves to the planetable traverse method. 

Control traverses were extended along the rims, over the few 

wagon roads and trails, in circuits of a dozen miles or less. 

Then these circuits were crossed by stadia traverses and to fill 

in the small unmapped areas mostly in densely wooded areas. 

Traverses were executed by pacing and observing elevations 

on an aneroid.

The Grand Canyon was filled with sharply sculptured 

buttes and walls, and since these were inaccessible, and the 

side canyons between them so remote as to render travel to 

them impracticable, mapping by long distance intersection 

was necessary. From the easily reached stations along the 

south rim, hundreds of square miles were mapped at distances 

between 2 and 6 miles. Defiladed portions here and there 

remained to be completed by planetable stations and traverses 

in the lower parts of the chasm.

The large size planetable, 24 by 31 inches, was required 

for each quadrangle and the intersection work was executed 

on the large covering main sheet. Sight lines were drawn to 

all salient features as it was found necessary to locate 40 to 

135 points in a square mile. Elevations for one-third of them 

were determined by vertical angles with a possible error of 

5 feet. Sight lines were not numbered with descriptions in a 

notebook, but were tagged on the map sheet with brief form 

lines which were approximately in place and could be shifted 

into position when the intersections were completed by “cuts” 

from a second table station.

Hundreds of sight lines were made from a single station; 

from Grand View Point, for instance, they numbered 1,214. 
Walcott Becomes Director 55

The method of marking the sight lines ensured their identification and was a guarantee against loss, for some were not cut 

in for months, even a year, afterwards. All vertical angles, on 

the other hand, were recorded in a notebook and the elevations 

copied on an oversheet, an 8 by 10-1/2 ruled tablet paper, or 

a piece of tracing paper a little larger than a 5-minute block, 

each elevation exactly over the needle-sized plot marking the 

intersected point to which it belonged. The map sheet thus was 

not cluttered up with figures of elevations, and the oversheet 

was a complete record of elevations.

A short time after starting the mapping, in the summer of 

1902, Mr. Matthes experimented with the delineation of the 

Zoroaster Temple and sent a tracing of it to Washington with 

recommendations, which were approved. Instead of 100-foot 

contour lines, which would not show some of the lesser cliffs, 

50-foot contours would be used to adequately express all the 

topographic elements of consequence. However, the resulting map would be so crowded with lines that it could not be 

reduced to the scale of publication (1:62,500); therefore, an 

exception was made for the Grand Canyon maps and they 

would be published on the field scale (1:46,000).

Further, two established customs in cartography were 

changed. Because of the prevailing parallelism of the cliff 

patterns, in each of which a number of contours merge to form 

a band, the fifth contour would not be accentuated, but would 

be distinguished by a broken line. Also, because the fifth lines 

often are concealed for considerable distance in cliff bands, 

elevation figures would be put on intermediate contour lines, 

wherever necessary for clarity. These innovations compelled 

the topographers to furnish field maps of sufficient accuracy 

neatness to serve, unreduced, as copy for the engraver, and 

involved the most painstaking kind of drafting, first in pencil, 

and later in ink.

In the late summer of 1902, the survey had to be moved 

across to the north rim. The unfordable Colorado River was 

unbridged for a stretch of 800 miles, from Grand Junction on 

the Denver and Rio Grande to the Needles on the Santa Fe 

line. To be sure, there was Lee’s Ferry, situated at the head of 

the Marble Gorge, but to reach it would require slow travel 

across about 100 miles of the Painted Desert of the Navajo’s, 

and beyond the ferry another 100 miles of rough and waterless 

wagon trails.

Bright Angel Canyon, in full view from Grand Canyon 

Station, seemed to offer a direct route for travel to the north 

rim, but old timers declared it to be impassable for animals. It 

was decided, therefore, to try the Bass Trail, about 30 miles to 

the west, although it had been constructed as an aid to mining 

and was not intended for pack animals larger than a burro. Mr. 

Bass had a boat at the river and offered it’s use. A member of 

the party was familiar with the trail as he had already traveled 

over it afoot to erect a signal on Point Sublime.

By removing the packs and saddles from the horses and 

mules the party managed to get them by the overhanging cliffs 

on the trail. Then, arriving at the foot of the trail, they succeeded in leading them, again unloaded and unsaddled, down 

the remaining 100 feet of rock slide to the river, pushing them 

one at a time head first into the water and towing them safely 

across, all 10 of them. All the equipment and supplies were 

carried by the men themselves down the rock slide and ferried 

across the river in the small boat, which had been moored on 

the north side and was brought across by two members of the 

party who swam across to get it.

For two long weary days the party followed a little-used 

and partly washed out trail out of the heated chasm to the rim 

of the Kaibab Plateau (about 7,900 feet), which was cool and 

covered with a beautiful forest. This isolated plateau in the 

northwest corner of Arizona contained, in summer, one forest 

ranger and his small family, and herds of cattle, which were 

driven in by cowboys in the spring and out in the fall, and also 

herds of deer, which in the fall were hunted for buckskin by 

Paiute Indians. In the winter, the plateau was vacant, as the 

snow was deep. It took the party 5 days to make the journey from Grand Canyon Station to Point Sublime, an airline 

distance of 11.5 miles. It was decided that the packer would 

go for mail and supplies to Kanab, Utah, 80 miles to the north, 

and he made that trip on horseback with one pack mule twice 

each month.

Extending the work eastward, the first of November 

found the party at the head of Bright Angel Canyon, when 

two haggard prospectors and a worn out burro climbed out of 

the canyon. They allowed that a pack train might get through, 

so on Sunday, November 9, a day before the first heavy snow 

as it turned out, the Survey party broke camp and started 

on its adventurous return trip. In the milder climate below, 

the party tarried several days in order to map the canyon. In 

the descent to the river, where fortunately a boat was found, 

Bright Angel Creek had to be crossed 106 times by wading to 

knee depth. On the south side of the river, the dangerous climb 

of 1,500 feet up over the burro trail to the Tonto Terrace was 

accomplished without losing an animal.

Mr. Matthes was assigned the mapping of the Jerome, 

Ariz., Quadrangle that winter and returned to the Canyon 

in the summer of 1903. That fall R.T. Evans, who had been 

associated with Mr. Matthes on the Jerome work, upon the 

completion of his mapping at Cripple Creek, Colo., was sent 

to the Canyon to help finish the two quadrangles. He accompanied Mr. Matthes to the north rim via Bright Angel Creek, two 

members of the party first packing down a light steel boat, specially made in two parts for packing on muleback, by which to 

make the crossings on the river. The stay on the north rim was 

for the month of October only. From camps on Walhalla Plateau, Mr. Matthes continued intersection work from points on 

the rim, while Mr. Evans mapped the park-like plateau itself 

by extending numerous stadia traverses across it.

Particularly interesting was the successful heliotroping 

on October 25 from 1 to 2 p.m. from the triangulation station 

on Cap Royal to Mount Kendrick, one of an array of peaks 

across the Canyon to the south and distance about 50 miles. 

J.T. Stewart, triangulator, had requested that this be done 

when, more than a month before, he sent a schedule of his 

movements.
56 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

On the return trip the steep climb up from the river to 

the Tonto Terrace was marred by tragedy. One pack mule, 

crowded by another on a narrow zigzag of the burro trail, 

slipped off and rolled over and over, pack and all, down 

several hundred feet to a rocky ledge, barely missing other 

animals, and men too, in the descent.

On the south rim, a few remaining blank spaces on the 

map in the neighborhood of Grandview, were filled in spite 

of the first snowfalls of winter. Then came the long-planned 

expedition to the northeast corner of the Vishnu Quadrangle, 

an isolated section north of the Little Colorado River with 

elevation a thousand feet lower than the south rim, and consequently with milder weather in November. Five men made 

up the party and they traveled with a camp wagon drawn 

by four animals, the men walking part of the way and later 

working on foot.

The morning of the third day, the Little Colorado River 

was forded without much trouble at Cameron’s Crossing and, 

by the end of the fourth day, a Navajo Indian had guided the 

party to the “Hogan”, the Indian name for the rock cairn that 

stood over the triangulation point “6141.” Camp was set up 

and the teamster, “Pa” Johnson, unhitched the animals from 

the wagon and, riding one, took them back to the Willow 

Springs Trading Post, the nearest water and feed.

The work was completed in the estimated time, as the 

weather did not interfere and, with the animals returned as prearranged, the return journey was begun. Camp was set up the 

first night at Willow Springs Trading Post, and the next day 

being Thanksgiving, it was celebrated by a visit to Tuba City 

Indian Agency, the wagon going around by road while Evans, 

Elliott, and Oliver took a trail that was several miles shorter, 

but through sand that was ankle deep.

There still remained enough field work for the month 

of December, sections of the Tonto Terrace and most of the 

granite gorge from the foot of the tourist trail downstream to 

the west edge of the Bright Angel Quadrangle were incomplete. The gorge is 900 to 1,300 feet deep and from 1,300 to 

2,600 feet wide at the top, which culminates in the 200-foot 

Tonto Cliff. From stations along this cliff (the rim of the Tonto 

Terrace) most of the river and gorge can be readily mapped by 

intersections.

Indian Garden and Hermit Creek offered convenient 

camp sites and the weather was mild. Snow rarely reaches 

into the depths of the Grand Canyon at the Tonto Terrace, nor 

does ice form. One-half square mile of the Tonto Terrace on 

the north side of the river between Crystal and Tuna Creeks, 

abutting the west edge of the quadrangle, could not be satisfactorily obtained by intersection. It was necessary to cover 

it with stadia traverses. So, when light enough to see, Evans 

and Philips, a rodman, left the tent of Louis Boucher, prospector, hiked the 1-1/4 miles down the boulder strewn bed of 

Boucher Creek, and then in Boucher’s crude bateau glided 

down the river 1-3/4 miles to Crystal Creek. A break in the 

Tonto Cliff enabled them to complete the 900-foot climb up 

from Crystal Creek to the Tonto Terrace; the mapping was 

completed in the afternoon, then the return trip was made 

before dark.

Reorganization

The Topographic Branch, on May 1, 1903, the date on 

which the new manual of “Instructions” took effect, was reorganized for administrative purposes into two divisions (table 16).

Mr. Goode died on June 9, 1903 and, as a consequence, several changes occurred, effective July 1. The Director then resumed 

the active chairmanship of the Topographic Committee. Consolidation resulted in the reorganization show in table 17.

The two divisions of topography included jointly three 

sections, the chiefs of which reported to the Topographic 

Committee (table 18).

In addition to the above, the eastern and western divisions 

of topography were each subdivided into several sections composed of one or more states, each section in charge of topographers acting as section chiefs. This organization with slight 

changes became permanent April 27, 1904 (table 19).

Table 16. Reorganization of the Topographic Branch, May 1, 

1903.

Division of topography Geographer-in-charge

Atlantic Section H.M. Wilson

Central Section J.H. Renshawe

Rocky Mountain Section E.M. Douglas

Pacific Section R.U. Goode

Triangulation and Computing Section S.S. Gannett

Division of Geography and Forestry Henry Gannett

Table 17. Reorganization of the Topographic 

Branch, July 1, 1903.

Division of topography Geographer-in-charge

Eastern H.M. Wilson

Western E.M. Douglas

Geography and Forestry Henry Gannett

Table 18. Topographic divisions.

Division Personnel in charge

Section of Triangulation and ComputingS.S. Gannett, Geographer

Section of Inspection of Topographic 

Surveying and Mapping

J.H. Renshawe, Geographer

Section of Instruments and Topographic RecordsS.A. Aplin, Topographer
Walcott Becomes Director 57

Survey Pennant and Button

R.H. Chapman designed the Survey flag in 1903. On 

March 1, 1904, E.M. Douglas, Geographer-in-Charge of the 

Western Division, requested F.E. Matthes to design a Survey 

button that would be worn on coats used by topographers on 

field duty as a mark of identification and distinction.

The buttons were soon available to topographers, as 

well as a Survey pennant bearing the same design, for display over all Survey camps, beneath the American flag. This 

practice was prescribed by Col. H.C. Rizer, Chief Clerk as 

Acting Director, in a memorandum which read in part:

“With reference to a suitable flag for the use of the 

U.S. Geological Survey, I have approved, in accordance with the recommendations of a majority of the 

members of the Survey, a design consisting of a blue 

rectangular flag with white triangle, cross hammers 

and thirteen stars, in which the hammers extend 

beyond the sides of the triangle (fig. 17).

“It is hereby directed that the chiefs of all Survey 

camping parties shall fly the U.S. flag and the Survey ensign from their camps at all times.”

The Survey buttons were worn by field men until they 

wore the uniform of the U.S. Army in 1917 and 1918.

Twenty-Fifth Anniversary

The 25th anniversary of the Survey happened to fall near the date set for the opening of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition 

at St. Louis, and it was deemed desirable to 

include in the Survey’s exhibit, for the information of the visiting public, a small bulletin (No. 227) setting forth an account of the 

organization and work of the Survey, and the 

results it had achieved. The following items 

are selected from the bulletin:

 The first appropriation made March 3,

 1879................................$106,000

 The appropriation for fiscal year end-

 ing June 30, 1904...............1,377,820

 The permanent force of the Survey in

 1879–80........................39 persons

The field force of the Survey was 

increased by seasonal employees in each of 

the three Branches: Geologic by 50, Topographic by 200, and Hydrographic by 250, 

thus bringing the total number of employees 

up to about 1,200 during the field season of 

1903.

To the Federal appropriation for topographic mapping for the fiscal year ending 

June 30, 1904, was added $105,750 by 11 states with the 

areas mapped by April 30, 1904 (table 20).

On Saturday evening, April 2, 1904, the Survey celebrated it’s 25th anniversary with a banquet at Rauscher’s, 

and the Secretary of the Interior, Ethan Allen Hitchcock, 

the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, Director 

Walcott, and the branch chiefs were the speakers.

Speaker Joseph G. Cannon said, among other things:

“I came here 30 years ago and there were the great 

geologists and scientists—King, Hayden, and Powell—that man of courage, wisdom, and endurance. I 

cannot speak of Major Powell without a tear coming 

to my eye * * *. With all these needs in front of it, 

the Geological Survey has its hands full. So buckle 

on your armor and go forth to further work, for 

there is plenty to do, and you are the men to do it, 

especially when you are backed up by such women 

as I see before me.”

The menu was an attractive feature, depending upon geologic terms to convey the sense of the feast that was offered. 

The walls of the banquet hall were decorated with American 

flags interspersed with humorous colored drawings of the 

principal officers of the Survey.

Table 19. Organization and number of persons employed on March 3, 1904.

[--, unknown]

Branch Division/Section Persons Appropriations

Administrative Executive/Correspondence, records, 

supplies, etc. 

14 --

Steam engineer, mechanics, messengers 

etc.

43 --

Disbursements and Accounts 14 --

Library 9 $94,640

Geologic Geological and Paleontological Surveys 67 163,700

Chemical, Physical, etc. researches 49 37,000

Alaskan Mineral investigations, -- 60,000

Topographic Eastern, Western, Triangulation -- 309,200

Inspection and Geography and Forestry 92 --

Surveying Forest Reservations 5 130,000

Hydrographic Hydrography–Hydrology 46 --

Reclamation Service (16 arid states and 

territories)

187 200,000

Publication Editorial Texts, Maps, Illustrations, 35 68,280

Engraving and Printing 85 100,000

Documents (disbursed by Public Printer) 12 215,000

 Total 658 1,377,820
58 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Suggestions and Awards

The following circular letter, dated December 8, 1905, 

was received by Survey employees:

“The Director has approved a recommendation that 

hereafter credit be given in some formal manner to 

employees of the Survey for suggestions or inventions which tend to improve the work, lessen its 

cost, or otherwise benefit the service. These suggestions may concern field or office work, forms of 

accounting, or clerical features.

“In a few instances in the past, valuable suggestions 

have been given recognition through more rapid 

promotion, and it is hoped that in the future many 

suggestions or inventions may be offered of such 

merit as to deserve similar action.

“It is now proposed to give credit by honorable 

mention in the Annual Reports of the Survey to 

those who have, during the year, proposed changes 

of sufficient value be adopted, in the judgment of a 

competent committee.”

Annual Report No. 28 (1906–07) gave honorable mention to:

Lewis F. Biggs, Levelman—for a useful method for 

checking rod readings, adapted to the yard rods used with 

precise level lines, consisting of a series of graduations in feet 

on the back of the rods.

Albert O. Burkland, assistant topographer—a combination 

of the short-sight alidade with the ordinary boxwood plotting 

scale, the resulting device being a light alidade at one-half the 

cost of the all-metal instrument, and also a convenient plotting 

scale.

Harry L. Baldwin, Jr., 

topographer—to plot primary 

and secondary traverse lines on 

10 times the desired scale on 

a separate piece of paper, and 

then to connect the terminal 

or controlling points by a 

straight line that can be readily 

transferred to the proper place 

on the map by means of two 

triangles, and at the same time 

reduced in length by 10.

Glenn S. Smith, 

topographer—a movable 

arm for holding the compass 

on a traverse planetable 

board, which permits easy 

adjustment for changed 

declinations.

The Beaman Arc

The Beaman Arc 

(fig. 18) was developed by 

W.M. Beaman, topographer, from 1896 to 1904, and it greatly 

facilitated the execution of stadia surveys.

It was one of the earliest and most useful improvements 

to the alidade and measured vertical angles in steps instead of 

degrees, simplifying the computation of elevation differences 

when used with stadia distances. The steps were graduated in 

sequence above and below the level line, and varied in magnitude from 34.38 minutes for level sights to 69.77 minutes for 

sights 30 degrees above or below the horizon. When the index 

was set exactly on a Beaman Arc division, the elevation difference along the line of sight was obtained by multiplying the 

stadia intercept on a vertical rod by the number of steps above 

or below the horizontal, a simple and easy field computation. 

The size of the steps compensated for the distance discrepancies because of the inclination of the line of sight, and the fact 

that the stadia rod was not at right angles to the line of sight. 

The Beaman Arc included a scale expressed in percent for 

converting stadia distances on inclined sights to corresponding 

true horizontal distances.

Although it has been modified considerably in details, 

the Beaman Arc is still used in 1954 on alidades and on many 

engineers transits. To the alidade, an auxiliary bubble has been 

added to level the arc assembly without leveling the telescope, 

and the arc was changed from the drum type to the conventional 

flat form, although the scales remained the same. Later, a small 

magnifying glass was attached for quicker and more accurate 

reading. The last modification provided a separate bearing for 

the arc, independent of the telescope, to eliminate motion of the 

arc when the telescope was raised or lowered in sighting.27

27 “An Alidade Development in G.S.,” by C.S. Maltby and J.L. Buckmaster, 

Topographic Division Bulletin, March 1954.

Table 20. Appropriations and areas mapped, April 30, 1904.

State State cooperating official 

or agency

Allotment

Square miles 

mapped in 

year

Area of state mapped

Square miles Percent

Alabama Geologist $1,000 90 17,534 33

California Engineering Department 10,000 2,532 67,148 42.4

Kentucky Geological Department 5,500 824 12,727 30

Louisiana Experiment Station 1,500 486 7,003 14

Maryland Geologist 750 53 9,835 80

Maine Survey Commission 2,500 221 6,122 18

Michigan Geologist 1,700 550 3,014 5

Ohio Governor 28,800 2,942 9,529 23

New York Engineer and Surveyor 19,000 2,747 33,871 69

Pennsylvania Survey Commission 15,000 1,052 15,422 34

West Virginia Geologist 20,000 1,394 20,945 84

Area in 20 other states mapped 13,818

 Total 105,750 26,709

Area of United States mapped (27 percent including Alaska).................................31

The rate of mapping of the country, on steadily larger scales, by the Topographic Branch had progressed:

During first year (1879–80) on scale of 1:250,000.............................................3,400 square miles

During last full year (1902–03) on scales of 1:125,000 and 1:62,500..............31,000 square miles
Walcott Becomes Director 59

The Baldwin Solar Chart

Early in the mapping operations of the Geological Survey, an urgent need developed for some means to orient the 

planetable, an instrument used in graphic traverses, when used 

through areas where the compass needle does not serve. To 

meet this need, the “Solar Azimuth Chart” was designed by 

D.H. Baldwin, topographer, in 1908; it worked as a sun dial 

with a movable vertical gnomon.

During the years of practical application of the chart 

to work in the field, experience has indicated some desirable changes in the original design. From time to time, these 

changes have been incorporated into subsequent editions of the 

chart, but the principle upon which it works remains the same.

The primary purpose of the Solar Chart is to mark 

direction; therefore, it is logical to use a ruler with a vertical 

shadow-casting gnomon, because angles of direction are measured around the vertical plumb line as an axis. For an observation at a given time and place, two points must be found on 

the chart—the sun-time point, and the pivot point. These two 

points are to be set in line with the shadow of the gnomon and 

the chart will then be oriented.

The 1943 edition of the original solar chart contains new 

features providing for its use at latitudes numerically greater 

than 30 degrees in Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The 

Tropic Supplement, which was made available in 1943, is for 

use between latitudes 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south.28

Government Employees Mutual Benefit 

Association

Topographic aids, as well as other Civil Service appointees, often took the advice of older associates and bought 

insurance policies covering life, health, and accident. The 

20-year-pay life insurance policy was considered a good 

investment. Temporary employees, such as recorders, rodmen, teamsters, and cooks, as a rule, did not carry any form of 

insurance.

Government regulations required that the pay of a civilian employee stop immediately if he became incapacitated for 

work by reason of death, injury, or sickness. As the outdoor 

work was healthful, sickness and accident, in spite of hazards, 

rarely marred a field season for many survey parties.

However in 1904, in West Virginia, a levelman fell ill 

with typhoid fever and died. The topographer in charge of 

field parties in the states, Albert M. Walker, was so moved by 

the evident financial distress in the case that in the following 

winter in Washington he campaigned among his associates for 

some form of protection for the temporary field employees 

that would compensate them for expenses and loss of time, 

and would be more effective than the limited assistance that 

the chief and other members of the party might be able to 

28 “The Baldwin Solar Chart,” by D.H. Baldwin, published in Photogrammetric Engineering Journal, v. X, no. 2, April, May, June 1944.

render. His associates lined up in support, for they wanted 

such protection for themselves as well. The result was the 

organization of the Government Employees Mutual Benefit 

Association by members of the Geological Survey, the Forest 

Service, and the Reclamation Service.

The business of the Association was placed in the hands 

of a Governing Committee. The committee prepared application blanks for membership and had them ready a month in 

advance of the opening date, June 1, 1905. Any permanent or 

temporary employee could join the association by paying an 

admission fee of $1.00 and a premium of $1.00 per month or 

semi-annually in advance. The policy provided for:

• Loss of time not to exceed $150 in any 12-month 

period.

• Doctor bills, medicines, hospital expenses, $100 in any 

12-month period.

• In case of death, not to exceed $600; if at home a cash 

payment of $200 for funeral expenses.

Chiefs of parties were instructed to urge all temporary 

assistants to apply for the insurance and to explain to them 

that if disabled by sickness or injury, certainly if for as long 

as a week, their pay would stop, and that the chief of party 

would not feel called upon to assume any responsibility of 

their support or care in view of the opportunity so cheaply 

offered through an organization created by the Survey for their 

protection.

The first annual report of the Committee, dated January 6, 

1906, stated that the Association had 177 members, and that a 

credit dividend would be available at the end of 1906 to those 

who remained in good standing. One member died, Herbert B. 

Blair, topographer, on December 28, 1905, and three members 

received indemnities.

The Association was 3-years old when Congress passed 

the Act of May 30, 1908, (35 Stat. 556), granting compensation, if injured in the course of employment, to any person 

employed by the United States as an artisan or laborer in 

various construction work of a hazardous nature, particularly 

under the Isthmian Canal Commission, or other employee 

engaged in any hazardous work under the Bureau of Mines or 

the Forest Service.

Survey Order No. 13, dated June 29, 1912, directed that 

all accidents to employees be reported on Department of Commerce and Labor Form CA–21, even though Survey employees were not entitled to compensation under the Act of May 

30, 1908.

Protection against loss of pay was extended to all civil 

employees, permanent and temporary, of the United States 

by the Federal Compensation Act of September 7, 1916, 

which provided compensation for injuries sustained in the 

performance of duty that cause disability to perform work for 

a period of more than 3 days. The act also provided for the 

payment of certain expenses incurred for medical and hospital 

attention resulting from such injuries.
60 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Chiefs of parties were supplied with a copy of “Regulations concerning the duties of employees, official supervisors, medical officers, and others”, a printed list showing 

the location of all designated medical offices, hospitals, and 

dispensaries, and blank forms for reporting injuries and filing 

claims for compensation. In case an employee was injured 

in a section of the country where no U.S. medical officer or 

hospital was located, and there was no physician designated 

in the printed list for that vicinity, a local physician might be 

employed. In the latter case, full explanation was exacted.

The Act of September 7, 1916, provided no benefits for 

sickness not caused by injuries. Such cases continued to look 

for relief to the Mutual Benefit Association.

It was not until June 6, 1924, that an amendment to the 

act was approved, providing that compensation shall be paid 

for occupational diseases or “any disease proximately caused 

by the employment.”

The Harrison Letter

Making the field surveys and drafting a topographic map 

in the office did not always add up to a 12-month’s cycle of a 

happy, creative occupation. There were hardships and disappointments. A recital of some of these was contained in a 

topographer’s letter and cited as grievances against his Chief, 

Herbert M. Wilson, Geographer-in-Charge of the Eastern 

Division.

The topographer, Dabney C. Harrison, a Virginian with 

an A.B. from Hampden Sidney College, with 2 years of teaching school and 3 years with the Mexican National Railroad, 

had been appointed to the Survey on June 27, 1885, and had 

been chief of party in topographic surveys since 1889. A 

nervous condition led to an extended absence from April 1902 

to April 1904 for treatments in a sanitarium. Upon recovery, 

he was reemployed in the Eastern Division. Soon he developed a dislike for Mr. Wilson that became an obsession; he 

blamed him for the misfortunes, real and fancied, that seemed 

to plague him.

Mr. Harrison’s grievances included: A last minute change 

in his field assignment to a less important quadrangle where 

the living conditions were more difficult, the change necessitating a hurried shift in the disposition of his family; a transfer 

late in the field season from his almost finished quadrangle to 

another one, causing him embarrassment and extra personal 

expense; ambiguous and contradictory instructions, at one 

time to hurry the field surveys so as to make them cost as little 

as possible, at another time to get all the topographic detail 

carefully and accurately; unfair treatment in not being made 

a strawboss; and sundry acts of broken faith and persecution. 

The letter was presented to the Director on Saturday, December 15, 1906.

Director Walcott, after deep consideration, set up a committee of three as a Trial Board to hear and weigh the charges: 

Henry Gannett, Colonel Rizer, Chief Clerk, and George Otis 

Smith, geologist, as chairman. A few short afternoon sessions 

were held. Mr. Harrison for months had recorded in a black 

Survey notebook the uncomplimentary remarks and criticisms 

that any of his colleagues had made against Mr. Wilson and 

depended on those colleagues to substantiate their remarks. 

The existence of this book created a panic among Harrison’s 

acquaintances. No one was quite sure he had not spoken disparagingly of “the boss” at some time or other. The notebook 

proved of little value as only two or three topographers admitted the criticisms ascribed to them.

The Director announced on Friday, March 8, 1907, his 

acceptance of the findings of the Trial Board. Not one of Mr. 

Harrison’s charges was sustained. Mistakes made in administering the far flung field work are recognized as inherent in the 

office of the chief. Some partiality may have existed. At any 

rate the hearings brought out the fact that Mr. Wilson was too 

unpopular to continue as Chief of the Eastern Division. Too 

valuable a man to be lost to the Survey, he was transferred to 

the Survey’s new Technologic Branch, effective April 5, as 

Chief Engineer. Mr. Harrison, whose satisfactory mapping had 

been supplemented by his design of Harrison Percenter Level 

(made by the Eugene Dietzgen Company) was transferred to 

the Bureau of Forestry, Department of Agriculture.

The Harrison letter seemed to be the spark that set off a 

chain of events that kept the Survey personnel in Washington 

stirred up to a high degree of excitement throughout the spring 

of 1907.

Director Walcott, whose broad interest in science was 

evidenced by his connection with the National Museum as its 

head from January 1897 to July 1898 with the title of Acting Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; with 

the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C., 1902–05 as 

Secretary; with the Washington Academy of Sciences as its 

President since 1899; was appointed Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution January 23, 1907. The position was one of 

eminence in the scientific world.

Dr. Walcott was tendered a farewell banquet at 

Rauscher’s on March 13. Several topographers, whose feelings 

had been ruffled by recent events, did not attend. Dr. Walcott’s 

resignation from the Survey became effective on April 30.

First Booklet of Field Assignments

The localities of field work and assignments of employees of the Geologic and Topographic Branches of the Survey 

for the season of 1906 were contained in a pocket size (4 by 

6 inches) paper covered booklet of 24 pages. It was printed 

by the Government Printing Office and dated August 1, 1906. 

It listed 43 states and territories in which geologic investigations and topographic surveys were being carried on by 90 

geologists, 16 of whom were working in Alaska, and by 109 

topographers, 2 of whom were working in Alaska.
Walcott Becomes Director 61

Printed Bulletins

As a means of keeping the personnel informed of 

addresses and to facilitate the handling of mail and express, 

there was issued, on September 9, 1912, a multigraphed list 

of “1912 Assignments of Scientific Appointees, Topographic 

Branch.”

One hundred and sixty-two (162) names appear on the 

list and mapping operations were carried on in 25 states, the 

District of Columbia, and the Territory of Hawaii. Four topographers were on furloughs.

Clarence L. Nelson and Washington B. Lewis were still 

in Argentina. Thomas H. Moncure was with Arctic Coal Company, at Tromso, Norway; William J. Peters with the Bureau of 

Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institute, Washington D.C.

In 1913, a little booklet, 6.25 by 4.25 inches, containing 

56 pages, and printed at the Government Printing Office, titled 

“Service Bulletin, Personnel and Field Assignments,” was 

distributed.

This bulletin, giving the personnel of the entire Survey 

(786 in number) and program of field assignments for 1913, 

was issued for the use of members of the Survey and cooperating bureaus. It gave the organization of the Survey, and of 

the field forces, the supervision and scope of the work of each 

branch, division, and section, and a summary of the work by 

states. Similar booklets were issued for 1914, 1915, and 1916. 

(Beginning in 1911, the Survey issued a Press Bulletin for 

release weekly to newspapers for the purpose of apprising the 

public of its activities).

Geological and water supply investigations were in 

progress in 46 states, Alaska, and the Territory of Hawaii; 

topographic surveys were being made in 32 states, Alaska, and 

Hawaii. The field force of the Topographic Branch consisted 

of 8 geographers, 19 topographic engineers, 30 topographers, 

32 assistant topographers, 43 junior topographers, and 3 topographic aids, a total of 167.

Swamp Lands in Minnesota

An appropriation of $15,000 was made by Congress in 

the Indian Act for fiscal year 1906–07 for the survey of the 

swamp lands in the ceded lands of the Chippewa’s in northwest Minnesota. A.P. Meade, topographer, was detailed for 

this purpose. About 600 square miles were covered with a 

network of levels. In addition, a line of precise levels, 71 miles 

in length, was run by C.H. Semper from Crookston northeastward. With sufficient data thus obtained, estimates were made 

by A.P. Meade and W.C. Hall for the drainage of the Mud 

Lake District and submitted as a report to Congress.

The Congress made a further appropriation of $10,000 

for the next fiscal year for a continuation of the survey into 

five adjoining counties. The work was conducted by A.P. 

Meade and E.L. McNair. Approximately 1,800 square miles 

were covered by a network of levels, 188 miles of precise levels and 272 miles of primary levels being run, in connection 

with which 79 permanent bench marks were established.

Earthquake

The city of San Francisco was hit by the most destructive 

earthquake that ever occurred in the United States at 5:30 a.m. 

Wednesday, April 18, 1906. With terrific rumble and roar, 

shocks lasting almost a minute, wrecked buildings, and ruptured electric power and gas mains. Lesser tremors followed 

all day. The conflagration that raged for 3 days and nights multiplied the tragedy and misery of the inhabitants. Five hundred 

lives were lost and property damage reached $350,000,000. 

San Jose, Santa Rosa, Petaluma, and four other California 

communities suffered similar devastation. Sacramento, on the 

east edge of the affected area, was shaken but not damaged. 

Its citizens soon learned of San Francisco’s catastrophe and 

organization was promptly effected for the relief of refugees 

and the dispatch of supplies to the stricken city.

Director Walcott telegraphed Robert B. Marshall, Geographer-in-Charge of the Pacific Division, to assemble camp equipment from the Survey storehouses in the Sacramento Valley and 

prepare for shipment to San Francisco. Before the end of the day, 

Mr. Marshall was designated head of the purchasing unit for relief 

supplies by the General Relief Committee. Donations exceeding 

$150,000 were received by the Committee in a few days. On the 

first trip of the S.S. Joaquin, Mr. Marshall was aboard in charge of 

the cargo, and among his Survey helpers were George R. Davis, 

Jake W. Muller, C.L. Nelson, A. Benson Searle, Sidney N. Stoner, 

and Albert H. Sylvester. During the night, trip stops were made to 

take on additional supplies brought to the wharves by farmers who 

were eager to help. The boat docked at the Presidio and volunteer stevedores, citizens, and soldiers assisted the Survey men in 

unloading the cargo so the boat could return to Sacramento for 

more cargo. Gen. Frederick Funston, in command of the San Francisco District, had established military rule over the city, prohibiting persons from sleeping indoors and making fires for cooking, 

except in the streets, and restricting visitors from outside.

There have always been earthquakes caused by strains 

within the earth’s crust. The line of parallel valleys in California 

are due in part at least to faulting that took place long ago. These 

associated natural processes have generally occurred beneath the 

surface of the earth. But on April 18, 1906, a crack reached the 

surface for a distance of 192 miles in almost a straight line from 

Point Arena in Mendocino County to San Juan in San Benito 

County. The crack followed the well known San Andreas Rift, an 

ancient fracture line of the earth’s crust that may be traced southeastward beyond San Juan, past San Bernardino, to the vicinity 

of Yuma. A belt of peculiar topography marks the San Andreas 

Rift, in places by ponds or lakes in straight rows; in other places 

by long lines of very straight cliffs. These have been clearly 

shown on topographic maps of a scale as large as 1:24,000. 

The crack made in 1906, though disturbing the ground surface 

for a width of about 22 feet and causing offsets in roads, fence 

lines, and rows of trees, was too small a feature to be shown 
62 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

on standard topographic maps other than by a single line. The 

principal concern was to determine the amount of change that 

occurred in the basic vertical and horizontal control.

Marshall, Chief Geographer

For several years the demands for topographic surveys 

had become more insistent. Appropriations for topographic 

mapping had been increasing in spite of some setbacks and 

undoubtedly would continue to increase. Director Walcott, 

before leaving the Survey, had appointed a committee to work 

out a plan for the reorganization of the Topographic Branch, 

and Robert B. MarshalI was recalled from his headquarters at 

Sacramento, Calif., to be chairman of the committee.

The committee, on March 19, 1907, submitted a plan that 

provided for five divisions instead of two; but, because of the 

impending transfer of H.M. Wilson, this plan was modified on 

April 6 by the consolidation of the Northeastern (Mr. Wilson) and 

Southeastern (Mr. Sutton) Divisions into the Atlantic Division. 

The four divisions and their selected chiefs are shown in table 21.

George Otis Smith, geologist, succeeded Mr. Wilson as 

chairman of the Topographic Committee. 

The appointment of a Chief Geographer-in-Charge of the 

Topographic Branch was recommended.

Mr. Marshall was virtually Chief Geographer from the 

date of his selection as chairman of the Reorganization Committee, though his official appointment was dated January 23, 

1908. His successful management of the California Section 

was known to all, and almost equally well known was Dr. 

Smith’s earlier declaration that should he become Director, 

he would appoint Mr. Marshall as Chief Geographer. (This 

promise, and its fulfillment assured both of them a measure of 

unpopularity in the Eastern Division, where several topographers were willing candidates for the position.)

Mr. Marshall took charge of the Topographic Branch 

with some positive ideas, several of which stirred and shocked 

the members of the old Eastern Division. The sketching of 

contours by chiefs of parties while seated in a buggy would 

be supplanted by the more accurate method of locating them 

by planetable and stadia. To spread knowledge of the latter 

method there would an interchange of field personnel between 

the East and the West.

During the winter months in Washington, social meetings 

would be held and Survey work discussed, and the field men 

would become better acquainted and their ideas about their 

work could be exchanged and properly appraised. With Mr. 

Marshall’s approval, and in some cases at his suggestion, clubs 

were formed and during 4 months, January to April, hardly a 

week passed without two or more gatherings, and the Topographic Branch became a family.

Plans were developed also for winter field work, both 

around Washington where little or no expense would be added 

to salaries, and in distant southern states where cooperation 

might be obtained.

Special Forest Maps

In the spring of 1907, the Division of Geography and 

Forestry was terminated by the transfer of forestry personnel, 

and their work, to the Department of Agriculture. Retained 

by the Survey was the compilation of special National Forest 

maps, and this was placed in the charge of Arthur C. Roberts. 

These maps were made on a scale of 2 inches to 1 mile and 

each township was published as an individual map in order to 

meet the needs of the Forest Service. The scale was changed to 

1 inch to a mile and six townships were published together as 

an atlas sheet, on which was shown the land, timber, and alienation classification by color and by symbols. All the field work 

performed by the Geological Survey, the General Land Office, 

the Hayden, Wheeler, and Transcontinental Surveys, as well as 

by private surveys and by the Forest Service, was incorporated 

in the maps. The maps that together covered a National Forest 

constituted a folio, and folios were to be completed as fast as 

possible. The final completion of a folio was often retarded by 

changes of boundaries and redistricting of National Forests.

Topographers with first hand knowledge of forest conditions were sometimes assigned to Mr. Robert’s unit. 

Once, Joseph F. McBeth was in Union Station en 

route to a summer’s field assignment when, onehalf hour before his train was to leave, a Survey 

messenger delivered a change of orders, that kept 

him in Washington throughout the summer, for 

office work with Mr. Roberts.

Transfers to General Land Office

Shortly after the reorganization in 1907, three 

of the older topographers with broad experience in 

triangulation, leveling, topographic mapping, and 

surveying boundary lines, chiefly in the rugged 

west, were transferred to the General Land Office.

Abner F. Dunnington, on May 1, had been 

appointed assistant topographer of the Survey on 

Table 21. Divisions and Chiefs, April 6, 1907

Atlantic Division

Comprising the 21 states of the Appalachian and Atlantic Coastal areas, Frank 

Sutton, Geographer-in-Charge, assisted by James H. Jennings, geographer 

and Van H. Manning, topographer.

Central Division

The 10 states of the Mississippi Valley, Wm. H. Herron, Geographer-in-Charge.

Rocky Mountain Division

The 10 states and territories of the Rocky Mountain Region, Edward C. Barnard, Geographer-in-Charge.

Pacific Division

The seven far western states, Robert B. Marshall, Geographer-in-Charge.

Geographer-in-Charge of office: Edward M. Douglas.

Geographer-in-Charge of map editing: Henry Gannett.

Section of Inspection: John H. Renshawe, geographer; Wm. M. Beaman and 

Francois E. Matthes, topographers.
Walcott Becomes Director 63

August 16, 1882. He was Chief of the Drafting Section of the 

GLO for many years before his retirement, at the age of 70, on 

October 31, 1932. He died August 15, 1938.

Harry L. Baldwin, Jr. was appointed assistant topographer 

on July 23, 1884. A graduate of Princeton and a dynamo of 

energy, he pitched into the mapping of the United States as if 

he could complete it in a few years. He was nicknamed “Beeline” and was said to get off the train running and keep on 

running until the field work was done and he caught the train 

back to Washington. He should have had a second platoon of 

assistants and animals.

Robert A. Farmer, on May 29 was appointed assistant 

topographer. He joined the Survey an October 24, 1888, as a 

station assistant. He retired on May 31, 1932, at the age of 70, 

and died on November 23, 1934.

The survey and resurvey of the public lands, by act of 

Congress approved June 25, 1910, provided that the Secretary 

of the Interior select competent surveyors for the work to be 

done by the GLO, in effect bringing to a close the contract 

system and authorizing the employment by a permanent corps 

of U.S. surveyors.

Alaska Mapping

A brief outline of the Survey’s work in Alaska is appropriate at this time. An epic of adventure and accomplishment, 

it warranted the creation of a separate branch, the Alaskan 

Branch, and it deserves a history of its own.

In the summer of 1889, the Survey was given the opportunity to send Israel C. Russell, a geologist, to the Yukon 

Valley as an attaché to a U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey party 

sent out to determine some positions on the 141st meridian, the boundary between Alaska and Canada, for about 

100 miles. The following two summers, the same geologist 

was able to combine geologic reconnaissance in Alaska with 

an expedition under the joint sponsorship of the National Geographic Society and the Survey for the purpose of exploring a 

portion of the St. Elias Range. On the first of the expeditions, 

the geologist, as Chief, was accompanied by Mark B. Kerr, a 

topographer, as Assistant Chief.

Systematic studies were launched in 1895 when Congress 

made its first appropriation of $5,000 for the investigation 

of the gold and coal resources of Alaska. The annual amount 

was increased to $20,000 in the urgent deficiency bill early in 

1898, as a recognition of the importance given to discovery 

of rich gold deposits in the Klondike Region, in the Canadian 

Territory. In 1901, the Survey received $60,000 for its work 

in Alaska and, in succeeding years, the appropriation often 

reached $75,000.

Field surveys in the almost unconquerable remoteness 

of Alaska had to be especially well planned, prepared, and 

executed. A typical season was that of 1898 when four parties 

were outfitted in Seattle and sailed northward on the U.S. 

Gunboat Wheeling on April 5. Upon reaching Skagway, the 

parties29 were detached to cross by the Chilkoot Pass to the 

Yukon River, which they were to descend together as far as 

the White River. At Cook Inlet, the other two parties30 disembarked to ascend the Susitna River and cross over the divide 

into the drainage system of the Kuskokwim River. All were to 

rendezvous at St. Michael on the coast some 50 miles northeast of the Yukon Delta on September 15. The first two parties 

traveled more than 1,300 miles over rugged country before 

reaching St. Michael.

Of primary importance has been the personnel of parties. 

Necessary qualifications were sturdy physique and experience 

in packing loads on the back, and familiarity with boats and 

with general habits of rough camp life. Travel was variously 

by dog team, canoe, raft, pack train, and by foot. Of volunteers 

among the Survey’s topographers and geologists, only those 

were chosen who had demonstrated their special fitness during 

several field seasons in the States. They could be expected to 

cope with every problem encountered and bring the information collected. The chief of party was a geologist with a topographer as assistant chief, or the other way around, and the 

instructions to the assistant contained the clause “in case the 

chief is disabled, you are herewith authorized to take charge of 

the party and to carry out the plans as far as possible.”

The Survey work in Alaska possessed great attractions. 

The field season, though strenuous, was short, usually about 

3 months (June 15 to September 15); the comfortable office 

work in Washington lasted for 6 or 7 months; the railroad 

journeys between Washington and Seattle in the spring and fall 

were restful; the voyages north of Seattle among the wooded 

islands of southeast Alaska and along the coast where glaciers 

come down from the mountains to the sea furnished entertainment and thrills; and the 3 months in the silent rugged wilderness offered high adventure and successive successful seasons 

fitted geologists and topographers for greater responsibilities 

as chiefs of sections, divisions, and branches of the Survey.

The 586,400 square miles of Alaska presented problems 

analogous to those that the vast western mountains and deserts 

presented to the newly created Survey in 1879, and during the 

early 1880’s. Similar methods of work were adopted. Direction of the work was given to Dr. Alfred H. Brooks, a geologist, in 1901, and his unit was given the title of “Division of 

Alaskan Mineral Resources” in 1907. On April 1, 1922, the 

division became the Alaskan Branch, which operated as a 

small Geological Survey as it embraced most of the functions 

of the larger organization, though in lesser degree.

The Alaskan Branch was dissolved on July 1, 1946, by 

Survey Order No. 150, dated May 17, 1946, and its topographic personnel, equipment, and functions were transferred 

to the Topographic Branch, to be attached in part, to the new 

Rocky Mountain Division.

Dr. Philip S. Smith, who became the Chief Alaskan Geologist after the death of Dr. Alfred H. Brooks on November 22, 

1924, retired March 31, 1946, and died May 10, 1949.

29 Edward C. Barnard, Topographer, Chief, Wm. J. Peters.

30 Robert Muldrow, Topographer, William S. Post.
64 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

The short field season in Alaska, further abbreviated by a 

too abundant rainfall in many sections and by unexpected difficulties of travel, compelled constant study toward speeding 

the surveys and devising shortcuts.

As early as 1904, C.W. Wright and P.E. Wright, two 

geologists, built a panoramic camera from a commercial 

instrument and fitted it with level bubbles, a plate for screwing 

it on a planetable tripod, and internal scales that formed shadowgraphs on the negatives. The photographs taken at control 

stations and covering a complete horizon, when placed in a 

specially designed photoalidade, were converted into many 

square miles of topographic maps in the Washington office 

under comfortable conditions. Improvements in this method 

of mapping were made. In 1911, James W. Bagley, a topographer, was instructed to return from Alaska by way of Ottawa 

“to investigate the method of photo-topographic surveying 

in use by the Canadian government, with a view of obtaining 

information which will be useful in introducing these methods 

for some of the Alaskan surveys.”

That winter, studies by Jim Bagley, F.M. Moffit, and J.B. 

Mertie, two Alaskan geologists, with the idea of photographing the ground from an airplane, led in 1916 to the beginning 

of their construction of a tri-lens camera and transformer. 

In 1917, Bagley was commissioned a major in the Engineer 

Officers Reserve Corps and was able to improve the camera 

with the aid of personnel and funds supplied by the Corps of 

Engineers and Army Air Service. The first photographs with 

the tri-lens camera were taken in the winter of 1917–18.

The lack of sufficient funds, however, prevented the 

adoption of the airplane and aerial camera for mapping operations. In 1926,31 the Survey profited by an arrangement with 

the U.S. Navy, whereby the Alaska Aerial Survey Expedition 

photographed 10,000 square miles of southeastern Alaska, 

using the Army T–1 cameras (the Bagley tri-lens) mounted in 

two amphibian planes. Three years later, a second expedition 

photographed 12,750 square miles farther to the north, using 

the Army T–2 cameras (Bagley 4-lens).

In 1936, funds permitted the photographing of the entire 

Tanana River Basin, the Survey plotting the flight lines and 

furnishing the camera, a commercial company supplying the 

plane and pilot, the Hydrographic Office of the Navy assigning 

Lt. Cdr. John M. Hayne, an expert photographer.

Prior to 1926, ground surveys had accounted for the 

mapping of about 40 percent of Alaska on reconnaissance 

standards (1:250,000 scale with 200-foot contours), with surveys on scales of 1 inch to the mile or larger for practically all 

mining camps. In all, more than 400 maps and 400 geological 

reports had been produced. The small permanent force, usually 

four geologists and two topographers, engaged in this work 

was recognized, with the coming of World War II, to possess 

a wealth of information concerning the strategically important Territory and the equally important process of making 

reconnaissance maps from aerial pictures. The Alaskan Branch 

31 “Aerial Surveys in Southeastern Alaska,” by R.H. Sargent, The Military 

Engineer, May–June, 1928.

became the school for the Aeronautical Chart Service and 

helped to develop the trimetrogon method of making topographic maps, expanding to a force of 250 persons. The senior 

topographic engineer of the Alaskan Branch, Gerald FitzGerald, was rewarded for his services by being commissioned a 

colonel and placed in charge of the Aeronautical Chart Service 

of the Army Air Forces. He became Chief, Topographic 

Branch, on May 22, 1947.

Immediately after World War II, the Geological Survey 

greatly increased its topographic mapping force in Alaska. 

Work was undertaken in many parts of the Territory, but the 

heaviest concentration of field men was in southeastern and 

central Alaska. This accelerated mapping program was aided 

by photographic units of the Navy who provided excellent 

single-lens coverage of all southeastern Alaska, as well as of 

extensive areas in western and northern Alaska. In addition to 

“Trimetrogon” photography, units of the Air Force completed 

standard mapping photography covering extensive areas in 

central Alaska. Airborne Shoran observations were made to 

provide horizontal control for much of this photography and 

a Geological Survey project established vertical control for a 

considerable part of the same area through the use of airborne 

altimetry.

Preparation of the Alaska 1:250,000-scale series (about 

4 miles to 1 inch) consists principally of recompilation and 

readjustment of the older published maps with the new mapping where available. Because of military priorities, most of 

the topographic mapping is being done at a scale of 1:63,360 

(1 mile to 1 inch) and larger. Contour interval is 100 feet with 

a 50-foot supplemental contour for the valleys and flatter 

areas.

Field parties were concerned principally with obtaining 

horizontal and vertical control (triangulation and elevations 

over the areas photographed) to provide a framework for 

stereo-compilation of topographic maps. The latter operation 

was done in Denver at the headquarters of the Rocky Mountain Region of the Geological Survey. Under ordinary conditions, field parties would leave Denver for Alaska early in May 

and return to headquarters in October. Depending on the location and the type of terrain, about six field parties of 10 men 

each were assigned to Alaska each year and operated under the 

direction of a District engineer, two project engineers, and a 

Resident Engineer. Field transportation was handled mainly by 

helicopter that carried surveyors and their equipment to observation points throughout the area to be mapped. This method 

of rapid transportation revolutionized mapping in Alaska.

The first experimental work was carried on with a 

chartered helicopter by the Rocky Mountain Region Engineer at Canon City, Colo. During the 10 days of this experimental project, 24 round trips were made to mountain-top 

stations with a payload on each of these trips of from 200 to 

250 pounds. The helicopter was flown 16 hours and 45 minutes and covered a distance of about 650 miles. As the result 

of this experiment, three helicopters were chartered for work 

in Alaska during the summer of 1948. One ship assigned to 

southern Alaskan parties made 260 mountain-top landings in 
George Otis Smith, Director 65

142 hours of flying and covered an area of about 1,000 square 

miles. The stations occupied ranged from 3,500 to 4,500 feet 

above sea level. In the meantime, the two helicopters assigned 

to the vicinity of Fairbanks in the interior of Alaska were used 

for successful survey operations in establishing control for 

2,500 square miles. Operational flights on this project were 

made to peaks at an elevation of nearly 9,000 feet above sea 

level. This work was so satisfactory that helicopters have been 

used in Alaska for survey operations with outstanding success 

during field seasons since 1949 by the Geological Survey, the 

Corps of Engineers, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey. The 

successful use of the helicopter for survey operations depends 

on careful planning of the project, ground and air communication, proper mechanical maintenance of the helicopter, and 

experienced and capable pilots.

Since the end of World War II, the Geological Survey has 

recompiled an up-to-date small scale map of Alaska which 

been published in three editions as Standard Base Map “E” 

scale 1:2,500,000; Map “A”, scale 1:500,000, and a large wall 

map, scale 1:1,584,000. In addition, a new general purpose 

series covering the entire territory at a scale of 1:250,000, 

consisting of 153 sheets, has been designed, compiled, and 

reproduced. A large number of these new maps are being 

published in shaded relief and are considered to be outstanding 

examples of this type of general purpose map.32

In November 1953, Reynold E. Isto became Resident 

Engineer with headquarters at Fairbanks and he would direct 

the activities of the field parties and serve as contact representative for all activities of the Topographic Division in Alaska.

The Annual Report for 1954 states that the accelerated 

mile-to-the-inch mapping program was continued, but the 

scale of operations was reduced somewhat. Mapping on this 

scale (1:63,360) was continued on 409 A1askan quadrangles 

covering an area of about 80,000 square miles. Actual accomplishment, in terms of stereo-compilation, was about 20,000 

square miles, and 90 quadrangle maps were published, bringing the total of published maps of this series to 233.

George Otis Smith, Director

George Otis Smith was announced as the new Director on April 5, 1907, and he took office on May 1. Dr. Smith 

was a native of Hodgdon, Maine, and his determined pursuit 

of an education attained for him several degrees, an A.B. 

from Colby College in 1893; an A.M. in 1896; and a PhD. 

from Johns Hopkins University in 1896. After three summer 

seasons of geologic studies in several states he received an 

appointment with the Geological Survey in 1896 as assistant 

geologist.

32 “Surveying and Mapping in Alaska,” by Gerald FitzGerald.

Section of Cartography

The Section of Cartography, with Acheson F. Hassan 

in charge, began work in July 1908 on the 1:1,000,000 scale 

map of the United States. The meridian of Greenwich was 

adopted as the initial point in the numbering of the sheets, but 

at a meeting of the International Geographic Society, held in 

London in 1909, the initial point was changed to the meridian 

of 180 degrees from Greenwich. The sheets now are numbered 

from 1 to 60 and proceed eastward around the world. Each 

sheet comprises an area of 4 degrees between parallels and 

6 degrees between meridians.

Mr. Hassan’s assistant was Frederick M. Hart, a Washingtonian who came to the section in 1907 with government 

service as a draftsman dating from July 2, 1900.

Idaho–Washington Boundary Line

An appropriation of $25,000 was made by Congress for 

the survey of the Idaho-–Washington boundary line, and the 

work was assigned to the Geological Survey by the Secretary 

of the Interior. The line, originally run from 1874 to 1875, 

was the 117 degree, 2 minute, 54 second meridian, extending 

northward from the center of the Snake River at the junction 

of the Clearwater River, a short distance west of Lewiston.

The work, undertaken in the summer of 1908 by S.S. 

Gannett, C.L. Nelson, and S.G. Lunde, was completed by the 

latter two men during the following summer. The line, a total 

length of 177 miles, was marked by 157 iron monuments, 

6 feet long, 4 inches in diameter, filled with concrete; by 

23 granite monuments, 6 feet long and 10 inches square; and 

by 229 iron monuments 4 feet long and 3 inches in diameter, 

filled with concrete, placed at the closing corners of the public 

land surveys. The topography of an area one-half mile in width 

on each side of the line was mapped by Mr. Nelson, assisted 

by Bayard Knock, for publication at the scale of 1:62,500 with 

a contour interval of 50 feet.

Foreign Assignment, Canada

Upon the request of the government of Canada for a 

topographer to help start a topographical survey of Canada, 

Robert H. Chapman was loaned to the Canadian Geological 

Survey from May 1, 1909, to December 31, 1911. He had 

direct charge of the triangulation and topography on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, and the instruction of assistants 

in those phases of mapping.

In 1912, for use by the 12th International Geological 

Congress held in Ottawa in 1913, an informal cooperative 

arrangement was made with the Canadian Geological Survey 

for a special resurvey of the Niagara Gorge, the work on both 

sides being done by members of the Topographic Branch, 

but the entire expense of the work, 11 square miles in the 

United States and 17 square miles in Canada, being borne 

by that Government. The field surveys and resulting superb 
66 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

topographic map, on the scale of 1:12,000, with contours at 

internals of 10 feet, were the work of Charles E. Cooke.

The map depicts an electric railway on each side of the 

river below the Rainbow Bridge, the one on the east side being 

within the gorge a few feet up from the water’s edge, affording an exciting scenic ride. Both railways were discontinued 

in 1932.

The partial Niagara Falls Quadrangle, scale 1:62,500, and 

contour interval 20 feet, had been published by the Survey in 

May 1901. The mapping had been done in 1893 and 1900 in 

cooperation with the State of New York.

Triangulation was by the U.S. Lake Survey with topography by Frank Sutton, J.H. Wheat, and W.W. Gilbert of the 

U.S. Lake Survey. International boundary information was 

furnished by the International Waterways Commission.

Mapping the Hawaiian Islands

A few years after the Hawaiian Islands became a territory of the United States, the American planters, many of 

them descendants of New England missionaries, realized 

that further agriculture development depended on definite 

knowledge of the available water supply. In 1909, it was realized that comparative little could be done without adequate 

topographic maps. In a conference with the Chief Geographer 

of the Geological Survey, it was decided to start a program 

of topographic mapping on a field scale of 1:31,680, or 

2 inches to 1 mile, with contour intervals of 10 and 50 feet. 

The island of Kauai was to be surveyed first, and work was 

begun early in 1910, under the jurisdiction of the Department 

of Public Works. Until June 30, 1910, the expense of this 

work was borne entirely by the Territory, and about $27,000 

was expended previous to that date. The Geological Survey 

cooperated to the extent of loaning men and instruments to do 

the work.

On July 1, 1910, an agreement was entered into whereby 

the territory allotted $15,000, and the Geological Survey 

$5,000, for the continuation of the work, and cooperation on 

this basis was continued each year until the latter part of 1914, 

when the island of Kauai, containing 555 square miles, and 

871 square miles of the island of Hawaii, had been mapped 

at a cost of about $111,000, $90,000 of which had been 

expended by the Territory. Using these figures, which include 

the original $27,000 expended by the Territory, the total 

cost of the work amounted to about $78 per square mile, but 

included in this is the cost of considerable leveling and triangulation, and about $2,000 that was used in making a map of 

the island of Oahu on a scale of 1:62,500 from data supplied 

by the War Department. This map was engraved and published 

on one sheet. The Kauai work was printed at 1:31,680 scale 

in seven photolithographs and was later engraved at the scale 

of 1:62,500 and published in one sheet. The work in Hawaii 

was covered by 13 photolithographs and was later engraved 

and published at 1:62,500 scale in five 15-minute quadrangles. 

C.H. Birdseye was topographer in charge of this work and was 

assisted by N.E. Ballmer, W.H. Barringer, L.F. Biggs, S.H. 

Birdseye, A.O. Burkland, G.R. Davis, A.T. Fowler, J.L. Lewis, 

H.L. McDonald, T.H. Moncure, A.J. Ogle, J.M. Rawls, Olinus 

Smith, and O.G. Taylor.

On May 12, 1920, an agreement was made between the 

Director of the Geological Survey and the Governor of Hawaii 

for the continuation of the cooperative topographic survey of 

the Territory of Hawaii, as provided for in the allotment of 

$25,000 made by the Governor from his Contingent Fund on 

the same date. This money was to be under the jurisdiction of 

the Commissioner of Public Lands and immediately available. 

It was understood that it would be met with a like amount of 

Federal funds on July 1, 1920. After this date, similar cooperative agreements were signed for each fiscal year and a total of 

$237,500 had been allotted by the Geological Survey to meet 

the Territorial appropriations made to June 30, 1930. For the 

fiscal year beginning July 1, 1930, only $3,000 was allotted, as 

this was deemed sufficient to complete the cooperative work, 

but was later supplemented by special allotments of $1,000 

each to ensure the completion of the work, and to reprint the 

Kauai and old Hawaii photolithographs, making a total of 

$242,500 allotted by the Geological Survey to meet territorial 

appropriations to the close of June 1932.

This work began in June 1920, and by the end of 1927, 

field work had been completed on all the remaining islands 

except Oahu. The total area mapped during this period, on a 

field scale of 1:31,680 was 4,393 square miles. An additional 

22 square miles, constituting a part of the island of Oahu were 

mapped by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and incorporated in 

the Geological Survey map of that island. The cost of the work 

including photo lithography was approximately $358,000. 

During the 7 years, an average yearly output of 627 square 

miles was maintained at a cost of about $81.50 per square 

mile.

The mapping of Oahu was begun in July 1927, and the 

field work was completed in a little less than 3 years. At the 

request of the War Department, the mapping was executed on 

a scale of 1:20,000 with contour intervals of 10 and 50 feet, 

depending upon the slope. The cost of the work was borne 

equally by the Territory of Hawaii and the Geological Survey 

while the War Department cooperated by furnishing aerial 

photographs of the entire island, as well as pack horses and 

equipment when needed. The work on this island represented a 

much greater state of refinement than that on the other islands. 

Including Pearl Harbor, a total of 604 square miles was 

mapped at an expense of about $135,000. This represented an 

average cost of $224 per square mile. The island was divided 

into 16 quadrangles and, where possible, these were made to 

extend 6 minutes in latitude by 8 minutes in longitude. These 

16 engraved maps will be combined on one sheet for the 

island of Oahu, and maps of all of the islands have now been 

engraved.

A.O. Burkland was in charge of this topographic mapping and was assisted by F.A. Danforth, G.S Druhot, Adolph 

Fankhauser, Helen M. Frye, Clerk, Max J. Gleissner, J.B. 

Leavitt, J.F. McCook, M. Madeleine M’Grath, Clerk, R.R. 
George Otis Smith, Director 67

Monbeck, Bishop Moorhead, Kostka Mudd, E.S. Rickard, 

R.G. Stevenson, Arline G. Weeks, Clerk, R.M. Wilson, and 

E.G. Wingate.

A second group, consisting of H.B. Smith, J.O. Kilmartin, 

V.S. Seward, A.K. Andrews, and L.B. Lint spanned the years 

1920–30.

In 1948 and 1949, the Engineering Association of 

Hawaii requested Governor Stainback to ask the Geological 

Survey to send representatives to the Territory of Hawaii to 

investigate the need for revision of topographic maps, and 

Gerald FitzGerald, Chief Topographic Engineer, arrived in 

Honolulu on June 13, 1949, for conferences. It was agreed 

that as the Territory of Hawaii had no money for cooperation, the Geological Survey would start a revision program. 

Accordingly, on October 30, 1949, Adolph Fankhauser, Resident Project Engineer, left for Honolulu. There were difficulties in obtaining aerial photographs from the Navy, Army, or 

commercial firms, but in fiscal year 1951, field operations 

were started for the revision of the obsolete map series covering the Hawaiian Islands. According to the 1954 Annual 

Report, mapping in the Territory of Hawaii was continued for 

the publication of topographic maps at the scale of 1:24,000; 

this scale being preferred by local engineers and surveyors. 

Operations were conducted on the islands of Oahu, Molokai, 

and Maui on a total of 31 quadrangles covering an area of 

1,360 square miles. Four of the five quadrangles covering the 

island of Molokai were published, and the fifth was nearly 

completed. It was planned to extend this mapping program 

to the island of Hawaii at an early date. Mr. Fankhauser was 

assisted by Karl Thornton and Melville Baker, Jr.

National Park Service

The Topographic Branch was asked to help solve some 

of the problems of the new Bureau in the Department of the 

Interior, the National Park Service. Beginning with the creation of the Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, by act of 

Congress on March 1, 1872, unusual tracts of land in various 

sections of the United States, from time to time, were set aside 

as pleasure grounds for all people and their natural wonders 

preserved from desecration. With the establishment of Glacier 

National Park in Montana on May 11, 1910, 12 of these reservations were under the general jurisdiction of the Department 

of the Interior, and were administered by a small unit in the 

Secretary’s office.

The Secretary of the Interior, in his report for the fiscal 

year ending June 30, 1910, recommended that a bureau be 

created to have sole charge of the National Parks, and bill 

S.826 was presented to the session of the 63d Congress. The 

bill failed of passage repeatedly until August 25, 1916, when 

it became a law, establishing the National Park Service as the 

ninth bureau within the Department of the Interior. In the fall 

of 1914, a general superintendent, with headquarters at San 

Francisco was appointed. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory and on December 10, 1915, Robert B. Marshall was 

appointed general superintendent at Washington, D.C.

In 1894, Mr. Marshall had mapped the Yosemite 30-minute quadrangle. On June 14, 1904, he was appointed a member 

of the Yosemite National Park Commission, created by the 

Secretary of the Interior for the purpose of changing the park 

boundary as authorized on August 31, 1940. As a member of 

the first conference of departmental officials, park superintendents, representatives of various railroads, concessionaires in 

the various reservations, and others, called and presided over 

by the Secretary of the Interior, in Yellowstone National Park 

in September 1911. Mr. Marshall presented a paper on the 

general administration of the national parks and their particular needs. As a member of the second superintendents conference held in the Yosemite National Park in October 1912, 

under similar auspices, he presented a paper on the important 

subject of the admission to national parks of automobiles and 

their restricted use to selected roads. Later that fall, he was 

asked to report on the advisability of creating a national park 

in the vicinity of Estes Park, Colo., and he submitted his report 

on January 9, 1917, when he returned to the Topographic 

Branch as its Chief Geographer, and Stephen T. Mather was 

appointed the first Director of the National Park Service. 

Isabelle F. Story, Arthur E. Demaray, and James V. Lloyd, who 

had transferred with Mr. Marshall, remained with the National 

Park Service. Members of the Topographic Branch that were 

transferred or detailed to the National Park Service are listed 

in table 22.

Table 22. Members of the Topographic Branch who were 

transferred or detailed to the National Park Service.

R.H. Chapman detailed as acting superintendent of Glacier 

National Park from May 15 to December 1, 1912.

W.O. Tufts detailed for special surveys in the parks during 1916.

W.B. Lewis transferred as superintendent of Yosemite National 

Park on March 4, 1916.

O.G. Taylor transferred as resident engineer of Yosemite National Park on March 2, 1920.

J. Ross Eakin transferred as superintendent of Glacier National 

Park on May 12, 1921.

C.L. Nelson detailed as acting superintendent of Mount Rainier 

National Park from June 11, 1922, to November 8, 1923.

R.T. Evans detailed as acting superintendent of Zion National 

Park during tourist seasons of 1925 and 1926. Transferred as 

superintendent of Hawaii National Park on January 1, 1927, 

and transferred back to the Survey on November 21, 1928.

M. Madeleine M’Grath transferred on November 16, 1925.

Olinus Smith transferred on November 1, 1933, and his task 

became the survey, and purchase, or transfer, of tracts adjacent 

to park boundaries.
68 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Maryland–West Virginia Boundary Line

S.S. Gannett was the technical member of the commission appointed in 1910 by the U.S. Supreme Court to resurvey 

and mark the comparatively short west boundary of Maryland. 

This was known as the “Deakins” or Old State Line, and 

disputes over its proper location concerned the ownership of 

about 40 square miles of land. The commission established the 

initial point, or the southwest corner of Maryland, 3,989 feet 

almost due north from the Fairfax Stone. As re-established, 

the “Deakins line” was a jogging line with a general bearing 

a little east of north. There were five offsets in the line, which 

extended nearly east and west, and ranged in length from 54 to 

971 feet. A large concrete monument was erected at each angle 

and many at intermediate points, 60 in all, on the line, which 

extended nearly 36 miles to the Mason and Dixon Line.

North Carolina–Tennessee Boundary Lines

In 1910, at the request of the Attorney General of North 

Carolina, S.S. Gannett was designated by the Director of the 

Geological Survey to investigate and, if possible, to find the line 

as marked by blazed trees in 1821 along the disputed part of the 

North Carolina–Tennessee boundary line in the Slick Rock Creek 

and Tellico River region. As a result of these investigations, he 

appeared as an expert witness in the suit: No. 4 Original, the State 

of North Carolina, Complainant vs. the State of Tennessee, 1914, 

of the Supreme Court of the United States, which suit was decided 

in favor of the Complainant, by the Court.

Mapping Mount Rainier, Washington

The topographic survey of Mount Rainier National Park, 

completed in 1914, provided an adequate map for the Park 

Administration. Mount Rainier, about 42 airline miles southeast of the city of Tacoma, Wash., is the dominating feature of 

the park. It is the loftiest and most magnificent volcanic peak 

in the United States, rising 8,000 feet above the skyline of the 

Cascade Range, and is doubly impressive by the vast extent 

of its snow mantle, consisting of 28 glaciers that cover an area 

of 45 square miles. Each glacier is the source of a river that 

cuts a deep trench through the surrounding rugged mountains. 

The area was set aside in 1899 as the sixth national park and 

contains 325 square miles.

The topographic mapping was begun in 1910 when E.M. 

Bandli extended 45 miles of primary levels and established 

12 permanent bench marks, the highest (5,557) at the end of 

the road in Paradise Valley.

C.F. Urquhart occupied 7 triangulation stations; G.R. 

Davis and F.E. Matthes mapped 36 square miles for publication on the scale of 1:62,500 with a contour interval of 

100 feet. They returned in 1911 to map 141 square miles. The 

work was suspended in 1912, but resumed in 1913, by C.H. 

Birdseye, as supervisor, with W.O. Tufts, O.G. Taylor, and 

S.E. Taylor, as assistants, and completed in 1914.

To settle a controversy, which had arisen as to the actual 

height of Mount Rainier, it was decided that a set of reciprocal angles should be observed from the summit. To reach the 

summit was an adventurous ascent that called for hours of foot 

climbing on snow ice, with the prospect of a storm rendering the 

effort futile. It was like Birdseye to claim the adventure for himself and his two field assistants, C.B. Harmon and Frank Krogh.

On the first ascent they were turned back short of the 

Summit by a violent storm that promised to hold out all day. 

A couple of days later, on August 15, they started as before 

from the Camp Muir shelter cabin (10,000 feet) at 4 a.m., 

and reached the summit in 4 and one-half hours of climbing. Again a storm compelled them to retreat. This time the 

driving snow obliterated the marked route and, blinded by the 

storm, and fearful of the many crevasses likewise concealed 

by the new snow, the three men made their way back to the 

summit and sought refuge in one of the tiny ice caves among 

the steam vents in the large crater; there they spent the night. 

Encompassed by ice, they were kept from freezing by the 

steam issuing from the vent which also kept their clothes wet 

and clammy. They took turns in maintaining a watch that none 

should fall asleep. A little comfort was derived from a light 

lunch and a cup of hot tea from a thermos bottle. The next 

day, with the storm considerably abated, they descended the 

mountain; they were half starved and almost exhausted, and 

Birdseye and Krogh had varying degrees of frostbite.

Their third attempt, on August 19, was successful. Leaving 

the hotel in Paradise Valley (5,400) at 1 a.m., accompanied by 

eight tourists, they climbed at a brisk pace, passing Camp Muir 

(10,000) at 4 a.m., Gibraltar Rock (12,679) at 6 a.m., and reached 

Register Rock on top at 8 a.m., a climb of nearly 9,000 feet in 

7 hours. The day was clear. The greater portion of the State of 

Washington and the northern part of Oregon lay unfolded before 

them. The necessary vertical angles were observed and the mapping of the entire summit was completed by 1 p.m., as the tourists 

carried the rod and instruments from point to point.

Columbia Crest is a huge dome-covered summit with 

perpetual snow, measuring about 20 feet in thickness. This 

does not vary much, as wind accompanies snowfall and prevents new snow from settling. The vertical angles established 

a height of 14,408 feet, displacing the former supposed height 

of 14,363 feet, and making Mount Rainier the third highest 

mountain in the United States, being overtopped 87 feet by 

Mount Whitney (14,495) in California and 23 feet by Mount 

Elbert (14,431) in Colorado33.

Mapping Costs

The relative costs of field surveys and of office work were 

discussed in the various meetings of topographers during the 

winters in Washington. In January, 1911, analysis was made of 

seven selected 15-minute quadrangles, worked on the 1:48,000 

33 See “Surveying our Greatest Volcano,” by Claude H. Birdseye, Travel 

Magazine, May 1915.
Potomac River Survey 69

field scale and recently completed, as follows in table 23 and 

funds appropriated are listed in table 24.

Potomac River Survey

At the request of the Commissioners of the District of 

Columbia, the Chief Hydrographer of the Geological Survey, Marshall O. Leighton, made a study of the available 

water supply at Great Falls to determine whether it could be 

increased to meet the growing daily consumption of water in 

the District of Columbia, and whether it could be harnessed to 

produce light and power. Mr. Leighton’s report, dated January 

14, 1911, while favorable, pointed to the necessity of more 

detailed studies based upon accurate topographic information. 

Before these studies were made by the Corps of Engineers, 

U.S. Army, as was authorized in the District bill approved 

June 26, 1912, a topographic survey was undertaken of the 

Potomac River from Seneca, Md., to the Chain Bridge above 

Washington.

A small project, it was performed by topographers in the 

winter, (1910–11), so as not to interfere with their regular summer assignments, and to be at minimum expense by having topographers fill out the parties as recorders 

and rodmen. Assignments were made 

in groups, leaving to each group the 

selection of the instrumentman. The 

instrumentmen were D.H. Baldwin 

and J.R. Ellis, on control; and R.T. 

Evans, E.P. Davis, Fred Graff, Jr., 

R.L. Harrison, C.E. Cooke, and H.W. 

Peabody, on topography. The mapping was on the scale of 1:12,000 

with a contour interval of 5 feet. The 

work was begun in November by 

the two topographers who were first 

arrivals in Washington, both starting 

up river above Seneca; one following 

down the Maryland side of the river, 

the other, the Virginia side. Pleasant 

fall weather prevailed until they were 

in the neighborhood of Great Falls, 

about the time the other parties were 

organized and ready to start.

The winter of 1910–11 was one 

of Washington’s severest. An early snow fell all day Monday, 

December 5, 1910, to a depth of 11 inches in the suburbs 

and was followed by a series of cold waves that sent night 

time temperatures as low as 10 degrees and continued until 

near the end of January. The snow did not melt during those 

7 weeks and stayed about 15 inches deep, for a second storm 

on December 10 had added 6 inches to the snow already on 

the ground.

The field work coincided with the seven wintry weeks. 

The daily routine began with a street car ride from home 

to Georgetown in the dark, a ride in a farm wagon with the 

beginning of dawn to the neighborhood of the work, standing at the instrument, or tramping in the snow all day, and the 

return trip, reaching Georgetown at dark. By way of variety, 

some parties found places to stop overnight, one such place 

being the Great Falls Inn at Lock 20, which ordinarily took in 

travelers only in the summertime, but agreed to accommodate 

the survey parties. The meals were good, but the unheated 

bedrooms were like refrigerators!

The mapping progressed in spite of the snow and cold. 

Everyone was furnished a pair of rubber boots, a bonfire was 

kept going at every instrument station, the absence of leaves 

permitted longer sights, and the ice on quiet water was thick 

enough for planetable stations from which sights were taken 

on the rod at the water’s edge. This simplified the work among 

the wooded islands. Only once did the ice give way and then 

with the tallest rodman, John H. Wilson. He was pulled out 

and dried at a bonfire.

The report of the Army engineers confirmed the belief 

that there was sufficient water in the Potomac River to supply 

Table 23. Selected 15-minute quads completed in January 1911.

Quadrangle name and 

year mapped

Contour 

interval

(feet)

Field 

surveys

Office 

work Total Topography by

Blaine, Wash. (1905) 20 $23.00 $1.66 $24.66 Pearson Chapman 

and L.E. Tucker

Hagerstown, Md.

(1908–10)

20 $19.17 $2.53 $21.70 Jos. H. Wheat and 

R.L. Harrison

Laurelville, Ohio (1910) 20 $15.22 $2.76 $17.98 Jesse A. Duck

Mason, Mich. (1908–09) 20 $8.10 $1.54 $9.64 C.D.S. Clarkson

Moeteetee, Wyo. (1911) 25 $11.09 $2.32 $13.41 C.C. Gardner and 

C.C. Holder

Quincy, Wash. (1909) 25 $17.01 $1.57 $18.58 C.F. Eberly

Rolla, Mo.

(1908–09)

20 $27.80 $3.40 $31.20 C.G. Anderson, H.H. 

Hodgeson, and 

F.W. Hughes

Average cost per square mile $17.34 $2.25 $19.59

For 1:96,000 quadrangles 9.22 0.88 10.12

For 1:92,000 quadrangles 2.34 0.22 2.56

Table 24. Funds appropriated for topographic 

mapping for the fiscal year ending June 20, 1911.

Activity Funds appropriated

Topographic surveys—Federal $359,200

Surveying national forests 75,000

Cooperative allotments by 18 

states and Hawaii

154,383

 Total 588,583

For this funding, the square 

miles mapped were:

29,956

Average cost per square mile: 19.71
70 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

the needs of Washington by building a second conduit from 

Great Falls. For power purposes, two high dams were considered: one just above Chain Bridge to create a pool with a 

surface elevation of 115 feet; the other, at Great Falls, to create 

a pool with an elevation of 215 feet and extending 39 miles 

to Brunswick, Md. The two pools would develop a surplus 

amount of hydroelectric power after supplying light and power 

for uses of the United States and of the District of Columbia; 

would require one or more storage reservoirs in the upper 

reaches of the Potomac to guarantee a calculated minimum 

flow of 2,000 cubic feel per second during the low flow stages 

of the river, as the observations of the Survey hydrographers 

since 1891 had indicated a fluctuation between 653 and 

390,000 cubic feet per second; would submerge the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Great Falls, and utterly destroy 

the magnificent natural scenery of the Potomac River gorges 

so near to the capital city of the United States.

Washington and Vicinity Map

The Potomac River survey incited many inquires for map 

information concerning the city of Washington, and its mapping 

was begun by the Survey in the spring of 1912. Topographers 

were urged to hasten with their office work and were assigned 

to various areas in and about the city, working from their homes, 

without travel allowances, and without horizontal and vertical 

control until triangulators and levelmen could later reach them 

(table 25). It was decided to make the map as large as could be 

printed by the Survey’s largest press; that is, about 50 inches by 

40 inches, which would permit the mapping of a broad suburban 

area on a scale of 1:31,680 (2 inches equal 1 mile). Then 10 feet 

was chosen as the contour interval. The map extended from 

38 degrees 45 minutes to 39 degrees 5 minutes in latitude and 

from 76 degrees 54 minutes to 77 degrees 15 minutes in longitude.The mapping was not completed until the close of 1915.

Survey Order No. 5

Survey Order No. 5, dated December 19, 1911, reads as 

follows:

“Every request for manuscript map data in the possession of the Topographic Branch must hereafter 

be made through the Chief Geographer. Requests 

for advance photolithographic sheets, or for special 

photographs of partial sheets, are to be submitted 

in the same way, and all business pertaining to the 

Millionth-Map work must be conducted with, or 

through the Chief Geographer, who is Chairman of 

the Committee in charge of that work.

“The purpose of this order is two-fold, to protect 

manuscripts from loss or damage, and to prevent the 

misunderstanding that so often results from informal 

procedure. The regulations, page 128, that correspondence between branches should pass through 

the Director’s office, need not apply to such routine 

matters as those mentioned, but inter-branch correspondence must pass over the desks of the branch 

chiefs.”

Survey Order No. 11

Survey Order No. 11, Rearrangement of Divisions in the 

Topographic Branch, dated June 25, 1912, effective July 1, 

1912, was as follows:

“Effective July 1, 1912, a rearrangement of the divisions in the Topographic Branch will be made, as 

follows:

“Atlantic Division (unchanged)

In charge: Frank Sutton, Geographer.

“Central Division (unchanged)

In charge: William H. Herron, Geographer.

“Rocky Mountain Division (unchanged)

In charge: Sledge Tatum, Geographer.

“Pacific Division, consisting of the States of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and the Territory of 

Hawaii

In charge: George R. Davis, Geographer.

“Northwestern Division, consisting of the States of 

Idaho, Oregon, and Washington

In charge: Thomas G. Gerdine, Geographer.”

Table 25. Field engineers who worked on the 

Washington, D.C., and vicinity map.

C.G. Anderson W.H. Griffin F.E. Matthes

C.W. Arnold R.L. Harrison W.H.S. Morey

N.E. Ballmer E.I. Ireland Robert Muldrow

J.E. Blackburn B.A. Jenkins A.J. Ogle

F.W. Crisp Oscar Jones H.W. Peabody

J.A. Duck R.A. Kiger S.T. Penick

J.R. Eakin J.H. LeFeaver Albert Pike

C.F. Eberly L.L. Lee Roscoe Reeves

C.A. Ecklund J.L. Lewis H.S. Senseney

R.T. Evans S.G. Lunde Olinus Smith

S.P. Floore J.F. McBeth W.O. Tufts

J.I. Gayetty H.L. McDonald J.M. Whitman

C.E. Griffin Fred McLaughlin Fred Graff, Jr.
Winter Work in the White Mountains 71

Winter Work in the White Mountains

Discussions and debates by earnest people in the States of 

the Appalachian Region culminated in the Weeks Act (John W. 

Weeks, M.C., from Massachusetts), approved March 1, 1911. 

Sections of the act provided for the acquisition of lands for the 

protection of the watersheds of navigable streams; the creation 

of a commission to administer the act (the commission to be 

composed of the Secretaries of War, Interior, and Agriculture; two U.S. Senators; and two U.S. Representatives); and 

perform the examination of lands, by the U.S. Geological 

Survey, before selection and purchase by the National Forest 

Reservation Commission. Topographers assigned to the White 

Mountains are listed in table 26.

The Geological Survey, in undertaking the examination of lands, accepted the demonstrated facts that forests 

prevented or retarded erosion that caused soil and rocks in 

times of heavy rains to be washed down to silt streams and 

form sandbars in the navigable portions, but recognized the 

need for particular studies in order to establish the effect of 

vegetation in upland areas on the stage of flow in navigable 

streams. Besides vegetation, the quantity of water in a stream 

was dependent upon as many as five other factors: (1) rainfall and climate; (2) geology in respect to rock formations, 

thickness of overlying rock debris and soil, and underground 

flow; (3) topography in respect to surface irregularities and 

degree of slope; (4) geographic position; and (5) works of 

man, such as storage reservoirs.

In the White Mountains of New Hampshire, the Geological Survey found but slight evidence of erosion and, therefore, conducted investigations for the purpose of determining 

the regulative effect of the forest upon the stream flow. Two 

areas were selected with great care for the study. The Shoal 

Pond Brook and Burnt Brook were similar in every way, 

except that the first was forested whereas the second had 

been burned over, and the mat of vegetal soil depleted by 

successive fires. Observations, carried on during the winter 

months of 1911–12, demonstrated that the rate of runoff from 

the forested basin was from 50 to 67 percent of that from the 

denuded basin.

The National Forest Reservation Commission wanted 

the facts before July 1, 1912, which meant field work would 

be done before spring opened up. Hydrographers of the 

Water Resources had established gaging stations on Shoal 

Pond, Burnt, and five other brooks and in March, 1912, set 

up in the basins of the two selected brooks many snow scales 

and rain gages for the observation and recording of precipitation and runoff.

In March, also, topographic parties were sent into the 

snow-covered basins. The mapping was on scales adapted 

to the size of the several basins, and varied from 1 inch to 

2,000 feet, or 1:24,000, and included the careful location of all 

gaging stations, snow scales, and rain gages. 

Elevations began with 1,500 feet and ascended to 

3,000-6,000 feet along the crests of the different basins. 

Throughout the month of March, planetable work was difficult, in snow that varied from a depth of 2 feet to 20 feet, 

where the snow had drifted, and was performed with the aid 

of snowshoes. Vertical control was executed by Reuben A. 

Kiger, and included the extension of a line of levels along 

the cog railroad to the summit of Mount Washington, at 

6,284 feet.

The topographic mapping was executed in cooperation 

with the National Forest Reservation Commission and was 

completed in time for the Survey’s report, the determination of boundaries of purchase tracts by the Forest Service, 

and the approval for purchase by the Commission of three 

tracts containing a total of 70,370 acres in the White Mountains before July 1, 1912. Approved for purchase also were 

15 other tracts aggregating 643,045 acres in the States of 

Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia. When purchased, the tracts, consisting of 

forested, cutover, and denuded lands, became National Forests, and were transferred to the Forest Service for administration and protection from illegal timber cutting, over grazing, and fires. Not long after July 1, Congress amended the 

Weeks Act by making available, until expended, the entire 

amounts appropriated for the four fiscal years from 1912 to 

1915, thereby making available $8,000,000 for the purchase 

of land, and for the expenses of examination and survey.

Operations of the National Forest Reservation Commission continued without interruption through the years. It 

was estimated that about one-third of the area of the United 

States would better serve economic and social-purposes by 

being set aside for the growth of timber. Proof of the soundness of the program was shown by the multiplying number 

of states that enacted the requisite acts of consent to the 

initiation of the program within their borders. Examination 

of new watershed areas by the U.S. Geological Survey continued to show that forests have a favorable affect upon the 

regimen of navigable streams both in minimizing erosion 

and the silting of stream channels, and in tending to equalize 

stream flow. The greatest progress that was made in carrying to fruition of the purchase program of the Commission 

was during the interval from 1933 to 1936, when President 

Roosevelt allotted $46,712,150 for land acquisition funds, 

which made possible the purchase of more than 11,000,000 

acres of land.

Table 26. Topographers assigned to the winter work in the 

White Mountains.

E.I. Ireland W.H.S. Morey Hersey Munroe

Roscoe Reeves Karl E. Schlachter J.H. LeFeaver

E.E. Witherspoon Robert L. McCammon F.L. Shalibo, Rodman
72 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Motorcycles and Motorcars

Mr. Marshall instructed Walter N. Vance to try out a 

motorcycle on traverses of roads on the Shauck Quadrangle, 

Ohio, in 1912. Road surfaces were rough in those days and 

riders of motorcycles were bumped and frequently spilled. 

The rodman, Rhea B. Steele, rode a bicycle. To make better 

time to and from work in the morning and evening, Mr. Vance 

contrived to tie the stadia rod to his motorcycle and to tow Mr. 

Steele on the bicycle at the end of a 15-foot rope. Mr. Steele 

held the rope after a couple of turns around the handle bars. 

Even so, there were times when he couldn’t release the rope 

quickly enough to avoid a spill. Also, the rod was coming 

loose and tangling with the rear cyclist. It was not long before 

Mr. Steele also acquired a motorcycle; however, this mode of 

transportation was not adopted by the Survey.

The Topographic Branch then experimented with automobiles (fig. 19). Albert M. Walker used one in North Dakota 

in 1914. The Geologic Branch tried one out in California. 

When not in use, it was loaned to the Topographic Branch. In 

1916, the two topographers mapping the Turner Ranch Quadrangle west of Merced in the San Joaquin Valley used it for a 

couple of weeks and were delighted with its greater speed than 

that of a pair of mules and buckboard. It was a Ford touring 

car and for some reason, the gauge was a couple of inches 

wider than standard, preventing the wheels from fitting into 

the ruts of private and mountain roads. To drive it was a new 

adventure for the topographer, and occasionally required all 

his skill and courage when necessary to steer the wheels on the 

two planks set at standard gauge, which substituted for bridges 

across irrigation and drainage ditches.

The Pacific Division, early in 1917, acquired five new 

Ford touring cars, and in March they were driven, with tops 

down and a small American flag flying on each, by a group 

of topographers from Sacramento to King City, Calif., where 

a base camp was established. The famous Tie Sing was cook. 

In a day or two parties were organized and departed for the 

several quadrangles to be mapped. There were not sufficient 

cars to go around, leaving to some topographers the usual 

buckboards and mules. The fortunate topographers, however, 

found that the water boiled in the radiators on long mountain 

grades and that extra water had to be carried in large canteens 

for the purpose of refilling the radiators. Further, to add to the 

transportation difficulties, the cars were unable to climb the 

steepest mountain roads.

In the spring of 1918, field parties that could not be 

equipped with the usual camp layout were permitted to live 

off the country and rent automobiles for use in the daily work. 

The cars were usually the touring type and the monthly rental 

was between $100 and $150, the Survey paying for all running expenses in addition. Improved roads were surfaced with 

gravel or crushed rock and sharp fragments punctured the tires 

all too often. Hardly a day passed without at least one puncture. If the tires were over inflated so as to avoid punctures, a 

sharper bump in the road resulted in a broken spring.

New Building Authorized

In the winter of 1912 to 1913, Congress authorized the 

expenditure of $2,596,000 for a new building for the Geological Survey on the block covering 18th and 19th Streets, E and 

F Streets, NW. It was to be a fireproof building “of modern 

office building type of architecture” and would accommodate, 

besides the Geological Survey, the Reclamation Service, the 

Indian Office and the Bureau of Mines, and all Bureaus of the 

Interior Department whose work was closely related to that of 

the Survey.

The authorization was the culmination of 26 years of 

effort. In the early spring of 1885, the Survey offices were 

moved from the National Museum to the Hooe Building, 

1330 F Street, NW. It was the first building in Washington 

of iron construction. The Survey laboratories would remain 

in the National Museum. As early as 1886, the Survey called 

attention to the crowded working conditions, with attendant 

inadequate ventilation, and lighting, and the impossibility of 

systematic arrangement of office and of working materials. 

Some relief was found by the rental of nearby office space: in 

the early 1890’s, the top floor of the Adams Building, 1333 to 

1335 P Street NW.; some rooms in the old Post Office Building on F Street between Seventh and Eighth Streets, NW. 

In 1899 to 1900, paleontologists often were quartered in the 

National Museum. In 1906, the basement floor of the Hooe 

Building was secured. In 1913 to 1914, the Rocky Mountain 

Division was accommodated for its winter office work on an 

upper floor of the Munsey Building and in 1914 to 1915, on 

the fifth floor of the Adams Building.

The crowding of rooms with furniture and materials, 

and some hallways with cases of records created a real fire 

hazard, of special concern to geologists, hydrographers, and 

topographers whose original notes of investigations and map 

manuscripts, the fruits of their labors during one or more field 

seasons, were placed in constant jeopardy. Some fires did 

occur but the most disastrous one was in the front basement 

on Sunday afternoon, May 18, 1913. The fire damage was 

estimated at approximately $100,000. About 175,000 copies 

of the latest topographic maps were destroyed; 200,000 copies 

of geologic folios were destroyed or seriously damaged; and 

about 60,000 book publications, most of which were reserve 

copies, including the older and rarer publications, were partly 

or wholly destroyed.

The Survey had many suggestions as to desirable features 

for the new building, and in 1913, an advisory committee was 

organized with A.H. Brooks as chairman, and Sledge Tatum 

and Herman Stabler as members. The Survey moved into 

the new Interior Building in May 1917, and after the South 

Interior Building was completed, it was known as the North 

Interior Building. In August 1943, it was designated the Federal Works Building, and in September 1949, the name was 

changed to General Services Building. Again, the Geological 

Survey had outgrown its quarters and a new, larger building 

was contemplated.
Shaded Relief Maps 73

Shaded Relief Maps

In 1913, John H. Renshawe, inspector of maps and 

accomplished watercolor artist, at the request of the Secretary of the Interior, prepared shaded relief maps (fig. 20) of 

the western national parks. Shading was applied to a special 

printing of the topographic base in a manner to emphasize 

the slopes of the mountains and hills, thus creating the effect 

of the third dimension for the map and rendering its larger 

features more understandable; especially to the layman. The 

Survey had experimented with relief shading in the early 

years, but the cost of reproduction by the lithographic process 

was then prohibitive.

In 1914, A.M. Walker was appointed inspector to take 

over Mr. Renshawe’s duties, as his time was fully occupied 

with relief mapping. Shaded relief maps of Crater Lake, 

Yosemite, Glacier, Yellowstone, and Mount Rainier National 

Parks were prepared by Mr. Renshawe. These maps were so 

popular with the public that during the following years, he 

prepared relief maps of many areas: Mesa Verde and Rocky 

Mountain National Parks; San Francisco and vicinity, California; also a model showing the Survey’s work for the Exposition at San Francisco; the United States; Salem and vicinity, 

Oregon; State of Ohio; Southern California; Alaska with periodic revisions, for the Division of Alaskan Mineral Resources; 

aviation route between San Diego and Los Angeles, etc.

From July 1, 1920, to June 30, 1925, when he retired, Mr. 

Renshawe was Geographer-in-Charge of the Section of Relief 

Maps. Ralph W. Berry, who had been selected by Colonel 

Birdseye in 1921, as the engineer with the most artistic ability, 

to train with Mr. Renshawe and continue shaded relief mapping after Mr. Renshawe’s retirement, was Engineer-in-Charge 

of the Section of Relief Maps from July 1, 1925, until the 

section was discontinued on June 30, 1928. Mr. Berry resigned 

on May 31, 1930, but returned to the Survey on September 

29, 1933, and was assigned to the Cartographic Section. The 

map of the Monument Springs Quadrangle, Tex., was the first 

shaded relief map published (1921) by the Geological Survey 

and was followed by a series of maps, most of which were 

topographic quadrangle maps of 1:62,500 scale. The relief 

shading on these maps was done with charcoal, pencil, crayon, 

chalk, and in some instances, with a combination of two or 

more of these media. The copy was then photo processed, 

transferred to stone, and touched up by lithographic artists for 

printing.

In World War II, the U.S. Army, recognizing the advantages of relief shading in teaching map reading, and for briefing purposes, requested the Geological Survey to reactivate 

a relief shading unit to prepare small scale maps of the Far 

Eastern Theater. This unit, under Mr. Berry’s direction, prepared a series of maps of China and Japan, which proved to be 

very popular. Mr. Berry received a meritorious award from the 

Department of the Interior for excellent relief shading.

In 1946, the Shaded Relief Unit was moved to the Rocky 

Mountain Region in Denver, Colo., and continued as a part of 

the Region’s Cartographic Section. Under the direction of Hal 

Shelton, shading was done by airbrush, and after Mr. Shelton’s 

resignation on April 15, 1949, was continued by Gene Harbert. 

Shading by airbrush, together with improved reproduction 

techniques, resulted in speedier output and better tone qualities in the end products. An Eastman contact magenta halftone 

screen was used in the preparation of reproduction negatives. 

The resulting maps were a great improvement over those 

prepared by the old methods, but some still lacked the desired 

contrast and depth in color.

Subsequent experiments developed the present process 

of preparing two drawings for each map; a relief drawing and 

a green tone drawing. From the relief drawings two negatives 

are made. One at normal exposure, and the other at an exposure just long enough to photograph the darkest parts of the 

copy. Three press runs are required in printing. The plate made 

from the normal negative is run first, in full tone color (brown) 

so that the greatest possible contrast can be obtained; followed 

in order by the plate made from the second or shadow negative, which accentuates the darkest parts of the map, and then 

the plate made from the green tone drawing, which further 

accentuates the valley depths. This procedure is now in use, 

except that the standard interposing halftone screen is used 

instead of the magenta screen. More study and experimentation is necessary before the maximum effectiveness in making 

relief drawings can be reached; the search for improvements in 

shading methods, equipment, and reproduction processes will 

be continued.

In 1930, the new shaded relief map of the Crawford 

Notch Quadrangle, N.H., was sent out for comment and 

Albert Pike, former Atlantic Division Engineer, wrote as 

follows:

“Many thanks for the shaded map of the Crawford 

Notch Quadrangle, N.H.. It is most effective, very 

interesting, and what a fine exhibit could be made; 

sample of maps, one in each 48 States.

“Many years ago, Mr. Renshawe made the first one 

I had ever seen, the best I have ever seen, the old 

man was a real artist. I thought of the same thing at 

that time. We ought to have an exhibit, and too, why 

don’t the cooperating states place a topographic map 

in each of its high schools. Maybe since the Survey 

has a more liberal director we might do a bit of 

educational work.

“I am still interested in the Topographic Branch, and 

its progress toward an accurate map is most gratifying. You know that R.B. Marshall in changing from 

aneroid and buggy wheel to stadia did a fine thing. 

The pioneer often gets cussed. In my office work my 

first thought was to get a more accurate map. The 

airplane photo was a help but the pioneer Multiplex 

machine in the T.V.A. was a Godsend, and while 

they did well, it was hard to convince them that 

they could do better. Any photo seemed to be good 
74 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

enough and it took the Clarendon office to prove that 

photos with full foliage was a mistake and too little 

control was a mistake. Now you are getting more 

control and cheaper control with the barometric 

instruments; also better pictures.

“I believe the Survey is making a wonderful map 

and it deserves plenty of support. More power to 

you and with best wishes.”

In fiscal year 1954, relief shading was completed for 

10 quadrangles and 3 state maps. (It is estimated that relief 

shading adds about 5 percent to the total cost of the average 

map.)

The Panama–Pacific International 

Exposition and The Panama–California 

Exposition

The Panama–Pacific International Exposition at San 

Francisco and the Panama–California Exposition at San Diego 

were opened in February 1915, to celebrate the completion 

of the Panama Canal (opened informally on August 15, 1914, 

and formally by presidential proclamation on July 12, 1915) 

and the quatercentenary of the discovery of the Pacific. The 

Geological Survey, for the use of visitors to these west coast 

extraordinary attractions, issued new printings of two quadrangle maps and a set of four guidebooks of the western United 

States.

The San Francisco 15-minute quadrangle with 24-foot 

contours had been mapped in 1892–94, the topography compiled from previous surveys by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey, the U.S. Engineer Corps and by the City, and by 

original surveys by R.H. Chapman, R.B. Marshall, and W.H. 

Otis. In 1914, B.A. Jenkins was assigned to the work of 

revising the culture, which included particularly the addition 

of the splendid new exposition palaces. They were conspicuous on the map in the exposition grounds on the north edge 

of the city and fronting on San Francisco Bay for nearly 

2.5 miles.

The San Diego 15-minute quadrangle with 25-foot 

contours had been mapped in 1902; the triangulation by A.P. 

Davis and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the topography 

by J.E. Rockhold, and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; it 

was reprinted without revision.

The guidebooks, published as Survey Bulletins, covered 

four railroad routes west of the Mississippi River. Railroad 

travel was being stimulated by the two expositions, by the 

mounting popularity of the national parks, and by the diversion to the west of vacation travel usually directed eastward to 

Europe, then in the throes of war.

The Survey considered it an opportunity to present to 

the traveler-reader much geographic and geologic data, which 

it had accumulated in decades of pioneering investigation. 

The guidebooks were illustrated by photographs, geologic 

diagrams, and geologic-topographic strip maps covering the 

routes traversed.

The maps were prepared with a degree of accuracy 

probably never before attained in a guidebook. Projections 

were made to fit 15 by 15 inch boards, as the bases for the 

compilation of all available map materials, published Survey 

maps, and maps yet in the process of being published. The 

recorded alignments of the four railroads in the files of the 

Interstate Commerce Commission, and the track profiles 

with elevations at mileposts obtained in the general railroad 

offices were printed on the bases. The gaps between the 

maps were filled in by original field surveys, made with a 

planetable. One or more topographers were assigned to each 

railroad, in the spring before starting a regular assignment 

and in the late fall after the regular summer assignment had 

been completed.

With the railroad alignment, and the mileposts plotted 

on a field board, it was easy for the topographer to set up the 

planetable at a milepost, orient by the compass or by sighting 

along the railroad alignment, and to sketch the drainage and 

contours after locating, by intersection, the necessary control 

points and determining their elevations by vertical angles. In 

flat deserts and open prairie country, topographic features as 

distant as 50 miles were located, and as many as 200 square 

miles were sketched in one day. The scale was small, for the 

guide maps were to be printed on the scale of 1 inch equals 

8 miles with a contour interval of 200 feet.

The railroads concerned were very cooperative, furnishing the topographer a gasoline speeder and operator, (a 

railroad man who was familiar with the schedule of trains.) 

The speeder was light enough to permit two men to lift it 

off the track when a train was due, and speedy enough to 

permit a drive of 50 miles, if necessary, to a place to stay 

overnight.

For the convenience of the traveler, the sheets of the route 

map, varying in number from 19 to 29 in the four guidebooks, 

were so arranged that he could unfold them one by one and 

keep each one in view while he was reading the text relating 

to it. Railroad crossties were shown 1 mile apart and mileage 

figures were given at 10-mile intervals, counting continuously 

from the starting point.

Boundaries of published quadrangle maps were 

indicated and their names given. The geologic information 

on the maps, and the descriptive text, were prepared by a 

Survey geologist who supplemented his material derived 

from many sources by making a field examination of the 

entire route in 1914.

Descriptions of towns and excerpts from American history as it was enacted in the various localities added to the 

wealth of information in the text, and rendered it instructive 

and entertaining.

Each guidebook contains a list of recent publications 

describing geology along the route, a glossary of geologic 

terms, and an index of the railroad stations.
Temporary Field Employment 75

Part A (Bulletin 611).—The Northern Pacific Route, 

with a side trip to Yellowstone National Park. 1,910 miles, 27 

map sheets. Gap topography by J.G. Staack, C.L. Sadler, J.L. 

Lewis, N.E. Ballmer, and W.O. Tufts.

Part B (Bulletin 612).—The Overland Routes with a side 

trip to Yellowstone National Park. 1,782 miles, 29 map sheets. 

Gap topography by C.H. Birdseye and J.L. Lewis.

Part C (Bulletin 613).—The Santa Fe Route, with a side 

trip to the Grand Canyon. 1,810 miles, 26 map sheets. Gap 

topography by W.O. Tufts.

Part D (Bulletin 614).—The Shasta Route and Coast 

Line—Seattle to Los Angeles. 1,427 miles, 19 map sheets. 

Gap topography by B.A. Jenkins and J.E. Blackburn.

Mr. John H. Renshawe did a water-color painting depicting field work of Topographic, Geologic, and Water Resources 

work for this Exposition as part of the U.S. Geological Survey 

exhibits. A.C. Roberts, in Washington, had charge of the drafting of the maps.

With a small allotment from the congressional appropriation for the Government exhibit at the Exposition, the Survey 

set up a creditable and instructive exhibit. Ralph W. Stone, 

geologist, was in charge, and gave illustrated lectures daily, 

describing the work of the Survey. The Survey was awarded 

one grand prize, three medals of honor, three gold medals, two 

silver medals, and one bronze medal.

At the time Lassen Peak created a great deal of interest. 

A volcanic peak (10,453 feet), about 200 miles north-northeast 

of San Francisco, and supposedly extinct, on May 30, 1914, 

emitted clouds of steam and ash, and on the following June 8, 

and July 18, threw up a column of steam that rose to a height 

of 10,000 feet above the crest.

Temporary Field Employment

The first Topographic Instructions Manual, edition of 

1915, states:

“Persons desiring temporary employment on the 

field force in grade 1 must file application, on the 

form provided for that purpose, with the chief 

geographer in Washington. Laborers (grade 2) will 

be employed in the field by chiefs of parties as 

necessity may arise, and no applications for such 

employment will be received or filed in Washington. 

All persons are ineligible for employment if they 

are suffering from any contagious, or other disease, 

and, in grade 1, if they are under 20, or more than 

40 years of age, or if they are students pursuing 

a college course, unless they bind themselves to 

remain with the party until their services are no longer needed. Preference is given to applicants from 

states in which the work is to be done, and in case 

of residents assigned to parties working in western 

states, the age limit for rodmen, recorders, etc., may 

be waived, provided that no such employee is to be 

less than 18 years of age (fig. 21).”

Each year, there were many more applications than there 

were positions and it was sometimes hard to convince the 

eager, bright-eyed boys, seeking adventure in the West, that 

there were no positions for them. It still warms our hearts 

though, when some of the previous employees write that they 

were with a topographic field party in the 1890’s and had 

never forgotten it, and could we possibly find a place for their 

grandsons.

Mr. Marshall gave instructions that applications from 

sons of Topographic Branch employees should be brought to 

his immediate attention, and he would see that they obtained 

the first vacancies. He added that with limited appropriations 

he could not adequately compensate topographers for their 

good work and long hours, but he would make the sons realize that their father’s name would obtain for them one of the 

coveted field positions. This policy is still being carried out in 

the Topographic Branch, although applications are no longer 

filed in the Chief Topographic Engineers office, but in the four 

Regional offices.

In the spring of 1943, an extensive mapping program 

made it necessary for the Survey to obtain authority for the 

employment of 16-year old boys, and also women in positions 

heretofore filled by men. The lowering from 18 to 17 years of 

age for seasonal assistants in field parties by the Secretary’s 

memorandum of May 29, 1942, improved the situation for 

awhile, but conditions again became acute, largely because of 

the lowering of draft age to 18 years. An effort was made to 

employ men 50 years and older. One topographic field party 

at Media, Pa., had three rodmen whose ages were 61, 67, and 

71 years. They had been coaxed to take jobs but could not be 

coaxed to work any faster. E.E. Harris, levelman in California, 

was the first to give rod-girls a tryout. He found them willing 

workers and got along fairly well, but a 12-foot invar rod was 

quite a burden for a 5-foot girl. Recording was much easier for 

them.

In the Chattanooga Section, the loss of personnel to 

the armed forces was made up by women trainees. In January 1943, the Section reported that its Multiplex output was 

about 30 square miles per operator, per month, on topographic 

mapping at a scale of 1:10,000, whereas the planimetric 

work was about 100 square miles, per operator at a scale of 

1:12,000. The Alaskan Branch in September 1943, numbered 

100 women among their mapping staff of about 270, who 

were engaged upon the trimetrogon process of compiling 

aeronautical charts for the Army Air Forces in various parts 

of the world. Final publication scale usually was 1:1,000,000 

with a 1,000-foot contour interval. The output per month was 

300,000 square miles of planimetry and about 50 square miles 

of topography.

To further meet the war demands, the Survey obtained 

authority to recall retired men for temporary regional office 

work.
76 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Ohio–Michigan Boundary Line

Ohio was the first state formed from the original “Territory Northwest of the River Ohio”, and its western boundary, 

a line drawn due north from the mouth of the Great Miami 

River, was surveyed and marked in 1799 as the first principal 

meridian of the General Land Office. When admitted as the 

17th State on November 29, 1802, its northern boundary was 

the projection of the east-west line from the southerly extreme 

of Lake Michigan to the most northerly cape of Maumee Bay 

on Lake Erie. Lines were run in 1817, and established the 

position of the line between the two geographical features 

as 5 to 7 miles north of the due east line from the southern extremity of Lake Michigan. As the distance was about 

70 miles, the strip between the two lines amounted to about 

520 square miles, which remained in dispute until January 

26, 1837, when Michigan was admitted as the 26th State and 

relinquished her claim. Parts of the line, as marked in 1817, 

were retraced and remarked in 1837 by the General Land 

Office.

In 1915, the Legislatures of Ohio and Michigan authorized a resurveying and monumenting of the line; all existing 

marks of previous surveys to be recovered and, where none 

existed, straight lines to be extended between known points. 

S.S. Gannett was in charge of this work and set 71 posts at 

1-mile intervals.

Survey Order No. 67

Survey Order No 67, Designation of Acting Chief Geographer, dated December 11, 1915, was as follows:

“Secretary Lane has ordered the transfer of Mr. 

Marshall to the position of Superintendent of the 

National Parks, effective at once, and to continue 

during the balance of the fiscal year.

“Mr. Sledge Tatum is hereby designated Acting 

Chief Geographer and will continue to serve as 

Geographer-in-Charge of the Rocky Mountain 

Division.”

Survey Order No. 69

Survey Order No. 69, Assignments in the Topographic 

Branch, dated January 22, 1916, was as follows:

“The great loss which the whole Survey has suffered 

through the death of Mr. Tatum necessitates the following assignments in the Topographic Branch:

“William H. Herron is hereby designated Acting 

Chief Geographer to serve for the balance of the fiscal year, and Glenn S. Smith will act as Topographic 

Engineer-in-Charge of the Central Division for the 

same period.

“Claude H. Birdseye is designated Topographic 

Engineer-in-Charge of the Rocky Mountain Division.

“In case of the temporary absence of the Branch 

Chief, the division chiefs will act for him with full 

authority, in the following order of seniority: Mr. 

Frank Sutton, Mr. T.G. Gerdine, Mr. G.R. Davis, Mr. 

C.H. Birdseye, Mr. G.S. Smith.”

Survey Order No. 70

Survey Order No. 70, Rearrangement of Divisions in the 

Topographic Branch, effective April 1, 1916, states:

“Effective April 1, 1916, a rearrangement of the 

divisions in the Topographic Branch will be made, 

as follows:

Atlantic Division (unchanged)

In charge of Frank Sutton, Geographer.

Central Division (unchanged)

In charge of Glenn S. Smith, Topographic Engineer.

Rocky Mountain Division, consisting of the States 

of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, 

Oklahoma, Texas, Wyoming, Colorado, and New 

Mexico

In charge of Claude H. Birdseye, Topographic 

Engineer.

Northwestern Division, consisting of the States of 

Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and Montana

In charge of Thomas G. Gerdine, Geographer.

Pacific Division (unchanged)

In charge of George R. Davis, Geographer.”

Survey Order No. 77

Survey Order No. 77, Reassignments in Topographic 

Branch, dated December 30, 1916, reads as follows:

“Mr. R.B. Marshall, having resigned from the 

Bureau of National Parks, will resume the duties of 

Chief Geographer.

“Mr. W.H. Herron will resume the duties of Geographer-in-Charge of Central Division.

“Mr. Glenn S. Smith will resume duties as Topographic Engineer.

“Effective January 1, 1917.”
World War I 77

World War I

Involvement of the United States in the European conflict 

became inevitable during 1916 by reason of the depredations 

of U-boats upon merchant ships. On February 1, 1917, the 

German government announced unrestricted submarine warfare, and 2 days later the United States broke off diplomatic 

relations with Germany. On April 6, the United States declared 

a state of war existed with Germany.

For the topographic map so essential for military 

operations, the War Department looked to the Geological 

Survey to supply the needed experts for service at home and 

in France. To insure the closest cooperation, the Director, 

on August 18, 1916, proposed to Gen. William B. Black, 

Chief of Engineers, U.S.A., that Glenn S. Smith be given a 

commission and be put in charge of a new Survey division, 

Division of Military Surveys. The proposal was approved by 

General Black on January 19, 1917. G.S Smith had attended 

the Cayuga Lake Military Academy, N.Y., and the U.S. 

Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md., for 1 year before coming to 

the Survey in 1886. While making the topographic surveys at 

Fort Leavenworth, Kans., in 1906 to 1908, he cultivated the 

friendship of officers on duty there and kept up his contacts 

and interest in military matters.

Topographers and other Survey technical experts were 

urged to accept commissions in the Army’s new Engineer Officer Reserve Corps, the rank determined by salary grade and 

age limitations. The response was nearly 100 percent. Assignment to active duty followed in June and July. R.B. Marshall 

and G.S. Smith were commissioned as major, both later 

promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel. 

After March 26, 1917, most of the regular topographic 

work was confined to the general military surveys along 

the borders of the United States. More and more, however, 

it became necessary to make special surveys of sites for 

munitions plants, testing ground, artillery ranges, airplane and balloon fields, cantonments, and other military 

reservations.

Field surveys on the 15-minute quadrangles were 

conducted as usual though party chiefs now had additional 

details to handle. Military information had to be gathered, 

certain categories to be assembled on oversheets, and others 

to be embodied in written reports. Military regulations had to 

be studied; new forms to be filled out. To some field parties 

were assigned for training, one or two second lieutenants, 

young engineers newly commissioned from private life. Most 

instrument men now were army officers. It took some of them 

longer than it did others to find out the field surveys could not 

be performed in most types of country in expensive tailormade uniforms.

The parties constantly were losing commissioned instrument men by military order and experienced field assistants 

by voluntary enlistment in topographic companies being 

organized at Camp Devens (Ayer, Mass.) for service overseas. 

This continued even after the registration of men (ages 21–30) 

became effective on June 5, by authority of the Selective 

Military Conscription Bill, which was signed by President 

Wilson on May 18. To keep the parties supplied with field 

assistants Secretary Lane, on July 13, 1917, granted Mr. 

Marshall’s request that the 20-year minimum age limit for rodmen, recorders, etc., established by order of April 9, 1904, be 

changed to 18 years.

In Washington D.C. in May 1917, the Survey moved 

into the North Interior Building, now called the GSA Building, begun in July 1915, and located at 18th and F Street NW., 

The Survey was housed in the center wing. The Topographic 

Branch was allotted the sixth floor, and to the front of the 

building where the north light was considered best for drafting. In addition to its regular activities on July 1, a training 

school for topographers was established for the purpose of 

training a force of field assistants, sent by engineering colleges 

throughout the country, in the rudiments of topographic engineering. About 75 candidates received instructions for a month 

from Maj. A.M. Walker and others.

General Pershing, with Maj. G.S. Smith and his staff of 

53 officers and 146 men, arrived in England on June 8, 1917, 

and at Boulogne, France, on June 13. By the preliminary organization, announced on board the boat, and later confirmed, 

Col. Roger G. Alexander, U.S. Army, was designated as 

Chief G–2–C (Topography), and in this capacity, he exercised 

general supervision over the work of the 29th Engineers, at the 

Base Printing Plant, and allied activities.

In France, Major Smith and other officers were surprised to learn that only a strip of country about 20 miles 

wide along the northern border of France from Belgium to 

Switzerland had been mapped on a scale sufficiently large 

for military operations. As this strip had been captured 

by the Germans early in the war, the Allies were left in a 

region that had been mapped more than 50 years before 

the war on a scale of 1:80,000, with the relief shown by 

hachures, the maps being thus wholly inadequate for use 

in modern warfare. Topographic units of the French and 

English armies had remapped this region as rapidly as possible. Plans directeurs (battle maps) on scales of 1:10,000 

and 1:20,000 had been prepared in areas where they were 

most needed to guide the Allies in repelling the advance of 

the Germans.

The 29th Engineers found the required maps already prepared, and only once was given the opportunity to demonstrate 

their capabilities. It was after the disaster to the Allied Army in 

the vicinity of Amiens, in March 1918, that the French called 

upon General Pershing to furnish topographic engineers to 

assist in the surveys needed to provide several battle maps 

of areas in the vicinity of Amiens and Chateau Thierry. The 

first operation covered 225 square kilometers to the westward 

of Creteuil, and the other was a regular 1:20,000 scale plan 

directeur of St. Auld.

After a thorough search in November 1917 for a good 

location for a Base Printing Plant, a choice was made and 

arrangements perfected with the French authorities for the 

occupation and use of 14 buildings of Tureene Barracks at the 
78 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

south edge of Langres, Haute Marne. In spite of difficulties, 

the necessary accessories of water, sewage, light, and heat 

were installed and, as they arrived from the States, printing 

presses, machines, cameras, and miscellaneous equipment, 

so that by the time the American Army was organized and 

in the field, the Base Printing Plant was ready to supply the 

needed maps and printed matter. Major Smith was Director 

of the base, which also was the headquarters, and home of the 

29th Engineers. Capt. (later Maj.) Harold R. Richards, U.S.A., 

was Commanding Officer and Capt. L.L. Lee (Survey) was 

adjutant. The troops numbered about 100 officers and 1,200 

enlisted men, though only a part of this force was at Langres at 

any one time.

The 29th Engineers had its beginning at Camp Devens, 

Mass. There Maj. Frank Sutton, assigned to duty with troops 

and relinquishing his Atlantic Division to Major Herron and 

Gerdine, gathered the required specialists from among officers 

and men and organized them into companies for the surveying, mapping, and printing work to be performed overseas. 

Company A was ready on October 28. Embarkation was from 

Hoboken, N.J., whence, via Brest, they arrived at Langres on 

December 3, 1917.

Company B was commanded by Capt. H.H. Hodgeson 

and other officers from the Survey were Oscar H. Nelson, 1st 

Lt.; Charles H. Davey, 2d Lt.; Howard Clark, 2d Lt.; Leo B. 

Roberts, 2d Lt.; Fred W. Crisp, 2d Lt.

The Company was ready to move at Christmas time, but 

an epidemic of measles delayed its embarkation at Hoboken 

on the Transport Calamares until January 30, 1918. Other 

companies followed at intervals.

In August, Maj. Frank Sutton with Capt. E.I. Ireland as 

adjutant, who had been assisting with the organization work, 

moved a battalion of 1,100 men from Camp Devens to Washington Barracks, Washington, D.C., and after full preparation, 

embarked the battalion from Newport News, Va.

In addition to the Survey personnel assigned to the 29th 

Engineers, a map organization, 13 Survey men were detailed 

as orienteur officers to the Coast Artillery of the Army. The 

13 volunteers, selected by the Survey in June 1917, sailed 

in July for France via England, with the 6th, 7th, and 8th 

Regiments of the 1st Brigade of Coast Artillery. The three 

regiments were later designated as the 51st, 52d, and 53d 

Regiments.

When the 2d Brigade of Coast Artillery was organized, 

and prepared to sail for France, a like request on the Survey was made by the Coast Artillery for orienteur officers, 

but denied by General Black, Chief of Engineers, as Survey personnel were required for the Corps of Engineers 

assignments.

The Survey engineers who were detailed to the Coast 

Artillery under the command of Maj. C.H. Birdseye were 

Capt. B.A. Jenkins; Capt. C.B. Kendall; Capt. L. Nelson; 1st 

Lt. Kostka Mudd; 1st Lt. A.J. Ogle; 1st Lt. J. Ross Eakin; 1st 

Lt. J.H. Wilson; 1st Lt. Roscoe Reeves; 1st Lt. D.H. Watson; 

1st Lt. Charles Hartmann; 1st Lt. C.R. Fisher; and 1st Lt. 

Thomas H. Moncure.

Upon arrival in France, the majority of the Survey personnel attended a 3-months course in the Artillery School for 

young Artillery officers. The knowledge gained in this school 

was invaluable to the orienteur officers in knowing the performance of each type of guns, firing data, rifling, drift, sighting 

instruments, bore sighting, and other pertinent data characteristic to heavy guns.

At the close of the Artillery School, an orienteur officers course was inaugurated for the artillery officers to learn 

the duties of the engineer officers, and the relation of duties 

of those involved in orienteur work, and artillery officer’s 

responsibilities. The Survey personnel of the brigade served as 

instructors under the direction of Maj. C.H. Birdseye, both in 

the classroom and field training in the use of Survey instruments and computations.

The first engagement in 1918, in which the Survey 

personnel served as orienteur officers, was the St. Michael 

Sector. Several types of heavy guns were involved, including 

10-inch tractor mounts, railroad mounts, and mobile GPF, 

or 155 mm. Lt. Kostka Mudd was the only Survey orienteur officer wounded in the early days of the bombardment, 

which resulted in a fractured leg, for which he received the 

Croix de Guerre. (Mr. Mudd’s wound resulted in a permanent 

limp.)

At the close of hostilities, all returned to civilian life, 

and back to the Survey, with the exception of Lt. J.H. Wilson, 

who remained in the Service and reached the rank of brigadier 

general during World War II.

Survey officers stationed at Langres constantly were 

being sent out to make surveys of small areas designed for 

such use as hospital sites, warehouses, aviation fields, and 

training camps. One assignment mapped by personnel of 

Company A, shortly after its arrival in France, was a detailed 

survey of the Loire River flat at St. Nazaire with a contour 

interval of one-half meter, the basis for some 200 miles of 

railroad track built during 1918, for warehouses, and for ship 

docks at the river edge.

A school for officer candidates was located at Langres, 

and Survey officers conducted classes in topographic mapping 

and in the interpretation and restitution of airplane photographs. Here, too, before the end of hostilities, was established 

a department for the production of relief models, which were 

in demand for certain visibility studies.

Prior to Armistice Day, the output of the Base Printing 

Plant, often operating day and night, amounted to 3.5 million 

maps, or plans directeurs, 3 million impressions of type, 6,000 

contact prints, 500 enlargements, 800 blueprints, etc. Miniature base plants added to these totals. They were established 

at the headquarters of the 1st Army in Neufchateau, the 2d 

Army in Toul, and later, the Army of Occupation at Coblenz. 

Lesser units were set up in Paris, and at G.H.Q. in Chaumont. 

The same methods were employed in making field surveys, 

and in reproducing maps used in the United States. They were 

acknowledged to be superior by the French and English, who 

frequently sent their topographic engineers to observe and 

study operations.
World War I 79

With the signing of the Armistice on November 11, 

1918, the eyes of all Americans were turned towards home 

across the Atlantic, and the next few months were charged 

with impatience and restlessness, ameliorated to some extent 

in the 29th Engineers by the printing of many technical 

and historical reports, and by the performance of certain 

interesting tasks. One unit of 30 men made a careful largescale survey of the hidden concrete dugouts extending for 

2 kilometers east and west of the Mon Plasir Ferme, one of 

the strong points in the enemy defenses between Verdun and 

Metz. Several small parties sketched and described the most 

likely sites for monuments that might be erected in commemoration of the best advance against the enemy that was 

made by each American Division. Individuals were selected 

for convoy duty with the trucks that took supplies twice a 

month to the Intelligence Unit with the Army of Occupation 

at Coblenz, in Germany.

A group of surveyors, in conjunction with other 

detachments to form the Graves Registration Service, 

made search, surveys, notes, and plans throughout the 

battle areas until all remains of fallen American soldiers 

were found and identified. For their final resting place, 

Lt. R.M. Wilson helped to select a site near Romagne, and 

then had charge of six transit parties that staked out this 

entire cemetery, involving setting about 6,000 stakes for a 

cemetery designed to hold 24,900 graves. For this work, 

the planetable and stadia were substituted for the transit 

and tape, after trial, as affording more rapid progress. Subsequently, he selected and staked out a smaller cemetery at 

Theaucort, France.

For the purposes of experiment and record, a Mobile 

Topographical Unit was organized, and three field problems 

of 10 days each was devised. A large amount of technical 

equipment was loaded on great trucks, a complement of 

officers and men selected, and the unit began its movement 

on March 10, to terminate at Sedan on April 14, 1919. Wartime conditions were simulated, and the battle areas from 

Mont Sec to Sedan were scouted, surveyed, photographed, 

drafted, restituted, summarized, and printed, just as they 

might have been done in conjunction with the Army in full 

operation. The area mapped, corresponding to the width of 

two Army corps, varying from 20 to 30 kilometers, was in 

ruins, deserted, and either under a blanket of snow or very 

muddy.

When the orders came in June to return, the 29th Engineers marched out of the Tureen Barracks with flags flying 

and it’s fine band playing, paraded through the main street 

of Langres and down the winding road to the railroad, and 

entrained for the ports of St. Nazaire and Brest. Only one 

American remained in Langres; Lt. Thomas H. Moncure, 

who was to hear and record claims for damages incurred 

by the French townspeople during the 8-months stay of the 

29th Engineers in Langres. (December 3, 1917, to June 20, 

1918.)

That the 29th Engineers fulfilled their important purposes 

is attested by the following letter of commendation from 

the Commander-in-Chief, American Expeditionary Forces 

(A.E.F.):

“American Expeditionary Forces

Office of the Commander-in-Chief 

France, April 28, 1919

Colonel Roger G. Alexander, General Staff, G–2–C

Commanding 29th Engineers,

Chaumont

My dear Colonel:

In considering the work of the various special troops 

in the American Expeditionary Forces, there is none 

that has been of more vital importance to successful 

operations than the work of the 29th Engineers, Survey and Printing. The adequate supply of accurate 

maps was a vital necessity. The field survey and 

reproduction work necessary for such maps under 

war conditions called for technical ability of the 

highest order, for foresight resourcefulness and good 

organization.

That our map supply was entirely adequate is due 

to the efforts of the officers and men of the 29th 

Engineers, at General Headquarters, at the Base 

Printing Plant, and with the Armies, Corps, and 

Divisions. They gave to their work at all times their 

best efforts, with the same zeal and self-sacrificing 

devotion to duty that has characterized the American 

fighting man at the front. For myself, personally, 

and in the name of their comrades in the Forces, it 

gives me the utmost pleasure to express to you, and 

through you to them, our heartiest congratulations 

and thanks.

Sincerely yours,

s/ John J. Pershing”

The following members of the Topographic Branch 

received medals, citations, or personal letters of commendation for meritorious services:

• French Croix de Guerre:

• Lt. Kostka Mudd, with 8th Army Artillery Staff—

Wounded by shell.

• Maj. Luria L. Lee, during Chateau Thierry offensive, 

July 1918.

• Capt. Alvah T. Fowler, under fire in Picardy, May to 

July 1918.

• Citations by Commander-in-Chief of the A.E.F.:

• Lt. Col. Glenn S. Smith, as Director, Base Printing 

Plant.

• Maj. Joseph H. Wheat, as instructor Army Intelligence School.
80 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

• Maj. William O. Tufts, in topographical surveying 

with 1st Army.

• Maj. Herbert H. Hodgeson, in charge of triangulation 

at the front.

• 1st Lt. James B. Leavitt, as topographic officer for 

6th American Corps.

• Mr. Louis H. Gott, in drafting section, General Staff.

• Maj. Luria L. Lee, as Adjutant 1st Battalion, 

29th Engineers.

• Capt. Albert O. Burkland, as topographic officer, 

1st Division.

• 1st Lt. Charles H. Davey, as instructor, Army Intelligence School.

• 1st Lt. Reuben A. Kiger, as topographic officer, 

5th Corps.

• Capt. Oliver G. Taylor, as topographic officer, 

1st Corps.

• Maj. Leo B. Roberts, as topographic officer, 

G.H.Q.

• Personal letters from General Pershing :

• Lt. Col. Alfred H. Brooks, as chief geologist of the 

A.E.F.

• Lt. Col. Glenn S. Smith, as Director, Base Printing 

Plant.

• Citations and medals of the Order of University Palm 

from the French Republic (Ministere de l’Instruction 

publique et des Beaux-Arts):

• Lt. Col. Claude H. Birdseye, Officier de l’Instruction 

Publique—Gold Palms

• Lieutenant Colonel Smith, Major Wheat, and Major 

Roberts—Officier d’Academie—Silver Palms

Maj. J.W. Bagley, assisted by F.M. Moffit, and for a part 

of the time by J.B. Mertie, (all of the Division of Alaskan 

Mineral Resources) pursued experiments towards designing 

and constructing a tri-lens camera for taking aerial photographs on a continuous roll of film, and a rectifying printer 

for restoring the scale of the wing exposures. This 

work was executed under the direction of the Chief 

of Engineers, U.S. Army, and the Director of the 

Geological Survey. Sixteen engineer officers, most 

of whom were sent to different aviation fields in the 

country, were trained in the use of these instruments, 

and about 40 enlisted men assisted them in mapping 

areas, which included among others, the airplane mail 

route from Washington to New York, and the airplane route 

from Washington to Langley Field, Va.

Major Bagley and contingent reached France too late for 

active operations.

The Geological Survey had a war service record 

probably unequalled by any other bureau in the Federal 

Civil Service. All employees, including clerks, draftsmen, 

map engravers, and printers were engaged in assisting 

the War and Navy Departments on work connected with 

the war. The number of men who went into the military 

or naval service during the war by branches is shown in 

table 27.

The Topographic Branch was proud of its share in the 

services and Chief Geographer Marshall had all the names 

carefully drafted, framed, and hung on a wall in his office 

(table 28). 

The Director, on December 18, 1918, sent all officers a 

telegram requesting military status desired. Nearly all replied 

for return to the Survey, and at the same time retain commission in the Engineer Officers Reserve Corps on inactive 

status. Considerable talk was rife at the time, based on the 

fact that the Army was supplying a large part of the funds for 

topographic mapping, that the Topographic Branch would be 

absorbed into the Army. The officers listed in table 29 chose to 

remain in the Army.

Maj. A.M. Walker, who had familiarized himself with the 

work of the French with their Chedan and Arnold relief models, and later had charge of the relief model department at Langres, was loaned to the Corps of Engineers from November 4, 

1921, to October 1, 1928, to carry on experiments with relief 

modeling in order to develop practical methods for Army use. 

He wrote a training manual on the subject for the Army. 

Table 27. U.S. Geological Survey employees who 

served in the military.

Branch/Division Enlisted Officers

Topographic Branch 305 110

Water Resources Branch 78 28

Administrative Branch 41 3

Geologic Branch 28 17

Engraving Division 21 3

Land Classification Board 6 2

 Total 479 163

Table 29. U.S. Geological Survey employees who chose to remain in the 

Army.

Maj. James W. Bagley Maj. Leo B. Roberts Capt. Calvin E. Griffin

Capt. R.M. Herrington Lt. William C.F. Bastian Lt. Fred W. Crisp

Lt. John H. Wilson
World War I 81

Table 28. Roster of Topographic Branch employees that served in the military.—Continued

[*, Overseas Service]

Adams, R.E. Burkland, A.O.*, Capt. Fairly, J.L. Hodgeson, H.H.*, Maj.

Aid, Harry Burt, E.C., Lt. Fales, J.C.*, 1st Lt. Holder, C.C., Lt.

Aid, Kenneth Burton, P.M. Farney, G.M.* Holloway, E.V.

Allen, J.B. Bush-Brown, Junes Farnham, A.R. Hopkins, R.W.*

Allen, W.R.* Cade, A.P.* Fisher, C.R.*, Capt. House, James

Alsing, A.A.* Cahill, S.F.* Fisher, W.A.* Hubbard, Bela*

Anderson, C.G., Capt. Campbell, E.M. Floore, S.P.*, 1st Lt. Hudson, H.L.

Anderson, J.L., Lt. Campbell, R.C.* Ford, G.R.* Hughes, F.W., 1st Lt.

Andreas, A.H.L.* Carson, W.G., Lt. Fort, F.L. Hurst, W.P.

Andrews, A.K. Chaddock, T.H. Fowler, A.T.*, Capt. Ingersoll, H.B.

Arthur, B.E.* Chamberlain, E.D. Gardner, C.C.*, 1st Lt. Ireland, E.I.*, Capt. 

Ayers, R.E. Chapman, R.H. Gehres, W.S.*, Lt. Jameyson, Bruce*, Lt. 

Bagley, F.A.* Chenault, W.F.* George, W.O.* Jenkins, B.A.*, Capt.

Bagley, J.W.*, Maj. Chinners, C.E. Gerdine, T.G., Maj. Jennings, J.H., Maj.

Baldwin, S.T., Jr.*, Lt. Christiansen, M.C.* Gertz, C.F. Joaquin, Hugh*

Ballmer, N.E., Lt. Clark, H.*, Lt. Gilchrist, F.G. Kahlbaum, William

Bandli, E.M.*, Lt. Clark, M.W. Gill, J.I.* Kavanagh, A.J.*, Lt.

Bastian, W.C.F. Clarke, H.C.O. Glasgow, L.B.*, Capt. Keeler, W.W.

Batten, G.L.* Clement, H.D. Glaze, A.O. Keller, J.B.*

Bauer, B.P. Clement, S.E. Gott, L.H.* Kendall, C.B.*, Maj.

Seaman, W.M., Maj. Clinite, R.G., Lt. Goudie, C.A.* Kidd, W.C.

Beames, W.S. Cohn, H.I.* Griffin, C.E., Capt. Kiger, R A.*, 1st Lt.

Bell, F.V.* Cooke, C.E., Maj. Griffin, W.H., Maj. Knox, C.B.

Bell, H.S.* Crisp, F.W.*, Lt. Hain, E.L., 1st Lt. Leavitt, J.B.*, 1st Lt.

Bemis, E.L.* Cryer, C.T.L. Hamilton, E.G., Capt. Lee, L.L.*, Maj.

Berry, R., Capt. Cunningham, G.M.* Hammer, B.E.* Lenovitz, Jacob

Bertenshaw, W.H. Cunningham, J.W., Capt. Hannegan, Duncan, Capt. Leopold, L.S., Capt.

Beyersdorfer, W.M. Danforth, F.A.*, Lt. Harlowe, L.S.* Lindsay, J.C.

Birdseye,C.H.*, Lt. Col. Davey, C.H.*, 1st Lt. Harrison, J.P., Capt. Lipps, J.P.

Birdseye, S.H.*, Lt. Davey, E.T. Hartle, W.A. Lobeck, A.K.

Birkett, D.S., Lt. Davies, F.A.* Hartley, J.W. Lockwood, T.F.*

Blackburn, J.E., 1st Lt. Dewhirst, H.H. Hartmann, Chas.*, Lt. Lonnquest, T.C.

Blount, C.C. Dickson, D.M.* Hassan, A.F., Capt. Lord, I.Q.*

Boston, T. Dinock, Stuart Hawkins, G.T., Maj. Lovett, J.D.*

Bowers, C.M.* Dod, James Hayes, S.P.* MacClintock, Paul*

Bowler, E.W., 1st Lt. Dolliver, Emerson* Hayes, W.P. McCammon, R.L.

Bradshaw, Donald* Douglas, G.C.*, 1st Lt. Hearne, C.C.* McCullough, H.K.

Brislawn, F.L.* Druhot, G.S.* Heflin, E.B. McDonald, H.L., Capt.

Brode, W.R. Duke, Basil, Capt. Henderson, W.D.* McKinley, W.K.

Brooks, E.O. Eakin, J.R.*, Maj. Hendrickson, V.J. McLaughlin, DeWitt, Capt.

Brown, B.W., Lt. Ebmeyer, G.E., Capt. Herrington, R.M., Capt. McLaughlin, Fred, Capt.

Brown, G.W., Jr. Ecklund, C.A.*, Lt. Herron, W.H., Maj. MacManus, Angus

Brown, S.C.* Ehret, J.N. Hinds, N.E., Lt. MacManus, V.D.*

Burchard, L.W., Lt. Evans, R.T.*, 1st Lt. Hodges, Guy McMillen, P.W., Lt.

McNair, E.L., Capt. Noyes, Donald* Runyan, R.H. Sutton, Frank*, Maj.

Mallon, A.E.* Ogle, A.J.*, 1st Lt. Russell, R.H.* Tandy, J.H.*

Maloney, H.A. Opdycke, A.L.*, Lt. Rust, Earl Taylor, H.P.*

Marshall, R.B. Orrall, S.M.* Sadler, C.L., Capt. Taylor, O.G.*, Capt.

Meade, A.P.*, Jr., Capt. Page, J.H. Schmidt, R.L. Thomas, Willis*

Meaders, H.T.* Parker, S.L., Lt. Schnurr, Cornelius Thompson, J.C.
82 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Allotments (1907–18)

Funds allotted for topographic mapping for the fiscal 

years 1907–18, the year preceding Mr. Marshall’s regime 

(table 30).

Cooperation in 1918 was maintained in six states, 

which contributed the amounts listed in table 31, with 

the understanding that they were to be used on military 

surveys. Field work accomplished in the 12 months ending 

June 30, 1928, is shown in table 32.

Survey Order No. 94

Survey Order No. 94, dated July 1, 1919, is as follows:

“The U.S. Geological Survey is about to supervise 

extensive topographic mapping in the West Indies. 

The Republics of Santo Domingo and Haiti have 

made appropriations sufficient to complete the 

surveys of their countries, and have requested the 

Geological Survey to take charge of the work, and 

to furnish the technical personnel. It is possible that 

Puerto Rico and the Republic of Cuba will take 

similar action.

“In order to provide for the administration of this 

work, the Division of West Indian Surveys is created 

in the Topographic Branch. The Division is charged 

with the administration and execution of such topographic surveys in the West Indies and in other Latin 

American Republics as may be undertaken by the 

Geological Survey.

“The Chief of the Division of West Indian Surveys 

will act as the personal representative of the Director 

and the Chief Geographer, and will handle directly 

all matters pertaining to that Division, except those 

which affect the general policy of the Geological 

Survey or of the Topographic Branch. Although the 

members of the Survey assigned to this work will 

be furloughed without pay, the Division is regarded 

as a part of the Topographic Branch and the Chief 

of the Division will render to the Chief Geographer 

monthly reports of the progress of the work and 

Table 28. Roster of Topographic Branch employees that served in the military.—Continued

[*, Overseas Service]

Meier, N.C. Passagaluppi, W.A.* Schwartz, G.C.* Timmons, G.E.

Metcalfe, J.B.*, Jr., Lt. Patrick, J.B. Searle, A.B., Capt. Trimble, K.W., 1st Lt.

Miller, R.N. Patrick, S.L.* Seitz, R.C.*, 1st Lt. Triplett, G.A.*

Miller, W.L., Capt. Peattie, Roderick* Semper, C.H., 1st Lt. Tufts, W.O.*, Maj.

Mock, G.A. Pendleton, T.P., Lt. Shea, R.I. Ucker, C.S., Jr.

Monbeck, R.R.*, Lt. Penick, S.T., 1st Lt. Shipley, J.J. Upton, W.B., Jr.*, Lt.

Moncure, T.H.*, 1st Lt. Perkins, R.G.* Simmons, H.E., Lt. Wainwright, D.R.

Montgomery, W.J. Perkinson, E.V. Slaughter, T.F., 1st Lt. Walker, A.M.*, Maj.

Moore, H.A. Peters, A.C. Smith, D.B.* Walker, E.T.*

Moorhead, Bishop*, Lt. Peters, Gustave* Smith, G.R.* Wann, W.C.

Morey, W.H.S., 1st Lt. Phipps, F.W. Smith, G.S.*, Lt. Col. Wardle, C.W.*, 1st Lt.

Morris, Ellison* Pierce, J.M. Smith, H.W. Wasson, Theron*

Mortimore, R.H.* Pike, Albert*, Capt. Snell, A.H.* Watson, D.H.*, Capt.

Morton, R.J.* Post, W.K.* Sommers, C.J.* Wheat, J.H.*, Maj.

Mudd, Kostka*, 1st Lt. Ranney, T.T. Southwick, M.L. Wilcoxon, R.F., Lt.

Muldrow, Robert, Maj. Rawls, J.M., Lt. Sparks, P.H. Williams, A.C.*

Munson, A.T. Rector, E.R. Sprague, W.G.* Wilson, A.V., Lt.

Murlin, D.E. Reeves, Roscoe*, Capt. Staack, J.G., Capt. Wilson, J.H.*, 1st Lt.

Murphy, J.J. Reineck, R.H.*, 1st Lt. Stanton, R.D. Wilson, R.M.*, Lt.

Murphy, T.F. Rhodes, B.L. Steele, R.B., Lt. Woodford, J.F.*

Neff, M.T., 1st Lt. Riddick, A.L. Stensland, H.J.* Woodhouse, E.H.

Nelson, C.L.*, Capt. Rider, Fred Stevenson, R.G.* Woodworth, C.L.

Nelson, O.H.*, 1st Lt. Roberts, A.C.*, Lt. Col. Stewart, C.H.*, 1st Lt. Yarbrough, Arthur*, Lt.

Nessler, C.W.H.* Roberts, G.H.* Stoneham, H.L. Yoakum, B.H.*, Lt.

Newcom, F.C. Roberts, L.B.*, Maj. Stonesifer, C.A.*, Lt.

Newsome, L.O. Roudabush, M.A.*, Lt. Stranahan, William, Capt.

Noble, Mark Rowell, C.W.*, Lt. Strange, F.C.*
Survey Order No. 97 83

copies of all technical data which may be of interest to the Branch. He will keep in close touch with 

the other work of the Branch in order that the same 

standards may be maintained.

“Lt. Col. Glenn S. Smith is relieved from his duties 

in connection with military surveys, 

and is designated as Topographic 

Engineer-in-Charge of the Division 

of West Indian Surveys.” 

Survey Order No. 97

Survey Order No. 97, dated October 1, 1919, states:

“The resignation of Mr. Robert B. Marshall as Chief 

Geographer necessitates a change in the organization 

of the Topographic Branch after a long period during 

which there has been relatively little change except 

temporary adjustments required by the war program. 

Mr. C.H. Birdseye, who has served as one of the 

division chiefs, has been appointed Chief Topographic Engineer, bringing to his increased responsibility full acquaintance with and appreciation of 

the technical personnel. The larger opportunity that 

promises to open for the topographic work of the 

U.S. Geological Survey can well be met without 

radical change in either organization or standards of 

work.

“Mr. Marshall will remain a member of the branch, 

being enrolled as a topographic engineer on a per 

diem status, and will thus be available for occasional 

service.”

Table 30. Topographic mapping allotments for fiscal years 1907–18.

[--, no data]

Fiscal 

year

Scientific 

assistants

Topographic

surveys

Surveying

National

Forests

Military

surveys

and maps

State

funds Total

1907 $9,200 $350,000 $100,000 -- $121,800.00 $581,000.00

1908 9,200 300,000 100,000 -- 103,850.00 513,050.00

1909 9,200 300,000 75,000 -- 124,410.23 508,610.23

1910 9,200 350,000 75,000 -- 180,689.36 614,889.36

1911 9,200 350,000 75,000 -- 154,383.04 588,583.04

1912 9,200 350,000 75,000 -- 177,853.00 612,053.00

1913 9,200 350,000 75,000 -- 161,267.09 595,467.09

1914 9,200 350,000 75,000 -- 179,047.96 613,247.96

1915 9,200 350,000 75,000 -- 186,800.07 621,000.07

1916 9,200 350,000 75,000 -- 166,789.39 600,989.39

1917 9,200 350,000 75,000 $34,808.30 109,440.69 578,448.99

1918 9,200 350,000 75,000 553,328.49 56,000.00 1,043,528.49

Table 31. Allotments contributed by 

States for military surveys.

State Allotment

California $14,000

Illinois 7,000

Maine 5,000

Michigan 15,000

Virginia 4,500

Washington 10,500

 Total $56,000

Table 32. Field work accomplished in the 12 months ending June 30, 1918.

Activity Tasks completed

Primary and precise levels extended 7,945 miles; 2,204 permanent bench marks were set.

Total and precise levels extended 273,956 miles since leveling was begun in 1896.

Primary traverse 7,676 miles; 884 permanent marks were set.

Triangulation stations occupied 58; 58 were stations permanently marked.

Square miles mapped 22,431; including 476 square miles of revision.

Total square miles mapped 1,279,890, or 42.2 percent of entire country.
84 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Division of West Indian Surveys

Santo Domingo

Political disturbances in the Greater Antilles of the West 

Indies, which became a reign of terror in Haiti in July, 1915, 

led to the intervention by the United States and the occupation 

of the principal ports by Naval and Marine forces.

Rear Admiral H.S. Knapp, U.S. Navy head of the Military Government of Santo Domingo, wrote the Director of the 

Geological Survey on April 1, 1917, requesting the estimated 

cost of necessary basic surveys. The Director replied on May 

21, suggesting a topographic survey on the scale of 1:125,000 

with a contour interval of 100 feet, the 19,325 square miles 

at $15 a square mile to cost approximately $300,000, and a 

reconnaissance geologic survey to cost $41,000. The Survey 

would undertake the work, if funds were provided, upon 

conclusion of the war, when topographers, who were now 

engaged in military surveys, would become available. The 

Admiral wrote on October 10, 1918, that he had issued an 

Executive Order No. 207, dated September 12, 1918, setting 

aside Dominican Government funds, not otherwise appropriated, in the amount of $300,000 to be known as the Dominican 

Survey fund, that the money probably could not be expended 

in less than 3 years, and that interest accruals in that period 

might raise the fund to a total of $341,000, the amount 

estimated.

A Division of West Indian Surveys was created in the 

Topographic Branch by Survey Order No. 94, dated July 1, 

1919, and Col. Glenn S. Smith was designated Topographic 

Engineer-in-Charge. The Director had requested that Colonel 

Smith be detailed to the Survey from the Corps of Engineers, 

U.S. Army. In April 1919, Colonel Smith and four geologists 

had conferred in Santo Domingo City and other island capitals 

with military governors on plans for topographic surveys and 

preliminary geologic investigations.

The agreement for cooperative topographic surveys 

provided that the Republic of Santo Domingo would pay the 

entire expense of the work, that the Geological Survey would 

furnish the technical personnel and loan the necessary instruments, that the Navy and Marine Corps supplies would be 

made available for the use of field parties, that subsistence 

allowance for the Survey members would be arranged on a 

per diem basis starting at $1.00 per day, that monument caps 

and bench mark tablets with approved design and lettering 

would be used, and that members of Survey parties would 

wear clothing of a uniform nature for identification purposes. 

In some remote mountainous areas, it was found advisable 

to have armed Marine guards accompany the field parties on 

account of bandits.

Topographic Engineer Albert Pike was placed in charge 

of the project, and he sailed on the U.S.S. Hancock from 

Charleston, S.C., on August 13, 1919, with 18 engineering assistants who were to complete the organization of 

eight field parties, two triangulation, two primary traverse, 

one leveling, and three topographic. All had volunteered 

for the assignment, which carried an increase of 20 percent in compensation. They arrived in Santo Domingo City 

on August 20. The Santa Domingo personnel are listed in 

table 33.

Horizontal control was based on the astronomical 

position of the Santo Domingo lighthouse, as previously 

determined by the U.S. Hydrographic Office, and upon a 

baseline 3 kilometers to the northwest. This line had to be 

cleared through a jungle before it could be measured, and 

similar heavy tropical growth had to be cleared from nearly 

all stations made in the extension of triangulation. For vertical control, tidal gauges from which lines of levels could be 

extended were established at Santo Domingo City, and at 

Puerto Plata on the north side of the island.

Topographic surveys, by the customary preferred 

method of planetable sketching and stadia readings, generally 

were impossible, on account of dense foliage, and had to be 

executed by tape traverses. There were many trails, but except 

for periods during the dry season, which extended from early 

in December to June, these were slippery and full of mud 

holes. Camp fare, as prepared by native cooks, was none too 

appetizing.

In September 1921, when the mapping was steadily progressing, instructions were received from the Military Governor, Rear Admiral S.S. Robison, U.S. Navy, that the fieldwork would have to be terminated and the Survey personnel 

returned to the States, in accordance with the Proclamation of 

June 14, 1921, relative to withdrawal from the responsibilities 

assumed in connection with Dominican affairs, as well as the 

financial condition of the Dominican Republic. A provisional 

government was organized for the Dominican Republic, and 

the American Military Governor sailed on October 24, 1922, 

leaving behind about 1,500 marines to await the establishment 

of a permanent government. The Republic was evacuated on 

July 12, 1924.

Topographic mapping was executed on nine 30-minute 

quadrangles using a scale of 1:80,000 with a contour interval 

of 100 meters and altogether about 4,500 square miles were 

completely mapped.

Haiti

The mapping of the Republic of Haiti, which occupied 

the western one-third of the island, had an area of 10,204 

square miles and a boundary line 193 miles long separating it 

from Santo Domingo, was begun by a Survey party in charge 

of Eugene L. McNair, who had arrived at Port-au-Prince on 

January 27, 1920. Plans embodying new methods in mapping that had been suggested by Col. Glenn S. Smith on his 

visit to the island in April 1919, were followed. By means of 

aerial photos, the features particularly needed by Cdr. Ernest 

R. Gayler, U.S. Navy, Director General of Public Works and 

Engineer in Chief, such as the coast line, cities and towns, 
Division of West Indian Surveys 85

highways, and topography of certain important areas, were to 

be plotted and drafted. The necessary ground control for the 

aerial photos was to be supplied by Mr. McNair’s field parties. Triangulation was to be extended from stations already 

established in neighboring Santo Domingo and levels along 

railroads and highways began at a tidal gauge that was set up 

at Port-au-Prince.

The agreement for the cooperative Haitian Topographic 

Survey was similar to that for the Dominican Republic. It provided for an investigation of mineral and botanical resources. 

The Survey furnished the technical personnel, and loaned the 

necessary surveying instruments, whereas the Republic of Haiti 

supplied the money. The first allotment was $10,000; later 

allotments were behind schedule and never exceeded $25,000, 

so that field work was limited to triangulation for photo control, 

and to some leveling. Topographic 

mapping was not even started.

The first peace time aerial survey as planned by Colonel Smith was 

a joint enterprise. The photos were 

taken by a Bagley tri-lens camera, 

loaned by the U.S. Army, mounted in 

a DeHaviland hydroplane furnished 

by the U.S. Marine Corps, which 

was tendered by a U.S. Navy supply 

vessel that had quarters for at least 

six additional officers and space that 

could be used as a developing and 

drying room for the photographic 

film. The photographer assigned 

by the Survey was Eric Haquinius, 

a former lieutenant in the Swedish Navy who served with the U.S. 

Air Force in World War I, became 

a naturalized citizen of the United 

States and obtained an international 

flying license. Mr. Haquinius arrived 

at Port-au-Prince in April 1920, and 

conferred with Cdr. Gayler as to the 

order in which the flights should be 

made. The first films, when developed, proved to be of poor quality, 

and later flights were made at lower 

altitudes in the hope of improving 

the photographs. Clouds interfered 

and their prevalence reached such a 

degree by July 1 that the flights were 

abandoned until after December 15 

when the rainy season should be 

over.

Triangulation, which had been 

continued by Rhea B. Steele after 

Mr. McNair’s departure for the States 

in May, 1921, was discontinued in 

October when funds were exhausted. 

Mr. Steele was instructed to mark 

stations permanently for future use, dispose of property, which 

included a Ford truck, and return to Washington. He reached 

Washington in January 1922, and assisted in the office computation of the triangulation. The assistants with the field parties 

were E.F. Couleur, W.C. Harrison, Sam H. Moyers, L.A. Platt, 

R.S. Tennyson, and J.S. Ward.

In February, 1921, a Section of Photographic Mapping, 

with Thomas P. Pendleton, able Photogrammetrist-in Charge, 

was organized in the Washington office for the purpose of 

handling the aerial photographs of Haiti, and to investigate 

the probable usefulness of aerial photographs in making 

planimetric and topographic maps. The aerial photographs 

of Haiti possessed all possible defects and presented many 

perplexities to the Survey photogrammetrists and cartographers. Many of the photos were only fair, were devoid of 

Table 33. Santa Domingo personnel.

Name Title Name Title

Allen, J.B. Editorial Assistant Lloyd, W.J. Topographer Engineer

Baird, W.E. Editorial Assistant McArthur, J.O. Recorder

Bastian, Joe Rodman McCook, J.F. Junior Topographer

Biggins, P.F. Rodman MacManus, A. Editorial Assistant

Britt, I.A. Recorder Mock, G.A. Editorial Assistant

Cannon, E.A. Rodman Morrison, Lee Topographer Engineer

Cash, Elbert Rodman Nevitt, J.C. Clerk

Chambers, G. Recorder Ogle, A.J. Topographer Engineer

Chenault, W.F. Editorial Assistant Parnelle, R.E. Rodman

Chew, R.G. Recorder Pike, Albert Topographer Engineer, in charge

Childs, C.B. Editorial Assistant Ramsaur, H.W. Recorder

Clement, H.D. Junior Topographer Rider, Fred Topographer Aid

Cook, J.E. Rodman Robinson, J.W. Rodman

Davenport, P.E. Recorder Runyan, R.H. Junior Topographer

Davey, T.T., Jr. Recorder Seward, V.S. Editorial Assistant

Dod, J.P. Recorder Shalibo, F.L. Assistant Topographer Engineer

Duck, J.A. Topographer Engineer Smith, W.L. Recorder

Fankhauser, A. Junior Topographer Stevenson, R.G. Junior Topographer

Fisher, C.R. Assistant Topographer Swick, J.N. Rodman

FitzGerald, G. Editorial Assistant Teller, L.W. Editorial Assistant

Guma, G. Recorder Terry, H.M. Recorder

Gayer, J.J. Editorial Assistant Thomas, D.J. Rodman

Grenfell, C.J. Rodman Thomas, T.E. Recorder

Gavken, H.F. Rodman Thompson, W.C. Recorder

Gohlfeld, K.V. Recorder Towill, R.M. Rodman

Gohlfeld, R.L. Recorder Tuttle, Basil Recorder

Hill, A.K. Recorder Tyler, W.B. Recorder

Holder, C.C. Topographer Walker, E.T. Assistant Topographer

Hughes, J.A. Recorder Watson, D.H. Assistant Topographer

Johnson, T.R. Editorial Assistant Wender, W.G. Junior Topographer

Kendall, C.B. Topographer Engineer Wiley, C.H. Recorder

King, J.E. Junior Topographer Williford, Paul Rodman

Latimer, T.M. Recorder Wix, O.L. Recorder

Leavitt, J.B. Assistant Topographer Wood, W.J. Rodman

Lewis, E.C. Cook Yoakum, B.H. Assistant Topographer Engineer
86 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

sharp identifiable natural features, and were of varying scales 

aggravated by distortion around the edges and by tilt. The 

ground control was inadequate, triangulation stations were 

not all recognizable, were not placed so as to appear on the 

right pictures, and were confined to a comparatively small 

area; secondary control points such as road forks, junctions 

of streams, sharp hills, and prominent buildings were generally lacking.

However, by January 1923, most of the material 

requested from time to time by the military commander for 

use by the Haitian Department of Public Works was sent as 

follows:

• Several sets of aerial pictures corrected for scale and 

distortion;

• several sets of enlargements, the largest corresponding 

to scales of 1:4,000 and 1:2,000, of 50 towns;

• maps of coast line, scale of 1:400,000;

• maps of 14, 30-minute quadrangles, scale of 1:100,000;

• list of level bench marks;

• list of triangulation stations with geographic coordinates; and

• 5,000 lithographic impressions of the Haitian Coat of 

Arms, reduced from an oil painting and furnished by a 

commercial firm.

The American occupation of Haiti terminated August 14, 

1934.

Cuba

A geological and topographical survey of the Republic of Cuba was proposed as a cooperative project by Gen. 

Eugenio Sanchez Agramonte, Secretary of Agriculture, 

Commerce, and Labor, in February 1919. The Director of 

the Geological Survey presented a plan for the topographic 

survey of the island on the scale of 1:63,360 (1 mile equals 

1 inch) that would require 8 to 10 years, and suggested an 

initial appropriation of $100,000. Gen. Mario G. Menocal, 

President of the Republic, a graduate of Cornell University, understood the value of such a survey, and made it the 

subject of a special message to the Cuba Congress on June 

9. The political situation in Cuba was such that the bill was 

not considered in that session of the Congress, or in the session that convened on November 3. In August 1920 and May 

1921, the Cuban Census Bureau had a large unexpended balance and it was hoped that it might be obtained for surveying the limits of barrios, municipalities, and provinces, and 

establishing permanent marks thereon. However, the project 

was finally abandoned when the American forces withdrew 

from the island in 1922.

Puerto Rico

Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States on August 12, 

1898, as a result of the war with Spain, and civil government 

was inaugurated May 1, 1900. In 1904, the Luquillo National 

Forest was created, and 3 years later the National Forest 

Service requested the Geological Survey to mark its boundaries. The work began in March 1908, and was completed in 

June. E.M. Douglas was in charge of the field party, which 

surveyed 40 miles of levels and established 98 concrete, stone, 

or wooden posts. In order to locate the caverns of the reserve, 

two U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey triangulation stations 

were occupied and four new stations were selected, marked, 

and occupied. In addition to an accurate contour sketch of 

a narrow strip along the entire boundary, a reconnaissance 

sketch of 54 square miles of the reserve, not including the 

summits of the Sierra de Luquillo, was made by C.L. Nelson.

In the winter of 1908 and 1909, in compliance with a 

request from the Puerto Rican government, the Geological 

Survey sent a party, consisting of T.M. Bannon, J.P. Harrison, 

C.H. Semper, and Olinus Smith, to the southern shore of the 

island to make surveys of the coastal plains in the vicinity of 

Ponce and Guayama, as a basis for an irrigation system. About 

150 square miles were mapped on a scale of 1:12,000, with a 

5-foot contour interval.

In January 1912, R.B. Marshall, Chief Geographer, 

submitted a $50,000 estimate for the mapping of Puerto Rico 

on the scale of 1:31,680 for about 1,000 square miles of the 

coastal plains and valleys, contour interval of 25 feet; and 

$65,000 for about 2,600 square miles of mountainous country, 

on the scale of 1:48,000 and contour interval of 50 feet.

In 1919, Governor Arthur Yeager and others requested 

the Legislature of Puerto Rico to appropriate funds for topographic mapping, but it was not until 1921 that the legislature 

acted favorably. Then funds were set aside for the topographic 

mapping of a strip 10 miles long by 4 miles wide along the 

northwest coast between the Guajataca River and the town of 

Aguadilla, where an irrigation system similar to the one built 

in Guayama was contemplated. A cooperative agreement was 

signed by the Director of the Geological Survey and John A. 

Wilson, Commissioner of the Interior. R.A. Gonzales, Chief 

Engineer of the Isabela Irrigation Service, requested that the 

Geological Survey also send an expert geologist to examine 

the reservoir site of the project, and determine the probabilities 

of excessive seepage, as the region was of limestone; therefore, George R. Mansfield, geologist, accompanied the topographic party in charge of Dallas H. Watson, which included 

E.E. Harris, J.O. Kilmartin, J.B. Leavitt, Jacob Lenovitz, J.F. 

McCook, R.R. Monbeck, W.A. Shumate, H.B. Smith, and 

B.H. Yoakum. They sailed from New York on January 21, 

1922, and arrived in San Juan on the 25th.

It was necessary to measure a baseline and develop 

a complete system of triangulation, as the stations determined by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1901 were 

all obliterated; those on hills had been plowed under, and 

secondary points such as church spires and light houses had 
Board of Surveys and Maps 87

been destroyed by an earthquake in 1918. The 40 square 

miles to be mapped was open country and dotted generally 

with limestone buttes, an ideal setup for 3-point locations. 

However, between the buttes were sinks or potholes, presenting a confused or karst topography which, when mapped 

on the scale of 1:4,000 with a contour interval of 1 meter, 

proved heavy and slow. Approximately 120 square miles 

were mapped on a scale of 1:10,000 with a contour interval 

of 1 meter. Topographic engineers were permitted to show 

fence lines instead of locating and marking property boundaries, as Mr. Gonzales agreed to accept blueprints of the planimetric base and have his Puerto Rican engineers locate the 

private property corners from the shown fence lines. When 

the work was completed, they returned to Washington June 

13th, in time for the summer field season, and arrangements 

were made to defer the inking of the Puerto Rico field sheets 

until the following winter.

After a lapse of 13 years, the Geological Survey again 

undertook topographic mapping in Puerto Rico. In 1934, 

under a grant of funds from the Public Works Administration, B.H. Yoakum was instructed to complete the triangulation of the island, and with the aid of two assistants from the 

Insular Department of the Interior, accomplished the task 

in the period February through July. Spirit levels also were 

extended in the western one-half of the island. With this preliminary preparation, topographic mapping was undertaken 

the next year by W.E. Chenoweth, who was in charge, J.O. 

Kilmartin, and F.H. Sargent. They completed an area of 150 

square miles, on a scale of 1:25,000, with contour intervals 

of 1 and 5 meters, in the southwest corner of the island. Here 

the Lajas Valley was under consideration as an irrigation 

project.

In 1937, Puerto Rico was declared, by amendments to 

the Temple Act, in the same status as states with regard to 

cooperation with the Geological Survey, and an agreement 

was signed by the Director of the Geological Survey and the 

Commissioner of the Department of the Interior of Puerto 

Rico. K.W. Trimble in charge, C.W. Buckey, H.D. Cummings, B.J. Keating, W.D. Leech, R.H. Lyddan, F.H. Sargent, 

and H.G. Warner were assigned to complete the mapping 

of the island. Field surveys were executed on a scale of 

1:20,000 with 1 and 5 meter contours; publication scale was 

1:30,000. A topographer was able to map 4.5 square miles 

per month on an average. In 1954, cooperation was still in 

effect and Jay I. Brubaker, resident project engineer at San 

Juan, was maintaining a systematic revision program.

American Society of Military 

Engineers

The American Society of Military Engineers was planned 

in the fall of 1919, with the approval of the Acting Chief of 

Engineers, U.S. Army, and was organized in the spring of 

1920. Its purpose was to perpetuate the friendships, to profit 

by the experiences of World War I, and to assist in the promotion of preparedness.

Among the charter members of the Society were eight 

Survey topographers, and among the first officers was Maj. 

H.R. Richards, who had been troop commander of the 29th 

Engineers in France, as business manager, and Wm. O. Tufts, 

former Survey topographer, as treasurer. By the end of the 

first year, the membership reached 3,500 and, in 1929, it had 

increased to 8,000. There were 11,000 officers and 285,000 

men engaged in military engineering service during World 

War I.

The magazine of the Society, The Military Engineer, was 

published bi-monthly until September 1941, and thereafter 

monthly. It became the official organ of the Federal Board 

of Surveys and Maps, and contained a section in each issue 

devoted to mapping performed by the Geological Survey and 

other mapping agencies and offered a medium for the printing 

of articles by Survey topographers on special mapping projects. Most of these articles ware prepared at the suggestion of 

the Chief Topographic Engineer, and are shown in table 34.

Board of Surveys and Maps

The Board of Surveys and Maps of the Federal Government was created by Executive Order No. 3206 on December 

30, 1919, “in order to coordinate the activities of the various 

map making agencies of the Executive Departments of the 

Government, to standardize results, and to avoid unnecessary 

duplication of work.”

Among the provisions of the Order were:

• The Board to be composed of 1 representative of each 

of 14 mapping organizations who would serve without 

additional compensation.

• The Board to establish a central information office in 

the U.S. Geological Survey for the purpose of collecting, classifying, and furnishing to the public information concerning all map and survey data available 

in the several Government Departments and other 

sources.

The Board was organized in January 1920, and by amendatory Executive Orders of March 17, 1920, and January 27, 

1921, the Board was enlarged by the addition of four other 

U.S. Bureaus. The first public meeting was held in the auditorium of the Interior Department on March 9, 1920, to which 

non-federal agencies were invited, and at the second public 

meeting on July 12, 1920, representatives of 22 non-federal 

agencies were named to constitute an Advisory Council to the 

Board in order to carry out the provisions of the Executive 

Order of December 30, 1919, touching the relations of the 

Board with the public.

On January 8, 1924, the Society of American Military 

Engineers was added as the 23d non-federal agency and the 
88 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Society’s magazine, The Military Engineer, was made the 

official organ of the Board.

The Board held public meeting in 5 or 6 months of the 

year, and executive meetings more often. A chairman was 

elected for each year. O.C. Merrill, Chief Engineer of the Forest Service, was the first chairman; C.H. Birdseye served as 

secretary, and J.H. Wheat was in charge of the Map Information Office.

The Board was abolished by Executive Order No. 9094, 

May 25, 1942, and its functions were transferred to the Bureau 

of Budget. The Secretary of the Interior designated J.G. 

Staack, Chief Topographic Engineer, as Departmental representative to keep the Bureau of Budget informed as to Survey 

operations. The Map Information Office was continued under 

the Topographic Branch.

Schoolcraft Quadrangle

During World War I, topographers serving with the 

Army in France made use of airplane photographs in correcting old maps and making new maps along the battle front. In 

1919, the Schoolcraft, Mich., Quadrangle was photographed 

by the Air Corps and single-lens airplane photographs were 

used in mapping a full quadrangle. The usual horizontal 

control for the quadrangle was extended with sufficient ties 

to the land net so as to make a careful adjustment of the net 

to be used as secondary control. The methods of transferring 

the data such as roads, houses, swamp outlines, and drainage lines were by crude methods compared to those used at 

the present time. This photographic data was transferred by 

pantograph on one-half of a sheet, and on the other one-half 

Table 34. Articles prepared by Survey topographers for The Military Engineer.

Employee Article Publication date

Bagley, J.W. “The Tri-Lens Camera in Aerial Photography and 

Photographic Mapping. Discussions”

May–June 1920

Bagley, J.W. “Topographic Surveying from the Air” Nov.–Dec. 1923

Bagley, J.W. “Stereophotography in Aerial Mapping” May–June 1924

Bagley, J.W. “Study of Searchlight Triangulation” July–Aug. 1926

Bagley, J.W. “Surveying with the Five-Lens Camera” Mar.–Apr. 1932

Birdseye, C.H. “Surveying the Colorado Canyon” Jan.–Feb. 1924

Birdseye, Sidney “Aerial Topography on Tropical Surveys” May–June 1936

Davey, C.H. “Interpretation of Aerial Photographs” Mar.–Apr. 1924

Druhot, G.S. “Mapping the Hawaiian Islands” Jan.–Feb. 1932

Gerdine, T.G. “Topographic in Los Angeles County” Sept.–Oct. 1926

Gill, W.H. “Minnesota’s Politico Geographical Boundary” October 1941

Gill, W.H. “The Mystery of Springs” November 1941

Gill, W.H. “Ups and Downs” December 1941

Gill, W.H. “Third Dimensional Maps’ January 1942

Gill, W.H. “A Ghost Boundary That Won’t Stay Laid’ February 1942

Gill, W.H. “How Far Is It?” April 1942

Gill, W.H. “These Things We Call Maps” May 1942

Gill, W.H. “Key to a Better Understanding of Maps’ Feb.–Mar.–Oct. 1945

Matthes, F.E. and Evans, R.T. “Map of Grand Canyon National Park’ May–June 1926

Nelson, O.H. “Mapping the City of Chicago” Jan.–Feb. 1929

Pendleton, T.P. “Planimetric Maps of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Sept.–Oct. 1935

Roberts, L.B. “Conversion of Hachures to Contours” Jan.–Dec. 1921

Sargent, R.H. “Aerial Surveys in Southeastern Alaska” May–June 1928

Sargent, R.H. “Photographing Alaska from the Air” Mar.–Apr. 1930

Smith, G.S. “A Review of Topographic Mapping” Mar.–Apr. 1924

Trimble, K.W. “Some Old Yorktown Maps” Sept.–Oct. 1931

Wheat, J.H. “Airplane Photography as an Adjunct to Topographic 

Mapping”

Jan.–Feb. 1920

Wilson, R.M. “Triangulation with the Planetable” May–June 1931

Wilson, R.M. “A New Photo—Alidade” Nov.–Dec. 1937

Wilson, R.M. “Transit Traverse” June 1943
Arkansas–Mississippi Boundary Line 89

the desired data were inked, and the photographs were then 

bleached so that only the desired information remained on 

them. These were photographed to scale and transferred by 

tracing. Even with this tedious method of transferring data 

to the planetable sheets, the information proved very valuable to the topographer and saved many hours of work, 

meandering swamps, lakes, etc. He also was able to intersect 

fence lines and take vertical angles, determining elevations 

for sketching purposes without sending a rodman into some 

areas. A report on the benefits of this method was submitted 

by C.L. Sadler to his Regional Engineer.

The Soil Conservation Service of the Agriculture Department had many square miles in the Missouri Valley section, 

and the Geological Survey obtained prints of these photographs. Since adjusted section lines could be used as secondary control in these areas, topographers continued to make use 

of the aerial photograph information, though the transferring 

by pantograph method was rather tedious. In 1937, Daniel 

Kennedy and Lee Walker designed a portable projector that 

could reduce the data to the scale of the map, and the information could be traced directly on the field sheets. This proved so 

much more valuable than the crude pantograph methods that 

other topographers in the Missouri Valley section began making portable projectors, each one an improvement on the previously made projector. This method of utilizing photographic 

data was continued until the planimetric bases were made by 

Multiplex machines.

Survey Order No. 100

Survey Order No. 100, dated February 26, 1920, reads as

follows:

“In order to obviate overlap of the fields of work 

of the Section of Topographic Map Editing in the 

Publication Branch, and the Section of Inspection in 

the Topographic Branch, these two sections will be 

consolidated into one, to be known as the Section 

of Inspection and Editing of Topographic Maps, 

and placed under the administrative and technical 

control of the Topographic Branch. In addition to 

its inspection of topographic maps, this section will 

continue to do the work which the Section of Topographic Map Editing is now doing for the Engraving Division and the other units of the Geological 

Survey. The Engraving Division will continue to 

pay the salaries of those who are now on its roll 

and engaged in such work. Inasmuch as it may be 

difficult to strike a happy mean between the suitable 

preparation of original maps, or correcting proofs of 

maps, and the economical or effective operation of 

the plant for reproducing them, I expect to be called 

on frequently to weigh commercial economy against 

technical desirability.

“Mr. W.M. Beaman is designated as Topographic 

Engineer-in-Charge of the Section of Inspection and 

editing of Topographic Maps. Mr. James McCormick, whose long experience in critical work on the 

Survey’s maps has fitted him for highly valuable 

service in a special field, has been recommended 

for appointment as the Survey representative on the 

U.S. Geographic Board and is specifically charged 

with research in connection with names of localities 

and features, and with such other duties as may be 

pre-scribed by the chief of the section.”

Vocational Training under the Veterans 

Bureau

The Survey participated in the Army’s Vocational 

Training Program for veterans of World War I, by assigning 

topographers to the Missouri School of Mines at Rolla, from 

1920 to 1923, to teach the science of surveying and mapping. 

Charles E. Cooke, who had been furloughed for several weeks 

in the spring of 1912, 1913, and 1914 to lecture at the University of Chicago, was the senior topographer assigned to Rolla. 

He took over the work that C.E. Bardsley had started and was 

later assisted by T.T. Ranney and W.B. Brewer, who instructed 

the classes in the field. From these classes, the Survey, in 

1923–24, gave appointmemts to the veterans wounded in 

France (table 35). 

About one-half of the Meramac Springs, Mo., 15-minute 

quadrangle was mapped by the vocational training students.

Arkansas–Mississippi Boundary Line

S.S. Gannett was one of three commissioners, appointed 

by the U.S. Supreme Court, by a decree of March 22, 1920, to 

survey and mark a portion of the Arkansas–Mississippi State 

line, commencing about 1 mile below Friars Point, Coahoma 

County, Miss., on an abandoned bed of the Mississippi River 

left dry by the avulsion which occurred about 1848. The true 

boundary had been fixed by the Treaty of Peace concluded 

between the United States and Great Britain, in 1783, as 

the middle of the main channel of navigation, and surveys 

Table 35. U.S. Geological Survey appointments to 

veterans wounded in France.

Samuel D. Farmer Delar Kimble James L. Sanders

Milton J. Harden Edward C. Kruse Jack T. Schultz

Harry P. Jones Harry S. Milsted Cecil A. Turner

Daniel Kennedy Samuel O’Hara
90 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

had been made in 1816 and 1833. The Commission of 1920 

recognized that the boundary line, in part, followed the deepest water in Horseshoe Lake, (or Old River, or Pecan Lake), 

a cut off oxbow on the east side of the river, and restored to 

Arkansas about 5 square miles. Continuous high stage in the 

river prevented field work before August 1, and the final report 

of the Commission was submitted on February 28, 1921.34

Minnesota–Wisconsin Boundary Line

The State of Minnesota, in 1916, instituted a suit against 

the State of Wisconsin in order to have that part of the State 

boundary line from St. Louis Bay up the St. Louis River to the 

falls near Fond du Lac finally determined. The court handed 

down an opinion March 8, 1920, and on October 11, 1920, 

appointed three commissioners to survey and mark the line 

which “must be ascertained upon a consideration of the situation as existing in 1846 and accurately described by the Meade 

chart as over water not less than 8 feet deep.” At the first meeting of the commissioners, S.S. Gannett was elected chairman.

In January 1921, the survey was commenced on the 

ice and was completed March 19. The line surveyed was 

18.4 miles in length and the instrument used was a transit-theodolite with 6.5-inch circle and reading to 10 seconds of arc. 

Measurements were made with a 300-foot steel tape. Rectangular coordinates were computed for each angle and suitable 

reference marks were established on shore. The commissioners report was submitted June 25, 1921, and confirmed by the 

Court on February 27, 1922.

Survey Order No. 106

Survey Order No. 106, Changes in Administration, Topographic Branch, dated April 3, 1922, was as follows:

“The death of George R. Davis, Topographic Engineer-in-Charge of the Pacific Division, necessitates 

the rearrangement of the administrative work in the 

field divisions. The funds available for topographic 

surveys have been so materially reduced that it is not 

advisable to appoint a new division chief to take Mr. 

Davis’s place.

“Thomas G. Gerdine is designated Topographic 

Engineer-in-Charge of the Pacific Division to 

include the States and Territories of California, 

Washington, Nevada, Hawaii, and Oregon.

“Glenn S. Smith is designated Topographic Engineer-in-Charge of the Rocky Mountain Division, 

to include the States of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, 

Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, North Dakota, 

34 U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 817, p. 200.

South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana.

“Mr. Smith also will retain supervision over the 

work in the Division of West Indian Surveys.

“The only change made in the Atlantic and Central 

Divisions is that Louisiana is transferred from the 

Atlantic to the Rocky Mountain Division.”

Survey Order No. 99 Amendment

On July 22, 1922, Survey Order No. 99, dated January 

12, 1920, and amended June 4, 1921, is further amended to 

read as follows:

“During the absence of the Chief Topographic Engineer, the division and section chiefs will act for him 

with full authority in the following order:

“Mr. Glenn S. Smith

Mr. Frank Sutton

Mr. W.H. Herron

Mr. T.G. Gerdine

Mr. E.M. Douglas

Mr. W.M. Beaman.”

The Brazilian Centennial 

Exposition (1922)

The Topographic Branch participated in the Brazilian 

Centennial Exposition held in Rio de Janeiro, in celebration 

of the independence of Brazil, as proclaimed on September 

7, 1822. By authority of the Secretary of the Interior, and 

the Director, Lt. Col. Glenn S. Smith, was appointed by the 

Secretary of War to serve with Maj. Wallace W. Kirby, and 

Capt. Russell M. Herrington (with Maj. Edmund A. Buchanan, 

Cavalry, substituting for Captain Herrington) Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, on a committee for the organization of a 

mapping exhibit at the Exposition. The Committee met on 

May 11, 1922, and a week later submitted its conclusions and 

recommendations.

The purpose of the exhibit was stated to be “to present 

to the Latin American countries such examples of various topographic maps, and of the standards and methods 

employed thereon, which have been executed by the U.S. 

Government for the development of the natural resources of 

the country, as well as for scientific and military purposes, 

as will demonstrate their equality, if not superiority to, the 
Colorado River Surveys 91

standards, methods, and products accepted by European 

governments.”

That “for the purpose stated, the cooperation of the 

Topographic Branch, U.S. Geological Survey, Department of 

the Interior, the Corps of Engineers, and the Military Intelligence Division, is advantageous in that it demonstrates that 

military mapping in time of peace is a civilian function, of 

great economical value in the general development of the 

country * * *.”

It was believed that an exhibit could be organized as 

follows:

1. A progressive, connected exhibit of instruments, 

methods, and products of the Geological Survey, as 

the maker of the base topographic map of the United 

States, from its organization to the present time, 

including various index maps, examples illustrating 

the use of airplane photography, and examples of 

the topographic maps made for the Dominican and 

Haitian Republics and for Puerto Rico.

2. An exhibit, practically continuous with the Survey’s, 

of models and photographic processes with which 

the Corps of Engineers was experimenting, showing 

the various stages of map reproduction, modeling, 

and the development of a “pictorial relief map” from 

the contoured sheets of the Geological Survey.

3. An exhibit of the general maps produced by the 

Military Intelligence Division.

4. An exhibit, in operation, of a selected portion of the 

Mobile Reproduction Train of the Corps of Engineers that was used so effectively during World 

War I, consisting of a press truck, a process truck, 

and transfer truck. The three trucks at the Exposition 

were kept continuously in action during the open 

hours, printing the Map of the Atlantic for distribution.

Among the printed matter for distribution was 15,500 

copies of a souvenir pamphlet turned out by the Survey’s 

Engraving and Printing Division, of 44 pages between cardboard covers, containing 8 pages of engraved quadrangle maps 

in three colors, 12 pages of photographs and, 20 pages of 

descriptive text in Portuguese and English. Its title was “Joint 

Exhibit of Military Maps and Mapping prepared by the War 

Department and the Department of the Interior.”

In order to have information relating to the material, 

methods, products, and mechanics of the exhibit available at 

all times, and thus achieve for it the greatest amount of good, 

the following experts were assigned to the exhibit:

• Maj. William M. Beaman, Topographic Engineer, 

(furloughed from August 16, 1922, to May 31, 1923), 

representing the Department of the Interior.

• Maj. Wallace W. Kirby, Corps of Engineers, and three 

employees of he Engineer Reproduction Plant, representing the War Department.

Colorado River Surveys

The canyons of the Colorado River have excited the 

interest of explorers, scientists, topographers, and engineers 

since Don Lopez de Cardenas stood on the rim of the Grand 

Canyon in 1542. Spanish missionaries and soldiers had visited 

the lower reaches of the river 2 years before.

The Geological Survey has always felt a proprietary 

interest in the Colorado River. Maj. John Wesley Powell made 

the first recorded exploration through its mysterious canyons 

in 1869. Ten years later, he helped to organize the U.S. Geological Survey, and became the second Director, March 18, 

1881, to June 30, 1894.

In 1923, C.H. Birdseye, Chief Topographic Engineer, in 

planning a Colorado River expedition so as to take full advantage of the lessons learned in previous expeditions, and to 

achieve the maximum results, considered carefully the many 

necessary preparations, the personal risks involved, and the 

selection of the personnel. He decided to head the expedition, 

and selected the following well-seasoned, experienced men:

• Eugene C. LaRue, hydraulic engineer, who for several 

years had been studying the problem of utilizing the 

waters of the Colorado;

• Raymond C. Moore, State Geologist of Kansas, who 

for 2 years had been making geological investigations 

in Utah and Arizona;

• Roland W. Burchard, topographic engineer, who had 

already surveyed the lower stretches of the river;

• Emery C. Kolb, of Grand Canyon, who in 1911, with 

his brother, made a boat trip for the purpose of taking 

moving pictures from Green River, Wyo., through the 

canyons to the Gulf of California;

• Lewis B. Freeman, of Pasadena, Calif., a well known 

explorer and boatman;

• Leigh B. Lint, of Weiser, Idaho, and H.E. Blake, Jr., 

of Monticello, Utah, two husky youths with 2 years 

experience in boating the rapids of the Colorado the 

preceding year with Kelley W. Trimble, topographic 

engineer, on surveys on the Green River through the 

Canyon of Lodore to Green River, Utah, and on the 

San Juan River above its junction with the Colorado;

• Frank B. Dodge, of Honolulu, a skillful boatman, 

expert swimmer, and general utility man, capable of 

filling any position from instrument man to cook; and

• Frank Word, of Los Angeles, cook.
92 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

At Bright Angel, about 90 miles below Lee’s Ferry, the 

party was joined by Herman Stabler, a Hydraulic Engineer of 

the Conservation Branch of the Survey, who made a trip down 

the river to Lee’s Ferry in 1922, and at Havasu Creek by Felix 

Koms, who replaced Frank Word as cook.

The expedition left Lee’s Ferry on August 1, 1923, 

in four boats especially made in the design which Nathan 

Galloway, a Utah trapper, had found best adapted for the 

canyons that he navigated in 1895 and several times afterwards. Soap Creek Rapids, the second in Marble Canyon 

and 11 miles downstream from Lee’s Ferry, was encountered 

at the end of the next day, and through a small radio set, 

the party kept in touch with outside affairs. Thus the party 

learned, while perched in comparative safety up the slope 

above high water in the vicinity of Lava Falls, one of the 

most dangerous on the whole river, during 4 days in September, that the outside world believed that the flood had been 

disastrous to the expedition. Water rose 21 feet during the 

flood, and measured in volume increased from 10,000 second 

feet to 125,000 second feet.

When the river had subsided, the journey was resumed. 

Diamond Creek, 45 miles distant, was reached at the end of 

10 days. Here the party was met by packers with food, letters, and newspapers. Letters were sent out assuring relatives 

that all was well with the party. Similar deliveries of supplies 

and mail had been made at Bright Angel and Havasu Creek. 

This service was in charge of Roger Birdseye, a cousin of 

Colonel Birdseye, and a resident of Flagstaff, Ariz. His trips 

to the river were hampered by washed out trails. In Havasu 

Creek there was no trail, not even a footpath. Below the 

beautiful walled-in valley, the home of the Havasupai Indians 

in the “Land of the Sky Blue Water,” Havasu Creek plunges 

through a narrow precipitous gorge, dropping vertically over 

four scenic falls. On July 8 and 9, a topographic engineer 

who was mapping remote corners of the Grand Canyon 

National Park, ran a stadia traverse down Havasu Creek and 

set a vertical angle bench mark near its junction with the 

river, as a tie point for the river party.

After four restful days, such as were usually spent at 

supply points, the party moved from Diamond Creek down 

the remaining 27 miles to Reference Point Creek, where 

the survey was tied to previous surveys carried upstream 

in 1920. A continuous stadia traverse had been carried 

251 miles, from an elevation of 3,117 feet to an elevation 

of 1,122 feet, closing with an error of less than 5 feet. In 

this stretch were 87 rapids and many small bits of rough 

water. The survey was made with a planetable and alidade, 

with a micrometer for the measurement of long distances, 

if necessary. Such cases, however, were rare and the usual 

length of sight was not more than 1,500 feet. Wherever possible, differences of elevations were determined by direct 

level readings, but in a few cases, the use of vertical angles 

was necessary. All distances and level determinations were 

double checked. The survey was completed on October 13, 

and the remaining 203 miles of river to Needles was covered 

by October 19, when the party was disbanded.35

Survey Order No. 114

Survey Order No. 114, Changes in Administration, Topographic Branch, dated January 2, 1925, was as follows:

“Since the retirement of Frank Sutton, on March 

7, 1924, Glenn S. Smith has been in administrative 

charge of the Atlantic Division, and the Chief Topographic Engineer has been handling the administration of the Rocky Mountain Division. It is desirable 

to relieve the Chief Topographic Engineer of the 

immediate supervision of a field division, but the 

work of the Topographic Branch is in such condition that field administration can be handled by three 

division chiefs, rather than four. The field administrative work of the Topographic Branch is therefore 

rearranged as follows:

“Glen S. Smith is designated Division Engineer-inCharge of the Atlantic Division, to include the States 

of Maine, West Virginia, New Hampshire, Ohio, 

Rhode Island, Indiana, Massachusetts, Vermont, 

Kentucky, Tennessee, Connecticut, North Carolina, 

New York, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Georgia, 

New Jersey, Florida, Maryland, Alabama, Delaware, 

Mississippi, and Virginia.

“W.H. Herron is designated Division Engineer-inCharge of the Central Division, to include the States 

of Michigan, South Dakota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, 

Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, Oklahoma, Iowa, Texas, 

Missouri, Wyoming, Arkansas, Colorado, Louisiana, 

New Mexico, and North Dakota.

“T.G. Gerdine is designated Division Engineer-inCharge of the Pacific Division, to include the following States and Territory of Washington, Nevada, 

Oregon, Utah, Idaho, Arizona, Montana, California, 

and Territory of Hawaii.”

Temple Act

Demands for topographic mapping were far in excess of 

those that could be accomplished with the funds that were provided for the work. After carefully considering the demands 

for topographic surveys, and the rate at which they were 

progressing, the Federal Board of Surveys and Maps proposed 

a plan for the early completion of the mapping of the United 

35 See “Surveying the Colorado Grand Canyon,” by C.H. Birdseye, The 

Military Engineer, January–February 1924.
Training Films 93

States. This plan was enacted into law, and was approved 

by the President on February 27, 1925, and is known as the 

Temple Act. The Temple Act reads as follows:

“An Act to provide for the completion of the topographical survey of the United States.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress 

assembled, That the President be, and hereby is, 

authorized to complete, within a period of 20 years 

from the date of the passage of this Act, a general 

utility topographical survey of the territory of the 

United States, including adequate horizontal and 

vertical control, and the securing of such topographic and hydrographic data as may be required 

for this purpose, and the preparation and publication 

of the resulting maps and data: Provided, That in 

carrying out the provisions of this Act, the President 

is authorized to utilize the services and facilities 

of such agency or agencies of the Government as 

now exist, or may hereafter be created, and to allot 

to them (in addition to and not in substitution for 

other funds available to such agencies under other 

appropriations or from other sources) funds from 

the appropriation herein authorized, or from such 

appropriation, or appropriations as may hereafter be 

made for the purpose of this Act.

“Sec. 2. That the agencies which may be engaged in 

carrying out the provisions of this Act are authorized to enter into cooperative agreements with 

and to receive funds made available by any state or 

civic subdivision for the purpose of expediting the 

completion of the mapping within its borders.

“Sec. 3. The sum of $950,000 is hereby authorized 

to be appropriated out of any moneys in the Treasury 

not otherwise appropriated, to be available until the 

30th day of June, 1926, for the purpose of carrying 

out the provisions of this Act, both in the District of 

Columbia and elsewhere as the President may deem 

essential and proper.

Approved February 27, 1925.”

The act authorized the completion of the mapping in 

20 years, and its sponsors contemplated gradually increasing appropriations for both geodetic and topographic work; 

however, the act only authorized, and did not appropriate, the 

necessary funds, and has not resulted in expediting the topographic mapping of the country to any great extent.

Training Films

The first training film was a three-reel silent film entitled 

“The Making of a Topographic Map,” prepared from field and 

office pictures taken in 1924–25, and was ready for distribution in 1926.

This film was sent to the chiefs of field parties with 

instructions to arrange to show it to local technical or educational groups so they would become more familiar with the 

work of the Topographic Branch and the need for topographic 

maps. The following “Story of Topography” also was sent:

“The early chapters of the ‘Story of Topography’ as 

told in the history of the Geological Survey were 

written more than 40 years ago in the silence and 

isolation of the rim of the “Great American Desert” 

on the high summits of the Rocky Mountain ranges, 

and midst the clamor and excitement of the mining camps of a day long past. Associated with those 

scenes are the names of Clark, Renshawe, Bodfish, Bien, Nell, Thompson, Wilson, Gannett, and 

numerous contemporaries who are called to mind 

whenever mention is made of the early work of the 

Survey.

“Work in such remote fields of operation necessitated preparations that included provision of shelter 

and food, and for protection against the dangers of a 

comparatively unknown and unexplored territory.

“The topographer of that period often times shot 

with his rifle quite as accurately as with his telescope, was as successful with his fishing lines as 

with his contour lines, communed as freely with roving Indians as with the voices of nature. In fact, he 

was a combination of engineer, draftsman, explorer, 

packer, horseman, mountain climber and diplomat. 

Those were the days of endurance, romance, and 

adventure, and they developed men whose memory 

is held in reverence by the generations of engineers 

that have followed them.

“This early period of reconnaissance and exploration 

has been followed by one which has witnessed an 

unusually rapid development of methods, improvement in instrumental equipment, the establishment 

of orderly procedure, the adoption of standard scales 

and contour intervals for different types of country, 

material additions to the data shown on published 

maps, and requirements for greater refinement and 

accuracy in all the field and office processes.

“The engineer’s environment and his work of 

today are in striking contrast with those of the early 

period. Irrigation has brought to the desert blooms 

and forage and farm products, with a corresponding 

agricultural population. Railroads have penetrated 

to the most remote mountain recesses; and mining 

companies with smelters and other reduction plants 

have developed the frontier mining camp to a well 

organized city.
94 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

“The scenes of our story have broadened and grown 

until they include every part of the United States. 

Little remains of those experiences to topographic 

pioneering. Few indeed are the areas in which the 

topographic engineer can not depend upon a Ford 

to solve his transportation problems, and although 

there are still numerous areas, as the pictures will 

show, where the pack train and camping outfit are 

necessary, a very large percentage of the topographic 

work is accomplished with more modern and more 

prosaic equipment. With a new environment has 

cone new standards of accuracy for the work, a 

much wider use of the maps, and a corresponding 

increase in requests for surveys from many sources.

“The topographic surveys were begun in order to 

supply the immediate needs of the geologist by 

providing a base map upon which the results of his 

geologic investigations could be graphically shown. 

Today these maps are used by all the departments 

of the Federal Government, by various state organizations throughout the country, and by engineers, 

miners, educators, land investors, travelers, and 

representatives of the general public, whose sincere 

personal interest in all the activities and plans of the 

Topographic Branch of the Geological Survey is 

indicative of their urgent need for the information 

which they find on these topographic maps.

“During the field season which, which usually 

begins in April, and ends in November, you may 

encounter the topographer, with his mounted 

planetable and telescopic alidade, “running out” the 

section-line highways of the central western states, 

working across the sand dunes along the borders of 

the Great Lakes in Michigan, combing the topographic features in the intricate glacial drift country 

of Wisconsin, scaling the Appalachian Range, following the tortuous windings of the rivers in Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Kentucky; penetrating the 

deep pine woods of Maine, battling with the winds 

that blow so consistently across the trans-Mississippi 

plains, floundering through swamps to reach reliable 

location points, climbing to the very summits of 

the high mountain ranges of the West, where snow 

abides throughout the year, or mapping the valley 

floors of the mighty rivers throughout our land.

“Although the glamour and romance of those olden, 

golden days of pioneering and adventure are no 

more, the modern knight of the planetable finds no 

less of inspiration, and feels no less of enthusiasm in 

his work than the hardy men of the early times. The 

character of his dreams may have changed, but they 

are none the less attractive and realistic, for they 

enable him to vision the future, its increased activities, more comfortable and more numerous homes, 

improved sanitation, and higher standards of living, 

with a feeling of satisfaction that his own work is 

making a distinct contribution to the forces which 

will have accomplished these results.

“In the moving pictures that are to follow, an attempt 

has been made to show, in logical order, the varied 

activities of the Topographic Branch of the U.S. 

Geological Survey, including all office and field 

operations that contribute to the preparation and 

publication of the topographic maps.”

This film also was used extensively by technical societies and engineering schools, and in 1937, was superseded by 

a two-reel, silent, black and white film titled “Stereoscopic 

Mapping from the Air,” which showed the use of stereoscopy 

in the preparation of maps from aerial photographs.

“Reconnaissance Mapping with Trimetrogon Photography,” is a sound and color film that was produced in 1944 by 

the Pan American Institute of Geography and History, Commission on Cartography, in cooperation with the Geological 

Survey. It gives a detailed portrayal of the methods used in 

preparing maps by use of photographs taken with trimetrogon cameras. Continuous requests are received for the use of 

this film in the training programs of colleges and the military 

services.

“Topographic Mapping by Photogrammetric Methods,” 

is a sound and color film that was produced in 1947 by the Pan 

American Institute of Geography and History, Commission 

on Cartography, in cooperation with the Geological Survey. 

This film shows modern technical procedures employed by the 

Geological Survey in making standard topographic quadrangles by the Multiplex method of mapping. Colored spectacles 

are supplied with the film for viewing the three dimensional 

scenes. This film has been loaned to many technical societies, 

engineering schools, Federal and State mapping agencies, and 

others interested in topographic mapping.

Besides the “Topographic Mapping by Photogrammetric 

Methods” film with sound and color, films are available for 

limited circulation to specialized groups and others interested 

in topographic mapping as follows:

• “Leveling for Topographic Mapping”

• “Transit Traverse for Topographic Mapping” 

• “Triangulation for Topographic Mapping”

• “Supplemental Control for Topographic Mapping”

• “The Preparation of Topographic Manuscripts for 

Reproduction”

• “Negative Scribing for Map Reproduction”

• “The Helicopter as an Aid in Alaska Surveys” (SilentColor)

During a year it is estimated that these training films 

are shown approximately 80 times before technical and 
Oklahoma–Texas Boundary Line 95

educational societies, colleges and universities, and service 

groups, and are viewed by about 8,000 persons.

Topographic Instructions

A “Manual of Topographic Instructions” (432 pages) to 

replace all former instructions relating to topographic work 

was published in 1928, as U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 

No. 788. The manual was issued in several parts, each covering a general subject, and prepared by Branch members best 

qualified for the work. The subject of each part, author, and 

date of issuance is shown in table 36.

Late in 1947, the Research and Technical Control Branch 

of the Topographic Division began preparation of a looseleaf manual of instructions to replace Bulletin No. 788, now 

obsolete in part as a result of photogrammetric developments, 

improved methods, and changing map requirements. However, 

the first three chapters were not reproduced and distributed 

until December 1950. The manual probably will contain 

144 chapters. A Table of Contents has been compiled to list the 

proposed chapters; it is, of course, subject to revision, as are 

all other chapters. More and more chapters are being written 

and distributed each year. Each chapter will be prepared and 

issued as a separate unit for operational use, and each part, 

when complete, also will be issued as a circular in the Survey’s numbered series of publications.

Topographic Branch Memo

On June 13, 1927, the following memorandum was sent 

to the members of the Topographic Branch.

“Mr. Hersey Munroe, Topographic Engineer-inCharge of the New England Section, will be relieved 

on June 15 and designated as Inspector and Instructor for the Atlantic Division.

“Mr. Albert Pike, Topographic Engineer-inCharge of the Middle Atlantic Section, will be 

relieved on June 15 and designated Topographic 

Engineer-in-Charge of the New England Section.

“The Middle Atlantic Section will be administrated 

by the Division Engineer-in-Charge, Atlantic Division until further notice.”

Maine–New Hampshire Boundary Line

In 1874, the boundary line between Maine and New 

Hampshire was resurveyed, and in 1927, the Legislatures of 

the two States authorized a retracement and remarking of the 

boundary line from Salmon Falls northward to the Canadian 

line. A.T. Fowler was given this assignment and he resurveyed 

and monumented 112 miles of the north-south boundary line 

between Maine and New Hampshire. This work was completed in 1929.36

Oklahoma–Texas Boundary Line

S.S. Gannett was appointed Commissioner under the 

decree of the U.S. Supreme Court rendered January 3, 1927, 

to run, locate, and mark the boundary between the States of 

Oklahoma and Texas, along the true 100th meridian of longitude west from Greenwich, extending north from its intersection with the south bank of the South Fork of Red River, to its 

intersection with the 36-degree 30-minute parallel the approximate northeast corner of the Panhandle of Texas, according 

to the surveys of 1858–60. The State of Texas employed an 

astronomer in 1892 to determine the 100th meridian at its 

intersection with the Red River.

From 20 triangulation stations, established by the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1923 and in 1927–28, with 

geographical positions on the North American Datum of 1927, 

offsets were made with a 300-foot steel tape to the true meridian. In the 133.6 miles of the line, the longest offset measurement was 3,620.23 feet, the shortest was 197.78 feet. The 

meridian, as established, was 4,040 feet east of the old line at 

the south end, and 880 feet east at the north end, making the 

strip of land included between the two lines about 44.6 square 

miles. The number of concrete monuments set to mark the true 

meridian was 160.

The instrumental work was executed by Eugene L. 

McNair. Rodmen, chainmen, and other temporary employees 

were hired locally, an equal number from each state. Mr. Gannett submitted his report on July 15, 1929,37 and the Court 

approved the line thus established on March 17, 1930.

36 U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 817, p. 174.

37 General Land Office Service Bulletin, December 1926, p. 315.

Table 36. Contributions to U.S. Gological Survey Bulletin 788.

Chapter Author Date of issuance

Administration Helen M. Frye November 15, 1926

Triangulation E.M. Douglas December 22, 1926

Transit Traverse E.M. Douglas December 18

Leveling E.M. Douglas December 13

Topographic Mapping W.M. Beaman April 2, 1928

Map Compilation from 

Aerial Photographs

T.P. Pendleton February 27, 1928
96 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Fiftieth Anniversary

Thursday, March 21, 1929, just 50 years after President 

Hayes appointed Clarence King Director of the new U.S. Geological Survey, was largely devoted to events in celebration of 

this momentous day by Survey members and friends.

The first of three events was a noonday reception at the 

White House. President Hoover had been a geological assistant with the Survey during the seasons of 1893 and 1894 in 

California. Mrs. Hoover, who had also majored in geology at 

Stanford University, related several amusing incidents in connection with her search for facts.

In the afternoon, at a meeting in the National Museum, 

Secretary of the Interior, Ray Lyman Wilbur, and several 

prominent scientists, outlined the growth and scope of the 

Survey’s activities.

In the evening, more than over 600 people attended a 

banquet at the Washington Hotel, which was followed by an 

elaborate entertainment consisting of skits by every Branch, 

and dancing. The Topographic Branch had prepared a booklet 

for the anniversary, containing a brief humorous account, in 

verse, of topographic mapping methods, written by E.I. Ireland, and cleverly cartooned by Gerald FitzGerald. The oldest 

topographic engineer in point of service was presented with an 

inscribed loving cup:

1880–1930

Hersey Monroe

From Fellow Engineers

U.S. Geological Survey

Fifty Years of Service

The topographic maps that had been necessary to provide 

an accurate base upon which to represent the facts ascertained 

by geologic work had now attained so high a degree of exactness that they were sought for themselves alone, by all classes 

of people, from engineers to vacation tourists.

Nine states, and the District of Columbia, are now 

entirely mapped, and the percentage in other states ranges 

from 8 percent to 88.6 percent. Of the total continental United 

States, exclusive of Alaska, 43.6 percent had been mapped. 

Cooperation was continued with the Air Corps, U.S. Army, 

whereby aerial photographs were furnished for use in topographic mapping. Bulletin No. 788 “Topographic Instructions 

of the Geological Survey” was published.

New Mexico–Texas Boundary Line

By a decree of the U.S. Supreme Court, dated April 9, 

1928, Mr. Gannett was appointed Commissioner to reestablish 

the boundary line between New Mexico and Texas northwest 

of El Paso, from parallel 32 degrees southward to parallel 

31 degrees, 47 minutes on the international boundary between 

the United States and Mexico. The legal boundary was the middle of the channel of the Rio Grande, as it existed on September 9, 1850, and to recover it the Salazar-Diaz triangulation and 

traverse of 1852 was reproduced on the ground as closely as 

possible from the angles, bearings, and distances given in the 

records. The river was noted for its habit of swinging back and 

forth through a 4-mile valley in flood times, and the new survey found it in its old channel for a distance of only 1.5 miles, 

and away from it as far as 2.5 miles.

The instrumental work of 1929 and 1930 along the 

disputed boundary was executed by E.L. McNair, assisted 

by L.B. Leachman. The total length of the boundary line was 

25.17 miles; the number of concrete monuments set, each 

exceeding half a ton in weight, was 105. The new survey 

caused a net loss of approximately 2,496 acres (3.9 square 

miles) by Texas to New Mexico. The land was valued at 

about $300 per acre. Robert H. Reineck, topographer, added 

the culture to the topographic map of about 60 square miles, 

which the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation executed on the scale 

of 1:24,000 with a contour interval of 5 feet. Mr. Gannett 

submitted his report on July 17, 1930, and it was confirmed on 

March 23, 1931.

Survey Order No. 128

Survey Order No. 128, dated September 10, 1929, made 

the following personnel changes in the Topographic Branch:

“Two resignations in the Topographic Branch 

necessitate a change in administrative personnel. 

Colonel Smith has asked to be relieved of administrative duty as chief of the Atlantic Division, a 

duty, which he has fulfilled with great effectiveness. Colonel Birdseye leaves the Government 

service to fill an important position. As a field 

topographer, as an engineer officer in France, and 

as the chief administrative officer of the Topographic Branch, Colonel Birdseye’s record has 

been brilliant. He has added much to the engineering efficiency within the organization as well as to 

its outside reputation for high standards of work. 

Best of all, he has won the confidence, respect, and 

affection of his associates.

“Mr. John G. Staack, after 25 years service in the 

Topographic Branch, has been appointed Chief Topographic Engineer. His wide experience and close 

acquaintance with both the work and the personnel 

of the Branch warrant confidence that he will take 

full advantage of the larger opportunity afforded 

through the Secretary’s policy of expansion.

“Mr. Albert Pike, who has served so successfully 

in the administration of the Atlantic Division, will 

succeed his retiring chief, and his designation as 
Map of Roseau River Valley, Minnesota—Staack and Sadler (1929–30) 97

Division Chief means the continued efficiency of the 

topographic work in the East.

“Colonel Smith will not sever his connection with 

the Survey but will be available for occasional duty 

as the Director may wish, to make use of his wide 

experience, or the Secretary of the Interior may 

desire to continue him as his representative on the 

Southern Appalachian National Park Commission.

“Until Mr. Staack returns from the field, Colonel 

Smith will serve as Acting Chief Topographic 

Engineer.”

The appointment of John G. Staack as Chief Topographic 

Engineer carried with it the assurance that the Secretary of the 

Interior supported a policy of expanding the mapping program 

of the Survey. This meant, for Mr. Staack, the preparation of 

many plans and accompanying detailed estimates for new mapping projects, though appropriations for many of them were not 

forthcoming. The application of the new science of photogrammetry to topographic mapping called for constant study and 

frequent analyses of costs. The reputation of the Geological Survey for producing the finest topographic maps was founded on 

searching the ground with the planetable and alidade, and upon 

reproduction by copper plate engraving. However, it was early 

recognized that aerial photography could expedite the ground 

surveys and furnish the location of hundreds of minor points, 

thus increasing the accuracy of the map, and copper plate 

engraving was being challenged on cost by photolithography.

Appropriations and Personnel (1929)

In 1929, the personnel of the Topographic Branch 

consisted of 256 employees; 169 topographic, geodetic, and 

cartographic engineers of various grades; 71 engineering field 

aides and draftsmen of various grades; and 16 clerks in the 

clerical force.

In 1929, Field Divisions numbered three: Atlantic, Central, and Pacific. A summary of mapping for 1929 is show in 

table 37 with appropriatioms shown in table 38. Appropriatioms by state for topographic surveys are listed in table 39, and 

the expended funds for 1929 are listed in table 40.

Map of Roseau River Valley, 

Minnesota—Staack and Sadler 

(1929–30)

In 1929, at the request of the International Boundary Commission, the mapping of the Roseau River Valley was undertaken on a scale of 1:31,680 and contour interval of 2 feet. The 

total area of this project was approximately 600 square miles. 

Approximately 200 square miles of this area was mapped in 

cooperation with the Department of Drainage and Water, State 

of Minnesota. The reason for this survey was complaints from 

local residents on the Canadian side that the extensive ditching 

of this valley area had increased flood conditions and was causing great damage on the Canadian side. Also, complaints were 

made by the United States residents that a dam that was contemplated on the Canadian side would back water onto the American side and cause considerable damage. A very large percentage of this valley area was covered with peat bog swamps, 

which furnished very good grazing land when properly drained. 

Consequently, the State of Minnesota had placed ditches along 

each section line and, after leveling off, had constructed county 

roads on top of the spoil banks.

The topography on the project was by Daniel Kennedy, 

F.L. Whaley, S.B. O’Hara, M.J. Harden, F.K. Van Zandt, E.J. 

Fennell, and C.L. Sadler, who was in charge.

Two hundred and twenty-two miles of transit traverse 

and 280 miles of levels were run and 54 bench marks were set 

to control this project. Since a large percentage of the permanent bench marks had to be set in the swamp areas, which 

comprised peat moss to a depth of sometimes more than 6 

feet, and the freezing during severe winters had a tendency 

to push telephone poles and monuments out of the ground, 

Table 37.

1929.

[--, no data]

Summary of mapping for the year 

Publication 

scale

New 

(square mile)

Resurvey 

(square mile)

1:12,000

1:20,000

1:24,000

1:31,680

1:62,500 

Hawaiia

1:125,000

 Total

New mapping

Resurveys

Revision

57

266 

--

878

9,498

2,257

12,956

--

--

86

--

321

800

1,449

1,393

--

4,049

328

a

 Advance sheets with 10-foot contour interval published 

at 1:62,500.

Table 38. Appropriations for 1929.

Appropriation Amount

Topographic surveys $780,288

Transfers and repayments for work 

performed for other Federal units

133,002

State cooperative funds (27 states) 476,527

 Total 1,389,817
98 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Table 39. Appropriations by state for topographic surveys during fiscal year 1929.—Continued

[--, no data]

State or project 

Appropriation 

for 

topographic 

surveys

Repayments 

for work 

performed for 

other Federal 

units

Total 

Federal 

funds

State 

cooperative 

funds

Total funds

Alabama $12,091.46 -- $12,091.46 $10,000.00 $22,091.46

Arizona 8,278.05 -- 8,278.05 -- 8,278.05

Arkansas base map 1,565.76 -- 1,565.76 1,500.00 3,065.76

California 37,485.01 $1,432.31 38,917.32 56,911.99 95,829.31

Colorado 7,194.95 -- 7,194.95 2,000.00 9,134.95

Connecticut 3,468.97 -- 3,468.97 4,988.27 8,457.24

Hawaii 27,562.63 -- 27,562.63 24,887.55 52,450.18

Idaho 28,009.71 -- 28,009.71 -- 28,009.71

Illinois 46,378.05 27,199.88 73,577.93 40,015.77 113,593.70

Iowa 1,133.04 -- 1,133.04 1,997.48 3,130.52

Kentucky 93,486.85 8,525.09 102,011.94 66,145.32 168,157.26

Maine 29,823.77 13,498.65 43,322.42 33,934.56 77,256.98

Michigan 14,629.53 -- 14,629.53 15,053.54 29,683.07

Mississippi 48,962.70 48,962.70 -- 48,962.70

Missouri 7,486.62 -- 7,486.62 6,288.32 13,774.94

Montana 2,769.02 -- 2,769.02 15,626.92 18,395.94

Nevada 32.05 4,797.42 4,829.47 -- 4,829.47

New Hampshire 14,736.03 -- 14,736.03 33,677.90 48,413.93

New Mexico 13,868.86 -- 13,868.86 12,726.85 26,595.71

New York 6,098.81 -- 6,098.81 10,424.50 16,523.31

North Dakota 8,694.39 -- 8,694.39 12,965.09 21,659.48

Oklahoma 16,690.31 -- 16,690.31 15,566.73 32,257.04

Oregon 11,345.82 -- 11,345.82 1,735.17 13,080.99

Pennsylvania 15,211.13 -- 15,211.13 22,456.46 37,667.59

Tennessee 72,920.44 -- 72,920.44 14,000.00 86,920.44

Texas 36,418.51 4,531.63 40,950.14 33,867.41 74,817.55

Utah 7,421.02 -- 7,421.02 329.44 7,750.46

Vermont 13,925.03 4,029.51 17,954.54 8,184.73 26,139.27

Virginia 68,795.74 3,012.03 71,807.77 12,020.04 83,827.81

Washington 8,618.73 -- 8,618.73 3,367.98 11,986.71

West Virginia 203.78 -- 203.78 -- 203.78

Wisconsin 13,431.98 6,329.47 19,761.45 15,855.32 35,616.77

Wyoming 708.68 -- 708.68 708.68

Books for library 157.39 -- 157.39 -- 157.39

Computing a 4,207.53 -- 4,207.53 4,207.53

Contingent 11,176.74 -- 11,176.74 11,176.74

Field district offices 600.00 -- 600.00 -- 600.00

Instruments (field) a 8,137.10 -- 8,137.10 -- 8,137.10

Stationery (field ) a 225.00 -- 225.00 -- 225.00

Inspection and editing a 8,887.42 -- 8,887.42 -- 8,887.42
Aerial Photography 99

it was imperative that some method of setting bench marks 

be evolved that would ensure their permanent location. It 

was decided to make the bench mark posts with reinforced 

concrete, 6 inches in diameter and 6 feet long. The forms for 

the posts were set on a plank with small holes bored in them 

so that the reinforcement wires could extend out at least 16 

inches. A bench mark tablet was placed in the upper end of the 

monument. Holes 2 feet in diameter were then dug for placing 

these monuments, the extra reinforcement wires being bent 

at right angles in all directions, and then a couple of buckets 

of concrete were poured into the holes, making a collar at the 

bottom of each monument. A majority of the posts reached to 

hardpan clay, but it is believed that those set in the peat formation will remain permanently located.

Because of a small contour interval, innumerable elevations were determined on each square mile and indicated on 

the planetable sheets to the correct tenth, the decimal point 

being the location of elevation.

An examination of the base map showed that a rise of the 

river considerably below flood stage caused the flow of water in 

these ditches to reverse itself and the water was spilled into the 

Red River Valley country. These section line ditches were beneficial rather than detrimental in the flood control of the Roseau 

River. Also, a dam on the Canadian side that would raise the 

river as much as 3 feet at the boundary would cause it to spill 

over through a low gap within one-half mile of the boundary, 

and the water would again return to the Canadian side.

Aerial Photography

In 1930, aerial photographs were taken by commercial 

contractors, of a strip along the upper Columbia River in 

the State of Washington, of Zion National Park, and Bryce 

Canyon National Park in southern Utah. About one-half of the 

maps of the two national parks were produced by stereo-photogrammetric processes with the Hugershoff aerocartograph.

In 1931, aerial photographs of Lakeport Quadrangle, Calif., were taken by a commercial contractor. The 

quadrangle was then revised and partially remapped by 

stereo-photogrammetry.

Orders were received for the forced retirement of 

husband or wife, if both worked for the government, and of 

certain other employees, in April 1933. Government salaries 

were reduced 15 percent and a 3-month furlough without pay 

was suggested. The Democratic Administration (The New 

Deal) that was elected on a platform that promised to bring 

the country out of the depression and effect a 25 percent 

reduction in governmental expenditures proposed to effect the 

latter by reducing personnel. Complying with the Secretary’s 

orders was a distasteful duty for Mr. Staack, as most of the 

Topographic Branch members who were separated were his 

Table 39.

[--, no data]

Appropriations by state for topographic surveys during fiscal year 1929.—Continued

State or project 

Appropriation 

for 

topographic 

surveys

Repayments 

for work 

performed for 

other Federal 

units

Total 

Federal 

funds

State 

cooperative 

funds

Total funds

Map information

One-millionth maps

Miscellaneous repay

Office salaries

Photographic mapping

Relief maps

Total expenditures 

Unexpended balance

 Total

3,496.36

7,747.64

--

a 8,742.64

a 3,939.81

3.85

b 687,806.21

c 92,482.17

780,288.38 

--

--

10,683.44

--

-- 

--

133,002.13

--

133,002.13

3,496.36

7,747.64

10,683.44

8,742.64

3,939.81

3.85

820,808.34

92,482.17

913,290.51

--

--

--

--

--

--

476,527.34

--

476,527.34

3,496.36

7,747.64

10,683.44

8,742.64

3,939.81

3.85

297,335.68

92,482.17

1,389,817.85

a

 Presents 37.5 percent of total cost; balance of 62.5 percent included in charges for cooperation.

b $452,541.39 expended on State cooperation.

c Includes $57,945.84 Great Smoky and $33,924.78 Shenandoah Park funds available during fiscal year 1930.

Table 40. Expended appropriations for 1929.

Appropriation Amount

Topographic surveys $726,870.62

Transfers and repayments for work 

performed for other Federal units

127,368.76

State cooperative funds 441,851.95

 Total 1,296,091.33
100 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

friends. In several months, The New Deal found that reduction 

of governmental personnel merely added to the ranks of the 

unemployed. Emergency relief measures were necessary and 

the Public Works Administration was one of the agencies created for the purpose of increased employment, opportunities 

for work, and stimulation of business.

Public Works Administration Projects

The Survey received $1,000,000 from the Public Works 

Administration (PWA) in October 1933. Under PWA allotments, the Topographic Branch was able to accomplish some 

planned mapping sooner than expected and to enjoy some definite advantages. Field parties were equipped with new trucks. 

They were permitted to hire the extra pack horse and the extra 

rodman, cook, or packer that they had always needed. The 

new engineers required careful training, and the larger field 

parties made additional work for the party chiefs. They also 

were bothered by new rules. Rodmen, chainmen, recorders, 

cooks, and packers were not to work, more than 40 hours 

a week, or 8 hours a day for 5 days and they were allowed 

annual and sick leave, the same as permanent employees with 

Civil Service status. In Washington, the added burden of the 

expanded program fell heavily upon the Chief Topographic 

Engineer and his assistant, E.L. Hain, for they were unable to 

employ additional clerical help.

Public Works Administration funds were available until 

the end of 1940. The Survey kept wage standards high, $2,000 

per annum for instrument men and, with the first allotment, 

achieved the highest record among Government bureaus; 

739 man hours for each $1,000 expended. With the second 

allotment, the man hours average was 705 because equipment 

and trucks were purchased. Indirect employment not counted, 

survey productivity was highly rated.

Public Works Administration funds were prorated among 

the states and Puerto Rico. However, some of the states had 

CWA, ERA, FERA, WPA, or PWA funds38 and asked the 

Topographic Branch for the loan of supervisors, instruments, 

and automobiles. In the Atlantic Division, South Carolina had 

such funds, and in the Central Division, Arkansas, Colorado, 

Kansas, and Missouri also requested aid.

In South Carolina, from September 1933 to September 

1935, the Hagood, Camden, and Killian Quadrangles were 

completely mapped; supervision was made of horizontal and 

vertical control, 6,000 square miles were photographed and 

planimetric maps of this area were begun. K.W. Trimble was 

first in charge of this work, followed by C.B. Kendall and A.T. 

Fowler.

From December 1935 to October 1941, the mapping of 

the city of Denver, Colo., was undertaken as a Works Progress 

Administration Project No. 674. Under WPA regulations, the 

38 Civil Works Administration; Emergency Relief Administration; Federal 

Emergency Relief Administration; Works Project Administration; or Public 

Works Administration.

Topographic Branch could share only administrative costs. 

Work had to be in or near the city, as men could be employed 

only 3 days in the week at less than $1,000 annual wage. Fred 

Graff, Jr., topographic engineer, was selected to take charge of 

the project, and four topographic engineers H.S. Senseney, S.P. 

Floore, S.G. Lunde, and M.J. Gleissner were assigned as heads 

of the sections of control, planimetry, topography, and editing. About 1,200 persons on relief were trained in all phases 

of topographic mapping. The 60 square miles were covered 

by 92 maps, for which the field surveys were on a scale of 

200 feet equals 1 inch with contour interval of 2 feet.

The city of St. Louis map was among the many relief 

projects undertaken in Missouri from 1933 to 1940. In 1933, 

the City of St. Louis, having curtailed construction operations, 

had surplus engineers whom they desired to keep employed on 

a relief basis. The Director of Public Works contacted the State 

cooperating official and a program was worked out, providing 

that the city would supply engineers to extend the necessary 

horizontal and vertical control, and draftsmen to ink all maps 

prepared. The mapping to be executed on the scale of 200 feet 

equals 1 inch, with a contour interval of 5 feet. The former 

St. Louis map, made in 1889, on a scale of 200 feet to the 

inch, with a contour interval of 3 feet, was prepared in sheets 

covering 1 minute in latitude and 2 minutes and 10 seconds in 

longitude. The same subdivisions were used on the new mapping program. F.W. Hughes was in charge of the project. All 

city, county, town, railroad, and public service, etc. maps were 

assembled for use in this compilation. The City of St. Louis 

received a topographic map on the scale of 1 inch equals 200 

feet, and the Geological Survey took the original manuscripts, 

inked them in three colors, and then reduced and assembled 

them into quadrangles, on the scale of 1:24000, by photography and photolithography.

The PWA program was huge success. Everyone worked 

hard but there were no complaints. All felt that they were 

makers of men, as well as maps, and were gratified with the 

results.

A clipping from a small town newspaper in Arkansas 

furnished an example:

“Manna from Heaven”

“Two men came to town today. They said they were 

topographic engineers with the U.S. Geological 

Survey and would like to make their headquarters 

here while mapping surrounding quadrangles. Next 

week there would be about 32 in the group, including wives and children. They could use unemployed 

boys and would make all purchases at the local 

stores. They would stay a year or more.

“The hotel will reopen, including its dining room. 

All discharged men and women will be reemployed. 

Stores will open their doors and this town will live 

again.

“Truly manna from heaven.”
Vermont–New Hampshire Boundary Line 101

Louisiana–Mississippi Boundary Line

S.S. Gannett served for the third time as sole commissioner on a boundary dispute when the U.S. Supreme Court, 

by decree rendered April 13, 1931, appointed him to run, 

locate, plat, and mark the boundary between the State of 

Louisiana and the State of Mississippi, between latitude 32 

degrees 39 minutes on the north, and the division line between 

Issaquena and Warren Counties, Miss., (as extended westward) 

on the south. This was a case of relocating the boundary as it 

existed prior to the avulsion of 1912–13, the action of the river 

cutting off one of its sweeping oxbows and isolating a portion 

of Carroll Parish, La. The boundary was the center of the navigable channel of the river. Mr. McNair executed the instrumental work in October and November 1932, and found 2.5 

miles of the northern boundary filled with silt, which afforded 

a normal survey, and base for five concrete monuments and 12 

creosoted wooden posts at intermediate angle points. The total 

length of the line was about 10 miles. Mr. Gannett’s report was 

submitted on May 17, 1933.

Personnel Notes

In January 1932, a committee was appointed to prepare news items twice a year for distribution to Topographic 

Branch personnel. The items were brief and became even 

more brief, limited as to location and date of field assignments. 

After 2 years, the “Personnel Notes” were discontinued in 

order to save time and paper.

Members of the Branch were always interested in the 

assignments of their colleagues, and the Topocraft Club, 

composed of Masons of the Branch, at its annual meeting in 

January 1935, selected a committee to prepare news notes. 

C.H. Davey, W.H. Griffin, J.P. Harrison, H.H. Hodgeson, 

and J.M. Whitman were members of the committee, and as a 

private enterprise, with official sanction, the notes were not 

restricted to a bare statement of facts. One hundred mimeographed copies of “Topocraft Newsnotes” (34 pages) were 

issued to club members in April 1935, with the suggestion that 

they be circulated among non-members. So many expressions 

of appreciation were received that “Topocraft Newsnotes No. 

2” (75 pages) were issued in July 1936, after the men were 

located on their field assignments. and “Newsnotes No. 3” (74 

pages) was presented in August 1938. The tragedy of World 

War II discouraged further issues.

Mr. Hodgeson’s retirement on November 30, 1942, 

permitted him to do what he had wanted to do for some time; 

write news notes for the Topographic Branch. The mimeograph machine in the Sacramento office was his private 

property, and could be used by him after office hours and on 

weekends. The enterprise was again a private one, with official 

sanction, and was supported by subscribers who paid enough 

to cover the cost of paper and stamps. Subscribers increased 

from 200 to more than 300 in the later years.

The “Personnel Notes, Pacific Division,” made its first 

monthly appearance on January 31, 1943. At first only three 

pages, it grew in size as items were contributed by a volunteer 

correspondent in each Division and the Washington office. Its 

growth was stopped at 10 pages, which was reached in July 

1944, because that was the maximum weight that could be 

mailed for a 3-cent stamp.

At the end of 4 years, the notes were discontinued by 

Mr. Hodgeson, and R.T. Evans decided to continue them in 

Washington as the “Topographic Branch Notes.” They enjoyed 

sustained popularity, but after 5 years, Mr. Evans discontinued 

their preparation and v. IX. no. 12, December 1, 1951, was the 

last issue.

Vermont–New Hampshire Boundary 

Line

The U.S. Supreme Court on May 29, 1933, sustained the 

findings of the Special Master as to the location of the true 

boundary line between Vermont and New Hampshire, and 

decreed that the boundary line, in dispute for more than 150 

years, should follow the western side of the Connecticut River 

at low water mark, “as the same is or would be if unaffected 

by improvements on the river.” Ten dams across the river for 

the generation of hydroelectric power, and the lakes about 

them, had obliterated the original low water mark for much of 

the 200 miles of river involved.

The Court’s decree meant, for Vermont, the acquisition 

of a new island or so, and for New Hampshire, the privilege of 

maintaining most of the bridges. S.S. Gannett, notwithstanding the fact that he had retired from active service on June 

30, 1932, at 71 years of age, was appointed by the Court on 

January 8, 1934, as Special Commissioner to locate the boundary line and to mark certain specified points. From the large 

“Mud Turtle” monument, built in 1895 and 1897, common to 

boundary lines of Massachusetts, Vermont, and New Hampshire, a careful third order transit traverse reference line was 

extended along the railroads and highways nearest the Connecticut River, tied to seven triangulation stations in the course 

of the 206 miles, and terminated at the Canadian boundary 

monument No. 519, which marks also the northeast corner of 

Vermont.

Monuments, weighing approximately 1,200 pounds each, 

and markers together, numbered 103. Except the few set on 

dams and bridges, the monuments and markers were erected 

on the west bank of the river, out of reach of extreme high 

water. The bronze tablet imbedded in the top of each marker 

was stamped with an arrow and the number of feet from its 

center to the State line. Check lines of third order spirit leveling were extended from nearby bench marks to all markers. The geographic positions of the bench marks also were 

determined, adding more than 70 additional reference points 
102 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

near the boundary line. Elevations: Turtle Monument (lowwater level), 177 feet; river at northeast corner of Vermont, 

1,102 feet.

Fieldwork started in May 1934, was temporarily discontinued on September 28, 1934, upon the sudden death of the 

chief of the field party, E.L. McNair; resumed May 1936, by 

Clyde B. Kendall, and completed in August 1936. Mr. Kendall 

also was in immediate charge of the office computations of 

geodetic positions of reference monuments and state line 

points from January 1936, to the middle of September 1936. 

The Connecticut River drained a generally wooded country, 

but large floods occurred in 1927, and in March 1936, the latter destroying a number of bridges. Mr. Gannett submitted his 

bound, book-size report to the Court on November 16, 1936.

Mapping of the Tennessee River Basin

On August 31, 1933, an act of Congress created the Tennessee Valley Authority for the development of a unified water 

control plan for the entire Tennessee River Basin, an area of 

40,600 square miles, including parts of seven states. Closely, 

and inevitably linked with consideration of water control and 

use are such phases of land planning as relocation of highways 

and railroads, distribution of electric power, erosion control, 

forestation, industrial development, and shifts of population. 

Planning of this scope would require complete and accurate 

base maps, and a cooperative agreement was made with the 

Geological Survey in the following December. As the need for 

maps was urgent, their production by photogrammetric methods was necessary and the Survey’s leading photogrammetrist, 

Thomas P. Pendleton, was placed in charge of the work.

The agreement stipulated that the quietest process of 

covering the valley was the preparation of planimetric maps, 

without contours. These maps were made by office compilation, using the radial line method, with three-lens aerial 

photographs. Correct geographic position was secured by 

means of secondary triangulation or third order traverse, the 

latter spaced about 5 or 6 miles apart, and closed on U.S. 

Coast and Geodetic Survey control stations. Details of road 

alignments were obtained by automobile traverses, wherein 

distances were taken from the speedometer and alignments 

from compass bearings. After the office compilation, the maps 

were given an overall check in the field by planetable. The size 

adopted for the individual maps was the 7.5-minute quadrangle on the scale of 1:24,000, and it would require about 

766 maps. More than 200 men, with headquarters at Chattanooga, worked on the project, and it was completed by the end 

of 1936.

The temporary planimetric maps were to be replaced 

with topographic maps with contours, and studies were made 

in the Washington office of two new stereo photogrammetric 

plotting machines of German manufacture, which seemed to 

possess advantages over the Survey’s one Hugershoff aerocartograph. The Zeiss Stereoplanigraph, which was set up for 

study, was as complicated and costly as the aerocartograph. 

The Multiplex Projector, which Heinz Gruner and E.O. Hesster exhibited and demonstrated on May 1, 1934, was small, 

comparatively simple, and not expensive, and the Survey 

ordered several units. They arrived from Germany, three at a 

time, late in 1935.

From the use of the stereoplanigraph in mapping a part of 

the Bushkill Quadrangle, Pa., and the use of the Multiplex in 

mapping the Oswald Dome Quadrangle, Tenn., it was found 

by analytical studies that the accuracy of the former, accommodating 4-lens photographs, possessed about three times 

the accuracy of the latter in respect to vertical measurements, 

could compete with the planetable for cost and accuracy on 

contour intervals greater than 5 feet, and was the best plotting 

machine tried out by the Survey. However, the Survey never 

had money enough to buy it. The Multiplex was comparatively 

inexpensive.

The mapping of the Oswald Done Quadrangle disclosed distortions in the projected models and other defects 

in the Multiplex instrument. Correspondence with the Zeiss 

Company revealed that the Multiplex was intended only for 

reconnaissance mapping, and that if finer work was desired the 

Survey could redesign any parts of the instrument and have 

the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company of Rochester, N.Y., 

manufacture new parts, or even new instruments.

Accordingly, the Survey assigned Russell K. Bean to 

develop and redesign the Multiplex instrument. Beginning 

with the recalibration of the projectors, changes, as they were 

believed desirable, were progressively made, such as the 

conversion of the normal projectors to wide angle projectors; 

later their increase in size in order to accommodate 64 by 64 

millimeter diapositive plates rather than the 45 by 60 millimeter plates; enlargement of the reduction printer, which was the 

special projection camera used in making the small diapositive plates that were employed in the projectors in the form of 

reduced positive copies of the original aerial negatives; later 

its redesign so as to make it as universal as possible to accommodate film from a variety of precision mapping cameras. 

This latter involved consideration of the focal length of such 

cameras, their angular field of view, and the distortion characteristics and range of light transmission of the lens employed.

Before the completion of the planimetric program, the 

Tennessee Valley Authority offered to set aside and furnish 

space for photogrammetric equipment if the Survey would 

furnish Multiplex instruments and personnel to operate them. 

This was done, and as Mr. Pendleton already was in charge of 

the planimetric program, the stereophotogrammetric unit also 

was placed under his supervision, with Mr. Bean in charge of 

the unit.

The first bar, with nine projectors, was used in April 

1936. For this experimental work, two topographers from each 

division volunteered. They were Paul Blake and William S. 

Higginson, Atlantic Division; Robert O. Davis and Milton J. 

Harden, Central Division; and Emmett J. Coon and George A. 

Fischer, Pacific Division.
Science Advisory Board 103

To these, known as the “Original Six,” were added two 

more topographers in July 1937, and an additional eight by 

the following January. Then operations were still on a threeshift basis, but with an increase of equipment, it was planned 

to gradually expand the force to a number that would permit 

continuous two-shift production.

In August 1941, Mr. Pendleton was transferred to the 

Washington office and Joe K. Bailey was left in charge of the 

Chattanooga office. In April 1948, Mr. Bailey was transferred 

to the Atlantic Division headquarters at Arlington, Va., and 

John G. Groninger was left in Chattanooga to close out that 

office. Multiplex units and operators were distributed to all 

divisions and Mr. Groninger reported to the Rocky Mountain 

Division on July 25, 1949.

Science Advisory Board

In order to make more effective the advice of scientists 

toward the solution of governmental problems, the Science 

Advisory Board was established by Executive Order No. 6238, 

dated July 31, 1933, and was continued to December 1, 1935. 

The Board was under the jurisdiction of the National Academy 

of Science and the National Research Council; the latter created at the request of President Wilson in 1916, and perpetuated by Executive Order No. 2859, dated May 11, 1918, and 

was vested with authority to appoint committees to deal with 

specific problems in the various departments.

Composed at first of nine members, to which six were 

later added, the Board constituted 18 subcommittees. Of these, 

the Committee on Mapping Services of the Federal Government was constituted in response to a request by the Bureau 

of the Budget for an investigation of the 28 Federal agencies, 

which were reported as engaged in surveying and mapping 

activities to a greater or lesser extent, with a view of determining what, if any, regrouping or consolidation was desirable in 

the interest of greater efficiency and economy. The members 

of this committee are shown in table 41.

The result of intensive studies by the committee was a 

comprehensive report containing the recommendation that 

the Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Topographic Branch of 

the Geological Survey, together with the Division of Engraving and Printing, which reproduces its maps, the Lake Survey 

(War Department), and the International Boundary Commission, United States, Alaska, and Canada (State Department), 

be consolidated under one central agency.39 It was recommended further that the central agency could function best as 

an independent organization, reporting directly to the President. Failing this disposition, for reasons of expediency, the 

second suggestion placed the agency in the Department of the 

Interior. The committee’s third choice was the Department of 

Commerce.

It was fully recognized that many Federal agencies 

needed subsidiary surveying services under their control, and 

that other regrouping and consolidation was not considered as 

being altogether impracticable. The consolidation would unite, 

under efficient direction, all major Federal land and water surveys, except cadastral surveys of the General Land Office. All 

changes contemplated, except that involving the International 

Boundary Commission, had repeatedly been urged following 

previous studies of this problem. It was mentioned that to the 

proposed central agency would gravitate, in time, many of the 

other mapping activities; however, the plan did not become 

effective. Some of its provisions were worthy of note.

1. The Geological Survey would retain, under its exclusive control, a limited number of skilled topographic 

engineers, estimated at 15 to 18, and draftsmen, 4 to 

5, to constitute a subsidiary surveying and mapping 

unit sufficiently large to serve its needs.

2. The system of commissioning properly qualified 

personnel, already established by law in the Coast 

and Geodetic Survey, which was to serve as the 

nucleus of the consolidated mapping service, would 

be extended to appropriate personnel of the agencies, 

or parts of agencies, transferred for the purpose of 

ensuring a unified service with high morale, and of 

securing and retaining men of superior quality for 

high grade technical work.

3. More effective utilization of field topographers of 

the Topographic Branch, in a large central agency, 

would do away with the uneconomical employment 

of these men in office work.

4. In the Division of Engraving and Printing, development of glass engraving should result in material 

savings over engraving on copper with improvement 

rather than deterioration in product.

5. Very large savings could be expected to result from 

extensive stereoscopic methods in planimetric surveys.

39 Science Advisory Board, Second Report, 1934–35, p. 226–241.

Table 41. Science Advisory Board Committee members.

Name Affiliation

Douglas Johnson Professor of Physiography, Colombia University, New York City, Chairman.

Isaiah Bowman Director, American Geographical Society.

W.L.G. Joerg Research Editor, American Geographical 

Society, New York City.

C.K. Leith Professor and Head of Geology Department, 

University of Wisconsin.

Robert E. Randall President and Chief Engineer, R.H. Randall 

& Co., Toledo, Ohio.

Frank W. DeWolf Professor and Head of Geology Department, 

University of Illinois.

C.C. Williams Dean, College of Engineering, University 

of Iowa.
104 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

6. If the central mapping agency were enabled to 

prosecute an enlarged mapping program, one that 

called for expenditure of $15,000,000 annually, the 

savings due to consolidation could conservatively be 

estimated at between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000.

7. The committee emphasized the fact that executive 

agencies of the Federal Government were handicapped by lack of adequate topographic maps, and 

endorsed the long established plan of Geological 

Survey to complete, as soon as possible, the topographic maps of the country on the scale 1:62,500 

(1:125,000 if necessary to complete mountainous 

areas far advanced on that scale.)

8. It recommended further that the central mapping 

agency, if and when established, should review 

the whole policy of state, county, and other local 

cooperation in Federal mapping, for this cooperation 

could retard the progress of the overall plan, as it 

sometimes involved mapping on larger scales, which 

required more time.

Moreover, the larger scales are not multiples of the 

scales previously considered as standard. About 1908, the 

Survey began making some maps on the scale of 1:31,680, 

and about 1923, some on the still larger scale of 1:24,000, 

both as cooperative enterprises with state or other local 

agencies. At first regarded as special scales, they were later 

accepted as “standard,” and since 1925, several state cooperative programs have been undertaken for production of these 

larger maps on the 50-50 basis. Supposedly, standard maps 

are thus based on three incompatible scales; one representing 

aliquot parts of a million, one so many inches to the mile, 

and one so many feet to the inch. The trend probably would 

continue toward yet other and larger “standard scales” unless 

a definite policy in respect thereto was adopted and adhered 

to.

The Coast and Geodetic Survey, the oldest scientific 

Bureau in the Federal Government, possessed in its inland 

geodetic unit a smaller mapping agency than the Topographic 

Branch of the Geological Survey. It seemed logical to consider transferring the smaller unit to the larger one. To offset 

this idea, the Coast and Geodetic Survey seemed to establish 

a policy of publicizing its work in frequent popularly written articles in engineering and scientific magazines, in which 

attention was called to its mapping operations, although it was 

well known to scientists and engineers that geodetic and vertical control work constituted only a small part of topographic 

mapping.

The Coast and Geodetic Survey was able to set aside 

funds for research work in photogrammetric instruments, 

designing and building, among other things, a nine-lens 

camera for aerial photography. During World War II, it was 

assigned an area for urgent military mapping. Afterwards, 

with the photogrammetric equipment and trained personnel, it aspired to execute topographic mapping; to assume a 

portion of the mapping program, in addition to the primary 

control work. It was encouraged early in 1946, by the Bureau 

of the Budget, to undertake the mapping of Alaska, as it had 

already charted the long indented coastline. Secretary Ickes 

objected to this arrangement, stating that it was an encroachment upon the established and organized function of the 

Geological Survey.

In March, 1947, an understanding was reached by 

the Directors of the two Surveys, recognizing the existing 

responsibilities of each organization, whereby the Coast and 

Geodetic Survey would complete the topographic mapping 

of 7.5-minute quadrangles touching coastal waters. In order 

to avoid overlapping and duplication of surveying operations, 

and to ensure integration of efforts, the two Surveys, through 

their designated liaison officers, would coordinate their plans 

in time to present estimates for the ensuing year to the Bureau 

of the Budget.

American Society of Photogrammetry

The American Society of Photogrammetry, a nonprofit 

professional and technical society was incorporated in 1934, 

under the laws of the District of Columbia. The object and 

business of the Society is to advance knowledge in the science of photogrammetry, and to act as a clearing house for 

the dissemination and exchange of information pertaining to 

the practice of photogrammetry; to foster a spirit of understanding and cooperation among interested individuals and 

organizations; to provide a medium for interchange of ideas; 

to hold meetings for the presentation and discussion of papers; 

and to publish and distribute books, periodicals, treatises, 

circulars, and papers related to the uses and application of 

photogrammetry.

“Photogrammetric Engineering,” the quarterly journal of 

the Society, is the outstanding publication in its field, and is 

the only one in this country devoted exclusively to photogrammetry and closely associated practices.

In 1944, the Society published a reference text entitled 

“Manual of Photogrammetry.” All copies of this popular edition have been sold, and a revised edition is now available.

By means of technical committees, working without 

compensation, the Society has a number of notable achievements to its credit. Some of the more important are: (1) the 

development of standard specifications for aerial photography, 

which were adopted as standard government specifications 

by the Treasury Department Procurement Division; (2) the 

development of precision mapping camera specifications that 

were adopted by most governmental agencies; (3) the compilation of an extensive Bibliography of photogrammetry; (4) the 

development of specifications for map accuracy; (5) the compilation and publication of an authoritative list of definitions 

and terms used in photogrammetric surveying and mapping; 

and (6) the development of “job descriptions” covering the 
Topographic Mapping Policy Committee 105

various grades of position classification of photogrammetric 

engineers and photogrammetrists.

Income of the Society is derived primarily from membership dues. Sustaining membership is composed of individuals 

and commercial organizations who desire to contribute in a 

financial way toward support of the Society.

The Society is International in scope, having members 

in practically every country of the world, as well as taking an active part in promoting the International Society of 

Photogrammetry.40

Topographic Division personnel have taken an active part 

in the organization and maintenance of the American Society 

of Photogrammetry as shown in table 42.

Chapters in the “Manual of Photogrammetry” written by 

members of the Topographic Division are shown in table 43.

40 Photogrammetric Engineering Journal, v. XVI, no. 2, April 1950.

Topographic Mapping Policy 

Committee

In August 1937, the new policy of selling three-color 

advance sheets made it necessary that the several photolithographed drawings be more carefully drafted as to registry 

and weight of lines. Besides, other problems crowded upon the 

Section of Inspection and Editing, and to aid in their solution, 

the Director, early in 1939, appointed a Topographic Mapping Policy Committee of eight section chiefs, with Joseph 

Hyde Pratt as chairman, and R.M. Wilson as secretary, who 

would make a study of the details of map preparation practices 

and changing procedures involved in multicolored photolithographic editions of maps, and make recommendations. 

Meetings were held once or twice a month, and often visiting 

division engineers and other Survey officials were invited to 

participate in the discussions. Some of the problems considered by the committee and sub-committees were:

1. Rigid rules for defining the perimeter of urban areas 

in which only landmark buildings are shown; a colored overprint to mark the urban area.

2. Specifications of map accuracy and field tests.

3. Map scales; maps of the 1:31,680 category to be 

engraved on the 1:24,000 scale by special request of 

the cooperator.

4. The contour interval for each area to be mapped to 

be determined by a responsible field engineer, so as 

Table 42. Topographic Division employees who served with the 

American Society of Photogrammetry.

Presidents of the Society

1935, C.H. Birdseye 1946, Gerald FitzGerald

1942, T.P. Pendleton 1952, G.D. Whitmore

First Vice Presidents

1941, T.P. Pendleton 1951, G.D. Whitmore

1945, Gerald FitzGerald

Second Vice Presidents

1946, R.M. Wilson 1953, J.I. Davidson

1947, R.K. Bean

Directors

R.E. Altenhofen W.S. Higginson

C.H. Birdseye David Landen

W.E. Harman, Jr. R.M. Wilson

Daniel Kennedy R.K. Bean

G.D. Whitmore C.H. Davey

R.E. Ask Gerald FitzGerald

J.L. Buckmaster H.T. Kelsh

R.O. Davis M.K. Linck

Secretary-Treasurers

1940, J.H. Wheat 1944, E.J. Schlatter

1943, H.M. Towsend 1946, M.K. Linck

Honorary Membership Award

1947, Thomas P. Pendleton 1954, George D. Whitmore

Sherman Fairchild Photogrammetric Award

1944, Col. Gerald FitzGerald, Development of the Trimetrogon 

Method

1948, Harry T. Kelsh, Design and construction of Kelsh Plotter

1951, Russell K. Bean, Development of the Twinplex, etc.

Talbert Abrams Award

1949, William E. Harman, Jr. “Negative Quality Required for 

Stereoplotting Equipment”

1951, Morris M. Thompson, “A New Approach to Flight Planning”

Table 43. Articles by Topographic Division employees 

published in “Manual of Photogrammetry.”

In the 1944 Preliminary Edition, the following chapters have been 

written by Topographic Branch personnel:

Chapter I, “Principles of Surveying Rectangular Coordinates and 

Standard Horizontal Datum,” R.M. Wilson.

Chapter VI, “Practical Tilt Correction for Single-Lens Aerial 

Photographs,” C.P. Van Camp

Chapter XI, “Multiplex Instrument and Its Use,” T.P. Pendleton

Chapter XIII, “Oblique Photographs for the Surveyor,” R.M. 

Wilson

Chapter XIV, “Completion Surveys,” T.P. Pendleton

The authors in the 1952 Second Edition were:

Chapter I, “The Development of Photogrammetry,”, G.D. Whitmore

Chapter II, “Elements of Photogrammetric Optics,”, R.E. Ask

Chapter IV, “Aerial Photography,” W.E. Harman, Jr.

Chapter VIII, “Radial Triangulation,” H.T. Kelsh

Chapter IX, “Rectification,” R.E. Altenhofen

Chapter XV, “The Operation of the Multiplex,” E.I. Loud, Jr.

Chapter XX, “Ready Reference List,” David Landen
106 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

to avoid congestion of contour lines, except where 

they indicate cliffs; the use of two contour intervals on a single quadrangle map to be avoided; the 

contour intervals of 5, 25, 50, or 100 feet to be used 

as standard west of longitude 103 degrees, as far as 

possible, and contour intervals of 5, 10, 20, 40, or 

100 feet to be used east of longitude 103 degrees.

5. Omission of projection lines within the map in the 

interest of clarity; on some maps preference is for 

grid lines or rectangular coordinates.

6. Quadrangle names and numerical indexing system.

7. A new text on the back of maps.

8. Proper width of roads; only outside tracks in railroad 

yards.

9. Use of intermittent stream symbols, in east as well 

as west.

10. Proper placing of ocean shorelines, river shorelines 

and contour crossing.

11. Symbol for sewer disposal plant.

Recommendations, if approved, were embodied in Topographic Branch technical memoranda and were communicated 

to the Federal Board of Surveys and Maps, to other governmental mapping agencies, and to cooperating states, cities, or 

counties.

Special Committee

On February 2, 1940, the Chief Topographic Engineer 

sent the following memorandum to members of the Topographic Branch:

“A Committee has been created in the Topographic 

Branch, Geological Survey, which has as its object 

the following:

“(1) To notify members of the branch in advance 

of the date of retirement of employees, and to offer 

an opportunity to those who wish to contribute 

(voluntarily) toward a gift honoring them on their 

retirement.

“(2) To attend to the purchasing and sending of 

flowers upon receipt of notification of the death of 

a member of the immediate family of a member of 

the branch; this to be restricted to the wife, husband, 

or children of a member of the branch. (This is not 

meant to preclude the sending of flowers to other 

than immediate relatives, but collections for such 

contributions should originate in the section most 

interested.)

“(3) To arrange for the sending of Christmas remembrances to retired employees , shut-ins, and families 

of deceased members.

“(4) To arrange for interment in Arlington Cemetery 

of those entitled to this service.

“Too often in the past have the above services been 

left to the initiative of some special friend of the 

person concerned, with the result that there has been 

unintentional discrimination, some being remembered on retirement or in the time of trouble, while 

others have been ignored. The establishment of 

this Committee is an effort to systemize and unify 

our efforts. The membership is as follows: R.H. 

Reineck, chairman; J.M. Whitman; R.A. Kiger; 

Delar Kimble; F.W. Borden.

“It is desired to stress again the fact that all contributions are to be voluntary, the opportunity being 

given to participate in the above services if it is your 

desire.”

This committee is still functioning in 1954. As members are retired, new members are chosen. Delar Kimble has 

always been Treasurer. R.T. Evans and A.J. Ogle have been 

chairmen. The last chairman was O.H. Nelson, with Helen M. 

Frye, Delar Kimble, and Wm. B. Overstreet as members.

American Congress on Surveying and 

Mapping

In June 1941, the American Congress on Surveying and 

Mapping, a non-profit association, was organized to advance 

the sciences of surveying and mapping in their several 

branches, in furtherance of the public welfare, and in the 

interests of both those who use maps and surveys, and those 

who make them. Its aims were to establish a central source of 

reference and union for its members, to contribute to public 

education in the use of surveys and maps, and to encourage 

the prosecution of basic surveying and mapping programs, 

especially those programs which are paid for, in whole or in 

part, with public funds.

Many members of the Topographic Branch have joined 

and have taken an active part in this organization and have 

contributed scientific articles for publication in its official journal, “Surveying and Mapping,” which is published quarterly.

Topographic Branch personnel who have served as officers 

and members of committees are shown in table 44.

World War II

Japan made a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, 

on December 7, 1941, forcing war on the United States on 
World War II Record 107

December 8, 1941. Need for topographic maps was sharply 

emphasized and the Geological Survey no longer possessed 

the capacity to produce them fast enough, so all mapping 

agencies, governmental and commercial, were called upon. 

Photogrammetric methods, producing more maps in less 

time, had to be used. Mr. Staack resisted efforts to have the 

Topographic Branch taken over by the Army, but he assisted 

189 members of the Branch into the Armed Forces, approved 

the transfer of some members to other mapping agencies, and 

retained many in the Survey organization by justifying their 

exemption from the draft on the basis of their indispensability to the mapping effort. During World War II, the former 

members of the Branch who died with the Armed Services are 

listed in table 45.

World War II Record

Contour and Relief Mapping 41

During the war period from December 1941, to September 1945, the Topographic Branch was engaged in essential 

war work as follows:

1. Conducted the necessary field surveys of areas in the 

strategic war zone of the United States as defined 

by the War Department, and prepared the resulting 

topographic maps for reproduction.

2. Compiled and prepared aeronautical approach charts 

of the continental United States, and target charts of 

Yugoslavia for the Army Air Forces.

3. Revised from aerial photographs the data on existing 

local topographic maps of Holland, France, and Italy, 

and redrafted the revised maps according to specifications for the Army Map Service.

4. By stereophotogrammetric methods, compiled topographic maps from aerial photographs for the Army 

Map Service of areas in France, Italy, Yugoslavia, 

Luzon, and the Sulu Archipelago of the Philippines, 

Austria, Belgium, China, Formosa, Ryukyu Rhetta, 

and Japanese City Plains.

41 See file 404, and Central Region Engineer Departmental War Records, 

C.L. Sadler, June 1, 1944.

Table 44. Topographic Division employees who served on The 

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping.

President

George D. Whitmore in 1944, 

while with TVA

Gerald FitzGerald in 1951

Treasurer and Acting Executive Secretary.

R.T. Evans (In June 1950, he received Citation Certificate for Outstanding Professional Services.)

Board of Directors

Gerald FitzGerald C.F. Fuechsel

R.M. Wilson R.H. Lyddan

Topographic Mapping Division

J.G. Staack, Chairman C.F. Fuechsel

Division of Control Survey

R.M. Wilson, Chairman J.L. Speert

Research and Development Committee

T.P. Pendleton, Chairman C.F. Fuechsel

Technical Division of Cartography

C.H. Davey L.E. Marsden

O.H. Nelson C.W. Buckey

R.L. Moravetz W.B. Sears

A.F. Striker, Chairman Roscoe Reeves

Technical Division of Topographic Surveying and Mapping

C.S. Maltby, Chairman E.J. Fennell

Publication Committee

C.F. Fuechsel A.F. Striker

J.O. Kilmartin M.M. Thompson

G.D. Whitmore, Chairman C.S. Maltby

Editor-in-Chief

J.I. Davidson R.C. Eller

Associate Editors

R.M. Wilson J.P. Burns

A.F. Striker

Membership Committee

A.C. Stiefel C.R. Graham

Program Committee

B.P. Taylor

Public Relations Committee

A.C. Stiefel, Chairman

Professional Status Committee

R.H. Lyddan

Representative to National Research Council

C.H. Davey

Northern California Section

H.H. Hodgeson, Vice President R.H. Moore, Secretary-Treasurer

C.A. Biever, Executive Board

Table 45. Members of the Topographic Branch who died with 

the Armed Services.

March 1, 1945 Ensign Desmond M. Yetter, in accident on shipboard.

March 10, Lt. Paul B. Kovacs, in accident on Iwo Jima.

April 1, Pvt. Thomas F. Roberts, by enemy fire in Germany.
108 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

5. Prepared relief shaded maps of Japan, China, Manchuria, Korea, Formosa, Hainan, and South Central 

Europe for the Army Air Forces, and the General 

Staff, War Department.

Personnel

On December 1, 1941, Secretarial appointees of the 

Topographic Branch numbered 485. The peak of employment 

of Secretarial appointees reached 745 on September 30, 1942, 

which included 59 on military furlough, leaving a net working 

force of 686. On June 30, 1944, Secretarial appointees numbered 668, which included 119 on military furlough, leaving 

a net working force of 549; and on June 30, 1945, Secretarial 

appointees numbered 635, which included 141 on military 

furlough, leaving a net working force of 494. Also there were 

48 Secretarial appointees whose services were terminated 

when they entered on active duty with the Armed Forces, who 

retained their reemployment rights with the Branch and are 

eligible for reinstatement when discharged from the Armed 

Services. Actually, the Branch had 189 Secretarial appointees 

in the Armed Services during World War II.

Photo Mapping Section

The Photo Mapping Section at Arlington, Va., completed 

all of its foreign mapping assignments given to it by the Army 

Map Service. As of September 1945, it furnished stereophotogrammetric map compilation from aerial photographs as 

shown in table 46.

Relief Shaded Maps

Relief shaded maps of Hainan Island, off the coast of China, 

Hokaido Japan, Formosa, Southern and Northern Japan proper, 

and of occupied China, Manchuria, and Korea were prepared 

and completed on time in all cases. The last manuscript, that for 

the China-Manchuria-Korea area, was transmitted for reproduction on January 20, 1946. The map for South Central Europe was 

completed and delivered in April 1944. In all, 11 relief shaded 

maps were prepared and delivered to the War Department.

Owing to the Branch’s prominence and leadership in the 

application of stereophotogrammetric mapping methods in 

the field of topographic mapping, its stereophotogrammetric 

training facilities at Arlington, Va., were utilized for training 

officers and civilians of foreign countries, and personnel in 

the Army Map Service, War Department. Six officers from the 

Turkish Army, 2 civilians from San Salvador, and 20 persons 

from the Army Map Service received training in the operations 

of the Multiplex stereo projectors.

Survey Order No. 140 Modification

The Modification of Survey Order No. 140, dated February 23, 1942, reads as follows:

“The last two names (“Mr. Wheat or Mr. Birdseye”) 

in Survey Order No. 140, dated January 26, 1939, 

are hereby replaced by “Mr. Pendleton,” so as to 

make the order read as follows:

“In the interest of coordination and efficiency, it is 

hereby directed that all outgoing requests for aerial 

photographic data, whether in the form of letters, 

requisitions, or specifications, shall be submitted to 

the Topographic Branch and, before being presented 

for signature, shall bear the initials of Mr. Staack, or 

Mr. Pendleton.”

Appropriations and Personnel (1943)

On March 18, 1943, upon recommendation of Director 

W.C. Mendenhall, prior to his retirement, Mr. Thomas P. Pendleton, the Survey’s leading photogrammetrist, was appointed 

Chief Topographic Engineer and Mr. Staack, Assistant Chief 

Topographic Engineer. Recognition was made of the steadily 

growing burden upon the administrative officers of the Branch 

and these appointments were designed to furnish relief by 

spreading the duties. The Branch had expanded in personnel to 

2.5 times its size when Mr. Staack became its Chief in 1929, 

and emphasis had shifted to photogrammetric methods of mapping with changed technical and business problems continually 

increasing in volume, diversity, and complexity. Charles H. 

Davey became Acting Chief of the Photo Mapping Section.

Table 46. Stereophotogrammetric map compilation from 

aerial photographs, as of September 1945.

Country Square miles of 

coverage

France 9,192

Italy 780 

Yugoslavia 16,152

Luzon 3,060

Sulu Archipelago 145

France and Belgium 2,173

Austria 4,529

China 19,800

Ryukyu Rhetta 466 

Formosa 3,126

Japan City Plains 208

 Total 59,551

In addition, the Chattanooga, Tenn., Stereophotogrammetric office furnished topographic map compilations from aerial photographs of the following coverage for the Army Map Service.

China 20,673
Pan American Institute of Geography and History 109

In 1943, the Topographic Branch consisted of 602 

employees, departmental and field, and appropriations 

expended are shown in table 47.

Pan American Institute of Geography 

and History

The Pan American Institute of Geography and History 

(PAIGH) is an organization created by Governments to render 

them service in the fields of geography, history, and the related 

sciences. It is financed by a quota system on the basis of population categories.

The purposes of the Institute, in the language of its 

organic statutes, are to “encourage, coordinate, and publicize 

geographic, historical, and related scientific activities; and to 

initiate and execute any studies or research assignments of this 

character requested by the Member States. In addition, it is 

charged with promoting cooperation with American organizations interested in these fields of activity, including specifically 

cooperation among geographic and historical institutes of the 

Member States. No work of political or sectarian nature may 

be undertaken.”

It is more a coordinating, stimulating and planning organization than one engaged in the execution of special projects. 

It renders assistance to the scientific, technical, and academic 

institutions of its member governments and will undertake 

to execute specific operations, if they are of an international 

nature and/or if there is no National agency organized to 

do so. What is accomplished under its guidance is emphatically an accomplishment of the member state itself, or a joint 

accomplishment of several, as, for instance, the extension of a 

uniform triangulation net through all of Central America. The 

Americas have the largest connected arc of triangulation in the 

world, from the Bering Strait to Southernmost Chile.

The Institute consists of the General Assembly, the 

Governing Board, the Executive Committee, the National 

Sections, the Commissions, and their Committees, and the 

General Secretariat. Each Commission is composed of a 

representative from each country, and the three members of 

Commission in each country form the National Section of 

that country.

A large consulting library is maintained at the headquarters of the Institute, and the Commission on Cartography has a 

small film library of technical films, produced by the Institute, 

and available with both English and Spanish sound tracks, for 

loan to institutions of the Member States.

An important factor of the Consultations on Cartography 

are the National reports on progress, presented in uniform 

fashion on forms provided by the Commission.

Committees of the Commission on Cartography:

• Geodesy

• Gravity and Geomagnetism

• Seismology

• Topographic Maps and Aerophotogrammetry (Dr. 

Wrather, Director, was Survey member) (followed by George D. Whitmore, Topographic 

Division)

• Aeronautical Charts

• Hydrography

• Tides

• Urban Area Surveying, Committee on Special Maps

The first Pan American Consultation on Cartography 

was initiated at Washington, D.C., and Mexico City in 

1943.

The second Consultation was held at Rio de Janeiro from 

August 14 to September 2, 1944. Thomas P. Pendleton was 

the Geological Survey delegate and Col. Gerald FitzGerald 

represented the Army Air Force.

The third Consultation met at Caracas from August 22 

to September 1, 1946. Milton F. Denault of the Topographic 

Division and Wm. D. Johnston, Jr. of the Geologic Division, 

were Geological Survey representatives.

The fourth Consultation was held at Buenos 

Aires from October 15 to November 14, 1948. Harry 

T. Kelsh, Topographic Division, was sent as Geological Survey Advisor to act for Dr. Wrather as vice chairman of the Committee for Topographic Mapping and 

Aerophotogrammetry.

The fifth Consultation met at Santiago in October, 1950. 

George D. Whitmore, Topographic Division, was the Geological Survey representative.

The sixth Consultation was held at Cuidad Trujillo from 

October 12 to 24, 1952. Gerald FitzGerald, Chief Topographic 

Engineer, was the Geological Survey delegate.42 Appropriate 

Geological Survey exhibits were assembled and sent to these 

Consultations.

42 From article by Dr. Andre C. Simonpietri, published in The Canadian 

Surveyor, April 1955.

Table 47. Appropriations to be expended, 1943.

[These amounts were 2.5 times the amount expended in 

1929]

Activity Funds

Topographic Surveys $689,030

Work performed for the War Department 2,199,124

Transfers by other Federal Units 193,180

State cooperative funds 337,279

 Total 3,418,613
110 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Technical Memorandum No. 51

Topographic Branch Technical Memorandum No. 51, 

dated November 3, 1944, reads:

“The Director has approved the omission from 

all maps of the names of engineers responsible as 

authors for their preparation. This action has become 

necessary, as the number of engineers and photogrammetrists entitled to such credit has become so 

large that it is no longer possible to continue the 

former practice. Henceforth, the credit line on the 

published map will read “Mapped by the Geological 

Survey,” together with the year of survey.

“A complete record of those individuals whose 

names formerly would appear in a credit line of the 

published maps will be retained in the files of the 

Topographic Branch. The following rules will cover 

the application of these new procedures:

“1. For maps contoured by planetable method:

“a. Report names of all topographic engineers 

engaged in instrumental work.

“b. The actual year in which fieldwork is accomplished shall be considered the date of survey.

“2. For maps contoured by photogrammetric 

methods:

“a. Report names of all engineers responsible 

for original photogrammetric mapping and those 

responsible for field completion or photointerpretation surveys, indicating in each case the type of 

work performed.

“b. The date of mapping shall be considered the date 

of the field completion survey, or the photointerpretation work, regardless of the fact that the date of 

the photointerpretation work may precede that of the 

actual photogrammetric operation.”

Noteworthy Events (1945)

The following events of 1945 are listed as having special 

concern and poignant impact on the Survey group in Washington, D.C. and Clarendon, Va.

January.—The distribution of the “Manual of Photogrammetry”, an 819 page standard reference work published 

by the American Society of Photogrammetry, and written by 

various members of the Society. Among the authors were 

several Survey topographic engineers.

February.—The American Society of Photogrammetry, in compliance with the rules promulgated by the Office 

of Defense Transportation, limited its annual meeting to 

the evening of February 15 in the Department of Agriculture Auditorium, when about 300 local members and guests 

attended. The American Congress on Surveying and Mapping 

held a regional meeting in the same Auditorium, all day on 

June 21, instead of an annual meeting, and about 75 attended.

May 8.—VE Day, when radios announced the surrender 

of German armies.

August 14.—VJ Day, Proclaimed as Sunday, September 

2, by President Truman, who also proclaimed August 15 and 

16 victory holidays. Twenty holidays had been missed, beginning with May 30, 1942. The new 40-hour week was observed 

by not working on Saturday 1. Labor Day, September 3, was 

the first restored holiday. On Sunday, September 30, Eastern 

War Time, in effect since February 9, 1942, was changed back 

to Eastern Standard Time.

Memorandum for Field Offices

Memorandum for field offices and field men, dated 

August 28, 1945, reads:

“The 40-hour week will be established in the field 

offices of the Topographic Branch (Rolla, Sacramento, Chattanooga, and Clarendon) and in the field 

effective with the week commencing September 

9. The 44-hour week will be in effect in the field 

through September 8.

“Owing to the relatively short field season and the 

frequency of climatic conditions unfavorable for 

fieldwork, it is hoped that field personnel will make 

every effort to render 40 hours of field work each 

week, even though this may require Saturday work.

“Effective commencing September 3, 1945, the legal 

holidays mentioned in Paragraph 35 of the Topographic 

Branch Administrative instructions will be observed.”

Survey Order No. 148

Survey Order No. 148, Appointment of Staff Topographers, dated September 13, 1945, was as follows:

“The greatly expanded mapping activities of the 

Topographic Branch of the Geological Survey have 

created a need for additional staff to advise and 

assist the Chief Topographic Engineer and myself in 

the planning and implementation, both of the present program and of the long range program that we 

anticipate is before us. Two new positions as Staff 

Topographic Engineer have been established in the 

Branch, and I have requested the appointments of 

George D. Whitmore and Col. Gerald FitzGerald to 

fill them.
Memorandum for Division and Section Chiefs 111

“Both Mr. Whitmore and Colonel FitzGerald are 

well known in the Geological Survey, and in other 

governmental and private agencies engaged in mapping and related activities.

“Mr. Whitmore comes to the Survey from the Tennessee Valley Authority with a background of 30 

years in engineering and mapping, a capable administrator and an able organizer, he has held numerous 

important positions in the field of mapping, and is 

widely recognized as an outstanding authority on 

the subject. He is a member of the American Society 

of Civil Engineers, the American Society of Photogrammetry, and a past President of the American 

Congress on Surveying and Mapping.

“Colonel FitzGerald as been a member of the Geological Survey for more than 25 years. Although specializing in reconnaissance mapping in Alaska, he has had a 

wide variety of Survey assignments, including field and 

office work on control surveys and topographic mapping projects, on both detail and reconnaissance scales. 

During his 3 years’ service in the Army Air Forces, 

he organized and commanded the Aeronautical Chart 

Service. He is a member of the American Congress on 

Surveying and Mapping, and First Vice President of the 

American Society of Photogrammetry.

“Mr. Whitmore will report to the Survey for duty on 

September 17, and Colonel FitzGerald at a later date 

upon his release from active service with the Army 

Air Forces.”

Memorandum for Division and Section 

Chiefs

Memorandum for Division and Section Chiefs, Topographic Branch, dated December 26, 1945, reads:

I. Pursuant to recent discussions in the Washington 

office, and clarification of Survey Order No. 148, 

dated September 13, 1945, issued by the Director, 

it is desired to establish, as rapidly as possible, two 

new staff divisions within the Topographic Branch. 

Effective January 2, 1946, Mr. Gerald FitzGerald 

is assigned to head the Staff Division on Plans 

and Coordination, and Mr. George D. Whitmore is 

assigned to head the Staff Division on Research and 

Technical Control.

II. Pending formal approval of the revised organization of the Topographic Branch, the duties 

and responsibilities of the two Staff Divisions are 

outlined below.

A. Plans and Coordination

1. Map Information Office—Maintains complete 

files of topographic maps and indexes of control data 

and aerial photography. Evaluates topographic maps 

published or distributed by the Geological Survey 

and furnishes specific map information to the various federal agencies and general public.

2. Estimates and Plans—Prepares budget estimates, 

general plans for mapping programs, estimates of 

personnel and space requirements, and keeps status 

of funds current.

3. Production Control—Maintains production schedules and priorities, compiles and distributes status 

reports, prepares work load studies and cost analyses.

4. Liaison and Coordination—Maintains liaison with 

State and Federal officials on mapping matters, and 

attends conferences and meetings for this purpose. 

Formulates procedure for staff and operational coordinations within the Topographic Branch.

B. Research and Technical Control

Will consist of four sections as follows: Geodesy 

and Control Surveys, Topographic Surveys, Photogrammetry, and Cartography and Map Editing. This 

Staff Division will be responsible for:

1. Research and development of procedures, techniques, and equipment.

2. Establishing specifications, standardization of 

procedures, preparing interim technical orders, and 

final Instruction Manuals.

3. Inspection of operations, to ensure standard results.

4. In each appropriate section, responsible also for such as: 

(a) Plan new control nets, and instruct on utilization 

of existing control.

(b) Determine general mapping methods and contour 

intervals.

(c) Instruct on utilization of existing air photos, and 

prepare specifications and award contracts for new 

photos.

(d) Instruct on use of source maps and other source data.

III. Immediate and urgent Staff functions will be 

carried on by the temporary assignment of personnel 

to the various sections of the two Staff Divisions. 

Effective January 2, the following will report to and 

assist the Staff Engineers:

Plans and Coordination: C.F. Fuechsel, E.L. Hain, 

H.A. Bean, R.L. Moravetz, R.H. Lyddan, and Jackson Schlesinger
112 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Research Technical Control: H.M. Wilson, C.H. 

Davey, R.K. Bean, R.H. Sargent, and R.F. Wilcoxon

IV. Effective immediately, all memoranda, instructions, orders, outside correspondence, and similar 

matters, which in any way concern or affect the Staff 

functions outlined above, either shall be cleared 

through Mr. FitzGerald’s or Mr. Whitmore’s office 

before transmittal, or when this is not feasible for 

any reason, information copies shall be forwarded 

immediately to the proper Staff office.

 /s/ J.G. Staack

 for T.P. Pendleton

 Chief Topographic Engineer

Approved:

/s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Dallas H. Watson, Atlantic Division 

Engineer

MEMORANDUM:

The retirement of Mr. Albert Pike on February 28 

after 56 years of government service, and more than 

16 years of which as Division Engineer, created a 

vacancy in the Topographic Branch in the position 

of Division Engineer of the Atlantic Division.

Effective April 17, Mr. Dallas H. Watson has been 

appointed Division Engineer of the Atlantic Division to succeed Mr. Pike. Mr. Watson has served for 

more than 33 years, except for 1 year and 9 months 

as an officer during the First World War, as field 

engineer, supervisory officer, and principal Assistant 

to the Division Engineer. He enters upon his new 

duties with demonstrated topographic engineering 

and administrative capacity, and thorough familiarity 

with the operations of the Division. He possesses the 

full confidence of its personnel which gives promise 

of a successful and effective Administration.

 /s/ T.P. Pendleton

 Chief Topographic Engineer

Survey Order No. 150

Survey Order No. 150, dated May 17, 1946, is as follows:

“Recent studies of the Survey’s organization and 

facilities for topographic mapping indicate the desirability of now combining all such activities within 

the Topographic Branch. The resulting standardization of photogrammetric and map compilation 

procedures, and the equitable deployment of trained 

personnel and equipment, will not only greatly 

facilitate preparations for meeting our extensive 

mapping commitments for the immediate future, but 

is necessary if we are to carry out administration, 

research, and field operations with maximum coordination and economy.

“Accordingly, on July 1, 1946, the topographic mapping facilities and commitments now vested in the 

Alaskan Branch, together with such funds allotted or 

transferred for the purpose will become the responsibility of the Topographic Branch. The Chief Alaskan 

Geologist will act as coordinating official, integrating Alaskan topographic mapping activities with 

other Survey functions in Alaska, and will assist in 

determining and appraising other Alaska map needs. 

Therefore, close liaison will be maintained with the 

Chief Alaskan Geologist in establishing schedules 

and priorities for both reconnaissance and detailed 

surveys in Alaska.

“The Topographic and Alaskan Branches are hereby 

directed immediately to make all necessary plans 

and arrangements for the activation of this order.”

Survey Order No. 151

Survey Order No. 151, dated July 1, 1946, contained the 

following information:

In recognition of the imperative need to expand 

the facilities of the Topographic Branch and, at the 

same time, provide an operational unit strategically 

located in respect to the several Rocky Mountain 

States, where much new mapping is required, there 

is hereby re-established, effective July 1, 1946, 

a division of the Topographic Branch known as 

the Rocky Mountain Division. The Division shall 

be comprised of two states from the Pacific Division (Montana and Wyoming), two states from the 

Central Division (Colorado and New Mexico), and 

Alaska.

Supervision of actual field work now being carried 

on in the four states of the new Division will remain 

under the direction of the Pacific and Central Division Engineers until such time as the Chief Topographic Engineer determines that the responsibility 

can be transferred without interfering with mapping 

programs in operation.

Robert O. Davis, Topographic Engineer, will be 

designated as Acting Division Engineer with full 
Survey Order No. 160 113

authority to carry out the Division Engineer’s 

responsibility.

It is directed that necessary plans for the activation 

of the new Division be undertaken at once by the 

Topographic Branch.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Survey Order No. 152

Survey Order No. 152, dated July 1, 1946, contained the 

following information:

“In order to expedite the re-organization of the 

Topographic Branch and to consolidate operational 

functions under central control, the following 

activities of the Topographic Branch are hereby 

transferred to the Atlantic Division effective July 

1, 1946:

“(a) The Drafting Unit, located in the Medical 

Building, Clarendon, Va., and now operating under 

the supervision of the Chief, Section of Inspection 

and Editing.

“(b) The Multiplex Unit, located in the Old Dominion Building, Clarendon, Va., and now operating 

under the supervision of the Chief, Section of Photo 

Mapping.

“The Section of Photo Mapping is hereby deactivated, and its remaining functions will be supervised 

by the Chief of the Photogrammetry Section of the 

Technical Staff, until such time as these functions 

can be absorbed by other appropriate units of the 

Topographic Branch.”

Survey Order No. 157

Survey Order No. 157, dated October 1, 1946, contained 

the following information:

Mr. Robert O. Davis is hereby designated as Division Engineer, Rocky Mountain Division, Topographic Branch, effective October 1.

Mr. Davis joined the Survey in 1927, and was 

appointed a junior topographic engineer on June 

1, 1929. During his early years in the Survey, Mr. 

Davis’ experience included topographic mapping and control surveys in the Rocky Mountains 

and the central and eastern United States. He 

was assigned to the Chattanooga office of the 

Survey in April 1936, and was one of the first field 

topographers to become proficient in the field of 

photogrammetry.

In June 1942, Mr. Davis was placed on military 

furlough and was commissioned in the Army Air 

Force, where he served until April 1946, and was 

discharged as a lieutenant colonel. During his 

Army service, he served in various capacities in 

connection with aerial photography and reconnaissance mapping. On his final tour of duty with the 

Army, he was Commanding Officer of the Sixth 

Compilation Squadron located at Jefferson Barracks. Since his return to the Geological Survey in 

April 1946, Mr. Davis has been Acting Division 

Engineer of the Rocky Mountain Division.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Survey Order No. 160

In view of the greatly expanded topographic mapping program and the more widespread use of 

topographic maps among government agencies and 

the public, for an increasing number of purposes, 

both civilian and military, it is necessary to promulgate and adopt certain basic policies with respect 

to overall specifications for standard topographic 

maps. The following specifications, treatments, and 

procedures shall therefore henceforth be adopted 

as standard within the Geological Survey for the 

area of the continental United States. Alaska and 

certain other possessions will be made the subject 

of special orders after studies as to map needs are 

completed.

1. Publication scale for 7.5-minute sheets

The preferred publication scale for 7.5-minute 

sheets for general distribution shall be 1:24000. 

The 1:31,680 scale shall be used only where local 

circumstances, or status of previously published 

maps, are such that the 1:24,000 scale would be 

clearly inadvisable. In future map revision programs, 1:31,680 scale sheets shall be converted to 

and republished as 1:24,000-scale sheets as rapidly 

as circumstances at the time will permit. This policy 

shall not be interpreted as prohibiting the publication 

of special editions of any map sheet on other than 

the 1:24,000 scale.
114 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

2. Determination of quadrangle sizes for topographic 

maps

The present policy of publishing map sheets in 

7.5-minute units of the more developed areas, and 

of areas capable of development within a reasonable 

period of time, and publishing sheets of the sparsely 

settled and undeveloped regions in 15-minute units, 

shall be continued. Where there is doubt as to which 

sheet size is desirable for any region, project, or 

area, the 7.5-minute unit shall usually be selected. 

The contour interval for each sheet, or area, shall 

be determined after the publication scale has been 

determined, and the interval shall be appropriate for 

the selected publication scale. In all cases, whether 

the published maps are in 15-minute or 7.5-minute 

units, the horizontal-position accuracy shall be sufficient to meet the 1:24,000-scale specification, in 

order that the military requirement for accurate-position fire control maps will be met without the necessity of remapping those sheets originally published 

in 15-minute units. Thus the horizontal accuracy 

requirement practically compels preparation of all 

planimetric, and other types of base sheets, to be by 

modern photogrammetric methods, at scales large 

enough to meet the horizontal position specification 

outlined in Item 6 of this Order.

3. Complete 15-minute sheet coverage in the United 

States

It shall be the objective of the Geological Survey 

ultimately to supply a complete atlas of 15-minute 

topographic map sheets of the entire U.S. area. 

Therefore, where a region, or area, is originally 

mapped in 7.5-minute, or smaller, units, these 

shall later be reduced, recompiled, and published 

as 15-minute quadrangle maps, with appropriate 

contour intervals, as rapidly as funds and facilities 

permit.

4. Contour interval in western United States

The 5, 10, 20, and 40-foot contour intervals shall 

henceforth be the preferred and basic intervals for 

the entire continental United States. Within those 

states located generally west of 103 degrees longitude, the 25- and 50-foot contours shall henceforth 

be used only within those local areas where the 

status of completed or in-process maps is such that 

to introduce different contour intervals obviously 

would be detrimental to efficient use of the maps 

within any such local area. The 25-foot interval 

in particular shall be discontinued as rapidly as 

possible, and the use of the 50-foot interval shall 

be limited to those groups of 15-minute sheets that 

cover mountainous terrain, and are within or adjacent to areas where the 50-foot interval has already 

been used extensively on completed or in-process 

maps.

5. Half-interval and supplementary contours

On those map sheets having a contour internal of 

10, 20, 40, or 50 feet, half-interval supplementary 

contours may, and in certain types of terrain shall be 

shown in the flatter areas of the sheet, where necessary to bring out properly the topographic detail in 

such flat areas. It is not expected that supplementary 

contours will be shown on all map sheets, but only 

on those where the terrain is predominately hilly or 

mountainous, and which also include important flat 

areas. Under this treatment, the regular interval can 

always be that which clearly and properly portrays 

the hilly or mountainous terrain, hence original compilation should be more economical, the maps will 

be more clear and readable, and the map accuracy 

specifications will be practical.

On sheets having 25-foot interval and covering 

mainly steep, mountainous terrain, supplementary 

5-foot contours may be shown in the extremely flat 

areas. As noted in Item 5 preceding, however, the 

use of 25 feet as a basic or regular contour interval 

on new maps is expected to be discontinued as rapidly as practical.

All half-interval, and other supplementary contours, 

shall be differentiated on the compilation manuscript 

from regular or standard contours by showing the 

supplementary contours as dashed lines; and shall 

be differentiated on the published map in a suitable 

manner to be determined by the Technical Staff of 

the Topographic Branch.

All supplementary contours shall be of the same relative accuracy as the regular contours. For example, 

where the supplementary contours are of 10-foot 

interval, they shall be accurate (90 percent) within 

5 feet, or one half of the supplementary interval. In 

those unusual cases where the use of half-interval 

supplementary contours in extensive flat areas does 

not indicate sufficient topographic detail, spot elevations, accurate within one-quarter of the supplementary interval shall be shown at critical points.

6. Map accuracy specifications

In 1940 and 1941, the Bureau of the Budget sponsored a series of conferences, attended by representatives of the principal Federal map-using and 

map-making agencies, from which were developed accuracy specifications for planimetric and 

topographic maps. These are, in part, as quoted 

below:
Survey Order No. 160 115

“STANDARD OF ACCURACY FOR A 

NATIONAL MAP PRODUCTION PROGRAM”

With a view to the utmost economy and expedition 

in producing maps which fulfill not only the broad 

needs for standard or principal maps, but also the 

reasonable particular needs of individual agencies, standards of accuracy for published maps are 

defined as follows:

1. Horizontal accuracy. For maps on publication 

scales larger than 1:20,000, not more than 10 percent 

of the points tested shall be in error by more than 

1/30 inch, measured on the publication scale; for 

maps on publication scales of 1:20,000 or smaller, 

1/50 inch. These limits of accuracy shall apply in 

all cases to positions of well defined points only. 

‘Well defined’ points are those that are easily visible, 

or recoverable on the ground, such as the following: monuments or markers, such as bench marks 

property boundary monuments; intersections of 

roads, railroads, etc.; corners of large buildings or 

structures (or center points of small buildings); etc. 

In general, what is ‘well defined’ will also be determined by what is plotable on the scale of the map 

within 1/100 inch. Thus, while the intersection of 

two roads or property lines meeting at right angles 

would come within a sensible interpretation, identification of the intersection of such lines meeting at 

an acute angle would obviously not be practicable 

within 1/100 inch. Similarly, features not identifiable 

upon the ground within close limits are not considered as test points within the limits quoted, even 

though their positions may be scaled closely upon 

the map. In this class would come timber line, soil 

boundaries, etc.

2. Vertical accuracy as applied to contour maps on 

all publication scales, shall be such that not more 

than 10 percent of the elevations tested shall be in 

error more than one-half the contour interval. In 

checking elevations taken from the map, the apparent vertical error may be decreased by assuming 

a horizontal displacement within the permissible 

horizontal error for a map of that scale.

3. The accuracy of any map may be tested by 

comparing the positions of points whose locations, 

or elevations, are shown upon it with corresponding positions as determined by surveys of a higher 

accuracy. Tests shall be made by the producing 

agency, which shall also determine which of 

its maps are to be tested, and the extent of such 

testing.

4. Published maps meeting these accuracy requirements shall note this fact in their legends, as follows: 

This map complies with the national standard map 

accuracy requirements.’

5. Published maps whose errors exceed those afore 

stated shall omit from their legends all mention of 

standard accuracy.

6. When a published map is a considerable 

enlargement of a map drawing (‘manuscript’) or 

of a published map, that fact shall be stated in the 

legend. For example, ‘This map is an enlargement 

of a 1:20,000-scale map drawing;’ or ‘This map 

is an enlargement of a 1:24,000- scale published 

map.’”

Since the Geological Survey was a party to the 

development and adoption of these specifications, 

as both a map-using and a map-making agency, it is 

the policy of the Survey to prepare its planimetric 

and topographic maps to comply with these specifications, wherever this is practical from a procedure 

standpoint, and when the mapping costs are not 

unreasonably increased thereby. For difficult terrain 

covered by dense timber, and where there are no 

project developments in prospect, it will be permissible to publish maps of slightly less-than-standard 

contour accuracy, subject to approval of the Chief 

of the Topographic Branch, but in no case should 

the horizontal-position accuracy be decreased. It is 

expected that such sub-standard map sheets will be 

a small minority of the total sheets published for 

the United States. Sub-standard maps shall omit 

the accuracy compliance note in paragraph 4 of the 

specifications quoted above.

In order to make this policy effective, each manuscript map sheet believed to comply with these 

accuracy specifications shall carry a certification 

by a responsible field engineer to the effect that it 

is his considered opinion that the endorsed map 

does meet the accuracy requirements. The minimum field operations considered necessary to justify such certifications shall include: (a) thorough 

field inspection of all sheets or portions of sheets 

which have been produced by means of stereoscopic plotting instruments; and (b) test surveys, 

for sample testing as to accuracy compliance, on a 

reasonable proportion of the map sheets for each 

project area, regardless of the procedure used in 

preparing the manuscript maps. Field inspection 

is defined as an on-the-ground visual comparison of the map sheet with the ground features by 

competent topographers, and shall also include 

occasional checks and/or revisions by planetable 

surveys where the photogrammetric mapping work 

appears questionable. On completion of the field 

inspection and planetable revisions, certain of the 
116 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

map sheets in each project area shall be designated as test sheets and on these there shall be 

executed special surveys which are solely for the 

purpose of accuracy testing. The selection of the 

number and type of map sheets to be so tested in 

any project shall be such as will reasonably ensure 

that all sheets of each project will comply with the 

national map accuracy requirements. The procedures adopted for the special test surveys shall be 

such that the adjusted coordinates of each station 

of the test survey will have a horizontal-position 

error not greater than the least plottable distance 

on the map at publication scale, and the elevation 

error of any vertical test point will be not greater 

than 1/10 of the contour interval for the map being 

tested. Complete records of all test surveys for 

each test sheet shall be filed at each field division 

office, subject to later examination by any interested parties.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Survey Order No. 162

 May 26, 1947

T.P. Pendleton, Chief Topographic Engineer, at his 

own request retired from active service on April 1, 

following a prolonged illness. Mr. Pendleton joined 

the Geological Survey in 1905, and conducted 

topographic surveys chiefly in the western United 

States until 1918, when he was commissioned in 

the Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army. Following 

World War I, he continued mapping assignments 

in Turkey, Palestine, and the Balkans, as well as in 

the United States. After a period of private practice, Mr. Pendleton was reinstated in the Survey in 

1934. He was largely responsible for the adaptation 

and development of the photogrammetric process 

now widely known as the “Multiplex” method to 

topographic mapping, first of the Tennessee Valley 

area, and subsequently, of the whole country. An 

outstanding authority on photogrammetry, surveying, and mapping, Mr. Pendleton’s retirement is a 

loss to the Geological Survey and to the Nation.

Gerald FitzGerald, on my recommendation, has 

been appointed by the Secretary of the Interior 

to succeed Mr. Pendleton, effective May 22. Mr. 

FitzGerald was appointed to the Survey in 1917, 

and has been engaged in surveying and mapping 

activities in the continental United States, Alaska, 

and the West Indies since that time, except for 

his military service in World War II. During most 

of his military service from 1942 to 1945 he was 

Commanding Officer of the Aeronautical Chart 

Service and was responsible for the compilation, 

reproduction, and distribution of all aeronautical 

charts and related publications required by the 

Army Air forces. As a part of that program, he 

directed the photogrammetric compilation of maps 

of more than 15,000,000 square miles in various part of the world, utilizing the “trimetrogon” 

method, which was largely developed by him in the 

Geological Survey. He was awarded the Legion of 

Merit on his discharge from the Army in December 

1945, and since that time has been Staff Engineer 

and Chief of the Plans and Estimates Division of 

the Topographic Branch. During Mr. Pendleton’s 

recent absence, Mr. FitzGerald has served as Acting Chief of the Branch.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Aid for Downed AAF Plane

Karlton B. Miller and Kenneth Carter, Topographic Engineers in the Rocky Mountain Division, were climbing the side 

of Pikes Peak, Colo., one morning in October of 1947, seeking 

a spot for a 3-point location, when they met a sergeant who 

was walking away from a before-dawn plane crash.

According to a letter of high commendation from Brigadier Gen. Leon W. Johnson, commanding the 15th Air Force, 

as transmitted by R.O. Davis, Region Engineer:

“Despite intense cold and difficult terrain, Mr. Miller 

escorted the sergeant to safety and then notified the 

15th Air Force Headquarters. Mr. Carter followed 

the injured man’s tracks for more than 3 miles up 

the steep slope of the peak, and upon arrival at the 

scene of the accident, assisted with the first-aid treatment and the removal of the injured personnel to 

ambulances. Due to the prompt action of the Survey 

engineers all men were saved.”

Regional Conferences

The interest in river-basin studies has been so intensified 

in recent years that it has become essential that all the Federal 

agencies operating within a basin coordinate their programs to 

assure the accomplishment of our common goal, which is the 

full development of our natural resources.
Regional Conferences 117

An important step toward the accomplishment of this 

purpose was taken at the Central Division Topographic Branch 

Conference held at Rolla, Mo., on November 10–12, 1947, 

by representatives of State and Federal agencies interested 

primarily in the development of the Missouri River Basin. 

This conference afforded to officials of the Federal and State 

agencies an opportunity to discuss their mutual problems; also, 

for the first time in the history of the Topographic Branch, it 

gave to the field and office personnel a full chance to exchange 

helpful views on the technical problems involved in the real 

objective, down-to-earth mapping. It generally was agreed 

that the conference was beneficial and that similar conferences 

should be held at regular intervals, not only in Rolla, but at 

other division headquarters, and at the Washington office.

While we know and appreciate the sterling qualities of 

our topographic engineers, we are always grateful when our 

cooperating officials show their appreciation. Many interesting 

speeches were given by Central Division cooperating officials 

and we are quoting from one on “Forty Years of Cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey” by Dr. M.M. Leighton, 

Chief, State Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill.

“ * * * In this matter of cooperation of the Illinois 

State Geological Survey with the U.S. Geological 

Survey in topographic mapping, the word cooperation has meant to me just what it says through all 

these years. And I have sensed among the officials 

of the U.S. Geological Survey during my 24 years of 

State connection that same sense of realization that 

cooperation is a two-way relationship. Nothing less 

could have brought the success that has marked our 

efforts. First of all, there has been the fine attitude 

of Directors George Otis Smith, W.C. Mendenhall, 

and Wm. E. Wrather, three fine distinguished men 

who recognized the magnitude of the task in all 

of the States, and who possessed the kind of spirit 

that was necessary to achieve it. Without exception, 

they have given their full support to the cooperative 

program.

“The chief topographic engineers were after the 

same pattern. First we called them geographers, 

and then chief topographers. The chief geographers 

were R.M. Wilson, R.B. Marshall, and W.H. Herron. The chief topographic engineers were C.H. 

Birdseye, J.G. Staack, T.P. Pendleton, and now 

Gerald FitzGerald. It has been my experience that 

they never failed to show anything but the greatest 

of interest in topographic mapping in Illinois. My 

faith in them continues down to the present time and 

includes the Chief, Gerald FitzGerald.

“My most frequent contacts have, however, been 

with the chiefs of the Central Division. There was 

that good old soul, Major Herron, who represented 

the U.S. Geological Survey in our office at Urbana 

through all the field seasons from 1905, until his 

death in 1930, with the exception of 1 year (1916–

17), when he was away during the first World War. 

Everybody on our staff loved Major Herron. He had 

a way about him that made you feel that cooperation 

was something more than the following of regulations, or the terms of the agreement. He was most 

personable. Almost invariably, when he came to the 

office each morning and had looked over his mail he 

had a humorous story to tell us that started the day 

off refreshingly. We were pleased that he fell in with 

us as humanly.

“I believe that I am safe in saying that Major Herron 

and I planned the first large-scale maps for metropolitan areas. At any rate, it was fairly early, and it 

involved something like the equivalent of twentyfour 7.5-minute quadrangles in the Chicago area, 

and several in the East St. Louis area. When the 

large-scale maps of the Chicago area were finished, 

which was done under the immediate direction of 

O.H. Nelson, the Western Society of Engineers 

held a meeting, (December 12, 1927), of Chicago 

engineers to commemorate this, and Director Smith, 

Colonel Birdseye, Major Herron, O.H. Nelson, and 

several State officials were all there to participate.43

That, by the way, is one of the best methods to get 

the support of the people. Everyone was enthusiastic 

about all of the new features of the maps, and their 

subsequent support could not be questioned.

“Following Major Herron in office was H.H. Hodgeson, who came from the Pacific Coast. Our relations 

with him were very fine, but rather brief, 1930–31. 

When he returned to the Coast he was followed by 

Glenn S. Smith, a man who showed great persuasiveness in presenting the need for topographic 

maps, and in arranging for cooperative funds. In his 

wide contacts, he made many friends for the U.S. 

Geological Survey, and for us.

“In 1940, Colonel Smith retired and I was greatly 

relieved when it was announced that C.L. Sadler 

would succeed to the position of Chief of the Central 

Division. He had done mapping a number of years 

before in Illinois, but most of it had been in Missouri * * *. We welcomed Sadler as Division Chief 

because we knew first of all that he was a man of 

integrity; second, that he was an able topographer; 

and third, that his public relations would be of the 

finest.

“Following his appointment, the Office of Division Chief was transferred from Urbana to Rolla. I 

might have objected, but Sadler’s work had been in 

Missouri for many years, Buehler had always shown 

43 See Western Society of Engineers Journal, January 1928.
118 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

a great interest in topographic mapping, and it was 

only fair, after so many years, to yield the distinction 

to another state. Now that the headquarters of the 

Central office is so well established here at Rolla, 

and the personnel have become so much a part of 

this community, it seems only natural to keep the 

headquarters here. The ties are so strong that they 

have the qualities of permanency.

“Of our section chiefs I have spoken of O.H. Nelson 

and his fine work in the Chicago area. Gentlemen, I 

want to tell you that he put in hours, day and night, 

on the work that far out measured union standards. 

I am thankful that we still have men who are so 

deeply interested in the work they are doing that 

they bury their lives in it. Following Nelson, who 

was Chief of the Great Lakes Section, came F.W. 

Hughes. Not only is he a gentleman in every sense 

of the word, but he has ideals in the making of maps 

and a high conscience in the amount of production that a man should turn out in a day. Let us all 

hold firm to such ideals. It is production that has 

made this country great, together with the character that develops from the pride and satisfaction of 

work well done. Someone referred yesterday to the 

creative work performed by a topographic engineer, 

the turning out of a map of an area that shows the 

character of its surface, defines its drainage, exhibits 

the culture, and portrays the forest resources. That 

is the kind of work that a man can put his heart and 

soul into.

“I want to pay my tribute to all of the topographers 

and chiefs of parties that have worked in Illinois 

these 40 years. In the time that I have for these 

remarks, I cannot possibly name them all, but 

among them are Captain Sadler, Captain Staack, 

W.J. Lloyd, J.H. Renshawe, O.H. Nelson, J.R. Ellis, 

E.L. Hain, J.A. Duck, F.W. Hughes, S.R. Archer, 

W.S. Gehres, E.W. Gouchenour, H.S. Senseney, F.A. 

Danforth, A.T. Munson, W.S. Beames, H.E. Simmons, J.A. Shumate, J.T. Schutz, W.E. Baird, W.A. 

Tingey, A.W. Plushnick, J.C. Hilliard, H.S. Milsted, 

C.E. Weishapple, and others.

“In the 40 years of the cooperation between the U.S. 

Geological Survey and the State of Illinois, there 

have been certain cardinal principles recognized 

devotedly by both parties. First, there has been the 

cardinal principle that we are going to do good 

job of topographic mapping. Each year we have 

executed a cooperative agreement that served as a 

record of understanding and commitments. Toward 

this agreement, we have maintained a spiritual point 

of view. I cannot remember a single incident when 

we got out the agreement to settle any controversial 

point. We realized that we had a high mission and 

we put our shoulders together to perform it * * *.

“The second cardinal principle is that the Illinois 

Geological Survey has consistently recognized the 

topographic branch of the Geological Survey as the 

central mapping agency. They have the staff, they 

have the equipment, and they know how good maps 

are made. We match our dollars and they direct the 

execution of the work * * *.

“The third cardinal principle has been that the maps 

to be made should meet both local and general 

needs, needs with respect to the contour interval, the 

scale of the map, the amount of detail to be shown, 

and other features of map making. The Illinois 

Survey has made its contribution by giving study to 

the local needs and by conferring with and soliciting 

suggestions from engineers and engineering groups, 

soil survey people, geologists, various State departments, and other users of maps * * *.

“The fourth cardinal principle pertains to finances, 

namely, that both organizations should match their 

funds dollar for dollar. This principle has invariably 

been followed.

“Years pass and the world of human affairs continues with changes in personnel. We dislike to see 

good men reach the age of retirement. We in Illinois 

especially dislike to anticipate the retirement of C.L. 

Sadler as Chief of the Central Division next July. 

He and I respect each other and the interests of each 

other’s organizations. He has done an excellent job 

in administering our topographic mapping. We shall 

await with interest the announcement as to who his 

successor will be, but we know that the right man 

will be chosen. The U.S. Geological Survey has 

made no mistakes in their selections * * *.”

Map Exhibits

On December 9, 1947, Mr. FitzGerald wrote the following memorandum for the Staff Division and Section 

Chiefs:

“The Topographic Branch is often called upon to 

prepare map exhibits in connection with engineering and scientific meetings. These occasions afford 

excellent opportunities for explaining our mapping 

operations and presenting the need for expediting 

our mapping operations and presenting the need for 

expediting our 20-year program.

“At the National Highway Research Board annual 

meeting last week, we displayed three panels which 
Foreign Visitors 119

were rather effective. They are now in Rooms 6233 

and 6221, and will be there for several days so that 

you may inspect them.

“I will appreciate your comments and suggestions 

regarding these exhibits and how we can most 

effectively tell our story and put it over; first, to the 

various map users; second, the engineering students 

who may be interested in topographic mapping as 

a career; and third, the many State and municipal 

agencies who are all potential cooperators in our 

mapping program.

“During fiscal year 1947, exhibits of maps, aerial 

photographs, and related material pertaining to 

mapping procedures were prepared for the Pan 

American Institute of Cartography and History at 

Caracas, Venezuela, the American Mining and Metal 

Congress at Denver, Colo., Middlebury College, Vt., 

the American Society of Civil Engineers at St. Paul, 

Minn., the American Society of Photogrammetry at 

Washington, D.C., the Utah Centennial at Salt Lake 

City, Utah, and the National Research Council at 

Washington, D.C. Many requests were received during the succeeding years.

“In 1950, requests were received for map exhibits 

for the annual meeting of the American Society of 

Civil Engineers held in Washington, and the Map 

Information Office prepared a series of display 

panels shoving present-day mapping methods and 

the various types of published maps, together with 

samples of advance map copy, such as blue-lines, 

composite prints, and other photostatic reproductions available to engineers. An exhibit showing the 

latest photogrammetric mapping techniques was 

also prepared for the annual meeting of the American Society of Photogrammetry in Washington. An 

exhibit of special interest to petroleum engineers 

was supplied for the annual meeting of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists in Chicago. Assistance was also given in selecting maps, 

aerial photographs, and other illustrative material 

for exhibits sponsored by state, county, university, 

and other local groups. Similar requests have been 

received through fiscal year 1954.”

Foreign Visitors

Recognition of the Geological Survey’s preeminence 

in the field of mapping is further evidenced by the number 

and type of visitors during fiscal year 1947, and succeeding 

years.

In addition to those from our own country, civil and 

military representatives of the following foreign governments 

have spent considerable time studying and observing field and 

office methods used by the Topographic Branch in preparing maps: Canada, Mexico, Cuba, Brazil, Chile, Columbia, 

Peru, Venezuela, Belgium, Denmark, France, Great Britain, 

Greece, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Egypt, South Africa, 

China, India, Palestine, Australia, and the Philippine Islands. 

In practically all of these countries, the development of new 

mapping methods was considerably curtailed during World 

War II. Letters of appreciation received from these foreign 

visitors during the year indicate that the technical assistance 

and advice given by members of the Survey is contributing 

not only to the progress of mapping throughout the world, but 

to a mutual understanding of good will and a friendly spirit of 

cooperation.

 May 21, 1948

Memorandum 

To: All personnel concerned

From: Chief, Topographic Branch

Subject: Map appraisal and classification

In accordance with the Memorandum of Understanding, dated October 21, 1946, between the War 

Department and the Geological Survey, and subsequent informal agreements with other agencies, 

the Geological Survey is committed to maintain 

distribution stocks of topographic maps produced 

by these agencies. Standards and procedures for 

appraisal and classification of these maps are hereby 

established. All such topographic maps, prior to their 

reprinting by the Geological Survey in accordance 

with the policy outlined in the Director’s memorandum dated May 18, 1948, shall be appraised 

and classified as to quality. The classification of 

each map shall be in accordance with the degree 

of its compliance with current requirements for a 

topographic map of the best quality, on the same 

scale as the particular one under consideration. The 

classification shall be by numbers 1–5 inclusive, 

with number one (l) indicating a map of the quality 

required to comply with current standards. Succeeding numbers will indicate maps with progressively 

greater deviations from those standards.

This classification does not furnish criteria to be 

used in estimating or judging current public requirements for more detailed map information in areas 

covered by existing topographic maps. It is thought 

that the number of requests for the resurvey of an 

area, with weighted consideration of their sources, 

is the best basis for evaluating the serviceability of 

existing maps for current general purposes.

Under this classification of existing maps, it will be 

possible to have maps in the 7.5-minute, 15-minute, 
120 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

30-minute, and 1-degree series covering all or 

portions of the same area. Each of these maps may 

require appraisal and classification. All of the overlapping maps may have the same or different classifications, depending upon their relative deficiencies, when compared with current requirements for a 

class 1 map in the series.

A topographic map will normally retain its appraised 

classification of quality for a period of about 

10 years, or until a reprint edition becomes necessary, when it should be re-examined with a view of 

its reclassification, if appropriate.

Topographic maps of special areas, or on special scales, 

which are not published in quadrangle form, are not 

recommended for classification. However, they may be 

classified if it is thought necessary or desirable.

Geological Survey Maps

An increasing public demand for accuracy and 

for fidelity of expression in topographic maps has 

resulted in the adoption by the Geological Survey 

of specifications for horizontal and vertical accuracy that conform to the National map accuracy 

standards. Test surveys are necessary to evaluate the 

degree of compliance with the accuracy standards; 

however, accuracy in location and elevation does not 

assure fidelity of expression of the physiographic 

features that the contours should portray. Field and 

office procedures and practices have been developed 

in an effort to assure the high standard of quality that 

is desired for the general purpose maps of quadrangle areas. Thorough field and office inspections 

are necessary to assure that fidelity of expression has 

been attained.

All maps that comply with the current standards for 

horizontal and vertical accuracy, and which represent physiographic features with fidelity, are of 

excellent quality and shall be classified no. 1 maps. 

Other maps shall be classified according to their 

degree of compliance with the adopted standards 

of accuracy and fidelity of expression as set forth 

above. Field inspections, test surveys, and office 

examinations of Geological Survey maps, currently 

being made, indicate that most of them are no. 1 

maps (of excellent quality) and that the remainder of 

them are no. 2 maps (good quality), since they have 

been found to be deficient only to a minor degree. 

Earlier maps of the Geological Survey, which were 

made in compliance with less rigid specifications 

and standards, may merit any one of the five quality 

classifications. Some of the deficiencies which may 

contribute to substandard qualities are:

• Township and section boundaries omitted

• Woodland areas not indicated

• Use of an inappropriate contour interval

• Weak or poor portrayal of physiographic forms

• Substandard accuracy of locations, or elevations, 

or both

• Revision from aerial photographs or stereocompilations not followed by a field check

• Drafting of a substandard quality.

Maps by other Federal Agencies

Other Federal organizations are engaged in topographic surveys, primarily to produce maps to meet 

particular requirements, and as a preliminary phase 

of other activities for which they are responsible. 

However, many of the resulting maps portray topographic information which is, or may be, of considerable interest and value to the general public. In 

order that such useful information may not be withheld, and that its distribution may be centralized, 

other Federal organizations, including the Department of the Army, by agreement are furnishing the 

Geological Survey with their maps of quadrangle 

areas for reproduction and distribution. These maps 

are subject to the same factors of strength or weakness that appear to be inherent in all maps. They 

may be of excellent quality in all elements, or may 

be deficient, in varying degrees, in one or more elements that are considered essential components of 

first class maps, according to current standards.

All of the topographic maps that are distributed by the 

Geological Survey should be appraised, and classified 

according to uniform standards of quality. Manifestly, 

those standards should be the same as have been 

adopted and specified for Geological Survey maps. 

Moreover, it is recommended that the classification 

of any particular map be made known to a map user, 

or purchaser, upon request, or when the classification 

indicates that a map is substandard for an expressed 

purpose or for a known or intended use.

Classification

In order that the classification of all topographic 

maps of quadrangle areas may proceed in a uniform 

and impartial manner, the standards by which they 

shall be appraised and classified are set forth as 

follows:

1. Topographic maps that are to be included in this 

class must fulfill the following requirements:
Foreign Visitors 121

(a) The map must comply with the national standards of map accuracy substantially as set forth in 

Geological Survey Order No. 160.

(b) It must be of standard content, which includes 

the representation of all pertinent details of cultural, 

topographic, and hydrographic features, within the 

limitations of the scale of the map, by means of 

approved symbols and treatments. The approved 

map symbols are shown on map symbol sheets, and 

treatments are specified in technical instructions, 

which are issued by the Geological Survey.

(c) Its contours must adequately delineate and express 

the physiographic forms on the ground with such fidelity that their character is clearly evident on the map.

(d) The map must employ a contour interval that is 

appropriate for showing all significant topographic 

details of the area, on the scale employed, without 

over burdening the map with unnecessary contours. 

Attention is called to the fact that current mapping 

instructions authorize the use of supplementary 

contours to assist in portraying significant details that 

would escape contours drawn at the regular interval.

(e) The map must be reasonably complete in its 

representation of current cultural detail as it exists 

upon the ground at the time of classification. Comments by map users indicate that a map may be 

expected to remain up to date for an average period 

of about 10 years. However, maps of sparsely settled 

areas may remain up to date for a longer period and 

areas subject to intensive development may become 

out of date in a much shorter period. First quality 

maps will normally be expected to retain their classification as such for approximately 10 years after 

completion of field work in original production or 

revision, unless criticism from map users indicates 

shorter period. It should be noted that, to be accurate 

and complete, the compilation, or the revision of the 

cultural features of a map from aerial photographs 

must always be supplemented by field interpretation, 

field checking, or both.

2. Topographic maps that fail to meet the requirements of no. 1 maps in not more than one of 

the listed requirements for that category shall 

be included in this classification. Most of the 

topographic maps made by the Geological Survey 

between 1920 and 1938 were rigidly controlled; 

many had planimetric bases resulting from photogrammetric compilations; and the others had culture 

and drainage located by detailed and extensive planetable surveys in conjunction with the mapping of 

the topography. Such maps may be of less accuracy 

than that specified for first class maps. The period of 

mapping, however, is not conclusive evidence of the 

quality classification of a map. Some maps produced 

prior to 1920 may be of a quality to be included in 

this class, and some produced after that date may be 

sufficiently deficient to warrant their exclusion.

Specifically, a no. 2 map may be deficient in one of 

the following elements.

(a) It may be below standard accuracy if large 

parts of its area are densely forested. Such maps, if 

compiled by modern photogrammetric methods, will 

usually meet the horizontal accuracy specifications, 

but are likely to be deficient in vertical accuracy. 

It would not be economical to improve the vertical 

accuracy of such maps sufficiently to qualify them 

for the no. 1 classification. 

(b) Its content may be less than that required of a no. 

1 map. This may consist of the omissions of township and section lines of the public land surveys, 

drainage details, trails, houses, or the departure from 

common practice in the classification of buildings or 

in their treatment in the urban areas. Minor revision 

of such maps could improve them sufficiently to 

permit their classification as no. 1 maps.

(c) The map may be deficient in topographic expression. The term “topographic expression” or “expression” is difficult to define clearly. Nevertheless, 

it covers one of the more important elements that 

distinguish a first class topographic map. In general, 

it refers to that appearance of the contouring that 

denotes, at a glance, the character, or type, of the 

country that has been mapped, or the fidelity with 

which the land forms have been portrayed. Weakness in topographic expression may be, and often is, 

evidenced by omission of small but characteristic 

details in the topography; by the erratic spacing of 

contours, indicating slopes that are not natural in the 

area; by forms or shapes that are obviously foreign 

to the area; or by various other deficiencies such 

as drainage head or ridge top contours improperly 

drawn or spaced.

(d) The map may employ a contour interval that 

is inappropriate for its scale and the relief encountered in the area. If such maps are first class in 

other respects, they could be made to qualify as no. 

1 maps by recompilation, or field surveys to add 

supplementary contours in some cases, and in others 

to change the basic interval to one that is appropriate 

for portraying the relief encountered, in the required 

detail, without overburdening the map.

(e) Cultural developments within an area, after 

completion of field surveys, may make a map deficient 

in its representation of these details at any later date. 

As has been stated, the culture will usually will be 
122 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

considered to be out of date in about 10 years after the 

date of survey, and the map then will be placed in class 

no. 2 unless, or until, the culture has been revised.

3. Topographic maps shall be included in this classification if they are sufficiently accurate and complete 

to be generally useful, but which have too many 

known deficiencies to qualify for classification as no. 

2 maps. Most of the maps produced by the Geological Survey in the period from 1900 to 1920 will fall 

in this category, and may be classed as no. 3 maps. 

There was a marked improvement in the quality of 

maps in this period over those that were produced 

in prior years. This improvement was in response to 

an increasing awareness, on the part of the general 

public, of the usefulness of map information and 

related efforts to furnish better maps by increasing 

their accuracy and the amount of detail shown. It 

was during this period that spirit level and transit 

traverse control came into general use, although both 

were initiated prior to 1900; the Beaman stadia arc 

was invented and planetable and stadia became the 

accepted method of mapping quadrangle areas of 

moderate to low relief, and increasing use was made 

of the larger standard map scales in order to permit 

mapping in greater detail than had previously been 

thought necessary or desirable.

During this period, when economic considerations 

limited the amounts of both basic control and instrumental surveys of areas, personal skill on the part 

of the topographer was a very important factor in 

the interpretation of land forms and the delineation 

of their character, and in the estimation of differences in elevation, and of distance in the location 

and portrayal of minor features. Therefore, authorship sometimes must be considered in determining 

whether a map should be classed as no. 3 (fair) or 

no. 4 (poor). Modern mapping methods, together 

with required procedures and practices, have greatly 

reduced the effect of the personal element on the 

quality of. topographic maps.

It should be noted that many maps in this classification (no. 3) could be converted into class no. 2, or 

even class no. 1 maps by revision surveys or limited 

resurveys where the character of the deficiencies, 

and their extent, would make that treatment economically advantageous.

4. Topographic maps that obviously are defective 

in the major elements of accuracy, content, and 

expression, to an extent that disqualifies them as no. 

3 maps, but which are the best or only maps available, should be classified in this category of no. 4 

maps. Included in no. 4 will be those maps listed 

in earlier classifications as “rapid reconnaissance,” 

and others of similar grades. These maps are of such 

substandard quality that their revision would not 

be warranted. They are placed in this class for the 

period during which they will be sold and distributed, pending resurvey of their areas and publication 

of maps of better quality.

5. Topographic maps that would otherwise fall in 

no. 4, but whose areas are covered by other maps 

of better quality at the same scale, and maps in 

the 30-minute and 1-degree series whose areas are 

completely covered by maps in the 7.5-minute or 

15-minute series, should be classified as no. 5 maps. 

They will neither be shown on state index maps, 

nor reprinted in a sales edition, but file copies and 

manuscript material will be retained so that specific 

requests for copies of these maps may be filled.

 /s/ Gerald FitzGerald

 Chief, Topographic Branch

Approved:

/s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Survey Order No. 173

Survey Order No. 173, Change in Organization Structure 

Nomenclature, dated December 15, 1948, is as follows:

As of January 1, 1949, the term Division shall be 

used in lieu of the present term Branch, and the term 

Branch shall be used in lieu of the present term Division, with two exceptions:

(a) The present Atlantic, Central, Rocky Mountain, 

and Pacific Divisions of the Topographic Branch 

shall become Regions of the Topographic Division.

(b) The present Divisions of the Geologic Branch 

shall be abolished and their constituent Sections 

shall become Branches of the Geologic Division.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

December 27, 1948

Memorandum

To: All Topographic Branch Employees

From: Chief, Topographic Branch

Subject: Change in Organizational Nomenclature

The Geological Survey under date of December 15, 

1948, issued Order No. 173, making changes in the 

terms used to designate its principal organizational 
Survey Order No. 173 123

subdivisions, and changing the titles of the present field divisions of the Topographic Branch. This 

action was taken in accordance with a request of 

the Secretary of the Interior that all bureaus of the 

Department conform to the system of nomenclature 

recommended to the departments and agencies by a 

congressional committee.

In accordance with Survey Order No. 173, the organizational designation of the Branches of the Survey 

has been changed to Divisions, effective January 1, 

1949. There are now four divisions in the Geological 

Survey as follows:

Conservation Division

Geologic Division

Topographic Division

Water Resources Division

The four principal field offices of the Topographic 

Division will be designated by the term Region. The 

two staff Divisions now become Branches.

In order to comply fully with the suggested nomenclature, changes in the designation of subordinate 

units also are made: The term “District” shall be 

used instead of “Area;” “Project” shall be used 

instead of “Sub-Area.” The term “Project Office” 

shall be used to designate subdivision of a region in 

a semi-permanent status, such as the Chattanooga 

office.

The organizational titles of officials in the Topographic Division as of January 1, 1949, shall be as 

shown in table 48.

The title of Area Chief is changed to District 

Engineer and the title sub-Area Chief is changed to 

Project Engineer.

The titles of the Trimetrogon Section and the Special 

Map Projects Section, both of which are special operational sections in the Washington office, are unchanged.

Because of the increase in the scope of the mapping 

activities of the present Topographic Branch, and the 

resultant increase in complexity of organization and 

number of personnel, many employees do not have 

current information as to the organization structure 

of the Branch. The following is a brief outline of the 

organization as it will exist after January 1, 1949.

The Washington office is composed of the Chief 

Topographic Engineer, the Assistant to the Chief 

Topographic Engineer, and number of administrative 

and clerical employees; two staff branches covering 

planning and technical activities, and known as the 

Plans and Coordination Branch, and the Research and 

Technical Control Branch; and two special operational 

sections, the Trimetrogon Section (John I. Davidson, 

Chief) and the Special Map Projects Section (O.H. 

Nelson, Chief). All other operational activities are 

performed in the field regional offices. There are four 

regions with headquarters and areas as follows:

Atlantic Region

Headquarters: 1109 North Highland Street, Arlington, Va.

Regional Engineer: Dallas H. Watson

Geographical Area: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, 

New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 

Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, 

Maryland, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and Florida.

Central Region

Headquarters: Rolla, Mo. (Box 133)

Regional Engineer: Daniel Kennedy

Geographical Area: North Dakota, South Dakota, 

Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Nebraska, Iowa, 

Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, Arkansas, 

Texas, and Louisiana.

Rocky Mountain Region

Headquarters: Denver Federal Center (Box 2858 

Lakewood Branch) Denver, Colo.

Regional Engineer: Robert O. Davis

Table 48. Organizational titles in the Topographic Division, as of 

January 1, 1944.

Name Title

Gerald FitzGerald Chief Topographic Engineer 

Robert L. Moravetz Assistant to Chief Topographic Engineer 

George D. Whitmore Chief, Research and Technical Control 

Branch

Robert H. Lyddan Chief, Plans Coordination Branch 

Dallas H. Watson Atlantic Region Engineer 

Ralph F. Wilcoxon Assistant Atlantic Region Engineer 

Daniel Kennedy Central Region Engineer 

Frank W. Hughes Assistant Central Region Engineer 

C.A. Ecklund Pacific Region Engineer 

C.P. Van Camp Assistant Pacific Region Engineer 

Robert O. Davis Rocky Mountain Region Engineer 

T.V. Cummins Assistant Rocky Mountain Region Engineer 
124 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Geographical Area: Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, 

New Mexico, and Alaska.

Pacific Region

Headquarters: Sacramento, Calif. (Box 346)

Regional Engineer: C.A. Ecklund

Geographical Area: Washington, Idaho, Oregon, 

California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona.

In addition, Multiplex work carried on in cooperation with the TVA is conducted at the Chattanooga Project Office (John G. Groninger, Project 

Engineer).

 /s/ Gerald FitzGerald

 Chief, Topographic Branch

Approved:

December 27, 1948

(Date)

/s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Survey Order No. 186

Survey Order No. 186, dated October 14, 1949, is as 

follows:

In view of the increasing interest in natural resources 

on the continental shelf, and the requirements of 

the military map users for coastal data, topographic 

maps of coastal and navigable-water areas shall 

henceforth show underwater contours, as well as 

certain obstructions to navigation, and features of 

landmark value to map users, whenever these data 

can be obtained from hydrographic charts or from 

surveys made for their preparation.

1. Underwater contours

The water areas of topographic maps along the 

coast, and the inland waters navigable from the 

coast, shall show the depth of the water by means of 

underwater contours of an appropriate interval. The 

units of measure and contour interval shall be correlated to the similar information shown on overlapping and adjacent hydrographic charts; however, 

no underwater contours shall be shown below the 

100-fathom line.

Inasmuch as the datum of the topographic map is 

based upon mean sea level, the shoreline shown is 

mean high water, and the datum of hydrographic 

charts is based upon either mean low water or mean 

lower low water, explanatory notes showing the difference in datums for that area shall be added on the 

margin of the map.

2. Obstructions to navigation

In order to present more nearly complete information on the map concerning the coastal areas, certain 

types of obstructions to navigation shall be shown. 

In general, the policy shall be to show all offshore 

features, compatible with the scale of the map, that 

are of a reasonably permanent nature and that can be 

seen from the shore at low tide.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Reprinted August 1951.

Tours of Duty at Division Headquarters

On October 28, 1949, Mr. FitzGerald sent the following memorandum to the Atlantic, Central, Pacific, and Rocky 

Mountain Region Engineers:

“In accordance with decisions reached at the 

Regional Engineers Conference held last May, plans 

should be made to send a representative of each 

region to Washington for a 1-month period of staff 

duty this winter.

“One of the principal advantages to be gained by 

such assignments is through the opportunity they 

afford for the representatives to get to know the men 

here and to observe and discuss the operations that 

are carried on in this office. We also plan to take 

advantage of the information, criticism, and suggestions on technical instructions that can be offered by 

these men who are on, or close to, actual operations. 

To a lesser extent any of the representatives might be 

given a specific project while in this office—a project which he may be specially qualified to handle, 

or which may give the individual an opportunity to 

demonstrate some special talent.

“The dates of the various tours may be generally 

arranged to suit your local circumstances, although 

this office would prefer that men from two of the 

regions be here at the same time. It would also be 

well if the tours were arranged sometime during the 

months December to February, inclusive.

“It is preferred that selections for these assignments 

be made from your P–4, P–5, or P–6 personnel, 

although especially talented or promising men in 

the P–3 grade are not excluded. Also, the individual 

selected should be either (1) engaged in regional 
Survey Order No. 193 125

headquarters work; (2) considered as potential for 

future regional or main office permanent assignment; or (3) located in some part of your organization where general knowledge of staff activities 

would be especially helpful.

“Please consider this matter carefully and forward 

to this office your recommendations, including any 

alternate suggestions, sometime early in November.”

Letter from Chief, Topographic Division

On January 2, 1950, Mr. FitzGerald sent the following 

letter to all Topographic Division employees:

“I am sure you realize that in terms of accomplishment, the year 1949 has been a notable one for the 

Topographic Division. We have made real progress 

in the production of hundreds of new standard 

quadrangles covering widely separated areas in the 

United States and Alaska, and we have also continued to make progress in technical research of our 

field and office methods in an intensive effort to 

improve the quality, as well as the quantity, of our 

work. This is a good record.

“Because of the very heavy work load we have all 

been carrying to meet production schedules, it has 

been difficult these last few years to maintain the 

close bond of working relationships that has been 

a cherished tradition of our group for more than 

50 years. Our present method of work and the size 

of our organization these days tend to keep all of 

us separated for most of the year and oftentimes in 

rather restricted fields of operation. Under such conditions, I know it is sometimes difficult to maintain 

the “esprit de corps” and team work which have 

long been characteristic of the Topographic Division, and which we all know is essential if we are to 

remain one of the great mapping organizations of the 

world.

“The next year promises at the outset its full quota 

of problems, which from past experience I am confident we can take in stride. Every individual member 

of the Washington office and the four Regions of the 

Division working together can make 1950 a memorable year in the history of topographic mapping.

“Your own personal contribution to the work of the 

Topographic Division is important because our kind 

of a job depends on team work. I’m proud to be a 

member of the Topographic Division team with you 

and take this opportunity of sending greeting for the 

New Year.”

Survey Order No. 192

Survey Order No. 192, dated February 6, 1950, is as 

follows:

In order to simplify the preparation of Alaskan maps 

at scales of 1:250,000 and larger, and to facilitate 

matching with sheets of the National Canadian 

topographic map series, the Geological Survey will 

henceforth use for these maps the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Projection instead of the 

polyconic projection used heretofore. Quadrangle 

sheets will be bounded by the same meridians 

and parallels as would be used with the polyconic 

projection, and there will be no noticeable change in 

the shape, size, format, or appearance of the maps. 

The words “Polyconic Projection” that have hitherto 

been included in the legend at the lower left corner 

of the map sheet will be replaced by “Universal 

Transverse Mercator Projection, Zone --.” Quadrangle maps that are currently in process of preparation 

may be completed and printed on the polyconic projection if the work has progressed to the stage where 

a change of projection does not appear justified.

This order does not apply to Alaskan maps and 

charts prepared for publication at scales smaller than 

1:250,000.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Survey Order No. 193

Survey Order No. 160, dated January 2, 1947, promulgated basic specifications for the national topographic map 

series of the continental United States, exclusive of territories 

and island possessions. Similar specifications for the national 

map series of Alaska are outlined herein.

1. Quarter-million-scale series

In accordance with approved programs, the entire 

area of Alaska shall be covered as rapidly as feasible 

with a new series of 1:250,000-scale topographic 

maps. The original sheets of the 1:250,000-scale 

series shall be prepared in an expeditious manner, from whatever control, photographs, and other 

source materials are immediately available. The content and accuracy of the first edition shall be of as 

high an order as is consistent with available source 

data and an expedited compilation program. Those 

sheets for which the original compilation is necessarily of sub-standard content or accuracy shall be 

regarded as provisional, and a revised edition shall 

be prepared whenever the availability of additional 
126 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

control and/or better source materials would result in 

substantial improvement over the original maps.

Contour interval usually shall be 200 feet, except 

(1) the interval of 100 feet may be utilized for sheets 

covering flat terrain, provided that the source data 

available will yield standard-accuracy 100-foot 

contours; (2) on extensive mountain slopes, the 

intermediate contours should be “feathered out” in 

accordance with current instructions of the Topographic Division for steep-slope treatments, but with 

the 1,000-foot index contours being shown clearly 

and completely; and (3) in areas where vertical 

control and/or suitable aerial photographs are lacking at the time, the first-edition provisional sheets 

are compiled, the contour interval may be either 500 

feet or 1,000 feet.

2. Mile-per-inch series

The publication scale for this series of Alaska sheets 

shall be 1:63,360, or exactly 1 inch equals 1 mile. 

Maps at this scale will be prepared, as rapidly as 

funds permit, for those areas of Alaska for which 

there is specific and well justified need. The contour 

interval shall be 200 feet, 100 feet, 50 feet, or 25 

feet, depending on the type of terrain. Supplementary contours, including 12.5-foot contours, may be 

utilized in the usual manner to show details in the 

flatter areas of rugged-terrain regions, provided that 

means are available for plotting the supplementary 

contours with the customary accuracy.

The procedures and source materials used in the 

preparation of the 1:63,360 sheets shall be such that 

there will be reasonable assurance that the maps will 

generally comply with the Federal standards of map 

accuracy, as outlined in Survey Order No. 160, but 

routine accuracy testing and field certifications of 

these maps will not be required.

3. Larger-scale special maps

Occasionally, the needs of engineering investigations, geologic and mineral studies, construction 

works, or other projects of restricted area having 

similar requirements, will justify the preparation of 

topographic maps at relatively larger scales and with 

relatively smaller contour intervals. When practical, such maps shall be prepared for publication at 

a scale of 1:24,000, and with contour interval from 

either the 50-25-foot series, or from the 40-, 20-, 

10-, 5-foot series, depending on type of terrain and 

other circumstances. Half-interval or other supplementary contours may be utilized on the large-scale 

sheets where necessary and appropriate for topographic detail in the flatter areas of regions of rugged terrain. Whenever practical, such maps shall be 

of standard accuracy as defined in Survey Order No. 

160, shall be field tested for accuracy in the usual 

manner, and the field sheets shall carry notation as to 

accuracy by an appropriate field engineer.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Memorandum to Trimetrogon Section

The following memorandum, dated May 15, 1950, to 

Geological Survey employees, Trimetrogon Section, from the 

Chief Topographic Engineer states:

“The Commanding Officer of the Aeronautical Chart 

Service, Department of the Air Force, has notified 

the Geological Survey of plans to consolidate all 

charting operations within the A.C.S. and to discontinue, insofar as possible, contract work with 

other government agencies. After a long period of 

discussion between the two agencies on the subject, 

an agreement has been concluded which provides 

for a gradual curtailment of work assignments to the 

Survey by the Chart Service. Under the terms of this 

agreement, an effort will be made to complete all 

assigned work within the next 2 years.

“No material change in the personnel strength of the 

Survey’s Trimetrogon Section is contemplated at this 

time. It is planned, during the transition period, that 

all available production capacity will be shifted to 

the domestic mapping program, which is a primary 

responsibility of the Geological Survey, and is now 

understaffed.

“The termination of active participation by the Geological Survey in the aeronautical charting program 

will mark the end of a significant period. Although 

the Geological Survey pioneered the compilation of 

aeronautical charts 25 years ago, the accomplishments of the present Trimetrogon Section during 

the past 9 years have been outstanding in the history of cartography. Methods and techniques were 

developed by this group in the Survey to carry out 

one of the largest and most important war mapping 

programs undertaken during World War II. “Trimetrogon mapping” has been used, and is being used, 

by civil and military organizations in many countries throughout the world. The Geological Survey 

is proud of this record of achievement and, when 

possible, plans for the full use of this trained group 

in carrying out the expanded national topographic 

mapping program.”
Training Course in Topographic Mapping Methods 127

Topographic Division Bulletin

On March 12, 1951, Mr. FitzGerald sent the following memorandum to the Atlantic, Central Pacific, and Rocky 

Mountain Region Engineers:

“The first issue of the Topographic Division Bulletin 

will probably be distributed about April 1, 1951. 

The work of assembling the material and preparing copy for the initial edition is largely the result 

of the special assignment of George S. Druhot, 

District Engineer from the Pacific Region. Articles 

in the first copy have been selected from available 

papers and no attempt has been made to canvass 

the Regions for material. For this reason, the initial 

edition may appear to be somewhat out of balance as 

being representative of the entire Division.

“With the completion of this special assignment to 

the Pacific Region, Mr. Druhot returns to the Pacific 

Region and the work of preparing future editions 

will be delegated to the Regional offices, the Trimetrogon Section, as well as the Washington office. 

The success of this undertaking will depend on 

the amount of effort and cooperation put into it by 

members of the Division. Unless a continuous flow 

of articles from all field offices can be maintained, 

interest will not be general and the Bulletin will be 

unable to maintain its purpose, which is the dissemination of general information regarding new ideas, 

methods, equipment, administrative and technical 

practices and procedures as they affect both the 

office and the field.

“An Editor-in-Chief has been designated in the 

Washington office, and will have general responsibility for the assembling of material, and the publication of the Bulletin. He will also be charged with 

obtaining papers and discussion material from Division headquarters. Supporting the Editorial Chief 

will be five Assistant Editors, one from each Region, 

and one from the Trimetrogon Section. It will be 

the duty of the Assistant Editors to collect, edit, and 

transmit, through the Region Engineer, or the head 

of the Trimetrogon Section, at least one long article 

every 3 months. These articles should be related to 

the activities, organization, history, or ideals of the 

Topographic Division, and they should be designed 

to instruct the reader in an interesting way. A length 

of 2,400 words, 8 pages of double-spaced typing, is 

suggested as most desirable, but articles may vary in 

length from 1,500 words to 7,500 words. In addition 

to a long article each quarter, several brief items of 

interest should be sent from each Region. Discussions of statements or articles in previous issues, 

questions, and suggestions are particularly desired. 

Short reviews of other published papers and reports 

on technical meetings will also be items of interest.

“After selected articles are edited by the Assistant 

Editors, and reviewed by the Region Engineers or 

the Editor of the Trimetrogon Section, they will 

be neatly typed, double spaced, and two copies 

each will be forwarded to Washington. A short, 

but suitable, title should head each article and the 

author’s name should appear as a byline under it. 

The number of words should be indicated in pencil 

in the upper right corner of the first page. The date 

should be shown on the last page. If good photographs are available, prints or negatives, about two 

for each article should be attached. These should be 

completely described and marked. It is planned to 

publish the Bulletin quarterly, four issues in a volume. Your personal interest and cooperation in this 

venture is necessary to ensure its success.”

Training Course in Topographic 

Mapping Methods

A training course for new field engineers of the Topographic Division was operated in the vicinity of Clemson 

College, Clemson, S.C., from June to September, 1951. The 

course was conducted by the Atlantic Region office and 

was started in order to train employees added to the staff 

in response to the Division’s new workload connected with 

defense mapping requirements.

One week of each trainee’s time was spent on training 

for transit traverse, the first half day being devoted to the use 

of the transit and allied equipment, including the principles 

involved in making azimuth observations on the Sun and 

Polaris. The remainder of the week was spent in actually running a traverse line; each trainee rotating through a simulated 

field party so that each man received at least a half day of 

experience in each position.

Another week was devoted to training in leveling methods, 

including work in writing descriptions, setting bench marks, 

accomplishing the administrative paper work, etc. The system 

used called for two instruments and two recorders with only one 

pair of rodmen. Here too, all men changed jobs after a half day. In 

this way, checked elevations were obtained at each turning point.

The training parties operated in an area that is to be 

mapped by planetable methods. (Townville and Seneca Quadrangles, S.C.) The data that they produced would later be used 

in the mapping phase. No permanent bench marks were set, 

but otherwise all procedures were the same as would be followed in actual productive work.

Diplomas were awarded to 36 college-trained engineers 

from 12 East Coast institutions. Several of the men who completed this training course will go directly into the field, and 

some will be entrusted immediately with the supervision of field 
128 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

parties. A number of very promising men will return to college 

for another year, but have already demonstrated ability that will 

make them desirable for future employment. Credit for the success of this training course is due to W.K. McKinley, director of 

the course, E.A. Krahmer, F.B. Neary, G.B. Grunwell, E.E. Van 

Brunt, E.I. Loud, Jr., and A.C. Stiefel, instructors.

Survey Order No. 213

Survey Order No. 213, Change of Regional Boundaries—

Topographic Division, dated December 27, 1951, is as follows:

In order to provide for a more equitable distribution of work load and to expedite the mapping of 

high priority areas for the Department of Defense, a 

realignment of Regional boundaries of the Topographic Division is approved. Florida, Alabama, and 

Mississippi will become a part of the Central Region 

and Texas a part of the Rocky Mountain Region.

There will be a transition period during which time 

certain projects will be completed in these areas 

by regional personnel who have been previously 

operating in the state concerned. At the same time, 

additional, or new, projects will be undertaken 

by personnel of the region to which the state has 

recently been added.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Topography—The Lay of the Land

We learn much by reading the contours carved by nature. 

In fact, our first objective in the process of developing facts 

concerning our resource base is that of covering the land with 

adequate topographic maps, and in order to properly appreciate and evaluate the major changes that have taken place in 

this activity from 1945 to 1952, it is necessary to look back 

into the preceding years.

Development of photogrammetric mapping required 

many years; in fact, it is still going on. Much effort has been 

devoted to developing new methods, and to investigating 

and testing photogrammetric instruments, which include the 

stereoautograph in 1921, the aerocartograph in 1927, and in 

1935, the Multiplex aeroprojector.

In 1936, engineers of the Tennessee Valley Authority saw 

the value of the Multiplex and hailed it as the best solution for 

their map problems. Cooperation with the Geological Survey 

to provide planimetric maps of the region was continued in 

a plan to map the entire area topographically with the Multiplex. In this respect, the Tennessee Valley served as a proving ground for these instruments and a training school for 

operators. Many of these former trainees are now supervising 

photogrammetric activities in Survey field offices, or have 

done their part in designing new equipment and developing 

new procedures.

Expansion of mapping activities during the past decade 

also must be viewed in light of military demands, because the 

Nation, insofar as mapping is concerned, has been under a 

war economy almost continually since December 7, 1941. The 

Survey’s military mapping program is greater in 1952 than at 

any time during the 11 years that have elapsed since attack on 

Pearl Harbor. More than 50 percent of the mapping capacity of 

the Survey is being used to map areas selected by the Department of Defense. Indications point to a continuance of such a 

program for several years.

Military needs for maps were supplied in large part by 

other mapping organizations such as Army Map Service, Forest Service, Coast and Geodetic Survey, and private companies. The map-making facilities of these Federal organizations 

were so much augmented by the effort that they are still considered important factors in map production. Their standard 

quadrangle maps of domestic areas are published and distributed by the Geological Survey.

As of June 30, 1945, it was estimated that about 48 percent of the United States had been covered with topographic 

maps produced by the Geological Survey, but less than half of 

these were considered adequate according to modern standards. Work was continued on eight sheets of the international 

map of the world on a scale of 1:1,000,000 and on preparation 

of the United States transportation map for the Public Roads 

Administration.

Table 49. Revised listing of the states and territories in each 

region.

Atlantic Central Rocky Mountain Pacific

Georgia Florida Texas Arizona

Tennessee Alabama New Mexico Utah

Kentucky Mississippi Colorado Idaho

Indiana Louisiana Wyoming Washington

Ohio Arkansas Montana Oregon

West Virginia Oklahoma Alaska Nevada

Virginia Kansas California

North Carolina Missouri Hawaii

South Carolina Illinois

Maryland Michigan

Delaware Wisconsin

Pennsylvania Iowa

New Jersey Nebraska

New York South Dakota

Connecticut North Dakota

Rhode Island Minnesota

Massachusetts

Vermont

New Hampshire

Maine

Puerto Rico
With New Instruments a More Exact Science 129

Topography Streamlined and 

Modernized

In 1946, the Geological Survey made an intensive study 

of administrative requirements, because it was evident that 

expansion had outstripped existing facilities and that reorganization would be necessary.

A staff was set up to assist the chief topographic engineer 

in coping with the manifest growing problems. Four regional 

offices were organized to fit in with the staff plan. The Rocky 

Mountain Region was reactivated with offices at Denver, 

Colo. The others are Atlantic Region, Arlington, Va.; Central 

Region, Rolla, Mo.; and the Pacific Region, Sacramento, 

Calif. Each region was converted into a complete mapping 

unit with all the facilities required to produce maps except for 

reproduction. Map reproduction is centralized in the District of 

Columbia.

Under this administrative setup, the Topographic Division in the course of these 8 years has increased its annual 

man-years of effort from 532 to 2,279. This has been possible 

because funds available for topographic mapping have in the 

same period been increased from about $2,000,000 to about 

$16,000,000. Production has jumped from about 200 quadrangles a year in 1945 to more than 1,000 in 1952. In square 

miles, this means an increase from 14,000 to 70,000.

During the past few years, mapping in Alaska also has 

been accelerated. All of the 1:250,000-scale maps are either 

published or ready for publication. A remapping program has 

been started in the Hawaiian Islands.

With New Instruments a More Exact 

Science

Among the instruments developed to facilitate mapping 

operations, is the Polastrodial, originally conceived in 1942, 

which was further perfected in 1947, to determine mechanically the azimuth of the north star, Polaris, at any time and at 

any latitude in the United States.

The next year an electrical survey net adjuster was 

completed. With this instrument, complicated networks of 

transit traverse or levels can be adjusted in a fraction of the 

time required for least square computations. Also, electromechanical elevation meters were used for the first time to 

measure elevations continuously along roads at speeds of 

15 to 20 miles an hour, and a vacuum chamber was obtained 

in which precision altimeters in sets of six are calibrated.

Helicopters were first used for transportation in 1948 

(fig. 22), in Colorado and later in Alaska, Washington, and 

California. Supplemented by walkie-talkies for communication, they have revolutionized the old methods of extending 

control in the mountains. Stations high in mountainous terrain, 

which formerly required several days of pack train travel, 

can now be reached from base camps in a matter of hours, or 

minutes, so that full advantage can be taken of brief lulls in 

sieges of inclement weather.

Electronic methods for obtaining ground control and 

for positioning aerial photography were employed in Alaska 

during 1949 and succeeding years, when Shoran was used by 

the U.S. Air Forces to control thousands of square miles of 

photography for the Geological Survey. 

Also in Alaska during this period, the Geological Survey’s first attempt to obtain ground elevations for topographic 

mapping by airborne electronic methods with the Airborne 

Profile Recorder was attempted. An area of some 78,000 

square miles in central Alaska was surveyed from the air with 

this instrument during a single summer season.

Also, in 1951, distance measurements by means of an 

electronic method similar to Shoran was used in California 

in connection with ordinary horizontal angle measurements 

to determine the elevation of points for supplemental control. 

Portable radio communication made it possible to synchronize operations between the base station and several widely 

separated parties traveling over the area to be controlled.

A major accomplishment has been the appraisal and classification of all topographic maps prepared by other agencies, 

and sold or distributed by the Survey. This work involved the 

examination of nearly 12,000 maps, in order to evaluate their 

general usefulness and application to the needs of the expanding economy. This work was completed in 1950, and from 

the results of this appraisal it was estimated that only about 

25 percent of the country was adequately mapped to supply 

the current general needs.

Progress in the development of new instruments for mapping by photogrammetric methods has been striking. Within 

the last several years, the methods for making topographic 

maps have undergone a revolutionary change from basic 

procedures carried out primarily by engineers working with 

surveying instruments in the field, to basic procedures carried 

on primarily in air conditioned office buildings by technicians working with aerial photographs and precise plotting 

instruments.

In addition to testing and using equipment resulting from 

its own research, the Geological Survey has adapted techniques and instruments developed elsewhere. Several kinds of 

stereoplotting instruments of the universal type, manufactured 

in Europe, have been installed for certain specialized photogrammetric projects.

Abandonment of copper-plate engraving in favor of 

color-separation drafting on metal-mounted paper or other 

scale-stable media has made it possible to complete the 

preparation of maps for reproduction in the region offices. 

This has done much to make possible the ten-fold increase in 

map production over pre-war years, most of which has been 

accomplished since 1945.

In 1948, after several conferences with other map-making 

agencies, a mutual understanding was reached in regard 

to map content and map symbols. This resulted in making 

feasible the interchange of maps between agencies requiring 
130 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

different symbolization and content without the necessity for 

extensive redrafting.

Map Information Office

The Map Information Office was reorganized in 1945 to 

continue one of the functions of an earlier organization; the 

Federal Board of Surveys and Maps, which was abolished by 

executive order in 1942.

One of its primary duties is to determine, on request, whether 

there is any mapping data available such as vertical and horizontal 

control, topography, and aerial photography for areas proposed for 

mapping. It also has the duty of supplying information regarding 

these three subjects to the general public. To some extent it distributes control data, sells local maps over the counter, and takes care 

of purchase orders for aerial photographs.

For reference purpose, it maintains, as far as possible, 

a complete set of all Geological Survey maps, including 

advance copies of current work, as well as various domestic maps and charts made by other organizations. One of its 

objectives is to extend knowledge of the availability and value 

of topographic maps.

Systematic Appraisal of Mapping 

Needs

Needs of other federal agencies for maps received constant 

attention. Recently an effort has been made to more systematically determine needs of State map-using groups through the 

formation of State mapping advisory committees. This information is necessary for determining priorities so as to prepare 

broad general mapping plans and schedules covering the entire 

country. Within these plans successive annual programs are 

formulated with due consideration to budgetary and capacity 

limitations. Production control has been established and operates to determine rates of progress, costs, and other factual data 

about production. This is useful for sound management.

An Assist to the Air Force

During the early years of the war, a new group was 

established primarily to compile small-scale reconnaissance 

charts of areas throughout the world for the U.S. Air Force, 

utilizing trimetrogon photography. This method of compiling 

charts was an entirely new development by the Survey for use 

in Alaska, and was devised for the purpose of rapidly mapping 

huge areas necessitated by the demands of World War II.

The responsibilities and duties originally assigned to this 

group have been greatly increased during the past 7 years. 

The quality, accuracy, and overall standards of mapping have 

increased considerably, and the group is now compiling, 

editing, drafting, and preparing negatives for maps and charts 

up to the final stage prior to printing.

Activities include the compilation of large-scale planimetric and topographic maps of standard accuracy by Kelsh 

plotter and Multiplex, the compilation of maps from radar 

scope photography, the preparation of radar prediction charts, 

the extension of vertical and horizontal control to remote areas 

by means of the photo alidade, and the performance of operational research to determine new methods and procedures, 

besides various drafting and photographic activities, including 

the preparation of shaded relief plates.

The volume of production since 1945 by trimetrogon 

methods has reached a total of more than 10 million square 

miles of small-scale maps and charts, largely of foreign areas. 

This was done at a cost of about $5,500,000.

Foreign Activities of the Topographic 

Division

The Topographic Division has been engaged in foreign 

mapping activities of various kinds for many years. This 

includes the preparation of military maps and charts during 

war periods, the assignment of topographic mapping experts to 

advise and counsel foreign countries on techniques and methods 

of topographic mapping, and the continuing work of the Special 

Maps Section on special Air Force projects. Other than military 

mapping, the recent foreign work of the Division has been connected with, and related to, natural resources development programs under the congressionally approved foreign aid programs.

With the advent of Point Four and the Economic Cooperation Administration, additional requests for specifications 

and advice on contract terms for aerial photography required 

considerable time and effort by the Survey specialists.

Mapping specialists have been sent to foreign areas for 

two main reasons, (l) to inspect photography and map compilation in order to make sure that specifications are being met 

and, (2) to advise, direct, and instruct the foreign agencies in 

modern mapping methods. 

An effective effort in the foreign field is the Brazilian mapping project, which initially called on the Geological Survey to 

produce topographic maps of areas containing strategic minerals and carry on, at the same time, training of native engineers 

in the science of topographic mapping by planetable method. 

This initial effort, undertaken by Charles W. Buckey, in 1941 

to 1942, was subsequently continued by Edward A. Krahmer, 

Milton F. Denault, John G. Collins, and Edward F. Barner. This 

experience proved that the effort and expense were well justified 

in providing high quality bases on which to pursue investigations and record information necessary to the development and 

production of mineral deposit areas.

Because the primary responsibility of the Topographic 

Division is domestic mapping, much of the foreign work 

has been carried on at the request of agencies of the Department of Defense. The exception to this procedure has been, 
Inventions 131

as stated above, mapping projects or consultant services 

coordinated with foreign aid activities. Advice on specifications for aerial photography and topographic maps is offered, 

and training in photogrammetry and topographic mapping is 

a primary responsibility of the Division. An agreement was 

made between the Geological Survey, the Coast and Geodetic 

Survey, and the Inter-American Geodetic Survey whereby 

certain training responsibilities of South and Central American 

technicians would be undertaken by each organization.

The Geological Survey, with more than 250 operating stereo-photogrammetric units, and almost 3,000 skilled 

employees with 75 years of experience in the field of 

topographic mapping, must necessarily furnish leadership 

and accept responsibility for the topographic and photogrammetric phases of this training, not only for the South and 

Central Americans, but for trainees from other areas of the 

free world as well. Implicit in the agreement between the 

Survey, C&GS, and the IAGS is the requirement that the foreign trainee, coming to the Survey, be able to speak English 

fluently, have a degree in engineering or science, have had 

experience in the mapping field, and, if possible, have a connection with a map-making agency in his home country to 

which he will return.

In addition to the contractual mapping in Brazil, the 

Topographic Division writes specifications, and has negotiated a contract, for aerial photography, topographic map 

compilation, and mosaics for a considerable area in Saudi 

Arabia, where water resource investigations were the primary 

objective under a Point IV Project. Specifications for aerial 

photography and advice on contract terms have been furnished 

the Mutual Security Agency (MSA) for areas in Angola and 

Mozambique, Africa. Four geodetic engineers were recruited 

by the Survey under a project cosponsored by 

the Economic Cooperation Administration and 

the Geological Survey, for operations in Kenya, 

Uganda, and Tanganyika, Africa, in 1950, directed 

by British Colonial Surveys, and the assignment 

was completed in 1952. Preliminary advice was 

furnished to MSA on a detailed large-scale topographic mapping project in the Philippines, which 

was later transferred to the Corps of Engineers 

for supervision of compilation by a commercial 

contractor.

The type of foreign activities carried on by 

the Topographic Division do not indicate assignments of personnel to foreign countries, nor mapping in those countries. Nevertheless, the Survey 

feels a strong responsibility in the promulgation 

of knowledge and appreciation of the uses and 

benefits of topographic mapping and takes every 

opportunity to advance this theme in advising on 

problems of development in foreign fields.44

44 From J.L. Watkins’ article published in the Topographic 

Division Bulletin, June 1952.

Summary of Progress

In summing up the accomplishment of the Topographic 

Division from 1945 to 1952, it can be said that the period has 

been one of expansion, refinement as to accuracy, and standardization as to methods and results.

Progress has been made toward more complete cooperation 

between Federal agencies to prevent overlapping of activities in 

the field of domestic topographic mapping, and to utilize each 

other’s efforts. Some disruption of the efforts to meet civilian 

requirements has been caused by the priority of military needs, but 

this was balanced by the fact that the military agencies contributed 

extra funds toward mapping. Of the almost $70,000,000 available 

for mapping since 1946, approximately 13 percent or $9,000,000 

was advanced by the Department of Defense.

Cooperating funds allotted during these 8 years by State 

agencies amount to more than $7,000,000, as compared with 

about $17,000,000 covering the entire period of cooperation, 

which was first initiated by Massachusetts in 1885.45

Inventions

U.S. patents issued to Geological Survey photogrammetrists are listed in table 50:

45 From Department of the Interior Booklet, “Years of Progress 1945–

1952.”

Table 50. U.S. patents issued to U.S. Geological Survey photogrammetrists.

[Other patents are pending]

Name Patent number and date issued

R.M. Wilson No. 2,261,201, Photoalidade, November 4, 1941.

H.T. Kelsh No. 2,341,031, Mapmaking and Projection Instrument, 

October 12, 1948.

No. 2,492,870, Stereoscopic Projection Mapmaking 

Instrument, December 27, 1949.

No. 2,552,975, Photogrammetric Projection Machine, 

May 15, 1951.

J.G. Lewis No. 2,321,033, Rectoblique Plotter, June 8, 1943.

No. 2,364,082, Mapmaking from Aerial photographs, 

(Photoangulator, December 5, 1944).

No. 2,561,386, Stereoblique Plotter, July 24, 1951.

J.L. Buckmaster No. 2,542,640, Optical Transfer Instrument, February 

29, 1944.

No. 2,352,641, Transfer Methods and Instruments

No. 2,370,143, Camera Lucida Instrument and Prismatic Units.

David Landen No. 2,487,814, Mapping Instrument (Topo-Angulator), 

November 15, 1949.

Mary E. Lower and 

Charles C. Shockey

No. 2,680,909, Tilt-Setting Means for Rectoblique Apparatus, June, 1954.
132 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Suggestions Awards

In November 1943, the Department of the Interior inaugurated a suggestions system to muster the best ideas of all its 

far flung staffs to solve its problems and to improve the Government service in war. The system was laid out, and it now 

patrols a clear channel along which an ever increasing and 

welcomed stream of new ideas from the field and office flow 

to market on their merit. Alongside this stream, is a return flow 

of recognition and awards to suggestors and inventors whose 

ideas are adopted and plowed back into the benefit of Interior 

operations (table 51). 

Award of Excellence

Ronald M. Wilson, Chief, Computing Section, Topographic 

Branch, received the Award of Excellence of the Department of 

the Interior and $1,000 for devising a method of exercising mapping operations control in the United States and Puerto Rico.

The Wilson Alidade, designed by Mr. Wilson in 1932, and 

subsequently modified and improved, was patented on November 4, 1941. This alidade makes possible in the office most 

of the operations possible in the field with an ordinary plane 

table and telescopic alidade. It can be used with oblique aerial 

photographs taken with the panoramic camera. The instrument 

consists of an adjustable print holder, a telescope for reading 

horizontal and vertical angles, a centering microscope for placing the station point on the map sheet exactly in the vertical axis 

of the viewing telescope, and a straightedge connected with the 

vertical axis of the telescope so that directions from the station 

point can be plotted on the map sheet. Topographic features may 

be located, and their attitude determined, provided oblique photographs of the same terrain have been taken from two or more 

different points of view. Thus the sketching of contours may be 

controlled, just as is done through using the intersection method 

with a planetable. This instrument was an important factor in the 

success of the Trimetrogon method of mapping.46

46 “History of Photogrammetry in the United States,” by David Landen, 

Photogrammetric Engineering Journal, v. XVIII, no. 5, December 1952.

Table 51. Selected members of the Topographic Branch who won Suggestions Awards through 1954.

1944 1948 1951—Continued 1954

William A. Fisher Thomas V. Cummins Jay M. Hatfield Arnold H. Appleby, Jr.

Edward P. Hodge Irwin Gottschall Hugh B. Loving Ralph L. Beitle

William C. Thompson Sol M. Greisman George M. O’Meally Charles W. Birdseye

Edward W. Tibbott Charles E. Grossman Houston T. Walsh Ashley R. Corbin

Dallas H. Watson 1949 1952 John J. Currey

Ralph F. Wilcoxon Lester W. Ganahl Edward T. Addi Charles O. Fiola

1945 Anslow Harshaw Thomas Cumerford (2) Alfred M. Fraser

William A. Allen Kenneth B. Keegan William J. Jones Thomas A. Hughes

Walter S. Beames Pituman Ratchford Russell M. Laird Josephine C. Koblenz

Glenn S. Harper John I. Roney Charles I. Miller Joe T. Long

Annie L.C. Kennedy 1950 Janet Raleigh Hugh B. Loving

Edward I. Loud, Jr. (2) Roy E. Carey Jack Shinagawa Sidney Meizell

M. Edith Lower Max M. Chesy 1953 Jesse E. Mundine

Anton Navratil Ramiro G. Cintron Robert E. Altenhofen Douglas A. Pryor

Louis S. Soreide Ralph W. Evans Elmer Elshire John E. Ray

1946 Charles E. Grossman (2) Wilbur D. Graham Richard A. Skeen

Dale E. Crangle Carl L. Huffaker Edward I. Loud, Jr. (2 ) F. Neil Wick (3)

William A. Fisher Reynold E. Isto Charles O. Fiola Richard B. Wong

John R.P. Wilson Kenneth B. Keegan William A. Fisher

1947 Guy W. Strohm Eugene G. Gomolka

Dale E. Crangle Elwood J. Thacher Charles W. McCaw

Charles E. Grossman (2) 1951 Joseph F.W. Smith

Lauretta H. Hawk Frank Chiovitti Glen L. Staley, Jr.

Archie T. Munson Georgia H. Gass

Herbert J. Vinton Sol M. Greisman (2)
Honor Awards 133

Superior Accomplishment or Merit 

Promotion Awards

Interior Department Order No. 2144 from Secretary 

Ickes, dated December 17, 1945, Rewards for Superior 

Accomplishment, states:

“Attached is a copy of ‘The Dept of the Interior 

Program for the Granting of additional Within-grade 

Salary Advancements as Rewards for Superior 

Accomplishment’ which has my approval, and the 

approval of the Civil Service Commission, and a 

memorandum on procedures.

“I believe that the fair and equitable application of 

this plan will be a valuable incentive to employees 

and a contribution to good administration.

“The present Departmental Committee on Especially Meritorious Promotions will continue as the 

Departmental Committee on Rewards for Superior 

Accomplishments.”

Members of the Topographic Branch who have received 

Superior Accomplishment or Merit Promotion rewards from 

February 1944 to June 1954 are listed in table 52.

Honor Awards

The Act of May 23, 1920, provided for the retirement 

of civil employees of the United States when they reached a 

certain age and had the requisite years of service, but it was 

not until August 2, 1946, that the Interior Department granted 

Honor Awards for distinguished services, or when separated 

from the Department. Topographic Branch personnel who 

received Honor Awards are shown in table 53.

Table 52. Members of the Topographic Branch who have 

received Superior Accomplishment or Merit Promotion rewards 

from February 1944 to June 1954.

Edward T. Addi Jerry R. Harris Clarence W. Nottage

C. C. Barnekov Robert B. Hart Thomas P. Pendleton

Ralph W. Berry Wm. V. Kennedy Delmar W. Pinkston

Wayne R. Broaddus Frank Larner (2) Thaddeus T. Ranney

Florence E. Butler Chester R. Lloyd Marvin B. Scher

Dewitt R. Cabaniss John H. Lycett Lucy W. Sollenberger

Henry C. Collins Harold J. McMillen Louis S. Soreide

Ashley R. Corbin Charles Mager, Jr. Carl T. Sullins, Jr.

Clarence H. Drown Richard O. Mahan George N. Tex

Wm. C. Elledge Thos. J. Murphy, Jr. Wright R. Todd

Samuel D. Farmer Anton Navratil (2) Ray Wittemore

George W. Garland Clarence Norris William F. Zens (2)

Table 53. Personnel of the Topographic Branch who have 

received such Honor Awards.

Name Date of 

separation Type of award

Gerald FitzGerald 5/6/49 Distinguished

Ralph W. Berry 2/23/49 (Death) Commendable

John E. Blackburn 3/31/47 Commendable

Raymond G. Clinite 10/31/53 Meritorious

Leona T. Dowdy 11/7/53 (Death) Commendable

Jesse A. Duck 1/31/49 Meritorious

James R. Ellis 7/11/47 Commendable

Earl J. Essick 7/31/52 Commendable

Richard T. Evans 7/31/51 Meritorious

Archie A. Farrell 6/30/52 Meritorious

Charles R. Fisher 4/30/59 Meritorious

William A. Fisher 5/31/53 Commendable

Alvah T. Fowler 11/30/48 Meritorious

J. Irving Gayetty 3/31/47 Commendable

Wilmer S. Gehres 8/31/53 Meritorious

Elmer L. Hain 6/30/50 Meritorious

Fred M. Hart 7/31/51 Meritorious

Frank W. Hughes 6/30/49 Meritorious

Hattie B. Ingersoll 10/15/48 (Death) Meritorious

Hoyt L. Johnston 3/31/49 Commendable

Lawrence A. Kelley 5/23/53 (Death) Meritorious

Harry T. Kelsh 7/31/52 Distinguished

Reuben A. Kiger 6/30/48 Meritorious

Edward C. Kruse 7/31/53 Commendable

Herbert S. Lewis 2/28/50 Meritorious

John L. Lewis 8/31/53 Meritorious

Edward I. Loud, Jr. 4/1/54 Distinguished

Sigurd G. Lunde 4/28/50 Commendable

Robert L. McCammon 1/31/48 Commendable

Clarence P. McKinley 1/27/50 Meritorious

W. Klett McKinley 9/30/32 Meritorious

Frank J. MacMaugh 12/31/46 Commendable

Harry S. Milsted 8/11/52 Commendable

William H.S. Morey 3/31/47 Commendable

Lee Morrison 3/31/47 Commendable

Laurie O. Newsome 4/30/48 Commendable

Clarence Norris 9/10/53 Meritorious

Alexander J. Ogle 6/30/53 Meritorious

Thomas P. Pendleton 4/1/47 Distinguished

Leonard Powell 4/18/54 (Death) Commendable

Robert H. Reineck 4/2/48 Meritorious

Carl L. Sadler 6/30/48 Distinguished

James L. Sanders 8/31/53 Meritorious

Rufus H. Sargent 3/31/47 Distinguished

Raymond C. Seitz 11/30/53 Commendable

Ernest A. Shuster, Jr. 11/30/51 Meritorious

George E. Sisson 7/4/53 (Death) Meritorious

John G. Staack 6/30/47 Distinguished

Rhea B. Steele 7/13/51 (Death) Meritorious

William C. Thompson 12/31/52 Meritorious

Frank L. Whaley 7/31/53 Meritorious

Ralph F. Wilcoxon 3/19/49 (Death) Meritorious

Wilbur Williford 5/21/50 (Death) Commendable
134 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Contract Mapping

In order to meet the immediate demands of a largely 

expanded defense mapping program, contracts were placed 

with commercial map-making companies during fiscal year 

1952 for the performance of separate operations involved in 

the mapping of areas aggregating 16,000 square miles, at a 

total cost of $1,500,000. Because this was a departure from 

usual Survey operations, it required writing detailed specifications of the work to be performed, and establishing procedures 

for inspecting and testing the completed work for compliance 

with prescribed standards.

Following is an excerpt from the detailed specifications:

“1. General Statement to Bidders.

“a. These specifications cover the execution of basic 

horizontal and vertical control, procurement of aerial 

photography, execution of necessary supplemental 

control, and stereocompilation of topographic maps, 

insofar as each of these operations is required to produce topographic map sheets that are as complete as 

it is practicable to compile from aerial photographs 

without field completion, and that are standard in 

accuracy, content, and appearance. All operations 

required to be performed must compare in quality 

and content with corresponding work accomplished 

by the Geological Survey in accordance with current 

practice on such work, so that the results may be 

made available in the customary manner for public 

use. Bidders are advised that the accuracy and completeness of the work called for in these specifications are considered the minimum essential to the 

purposes for which the products are intended.

“b. The Geological Survey will furnish the contractor whatever basic information and material are 

available in the way of photography and control, as 

enumerated in the Bidding Schedule, together with 

standard metal tablets, field notebooks, and computation forms, as needed. The contractor shall furnish all 

other materials, superintendence, labor, equipment, 

and transportation, shall procure the necessary aerial 

photography and execute the surveys called for in 

the Invitation and Bidding Schedule, shall establish 

permanent and intermediate survey marks as called 

for in Sections 24, 25, 34, and 35, shall perform all 

computations and adjustments necessary to determine positions and/or elevations for all such points, 

shall execute and finish the map compilations of the 

areas specified in the Bidding Schedule, and shall 

deliver to the designated consignee all information 

and material called for in these specifications and in 

the Bidding Schedule. All work shall be executed 

expeditiously and in conformity with good engineering practice, to the satisfaction and acceptance of the 

contracting officer, in complete accord with these 

specifications and other conditions in the Invitation.

“c. The Geological Survey will inspect and test the 

field work and computations of the basic control 

surveys and will inspect, test and field complete 

the map sheets. Bidders should not underestimate 

the difficulties of meeting the requirements of the 

specifications and must assure themselves, by thorough examination of available information, or by 

investigation of the area involved, that their facilities and proposed processes are adequate to insure 

completed compliance with all the terms of these 

specifications * * *.”

Production Schedule Requirements

In order to meet the Geological Survey schedule for completion and publication of the maps to be compiled under this contract, the following delivery schedule is required for all items:

“Deliveries of completed and inspected map manuscripts shall begin on or before June 1, 1953, and 

shall continue at a rate as nearly uniform as practicable of one third of the total number of quadrangles 

in each item, in each succeeding 3- month period. 

Delivery of all manuscripts must be completed by 

March 1, 1954, in order that the Geological Survey 

may test the maps for accuracy; that faulty work, 

if any, may be corrected by the contractor; and that 

final delivery and acceptance of all materials be 

made and all vouchers approved and paid prior to 

June 30, 1954 * * *.”

In fiscal year 1952, contracts for 15,821 square miles 

of stereocompilation services, including some control, were 

awarded to commercial mapping organizations. Of this total, 

about 6,000 square miles were completed in 1953 and 9,300 in 

fiscal year 1954, leaving about 500 square miles to be done to 

complete the contracts.

American Society of Civil Engineers

The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) was 

founded on November 5, 1852, and its first annual convention was held in New York City in June, 1869. Its constitution 

stated that its objects shall be the advancement of engineering 

knowledge and practice and the maintenance of a high professional standard among its members. Among the means to be 

employed for this purpose shall be meetings for the presentation and discussion of appropriate papers and for social and 

professional intercourse; the publication of such papers and 

discussions as may be deemed expedient; the maintenance of 

a library, the collection of maps, drawings and models; and 

the establishment of facilities for their use. The Society now 
Survey Order No. 220 135

issues regularly three types of technical publications: Proceedings-Separates, Transactions, and the magazine, Civil Engineering; members of the Topographic Branch have contributed 

to these publications. The first members of the Topographic 

Branch admitted to the ASCE are listed in table 54 and members who served on committees of the Surveying and Mapping 

Division are listed in table 55.

The Region Engineers and other members have taken an 

active part in their local sections.

November 5, 1952, marked completion of a century of 

life for this Society. Celebration of the Centennial was the 

outstanding activity of the year. The Centennial of Engineering reached a climax in the great Convocation at Chicago 

during the period September 3 to 13, inclusive. The activities 

included a symposium program in 12 sections, each of which 

was devoted to a subject of broad import to the profession and 

to the public. More than a hundred speakers, each a person 

distinguished in the engineering profession or in the business and industrial life of the country, took part. Sixty-five 

engineering societies and allied organizations participated in 

the Convocation. Some scheduled only banquet or committee 

meetings, but 38 held technical sessions, many of which were 

of exceptional merit. Nearly 1,000 papers were presented on 

the programs of the societies. Robert H. Lyddan, Chief, Plans 

and Coordination Branch, Topographic Division, gave a very 

interesting talk on “A Century of Topographic Surveying and 

Mapping,” which was later published as Paper No. 2632. 

George D. Whitmore, Chief, Research and Technical Control 

Branch, delivered a paper called “Improvements in Photogrammetry Through A Century,” which was written by Mr. 

Whitmore and Morris M. Thompson, Staff Engineer, Photogrammetric Section. This was published as Paper No. 2633. 

With a total attendance of nearly 30,000 people, including 400 

from other countries, the Convocation became the greatest and 

most significant gathering in the history of the profession.47

Survey Order No. 219

Survey Order No. 219, dated October 14, 1952, is as 

follows:

In accordance with the Topographic Division 

policy to locate operational activities outside the 

Washington area in order to conserve critical space 

needed for staff activities the Special Map Projects 

Section, a section engaged in the preparation of the 

state base map series, the millionth scale map, the 

1:250,000 series, and other small scale maps, has 

been abolished.

The functions performed by this Section are transferred to the four regional offices of the Topographic 

Division. A Small-Scale Compilation Unit has been 

established in the Cartography Section of each 

region to accommodate this work, and the drafting 

and editing operations have been integrated with the 

existing Drafting and Editing Units.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Survey Order No. 220

Survey Order No. 220, Establishment of Special Maps 

Branch, dated December 5, 1952, is as follows:

47 See American Society of Civil Engineering, Official Register, published 

1953.

Table 54. First members of the Topographic Branch admitted to 

membership in the American Society of Civil Engineers.

Name Date 

admitted Name Date admitted

S.H. Bodfish 1889 R.B. Marshall 1904

H.M. Wilson 1890 C.L. Nelson 1906

F.E. Matthes 1901 Frank Sutton 1906

E.M. Douglas 1901 G.R. Davis 1907

Hersey Munroe 1902 C.L. Sadler 1908

E.C. Barnard 1902 C.H. Birdseye 1912

Additional members

J.K. Bailey R.K. Bean P.F. Bermel C.A. Biever

R.E. Bruce J.G. Collins E.J. Coon T.V. Cummins

R.O. Davis M.F. Denault G.S. Druhot C.A. Ecklund

R.T. Evans E.J. Fennell C.T. Galloway M.J. Gleissner

R.S. Gould Peter Gribok G.B. Grunwell E.L. Hain

L.D. Hankins M.J. Harden F.M. Hart R.E. Isto

C.C. Juhre Albert Kenig Daniel Kennedy W.V. Kennedy

J.B. Leachman R.H. Lyddan A.C. McCutchen R.R. Monbeck

C.N. Mortenson R.F. Murphy R.S. Pearse T.P. Pendleton

D.H. Rutledge J.P. Rydeen S.W. Smith J.L. Speert

J.G. Staack R.G. Stevenson A.C. Stiefel F.K. Van Zandt

G.D. Whitmore R.M. Wilson F.L Witkege

Table 55. Topographic Branch members who served on 

various committees of the Surveying and Mapping Division of 

the American Society of Civil Engineers.

R.K. Bean E.J. Fennell T.P. Pendleton G.D. Whitmore

C.H. Birdseye R.H. Lyddan J.G. Staack R.M. Wilson
136 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

The organizational unit of the Topographic Division, which has been responsible for the preparation 

of small-scale aeronautical charts for the U.S. Air 

Force and other special maps since 1946, has been 

designated as the “Trimetrogon Section.” Since this 

office represents a first major functional breakdown 

of a Division and constitutes an organizational 

entity, as far as function is concerned, in accordance 

with the standard organizational nomenclature of the 

Department, it has been designated as a “Branch.”

In addition to the original function of this office, in 

the past few years its duties and responsibilities have 

been expanded to include the following:

1. The compilation of large-scale planimetric and 

topographic maps of standard accuracy by means 

of vertical and oblique Kelsh and Multiplex stereophotogrammetric equipment.

2. The photogrammetric compilation of large-scale 

planimetric maps of standard accuracy by means of 

monocular and stereo equipment.

3. The processing of photographic reproductions up 

to the press plate stage for divisions of the Geological Survey and the Aeronautical Chart and Information Service.

4. The compilation of maps from radar scope 

photography and the preparation of radar prediction 

charts from photographic, cartographic, and other 

source materials.

5. The production of shaded relief plates, a monotone depicting hills, valleys, slopes, ridges, and other 

terrain features through judicious use of shading and 

highlights.

6. The extension of vertical and horizontal control, 

from existing control to areas which are remote, or 

where control is sparse or nonexistent, by means of 

the photo alidade.

7. The performance of operational research to determine methods and procedures for mapping areas 

where unusual conditions exist.

Accordingly, the Special Maps Branch is hereby 

established in the Topographic Division with 

headquarters at Washington, D.C. The Trimetrogon 

Section is abolished.

 /s/ W.E. Wrather

 Director

Memorandum from Director to 

Division Chiefs

Memorandum from the Director to Division Chief, dated 

June 23, 1953, “Objectives statements for the Geological Survey”:

“The principal objective of the Topographic Division is the preparation of the topographic map series 

of the United States, its territories and possessions. 

Activities necessary to attain this objective include 

research in cartography; the development of more 

efficient equipment and techniques for the compilation of maps; review of the adequacy of existing or 

proposed map series to meet current needs; systematic revision of existing maps to maintain their 

usefulness; and the preparation of the results of mapping activities for publication.

“The Division schedules its mapping activities 

in relation to the investigations and development 

of natural resources; to the program for geologic 

mapping; to map requirements of national defense; 

and to civilian engineering requirements, such as 

highway, municipal, and industrial planning.

“The Division provides the Department of Defense 

and other Federal Agencies with mapping services.

“a. Plans and Coordination Branch—The objectives 

Coordination Branch are the formulation of broad 

mapping programs and the planning of operations 

for the Topographic Division; the accomplishment of 

overall management activities, such as scheduling, 

production and fiscal control, and cost analysis; and 

the coordination of Division activities with mapping 

programs and requirements of other organizations.

“The Branch provides a continuing service to major 

map users and the general public by disseminating 

map data.

“b. Research and Technical Control Branch—The 

objectives of the Research and Technical Control 

Branch are the improvement of technical operations of the Topographic Division by research and 

the development of new methods, procedures, and 

instruments; the establishment of standard specifications and procedures in the four major phases of 

topographic mapping, topographic surveys, geodetic 

operations, photogrammetry, and cartography; and 

the adherence to these standards in the accomplishment of technical operations.

“c. Special Maps Branch—The principal objective of 

the Special Maps Branch is the compilation of charts 

and radar predictions for the Aeronautical Chart and 

Information Center of the U.S. Air Force as an integral part of the overall program of the Air Force for 
State Mapping Advisory Committees 137

the production and maintenance of adequate worldwide aeronautical charts, primarily in the interest of 

national defense. Activities necessary to obtain this 

objective involve the cartographic or photogrammetric compilation or revision of base charts preliminary 

to photolithographic reproduction.

“The Branch also compiled special planimetric and 

topographic maps for the Survey, and for other agencies, and carries out operational research on special 

problems.

“d. Atlantic, Central, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific 

Regions—The objective of each regional office of 

the Topographic Division is the accomplishment, 

within its assigned geographic area, of all operational functions involved is the production of topographic maps, except final reproduction. Activities 

necessary to attain this objective include the establishment of basic horizontal and vertical control, and 

supplemental control, the field of stereocompilation, 

field and office completion, final drafting and editing, as well as incidental cartographic photography.”

Topographic Division Personnel 

Serving on Committees

Topographic Division personnel serving on committees 

are listed in table 56.

State Mapping Advisory Committees

Briefly, the system, as developed by the Bureau of the 

Budget and the Topographic Division, involves an annual 

expression of mapping needs, in terms of four priorities, on the 

part of about 20 Federal map using agencies. The Topographic 

Division receives these expressions through the Bureau of the 

Budget about March first of each year and makes an analysis 

of them for each State. Priority figures are reversed to form 

weights, which are in turn combined with other weights, 

evaluating the various uses that will be made of the maps, 

and totaled for each 15-minute quadrangle. These totals are 

entered on the proper quadrangle blocks of an administrative 

index map of the State concerned. Other requests received 

from various sources, including individuals, the State Mapping 

Table 56. Topographic Division personnel serving on committees.—Continued

Name Affiliation

Altenhofen, R.E. American Society of Photogrammetry

Bailey, J.K. Atlantic Region Security Officer

Safety Committee, Chairman (Atlantic Division) 

Baird, W.E. Map Appraisal Committee

Bean, H.A. Map Appraisal Committee (Advisory)

Belton, R.J. Atlantic Region Editor, Topographic Division Bulletin

Bean, R.K. Photogrammetric Techniques in Geology

Standardization of Technical Nomenclature

Standards, Costs, and Procedures

Birdseye, C.W. Safety Committee (Atlantic Region)

Buckmaster, J.L. Shop Policy and Requirements

Cummins, T.V. Security Office (Rocky Mountain Region)

Safety Committee (Rocky Mountain Region)

Rocky Mountain Survey Committee

(When acting as Rocky Mountain Region Engineer)

Davey, C.H. Map Appraisal Committee

Publications Committee–Subcommittee for Recommendations for U.S. Base Maps

Standardization of Technical Nomenclature (Vice Chairman)

Standards, Costs, and Procedures

Davidson, J.I. Security Committee (Special Maps Branch)

Survey Building Proposed

Davis, R.O. Rocky Mountain Survey Committee

Missouri River Basin Field (Alternate)

Druhot, G.S. Distribution Advisory

Foreign Activities
138 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Table 56. Topographic Division personnel serving on committees.—Continued

Name Affiliation

Echardt, C.V.

Ecklund, C.A.

Eller, R.C.

Fennell, E.J.

Fischer, G.A.

FitzGerald, Gerald

Frye, H.M.

Fuechsel, C.F.

Galloway, C.T.

Hall, R.D.

Harman, W.E.

Harmel, M.A.

Higginson, W.S.

Holmes, M.E.

Isto, R.E.

Jones, A.B.

Kalbfleisch, A.C.

Kellogg, L.D.

Kilmartin, J.O.

Kimble, Delar

Korin, Stephen

Landen, David

Law, J.A.

Linck, M.K.

Lyddan, R.H.

McDonald, A.L.

McMillen, H.J.

Maltby, C.S.

Mann, F.M.

Marsden, L.E.

Subsidence Committee–San Joaquin Valley

Pacific Coast Survey

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping

Army Map Service, Liaison Officer

Program Planning

General Staff (Alternate)

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping

Security Office–Alternate (Rocky Mountain Region)

Executive Committee

U.S. Advisory Committee on Cartography of the Pan American Institute of Geography and History

Cadastral Surveys–Topography–Coordination Committee (ad hoc)

Special Committee

Negative Scribing (Interagency)

Standardization of Technical Nomenclature

Symbolization for Topographic Maps (Subcommittee of Interagency Committee on Map and Chart Symbols)

Special Maps (Subcommittee of Interagency Committee on Map and Chart Symbols)

Arkansas, White, Red Basin Interagency (Mapping Work Group)

Security Officer (Central Region)

Central Region Editor, Topographic Division Bulletin

Security (Aerial Photo Procurement)

American Society of Photogrammetry

Visual Aids Subcommittee for Geological Survey in Denver

Safety Committee Photogrammetry Section (Atlantic Region)

Security Officer–Alternate (Central Region)

Alaska Survey Committee

Quarters Evaluation Board–Palmer, Alaska

Security Officer–Alternate (Pacific Region)

Map Appraisal Secretary

Security Officer–Alternate (Atlantic Region)

Map Appraisal

Procurement Coordination (Department of State)

Exhibits

Special Committee

Safety Committee (Atlantic Region)

Photogrammetric Techniques in Geology–Secretary

Safety Committee (Atlantic Region–Cartography Section)

Safety Committee (Topographic Division)

Map Appraisal Committee

General Staff

Standards, Costs, and Procedures

Study Committee on American Society of Civil Engineers

Incentive Awards

Security Committee (Alternate and Personnel)

Survey Building, Proposed

Map Appraisal Committee (Chairman)

Meteorological Instruments Committee

Budget Committee, G.S.

Survey Building, Proposed (ad hoc)

Standardization of Technical Nomenclature (Secretary)

Topographic Instructions
State Mapping Advisory Committees 139

Advisory Committee if one exists, and Interior Field Committees, are then weighed with the Federal Agency requests 

to identify the areas where lie the greatest concentration of 

map needs. “New starts” for topographic mapping are selected 

in these areas after special priority needs, such as the present defense mapping requirements, have been given due 

consideration.

Early in 1952, the Bureau of the Budget, with the assistance of the Topographic Division and other Federal mapmaking agencies, began a review of the procedures involved; 

when the new instructions came out as Circular A–16 on January 16, 1953, they included wording to the effect that the priority statements would “be utilized, along with the expressed 

needs of the States, as the basis for developing its (meaning 

the Geological Survey) annual mapping program designed to 

meet Nation-wide needs for mapping.”

Now the State Legislature of Minnesota had, in 1949, 

created a Mapping Advisory Board to take over the duties of 

a similar group, appointed by the Governor a few years earlier to study map needs in connection with a proposed State 

Table 56. Topographic Division personnel serving on committees.—Continued

Name Affiliation

Monbeck, R.R.

Moore, L.C.

Mundine, J.E.

Nelson, O.H.

Overstreet, W.B.

Peckinpaugh, C.L.

Rutledge, D.H.

Schlatter, E.J.

Speert, J.L.

Stevenson, R.G.

Striker, A.F.

Thompson, M.M.

Thurston, R.F.

Upton, W.B., Jr.

Van Camp, C.P.

Watkins, J.L.

Whitmore, G.D.

Wilson, R.M.

Witkege, F.L.

Zens, W.F.

Pacific Region Editor, Topographic Division Bulletin

Symbolization for Topographic Maps

(Subcommittee of Interagency Committee on Map and Chart Symbols)

Special Maps (Subcommittee on Map and Chart Symbols)

Interagency Committee on Negative Scribing (Alternate)

Alaska Survey Committee (Alternate)

Special Committee

Special Committee

Technical Committee on Surveying Instruments of Federal Specification Board

Security Office (Pacific Division)

Reporting for Publication in Military Engineer

Security (Aerial Photo Information and Sales)

Editor-in-chief, Topographic Division Bulletin

Standardization of Technical Nomenclature

Pacific Southwest Field Committee–Subcommittee on Mapping (Chairman) 

Publications Committee (Alternate)

Subcommittee for Recommendations for U.S. Base Maps

Security (Map Security)–Alternate

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping

Map Appraisal Committee

Program Analysis Committee

Standards, Costs, and Procedures

Standardization of Technical Nomenclature

Rocky Mountain Region Editor, Topographic Division Bulletin

Management Services Committee

Performance Rating Review Committee

Property Board

Records Liaison Committee

Survey Building, Proposed (ad hoc) 

Safety Committee (Atlantic Region–Field Surveys Section)

Study Committee on Standards, Costs, and Procedures

Standardization of Technical Nomenclature (Chairman)

Topographic Maps and Aerophotogrammetry of Commission on Cartography (PAIGH)

Lake Mead Sedimentation Survey

Security Officer (Topographic Division)

Alaska Survey

Building Wing Warden (First Aid)
140 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

cooperative mapping program. Other states had made studies 

of their map needs; Pennsylvania made a detailed study in 

1945. Even earlier than this, California had begun a study, 

and several reports were published. Colorado established a 

numerical priority for every quadrangle in 1947. Undoubtedly, there are others; but the effort of the Minnesota Board 

represents the first attempt to coordinate State mapping needs 

for use in developing the Federal mapping program along the 

lines suggested in Bureau of the Budget Circular A–16.

With an active committee in Minnesota as an example, 

other states became interested, and in about 2 years some 14 

states (Minnesota, Kansas, Washington, Nevada, Mississippi, 

Florida, Montana, New Mexico, Wyoming, Iowa, Maine, 

New Hampshire, Vermont, and Indiana), had organized committees of this kind. Eight of these have actually submitted 

priority expressions of their map needs to the Topographic 

Division.

The State Mapping Advisory Committees have a value to 

the state, to the Geological Survey, and to the general public, 

that goes far beyond the coordination of requests for mapping. 

They can, in effect, be clearing houses for information related 

to surveying and mapping, serve as distribution centers, and 

help state map users solve their mapping problems. Surely 

the maps would be used to good advantage by many times the 

number of people now supplied, if the general public could 

be better educated in the use, value, and appreciation of these 

maps.48

State Cooperation

Since fiscal year 1885, a considerable portion of the funds 

available to the Topographic Branch for mapping has come 

from States and Territories (or subdivisions thereof) through 

cooperative mapping projects (table 57). Such projects are 

now based on an equal sharing of the cost between the local 

agency and the Geological Survey, although other proportions 

have occasionally been used in the past.

The controlling factor in the Survey’s decision to sign an 

agreement for cooperative mapping is whether or not the mapping requested is in line, both as to location and type of mapping, with the Survey’s broad objective to complete, as soon 

as possible, the National Topographic Map Series covering 

the entire country. The areas to be surveyed, the scale, and the 

contour interval, usually are determined by mutual agreement 

48 G.S. Druhot, Topographic Division Bulletin, June 1954.

Table 57. Cooperators with the Topographic Branch.—Continued

State Date of cooperation (fiscal years) Cooperating agencies

Alabama 1900–05; 1911; 1915; 1924–32 State Geologist

Arizona 1920–21; State Bureau of Mines; Governor and State Land Department

1926–27; Governor and State Water Commission

1954. Colorado River Boundary Commission

Arkansas 1928–29; 1937–45; 1946–54 State Geologist

State resources and Development Commission

California 1904–07; State Board of Examiners

1908–18; 1920–22; State Department of Engineering

1923–54; State Department of Public Works

1954; Colorado River Boundary Commission

1914–15; University of California

1915; Los Angeles Board of Public Service Commissioners

1922–23; Klamath–Shasta Valley Irrigation District

1925; East Bay Municipal Utility District

1923–38. Los Angeles County Surveyor

Colorado 1920–21; State Geologist

1924–25; Governor and State Engineer

1926; Governor and State Inspector of Oils

1927; State School of Mines

1928–33; 1952–54; State Metal Mining Fund Board

1936–37; City and County of Denver

1938–40; State Highway Department and Denver Board of Water Commissioners

1941–47. Denver Board of Water Commissioners

Connecticut 1890–91; State Board of Commissioners

1923–25; State Highway Commission

1928–29; State Attorney General

1949–54. State Highway Department

Delaware 1926–27 State Highway Department
State Cooperation 141

Table 57. Cooperators with the Topographic Branch.—Continued

State Date of cooperation (fiscal years) Cooperating agencies

Georgia

Hawaii

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire 

New Jersey

1926–27;

1952–54.

1910–11;

1912–15

1913;

1919–23; 1926; 1930–31; 1934

1906–18;

1919–54.

1920;

1938–54

1908–17; 1919–31; 1950–54

1938–54

1904–17;

1919–20;

1921–25; 1927–30;

1949–50;

1950–54

1903–04;

1907;

1910;

1923;

1933–41;

1942–54

1900–10;

1911–15; 1920–23;

1916–19; 1924–34;

1940–45; 1947–54

1897–1901; 1903–12;

1946–49

1885–87;

1933–54

1902; 1904–21; 1926–28;

1929–31; 1938–39;

1932–37;

1938–54

1910–17;

1930;

1946–47;

1950–54;

1950–54

1902–03;

1908–09;

1920–23.

1908;

1909–17; 1920–35;

1936–54

1928–29;

1931–33.

1912–14; 1916

1930; 1932–33; 1948–49; 1952–54

1906;

1925–33

1885–87

State Geologist

State Department of Mines, Mining, and Geology

Superintendent of Public Works

Governor and Commissioner of Public Lands

State Engineer

State Bureau of Mines and Geology

State Geological Commission

State Department of Registration and Education

State Geologist

State Conservation Department

State Geological Survey

State Geological Survey

State Geological Survey

State Commissioner of Geology and Forestry

State Geological Survey

Louisville and Jefferson County Planning and Zoning Commission

State Agricultural and Industrial Development Board

Director of State Experiment Station

State Geologist

Fifth Louisiana Levee District Commissioners

State Department of Conservation

Board of State Engineers

State Department of Public Works

State Survey Commission

State Water Power Commission

State Public Utilities Commission

State Geological Survey

State Department of geology, Mines, and Water Resources

State Topographic Survey Commissioners

State Department of Public Works

State Geologist

State Department of Conservation and

State Highway Commissioner

State Highway Department

State Drainage Commission

State Department of Drainage and Waters

State Geological Survey

State Department of Conservation

Iron Range Resources and Rehabilitation

State Experiment Station

Tallahatchie Drainage Commission

State Geological Survey

State Bureau of Geology and Mines

State Geologist

State Highway Commission and State Geological Survey and Water Resources

State Engineer

State Bureau of Mines and Geology

Board of Regents, University of Nebraska

State Bureau of Mines

Governor

Governor and State Highway Department

State Geologist
142 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Table 57. Cooperators with the Topographic Branch.—Continued

State Date of cooperation (fiscal years) Cooperating agencies

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina

North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Puerto Rico

Rhode Island

South Carolina

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

1927–29;

1928–29; 1931–32;

1893–1917; 1920–27;

1928–54;

1928;

1931

1897; 1902–03;

1906–07;

1909–10;

1946–47;

1948–52

1920–21; 1939;

1926–30;

1942–54

1902–16;

1936;

1950–54

1906–08;

1912–15; 1928;

1928–31;

1948–49;

1952–54

1906–17; 1922–33;

1922

1900–15; 1919–23;

1924–27;

1928–54

1937–50;

1915–54

1889

1933

1922–23

1911; 1922–23; 1926–32;

1925–26;

1950–54

1902;

1905;

1910;

1915–17;

1920–24;

1920–31;

1925–32;

1929–30;

1929–30;

1953–54

1922–23;

1922–26;

1922–28;

1923–27;

1924;

1926–27;

1950–54

1914–17;

1919–54

State Engineer

State Geologist

State Engineer and Surveyor

State Department of Public Works

Palisades Interstate Park Commission

Monroe County Regional Planning Board

Governor

State Department of Agriculture

State Geologist

State Department of Conservation and Development

State Highway and Public Works Commission

State Geological Survey

State Engineer

State Water Conservation Commission

Governor

Lucas County Commissioners

Mahoning County Engineer

Territorial Survey Commission

State Geological Survey

State Highway Commission

Division of Water Resources, State Planning Commission

Tulsa Metropolitan Area Planning Commission

State Engineer

State Bureau of Mines and Geology

State Topographic and Geologic Survey

Department of Forests and Waters

State Department of Internal Affairs

Commissioner of the Interior

Department of Public Works

State Commissioners

State Relief Council

State Geologist

State Geologist

State Department of Highways and Public Works

State Department of Conservation

State of Texas

University of Texas Mineral Survey

State Levee and Drainage Board

Harris County

State Bureau of Economic Geology and Technology

State Board of Water Engineers

State Reclamation Engineer

Cameron County

Galveston County

City of Austin

Tooele County

Utah County

Salt Lake County

Weber County

Box Elder County

Davis County

State Engineer

Governor

State Geologist
Seventy-Fifth Anniversary 143

between the Survey and the cooperator. In the case of longterm extensive operations, such as those now active in California and Kentucky, the selection of areas is determined to best 

satisfy the priority needs of the cooperator and allow efficient, 

well planned.operations. The current Puerto Rico agreement is 

unique in that it is the first to provide for systematic and continuous inspection and revision at a sufficiest rate to maintain 

the content of the maps at a state of practical completeness at 

all times. This is accomplished by a resident engineer.

Seventy-Fifth Anniversary

“ * * * On March 3, 1879, 75 years ago today, the 

U.S. Geological Survey was officially established 

under the direction of Clarence King.

“A month ago, at the Waldorf-Astoria, the man 

who is Mr. King’s current successor as Director of 

the Survey, Dr. William E. Wrather, was given, the 

John Fritz Medal, one of the top awards in American engineering circles. Since its foundation, the 

‘U.S.G.S.’, as it is known to thousands of practicing 

prospectors and other thousands of map-minded 

amateurs, has moved from a somewhat academic 

agency for the collection and publication of accurate 

scientific data to an ultramodern center of up-to-theminute facts on such fascinating subjects as volcanology, thermoluminescence and tectonophysics, 

meanwhile, plugging away at its perennial assignment of completing a uniform, large-scale map of 

the nation. 

“The man who succeeded King, in 1881, was John 

Wesley Powell. Powell planned and personally led 

a party through the unexplored Grand Canyon in 

boats to observe the features of that river of mystery which terrified the Indians. The swashbuckling 

days of Major Powell have given way to more 

prosaic types of reconnaissance. All the resources 

of scientific and human ingenuity have been drawn 

upon to secure engineering accuracy for topographic 

maps which you may purchase at insignificant 

prices. In the early days of the mapping project, 

distances were often reckoned by counting the 

paces of a horse, or computing the revolutions of a 

buggy wheel, and barometers were used to establish elevations where sighting equipment could not 

readily be utilized on account of the terrain. After 

1896, permanent bench marks determined by spirit 

leveling were made the official control system for all 

mapping work. Aerial photography has become an 

important part of the Survey’s activities since early 

experiments were tried in 1920. In 1925, legislation 

was passed to secure completion of the mapping 

of the country within 20 years, but appropriations 

have been allowed to remain at levels which have 

prevented achievement of this goal.

“The United States is one of the few nations in history that had ever had the obligation or the opportunity to explore and map from scratch the greater part 

of an entire continent, and the Geological Survey 

is still in a sense ‘pioneering’ as long as any part 

of that task remains unfinished. The magnificent 

work that has been done for 75 years by experts, 

from the days of King and Powell, right down to Dr. 

Wrather’s present staff, is an impressive monument 

to skill and scholarship in the service of the national 

interest.”49

49 The New York Times, Wednesday, March 3, 1954.

Table 57. Cooperators with the Topographic Branch.—Continued

State Date of cooperation (fiscal years) Cooperating agencies

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia

Wisconsin

1909–18; 1920–40;

1928–29;

1941–48;

1949–54

1919–21;

1922–25; 1927–31; 1936–37;

1939–54;

1948–50

1899; 1902–17; 1919–26;

1928; 1930–31

1915; 1917; 1919–31;

1932; 1938–54;

1945–1954;

1950–1954

State Geologist

State Conservation and Development Commission

State Conservation Commission

State Department of Conservation and Development

State Board of Geological Survey

State Department of Conservation and Development

City of Bremerton Water Department

State Geological Survey

State Geologist

State Geologist

State Highway Commission

State Geologist (Regents of Wisconsin University)

State Conservation Department
144 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

U.S. Geological Survey 

75th Anniversary Observance

The Washington Society of Engineers, in cooperation 

with the District of Columbia Council of Engineering and 

Architectural Societies, sponsored a meeting in the Interior 

Department Building auditorium in Washington, D.C. on April 

21, 1954, commemorating the 75th anniversary of the Geological Survey. Present at the meeting were Douglas McKay, 

Secretary of the Interior; Felix Wormser, Assistant Secretary 

of the Interior, and W.C. Mendenhall, former Director of the 

Geological Survey (1931–43); each of whom were called upon 

for brief remarks.

The following program was presented by Director W.E. 

Wrather and his staff:

U.S. Geological Survey 1879–1954—75 Years 

of Scientific Investigation

Dr. William E. Wrather, Director

U.S. Geological Survey 

Geologic Investigations

Dr. Wilmot S. Bradley, Chief Geologist

Conservation Activities

Harold J. Duncan, Chief, Conservation Division

Water Resources Investigations

Carl G. Paulsen, Chief Hydraulic Engineer

Topographic Mapping

Gerald FitzGerald, Chief Topographic Engineer

Publications of the Geological Survey

Robert L. Moravetz, Chief, Publications Office

Topographic Mapping (1879–1954)

The areas mapped as of 1954 are listed in table 58, and 

the funds expended by fiscal year are listed in table 59.

Gerald FitzGerald, Chief Topographic Engineer

Topographic mapping has always been a major activity 

of the Geological Survey, which at the time it was established in 1879, was probably much more geographic than 

geologic. The Hayden, Wheeler, Powell, and King Surveys, 

which were in effect consolidated to form the new Survey 

under the Department of the Interior, were equipped and 

trained to conduct geographic exploration and to do topographic mapping. Clarence King, the first Director, after 

discussing functions of the new organization with members 

Table 58. Areas mapped in 1954.

State 

Total area 

(square 

miles)

Area mapped at 1:62,500 or larger

Square 

miles

Percent 

of total

Alabama 51,078 18,563 36.3

Arizona 113,580 30,330 26.7

Arkansas 52,725 11,741 22.3

California 156,803 90,475 57.7

Colorado 103,967 20,036 19.3

Connecticut 4,899 4,223 86.3

Delaware 1,978 1,250 63.2

District of Columbia 61 61 100.0

Florida 54,262 20,854 38.4

Georgia 58,518 15,464 26.4

Idaho 82,808 10,351 12.6

Illinois 55,947 50,198 89.8

Indiana 36,205 11,695 32.3

Iowa 55,986 6,924 12.4

Kansas 82,113 10,949 13.3

Kentucky 40,109 31,165 77.7

Louisiana 45,177 19,672 43.5

Maine 31,040 25,344 81.6

Maryland 9,887 9,887 100.0

Massachusetts 7,907 7,907 100.0

Michigan 57,022 18,512 32.4

Minnesota 84,068 11,617 13.8

Mississippi 47,420 11,800 24.9

Missouri 69,270 50,918 73.5

Montana 146,316 18,474 12.6

Nebraska 76,653 21,085 27.5

Nevada 109,802 11,245 10.2

New Hampshire 9,024 7,924 87.8

New Jersey 7,522 5,556 73.8

New Mexico 121,511 26,615 21.9

New York 47,929 37,697 78.7

North Carolina 49,142 18,871 38.4

North Dakota 70,054 16,489 23.5

Ohio 41,122 37,988 92.2

Oklahoma 69,283 11,440 16.5

Oregon 96,350 12,336 12.8

Pennsylvania 45,045 34,442 76.5

Rhode Island 1,058 1,058 100.0

South Carolina 30,594 18,919 61.8

South Dakota 76,536 9,579 12.5

Tennessee 41,961 27,847 66.4

Texas 263,644 51,700 19.6

Utah 82,346 13,290 16.1

Vermont 9,278 7,062 76.2

Virginia 39,699 31,741 80.0

Washington 66,977 19,727 29.4

West Virginia 24,090 23,944 99.4

Wisconsin 54,715 13,094 23.9

Wyoming 97,506 17,579 18.0

 Total 2,980,987 985,638 33.0
Topographic Mapping (1879–1954) 145

Table 59. Funds expended annually in fiscal years.

[--, no funds expended]

State

1954 Totals through 1954

Federal State Federal State Federal and 

State

Alabama -- -- $109,502 $93,897 $203,399

Arizona $17,754 $17,754 75,530 74,833 150,363

Arkansas 1,314 3,777 52,787 52,529 105,316

California 317,754 317,754 3,103,410 3,310,754 6,414,164

Colorado 4,896 5,918 156,864 158,172 315,036

Connecticut 16,632 21,205 189,233 189,556 378,789

Delaware -- -- 9,808 15,486 25,294

Florida -- -- -- -- --

Georgia 7 ,129 7,086 21,292 21,235 42,527

Hawaii -- -- 266,398 331,174 597,572

Idaho -- -- 31,574 18,544 50,118

Illinois 18,724 28,250 1,407,643 1,387,942 2,795,585

Indiana 48,396 50,000 658,713 654,323 1,313,036

Iowa 19,795 10,000 96,761 92,902 189,663

Kansas 16,371 14,000 170,811 167,816 338,627

Kentucky 689,290 689,290 3,283,623 3,270,895 6,554,518

Louisiana 33,480 30,000 639,282 647,048 1,286,330

Maine 28,759 20,000 496,687 504,985 1,003,672

Maryland -- -- 103,776 103,755 207,531

Massachusetts 11,614 9,341 600,636 572,467 1,173,103

Michigan 30,328 20,000 658,637 642,856 1,301,493

Minnesota 121,900 90,000 503,543 479,900 983,443

Mississippi -- -- 59,777 72,428 132,205

Missouri 56,431 49,282 1,221,389 1,218,750 2,440,139

Montana -- -- 8,066 25,929 33,995

Nebraska -- -- 6,971 7,250 14,221

Nevada 15,643 16,222 61,902 61,760 123,662

New Hampshire -- -- 150,204 150,419 300,623

New Jersey -- -- 35,074 19,671 54,745

New Mexico -- -- 33,113 30,579 63,692

New York 52,869 46,119 946,953 978,295 1,925,248

North Carolina -- -- 215,668 204,406 420,074

North Dakota 32,226 17,500 244,666 232,915 477,581

Ohio 1,998 1,997 339,826 437,387 777,213

Oklahoma 4,962 5,706 83,338 79,413 162,751

Oregon -- -- 140,311 133,776 274,087

Pennsylvania 5,473 9,372 824,090 827,992 1,652,082

Puerto Rico 12,471 5,691 339,774 417,528 757,302

Rhode Island -- -- 4,866 4,866 9,732

South Carolina -- -- 1,917 787 2,704

South Dakota -- -- 9,822 6,994 16,816

Tennessee 80,611 80,612 494,855 493,585 988,440

Texas 4,254 4,255 436,296 529,682 965,978

Utah 5,923 6,000 70,646 68,334 138,980

Vermont 4,548 4,548 115,507 113,734 229,241

Virginia 32,714 32,714 732,503 725,005 1,457,508

Washington 10,522 10,522 326,922 337,490 664,412

West Virginia -- -- 273,322 296,626 569,948

Wisconsin 41,509 35,000 626,725 621,905 1,248,330

Wyoming -- -- -- -- --

 Total 1,746,290 1,659,915 20,443,013 20,888,575 41,331,288
146 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

of Congress concluded in part “that the intention of Congress was to begin a rigid scientific classification of the lands 

of the national domain for the general information of the 

people of the country and to produce a series of land maps 

which would show all those features upon which the intelligent agriculturists, mining engineers, and timber men might 

hereafter base their operations and which obviously would be 

of the highest value to all students of the political economy 

and resources of the United States.” Topographic mapping, 

therefore, was made a part of the work of the Survey and 

funds were allotted each year from 1879 to 1888 for mapping 

surveys. Thereafter, up to, and including the present year, 

Congress has made annual appropriations to the Geological 

Survey specifically for topographic surveys.

John Wesley Powell, the second Director of the Survey, 

often was criticized both in and out of Congress for spending 

such a large proportion of appropriated funds on topographic 

mapping. In spite of this criticism, Major Powell was farsighted enough to propose to Congress that a 20-year mapping program be authorized and financed in order to provide 

a sound framework for scientific study and national resource 

development.

During the first 20 years of topographic mapping under 

the new Survey, most of the work was published in quadrangle form at a scale of 1:250,000 for 1-degree sheets, and 

1:125,000 for 30-minute sheets. Gradually the scale of much 

of the mapping, both in eastern and western United States, was 

increased to 1:62,500 for 15-minute quadrangles.

Early work was carried on with rather crude methods, 

such as the tape and compass traverse and the use of the aneroid barometer for elevations. The improvement of the planetable, the development of the telescopic alidade with verticalangle arcs, greatly increased the accuracy of early topographic 

surveys. In 1896, Congress authorized the Geological Survey 

to execute spirit leveling and to set permanent bench marks for 

the control of mapping.

Because most of the skilled topographers in the United 

States were members of the Geological Survey during World 

War I, a large number were commissioned for duty with the 

Topographic Corps of the Army or as artillery orientation 

officers; many served overseas.

Aerial photography used in World War I principally for 

intelligence purposes created great interest in Survey engineers on duty with the Army. After the War, “photogrammetry” became the keynote for a revolutionary advance in the 

techniques of surveying and mapping, and ceased to be of 

interest only to the long-haired scientist in the laboratory. It 

was accepted as a full fledged partner with “field surveys” in 

modern topographic mapping. Since the late 1930’s, practically all standard topographic maps produced by the Geological Survey have utilized aerial photography in one way or 

another.

In 1925, Congress passed the Temple Act, authorizing a 

20-year mapping program. Although this act was strongly supported by engineering organizations, as well as other influential groups, funds were not appropriated by Congress to carry 

it out.

While the years between the two world wars saw many 

changes in techniques, the actual accomplishment in new 

mapping was disappointingly slow, especially to the engineers 

who had worked so hard for the passage of the Temple Act; we 

were, in fact, losing ground each year. The 45 percent considered adequately mapped at the end World War I became 20 

percent when we reinventoried the situation a short time after 

the attack on Pearl Harbor.

World War II had a far-reaching effect on topographic 

mapping in the United States. Production of maps of both 

domestic and foreign areas was greatly increased to meet military needs and millions of people became “map conscious” 

as a result of the complex geographical problems involved in 

global warfare.

Beginning in 1946, there has been a marked increase in 

the amount of money made available to the Geological Survey 

for topographic mapping. This, of course, has been accompanied by a corresponding growth in our organization. Trained 

personnel of the Topographic Division has increased from less 

than 600 in 1945, to more than 2,000 at the present time, while 

during the same period, we have stepped up our mapping from 

9,000 to 90,000 square miles a year. The four Region offices 

of the Division have been furnished with the most modern 

map-making equipment obtainable.

During the first 60 years of the Survey’s existence, about 

5,000 topographic quadrangles were produced, and during the 

past 15 years an additional 8,000 have been published. The 

present rate is about 1,500 quadrangles a year.

Under our current program, new mapping, or revision, is being carried on in every State of the Union, as 

well as in Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, Puerto Rico, and 

the Virgin Islands. The National Topographic Map Series 

consists of 7.5-minute quadrangles published at a scale of 

1:24,000; 15-minute quadrangles published at a scale of 

1:62,500, and reconnaissance maps published at a scale of 

1:250,000.

The Special Maps Branch of the Division, organized 

before Pearl Harbor for military mapping, continued to add 

hundreds of thousands of miles of new work each year to the 

astounding area covered during World War II for the production of aeronautical charts.

While we have made substantial progress, especially in 

the last few years in mapping, we realize that we still have a 

long way to go to complete the National Topographic Map 

Series. Although the methods and techniques we use today are 

producing maps faster and better and cheaper than ever before, 

we know improvement is not only possible, but probable. 

New developments in procedures and new instruments now 

being added to the production line will ensure faster progress 

toward our goal of providing and maintaining a complete 

series of modern quadrangle maps of the United States and its 

possessions.

We are proud of our Topographic Division and grateful 

for the support it has received these first 75 years, which we 
Topographic Mapping (1879–1954) 147

know were the hardest. We especially are proud of the cooperation between our Survey and other Federal and State agencies 

that work side by side with us to get this mapping job done.

The following articles were submitted by the Topographic 

Division as contributions to the Science Magazine in connection with the 75th Anniversary of the Survey:

“The Helicopter and the Walkie-Talkie 

in Field Surveys”

The helicopter and the portable radio-telephone have 

become partners in triangulation surveys for mapping projects in mountainous areas of Alaska and the western states. 

The helicopter provides quick and easy transportation for the 

triangulators, and the radio makes it possible to coordinate the 

activities of the large field crews employed.

A typical project, extending over 3,000 square miles, or 

more, of desert mountains, can be triangulated in one season 

by seven or eight engineers with helicopter and radios. The 

helicopters operate a shuttle service from a base camp or 

from roads, landing the men with their instruments on mountain peaks, and moving them from peak to peak as required. 

Each triangulation observing party carries a portable radiotelephone (Walkie-Talkie), and the operation as a whole is 

directed from a master transmitter mounted at the base camp 

or in a Jeep. The men can talk to each other and to the helicopters over line-of-sight distances through the base radio. If 

necessary, a group conference can be held with each participant on a separate mountain peak.

Both horizontal positions and elevations are determined 

by triangulation, using optical-reading theodolites. This kind 

of surveying frequently requires measuring vertical angles 

reciprocally and simultaneously between two stations to avoid 

errors from atmospheric refraction. To carry out this operation, 

the triangulators use a “skirt” of fluorescent cloth around the 

instrument tripod as a signal. Radio contacts between observers make it possible for them to relocate stations quickly when 

the line of sight is blocked by trees, or visibility is otherwise 

impaired. By these techniques, elevations have been extended 

as far as 50 miles across rugged mountainous terrain with an 

accuracy of about 2 feet.

Helicopters are operated in pairs, usually, so a means 

of rescue will be close at hand in case of accident and as 

insurance against prolonged delays from mechanical failure. 

Engineers working with helicopters are spared the arduous 

mountain climbing ordinarily involved in triangulation, but 

the work still has interesting aspects. Helicopters are not as 

maneuverable at higher altitudes as they are near sea level, and 

landing on high peaks where cross-winds are always blowing is a critical job, even for a skilled pilot. Taking off calls 

for still greater skill and sometimes a little luck. Pilots prefer 

a peak with a sheer drop-off where they can dive immediately after taking off to gain flying speed. There have been no 

serious accidents in 4 or 5 years of operation, but it is still far 

from a routine means of transportation.

The value of helicopters and radio-telephone has been 

effectively demonstrated during 5 years of use on surveys in 

Alaska, and the Geological Survey expects that the combination will do a great deal to accelerate the mapping of large 

areas in Alaska and in the western United States.

“Scribing”

A new technique of drafting with special tools on coated 

plastic, known as scribing, is rapidly supplanting pen-andink drafting (fig. 23) in the final stages of map production. 

An adaption and refinement of negative engraving used in 

photolithography, the new method produces a more legible 

map with neater and sharper line work, in a shorter time and 

at less cost.

In the older method, the printers copy, the drawings 

from which printing plates are made is the product of skilled 

freehand inking. The map detail is reproduced photographically on metal-mounted paper, and traced in ink by the 

draftsman. A separate drawing is required for each color, the 

line weight and registration must be very precise, and the 

appearance of the printed map depends largely on the talent 

and patience of the draftsman. Because of the shortage of 

competent draftsmen, the operation frequently is a bottleneck 

in the production line.

With scribing (fig. 24), more dependence is placed on 

mechanical aids; therefore, the result is more uniform. A clear 

plastic base sheet, to which the map copy is photographically 

transferred, is first coated with an opaque material, usually 

yellow paint. Using a metal stylus ground to the width of line 

desired, the draftsman traces the copy, cutting out the opaque 

coating along the lines that are to be printed. The product is a 

line negative that the photo-engraver can use directly to make 

the printing plate.

The principal advantage of scribing is that the width of 

a line is determined entirely by the scribing tool used, in contrast to pen-and-ink drafting, when line weight depends on the 

size of the pen point, the fluid qualities of the ink, the surface 

paper, and on the pressure on the pen. The map scriber has few 

critical factors to control, and he can devote his full attention 

to productive work. The training period for new employees is 

relatively short, and their output is superior both in quantity 

and quality to pen-and-ink drafting.

For the “gadgeteer”, scribing has opened up a new field 

of activity; the design of special tools for the various symbols and types of lines on topographic maps. The usual tool 

is made from a phonograph needle ground to a chisel-shaped 

point and held in an ordinary penholder, but many others have 

been developed for particular purposes. A swivel head scriber 

cuts two parallel lines at the same time to trace double-line 

roads, a special templet is used to cut rectangular building 

symbols, and there is even a motor-driven scriber to produce 

small circles representing oil or water tanks. There is still an 

unfilled need for a device to scribe dotted lines conveniently 

and accurately.
148 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

The most critical problems in the introduction of scribing techniques concerned the materials—the base sheets and 

the opaque coatings. The base sheet must be transparent, 

dimensionally stable, and have a smooth surface hard enough 

to prevent scratching by the scribing tool. Glass is the ideal 

material as far as these qualities are concerned, but it is fragile 

and heavy, and the problems of transportation and storage are 

formidable. After considerable experimenting, a type of vinyl 

plastic sheeting was selected as the most satisfactory, although 

there is still room for improvement.

“Convergent Aerial Photography”

Convergent photography (fig. 25), used in conjunction 

with the new map-plotting instruments under development by 

the Geological Survey, is expected to bring about big improvements in the accuracy and economy of maps prepared from 

aerial photographs. The essential geometry of convergent 

photography is illustrated in the diagrams. Photographs are 

taken simultaneously in pairs by two cameras rigidly coupled 

so the optical axes lie in a common plane and form an angle of 

20 degrees with the plumb line and 40 degrees with each other. 

Stereoscopic models are made by combining the forward 

oblique photograph at one camera station with the rear oblique 

of the succeeding station.

One advantage of convergent photography over the 

commonly used vertical pictures is the greater area covered 

by each pair of photographs, the ground coverage being more 

than twice as great for pictures taken at the same altitude. 

Another great advantage is the stronger intersection angle 

formed by conjugate image rays on the stereoscopic model. 

That is, the angle of intersection at any ground point of the 

image rays to the two different camera stations will ordinarily 

be close to 60 degrees, resulting in elevation determinations 

almost twice as accurate as those made with vertical photographs at the same altitude, which normally have an intersection angle of about 30 degrees. 

Thus, ground elevations and contours as seen in the 

stereoscopic model formed by the photographs may be 

determined much more accurately from convergent photographs than from conventional verticals taken at the same 

altitude; or, more important, for any required elevation 

accuracy or contour interval, the convergent photographs 

can be taken at a much higher altitude, resulting in lower 

costs for mapping operations. For example, if the camera 

altitude is increased so that the accuracy is the same as that 

ordinarily obtained with vertical photography, the stereoscopic models from the convergent photographs will cover 

about six times as much ground area, with a corresponding 

saving in cost of field surveys for control points, reduced 

cost of orienting the fewer models in the photogrammetric 

laboratory, and so on.

Photogrammetrists have known for many years about 

the theoretical possibility of convergent photography, but 

practical use could not be made of it without suitable mapplotting instruments. In addition to a new map-plotting 

instrument of special design, that also permits photogrammetric triangulation with the convergent photography, a 

projector is required capable of transmitting the long image 

rays to the corners of the large convergent model. The newly 

developed photogrammetric triangulation instrument for 

handling convergent photography is known as the Twinplex, 

a prototype model of which has already undergone successful operational tests.

The companion photogrammetric projector, also newly 

developed and tested in operational trials, utilizes an ellipsoidal reflector instead of the conventional condensing lens system. The production trials have been quite satisfactory, and the 

Geological Survey has already contracted for several hundred 

square miles of convergent aerial photography.

“The Special Maps Branch”

The Special Maps Branch, organized prior to Pearl 

Harbor for the purpose of charting Alaskan air lanes for the 

Air Force, occupies a unique position in the Topographic 

Division of the Survey. With the outbreak of hostilities, the 

program of this branch was expanded to include all inadequately mapped areas over which planes would be ferried to 

combat areas. It has, since the war’s end, continued to compile small-scale air navigation charts. This work is neither 

humdrum nor routine. The source material, maps, control, 

and photographs available for the compilation of maps and 

charts in many parts of the world often are not of the type 

that would be requested by an organization efficiently planning a new mapping operation.

The Branch was instrumental in the development of 

trimetrogon mapping, a system that utilizes three photographs 

having ground coverage from horizon to horizon, and taken 

simultaneously from the same air camera station. Advantages 

lay mainly in the extensive photographic coverage made 

available from each airplane flight. The system was designed 

to permit the use of a large number of operators of limited 

experience, and simple and easily procurable instruments. The 

operations are analogous to a factory production line wherein 

each person performs a small unit of work contributing to the 

finished product.

Since the end of World War II, numerous changes in the 

Branch’s operations have been made. Installation of varied 

stereoplotting equipment has enabled it to exploit the advantages of different types of aerial photography, and to broaden 

the scope of the Branch’s mapping capabilities.

Mapping assignments, presenting challenging photogrammetric problems, are processed by the use of a combination of the various instruments. Each photogrammetric 

instrument is assigned that phase at which it is most proficient. 

Successful completion of a project often requires the introduction of novel photogrammetric techniques designed to 

overcome the limitations of the given material. The procedures 

also are governed by the accuracy requirements and funds 

available for the job.
Summary of Current Trends In Topographic Mapping Procedures 149

Included in the Branch’s activities are operational 

research problems. The compilation of limited areas serve as 

tests to determine the feasibility of suggested new methods 

and techniques. Operational research continually is directed 

toward the establishment of methods that will result in a better 

map product at a lower cost, as well as special maps to meet 

deadline dates.

At present, the Branch is compiling topographic maps 

and aeronautical charts ranging in scale from 1:8,000 to 

1:1,000,000. Since its organization, the Branch has compiled 

approximately 9,000,000 square miles of maps and charts. 

This included areas of considerable civilian and military 

interest, such as North Africa, northern Alaska, Labrador, 

and Alcan Highway, the Dakar–Khartoum Air Ferry Route, 

and areas within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles. Whereas 

the major part of its program is confined to the preparation 

of maps and charts for the U.S. Air Force, the Special Maps 

Branch compiles many maps urgently needed for strategic 

mineral investigation.

“The National Topographic Atlas”

The Geological Survey has been at work since 1879, 

mapping the interior of our country. It has responsibility 

for completing the National Topographic Atlas, turning out 

maps at a scale of 1 inch to the mile for most of the country, and at a larger scale for thickly settled areas, or where 

greater detail is needed for special purposes. It is altogether 

proper that this function should be a Federal responsibility. 

It is a task requiring centralized direction, precise accuracy, 

standardization, and authority, and ability to shift work from 

one part of the country to another, as national requirements 

may dictate.

During the 75 years since the Geological Survey was 

established by Congress, topographic maps have been published covering about one-half of the Nation. Many of these 

are now obsolete. Much more detail and higher standards 

of accuracy are required. Only two states are now considered adequately mapped—Massachusetts and Rhode Island. 

Several others like Connecticut, New York, California, and 

Illinois, however, are not far behind. By 1956, Kentucky will 

join the top-notchers when its 5-million dollar, 5-year cooperative program is finished.

Largely as a result of World War II, this Nation has never 

been so map conscious as it is now. In 1940, 704,345 topographic maps were sold by the Geological Survey. Today the 

figure approaches 3,000,000 annually.

In the early 30’s, Delaware, Connecticut, Maryland, New 

Jersey, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, the District of Columbia, and the Hawaiian Islands, were completely covered by 

maps considered adequate at that time. These maps already 

have become obsolete. Fortunately, we can be sure that this 

will not happen to maps we are making today, for they are 

being turned out in greater detail and at a larger scale. We also 

are much better equipped today than we were earlier, not only 

to estimate future needs, but to keep our modern maps up to 

date. Gerald FitzGerald, Chief Topographic Engineer, said that 

it will take almost 30 years to complete the job at our present 

rate of progress.

“Rate of Production of Topographic Maps”

Before 1948, Geological Survey topographers struggled 

to approach a goal of 300 maps a year. In the fiscal year 1952, 

they produced 897. In 1953, they turned out 1,452. And by the 

end of fiscal year 1954, it is estimated that more than 1,900 

will have come off the presses.

Since two Geological Survey topographers, Sumner 

H. Bodfish and John H. Renshawe, first started mapping in 

Arizona on July 16, 1879, more than 15,000 topographic maps 

have been turned out by that agency. Today, work on approximately 7,000 new or revised quadrangles is in progress. These 

will be published as time and funds permit. Altogether, the 

American public already has access to a stock of more than 

25,000,000 sheets.

Our long range goal is to complete the National Topographic Atlas and to produce more maps and better maps, 

faster, and at lower cost. At the same time, it is essential to 

conduct an educational program to let the public know the 

wealth of information provided by maps that are already 

available.50

Summary of Current Trends In 

Topographic Mapping Procedures51

Some of the changes underway, in the offing, or proposed 

for trial, are outlined below:

Aerial Photography

Ten new KC–1 cameras (formerly called T–12) owned 

by the Survey, are to be delivered in 1954. No direct reduction 

in cost of photography is anticipated, but, of greater importance, the quality of photography, which has a direct effect on 

compilation and field completion costs, should be improved 

considerably.

Convergent photography is being procured in 1954, 

enough to keep the Twinplex bridging instruments (one in 

each Region to be delivered this year) continuously occupied with bridging work. Here again, there may be no direct 

reduction in the cost of procurement of photography, but later 

operations, especially supplemental control, should cost less.

50 From talk on “Surveys and Maps Prepare the Way for National Growth,” 

by Secretary McKay, presented at the 14th Annual Meeting of the American 

Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Washington, D.C., March 22–24, 1954, 

and published in Surveying and Mapping Journal, April–June 1954.

51 George D. Whitmore, Chief, Reserch and Technical Control Branch, from 

notes prepared by Section chiefs for staff meeting, published in Topographic 

Division Bulletin, March 1954.
150 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Camera calibrating will be better, more frequent, and 

quicker, because of a radically different method of camera calibration by use of our new multicollimator calibrating instrument. This should mean fewer of the costly troubles that have 

resulted from contractor’s cameras getting out of calibration.

Experiments in Regions will continue as to value of cross 

flights in aerotriangulation, and lower-altitude flights for planimetry, along with regular high-altitude flights.

Experiments are already underway to see what advantages might result from using the new high- altitude (scale of 

1:70,000 plus or minus) photography being procured by AMS 

for 1:250,000 compilations. This may prove particularly useful 

for 15-minute sheets with 40- or 60-foot contours.

Basic Horizontal and Vertical Control

Best chance for getting basic control costs down lies in 

doing less of it, and/or adopting different accuracy standards. 

A study is underway in RT–1 as to advantages vs. disadvantages cost wise, and otherwise, in changing accuracy 

standards of basic control, to say plus or minus 10 feet in 

horizontal position, and plus or minus 0.5 foot or 1.0 foot in 

elevations.

If we adopt the 100-foot tolerance for well defined 

points on the 15-minute maps, instead of the present 

40-foot tolerance, we probably could do with longer 

horizontal bridges, and make greater use of control-saving 

techniques, such as stereotemplets for aerotriangulation of 

project areas. Thus, a direct result of such change in specifications for 15-minute maps might be less new traverse 

and triangulation.

Supplemental Vertical Control (Fourth-Order)

We may be able to reduce greatly the number of V 

points as a result of the larger-area models of convergent 

photography and high-altitude verticals, and/or by doing 

vertical bridging over one or two intervening models, in the 

case of vertical photography. (The possibilities of vertical 

bridging with the stereoplanigraph, and other heavy plotters, will soon be thoroughly explored in a carefully planned 

research experiment).

The photoalidade, with specially-flown low-altitude 

oblique photographs, may be increasingly used for determining picture-point elevation of 40-foot and 80-foot interval 

maps, in an effort to reduce the amount of field surveys for 

supplemental vertical control in areas of difficult access.

The fourth-order classification, now a catch all, may 

soon be subdivided into fourth and fifth orders, if proposals 

now being considered by several Government agencies are 

approved.

Stereocompilation

Costs should start coming down somewhat, because:

• The more efficient ER–55 reflector-type projectors 

(fig. 26) are scheduled to replace, as rapidly as feasible, 

the B and L condenser-lens projectors on Multiplex 

bars. 

• Increasingly greater use will be made of convergent 

photography and higher altitude vertical photography.

• Better diapositives, with clearer imagery and less 

distortion, will be available as soon as the new-type 

printers (now on order) are put to use.

• The new variable-ratio precise pantography will 

probably ultimately be used on all double-projection 

instruments, which should facilitate inter-changeability 

of compilation between different type instruments, and 

permit use of a smaller-scale on original compilation, 

with a full quadrangle on one sheet.

Field Completion

It is hoped that the amount of work required for field 

completion will be reduced as a result of a more complete and 

better stereocompilation. This is to be expected because of 

better photography, more helpful advance field interpretation 

by supplemental control parties, and more complete stereocontouring due to convenient inter-changeability (because of 

variable-ratio pantographs) of compilation among all types of 

stereoplotters.

Map Finishing

The elimination of several indirect operations are feasible 

under the scribing process. E.g., if the original compilation 

is scribed on scale-stable material, there is no need for a film 

mosaicking operation for the original color separation negative. If the original operation is scribed at reproduction scale, 

which may be feasible for 1:24,000 maps, there is no need for 

a copy camera at this stage. Also, as the scribed color separation sheets themselves are negatives, there is no need for camera work in preparing the composite prints for editing. Later, 

during reproduction, there is no need for preparing wet-plate 

camera negatives, as press plates can be made directly from 

the scribed sheets (assuming scribing is done at reproduction 

scale) with some chance of better press plates.

Also, if the photogrammetrists can successfully scribe 

contours on a separate sheet, as is hoped, the color-separation scribers may be able to salvage the greater part of this 

work. Thus, the cost of the color separation work for the 

brown plate may be reduced ultimately by a considerable 

amount.
Selected Biographies 151

Tribute to Survey Wives

In closing, a tribute is extended to the Survey wives for 

their sympathetic understanding and forbearance.

“How Soon can you Pack?”52

When I became the blushing bride of a civil engineer,

How little did I think my life to others might seem queer,

To those who settle down for life with fixings that are new,

A bed, a lamp, a dinette set, to mention but a few.

Who polish up their wedding gifts, and shine up pots and kettles,

And hang up drapes of gay cretonne, and chase the dust that settles.

They hope to do this always in their own artistic home,

And look with pity on their friends whose lot it is to roam.

How we whose lives have taken us to many different places,

Have met folks north, south, east, and west, and even alien faces.

We’ve lived in nipa shacks and huts, apartments and in flats,

We’ve answered ads for “lovely rooms” and found them full of rats.

We’ve taken rooms in “mansions”—that’s the landlord’s wily phrasing,

(We’ve learned from much experience to do our own appraising.)

We’ve eaten hearty dinners on a rolling ocean liner,

We’ve eaten just as hearty in Al’s Kozy Korner Diner.

We’ve camped in pleasant valleys, and we’ve scaled the mountain peaks,

And we’ve sun-tanned by the ocean, and fished in sparkling creeks.

We’ve rustled food from markets, and from a grocery shelf,

And lived on farms where food that’s fresh seemed just to grow itself,

We’ve gathered luscious fruit from trees, in Texas or Cebu,

And picnicked on a glacier when the sun shone at Taku.

In fact, what most folks think of as an elegant vacation,

Is standard stuff for map makers, in spite of transportation.

The lucky wives can go along; and for those who like to roam,

Its a challenge to see what it takes, to make a place called home.

You do not need a davenport, or whatnot—just a broom—

You can get the spirit nicely in a little furnished room.

You can learn to be a gypsy who loves to pioneer,

You do not have to settle down when mapping’s your career.

For it’s “Here, my love, and there, my love, and how soon can you pack?”

For it’s “Here, my love, and there, my love, across the world and back!”

—N.C.B.

Selected Biographies

Marcus Baker

Marcus Baker was born at Kalamazoo, Mich. He spent 

2 years in Kalamazoo College and two at the University of 

52 Published in the Surveying and Mapping Journal of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, v. V, no. 4, October 1945.

Michigan, from which he was graduated in 1870. The degree 

of LL. B. was received from Columbia University in 1896.

In the summer after graduation, he assisted Professor Watson, of Ann Arbor, in computations for the Nautical 

Almanac. Then, for a year, he held the chair of mathematics 

in Albion College, and for 2 years was instructor in mathematics at the University of Michigan. For 13 years, he was a 

member of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. He assisted 

Dr. W.H. Dall in surveys of the coast of Alaska, having for his 

special function the astronomical determination of latitude and 

longitude.

He resigned, and on April 15, 1888, he accepted a position as geographer with the U.S. Geological Survey. For a 

number of years, he had charge of the Northeastern Topographic Division, supervising the mapping of Massachusetts, 

Rhode Island, Connecticut, and a part of Pennsylvania. He 

was afterwards an editor of topographic maps. For more than 

10 years, Mr. Baker was secretary of the Board on Geographic 

Names. He also was editor of its bulletins. His Geographic 

Dictionary of Alaska was published in 1902 as Geological 

Survey Bulletin No. 187.

When a commission was appointed by our Government 

to investigate the matter of the Venezuelan boundary, Mr. 

Baker was employed as a geographic expert, taking leave of 

absence from the Geological Survey for that purpose.

At the time of his death on September 12, 1903, he was 

filling the position of Assistant Secretary of the recently established Carnegie Institution of Washington. “Yearbook No. 2, 

1903” of that institution stated that Mr. Baker was a scholarly 

man, of broad culture, and talented in many fields; he was a 

conscientious, painstaking, accurate man, doing thoroughly 

and well that which he undertook; and he was an optimistic 

and affable man, who delighted to be of service to others. His 

activities were so varied and his responsibilities so numerous 

that the Carnegie Institution is but one of several organizations to suffer by his loss. He was a man of science, occupied chiefly with geographic and bibliographic researches, 

but a contributor also to history, and a lifelong student of 

mathematics.53

Edward C. Barnard

Edward Chester Barnard, a New Yorker, graduated in 

1884 from Columbia University with a degree in mechanical engineering. On July 23, 1884, he started work with the 

Geological Survey as an assistant topographer, and mapped 

sections of four states and of the three Pacific Coast States. He 

had charge of a field party sent to Alaska to map the FortyMile District in 1898, and the Nome District in 1900. He was 

chief topographer of the United States–Canadian Boundary 

Survey in 1903, 1904, and 1905, locating the boundary along 

the 49th parallel west of the summit of the Rocky Mountains. 

On June 4, 1907, he was appointed Geographer-in-Charge of 

the Rocky Mountain Division, with summer field headquarters 

53 Twenty-fifth Annual Report, 1903–04, p 369–371.
152 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

at Denver, Colo. Of medium size, he was extremely agile, a 

fast walker, and was seldom seen without a cigar. On June 10, 

1910, he was detailed to the State Department for Canadian 

Boundary work and he resigned May 2, 1915. He died February 6, 1921.

William M. Beaman

William M. Beaman, a native of Annapolis, Md., and 

a graduate of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was 

appointed to the Survey as topographic aid in 1889. He was 

promoted through the topographer grades to topographic 

engineer and made topographic surveys in many States. He 

invented the Beaman Arc, which was used on telescopic alidades. From 1907 to 1917, he was an inspector of field topography. During World War I, he served as a major in the Army 

Engineer Corps, and was engaged in mapping the country for 

military purposes.

In 1920, Mr. Beaman was designated Topographic 

Engineer-in-Charge of the Section of Inspection and Editing of 

Topographic Maps, and he held this position until his death on 

March 1, 1937.

In 1922–23, he was furloughed for an assignment in 

Brazil in connection with a Government map exhibit. Mr. Beaman also was author of the chapter on topographic mapping in 

Survey Bulletin No. 788, “Topographic Instructions.”

Claude H. Birdseye

Claude Hale Birdseye was born in Syracuse, N.Y. His 

family moved to Oberlin, Ohio, and in 1901, he received 

a bachelor of arts degree from Oberlin College. He was an 

instructor in physics at the University of Cincinnati in the 

spring of 1901, and later in that year he began work with the 

Geological Survey as a levelman with a topographic field 

party. That fall, he enrolled at Ohio State University for post 

graduate study in engineering, and in June 1902, again joined 

a field party of the Survey. On October 19, 1904, he was 

appointed topographic aid and continued through the various 

topographic grades.

Mr. Birdseye’s experience and skill in topographic mapping was gained by hard work of actual practice in mountains 

and forests. His early assignments were not easy ones, but his 

natural resourcefulness and ability became so apparent that he 

was frequently chosen for special assignments of a kind that 

gave scope to his venturesome spirit. He was in charge of the 

topographic mapping in Hawaii, from 1909 to 1912, a task 

that involved the mapping of the active volcano, Kilauea, with 

its lake of fire. In the following year (1915), he supervised 

the mapping of Mount Rainier, Wash. On the summit of that 

mountain, 14,408 feet above sea level, his party was caught in 

a blizzard and was forced to seek precarious refuge in a steam 

vent. In 1916, he was appointed Geographer-in-Charge of all 

topographic mapping in the Rocky Mountain Division.

His World War I record was outstanding. He began as a 

captain of engineers and, about a month later, was promoted 

to the rank of major. He sailed for France on August 16, 1917, 

for duty as orienteur officer with the 1st Brigade of Coast 

Artillery, and a year later was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and assigned to the Office of the Chief of Coast 

Artillery, American Expeditionary Forces, in charge of artillery ranging and map information. These rapid promotions, 

and the fact that instruction manuals written by him were 

published by the War Department, show that his abilities were 

productive and appreciated. His achievements were further 

acknowledged in 1919 when the French Orders of University 

Palms, grade of Officier de l’Instruction Publique, was conferred upon him.

He returned to the Geological Survey in June 1919, and 

was designated Acting Chief Geographer during the Chief 

Geographer’s absence from the office. He was appointed Chief 

Topographic Engineer on October 1, 1919, and in this new and 

responsible position he directed all field and office work of 

making topographic maps. The art of mapping was entering a 

critical period, for the use of airplanes and aerial photography, 

which had developed so rapidly during the War, was beginning 

to alter the technique of mapping through the introduction of 

photogrammetric methods.

Colonel Birdseye’s adaptability, experience, and initiative qualified him to understand the value of these methods, 

and to guide the Geological Survey into its modern mapping 

practices. His studies and administrative direction in the uses 

of aerial photography soon made him one of the foremost 

photogrammetrists in the United States. His character counted 

for as much as his ability; he was so unfailingly considerate 

and understanding that he won the wholehearted loyalty of 

associates and inspired in them a high degree of cooperation. 

It is fortunate indeed that so able a leader was in charge of the 

Topographic Branch during this period of transition.

In 1923, Colonel Birdseye’s untamed spirit of adventure 

again broke forth, and he took time from his administrative 

duties to lead an expedition by boat down the rough waters of 

the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon. The reconnaissance surveys made by the expedition were highly useful in 

choosing the site for Hoover Dam. For this, and other contributions to American geography, he was awarded the Charles 

P. Daly Medal by the American Geographical Society on April 

22, 1924.

Continuing as Chief Topographic Engineer, he found 

time during his efficient administration to compile, revise, and 

enlarge the “Topographic Instructions,” published in 1928 as 

Geological Survey Bulletin No. 788, and prepared “Formulas 

and Tables for the Construction of Polyconic Projections,” 

which were published as Geological Survey Bulletin No. 809 

in 1929. Colonel Birdseye also wrote many shorter articles 

that were published in various technical periodicals. He took 

an active part in many scientific organizations and was never 

too busy to help anyone.

In September 1929, he resigned from the Geological 

Survey to become president of the Aerotopograph Corporation 
Selected Biographies 153

of America, and directed the detailed photogrammetric surveys 

of the site for Hoover Dam.

Colonel Birdseye was reinstated in the Geological Survey 

on February 1, 1932, as Engineering Assistant to the Director, 

and on August 1, 1932, was appointed Chief of the Division of 

Engraving and Printing, where he was in charge of the reproduction of the maps published by the Survey. He continued in 

this work until his death on May 30, 1941.

Colonel Birdseye should be credited with other achievements of an even higher order than those he gave to science 

directly, achievements of a kind that will perpetuate his memory in the hearts of all who knew him. By friendly counsel and 

assistance, he was able to inspire many with enthusiasm for 

greater attainments; thus did his spirit generously pervade the 

lives of his associates.

Sumner H. Bodfish

Sumner Homer Bodfish was born August 16, 1844, 

at Chicopee, Mass. He attended the public schools of New 

Haven, Conn., and in the spring of 1863, he enlisted in the 

46th Massachusetts Infantry, in which he served 9 months. He 

then reenlisted for the remainder of the war in the 2nd Massachusetts Heavy Artillery, and saw active service in the Battle 

of Kingston, N.C., and in the vicinity of New Berne. After his 

regiment returned to Massachusetts, he saw further service 

in the Boston draft riots. At this time, President Lincoln gave 

him an appointment to West Point. He graduated in the class 

of 1868, was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 6th 

Cavalry, and ordered to Fort Tyler, Tex. As a result of his high 

standing on graduation, and the excellence of his conduct as 

an officer, he was made regimental adjutant, though a junior 

officer. Later on, he was made provost marshall. 

In January, 1871, he resigned from the Army to engage in 

hydraulic engineering work with his father at Langley, Ga.

In the spring of 1872, he went to Washington, D.C., 

where he was shortly afterwards appointed first assistant 

engineer of the Board of Public Works. In the fall of 1878, Mr. 

Bodfish was appointed a topographer on the Powell Survey, 

and his first work was measuring angles, in a scheme of 

triangulation planned by G.K. Gilbert, which connected the 

expansion between the Gunnison and Kanab bases.

On July 10, 1879, Mr. Bodfish was appointed a topographer with the U.S. Geological Survey and was assigned to 

the Division of the Colorado under Capt. C.E. Dutton. He was 

given charge of a field party in northern Arizona, in order to 

make topographic surveys of a portion of the Grand Canyon 

of the Colorado, and a great number of canyons subsidiary 

thereto. The Grand Canyon district was a labyrinth of deep 

gorges; through its center flowed the Colorado, more than 

6,000 feet below the general level of the country, and the tributary canyons were profoundly carved, resulting in a district of 

deep gorges and towering cliffs. This survey was successfully 

completed.

During the winter months, Mr. Bodfish and assistants 

were engaged in the construction of the maps, materials for 

which had been collected during the field season. At the 

close of the fiscal year these maps were completed. In 1889, 

Mr. Bodfish proceeded to the Kaibab Plateau, Utah, for the 

purpose of continuing the topographic work essential to the 

completion of the special map of that plateau, and of the 

Grand Canyon, and also to establish monuments and make 

the observations required to connect the salient points of the 

plateaus with the primary triangulation of this survey. Captain 

Dutton inspected Mr. Bodfish’s previous work and reported:

“I am very glad to be able to report that it is exceedingly successful, and that Mr. Bodfish is, in my 

opinion, entitled to high praise and warm congratulation for the exceedingly able and accurate manner 

in which he has performed one of the most difficult 

pieces of detail topography which can be encountered in the West. He will continue his work this season in the southern and southeastern portions of the 

plateau front, in those localities which are of greatest 

interest and moment to the geologist.”

In 1882, he was engaged in detailed topographic work 

in the quicksilver mining region of California. The following 

six seasons were spent, until the fall of 1888, on map work 

at a scale of 1 mile to 1 inch, and 20-foot contours, in the 

neighborhood of Washington, D.C., and in various portions of 

Massachusetts.

Shortly after the creation of the Irrigation Survey, Mr. 

Bodfish was appointed Irrigation Engineer in the spring of 

1889, and spent that season and the early portion of 1890, 

until the Irrigation Survey was discontinued by Congress, in 

charge of the Colorado Division. In the course of this work, he 

made general surveys for the discovery of reservoir sites and 

to ascertain their capacities, and the modes by which water 

could be conducted from them to the surrounding arid lands. 

He also made detailed surveys of the 11 reservoir sites in the 

upper valley of the Arkansas, these surveys being at very large 

scales, from 200 to 400 feet to 1 inch, and 2-foot and 4-foot 

contours. The winter of 1889 was occupied in computing the 

cost of the dams and the capacities of the reservoirs, and in 

making detailed plans for their construction.

Upon the discontinuance of the Irrigation Survey, Mr. 

Bodfish resigned and returned to private engineering practice, 

being occupied in the fall of 1890 in mapping for the War 

Department, the fortifications on the Potomac River. His last 

work was a careful survey of the Great Falls of the Potomac 

for B.F. Butler’s Boston company, and a careful determination of the quantity and value of the water power that could 

be derived from these falls. In October, 1893, he became an 

invalid and died on May 17, 1894. He was buried at Arlington, 

the funeral being conducted by the Loyal Legion, of which he 

was an honored member.

Mr. Bodfish was always a careful, painstaking, and 

conscientious worker who was at his best in designing and 
154 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

conducting careful surveys or engineering works, which called 

for care and thoroughness in the execution of their details.54

George R. Davis

George Robert Davis, a native of Riverside, Calif., was 

a high school graduate with later studies in a business college 

and engineering school. He joined the Geological Survey as 

recorder in October 1898, was appointed assistant topographer 

on November 20, 1903, and promoted through the various 

grades to Geographer-in-Charge of the Pacific Division on 

July 1, 1912. Included in his work of topographic surveying 

was the mapping of the Mount Whitney, Mount Goddard, 

Bakersfield, and McKittrick Quadrangles, in California, as 

well as mapping in the Yosemite National Park, and Kings 

River Canyon, Calif., Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, and many other areas. In 1915, he was a delegate to the 

International Engineering Congress in San Francisco, and in 

1920, a delegate to the Panama–Pacific Scientific Congress in 

Honolulu. In 1916, he married Miss Adelena Marie Fontaine, 

who was Mr. Marshall’s very efficient chief clerk. They had a 

daughter named Anna. He died March 13, 1922.

Edward M. Douglas

Edward Moorehouse Douglas, a native of Saratoga, N.Y., 

graduated in civil engineering from Columbia University in 

1881, and then joined the firm of C.L. Berger & Sons, makers 

of surveying instruments, at Troy, N.Y.

He was appointed topographer with the U.S. Geological Survey in 1882, and conducted topographic and geodetic 

surveys in nearly every state in the West. On July 1, 1897, he 

was appointed Geographer-in-Charge of the Rocky Mountain 

Division, and on July 1, 1903, Geographer-in-Charge of the 

Division of Western Topography. In 1911, he became Chief of 

the Computing Division and served in this capacity until his 

transfer to the War Department on September 1, 1925, which 

service continued until his retirement on August 31, 1930, 

after 48 years of Government service. He joined the Cosmos 

Club on March 7, 1887.

Mr. Douglas’s special accomplishments also covered 

boundary surveys, among these being the survey and marking 

of the Idaho–Washington boundary line, and the survey and 

marking of the boundary of the Loquillo Forest Reserve in 

Puerto Rico. He was the author of many Government reports; 

the most widely used being Survey Bulletin No. 817, “Boundaries, Areas, Geographic Centers, and Altitudes of the United 

States and the Several States.” He died July 1, 1932.

54 Memoir prepared by H.M. Wilson, Chief Geographer, and published in 

proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, v. XX, 1894, p. 96.

Conrad A. Ecklund

When H.H. Hodgeson retired voluntarily on November 

30, 1942, Conrad A. Ecklund was appointed Pacific Division 

Engineer. Mr. Ecklund, a native of Illinois, and graduate of 

the Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, with a bachelor 

of science degree in civil engineering, was appointed a Junior 

Topographer with the Geological Survey on June 3, 1909. He 

worked in the Rocky Mountain Division until 1916 when he 

was detailed to the Pacific Division. During World War I, he 

was a 2d Lt., U.S. Engineers, from January 1, 1918, to June 

27, 1919, with overseas duty. He again performed topographic 

mapping in the Pacific and Rocky Mountain Divisions, and 

from 1930 to 1931, he was in charge of the Rocky Mountain 

Section. In 1932, he was transferred to the Pacific Division 

and placed in charge of the South Pacific Section. From 1933 

to 1938, he was supervisor in charge of the Los Angeles 

County Cooperative Project, California, and since December 

1, 1942, has continued in charge of the Pacific Division.

Gerald FitzGerald

Gerald FitzGerald was born in Burns, Oreg., and was 

educated in public and private schools in Washington and 

Oregon, including Seattle College and the University of 

Washington. He joined a topographic mapping party of the 

Geological Survey on August 23, 1917. He worked field seasons of 1918 and 1919 in Washington, Oregon, and California; 

accompanied a Geological Survey party to Santo Domingo, 

West Indies, in 1919, for a year’s work and, upon his return, 

looked to Alaska as an outlet for his enthusiasm for the great 

outdoors, lore of adventure, and his great capacity for gruelling physical labor. For 22 seasons, he mapped areas in 

Alaska, chiefly remote Alaska, north of the Yukon towards the 

Arctic Ocean, where it was necessary to start in February with 

dog sleds while the country was snow covered and frozen, and 

establish caches of food to be found later after the thaw, when 

the topographic and geologic mapping could be done. Then, 

transportation was by pack train, canoe, raft, and by foot.

In 1938, Mr. FitzGerald, recognized as a specialist in 

reconnaissance mapping, was placed in charge of topographic 

surveys in Alaska. In this assignment, he organized and 

assisted in the original development of “Trimetrogon mapping,” a cooperative program undertaken by the Geological 

Survey and the Army Air Forces to provide worldwide map 

coverage for military operations. In 1942, Mr. FitzGerald was 

commissioned in the Air Corps and assigned to the Aeronautical Chart Service, which he commanded with the rank of colonel, from 1943 to 1945. Due to his sound plans and brilliant 

supervision, the development of the Trimetrogon method of 

aerial photographic compilation on worldwide basis was universally recognized as the outstanding contribution to reconnaissance mapping and charting during World War II. In recognition of his work, he received the Photogrammetric Award 

of 1944 for “outstanding achievement in photogrammetry.” He 
Selected Biographies 155

was designated a delegate of the United States, by the Department of State, to the Second Pan American Consultation on 

Cartography at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, August 14 to September 2, 1944. In 1945, he was awarded the Legion of Merit for 

his exceptionally meritorious conduct as Chief of the Aeronautical Chart Service.

At the request of the Secretary of the Interior, Mr. 

FitzGerald was relieved from active military duty on November 1, 1945, to return to the Geological Survey as Staff 

Topographic Engineer. In 1946, he was elected President of 

the Society of Photogrammetry. On May 22, 1947, he was 

appointed Chief of the Topographic Division which, under his 

direction, has continued its reputation of being one of the best 

equipped and best staffed mapping organizations in the world. 

Mr. FitzGerald was designated Chief of the American Delegation to the International Mapping Conference in London, England, in August 1947. This also was known as the Conference 

of Commonwealth Survey Officers. He was selected by the 

Director of the Geological Survey for a lecturer for the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, and he gave a series 

of talks before Geological Societies and University groups 

throughout the United States from October 4, to November 2, 

1948. In recognition of his outstanding leadership in directing 

mapping operations for the Federal government in time of war 

and peace, Mr. FitzGerald received the Distinguished Service 

Award of the Department of the Interior in 1949, while still in 

office.

Henry Gannett

Henry Gannett, topographer with the Hayden Surveys, 

had been appointed to the Geological Survey on October 8, 

1879, and immediately transferred to be the geographer of 

the Tenth Census. His Census work completed, the Director appointed Mr. Gannett as Chief Geographer-in-Charge of 

topographic mapping on July 1, 1882. 

Mr. Gannett was born in Maine on August 24, 1846, 

received a bachelor of science degree at the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard in 1869, and earned his degree as 

mining engineer at Hooper Mining School in 1870. In 1871, 

he accompanied a Harvard scientific expedition to Spain 

to observe the total eclipse of the sun. Upon his return, he 

declined an offer to join a North Pole expedition as astronomer 

and, instead, joined the Hayden Survey as topographer for the 

western division. Gannett was trained in topographic mapping 

at Cambridge by J.D. Whitney and Mr. Charles F. Hoffman, 

who influenced him to leave Wheeler and go to Hayden.55 He 

wrote a section of Dr. Hayden’s annual reports beginning with 

the Seventh (1873) to the final one (1878). He was a pioneer 

explorer, possessed great endurance, and was one of the first to 

ascend Mount Whitney in California. He was honored by having the highest peak in Wyoming’s Wind River Range named 

for him.

55 This is according to letters received from Hayden.

He was a voluminous writer on geographical, statistical, 

and interrelated subjects, and did much to enrich the geographical literature of the world. In addition to many texts used in 

official publications, he was the author of “Manual of Topographic Surveying” (1893); Statistical Atlases, 10th and 11th 

Censuses; Dictionary of Altitudes (3d edition, 1899); Commercial Geography (1895); The Building of a Nation (1895); 

Gazetteer of Cuba (1902); Gazetteer of Texas (1902); Origin 

of Certain Place Names in the United States (1902); and List 

of the Mountains of the United States (1910–12).

As Chief Geographer of the Geological Survey and 

leading Geographer of the United States, Mr. Gannett was 

foremost in many geographical activities. As geographer of the 

Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Censuses, he developed to a high 

degree of effectiveness in the graphic method of presenting 

statistical inquiries. He participated as assistant director in the 

censuses of Cuba and Puerto Rico in 1899, of the Philippines 

in 1902, and of Cuba in 1906.

U.S. Board of Geographic Names was another illustration 

of Mr. Gannett’s skillful adaptation of the science of geography to the purposes of government. Originally an unofficial 

organization brought together by Mr. Gannett and Dr. Thomas 

C. Mendenhall, Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic 

Survey, for the purpose of eliminating confusion and contradiction in geographic names constantly appearing in publications, the Board officially was established by an executive 

order issued by President Harrison on September 4, 1890. Mr. 

Gannett was chairman of the Board from 1894 to his death in 

1914.

Mr. Gannett’s participation in the forestry and conservation movements included two important assignments.56 When 

in 1897, the Geological Survey, by act of Congress, was given 

the task of examining and surveying the forest reserves, which 

President Cleveland had set aside earlier in the year, Mr. 

Gannett was given charge of the examination work. In 1908, 

when President Theodore Roosevelt’s Conservation Commission undertook to assemble authoritative data concerning the 

Nation’s resources, Mr. Gannett was selected to edit the report.

Though actually in charge of the Topographic Branch, 

which did not attain the status of a Branch until 1889, Mr. 

Gannett’s board activities and the adjustments to varying 

appropriations during the years 1882 to 1914, required his 

absence from Washington and changes in his title. He was 

Chief Geographer from July 1, 1882, to September 9, 1885; 

geologist-in-charge from September 10, 1885, to June 30, 

1889; Chief Topographer from July 1, 1889, to April 19, 1896; 

and Geographer from July 1, 1896, to November 5, 1914.

At the time of his death on November 5, 1914, Mr. Gannett was co-founder and president of the Twenty-year Service 

Topographers; co-founder and president of the National Geographic Society; and co-founder and past president of the Cosmos Club. He was often called “the father of American Map56 “Henry Gannett, President of the National Geographic Society,” by 

Simon Newton North, 1910–14. The National Geographic Society, 1915.
156 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

making” and will long be remembered for his unselfishness 

and devotion to his chosen work.

Publications of Henry Gannett

“A Dictionary of Altitudes in the United States” was 

compiled by Henry Gannett, and was published in 1884, as 

Geological Survey Bulletin No. 5. A second edition was published in 1891, as Geological Survey Bulletin No. 76; a third 

edition in 1899, as Geological Survey Bulletin No. 160; and a 

fourth edition in 1906, as Geological Survey Bulletin No. 274.

“‘Boundaries of the United States and of the Several 

States and Territories, with a Historical Sketch of the Territorial Changes,” by Henry Gannett, was published in 1885 

as Geological Survey Bulletin No. 13. A second edition was 

published in 1900, as Geological Survey Bulletin No. 171; and 

a third edition in 1904, as Geological Survey Bulletin No. 226.

Mr. Gannett’s letter of transmittal, dated October 16, 

1884, states:

“I have the honor to submit herewith a sketch of the 

boundaries of the United States, the several States, 

and the Territories as defined by treaty, charter, or 

statute.

“Besides giving the present status of these boundaries, I have endeavored to present an outline of the 

history of all important changes of territory, with the 

laws appertaining thereto.

“This matter was in great part prepared under the 

direction of the Superintendent of the Census, and 

it is herewith presented for publication with his full 

concurrence.

“I have been greatly assisted in this work by Mr. 

Franklin G. Butterfield, who was formerly connected 

with the Census Office, by whose labors most of the 

material relating to the boundaries of the States upon 

the Atlantic borders has been compiled.”

Some excerpts from “Boundaries of the United States and 

of the Several States and Territories, with a Historical Sketch 

of the Territorial Changes,” by Henry Gannett are given 

herewith:

The Public Domain and an Outline of the History of 

Changes Made Therein

“Cessions by the States”

At the time the Constitution was adopted by the Original 

Thirteen States, many of them possessed unoccupied territory, 

in some cases entirely detached and lying west of the Appalachian Mountains. Thus, Georgia included the territory from its 

present eastern limits westward to the Mississippi River. North 

Carolina possessed a narrow strip extending from latitude 35 

degrees to 36 degrees, 30 minutes, approximately, and running 

westward to the Mississippi, including besides its own present 

area, that of the present State of Tennessee. In like manner, 

Virginia possessed what is now Kentucky, while a number of 

states, such as Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, and 

Connecticut, laid claim to areas in what was afterward known 

as the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio, a region which is 

now comprised mainly in the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 

Michigan, and Wisconsin. These claims were to a greater or 

less extent conflicting. In some cases several states claimed 

authority over the same area, while the boundary lines were in 

most cases very ill-defined.

The ownership of these western lands by individual states 

was opposed by those states that did not share in their possession, mainly on the grounds that the resources of the General 

Government, to which all contributed, should not be taxed for 

the protection and development of this region, while its advantages would inure to the benefit of but a favored few. On these 

grounds, several of the states refused to ratify the Constitution 

until this matter had been settled by the cession of these tracts 

to the General Government.

Moved by these arguments, as well as by the consideration of the conflicting character of the claims, which must 

inevitably lead to trouble among the states, Congress passed, 

on October 30, 1779, the following act:

“Whereas the appropriation of the vacant lands by 

the several states during the present war will, in the 

opinion of Congress, be attended with great mischiefs: Therefore,

Resolved, “That it be earnestly recommended to 

the State of Virginia to reconsider their late act of 

assembly for opening their land office; and that it be 

recommended to the said State, and all other States 

similarly circumstanced, to forbear settling or issuing warrants for unappropriated lands, or granting 

the same during the continuance of the present war.”

This resolution was transmitted to the different states. 

The first to respond to it by the transfer of her territory to the 

General Government was New York, whose example was followed by the other states.

“Washington Territory”

This was organized March 2, 1853, from a part of Oregon 

Territory. Its limits, as originally constituted, were as given in 

the following clause from the act of Congress creating it:

That from and after the passage of this act, all that portion of Oregon Territory lying and being south of the 49th 

degree of north latitude, and north of the middle of the main 

channel of the Columbia River, from its mouth to where the 

46th degree of north latitude crosses said river, near Fort Walla 

Walla; thence with said 46th degree of latitude to the summit 

of the Rocky Mountains, be organized into and constitute a 

temporary government by the name of the Territory of Washington. (32d Cong., 2d sess.)
Selected Biographies 157

In 1859, on the formation of the State of Oregon, the 

residue of the Territory of Oregon, being the portion lying east 

of the present limits of the State, extending thence to the crest 

of the Rocky Mountains, was added to Washington. This area, 

with the part of Washington lying east of its present limits, 

was included in Idaho on the formation of that Territory in 

1863.

The present boundaries of Washington Territory are as 

follows: Beginning on the coast at the mouth of the Columbia 

River; following up the main channel of the Columbia River 

to its point of intersection with the 46th parallel of latitude; 

thence east on the 46th parallel to the Snake River; thence 

down the main channel of the Snake River to the mouth of the 

Clearwater; thence north on the meridian that passes through 

the mouth of the Clearwater to the boundary line between the 

United States and the British possessions; thence west with 

that boundary line to the Pacific * * *.

“A Manual of Topographic Methods”

A “Manual of Topographic Methods,” 300 pages, by 

Henry Gannett, Chief Topographer, was published by the Geological Survey in 1893, as Monograph XXII. Revised edition 

was published in 1906 as Geological Survey Bulletin No. 307.

In his letter of transmittal to Director Powell, Mr. Gannett 

states:

“I have the honor to submit herewith for publication 

a manual of the topographic methods in use by the 

Geological Survey, accompanied by a collection of 

constants and tables used in the reduction of astronomical observations for position, of triangulation, 

of height measurements, and other operations connected with the making of topographic maps. It must 

be understood that the methods are not fixed, but 

are subject to change and development, and that this 

manual describes the stage of development reached 

at present.

“In the preparation of this work, I have to acknowledge the aid of many of my associates, notably Mr. 

H.M. Wilson and Mr. S.S. Gannett. To Mr. R.S. 

Woodward, now connected with the U.S. Coast and 

Geodetic Survey, I am indebted for the “Instructions 

for the Measurement of Horizontal Angles” in Chapter III. These instructions, which were drawn up by 

Mr. Woodward several years ago for the guidance of 

field parties engaged in primary triangulation, have 

resulted in a great increase in accuracy and considerable economy of time and labor. To Messrs. G.K. 

Gilbert and W.J. McGee, I am indebted for their 

kindly criticism, especially concerning the chapter 

upon the “Origin of Topographic Features.

“Some of the tables have been prepared in this 

office; others have been compiled from various 

sources, notably from appendices to reports of the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and ‘Lee’s Tables 

and Formulae.’”

Interesting excerpts from this Manual are as follows:

“Plan of the Map of the United States”

The field upon which the Geological Survey is at work 

is diversified. It comprises broad plains, some of which are 

densely covered with forests, while upon others trees are 

entirely absent. It contains high and rugged mountains, plateaus, and low, rolling hills. In some regions its topographic 

forms are upon a grand scale, while in others the entire surface 

is made up of an infinity of minute detail. Some parts of the 

country are densely populated, as much so as almost any 

region upon the surface of the globe, while great areas in other 

parts of the country are almost without settlement. Geologically, portions of the country are extremely complex, requiring, for the elucidation of geologic problems, maps in great 

detail, while other areas are simple in the extreme.

It is obvious that from this diversity of conditions, both 

natural and material, maps of different areas should differ in 

scale, and that with the difference in natural conditions and the 

difference in scale there must come differences in the methods of work employed. The system which is found to work to 

advantage in the high mountain regions of the west is more or 

less inapplicable to the low forested plains of the Mississippi 

Valley and the Atlantic Plain.

“Scale”

The scales that finally have been adopted for the publication of the map are 1:62,500, or very nearly 1 mile to 1 inch, 

and 1:125,000, or very nearly 2 miles to 1 inch.

When this work was commenced in 1882, three different 

scales were used for different parts of the country, depending upon the degree of complexity of the topography and the 

geological phenomena, upon the density of population, and 

the importance of the region from an industrial point of view. 

These scales were 1:62,500, 1:125,000, and 1:250,000. The 

maps, as fast as produced, have found extended use, not only 

among geologists, but in all sorts of industrial enterprises with 

which the surface of the ground is concerned, and already 

have become well nigh indispensable in the projection of 

railroads, water works, drainage works, systems of irrigation, and other similar industrial enterprises. Their extended 

use has developed a requirement for better maps; i.e., maps 

upon a larger scale and in greater detail. At one stage of its 

development this requirement was met by discontinuing all 

mapping upon the scale of 1:250,000, which it was recognized 

at that time was inadequate to the requirements. Since then, 

the standard of the requirements has continued to rise and, 

consequently, the plan of the map has been enlarged by the 

extension of the areas mapped upon the scale of 1:62,500, and 

a corresponding reduction of the areas to be mapped upon the 

scale of 1:125,000. Meantime, however, large areas have been 

mapped upon the discarded scale, and the maps have been 
158 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

published and widely distributed. Such areas will be remapped 

for the larger scales only as special needs may arise * * *.

“Contour Interval”

The relief of the earth’s surface is now represented upon 

maps almost entirely by contour lines or lines of equal elevation. Until a comparatively recent date this element, secondary 

in importance only to the horizontal element, or the plan, has 

been ignored.

The contour intervals that have been adopted for the map 

of the United States are as follows:

For the scale of 1:62,500, the intervals range from 5 to 

50 feet; for the scale of 1:125,000, 10 to 100 feet; and, for the 

scale of 1:250,000, the interval is 200 or 250 feet.

“Size of Sheets”

Atlas sheets are designed to be approximately of the 

same size, 17.5 inches in length by from 12 to 15 in breadth, 

depending upon the latitude, and all those of the same scale 

cover equal areas, expressed in units of latitude and longitude; 

that is, each sheet upon the 4-mile scale covers 1 degree of 

latitude by 1 degree of longitude; each sheet upon the 2-mile 

scale, 30 minutes of latitude and longitude; and each sheet 

upon the 1-mile scale, 15 minutes of latitude and longitude. 

The sheets are thus small enough to be conveniently handled, 

and, if bound, form an atlas of convenient size. From the fact 

that each sheet is either a full degree or a regular integral part 

of a degree, its position with relation to the adjacent sheets and 

to the area of the country is easy to discover.

“Geometric Control”

From the constructive point of view, a map is a sketch, 

corrected by locations. The work of making locations is 

geometric, that of sketching is artistic. This definition is 

applicable to all maps, whatever their quality or character. 

However, numerous the locations may be, they form no part 

of the map itself, but serve only to correct the sketch, while 

the sketch supplies all the material of the map. The correctness 

of the map depends upon four elements: first, the accuracy of 

location; second, the number of locations per square inch of 

the map; third, their distribution; and, fourth, the quality of the 

sketching.

It is in connection with the first of these elements that it 

seems desirable to define what constitutes accuracy. The greatest accuracy attainable is not always desirable, because it is 

not economical. The highest economy is in properly subordinating means of ends, and it is not economical to execute 

triangulation of geodetic refinement for the control of maps 

upon small scales. The quality of the work should be such as 

to ensure against errors of sufficient magnitude to appear upon 

the scale of publication.

While the tendency of errors in triangulation is to balance 

one another, still they are liable to accumulate and this liability 

must be guarded against by maintaining a somewhat higher 

degree of accuracy than would be required for the location 

of any one point. It is not difficult to meet this first condition of accuracy of the maps. The maximum allowable error 

of location may be set at one-hundredth of an inch upon the 

scale publication. This admits of an error upon the ground not 

greater on a scale of 1:62,500, than 50 feet * * *.

The education of the topographer, therefore, consists of 

two parts, the mathematical and the artistic. The first may be 

acquired largely from books, and this book knowledge must 

be supplemented by practice in the field. The second, if not 

inherited, can be acquired only by long experience in the field, 

and by many can be acquired only imperfectly. In fact, the 

sketching makes the map, and, therefore, the sketching upon 

the Geological Survey is executed by the best topographer in 

the party, usually its chief, whenever it is practicable to do so.

“Classification of Work”

The work involved in making a map usually comprises 

several operations, which may in practice be more or less distinct from one another. They are enumerated as follows:

First.—The location of the map upon the earth’s surface, 

by means of astronomic observations.

Second.—The horizontal location of points.

This usually is of three grades of accuracy; primary triangulation, or primary traverse, in cases where triangulation is 

not feasible; secondary triangulation for the location of numerous points within the primary triangulation; and ordinary traverse, for the location of details.

Third.—The measurement of heights, which usually 

accompanies the horizontal location, and which may, similarly, 

be divided into three classes, in accordance with the degree of 

accuracy.

Fourth.—The sketching of the map.

Nearly all of the geometric work of the Survey, the work 

of location, is executed by five instruments.

• Theodolites, of powerful and compact form, used in the 

primary control.

• Planetable, with telescopic alidades of the best type, 

used for secondary triangulation and height measurements. 

• Planetable, of crude, simple form, with ruler alidades, 

used for traversing and minor triangulation. 

• Odometers, for measuring distance.

• Aneroids, for the measurement of details of heights.

With these instruments, nine-tenths of the work is done, 

and these instruments will be described in their proper places 

with much fullness of detail as seems necessary * * *.
Selected Biographies 159

“Origin of Topographic Features”

As an aid in the interpretation of the various topographic 

forms that present themselves, the following brief discussion 

is appended.

“Topographic features originate from a variety of 

causes and are modified by many agencies. They 

are formed by the uplift from beneath, of great or 

small extent. They are formed by deposition from 

volcanoes, glaciers, water, and the atmosphere. They 

are formed or modified by aqueous and ice erosion. 

They are modified by gravity.

“These are the principal agencies in producing topographic forms as we see them today. These forms 

are only in rare cases the work of a single one of the 

above agencies; generally two or more have taken 

part in producing the present condition. Of all these, 

aqueous agencies are by far the most potent. Their 

work is seen in nearly all topographic forms, while, 

in those of great age, their action has been so extensive as to mask or obliterate all superficial traces of 

the action of any other agency * * *.”

In 1929, the Map Information Office of the Federal Board 

of Surveys and Maps, J.H. Wheat, Secretary, published a 

pamphlet called “The Mountains of the United States,” and the 

first page is as follows:

“The following pages give descriptions of the 

principal mountain ranges of the United States and 

indicate relationships between them. This list was 

compiled from the most reliable maps obtainable, 

preference being given to the Geological Survey 

quadrangle maps.

“The compilation was made in 1910–12 by Henry 

Gannett, formerly geographer of the Geological 

Survey, and chairman of the U.S. Geographic Board, 

and probably, at that time, the most competent person in the United States to prepare such a list.

“No changes of importance have been made in the 

original manuscript except to add an index.”

Tribute to Henry Gannett

At a meeting at the office of the Geological Survey on 

Monday afternoon, November 9, 1914, to express sympathy at 

the death of Henry Gannett, some of his old associates, F.W. 

Clarke, Arthur P. Davis, Morris Bien, George H. Ashley, and 

Alfred H. Brooks, spoke of Mr. Gannett’s personal character, 

and of his contributions to science, and the following resolutions were adopted:

“We have met today to express our sorrow at the 

death of Henry Gannett, the first Chief Geographer 

of the U.S. Geological Survey, and the leading 

geographer of the United States, and to pay tribute 

to his character and his work. When Mr. Gannett, 

in 1882, took charge of the work of the Survey’s 

topographic branch, he established the methods and 

fixed the standards that have since been followed in 

the great task of making the maps for a Government 

atlas of the United States, a task that will for many 

years continue to employ a large part of the energies 

of the Geological Survey. The general recognition 

of the high quality of the Survey’s maps is itself a 

testimonial of appreciation of Mr. Gannett’s work. 

These maps are in large part the products of field 

methods devised by him. He first used the method 

of sketching traverse work on the board graphically 

in the field, and he established the present method 

of primary traverse. His “Manual of Topographic 

Methods” has been published in two forms by the 

Survey, and is still a standard book of reference.

“Mr. Gannett was a geographer in no narrow sense 

of the word; his interest in geography included such 

diverse subjects as forestry, rainfall, the profiles of 

rivers, the origin of the names of places, and the historical detail of our national geographic expansion, 

and of the determination of the areas and boundaries 

of the States, on all of which subjects he prepared 

reports that were published by the Survey.

“His government work outside of the Survey, chiefly 

for the Census of the United States, the censuses 

of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and his 

services as chairman of the U.S. Geographic Board, 

and as Geographer of the National Conservation 

Commission, covered a wide field and showed large 

administrative power.

“In Mr. Gannett’s death, the Survey has lost a man 

of broad view, wise initiative, and great service, and 

the science of geography has lost a master spirit. We 

tender to his family our heartfelt sympathy in their 

bereavement, and feel that they may find consolation in the knowledge that his work for mankind was 

faithfully and well done.57

Thomas G. Gerdine

Thomas Golding Gerdine took over Mr. Marshall’s 

duties at Sacramento, Calif., though the effective date of his 

appointment as Geographer-in-Charge of the Pacific Division 

was 6 months later, January 23, 1908. He was born at West 

Point, Miss., in 1872, and graduated from the University of 

Georgia in 1891, with the degree of bachelor of engineering. On July 1, 1893, Mr. Gerdine joined the U.S. Geological 

57 “Henry Gannett, President of the National Geographic Society” by Simon 

Newton North, 1910–14, The National Geographic Society, 1915.
160 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Survey as recorder in a topographic field party, working on the 

Santa Monica, Calif., Quadrangle. On May 3, 1894, he was 

appointed assistant topographer.

He was transferred to the General Land Office on April 

22, 1895, and served for 2 years as Examiner of Surveys, acting as Federal representative in the examination and approval 

of land surveys under the old contract system. On July 12, 

1897, he returned to the Geological Survey, served as party 

chief in the extreme western part of the United States and in 

Alaska, and worked on difficult topographic and geodetic survey projects. From May 1, 1899, to January 17, 1908, he was 

assigned to the Alaskan Division, and throughout his entire 

Alaskan service he showed not only marked professional 

ability, but all those other qualities, physical and personal, that 

are demanded of leaders of parties engaged in fieldwork under 

difficult and unusual pioneer conditions. He was personally 

popular for his extremely good nature and resounding laugh.

Mr. Gerdine was Geographer-in-Charge of the Pacific 

Division from January 23, 1908, to June 30, 1912, when he 

became Geographer-in-Charge of the Northwestern Division, 

consisting of the States of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. His 

headquarters were still at Sacramento, Calif., but his summer 

field office was at Portland, Oreg. He was commissioned a 

major in the Engineer Officers Reserve Corps on September 

16, 1917, and was assigned to administration and supervision 

of military mapping, first in New Mexico and Texas, and later 

along the Atlantic Coast of Virginia, and at some of the eastern 

artillery training camps. He was discharged on March 31, 

1919, and reinstated as Geographer-in-Charge of the Northwestern Division. From 1912 to 1921, he was Geographer-inCharge of the Northwestern Division; 1918–19, also in charge 

of the Atlantic Division; 1918–21, also in charge of the Rocky 

Mountain Division; and from 1922, to his death on October 

31, 1930, Topographic Engineer-in-Charge of the Pacific 

Division.

Richard U. Goode

Richard Urquhart Goode was born in Bedford, Va., on 

December 8, 1858. He was educated at Hanover Academy, 

Norfolk, Va., and attended the University of Virginia for 

several terms. In 1877 to 1878, he was an assistant in the 

Engineer Corps of the Army. On July 12, 1879, he received an 

appointment as topographer with the U.S. Geological Survey. 

He was assigned to the Division of the Colorado, and conducted topographic surveys, under the direction of Sumner H. 

Bodfish, in Utah and Arizona. In 1880, he was given charge 

of the topographic work, under Capt. C.E. Dutton, in connection with surveys of the plateau region in the neighborhood 

of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, in Arizona. In 1881, 

he reported to Professor J.H. Gore, in charge of the measurement of a base line from which to extend primary triangulation 

near Fort Wingate N. Mex., on which work he was engaged 

until his resignation on May 1, 1882. From 1882 to 1884, 

Mr. Goode was employed as topographer on the Northern 

Transcontinental Survey, under Professor Raphael Pumpelly 

and A.D. Wilson, chief topographer, and conducted extensive surveys in Montana, Washington, and elsewhere in the 

Northwest.

Mr. Goode returned to the Geological Survey on July 

23, 1884. He was placed in supervisory charge of a group of 

parties engaged in surveys in Missouri and Kansas, and he 

continued on this work until 1886, when he was given charge 

of the section of topographic surveys in Texas. This assignment continued until 1889, except that he was granted leave 

of absence in the spring of 1888, to assist the engineers of the 

Panama Canal Company in important topographic and land 

surveys covering property rights on the Isthmus of Darien. 

In April, 1889, he was given charge of the Southern Central 

Division of Topography and was promoted to geographer. In 

September, 1890, on the reorganization of the Topographic 

Branch into two principal divisions, eastern and western, he 

was transferred to the western branch, under the general direction of Professor A.H. Thompson, and placed in charge of the 

Kansas–Texas Division, which assignment he retained until 

August, 1894, when he was transferred to the more important 

charge of the Pacific Section. His management of that important work, to which were later added surveys in Alaska and 

forest-reserve boundary surveys, gave eminent satisfaction 

during the next 7 years. Early in June, 1903, the four topographic sections were consolidated into two, and Mr. Goode 

was placed in charge of the Western Section, including all the 

states west of the Mississippi Valley, approximately all of the 

United States west of the 100th meridian.

The large amount of administrative work that developed 

upon him as a result of these added duties, and a generally 

run-down condition, rendered Mr. Goode incapable of resisting an attack of pneumonia which caused his death on June 9, 

1903.

Fred Graff, Jr.

Claude H. Birdseye, Chief, Section of Engraving and 

Printing, and former Chief Topographic Engineer, died on May 

30, 1941, and Fred Graff, Jr., long-time topographic engineer, 

was appointed Chief, Division of Map Reproduction, formerly 

known as the Section of Engraving and Printing, on August 1. 

Mr. Graff, a native of New York State and graduate of Syracuse 

University, began work with the Geological Survey on June 18, 

1901, as a rodman. He became a topographic aid in 1905 and 

was loaned for almost a year to the Navy Department to make 

a topographic survey of Guantanamo Naval Station, Cuba. 

Three years later he became assistant topographer and worked 

on complex field assignments in extremely difficult terrain. He 

progressed as supervisor of one party and then of several parties and finally, in 1936, became Chief of the Rocky Mountain 

Section of the Central Division and Project Director of the 

large WPA Project at Denver, Colo., where he demonstrated 

outstanding technical competence in training men and handled 

difficult administrative problems with efficiency. He continued 
Selected Biographies 161

as Chief of the Map Reproduction Branch until his retirement 

on March 31, 1953, and under his direction the number of new 

maps printed annually increased from approximately 100 to 

more than 1,200 without significant increase in personnel or 

space. He received the Distinguished Service Award of the 

Department of the Interior.

William H. Herron

William Harrison Herron, a native of Monticello, Ill., 

attended the State Normal College at Eastern Illinois, receiving an A.B. degree. He began work with the Geological Survey on July 1, 1885, as a field assistant and was appointed an 

assistant topographer in February 1886. Like many other Survey appointees, during the winter office season in Washington, 

he attended Corcoran Scientific School (later a part of George 

Washington University), beginning in 1886. He mapped areas 

in most of the Central States and in Montana, Oregon, and 

Wyoming. On June 1, 1907, he was appointed Geographerin-Charge of the Central Division. His summer field office 

was at the University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill., and he made 

many friends for the Survey by his friendliness, wealth of 

good stories, and personable appearance. He was Acting Chief 

Geographer from January 22 to December 30, 1916, while Mr. 

Marshall was assigned to the National Park Service. During World War I, he served from June 25, 1917 to March 25, 

1919, as major, Engineer Officers Reserve Corps, and mapped 

strategic areas in the United States. While Major Sutton was 

overseas, during 1918–19, Majors Herron and Gerdine were 

also in charge of mapping in the Atlantic Division. He was 

reinstated on March 26, 1919, and continued as Geographerin-Charge of the Central Division and then as Central Division 

Engineer until his death on October 9, 1929.

Herbert H. Hodgeson

On October 17, 1929, Herbert H. Hodgeson was 

appointed Central Division Engineer after William H. Herron’s 

sudden death on October 9. His work with the Survey began 

in 1899 as a field assistant during the summer seasons. He had 

graduated from South Dakota State College in 1898, taught 

two terms in a country school and been appointed assistant 

topographer in 1902. He specialized in both triangulation and 

topography. During World War I, he commanded Company B, 

29th Engineers, at Fort Devens, Mass., and across the Atlantic, 

where he was assigned many important duties. In June 1919, 

as major, he commanded a battalion homeward bound and was 

honorably discharged on July 12.

Back with the Survey he continued geodetic and topographic field surveys and after his appointment to the Central 

Division in 1929 directed the field and office work pertaining 

to topographic mapping of areas in the midwestern and some 

of the Rocky Mountain States. His excellent character, able 

leadership, and kind consideration for his subordinates won 

for him their hearty cooperation and loyalty.

Thomas G. Gerdine, Pacific Region Engineer, died October 31, 1930, and Mr. Hodgeson was chosen to take his place 

and Glenn S. Smith was appointed Central Region Engineer. 

December 9, 1930, Mr. Hodgeson proceeded to his new headquarters at Sacramento, Calif., where his adaptability, experience and initiative enabled him to understand and keep abreast 

of the rapid development in aerial photo mapping and the 

modern practices in geodetic and topographic surveying, until 

his voluntary retirement on November 30, 1942.

Willard Drake Johnson

In October 1879, W.D. Johnson began work with the U.S. 

Geological Survey on old Lake Bonneville, under G.K. Gilbert. He was about 19 years of age at that time. He continued 

fieldwork until some time in January, 1880, and afterwards 

continued in Gilbert’s Division of the Great Basin.

Mr. Johnson was appointed an assistant topographer with 

the Topographic Branch in 1882 and continued in that Branch 

until 1896. He was possessed of a most charming personality 

and had unusual ability as a teacher of the science of topographic engineering and untiring energy in every work he 

undertook. While connected with the Topographic Branch he 

worked perhaps more than any other topographer to improve 

the methods of topographic mapmaking. His only thought 

was the advancement of the scientific work of the Geological Survey, sacrificing his health, pleasures, and means to that 

end. He invented and patented on May 3, 1887, a new style of 

planetable tripod, known as the “Johnson Planetable Movement;” the advantages of which were so evident that it was 

at once adopted by the Geological Survey and Mr. Johnson 

waived his royalty to the Government for all tripods needed. 

Another invention which he gave to the Government was 

the paper holding thumb screws for use in planetable boards. 

Thousands of these have been made for the Survey and they 

are standard equipment for such purposes all over the United 

States. Other devices and methods proposed by him have had 

their effect on the topographic work of the Geological Survey 

for many years.

In 1888 he was placed in charge of topographic surveys 

of the Arkansas River in Colorado, continuing in charge of that 

work until its completion in the fall of 1890. In 1891 he was 

given charge of the California office, which position he held 

for 3 years. He was one of the charter members and director of 

the Sierra Club in California in 1892. Mr. Johnson made maps 

for Professor I.C. Russell in the high Sierra around Mono Lake 

in 1883; then went to Massachusetts for topographic work in 

cooperation with that State.

He was in Oklahoma in 1897, working under F.H. Newell, hydrograper of the Geological Survey, on the Underflow 

Water of Arkansas River and Allied Problems of the Great 

Plains; and as a result of his work with the Water Resources 

Branch, Mr. Johnson published a report on “High Plains and 

Their Utilization:” the first part of which appeared in Part IV 
162 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

of the 21st Annual Report and the conclusion in Part IV of the 

22d Annual Report. 

In 1901 he went to Utah with G.K. Gilbert. One map 

of the Fish Spring or House Range, was copied for Charles 

D. Walcott and published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous 

Collection, probably volume 12, about 1903. He worked on 

the completion of his maps at Salt Lake City and afterwards 

at Provo. About 1905 Mr. Johnson changed from topography 

to geology and worked under Professor T.C. Chamberlin, with 

headquarters at Bridgeport, Calif., for at least two seasons, 

1905–06, studying glacial geology. He went to Bishop, Calif., 

a little farther south, in 1907–08 on the same work. In 1907, 

he was in Lone Pine, in the Owens River Valley, east of Mount 

Whitney, Calif., studying the displacements of the earthquake 

of 1872. Mr. Johnson devoted considerable time to work on 

the Pleistocene problem in the Sierra Nevada with Mr. Gilbert 

and on the “Faulting in Owens Valley, of recent date—1872, 

and earlier, in several stages,” in conjunction with Professor 

Hobbs of Michigan, but his efforts were hampered by illness.

During 1912, 1913, and a part of 1914 he was roaming 

around more or less. On May 23, 1912, he wrote from Carmel, 

Monterey County, Calif., as follows:

“The 20-years-Service Banquet announcement found me 

a little too far away to attend. I am glad to find myself associated with such a proud organization, and I hope I may be so 

fortunate as to find a place card for me at some future banquet 

board. Or do “Associates” feed at a second table?

“I hadn’t fully realized that I dated so far back—so 

far beyond 20 years. It used to be a reproach that the U.S. 

Geological Survey, as compared with the Coast and Geodetic 

Survey, was made up of youngsters!”

In the spring of 1914 he came to Washington and 

accepted a position as Geographer with the Forest Service at 

Portland, Oreg. In 1916, he returned to Washington and was 

confined in St. Elizabeth’s Hospital for several months. He 

was released from the hospital during the summer of 1916 and 

was working on a model of the Grand Canyon for the American Geographic Society at the time of his death in 1917.

Daniel Kennedy

Daniel O’Madigan Kennedy was born in St. Louis, 

Mo., on March 5, 1900, and, at the age of 17, enlisted in the 

U.S. Army during World War I. During this time he served 

with the 138th Infantry and was wounded while engaged in a 

battle in France.

Following the war, in 1921, he came to Rolla, Mo., and 

enrolled in a Topographic Vocational Program that was being 

offered at the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy 

(MSM) for veterans of World War I.

In 1926, he graduated from MSM with a bachelor of 

science degree in civil engineering and began a career with 

the U.S. Geological Survey. He continued his studies at MSM, 

and earned what was then a civil engineering (Professional) 

degree in 1935.

Kennedy assisted in the mapping of the Roseau River 

Valley, Minn., in 1929, a project of approximately 600 square 

miles, on a scale of 1:31,680 and contour interval of 2 feet. In 

1937, he and Lee Walker designed a portable projector, which 

greatly facilitated the transfer of map data to the field sheets.

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 

1941, he returned to active duty with the U.S. Army with the 

rank of captain. He served under Gen. George Patton, in the 

3d Army as the General’s chief map maker, in charge of all 

mapping, map supply, and other engineering intelligence. 

Early in World War II, he became commander of the 1681st 

Engineer Survey Liaison Detachment of the U.S. Army Corps 

of Engineers. 

His outstanding work throughout five campaigns in 

the European Theater earned him a promotion to lieutenant 

colonel, and for his ingenuity in translating the German map 

grid system to the American standard, he was decorated with 

the Bronze Star by General Patton. Other military decorations 

included the Legion of Merit, the Purple Heart with clusters, 

and eight battle stars.

Lt. Col. Kennedy was appointed Chief, Operations and 

Plans in 1947, and subsequently, Chief Topographic Engineer 

of the Army Map Service in Washington, D.C. In this capacity 

he had wide planning responsibilities involving the technical 

supervision of 3,000 people.

He was later called back to active duty by the Army as 

the officer best qualified to take charge of the survey and triangulation arrangements for the atomic tests at Eniewetok. For 

his accomplishments in these endeavors, the Army awarded 

him the Commendation for Meritorious Civilian Service and a 

promotion to the rank of colonel.

A change in Topographic Branch organizational structure 

on December 15, 1948, created four mapping regions, and 

Daniel Kennedy was assigned as Chief of the Central Region. 

He returned to the Rolla community in 1948 to become Central Region Engineer, succeeding the retired Capt. C.L. Sadler. 

A year later, his alma mater awarded him the degree of Doctor 

of Engineering in recognition of his many outstanding contributions to the engineering profession.

In 1961, he received the Distinguished Service Award of 

the Department of the Interior; and more recently he received 

recognition for his more than 40 years of Government service.

The Central Region underwent a steady and consistent 

growth under his management. He continued as its chief until 

his retirement on February 13, 1970. By this time another 

name change had occurred and the Central Region had 

become the Mid-Continent Mapping Center.

Mr. Kennedy’s active participation and leadership have 

been recognized by the many professional and technical organizations he has been affiliated with during his career. He held 

numerous elective offices in these organizations and served on 

various committees of responsibility.

These organizations included: American Society of Civil 

Engineers (having served as President, Mid-Missouri Section, and Director, District 14); National Society of Professional Engineers; Missouri Society of Professional Engineers; 
Selected Biographies 163

Society of American Military Engineers; American Society 

of Photogrammetry, where he served as a director; American 

Congress on Surveying and Mapping; Sigma XI; Chi Epsilon; 

Theta Tau; Tau Beta Pi; MSM Alumni Association; and the 

University of Missouri–Rolla Booster Club. His association 

with the ASCE continued from the time he was MSM Student 

Chapter President in 1925.

He became the donor for “Daniel Kennedy Essay 

Awards,” a competition established in 1949 for senior civil 

engineering students enrolled at the MSM who were members 

of the ASCE Student Chapter. Mr. Kennedy was a registered 

Professional Engineer in the State of Missouri, and served as 

a member of the Professional Conduct Committee of the Missouri Society of Professional Engineers.

Always an active leader in civic affairs, Mr. Kennedy 

was ever ready to give of his personal time and effort. He has 

served on the Board of Directors of the Rolla Rotary Club as 

Vice President, President, and Program Chairman. In 1952, he 

was President of the Rolla Chamber of Commerce. He served 

in many other key positions, including: Co-chairman of the 

Rolla Planning and Zoning Commission; Board of Directors, 

Rolla United Fund; member of the Rolla Park Board; member 

of the Centennial Committee, University of Missouri–Rolla; 

and chairman for the fund drives for Cancer and Cerebral 

Palsy.

The Mid-Continent Mapping Center of the Topographic 

Division, U.S. Geological Survey, honored Daniel and Margaret Kennedy in a tribute to his 47 years of Government service 

upon his retirement as the Central Region Engineer on February 13, 1970. He also was honored by the Rolla Chamber of 

Commerce with a community appreciation luncheon. The 

guest speaker was Mr. Robert H. Lyddan, Chief Topographic 

Engineer. Following Mr. Lyddan, Rolla’s Mayor Curtis W. 

Logan presented him with a commemorative plaque. The 

highlight of the evening was a personal letter to Mr. Kennedy 

from President Nixon, read aloud by William Radlinski, commending Mr. Kennedy’s long service to Government through 

his vital role in the military and in our country’s topographic 

mapping effort.

Several gifts were presented to the Kennedys, including 

an unusual, airbrush contoured portrait of Mr. Kennedy prepared by photogrammetrists of the Rocky Mountain Region; 

as well as the traditional Division scroll and a check, contributed by Survey personnel; a memento of his field days; a 

“road-runner” desk ornament; and an honorary American Congress on Surveying and Mapping lifetime membership, which 

were presented by Mr. Earle J. Fennell, Executive Director, 

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Washington, 

D.C.

Dr. William C. Hayes, Missouri State Geologist, presented Mr. Kennedy with a composite map of a St. Louis 

Quadrangle, illustrating the high quality of mapping maintained through the years. An All Sportsman trophy was 

presented as a token of appreciation for his continuing support 

of all local Survey-sponsored athletic activities. A present 

from the Washington staff was a handcrafted table of Missouri 

walnut with a top of an inlaid copper press plate of the Big 

Clifty, Ky., Quadrangle, the first map that Mr. Kennedy compiled in the field as a junior engineer with the Survey.

In a celebration ceremony on his 99th birthday, at Fort 

Leonard Wood, Mo., he was awarded the Legion of Honor 

for service in France during World War I. Then, in honor of 

his 100th birthday, he was presented a letter wishing birthday 

greetings and commending him for his contributions to the 

United States, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S. Army 

for distinguished service in both World Wars.

Before his death on March 7, 2003, Mr. Kennedy 

authored a book recounting his life entitled, “SURVEYING 

THE CENTURY a Soldier of the Two World Wars, and Topographic Engineer, Remembers.”

Robert B. Marshall

Robert Bradford Marshall, a native of Virginia, with 

sparkling black eyes and a most dynamic personality, began 

work with the Geological Survey on March 16, 1889, as a field 

assistant. On January 1, 1890, he was appointed a topographic 

aid, and a topographer on November 1, 1890. He advanced 

through the various grades until he was appointed Chief 

Geographer on January 23, 1908. During 1916, he was Superintendent of National Parks, and in 1917, was commissioned 

a major, Engineer Officers Reserve Corps, and later advanced 

to lieutenant colonel. During this period he supervised military 

mapping along with his topographic duties. He was honorably discharged and on April 1, 1919, was reinstated as Chief 

Geographer. At his own request, he was relieved of these 

duties on September 30, 1919, and received an appointment 

as topographic engineer when actually employed. He did not 

again work for the Geological Survey and his services were 

terminated without prejudice June 30, 1925.

Mr. Marshall was a lifelong crusader for the physical and 

economic integration of water, power, and reforestation. He 

once said, “Land and water are eternal. Credit and prices are 

ephemeral. No real progress will ever be built on waste.” In 

1891, he came to California as a topographer and his technically trained eyes saw the paradox of millions of parched and 

burning acres in the summer, and millions of acre feet of water 

pouring wastefully into the Pacific Ocean during the winter 

and spring. So he dreamed a dream of storing the rain waters 

of the Sacramento, San Joaquin, and Santa Clara Valleys, and 

of Southern California, and during the next three decades he 

sought the engineering facts to pound his dream into reality. In 

1921, he went before the California Legislature and although 

called crazy, emerged with an appropriation of $200,000 for 

the State engineers to investigate his plan. That was the real 

start of the Central Valleys Project, which in those days was 

known as the Marshall Plan. Practically all of the bigger units 

of the project, such as the Shasta and Friant Dams, are basically the same as Mr. Marshall planned them.58 He died on 

June 21, 1949.

58 The Sacramento Bee, June 21, 1949.
164 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

T.P. Pendleton

Thomas P. Pendleton, a native of California, joined 

the Geological Survey in 1905 as a recorder, and received 

an appointment as Junior Topographer in 1909. From 1909 

through 1917, he mapped many areas in the western United 

States with the planetable. In 1918, he was commissioned a 

second lieutenant in the U.S. Engineers, and worked principally with the early development of the first tri-lens aerial 

camera, the training of personnel, and the development of 

radial line mapping methods. After the war, he rejoined the 

Survey and used the panoramic camera to map a part of 

Mount McKinley National Park in Alaska. In 1920, he was 

furloughed for a special mapping assignment in Turkey, and 

upon his return in 1921, was appointed Chief of the newlyformed Section of Photomapping. In 1922, he again requested 

furlough for topographic mapping in Palestine and the Balkan 

States, returning to head the Survey’s Photomapping Section 

in 1923.

In 1926, Mr. Pendleton resigned to accept a position as 

Chief Engineer of Brock and Weymouth, Inc., and for 5 years 

worked with the development of the Brock process and the 

production of maps with this method. In 1931, he was Chief 

Engineer of the Aerotopograph Corporation of America, 

with headquarters in Washington, D.C. In 1932, he reentered 

Government service as Chief Photocompiler for the Coast 

and Geodetic Survey, and in 1934, returned to the Geological Survey and directed a Tennessee Valley Authority mapping project on which about 500 engineers were employed. 

Later, he directed tests that resulted in the development of the 

Multiplex, an instrument for the projection of aerial maps in 

mapmaking, which is now in wide use. In 1942, he was Chief, 

Section of Photomapping, with headquarters at Washington, 

D.C.

From his earliest interest in the use of photography as an 

important tool in the production of maps more than 30 years 

ago, Mr. Pendleton followed through in the development of 

this idea. His perseverance and unswerving application under 

adverse circumstances in pioneering in the field of photogrammetry have been instrumental in the development of new 

mapping methods. He provided the leadership and initiative 

applying these new principles to the art of mapmaking. He 

was author of numerous technical articles on photogrammetry 

and mapping, and co-author of Bulletin No. 788, “Topographic 

Instructions of the U.S. Geological Survey.”

Mr. Pendleton received the following letter from Secretary Ickes, dated February 29, 1944:

“Enclosed is a formal notice of a salary increase 

which I have been glad to approve upon the recommendation of the Board of Awards of the Interior 

Department’s Suggestions System in recognition of 

your especially meritorious services in promoting 

the advancement of the stereoscopic method of mapping from aerial photographs.

“The notice carries its own story of material reward 

for your ingenuity and diligence, but I wish to add 

a personal word to express my own appreciation 

of, and thanks for, the splendid service that you 

have rendered. Never has there been greater need 

than now for all that intelligence and devotion can 

offer, and in behalf of the Department, and the 

public that it serves, I gratefully acknowledge your 

contribution.”

He was the official delegate of the Department of the 

Interior to the Second Pan American Consultation on Geography and Cartography held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, August 14 

to September 2, 1944.

Mr. Pendleton continued as Chief topographic engineer 

from March 18, 1943, to April 1, 1947, when he requested 

retirement following a long illness. He received the Distinguished Service Award from the Department of the Interior. 

His death occurred on May 28, 1954.

Albert Pike

Albert Pike, who succeeded Glenn S. Smith as Atlantic 

Division Engineer, was a native of Rockbridge County, Va. On 

March 1, 1890, he was appointed a messenger in the Interior 

Department. Three years later, while still in his teens, he was 

sent with a Geological Survey field party to New York State 

and traversed roads with a horse and buggy. On May 1, 1894, 

he was appointed assistant topographer and continued to map 

in whole, or in part, about 100 quadrangles in all parts of the 

country, establishing a reputation as a pace-maker in executing 

the ground surveys accurately, and in inking the field manuscripts for reproduction in the Washington office.

During World War I, he served as Captain, U.S. Engineers, overseas with the 42d Rainbow Division, as topographic 

officer. After his return to the Survey, he continued in charge 

of the Atlantic Division until he requested optional retirement 

on February 28, 1946, after 56 years of service with the Geological Survey. He died September 3, 1952.

On February 13, 1946, Mr. Pendleton wrote Mr. Pike as 

follows:

“Information came to me several days ago of your 

decision to retire in the near future, rather than continue the difficult duties you have carried for many 

years. Your record of service is so long and enviable 

that it cannot be enhanced by further attempts to 

extend it, so I believe your decision is a wise one.

“You are among the very few engineers who have 

personal knowledge of mapping methods originally 

employed in this country, as well as those that have 

come into use in recent years. Your familiarity with 

topography of this country is equally broad. It would 

seem to me that recollections of these things should 

compensate you in great measure for any regrets you 
Selected Biographies 165

might have in leaving the organization with which 

you have so long been associated.

“I fully concur with your belief that Dallas H. Watson is by experience, and by natural ability, the logical successor to your position as Division Engineer, 

and it pleases me to know that you recommend him 

so highly.”

John H. Renshawe

John Henry Renshawe was born on October 11, 1851, in 

a log house at Pattensburg, Ill. He graduated from the Lacon, 

Ill., high school and taught school for 2 years. From 1872 to 

1878, he was a member of the famous J.W. Powell exploring 

expeditions in Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. During these expeditions, he conducted operations on land, while Powell was 

making his two boat trips through the Grand Canyon. This was 

extremely difficult work, in country inhabited only by Indians, 

and hundreds of miles from the only transcontinental railroad.

Mr. Renshawe was appointed a topographer on the first 

staff of the U.S. Geological Survey, on July 10, 1879, and 

he was assigned to the Division of the Colorado. He did the 

survey of the Uinkaret District, Ariz., an area of 1,475 square 

miles, in an arid region with but one known living spring and 

scattered water pockets. During 1880 and 1881, he supervised 

the publication of topographic maps at New York City and the 

Washington office. From 1882 to 1885, he was in charge of the 

mapping of Yellowstone National Park. His party was struck 

by lightning while on Yellowstone Lake and Mr. Renshawe 

has the distinction of bearing the indelible marks of a lightning 

stroke, while still living. From 1896 to 1903, he was in charge 

of the Central Division of the Topographic Branch.

Coincident with the reorganization of the Topographic 

Branch on July 1, 1903, provision was made for the inspection 

of topographic surveying and mapping, and Mr. Renshawe, 

geographer, was placed in charge of that section. His duties 

were not administrative, but general, in character, and were 

carried on through consultation and collaboration with the 

chiefs of the eastern and western sections of topography. He 

kept in touch with the topographers in the field, criticized their 

expressions of topographic forms and their choice of essential 

details, and eliminated, as far as possible, their mannerisms 

and individualities in contour sketching, with a view of gaining uniformity in style and expression for similar features 

throughout the country. When Mr. Renshawe returned from 

the field late in October, he began work on a complete and 

systematic revision of the three-sheet wall map of the United 

States. The map was on a scale of 40 miles to 1 inch, with a 

contour interval of 1,000 feet, and was based on the detailed 

topographic maps of the Geological Survey. This map showed 

all state and county boundary lines, the names and location of 

county seats, all railroads, and principal drainage. The relief 

was treated somewhat broadly, as prescribed by the horizontal and vertical scale, but no effort was made to preserve the 

character of all topographic features.

From 1903 to 1914, Mr. Renshawe’s work as Inspector 

took him into every portion of the United States, and made 

him familiar with the various topographic types encountered 

between Canada and Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the 

Pacific, so that with his natural artistic ability, he perfected, 

through a deft manipulation of light and dark tints, a system of 

relief maps, and his general relief maps of the United States, 

Alaska, and various states have placed him foremost in this 

line of work. On July 1, 1920, he was placed in charge of 

the Section of Relief Maps. He also was an artist of note and 

specialized in water color landscapes.

Mr. Renshawe’s kindly unassuming manner endeared him 

to all of his associates and it became the custom, when passing 

his room, to enter for a few minutes, just to watch his easy 

manipulation of crayon or brush and the resulting symphony 

of color in maps or landscapes, and the members of the Topographic Branch who are fortunate enough to have “Renshawe 

Landscapes” will always treasure them.

On August 1, 1921, Philip S. Smith, Acting Director, 

wrote Mr. Renshawe as follows:

“I note from the personnel records that you will 

come within that provision of the act for retirement 

of employees in the Classified Civil Service, on 

October 11, 1921, which states that employees in the 

Classified Civil Service who have reached the age 

of 70 years and rendered at least 15 years of service 

shall be eligible for retirement.

“I am, however going to take advantage of that 

provision contained in the bill which permits your 

further employment for 2-year periods and ask for 

your extension, but I can give you no assurance as 

to when action will be taken on my recommendations, or whether they will be approved by the 

Department. This action is prompted because of 

my intimate knowledge of your present active work 

in developing the unique art of portraying vividly 

the topography of our country. The shaded maps of 

the United States, and of parts of the desert regions 

that have been published are masterpieces, and the 

maps on which you are now engaged of California 

and other parts of the West can only be brought to 

successful completion by yourself. The Geological 

Survey needs you, and I hope that it meets with your 

approval to have the necessary steps taken which 

will keep you in our official family. Won’t you 

advise me in writing your wishes in this matter?”

And now Mr. Renshawe’s reply:

“Please allow me to express my appreciation of your 

generous reference to my work, and to thank you for 

your offer to take the initiative in recommending the 

extension of my active service beyond the time limit 
166 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

fixed by the retirement act for employees in the civil 

service.

“Aside from my personal inclination as to retention in active service, I would like to finish several 

important pieces of work that I have in hand, and to 

assist in a fuller development and application of the 

system of mapmaking that I have introduced in the 

Survey.

“So, considering everything, I shall be glad to benefit by the provision in the retirement act, allowing 

for limited periods of retention in active service.”

On August 4, 1921, the Topographic Branch prepared the 

following memorandum for the Acting Director:

“Mr. J.H. Renshawe, Geographer-in-Charge of Section of Relief Maps, will reach the retirement age 

of 70 years on October 11, 1921, and under the law, 

will be separated from the Topographic Branch of 

the Geological Survey, unless action is taken at once 

for his retention on active duty.

“Mr. Renshawe has served the U.S. Government 

49 years, of this time, he has spent in the Topographic Branch of the Geological Survey, 42 years, 

holding various positions from that of assistant to 

geographer-in-charge of a division, and later that 

of chief inspector of topography. During the past 

10 years, he has initiated and perfected the method 

of map shading in producing relief maps, to such 

point as to interest geographers throughout the 

world, and he is today considered the greatest expert 

in this line. The demand on the Geological Survey 

for this class of map work from various Governmental sources is so great that it is impossible to fulfill 

but a small percentage of the requests. Should the 

Geological Survey lose Mr. Renshawe’s services 

through retirement in the near future, it would be 

impossible to replace him, thus a large number of 

maps now in progress of preparation by this method 

would have to be discontinued, or be completed by 

inexperienced personnel.

“In addition to being actively engaged in the 

numerous maps, Mr. Renshawe is instructing an 

understudy who, it is hoped, will develop to such 

an extent that he can carry on this specialized work 

when Mr. Renshawe reaches an age when it will be 

necessary for him to abandon active duty.

“Mr. Renshawe’s retention on active duty cannot 

be too strongly urged for the reasons above stated, 

especially as he is physically able to perform his 

duties to the fullest extent, and the loss of his services to the Government, especially to the Geological Survey in the near future, would be impossible to 

estimate.”

Mr. Renshawe received a 2-year extension, and a further 

2-year extension, and was finally retired on June 30, 1925. He 

died on October 25, 1934, after 83 years of creative living.

Carl L. Sadler

Carl L. “Cap” Sadler succeeded Glenn S. Smith as Central Division Engineer upon his retirement on April 30, 1940. 

Mr. Sadler was a native of Arkansas, a graduate of the Arkansas State University as a civil engineer, and had spent most of 

his years in the states of the Mississippi Valley since he began 

as a traverseman with the Topographic Branch in 1899. He 

served as Captain, U.S. Engineers, during World War I, and 

afterwards was retained in the Central Division. Mr. Sadler 

was already well established in Rolla, Mo., where his section 

had maintained a field office for years and, since September 

1933, a permanent headquarters. He continued as Central 

Division Engineer until his retirement on June 30, 1948. His 

citation for the Distinguished Service Award was as follows:

“Early demonstration of his ability to make topographic surveys, and with a capacity for hard work, 

extending far beyond normal requirements, he was 

soon recognized as a natural leader who invited 

responsibilities. He was advanced through the ranks 

to be appointed Division Engineer-in-Charge of 

the Central Division, the position which he held at 

retirement. Mr. Sadler was untiring in his efforts to 

extend operations in his Division. Always impatient with slow processes, he set the pace for map 

production. He was intensely loyal and drove hard 

to accomplish results. He demanded and obtained 

great production effort from all of his staff, and was 

able to secure the maximum amount of mapping at 

a minimum of cost. Because of the care and energy 

with which he managed these activities, he was 

eminently successful in promoting and continuing 

state cooperative mapping projects. His accomplishment in that work have been praised by many State 

officials * * *.”

Mr. Sadler died in Rolla, Mo., on August 19, 1982.

Rufus H. Sargent

On March 1, 1937, William M. Beaman, Chief, Section of Inspection and Editing, died, and on April 1, Rufus S. 

Sargent was appointed Chief of that Section. Mr. Sargent, a 

native of Maine, joined the Geological Survey in June 1898, 

as traverseman and was engaged on surveys in the Black Hills 

of South Dakota, and the northern Rocky Mountains near 

the Canadian Border. He was appointed an assistant topographer on June 19, 1900, and because of his skill in the use of 

the planetable and his ability to carry on accurate mapping, 

in spite of hardships and unexpected emergencies, he was 

selected for work in Alaska in 1906.
Selected Biographies 167

Mr. Sargent spent 28 seasons in Alaska conducting reconnaissance expeditions into the far reaches of this unexplored 

territory. His urge for geographical conquests led him to 

undertake several expeditions into foreign countries for which 

he was granted furloughs. In 1903 to 1904, he was with the 

Carnegie Institute Expedition into China, where he mapped 

unexplored reaches of the Yellow River. As topographer for 

the Bolivia–Argentine Exploration Corporation in 1920 to 

1921, he mapped rugged wilderness areas in South America. 

In 1907, and again in 1926 to 1927, he explored and mapped 

difficult terrain in Mexico for various mining companies.

He was Chief, Section of Inspection and Editing from 

April 1, 1937, to his retirement on March 31, 1947, having 

been retained for 16 months on extensions beyond statutory 

retirement age. In that position, he kept pace with the rapidly 

developing new science of photogrammetry, as applied to map 

making, and inaugurated many changes in the practices of 

cartography and in the processes of map reproduction. When 

it became necessary in 1942 to relieve the congestion in the 

Washington office, he selected quarters in Clarendon, Va., and 

established a branch drafting office.

In every sense a geographer, Mr. Sargent sought to pass 

on to others his knowledge of foreign lands through lectures 

and written articles, and he brought to all of his work and 

activity a zeal, enthusiasm, and ability that marks him as true 

explorer and pioneer. His love of nature and keen sense have 

added a human touch that makes his accomplishments stand 

out with all who knew him. He received the Distinguished 

Service Award from the Department of the Interior. His death 

occurred December 27, 1951.

Glenn S. Smith

Glenn Shepard Smith was with the Geological Survey as 

a field assistant during 1888 and 1889, and was appointed an 

assistant topographer on January 1, 1890. He was employed 

until December 31, 1892. In 1895, he worked as a field assistant at Cowee, N.C. and in 1896 and part of 1897, as a field 

assistant on the Indian Territory Survey. He was appointed an 

assistant topographer on July 6, 1897, and advanced through 

the various grades to Topographic Engineer. During 1916, he 

was in charge of the Central Division while W.H. Herron was 

Acting Chief Geographer. January 11, 1917, by Survey Order 

No. 78, he was given charge of the new Division of Military 

Surveys. June 22, 1917, he was commissioned major in the 

Engineer Officers Reserve Corps, and later was given the rank 

of lieutenant colonel. Overseas, he was Assistant to the Chief 

of Topographical Division, General Staff, G.H.Q., in charge 

of all field topographic mapping, and organization of the 

Base Printing Plant. Colonel Smith also was Director of the 

Base Printing Plant, 29th Engineers, in charge of topographic 

mapping. On July 1, 1919, Colonel Smith was relieved of his 

duties in connection with military surveys, and designated 

Topographic Engineer-in-Charge of the Division of West 

Indian Surveys. He was honorably discharged on December 

28, 1920, and reinstated in the Geological Survey.

He continued in charge of the Santo Domingo Surveys, 

and also was acting chief topographic engineer when the 

chief topographic engineer was absent. On March 8, 1924, he 

became Division Engineer-in-Charge of the Atlantic Division, 

and also in that year, Secretary to the Southern Appalachian 

Park Commission. He resigned his position as Atlantic Division Engineer on September 9, 1929, and was kept on the rolls 

as chief engineer, when actually employed. He continued as 

Interior Department representative with the Southern Appalachian Park Commission. In December 1930, he was appointed 

Topographic Engineer-in-Charge of the Central Division and 

continued in this position, with 1-year’s extension, until his 

compulsory retirement on April 30, 1940. He died on June 2, 

1951.

John G. Staack

John George Staack, a native of Wisconsin, graduated 

from the University of Wisconsin with a bachelor of science 

degree in civil engineering in 1904. During the summer of 

1902 and 1903, he worked with topographic field parties and 

received a topographic aid appointment with the U.S. Geological Survey on July 1, 1904. During the period 1904–07, he 

was assigned to quadrangles possessing many types of land 

forms in states of the Mississippi Valley and as far west as the 

Pacific Coast.

During World War I, he served nearly 2 years as Captain 

with the Corps of Engineers on assignments mapping strategic areas in the United States. After the War, for a number 

of years, he obtained furloughs from the Geological Survey 

during July to instruct students in the Surveying Camp of the 

University of Wisconsin at Devil’s Lake. For this instruction 

in planetable methods as practiced by the Topographic Branch, 

he received expressions of gratitude from the University 

authorities who appreciated his pleasing personality, teaching 

methods, and ability to make good topographic engineers from 

raw material.

His expert knowledge of the intricate topography of the 

glaciated and the unglaciated areas of the Upper Mississippi 

Valley led to his assignment, in 1924, as Chief of the Great 

Lakes Section, comprising the States of Minnesota, Iowa, 

Wisconsin, Michigan, and Illinois. His duties in these cooperating states included the supervision of field surveys and office 

drafting, which resulted in many outstanding surveys of this 

region.

On September 10, 1929, Mr. Staack was appointed chief 

topographic engineer, and for the following 13.5 years he 

guided the Topographic Branch through trying depression 

years and into the expanding activities required by the Armed 

Forces during World War II. The administration of a large Public Works Administration mapping program from 1933 to 1940 

resulted in the employment and training of many engineers, 

and the maintenance of extensive topographic surveys. In 
168 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

1933, a Branch Office was established at Chattanooga, Tenn., 

in cooperation with the Tennessee Valley Authority to map the 

Tennessee River Basin. During this period, the application of 

aerial photography and photogrammetry to topographic mapping was advanced through several stages in development.

With the increased demand of the Armed Services for 

maps of strategic areas, a large expansion of survey activity was begun in 1941. The increasing administrative problems and the necessity of maintaining maximum production 

of all mapping projects placed an increasing burden on the 

chief topographic engineer, as the number of employees and 

amount of appropriations increased two and one-half fold. In 

1942, Mr. Staack was relieved of some of these duties by the 

appointment of Mr. Thomas P. Pendleton, outstanding photogrammetrist, as chief topographic engineer, and Mr. Staack 

continued his valuable services to the Survey as the assistant 

chief topographic engineer until his voluntary retirement on 

June 30, 1947.

The Distinguished Service Award was bestowed upon 

Mr. Staack by the Department of the Interior in recognition of 

services rendered through his ability and steadfast loyalty in 

the administration of the Topographic Branch during some of 

the most trying years of its history, and the maintenance and 

improvement of the high quality and standards of the topographic surveys.

Frank Sutton

Frank Sutton graduated, with a degree in civil engineering, from the Pennsylvania Military College in 1879. Between 

1879 and 1886, he was employed in railroad location and 

construction. On April 3, 1886, he was appointed a draftsman 

in the Geological Survey, and on October 15, 1888, became 

a topographer. His natural ability as a topographer, combined with his training as an engineer, attained for him rapid 

promotions, and in 1906 he reached the grade of Geographerin-Charge of the Atlantic Division. He was commissioned a 

major in the Engineer Officers Reserve Corps on January 23, 

1917, and was called to active duty on June 22, 1917. Major 

Sutton was first assigned to special topographic mapping 

duty with the Geological Survey, and was later assigned to 

duty with the 25th, 29th, and 304th Engineers, having command of the latter. He served in France from August 1918 to 

April 1919, returned to the United States, and was honorably 

discharged on April 7, 1919. He was reinstated in his former 

position of geographer in the Geological Survey, which position he held until his retirement on account of ill health on 

March 7, 1924. His stability of character, devotion to duty, 

shrewd wisdom, and fine sense of humor made for him a host 

of friends. He died on July 22, 1926.

Sledge Tatum

Mr. Tatum was appointed surveyor in the U.S. Geological Survey in May 1895, and spent several years surveying 

land lines in Indian Territory. In 1899, he was appointed 

topographer and extended triangulation in various states. 

In 1903, he surveyed forest boundaries in Washington and 

Idaho, and the following year executed triangulation along 

the International Boundary. On June 10, 1905, he was 

transferred to the Department of Engineering, Isthmian 

Canal Commission. He began work in the Canal Zone as 

instrumentman on the Chagres River surveys, and advanced 

rapidly, at one time having charge of all the survey parties in 

the field, both on the Chagres River Division and the Canal 

Zone boundary. On November 1, 1908, Mr. Tatum became 

superintendent of construction and was employed on the 

building of the Gatum Dam.

He resigned on February 8, 1909, to accept a transfer to 

the U.S. Geological Survey, and was assigned to special investigations until his appointment as Geographer-in-Charge of the 

Rocky Mountain Division. On June 10, 1910, E.C. Barnard 

was detailed to the State Department for work on the United 

States and Canada Boundary Survey, and Sledge Tatum was 

placed in charge of the Rocky Mountain Division. He was one 

of those rare combinations of thorough administrative ability, 

good judgment, and consideration of the rights of others. A tall 

man with personal charm and a ready smile, he had the respect 

and friendship of his fellow workers. He was Acting Chief 

Geographer from December 10, 1915, to his death on January 

18, 1916.

Almon H. Thompson

Almon Harris Thompson was born at Stoddard, N.H., on 

September 24, 1839. He graduated from Wheaton College, 

Ill., in 1861, and soon afterwards he married Ellen L. Powell, 

sister of his lifelong friend, Maj. J.W. Powell. During the Civil 

War, he served as first lieutenant, 139th Illinois Volunteer 

Infantry. After the war, he returned to Illinois where he served 

as Superintendent of Schools at Lacon (1865–67) and Bloomington (1867–68), and as Acting Curator of the Illinois Natural 

History Society (1869). His career as professional geographer 

began at the age of 31, when Powell selected him as scientific associate on a reconnaissance traverse from Salt Lake, 

southern Utah, across the Colorado and through the Navajo 

country, which ended at Fort Defiance, December 5, 1870. The 

purpose of this traverse was to make preparations for the systematic exploration and mapping of the Colorado River and its 

adjoining lands, the task assumed by Thompson for the period 

1871–78, part of which (1871–75) is covered in his diary. This 

diary has been published by the Utah State Historical Society59

and is very interesting. A short outline states that Professor 

Thompson was astronomer and topographer, second Powell 

expedition, and Rocky Mountain exploration expedition. Following are some excerpts from his diary.

59 Diary of Almon Harris Thompson, published by the Utah State Historical 

Society, v. VII, nos. 1, 2, and 3, January, April, and July 1939. Introduction by 

Herbert E. Gregory, Geologist, U.S.Geological Survey.
Selected Biographies 169

“May 1871 to November 28, 1871. Down the Green 

and Colorado Rivers. November 29, 1871, to August 

13, 1872; Fieldwork. Kanab to mouth of Dirty 

Devil, overland. August 13 to September 1871. 

Through the Grand Canyon.

“September 1, 1872, to June 4, 1873. Topographic 

work, Kanab, St. George, Pipe Springs, Paria, etc. 

September 8 to December 24, 1873, ditto. 1875, 

Topographic work. Gunnison, Castle Valley, Kaiparowitz Plateau, Warm Creek, Paria.”

Professor Thompson possessed that rare combination of 

qualities that brings success to the explorer: a rigid insistence 

on discipline and order of procedure, kindness toward his 

subordinates, and sympathetic interest in the native people 

with whom he came in contact. Though in no sense egotistical, 

he had the confidence that views difficulties merely as routine 

problems capable of solution. His peace of mind seems to 

have been little disturbed by the dangers and hardships of field 

work.

A diary entry for February 17, 1873, states: “Got map 

finished. Fred and Jack started for Panguitch or farther.” In 

these few words are recorded the completion and dispatch to 

Washington of the first map ever made of southern Utah and 

of the canyon of the Green and the Colorado Rivers; a map 

resulting from nearly 2 years of arduous and skilful work in 

a region largely uninhabited. These maps of the Colorado 

drainage basin place Thompson in the front rank of geographic 

explorers. Entries in the diary and his paper on “The Irrigable 

Lands of Utah,” that reveal keen insight into utilization of 

natural resources, add to his reputation.60

On July 15, 1882, Professor Thompson accepted a position with the U.S. Geological Survey, and he was permanently 

appointed a geographer on August 11, 1882, and placed in 

charge of the Wingate Division of the Topographic Branch. 

On July 1, 1884, he was ordered to take charge, besides the 

old Wingate Division, of the topographic fieldwork in Texas, 

Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas; the whole to be known as 

the Southwestern Division. On May 1, 1885, the Southwestern Division was extended to include the California Division 

and the name was changed to the Western Division. Professor 

Thompson was given charge of this Western Division. He was 

geographer under Henry Gannett from September 11, 1885, 

to December 28, 1888, in charge of the Western Division and 

made western field trips each summer.

During 1889 to 1890, Professor Thompson was in charge 

of the topographic work of the Irrigation Survey. The Western 

Section was reorganized and its personnel, as well as some 

men from the Eastern Section, were transferred to the Irrigation Survey. From September 1, 1890, to June 9, 1894, he 

continued in charge of the surveys west of the 100th meridian. 

Professor Thompson extended triangulation in the States of 

Colorado, Kansas, Texas, Arizona, Montana, Pennsylvania, 

60 Introduction to published Diary by Herbert E. Gregory, Geologist, 

U.S.Geological Survey.

Ohio, and New York from 1894 to 1902. He assisted in the 

preparation and installation of the Geological Survey exhibit 

at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and on May 1, 1904, 

proceeded to St. Louis to take charge of the exhibit. From 

1903 to 1906, he worked in office computations and as assistant in charge of office work to both the Eastern and Western 

Sections. He aided Messrs. Wilson and Douglas, during their 

absence on field inspection, by approving vouchers and looking after routine correspondence. He died on July 31, 1906, 

and was buried in Arlington Cemetery.

Gilbert Thompson

Gilbert Thompson was born at Blackstone, Mass., in 

1839. He had a common school education and was a printer 

by trade. Mr. Thompson was a soldier with a U.S. Engineers 

Battalion from November 22, 1861, to November 21, 1864; 

an assistant engineer with the Headquarters Army of the 

Potomac (1864–65); on western explorations and surveys, etc., 

(1886–79);61 and topographer on the Wheeler Survey. He is 

also said to have been the first person to make official use of 

fingerprints in the United States.

When asked how he became a topographer, Mr. Thompson liked to tell the following story:

In 1861, when he enlisted in Boston, he was asked what 

he was engaged in and replied, “I am a printer.” He was 

ordered to the front immediately, and when he reached the 

mobilization camp, was sent to a section in which there were 

only officers. He asked a young officer about it and he replied, 

“You are an artist, I believe.” “No,” said Mr. Thompson. 

“When you enlisted and were asked what business you were 

engaged in, did you not say you were a painter?” “No, I said I 

was a printer.” “Well,” said the officer, for heaven’s sake don’t 

say anything. You have been assigned to the engineer branch 

of the service.” Then the officer took Mr. Thompson back of 

his tent and showed him how to use a compass, pace distances, 

sketch topography, etc., and thus he became a topographer. 

(One of the best topographers the Geological Survey ever 

had.)

On May 1, 1880, Mr. Thompson was appointed a 

topographer with the U.S. Geological Survey, and assigned as 

topographer with G.K. Gilbert, Division of the Great Basin, 

to locate the shores of Lake Bonneville, Utah. The maps were 

compiled at the Salt Lake City office and Mr. Gilbert in his 

report to the Director in the Second Annual Report, 1880 to 

1881, states:

“The field and office labors of my assistants have, 

without exception, been characterized by zeal and 

efficiency. The mapped outline of the lake, which 

constitutes the most tangible of our results, is a 

joint work to which each has contributed his quota. 

Drawn upon a larger scale by Mr. Thompson, it will 

be issued with the monograph of Lake Bonneville, 

61 Who’s Who in America, 1906–07.
170 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

now in preparation. The same volume will contain 

numerous local maps by Messrs. Wheeler, Thompson, Webster, and Johnson, and a report on the 

hypsometric work by Mr. Webster. These will speak 

for themselves in due time and need no commendation here.”

On August 3, 1881, he left Salt Lake City and proceeded 

to Fort Wingate, N. Mex., where he assumed charge of the 

Wingate Division. From January 10, 1882, to June 30, 1882, 

he was acting chief topographer. He was placed in charge of 

the District of the Pacific, which was later called the California Division, and from 1882 to 1883, he completed a detailed 

map of Mount Shasta and its immediate surroundings. A field 

map covering about 24,000 square miles in northern California

was now ready for the use of the geologists. On July 1, 1884, 

he was given charge of the Appalachian Division, comprising 

the country south of the Mason and Dixon Line and the Ohio 

River and east of the Mississippi River. In 1887, the name 

was changed to the Southeastern Division. Mr. Thompson was 

Chief Geographer from July 10, 1890, to June 30, 1894, in 

charge of the Southeastern Division. From 1894 to 1895, he 

was in the field on revision work of the Bristol and Abingdon 

Quadrangles, Va., and in 1896–97, he extended triangulation 

and primary traverse in the State of Tennessee. Office work 

was the revision of the nine-sheet U.S. map. During 1898, he 

mapped 143 square miles on the Helena Special Quadrangle, 

Mont. From 1899 to 1909, he was in the Washington office. 

He was commander of an engineers’ battalion, D.C. Militia, 

from 1890 to 1908.

Tribute to Gilbert Thompson

Maj. Gilbert Thompson, the oldest member of the Topographic Branch of the Geological Survey died suddenly on 

Tuesday June 8, 1909, and at a meeting of the members of the 

U.S. Geological Survey, held on June 10, the following resolution was adopted, which has been embossed and transmitted to 

Mrs. Thompson.

“The members of the U.S. Geological Survey have 

learned with deep sorrow of the sudden death of 

their friend and associate—Maj. Gilbert Thompson

“His long, honorable, and valuable service upon the 

Survey; his devotion to duty; and his genial, kindly 

disposition, make his departure a serious loss to us 

all.

“We wish to express to his wife and daughter the 

high appreciation in which he was held among 

us, and to extend heartfelt sympathy in their 

bereavement.”

Dallas H. Watson

During Mr. Pike’s absences from the Washington office, 

the direction of the Atlantic Division had been for several 

years in the hands of Dallas H. Watson, who continued as 

acting division engineer until his appointment as Atlantic Division Engineer on April 17, 1946.

Mr. Watson, a native of Oklahoma, was educated in the 

State’s Agricultural and Mechanical College, emerging with a 

bachelor of science degree. in civil engineering. He received 

an appointment as topographic aid on June 1, 1911, and 

worked in all parts of the country, specializing in topographic 

mapping and triangulation.

During World War I, he served in France as Captain of 

Artillery, and after his return to the Survey, was detailed to 

Santo Domingo for topographic mapping during the period 

August 16, 1919, to August 15, 1921. In 1922, he was in 

charge of Puerto Rico topographic mapping; in 1931, Senior 

Topographic Engineer-in-Charge of the New England Section; 

in 1940, Supervisor at Large, Atlantic Division; and in 1946, 

Atlantic Division Engineer, which position he has held for 8 

years.

Herbert M. Wilson

Herbert Michael Wilson was born at Glasgow, Scotland 

in 1860. He studied at Plainfield, N.J., and Cooper Union, 

N.Y., and received a degree in civil engineering in 1881 from 

the Columbia School of Mines. He was a railway engineer 

in Mexico from 1881 to 1882. On August 12, 1882, he was 

appointed a topographer with the U.S. Geological Survey, 

and from 1882 to 1885, was assigned to the Wingate Division under A.H. Thompson. He was then given charge of the 

Gold Belt subsection, and later of the California subsection 

field work. On May 25, 1889, he was appointed an engineer 

in the Irrigation Survey, and on December 1, 1889, he was 

sent to India, where irrigation had been practiced for centuries 

and was well developed, for the purpose of making investigations. He reached Bombay on January 13, 1890, and, after an 

exhaustive investigation in the interior of India, he returned to 

Bombay on March 3, and traveled via Cairo, Rome, and Paris, 

and arrived in Washington on April 15. His observations were 

embodied in a report published in Part II, Irrigation, of the 

Director’s annual report for 1889 to 1890. He was appointed 

geographer on September 3, 1890, and from 1890 to 1894, he 

was in charge of the Northeastern Division.

From July 1, 1894, to June 25, 1896, he was a Chief 

Geographer, and at the same time he was in charge of the 

Atlantic Section, which comprised the former Northeastern 

and Southeastern Divisions. From July 1, 1896, to 1903, he 

was a member of the Topographic Committee, as well as in 

charge of the Atlantic Section. From 1903 to 1907, he was 

Geographer-in-Charge with E.M. Douglas, of the Topographic 

Branch, and in charge of the Eastern Section. On April 6, 

1907, he was transferred to the new Section of Technology, 
Selected Biographies 171

Geological Survey, as chief engineer. The Technology Section became the Bureau of Mines on July 1, 1910, and he was 

engineer-in-charge from 1910 to 1914. Mr. Wilson was Director of the Department of Inspection and Safety of the Associated Insurance Companies of Hartford, Conn., from 1915 to 

his death on November 25, 1920.

Mr. Wilson lectured extensively on irrigation, geography, fuel testing, smoke abatement, mine fires and rescue, 

fire proofing building construction, swamp reclamation, etc. 

He was the author of the “Manual of Irrigation Engineering,” 

1893; “Topographic Surveying”, 1899; American Civil Engineers’ Pocket Book; official reports; and numerous magazine 

articles on the above mentioned subjects.62

Robert S. Woodward

Robert Simpson Woodward was born at Rochester, Mich. 

He attended the Rochester Academy and received a degree in 

civil engineering from the University of Michigan in 1872. 

He received many honorary degrees from various universities 

during his lifetime.

From 1872 to 1882, Dr. Woodward was an assistant engineer with the U.S. Lake Survey. He was an astronomer with 

the U.S. Transit of Venus Commission from 1882 to 1884, and 

was appointed an astronomer with the Topographic Branch 

of the U.S. Geological Survey on July 17, 1884. In 1885, he 

was promoted to geographer and placed in charge of the new 

Astronomic and Computing Section. On January 1, 1889, he 

was promoted to Chief Geographer, and resigned on June 30, 

1890.

In his 11th Annual Report, 1889–90, Part I, Geology, 

Director Powell states:

“Mr. R.S. Woodward’s resignation was accepted 

with regret, as this Survey can ill afford to lose his 

rare ability for mathematical research. Since his first 

association with the Survey in 1884, he has not only 

supervised the computations made in connection 

with the triangulation and astronomic determinations, conducted the computation of a series of 

tables for the use of the Topographic Branch, and 

given aid to geologists having occasion to treat their 

data by mathematical methods, but he has made 

62 Who’s Who in America, 1919.

important additions to geologic science by discussing and advancing, on several lines, the theories of 

terrestrial physics . . . .”

Following are excerpts from the “Memoirs of Robert 

Simpson Woodward,” by F.E. Wright:

“In 1890, Mr. Woodward resigned from the 

Geological Survey to accept a position with the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Because of his 

long experience in precise triangulation, he was 

called upon to ‘devise means of testing in the 

most thorough way practicable, the efficiency of 

the various forms of base apparatus used by the 

Survey, especially the efficiency of long steel tapes 

or wires.’ He devised the iced bar apparatus for 

measuring base lines and for calibrating steel tapes. 

He was also the first to measure primary base lines 

with long steel tapes, and to prove that these tapes 

furnish the required degree of accuracy, namely, 

one part in one million * * *.

“In 1893, Dr. Woodward was called to Columbia 

University as Professor of Mechanics and Mathematical Physics. From that time on, his work was 

that of the teacher and administrator. In 1895, he 

became dean of the College of Pure Science, and 

was confronted with many problems that required 

tact and perseverance for their solution* * *.”

Dr. Woodward was President of the Carnegie Institution 

from December 13, 1904, to January 1, 1921, and during his 

administration, the Institution grew and flourished, and contributed much to the development of science in this country. 

He received many honors from different scientific societies.

In closing Mr. Wright states:

“In addition to his great attainments, Dr. Woodward 

possessed a simplicity and open friendliness of manner and character that endeared him to young and 

old alike. It was a privilege to know him, to feel his 

radiant enthusiasm, and to be uplifted by his hopeful 

outlook on this world and its many problems.”63

Dr. Woodward died on June 29, 1924.

63 National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A., v. XIX–XX, Biographical Memoirs—Robert Simpson Woodward, 1849–1924, by F.W. Wright.
172 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)
Index 173

Index

15th Air Force 116

29th Engineers 77, 78, 79, 87, 161, 167

42d Rainbow Division 164

46th Massachusetts Infantry 153

138th Infantry 162

139th Illinois Volunteer Infantry 168

304th Engineers 168

1681st Engineer Survey Liaison Detachment 162

A

Abbott, H.L. 1

Abingdon, Va.–N.C. 43

Abingdon Quadrangle, Va. 170

Adams Building 72

Adams, R.E 81

Addi, Edward T. 132, 133

Adirondacks, N.Y. 13

aerocartograph 99, 102, 128

Aeronautical Chart Service 64, 111, 116, 126, 154, 155

aeroprojector 128

Aerotopograph Corporation of America 152, 164

Agassiz, Alex 5

Agricultural and Mechanical College 170

Aguadilla 86

Ahern, Jeremiah 37

Aid, Harry 81

Aid, Kenneth 81

Airborne Profile Recorder 129

Air Corps, U.S. Army 88, 96, 154

Alabama 12, 19, 24, 26, 29, 40, 58, 92, 98, 123, 128, 140, 

144, 145

Alaska 26, 27, 29, 31, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 73, 96, 103, 104, 

111, 112, 113, 116, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, 146, 

147, 149, 151, 154, 160, 165, 166, 167

Alaska Aerial Survey Expedition 64

Alaskan Branch 63, 64, 75, 112

Alaskan Division 160

Alaska Survey 138, 139

Albany Medical College 2

Albaugh’s Theater 20

Albion College 151

Albuquerque, N. Mex 17

Alcan Highway 149

Alexander, Col. Roger G. 77, 79

Alidade, Wilson 132

Allen, J.B 81, 85

Allen, William A. 132

Allen, W.R 81

Alsing, A.A. 81

Altenhofen, Robert E. 105, 132, 137

American Association of Petroleum Geologists 119

American Civil Engineers’ Pocket Book 171

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping 106, 107, 

110, 111, 138, 139, 149, 151, 163

American Expeditionary Forces 79, 152

American Falls 18

American Geographical Society 103, 152

American Mining and Metal Congress 119

American Society of Civil Engineers 111, 119, 134, 135, 

138, 154, 162

American Society of Military Engineers 87

American Society of Photogrammetry 104, 105, 110, 111, 

119, 137, 138, 163

Amiens 77

AMS 150

Anderson, C.G. 69, 70, 81

Anderson, J.L. 81

Anderson, Mary 20

Andreas, A.H.L. 81

Andrews, A.K 81

A.K. Andrews 67

Angola, Aferica 131

Annapolis, Md. 77, 152

Ann Arbor, Mich. 151

Antarctic Circle 149

Anthony, Kans. 22

Aplin, Stephen A., Jr. 18, 19, 37, 56

Appalachian Division 170

Appalachian Mountain Region 43

Appalachian Mountains 12, 156

Appalachian Region 17, 29, 71

Appleby, Arnold H., Jr 132

Appropriations and Reorganization 41

Archer, S.R. 118

Arctic Circle 149

Arctic Coal Company 61

Arctic Ocean 154

Agramonte, Eugenio Sanchez 86

Argentina 61

Arizona 3, 8, 9, 12, 24, 29, 51, 54, 55, 70, 90, 91, 92, 98, 

124, 128, 140, 144, 145, 149, 153, 160, 165, 169

Arkansas 12, 14, 21, 26, 40, 42, 44, 45, 89, 90, 92, 98, 100, 

123, 128, 138, 140, 144, 145, 153, 161, 166, 169

Arkansas–Mississippi Boundary Line 89

Arkansas River 21, 44, 161

Arkansas state line 45

Arkansas State University 166

Arlington Cemetery 106, 169
174 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Arlington, Va. 103, 108, 123, 129

Armed Services 107, 108, 168

Armistice Day 78

Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago 154

Army Air Forces 64, 75, 107, 108, 109, 111, 113, 154

Army Air Service 64

Army Engineer Corps 152

Army Map Service 107, 108, 128, 138, 162

Army of Occupation 78, 79

Army of the Potomac 169

Army, U.S. 1, 3, 12, 53, 57, 69, 73, 77, 80, 84, 85, 87, 90, 

96, 116, 162, 163

Arnold, C.W. 70

Arthur, B.E. 81

Artillery School 78

Ashland, Oreg. 51

Ashley, George H. 159

Ask, R.E. 105

Associated Insurance Companies of Hartford, Conn. 171

Astronomic and Computing Section 17, 18, 52, 171

Atkins, John D. 10

Atlantic Coast 160

Atlantic Division 62, 70, 73, 76, 78, 92, 95, 96, 97, 100, 102, 

103, 112, 113, 122, 137, 160, 161, 164, 167, 168, 170

Atlantic, map of the 91

Atlantic Ocean 79, 161, 165

Atlantic Section 44, 48, 56, 95, 170

Austin, Tex. 16

Australia 119

Austria 107, 108

Ayer, Mass 77

Ayres, H.B. 50

Ayers, R.E. 81

B

Bagley, F.A. 81

Bagley, James W. 64, 80, 81, 88

Bailey, Joe K. 103, 135, 137

Baird, W.E. 85, 118, 137

Baker, Marcus 22, 23, 38, 41, 44, 151

Baker, Melville, Jr. 67

Bakersfield Quadrangle, Calif. 154

Baldwin, D.H. 59, 69

Baldwin, Harry L., Jr. 18, 21, 34, 37, 48, 54, 58, 63

Baldwin, Jeremiah 7

Baldwin Solar Chart 59

Baldwin, S.T., Jr. 81

Balkans 116

Balkan States 164

Ballmer, N.E. 66, 70, 75, 81

Bandli, E.M. 68, 81

Bane, Edgar M. 23

Bangs, Jas. E. 7

Bannon, Thomas M. 37, 39, 86

Bardsley, C.E. 89

Barnard, Edward C. 37, 53, 62, 63, 135, 151, 168

Barnekov, C.C. 133

Barner, Edward F. 130

Barringer, W.H. 66

Base Printing Plant 77, 78, 79, 80, 167

Bassett, Charles C. 14, 37

Bass, Mr. 55

Bass-Shinumo Trail 54

Bass Trail 55

Bastian, Joe 85

Bastian, W.C.F. 80, 81

bateau 56

Batten, G.L. 81

Battery, The 22

Battlement Mesa, Colo. 51

Battle of Kingston, N.C. 153

Bauer, B.P. 81

Bausch & Lomb Optical Company 102

Beaman Arc 58, 152

Beaman stadia arc 122

Beaman, William M. 36, 37, 58, 62, 89, 90, 91, 95, 152, 166

Beames, Walter S. 81, 118, 132

Bean, H.A. 111, 137

Bean, Russell K. 102, 105, 112, 135, 137

Bear River 38

Becker, Geo. F. 7

Bedford, Va. 160

Beitle, Ralph L. 132

Belgium 77, 107, 108, 119

Bell, Alexander Graham 36

Bell, F.V. 81

Bell, H.S. 81

Belton, R.J 137

Bemis, E.L. 81

Berger, C.L. & Sons 154

Bering Strait 109

Berkshire County, Mass. 15

Berkshires, Mass. 12

Bermel, P.F. 135

Berry, Capt. R. 81

Berry, Ralph W. 73, 81, 133

Bertenshaw, W.H. 81

Bessemer 19

Beyersdorfer, W.M. 81

Bien, Morris 12, 38, 41, 43, 93, 159

Biever, C.A. 107, 135

Big Clifty, Ky. 163

Biggins, P.F. 85

Biggs, Lewis F. 48, 58, 66

Bighorn Mountains 50

Bighorn Reserve, Wyo. 50

Bighorn, Wyo. 51

Bill Williams Mountain 54

Birdseye, Charles W. 132, 137

Birdseye, Claude H. 66, 68, 73, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81, 83, 88, 

91, 92, 96, 105, 108, 117, 135, 152, 153, 160

Birdseye, Roger 92
Index 175

Birdseye, Sidney H. 66, 81, 88

Birkett, D.S. 81

Birnie, Lieutenant 19

Bitterroot, Idaho 51

Bitterroot, Mont. 51

Bitterroot Mountains 52

Bitterroot Reserve 50

Blackburn, John E. 37, 46, 49, 70, 75, 81, 133

Black, Gen. William B. 77, 78

Black Hills Reserve, S. Dak.–Wyo. 49

Black Hills, S. Dak. 50, 51, 166

Black Mesa, Ariz. 51

Black Mountains 13

Blackstone, Mass. 169

Blaine, Wash. 69

Blair, Andrew A. 7

Blair, Herbert B. 59

Blake, H.E. Jr. 91

Blake, Paul 102

Blount, C.C. 81

Blue Mountains, Oreg. 50

Blue Ridge 12

Board of Public Works 153

Board of Surveys and Maps 159

Board on Geographic Names 23, 50, 51, 151

Bodfish, Sumner H. 7, 8, 14, 15, 93, 135, 149, 153, 160

Boise City, Idaho 18, 40

Bolivar, Mo. 17

Bolivia–Argentine Exploration Corporation 167

Bombay, India 170

Boomers 45

Borden, F.W. 106

Borden Survey 11, 12

Boston draft riots 153

Boston Harbor 1

Boston, Mass. 15, 153, 169

Boston, T. 81

Boucher Creek 56

Boucher, Louis 56

Boulogne, France 77

Boundaries of the United States 156

Bowers, C.M. 81

Bowler, E.W. 81

Bowman, Isaiah 103

Bozeman, Mont. 14

Bradley, Dr. Wilmot S. 144

Bradshaw, Donald 81

Brandegee, Dr. T.S. 50

Brashears, John W. 23

Brazil 90, 119, 131, 152, 155, 164

Brazilian Centennial Exposition 90

Brest, France 78, 79

Brewer, W.B. 89

Bright Angel Canyon 55

Bright Angel Creek 55

Bright Angel Quadrangle 54, 56

Brislawn, F.L. 81

Bristol County, Mass. 15

Bristol Quadrangle, Va. 170

British Colonial Surveys 131

Britt, I.A. 85

Broaddus, Wayne R. 133

Brock and Weymouth, Inc. 164

Brockdorf, F. 19

Brode, W.R. 81

Bronze Star 162

Brooklyn 22

Brooklyn Bridge 22

Brooks, Dr. Alfred H. 63, 72, 80, 159

Brooks, E.O. 81

Brown, B.W. 81

Brown, G.W. 81

Brown, S.C. 81

Brubaker, Jay I. 87

Bruce, R.E. 135

Brunswick, Md. 70

Bryce Canyon National Park 99

Buchanan, Edmund A. 90

Buckey, Charles W. 87, 107, 130

Buckmaster, J.L. 58, 105, 131, 137

Buehler, L.H. 117

Buenos Aires 109

Building of a Nation, The 155

Bumstead Tripod 34

Burchard, L.W. 81

Burchard, Roland W. 91

Bureau of Forestry 50, 51, 60

Bureau of Mines 59, 171

Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. 96

Bureau of Terrestrial Magnetism 61

Bureau of the Budget 103, 104, 114, 137, 139, 140

Burke, Lieutenant 9

Burkland, Albert O. 58, 66, 80, 81

Burns, J.P. 107

Burns, Oreg. 154

Burnt Brook 71

Burt, E.C. 81

Burton, P.M. 81

Bush-Brown, Junes 81

Bushkill Quadrangle, Pa. 102

Butler, B.F. 153

Butler, Florence E. 133

Butterfield, Franklin G. 156

C

Cabaniss, Dewitt R. 133

Cade, A.P. 81

Cahill, S.F. 81

Cairo, Egypt 170

Cairo, Kans. 21

Calamares 78

Carroll Caldwell 53, 54
176 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Caldwell, Kans. 21, 22

Calhoun 13

California 2, 3, 4, 12, 14, 17, 19, 24, 29, 38, 40, 41, 50, 51, 

58, 61, 62, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 83, 90, 91, 92, 96, 98, 

107, 124, 128, 129, 140, 143, 144, 145, 149, 153, 154, 

155, 161, 163, 164, 165, 169, 170

California Division 169, 170

California Legislature 163

Calista, Kans. 21

Camas Prairie, Idaho 40

Cambridge University 155

Camden, S.C. 100

Cameron’s Crossing 56

Cameron Trail 54

Campbell, E.M. 81

Campbell, R.C. 81

Camp Devens, Mass. 77, 78

Camp Muir 68

Canada 53, 63, 65, 103, 119, 165

Canada Boundary Survey 168

Canadian Border 166

Canadian Geological Survey 65

Canadian Surveyor, The 109

Canal Zone 168

Cannon, E.A. 85

Cannon, Joseph G. 57

Canon City, Colo. 64

Canyon De Chelly, Ariz. 24

Canyon of Lodore 91

Cap Royal 55

Caracas, Venezuela 109, 119

Carey House 20

Carey, Roy E. 132

Carkhuff, Norman W. 23

Carmel, Calif. 162

Carnegie Institute 61

Carnegie Institute Expedition 167

Carnegie Institution of Washington 60, 151, 171

Carroll Parish, La. 101

Carson, W.G. 81

Carter, Kenneth 116

Cascade, British Columbia 53

Cascade Divide 50

Cascade Mountains 35

Cascade Range, Oreg. 50, 51, 68

Cascade River 50

Cash, Elbert 85

Castle Valley 169

Cayuga Lake Military Academy, N.Y. 77

Cebu 151

Census Office 39, 156

Centennial Committee 163

Centennial of Engineering 135

Central America 109

Central Division 38, 62, 70, 76, 92, 100, 102, 112, 117, 118, 

122, 160, 161, 165, 166, 167

Central Division Topographic Branch Conference 117

Central Park 22

Central Region 107, 123, 128, 129, 138, 161, 162, 163

Central Valleys Project 163

Chaddock, T.H. 81

Chagres River 168

Chagres River Division 168

Chain Bridge 39, 69, 70

Chamberlain, E.D 81

Chambers, G. 85

Chapman, Pearson 46, 69

Chapman, R.H. 81

Chapman, Robert H. 13, 36, 37, 57, 65, 67, 74, 81

Charles P. Daly Medal 152

Charleston, S.C. 84

Charlie, our Negro cook 21, 22

Chase, H.S. 14

Chateau Thierry 77, 79

Chattanooga Project Office 124

Chattanooga Section 75

Chattanooga, Tenn. 102, 103, 108, 110, 113, 123, 168

Chaumont 78, 79

Chedan and Arnold relief models 80

Chenault, W.F. 81, 85

Cheney, Kans. 22, 25

Chenoweth, W.E. 87

Cherokee Indians 44

Cherokee Outlet 45

Cherokee Strip 21

Chesapeake and Ohio Canal 70

Chesy, Max M. 132

Chew, R.G. 85

Cheyenne-Arapaho lands 45

Chicago, Ill. 22, 117, 118, 119, 154

Chickasaw Indians 44

Chickasaw Nation 45, 46

Chicopee, Mass. 153

Chi Epsilon 163

Childs, C.B. 85

Chile 109, 119

Chilkoot Pass 63

Chilliwack, British Columbia 53

China 73, 107, 108, 119, 167

Chinners, C.E. 81

Chiovitti, Frank 132

Chippewa 61

Chippewa River 54

Choctaw Indians 44

Choctaw Nation 45

Christiansen, M.C. 81

Chusca Knoll 9

Cincinnati 19

Cintron, Ramiro G. 132

Cisco, Tex. 18

Civil Engineering 135

Civil Service 59, 80, 100, 133, 165
Index 177

Civil Service Commission, U.S. 18

Civil War 1, 2, 168

Clarendon, Va. 74, 110, 113, 167

Clark, Frederick A. 3, 7, 8

Clark, Howard 78, 81

Clark, M.W. 81

Clarke, F.W. 159

Clarke, H.C.O. 81

Clarkson, C.D.S. 69

Clay 13

Clearwater River 65, 157

Clement, H.D. 81, 85

Clement, S.E. 81

Clement, S.E. 42

Clemson College 127

Clemson, S.C. 127

Cleveland, Mrs. 20

Cleveland, President 50, 155

Clingman, General 13

Clingman’s Dome 13

Clinite, Raymond G. 48, 81, 133

Coahoma County, Miss. 89

Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 

18, 25, 29, 33, 34, 40, 44, 48, 53, 63, 65, 66, 74, 86, 95, 

102, 103, 104, 128, 131, 151, 155, 157, 162, 164, 171

Coast Artillery 78, 152

Coast Line 75

Coblenz 78, 79

Coconino Plateau 54

Coe, Robert 46

Cohn, H.I. 81

Colby College 65

College of Pure Science 171

Collins, Henry C. 133

Collins, John G. 130, 135

Colombia University 103

Colorado 2, 3, 5, 7, 12, 14, 38, 44, 51, 68, 76, 90, 92, 100, 

112, 119, 124, 128, 129, 140, 169

Colorado–New Mexico boundary line 52

Colorado River 3, 8, 9, 54, 55, 91, 140, 152, 168, 169

Colorado Springs 2, 5

Columbia 119

Columbia Crest 68

Columbiana, Ala. 19

Columbia River 99, 156, 157

Columbia School of Mines 170

Columbia University 151, 154, 171

Comanche–Kica Lands 45

Comanche Point 54

Commercial Geography 155

Commission on Cartography 94, 109

Committee on Mapping Services 103

Conference of Commonwealth Survey Officers 155

Connecticut 12, 25, 29, 40, 92, 98, 101, 102, 123, 128, 140, 

144, 145, 149, 151, 153, 156

Connecticut River 101, 102

Conservation Branch of the Survey 92

Conservation Division 123, 144

Continental Congress 11

contours, first mention 1

Contract Mapping 134

Convergent photography 148, 149

Convocation at Chicago 135

Cook Inlet 63

Cook, J.E. 85

Cooke, Charles E. 37, 45, 66, 69, 81, 89

Coon, Emmett J. 102, 135

Cooper Union, N.Y. 170

Corbin, Ashley R. 132, 133

Corcoran Cadet Armory 20

Cornell University 86

Corps of Engineers 1, 11, 64, 65, 69, 78, 80, 84, 90, 91, 116, 

131, 162, 167

Cosmos Club 35, 36, 154, 155

Couleur, E.F. 85

Cowee, N.C. 167

Cranberry, N.C. 43

Crane 22

Crangle, Dale E. 132

Crater Lake National Park 73

Crawford Notch, N.H. 73

Creek Indians 44

Creteuil 77

Cripple Creek, Colo. 55

Crisp, Fred W. 70, 78, 80, 81

Croix de Guerre 78, 79

Crookston, Minn. 61

Cryer, C.T.L. 81

Crystal Creek 56

Cuba 52, 82, 86, 119, 155, 159, 160

Cuban Census Bureau 86

Cuidad Trujillo 109

Cumberland Gap, Va.–Ky. 43

Cumerford, Thomas 132

Cummin, R.D. 37

Cummins, Robert F. 14

Cummins, Thomas V. 123, 132, 135, 137

Cummings, H.D. 87

Cunningham, G.M. 81

Cunningham, J.W. 81

Currey, John J. 132

Cuvier Prize 41, 42

D

Dakar–Khartoum Air Ferry Route 149

Dakota 7, 12

Dall, Dr. W.H. 151

Dana, James D. 5

Danforth, F.A. 66, 81, 118

Davenport, P.E. 85

Davey, Charles H. 78, 80, 81, 88, 101, 105, 107, 108, 112, 

137
178 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Davey, E.T. 81

Davey, T.T., Jr. 85

Davidson, John I. 105, 107, 123, 137

Davies, Charles 3

Davies, F.A. 81

Davis, Anna 154

Davis, Arthur P. 10, 11, 13, 18, 37, 38, 39, 74, 159

Davis, E.P. 69

Davis, George R. 61, 66, 68, 70, 76, 90, 135, 154

Davis, Robert O. 102, 105, 112, 113, 116, 123, 135, 137

Dawes Act 45

D.C. Militia 170

Deakins Line 68

de Cardenas, Don Lopez 91

DeHaviland hydroplane 85

Delaware 12, 51, 92, 123, 128, 140, 144, 145, 149

Delmonico Hotel 22

Delmonico’s 22

Demaray, Arthur E. 67

Denault, Milton F. 109, 130, 135

Denison Quadrangle 46

Denison, Tex. 46

Denmark 119

Denver, Colo. 2, 4, 7, 14, 39, 55, 64, 73, 100, 119, 123, 129, 

152, 160

Denver Federal Center 123

Department of Agriculture 50, 51, 60, 62, 89, 110, 142

Department of Commerce 59, 103

Department of Defense 128, 130, 131, 136

Department of Drainage and Water 97

Department of Engineering 140, 168

Department of Public Works 66, 140, 141, 142

Department of State 53, 138, 155

Department of the Air Force 126

Department of the Army 120

Department of the Interior 1, 3, 5, 6, 11, 49, 67, 72, 73, 87, 

91, 103, 123, 131, 132, 133, 136, 144, 155, 161, 162, 

164, 165, 167, 168

Devil’s Lake 167

Dewhirst, H.H. 81

DeWolf, Frank W. 103

Diamond Creek 92

Dickson, D.M. 81

Dictionary of Altitudes 155, 156

Dinock, Stuart 81

Dirty Devil 169

Distinguished Service Award 155, 161, 162, 164, 166, 167, 

168

District of Columbia 12, 35, 61, 69, 70, 93, 96, 104, 129, 

144, 149

District of the Great Basin 12, 14

District of the North Atlantic 12

District of the North Mississippi 12

District of the Pacific 12, 14, 170

District of the Rocky Mountains 12, 14

District of the South Atlantic 12

District of the South Mississippi 12

Division of Alaskan Mineral Resources 63, 73, 80

Division of Engraving and Printing 23, 24, 25, 80, 89, 91, 

103, 153

Division of Forestry 49

Division of Geography 18, 50, 51, 56, 62

Division of Geography and Forestry 50, 51, 56, 62

Division of Hydro-Economics 39

Division of Hydrography 39, 44

Division of Hydrology 39

Division of Illustrations 23

Division of Military Surveys 77, 167

Division of Mineral Resources 44

Division of the Colorado 8, 153, 160, 165

Division of the Great Basin 8, 161, 169

Division of the Pacific 8

Division of the Rocky Mountains 7

Division of the Topographic Branch 116, 165, 169

Division of Topography 44, 160

Division of Triangulation 44

Division of West Indian Surveys 82, 83, 84, 90, 167

Dod, James P. 81, 85

Dodge City, Kans. 22

Dodge, Frank B. 91

Dolliver, Emerson 81

Dominican Republic 84, 85

E.M. Douglas 10, 14, 16, 18, 19, 33, 37, 38, 44, 49, 56, 57, 

62, 86, 90, 95, 135, 154, 169, 170

Douglas, G.C. 81

Dowdy, Leona T. 133

Drown, Clarence H. 133

Druhot, G.S. 66, 81, 88, 127, 135, 137, 140

Duck, Jesse A. 69, 70, 85, 118, 133

Duke, Basil 37, 81

Duncan, Harold J. 144

Dunnington, Abner F. 13, 16, 18, 37, 41, 62

Durant, Iowa 25

Dutton, Clarence E. 8, 37, 39, 153, 160

Duval, S.R. 12

E

Eakin, J. Ross 53, 67, 70, 78, 81

earthquake 61, 87, 162

Eastern Division 41, 60, 62

Eastern Section 53, 169, 170

Eastern Standard Time 110

Eastern War Time 110

Eastman Kodak 22, 73

East St. Louis 117

Eberly, C.F. 69, 70

Ebmeyer, G.E. 81

Ecklund, Conrad A. 70, 81, 123, 124, 135, 138, 154

Economic Cooperation Administration 130, 131

Egypt 119

Ehret, J.N. 81

Eighteenth Annual Report 47
Index 179

Electric Rock 14

Eleventh Annual Report 171

Eleventh Census 155

Elk Falls, Kans. 17

Elko, British Columbia 53

Elledge, Wm. C. 133

Eller, R.C. 107, 138

Elliott 56

Ellis, James R. 37, 54, 69, 118, 133

Elmore, Herbert W. 23

El Paso, Tex. 39, 96

El Paso County, Tex. 18

Elshire, Elmer 132

Embudo, N. Mex. 39

Emmons, Samuel F. 7

Emry, Kans. 21

Engineer Corps of the Army 160

Engineer Officers Reserve Corps 64, 80, 160, 161, 163, 167, 

168

England 77

Eniewetok 162

ER–55 150

Erbach, John 23

Erskine, Robert 1

Essick, Earl J. 133

Estes Park, Colo. 67

Estimates and Plans 111

Eugene, Oreg. 44

Eureka, Nev. 8

Europe 74, 108, 129

European Theater 162

Evans, H.C. 24

Evans, Ralph W. 132

Evans, Richard T. 1, 55, 56, 67, 69, 70, 81, 88, 101, 106, 

107, 133, 135

Executive Order No. 207 84

Executive Order No. 2859 103

Executive Order No. 3206 87

Executive Order No. 6238 103

Executive Order No. 9094 88

Exposition at San Francisco 73, 74

F

Fairbanks, Alaska 65

Fairchild Photogrammetric Award 105

Fairfax Stone 68

Fairly, J.L. 81

Fales, J.C. 81

Fankhauser, Adolph 66, 67, 85

Far Eastern Theater 73

Farish, W.A. 39

Farmer, Robert A. 37, 45, 63

Farmer, Samuel D. 89, 133

Farney, G.M. 81

Farnham, A.R. 81

Farrell, Archie A. 133

Fauth and Co. 18

Federal Board of Surveys and Maps 87, 92, 106, 130, 159

Federal Works Building 72

Fennell, Earle J. 97, 107, 135, 138, 163

Fifteenth Annual Report 43

Fiftieth Anniversary 96

fingerprints, first official use of 169

Fiola, Charles O. 132

First Annual Report 6

Fischer, George A. 102, 138

Fisher, Charles R. 78, 81, 85, 133

Fisher, William A. 81, 132, 133

Fitch, Charles H. 16, 37, 45, 48

Fitch, F.T. 54

FitzGerald, Gerald 64, 65, 67, 85, 96, 105, 107, 109, 110, 

111, 112, 116, 117, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 133, 

138, 144, 149, 154, 155

Five Civilized Tribes 44, 45

Five-Lens Camera 88

Flagstaff, Ariz. 54, 92

Flathead, Mont. 51

Fletcher, L.C. 37

Floore, S.P. 70, 81, 100

Florida 12, 92, 123, 128, 140, 144, 145

Florida State College 19

Follansbee, Robert 2

Fond du Lac 90

Fontaine, Miss Adelena Marie 154

Foote, Arthur D. 7

Ford, G.R. 81

Forest Service 39, 50, 51, 59, 62, 71, 88, 128, 162

Formosa 107, 108

Fort Defiance, Ariz. 10, 24, 168

Fort Devens, Mass. 161

Fort, F.L. 81

Fort Leavenworth, Kans. 77

Fort Leonard Wood, Mo. 163

Fort Scott, Kans. 17

Fort Smith, Ark. 42

Fort Tyler, Tex. 153

Fort Walla Walla 156

Fort Wingate, N. Mex. 9, 10, 14, 160, 170

Forty-Mile District 151

Fourth Annual Report 12

Fowler, Alvah T. 54, 66, 79, 81, 95, 100, 133

Fox Reservation 45

France 41, 77, 78, 79, 80, 87, 88, 89, 96, 107, 108, 119, 152, 

162, 163, 168, 170

Franck, Fred A. 53

Fraser, Alfred M. 132

Freeman, Lewis B. 91

Fremont, J.C. 1

French Orders of University Palms 80, 152

French Republic 80

Friant Dam 163

Friars Point, Miss. 89
180 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Frye, Helen M. 1, 66, 95, 106, 138

Fuechsel, C.F. 61, 107, 111, 138

Funston, Gen. Frederick 61

G

Galatea 20

Gallatin Valley 14

Galloway, C.T. 135, 138

Galloway, Nathan 92

Ganahl, Lester W. 132

Gannett, Henry 9, 10, 12, 13, 19, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 43, 

44, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 60, 62, 155, 156, 157, 159, 

169

Gannett, Samuel S. 11, 12, 14, 18, 37, 41, 44, 45, 48, 52, 56, 

65, 68, 76, 89, 90, 95, 96, 101, 102, 157

Gardner, C.C. 69, 81

Gardner, James T. 2, 3, 4, 5, 11, 16

Garfield, President 9

Garland, George W. 133

Garlick, S.A. 10

Gass, Georgia H. 132

Gatum Dam 168

Gavken, H.F. 85

Gayer, J.J. 85

Gayetty, J. Irving 70, 133

Gayler, Ernest R. 84

Gazetteer of Cuba 155

Gazetteer of Kansas 50

Gazetteer of Texas 155

Gehres, Wilmer S. 81, 118, 133

General Land Office 2, 4, 6, 11, 17, 44, 45, 46, 49, 52, 62, 

76, 95, 103, 160

General Relief Committee 61

Geographic and Irrigation Surveys 34

Geographic Dictionary of Alaska 151

Geologic Branch 39, 72, 80, 122

Geologic Division 109, 122, 123

George, W.O. 81

Georgetown 69

Georgia 11, 12, 20, 29, 40, 44, 53, 71, 92, 123, 128, 132, 

141, 144, 145, 156, 159

Gerdine, Thomas G. 37, 70, 76, 78, 81, 88, 90, 92, 159, 160, 

161

German 3, 77, 102, 110, 162

Germany 77, 79, 102, 107

Gertz, C.F. 81

Gibraltar Rock 68

Gila River, N. Mex. 51

Gilbert, Grove K. 4, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 18, 153, 157, 161, 

162, 169

Gilbert, W.W. 66

Gilchrist, F.G. 81

Gill, DeLancey W. 23

Gill, J.I. 81

Gill, R.I. 8

Gill, W.H. 88

Glacier National Park 67, 73

Glasgow, L.B. 81

Glasgow, Scotland 170

Glaze, A.O. 81

Gleissner, Max J. 66, 100, 135

Gohlfeld, K.V. 85

Gohlfeld, R.L. 85

Gold Belt 170

Golden, Colo. 14

Gomolka, Eugene G. 132

Gonzales, R.A. 86

Goode, Richard U. 7, 8, 9, 10, 17, 18, 38, 44, 49, 56, 160

Goodlove, Charles W. 19, 20, 35, 37

Gore, J. Howard 9, 14, 160

Gorman, N.W. 50

Gott, Louis H. 80, 81

Gottschall, Irwin 132

Gouchenour, E.W. 118

Goudie, C.A. 81

Gould, R.S. 135

Graff, Fred, Jr. 69, 70, 100, 160

Graham, C.R. 107

Graham, Wilbur D. 132

Grand Canyon 3, 8, 54, 55, 56, 75, 88, 91, 92, 143, 152, 153, 

160, 162, 165, 169

Grand Canyon National Park 88, 92

Grand Canyon Station 55

Grand Forks, British Columbia 53

Grand Junction 55

Grand Teton 2

Grandview 56

Grand View Point 54

Graves, E.Z. 50

Graves Registration Service 79

Great Basin 8, 12, 14, 161, 169

Great Britain 1, 89, 119

Great Falls Inn 69

Great Falls of the Potomac 69, 70, 153

Great Lakes 11, 94

Great Lakes Section 118, 167

Great Miami River 76

Great Smoky 99

Great Smoky Mountains National Park 13

Greater Antilles 84

Greece 119

Green River, Utah 91

Green 169

Green River, Wyo. 3, 91

Greenwich 52

Gregory, Herbert E. 168, 169

Greisman, Sol M. 132

Grenfell, C.J. 85

Gribok, Peter 135

Griffin, Calvin E. 70, 80, 81

Griffin, William H. 19, 20, 21, 37, 70, 81, 101

William T. Griswold 12, 18, 35, 37, 38, 40, 44
Index 181

Groninger, John G. 103, 124

Charles E. Grossman 132

Grover, Nathan C. 39

Gruner, Heinz 102

Grunwell, G.B. 128, 135

GSA Building 77

Guajataca River 86

Guayama 86

Guerdru, G.H. 53

Gulf of California 91

Guma, G. 85

Gunnison 153, 169

Gurley, W. and L.E. 19, 33

Guyot, Arnold 4, 11, 13

H

Hackett, Merrill 35, 37

Hagerstown, Md. 69

Hagood 100

Hague, Arnold 7, 8, 49

Hainan 108

Hainan Island 108

Hain, Elmer L. 81, 100, 111, 118, 133, 135

Haiti 82, 84, 85, 86

Haitian Coat of Arms 86

Haitian Department of Public Works 86

Haitian 91

Haitian Topographic Survey 85

Hall, R.D. 138

Hall, W. Carval 53, 61

Hamilton, E.G. 81

Hammer, B.E. 81

Hampden Sidney College 60

Hance Trail 54

Hancock, U.S.S. 84

Hanford, Chas. B. 7

Hankins, L.D. 135

Hannagan, Duncan 19, 37, 81

Hanover Academy 160

Haquinius, Eric 85

Harbert, Gene 73

Harden, Milton J. 89, 97, 102, 135

Harlowe, L.S. 81

Harman, William E., Jr. 105, 138

Harmel, M.A. 138

Harmon, C.B. 68

Harper, Glenn S. 132

Harris & Co. 24

Harris, E.E. 75, 86

Harris, Jerry R. 133

Harrison, Dabney C. 22, 37, 45, 60

Harrison, J.P. 81, 86, 101

Harrison, President Benjamin 20, 49, 155

Harrison, R.L. 69, 70

Harrison, W.C. 85

Harshaw, Anslow 132

Hartford, Conn. 171

Hart, Frederick M. 65, 133, 135

Hartle, W.A. 81

Hartley, J.W. 81

Hartmann, Charles 78, 81

Hart, Robert B. 133

Hassan, Acheson F. 46, 65, 81

Hatfield, Jay M. 132

Havasu Creek 92

Havasupai Indians 92

Haviland, Kans. 21

Hawaii 61, 66, 67, 69, 70, 90, 92, 98, 106, 128, 141, 145, 

152

Hawaiian Islands 66, 67, 88, 129, 146, 149

Hawaii National Park 67

Hawk, Lauretta H. 132

Hawkins, George L. 37, 42

Hawkins, George T. 44, 45, 81

Hayden, Ferdinand V. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 28, 29, 30, 50, 

57, 62, 144, 155

Hayden Survey 2, 5, 7, 10, 23, 28, 155

Hayes, Dr. William C. 163

Hayes, President Rutherford B. 6, 96

Hayes, S.P. 81

Hayes, W.P. 81

Hayne, John M. 64

Hays, John W. 12, 43

Hearne, C.C. 81

Heflin, E.B. 81

Helena Special Quadrangle, Mont. 170

heliotroping 54, 55

Henderson, W.D. 81

Hendrickson, V.J 81

Hermit Creek 56

Herrington, Russell M. 80, 81, 90

Herron, William H. 20, 21, 22, 37, 70, 76, 78, 81, 90, 92, 

117, 161, 167

Hesster, E.O. 102

Higginson, William S. 102, 105, 138

Hilebrand, W.F. 7

Hill, A.K. 85

Hillers, John K. 9, 23

Hilliard, J.C. 118

Hinds, N.E. 81

Hitchcock, C.H. 11

Hitchcock, Ethan Allen 57

Hoboken, N.J. 78

Hodgdon, Maine 65

Hodge, Edward P. 132

Hodges, Guy 81

Hodgeson, Herbert H. 48, 69, 78, 80, 81, 101, 107, 117, 154, 

161

Hoffman, Charles F. 3, 155

Hoffman, John D. 14, 15

Hogan 56

Hokaido Japan 108
182 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Holder, C.C. 69, 81, 85

Holland 107

Holloway, E.V. 81

Holman, Paul 14

Holmes, M.E. 138

Holmes, William H. 3, 23

Holston River 12

Homer, Ill. 22

Honolulu 67, 91, 154

Hooe Building 72

Hooper Mining School 155

Hoosier 20

Hoover Dam 152, 153

Hoover, Mrs. Herbert 96

Hoover, President Herbert 96

Hopi Point 54

Hopkins, R.W. 81

Horse Shoe Falls 18

Horseshoe Lake 90

Hot Springs, Ark. 14

Housatonic Valley 15

House, James 81

Howard House 19, 22

Hubbard, Bela 81

Hudson, H.L. 81

Huffaker, Carl L. 132

Hugershoff aerocartograph 99

Hughes, Frank W. 69, 81, 100, 118, 123, 133

Hughes, J.A. 85

Hughes, Thomas A. 132

Humphreys, Andrew A. 2

Hurst, W.P. 81

Hydrographic Division 53

Hydrographic Office 25, 64, 84

I

iced bar apparatus 171

Ickes, Secretary 104

Idaho 2, 12, 18, 29, 38, 40, 41, 51, 52, 65, 70, 76, 90, 91, 92, 

98, 124, 128, 141, 144, 145, 154, 157, 160, 168

Idaho–Montana boundary line 52

Idaho–Washington boundary line 65, 154

Iddings, Jos. P. 7, 8

Illinois 3, 12, 42, 83, 92, 98, 103, 117, 118, 123, 128, 141, 

144, 145, 149, 154, 156, 161, 167, 168

Illinois Geological Survey 118

Illinois Natural History Society 168

India 119, 170

Indiana 12, 92, 123, 128, 140, 141, 144, 145, 156

Indian Act 46, 61

Indian Base Standard Parallel 45

Indian Garden 56

Indian State 44

Indian Territory 12, 26, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 167, 

168

Indian Territory Survey 46, 167

Ingersoll, Hattie B. 81, 133

Inter-American Geodetic Survey 131

Interior Building 39, 72, 77

Interior Field Committee 139

International Boundary 168

International Boundary Commission 97, 103

International Engineering Congress 154

International Geographic Society 65

International Mapping Conference 155

International Waterways Commission 66

Interstate Commerce Commission 74

Iowa 12, 25, 40, 45, 92, 98, 103, 123, 128, 140, 141, 144, 

145, 167

Iowa, Reservation 45

Ireland, E.I. 70, 71, 78, 81, 96

Iron Mountain, Mo. 12

Irrigable Lands of Utah, The 169

Irrigation Survey 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 153, 169, 170

Isabela Irrigation Service 86

Issaquena County, Miss. 101

Isthmian Canal Commission 59, 168

Isthmus of Darien 160

Isto, Reynold E. 65, 132, 135, 138

Italy 107, 108

Iwo Jima 107

J

Jacksonville, Fla. 42

Jacob, Ernst 7

James, Jesse 20

James River 41

Jameyson, Bruce 81

Japan 73, 106, 108

Japanese City Plains 107

Jefferson Barracks 113

Jefferson, President Thomas 11

Jenkins, B.A. 48, 70, 74, 75, 78, 81

Jennings, James H. 15, 37, 62, 81

Jerome, Ariz., 55

Joaquin, Hugh 81

Joerg, W.L.G. 103

John Fritz Medal 143

Johns Hopkins University 65

Johnson, Brigadier Gen. Leon W. 116

Johnson, Douglas 103

Johnson, “Pa” 21, 56

Johnson, T.R. 85

Johnson tripod 34

Johnson, Willard Drake 8, 14, 33, 34, 38, 161, 162

Johnston, Hoyt L. 133

Johnston, Joseph E. 1

Johnston, Wm. D., Jr. 109

Johnstown, Pa. 20

Jones, A.B. 138

Jones, C.C. 23

Jones, Harry P. 89
Index 183

Jones, Oscar 37, 70

Jonesville, Va.–Ky. 43

Jones, William J. 132

Journal of the Western Society of Engineers 117

Juhre, C.C. 135

K

Kahlbaum, William 81

Kaibab Plateau 8, 55

Kaibab Plateau, Utah 153

Kaiparowitz Plateau 169

Kalamazoo College 151

Kalamazoo, Mich. 151

Kalbfleisch, A.C. 138

Kanab, Utah 8, 9, 10, 55, 153, 169

Kansas 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 29, 38, 40, 41, 

50, 76, 90, 91, 92, 100, 123, 128, 140, 141, 144, 145, 

160, 169

Kansas City 20

Kansas–Texas Division 160

Karl, Anton 14, 15

Kauai 66

Kavanagh, A.J. 81

Kaw 45

Keating, B.J. 87

Kenneth B. Keegan 132

Keeler, W.W. 81

Keller, J.B. 81

Kelley, Lawrence A. 133

Kellogg, L.D. 138

Kelsh, Harry T. 105, 109, 131, 133

Kendall, Clyde B. 48, 78, 81, 85, 100, 102

Kenig, Albert 135

Kennebec River 54

Kennedy, Annie L.C. 132

Kennedy, Daniel 89, 97, 105, 123, 135, 162, 163

Kennedy, Margaret 163

Kennedy, Wm. V. 133, 135

Kent, Nelson H. 23

Kentucky 12, 26, 29, 40, 58, 92, 94, 98, 123, 128, 141, 143, 

144, 145, 149, 156

Kenya, Africa 131

Kerr, Mark B. 14, 63

Kerr, Washington C. 11, 12

Kickapoo Reservation 45

Kidd, W.C. 81

Kiger, Reuben A. 70, 71, 80, 81, 106, 133

Kilauea 152

Killian, S.C. 100

Kilmartin, J.O. 67, 86, 87, 107, 138

Kilrian 21

Kimball, J.P. 7

Kimble, Delar 89, 106, 138

King City, Calif. 72

King, Clarence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 28, 57, 96, 143, 144

King, Harry 23, 38

King, J.E. 85

Kingman, Kans. 22

Kings River Canyon, Calif. 154

King Survey 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 28, 29, 30, 144

Kinsley,Kans. 22

Kirby, Wallace W. 90, 91

Klondike Region 63

Knapp, H.S. 84

Knight, Fred J. 43

Knock, Bayard 48, 65

Knox, C.B. 81

Knoxville, Calif. 14

Knoxville, Tenn. 43

Koblenz, Josephine C. 132

Kolb, Emery C. 91

Koms, Felix 92

Kootenai River 53

Korea 108

Korin, Stephen 138

Kovacs, Paul B. 107

Krahmer, E.A. 128

Krogh, Frank 68

Kruse, Edward C. 89, 133

Kubel, Edward 18

Kubel, Ernest 19

Kubel, Stephen J. 23, 24

Kuskokwim River 63

L

Labrador 149

Lacon, Ill. 165

Laird, Russell M. 132

Lajas Valley 87

Lake Bonneville, Utah 8, 9, 161, 169

Lake Chelan 50

Lake City, Fla. 19

Lake Erie 11, 76

Lake Itasca 11

Lake Michigan 11, 76

Lakeport Quadrangle, Calif., 99

Lakes, Arthur 7

Lake Tahoe 51

Lamar, George 22

Landen, David 105, 131, 132, 138

Land of the Sky Blue Water 92

Lane, A.C. 39

Lane, Secretary 76, 77

Langley Field, Va. 80

Langley, Ga. 153

Langres, Haute Marne 78, 79, 80

Larned, Kans. 25

Larner, Frank 133

LaRue, Eugene C. 91

Lassen Peak 75

Lassen’s Butte, Calif. 14

Las Vegas, Nev. 48, 50
184 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Latimer, T.M. 85

Laurelville, Ohio 69

Lava Falls 92

Law, J.A. 138

Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard 155

Leachman, J.B. 135

Leachman, L.B. 96

Leadville, Colo. 7

Leavitt, James B. 66, 80, 81, 85, 86

Lee, Luria L. 70, 78, 79, 80, 81

Lee’s Ferry 9, 55, 92

Leech, W.D. 87

LeFeaver, J.H. 70, 71

Leffingwell, Wm. H. 7

Legare, B. Peton 19, 20

Legion of Honor 163

Legion of Merit 116, 155, 162

Leiberg, J.B. 50

Leighton, Dr. M.M. 117

Leighton, Marshall O. 39, 69

Leith, C.K. 103

Lenovitz, Jacob 81, 86

Leonia, Idaho 52

Leopold, L.S. 81

Lewis and Clark 51

Lewis and Clark Reserve, Mont. 49

Lewis, E.C. 85

Lewis, Herbert S. 133

Lewis, J.G. 131

Lewis, John L. 66, 70, 75, 133

Lewiston, Wash. 65

Lewis, Washington B. 61, 67

Liaison and Coordination 111

Linck, M.K. 105, 138

Lincoln Monument 22

Lincoln, N. Mex. 51

Lincoln, President 153

Lindsay, J.C. 81

Lint, Leigh B. 67, 91

Lipps, J.P. 81

Little Belt, Mont. 51

Little Colorado River 9, 56

Little Rock, Ark. 42

Lloyd, Chester R. 133

Lloyd, James V. 67

Lloyd, W.J. 37, 85, 118

Lobeck, A.K. 81

Lock 20 69

Lockwood, T.F. 81

Logan, Curtis W. 163

Loire River 78

London, England 155

Long, Joe T. 132

Longstreet, R.L. 19

Lonnquest, T.C. 81

Loquillo Forest Reserve 154

Lord, Eliot 7

Lord, I.Q. 81

Los Angeles, Calif. 39, 73, 75, 91, 140

Los Angeles County 88

Los Angeles County Cooperative Project 154

Loud, Edward I., Jr. 105, 128, 132, 133

Louisiana 12, 90, 92, 101, 123, 128

Louisiana–Mississippi Boundary Line 101

Louisiana Purchase 1, 169

Louisiana Purchase Exposition 57, 169

Lovell, W.H. 37

Lovett, J.D. 81

Loving, Hugh B. 132

Lower, Mary Edith 131, 132

Loyal Legion 153

Ludowici, Ga. 48

Lunde, Sigurd G. 65, 70, 100, 133

Luquillo National Forest 86

Luzon 107, 108

Lycett, John H. 133

Lyddan, Robert H. 87, 107, 111, 123, 135, 138, 163

M

MacClintock, Paul 81

MacManus, A. 85

MacManus, Angus 81

MacManus, V.D. 81

MacMaugh, Frank J. 54, 133

Mager, Charles, Jr. 133

Mahan, Richard O. 133

Maine 12, 13, 40, 44, 54, 58, 83, 92, 94, 95, 98, 123, 128, 

140, 141, 144, 145, 155, 166

Maine–New Hampshire Boundary Line 95

Mallon, A.E. 81

Maloney, H.A. 81

Maltby, C.S. 58, 107, 138

Malvern, Ark. 14

Manchuria 108

Mann, F.M. 138

Manners, Edw’d C. 7

Manning, Van H. 37, 45, 62

Mansfield, George R. 86

Manual of Irrigation Engineering 171

Manual of Photogrammetry 104, 105, 110

Manual of Topographic Instructions 95

Manual of Topographic Methods 43, 157, 159

Manual of Topographic Surveying 155

Map Appraisal Committee 137, 138, 139

map exhibits 118, 119

Map Information Office 88, 111, 119, 130, 159

Marble Canyon 92

Marble Gorge 55

Marsden, L.E. 107, 138

Marshall Fields 22

Marshall Plan 163

Marshall, Robert B. 36, 37, 61, 62, 67, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 80, 
Index 185

81, 82, 83, 86, 117, 135, 154, 159, 163

Marsh, C.C. 10

Marsh, Othniel Charles 5

Marsh Pass, Ariz. 24

Maryland 1, 12, 29, 40, 51, 58, 68, 69, 71, 92, 123, 128, 141, 

144, 145, 149

Maryland–West Virginia Boundary Line 68

Mason and Dixon Line 68, 170

Mason, Anthony 7

Mason, Mich. 69

Massachusetts 11, 12, 15, 17, 18, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 40, 71, 

92, 101, 123, 128, 131, 141, 144, 145, 149, 151, 153, 

156, 161

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 39, 152

Massachusetts Survey 23

Mather, Stephen T. 67

Matthes, Francois E. 36, 37, 46, 54, 55, 57, 62, 68, 70, 88, 

135

Maui 67

Maumee Bay 76

Maynardville, Tenn. 43

McArthur, J.O. 85

McBeth, Joseph F. 37, 62, 70

McCammon, Robert L. 71, 81, 133

McCaw, Charles W. 132

McChesney, John D. 7

McClellan, General 21

McClellan saddle 21

McCook, J.F. 66, 85, 86

McCormick, James 23, 89

McCullough, H.K. 81

McCutchen, A.C. 135

McDonald, A.L. 138

McDonald, H.L. 66, 70, 81

McElhone, Eugene V. 9, 14

McGee, W.J. 157

McKay, Douglas 144, 149

McKee, R.H. 45

McKinley, Clarence P. 133

McKinley, W. Klett 81, 128, 133

McKinney, Robert C. 12, 37, 43

McKittrick Quadrangle 154

McLaughlin, DeWitt 81

McLaughlin, Fred 70, 81

McMillen, Harold J. 133, 138

McMillen, P.W. 81

Eugene L. McNair 37, 42, 48, 61, 81, 84, 85, 95, 96, 101, 

102

Meade, A.P. 61, 81

Meade chart 90

Meade, George G. 1

Meaders, H.T. 81

Meador, Leake S. 7

Media, Pa. 75

Medina, N.Y. 48

Meier, N.C. 82

Meizell, Sidney 132

Mendenhall, Dr. Thomas C. 155

Mendenhall, W.C. 13, 108, 117, 144

Mendocino County, Calif. 61

Menocal, Mario G. 86

Meramac Springs, Mo. 89

Merced, Calif. 72

Merrill, O.C. 88

Mertie, J.B. 64, 80

Mesa Verde 73

Metcalfe, J.B. 82

Metz 79

Metzger, F.P. 19

Mexican National Railroad 60

Mexico 96, 119, 165, 167, 170

Mexico City 109

M’Grath, M. Madeleine 66, 67

Michigan 11, 12, 58, 76, 83, 92, 94, 98, 123, 128, 141, 144, 

145, 156, 162, 167

Mid-Continent Mapping Center 162, 163

Middlebury College, Vt. 119

Midway, British Columbia 53

Military Intelligence Division 91

Miller, Charles I. 132

Miller, Karlton B. 116

Miller, R.N. 82

Miller, W.L. 37, 82

Millionth-Map 70

Milsted, Harry S. 89, 118, 133

Minnesota 11, 12, 61, 90, 92, 97, 123, 128, 139, 140, 141, 

144, 145, 167

Minnesota–Wisconsin Boundary Line 90

Minot, N. Dak. 41

Mississippi 1, 12, 89, 92, 98, 101, 123, 128, 140, 141, 144, 

145

Mississippi River 1, 5, 11, 13, 18, 44, 74, 89, 156, 170

Mississippi River Commission 11, 18

Mississippi Valley 29, 48, 62, 157, 160, 166, 167

Missouri 12, 16, 17, 18, 24, 26, 29, 42, 92, 98, 100, 117, 

123, 128, 141, 144, 145, 160, 163, 169

Missouri River 41

Missouri River Basin 117, 137

Missouri School of Mines 89, 162

Missouri Society of Professional Engineers 162, 163

Missouri Valley 89

Mitchell’s Peak 13

Mobile Reproduction Train 91

Mobile Topographical Unit 79

Mock, G.A. 82, 85

Moeteetee, Wyo. 69

Moffit, F.M. 64, 80

Moki towns 10

Molokai 67

Mon Plasir Ferme 79

Monbeck, R.R. 66, 82, 86, 135, 139

Moncrief, Charley (Slick) 22
186 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Moncure, Thomas H. 61, 66, 78, 79, 82

Monograph XXII 43, 157

Mono Lake 161

Monroe, Ga. 44

Mont Sec 79

Montana 2, 7, 12, 24, 29, 38, 40, 41, 51, 52, 53, 67, 76, 90, 

92, 98, 112, 124, 128, 140, 141, 144, 145, 160, 161, 

169

Montclair, N.J. 39

Monte Cristo 50

Monterey County, Calif. 162

Montgomery, W.J. 82

Monticello, Utah 91

Monument Springs Quadrangle, Tex. 73

Moore, H.A. 82

Moore, L.C. 139

Moore, Raymond C. 91

Moore, R.H. 107

Moorhead, Bishop 67, 82

Moravetz, Robert L. 107, 111, 123, 144

Moravia, N.Y. 48

Morey, William H.S. 19, 70, 71, 82, 133

Morris, Ellison 82

Morrison, Lee 85, 133

Morse, Wm. B. 45

Mortenson, C.N. 135

Mortimore, R.H. 82

Morton, Levi P. 20

Morton, R.J. 82

Mountain Home, Idaho 40

Mountains of the United States, List of the 155, 159

Mount Baker 53

Mount Bradley 10

Mount Elbert, Colo. 68

Mount Goddard, Calif. 154

Mount Guyot 13

Mount Hood, Oreg. 50

Mount Hope 20

Mount Katahdin 13

Mount Kendrick 55

Mount Le Conte (Myrtle Top) 13

Mount Marcy, N.Y. 13

Mount McKinley National Park 164

Mount Mitchell 13

Mount Rainier National Park 67, 68, 73, 154

Mount Rainier Reserve 50

Mount Rainier, Wash. 51, 68, 152

Mount Shasta 170

Mount Taylor 9

Mount Taylor, N. Mex. 24

Mount Washburn 14

Mount Washington, N.H. 13, 48, 71

Mount Whitney 19, 68, 155, 162

Mount Whitney 154

Mouse River 41

Moyers, Sam H. 85

Mozambique, Africa 131

MSM Alumni Association 163

Mudd, Kostka 67, 78, 79, 82

Mud Lake 61

Mud Turtle 101

Muldrow, Robert 37, 63, 70, 82

Muller, Jake W. 48, 61

Multiplex 73, 75, 89, 94, 102, 103, 105, 108, 113, 116, 124, 

128, 130, 136, 150, 164

Mundine, Jesse E. 132, 139

Munroe, Hersey 20, 37, 71, 95, 135

Munsey Building 72

Munson, Archie T. 82, 118, 132

Murlin, A.E. 35, 37

Murlin, D.E. 82

Murphy, J.J. 82

Murphy, R.F. 135

Murphy, Tenn. 43

Murphy, T.F. 82

Murphy, Thos. J., Jr. 133

Mutual Security Agency 131

N

Nantahalah, N.C. 43

National Academy of Science 5, 49, 103, 171

National Forest Reservation Commission 71

National Forest Service 86

National Geographic Society 36, 52, 63, 155, 159

National Highway Research Board 118

National Museum 6, 60, 72, 96

National Park Service 67, 161

National Research Council 103, 107, 119

National Society of Professional Engineers 162

National Topographic Atlas 149

Natter, E.W.F. 15

Nautical Almanac 151

Navajo country 168

Navajo Indians 10

Navratil, Anton 132, 133

Navy, U.S. 24, 64, 84, 85

Neary, F.B. 128

Nebraska 2, 12, 41, 44, 76, 90, 92, 123, 128, 141, 144, 

145

Needles 55, 92

Neff, M.T. 82

Nell, Louis 19, 20, 93

Nelson, L. 78

C.L. Nelson 61, 65, 67, 82, 86, 135

Nelson, Oscar H. 78, 82, 88, 106, 107, 117, 118, 123, 139

Nessler, C.W.H. 82

Netherlands 119

Neufchateau 78

Nevada 3, 12, 14, 24, 29, 41, 70, 90, 92, 98, 124, 128, 140, 

141, 144, 145, 165

Nevitt, J.C. 85

New Almaden, Calif. 14
Index 187

New Berne, N.C. 153

New Deal 99, 100

New England 12, 66

New England Section 95, 170

New Hampshire 11, 12, 13, 40, 71, 92, 95, 98, 101, 123, 

128, 140, 141, 144, 145

New Haven, Conn. 153

New Idria, Calif. 14

New Jersey 11, 12, 17, 26, 27, 29, 40, 92, 123, 128, 141, 

144, 145, 149

New Mexico 2, 3, 7, 12, 18, 24, 29, 38, 40, 41, 51, 76, 90, 

92, 96, 98, 112, 124, 128, 140, 142, 144, 145, 160

New Mexico–Texas Boundary Line 96

Newport News, Va. 78

New River 12

New York 11, 12, 18, 22, 29, 40, 44, 48, 58, 66, 80, 86, 

92, 98, 123, 128, 142, 144, 145, 149, 156, 160, 164, 

169

New York City 103, 134, 165

New York State Geological Survey 18

New York Times 143

Newberry, John S. 5

Newcom, F.C. 82

Newcomb, Simon 5

Newell, Frederick H. 39, 51, 161

Newman, G. Olivio 8

Newsome, Laurie O. 82, 133

Niagara Falls 18, 22, 66

Niagara Gorge 65

Nineteenth Annual Report 50

Ninnescah, Kans. 21

Nixon, President 163

Noble, Mark 82

Noerr, Albert 14

Nome District 151

Norfolk, Va. 160

Norris, Clarence 133

North Africa 149

North Carolina 11, 12, 13, 26, 29, 53, 68, 71, 92, 123, 128, 

142, 144, 145, 156

North Carolina–Tennessee Boundary Lines 68

North Dakota 38, 41, 72, 76, 90, 92, 98, 123, 128, 142, 144, 

145

Northeastern Division 38, 62, 170

Northern Japan 108

Northern Pacific Route 75

Northern Transcontinental Survey 7, 160

North Interior Building 72, 77

North Pole expedition 155

North, Simon Newton 155, 159

Northwestern Division 70, 76, 160

Norway 61, 119

Norwich, Kans. 20

Noteworthy Events (1945) 110

Nottage, Clarence W. 133

Noyes, Donald 81

O

O’Hara, Samuel B. 53, 89, 97

O’Meally, George M. 132

O’Sullivan, T.H. 7

Oahu 66, 67

Oberlin College 2, 152

Oberlin, Ohio 2, 152

Obstructions to navigation 124

Office of Defense Transportation 110

Officier de l’Instruction Publique 80, 152

Ogle, Alexander J. 66, 70, 78, 81, 85, 106, 133

Ohio 2, 12, 58, 69, 72, 73, 76, 92, 103, 123, 128, 142, 144, 

145, 149, 152, 156, 169, 170

Ohio–Michigan Boundary Line 76

Ohio River 76, 156, 170

Ohio State University 152

Oklahoma 20, 41, 45, 48, 76, 90, 92, 95, 123, 128, 161, 170

Oklahoma City, Okla. 45

Oklahoma–Texas Boundary Line 95

Old Homestead 22

Old River 90

Old State Line 68

Oliver 56

Olympic, Wash. 51

Opdycke, A.L. 81

Order of University Palm 80

Ordnance Office 39

Oregon 12, 30, 50, 68, 70, 73, 76, 90, 92, 124, 128, 154, 

157, 160, 161

Oregon Territory 156, 157

Original Six 103

original Thirteen States 1, 11, 156

Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States 155

Orrall, S.M. 81

Osage Lands 45

Oswald Dome Quadrangle, Tenn. 102

Oswego, Kans. 17

Otis, W.H. 74

Ottawa, Canada 64, 65

Overland Routes 75

Overstreet, W.B. 139

Overstreet, Wm. B. 106

Owens River Valley 38, 162

Ozark Hills 14

P

Pacific Coast 1, 50, 117, 167

Pacific Division 61, 62, 70, 72, 76, 90, 92, 97, 101, 102, 112, 

122, 139, 154, 159, 160

Pacific Ocean 157, 163, 165

Pacific Region 129

Page, J.H. 81

Painted Desert of the Navajo’s 55

Paiute Indians 55

Palestine 116, 119, 164

Palmer House 22
188 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Panama–California Exposition 74

Panama Canal 74, 160

Panama Canal Company 160

Panama–Pacific International Exposition 74

Panama–Pacific Scientific Congress 154

Pan American Consultation on Cartography 109

Pan American Consultation on Cartography 155

Pan American Consultation on Geography and Cartography 

164

Pan American Institute of Cartography and History 119

Pan American Institute of Geography and History 94, 109, 

138

Panguitch 169

Panhandle of Texas 95

Paper No. 2632 135

Paper No. 2633 135

Paradise Valley 68

Paria 169

Paris, France 78, 170

Parke, J.G. 1

Parker, S.L. 81

Parnelle, R.E. 85

Pasadena, Calif. 91

Passagaluppi, W.A. 82

Patrick, J.B. 82

Patrick, S.L. 82

Pattensburg, Ill. 165

Patton, Gen. George 162

Paulsen, Carl G. 144

Pawnee Reservation 45

Peabody, H.W. 69, 70

Pearl Harbor 66, 106, 128, 146, 148, 162

Pearse, R.S. 135

Frank M. Pearson 12, 43

Peattie, Roderick 82

Pecan Lake 90

Peckinpaugh, C.L. 139

Pendleton, Thomas P. 82, 85, 88, 95, 102, 103, 105, 107, 

108, 109, 112, 116, 117, 133, 135, 164, 168

Penick, S.T. 70, 82

Pennsylvania 11, 12, 26, 27, 40, 44, 58, 92, 94, 98, 123, 128, 

140, 142, 144, 145, 151, 156, 169

Pennsylvania Avenue 20

Pennsylvania Military College 168

Pennsylvania National Guard 20

Pennsylvania 19

Perkins, E.T., Jr. 37, 40, 52

Perkins, R.G. 82

Perkinson, E.V. 82

Pershing, Gen, John J. 77, 79, 80

Personnel Notes 101

Peru 119

Petaluma, Calif. 61

Peters, A.C. 82

Peters, Gustave 82

Peters, William J. 17, 37, 45, 61, 63

Philippine Islands 119

Philippines 51, 107, 131, 155, 159

Philips 56

Phillips, British Columbia 53

Phipps, F.W. 82

photoalidade 64, 131, 150

Photogrammetric Engineering 59, 104, 105, 132

Picardy 79

Pierce, J.M. 82

Pike, Albert 37, 70, 73, 82, 84, 85, 95, 96, 112, 164, 170

Pikes Peak, Colo. 51, 116

Pilot Knob, Mo. 12

Pinchot, Gifford 50

Pinkston, Delmar W. 133

Pipe Springs 169

Plainfield, N.J. 170

Plains Indians 44

Plans and Coordination 111

Plans and Estimates Division 116

Plateau Region 17

Platt, L.A. 85

Plum Creek, Colo. 51

Plumas, Calif. 51

Plushnick, A.W. 118

Plymouth County, Mass. 15

Pocahantas, Va.–W. Va. 43

Point Arena, Calif. 61

Point Four 130

Point of Rocks, Md. 35

Point Sublime 55

Polaris 17, 42, 127, 129

Polastrodial 129

Pollansby, Robert 39

polyconic projection 15, 17, 125

Pomme, A.B. 48

Ponce 86

Pope, John 1

Port-au-Prince 84, 85

Portland, Oreg. 160, 162

Post Office Building 72

Post Office Department 52

Post, William S. 45, 63

Post, W.K. 82

Potomac River 39, 69, 70, 153

Powell, Ellen L. 168

Powell expedition 168

Powell, John Wesley 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 15, 19, 25, 26, 27, 28, 

29, 35, 38, 39, 44, 54, 57, 91, 143, 146, 157, 165, 168, 

171

Powell, Leonard 133

Powell Survey 3, 5, 11, 23, 28, 29, 30, 37, 38, 50, 144, 153

Pratt, Joseph Hyde 105

Pratt, Kans. 21, 22

Price, Gran 7

Priest River, Idaho 51

Priest River Reserve 50
Index 189

Princeton University 13, 63

Pritchett, H.S. 17, 18, 40, 41

Production Control 111

Professional Conduct Committee 163

provisional (maps) 125

Pryor, Douglas A. 132

Public Works Administration 87, 100, 167

Puerco River 9

Puerto Plata 84

Puerto Rico 82, 86, 87, 91, 100, 128, 132, 142, 143, 145, 

146, 154, 155, 159, 170

Pumpelly, Raphael 7, 160

Purple Heart 162

Pygmalion 20

Pyramid 14

Q

Quadrangles, The 36

Querida, Colo. 14

Quincy, Wash. 69

R

radio-telephone 147

Radlinski, William 163

Rainbow Bridge 66

Raleigh, Janet 132

Ramsaur, H.W. 85

Ramseur 13

Randall, R.H. & Co. 103

Randall, Robert E. 103

Ranney, Thaddeus T. 82, 89, 133

Rapid City, S. Dak. 18, 41

Ratchford, Pituman 132

Rauscher’s 57, 60

Rawls, J.M. 66, 82

Ray, John E. 132

Reaburn, Dewitt L. 52

Reade, Francis R. 7

Reconnaissance Mapping with Trimetrogon Photography 94

Rector, E.R. 82

Red Bluff, Calif. 14

Red Butte 54

Red River 46, 95

Red River Valley 99

Reed, W.M. 10

Reeves, Roscoe 70, 71, 78, 82, 107

Reference Point Creek 92

Register Rock 68

Reineck, Robert H. 82, 96, 106, 133

Renshawe, John H. 3, 7, 8, 14, 20, 37, 38, 41, 44, 56, 62, 73, 

75, 93, 118, 149, 165, 166

Renshawe Landscapes 165

Research and Technical Control 111

Revolutionary War 1, 11

Rhode Island 12, 25, 40, 92, 123, 128, 142, 144, 145, 149, 

151

Rhodes, B.L. 82

Rhyolite, Nev. 48

Rickard, E.S. 67

Richards, Harold R. 78, 87

Richberg, Miss. 21

Riddick, A.L. 82

Rider, Fred 82, 85

Ridgeway, John L. 23

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 90, 109, 155, 164

Rio Grande 39, 55, 96

Rio Grande Valley 38

Riverside, Calif. 154

Rizer, H.C. 57, 60

Roan Mountain, N.C. 13

Roberts, Arthur C. 62, 75, 82

Roberts, G.H. 82

Roberts, Leo B. 78, 80, 82, 88

Roberts, Thomas F. 107

Robertson, W.H. 14

Robinson, J.W. 85

Robison, S.S. 84

Rochester Academy 171

Rochester, Mich. 171

Rochester, N.Y. 102

Rockbridge County, Va. 164

Rockhold, J.E. 74

Rocky Mountain Division 38, 62, 63, 70, 72, 76, 90, 92, 103, 

112, 113, 116, 122, 151, 152, 154, 160, 168

Rocky Mountain exploration expedition 168

Rocky Mountain National Park 73

Rocky Mountain Region 1, 5, 6, 8, 62, 64, 73, 123, 128, 129, 

163

Rocky Mountains 2, 38, 53, 93, 113, 151, 156, 157, 166

Rogers, William B. 5

Rolla Chamber of Commerce 163

Rolla, Mo. 69, 89, 110, 117, 118, 123, 129, 162, 163, 166

Rolla Park Board 163

Rolla Planning and Zoning Commission 163

Rolla Rotary Club 163

Rolla United Fund 163

Rome, Italy 170

Roney, John I. 132

Roosevelt, President Theodore 50, 71, 155

Roseau River 99

Roseau River Valley, Minn. 97, 162

Rosita, Calif. 14

Ross, Charles A. 23

Roudabush, M.A. 82

Rowell, C.W. 82

Runnymede, Kans. 21

Runyan, R.H. 42, 81, 85

Russell, Israel C. 63, 161

Russell, R.H. 81

Rust, Earl 81

Rutledge, D.H. 135, 139

Rydeen, J.P. 135
190 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Ryukyu Rhetta 107, 108

S

S.S. Joaquin 61

Sac Reservation 45

Sacramento Bee 163

Sacramento, Calif. 61, 62, 72, 101, 110, 124, 129, 159, 160, 

161

Sacramento Valley, Calif. 61, 163

C.L. Sadler, Carl L. 48, 75, 81, 89, 97, 107, 117, 118, 135, 

133, 162, 166

Saegmuller, G.W. 19

Salazar-Diaz triangulation and traverse of 1852 96

Salem, Oreg. 73

Salmon Falls, N.H. 95

Salt Lake City, Utah 8, 9, 39, 119, 162, 169, 170

Salt Lake, southern Utah 168

Salt Lake, Utah 8

San Andreas Rift 61

San Benito County, Calif. 61

San Bernardino, Calif. 51, 61

San Bernardino Mountains 50

San Diego, Calif. 73, 74

San Francisco Bay 74

San Francisco, Calif. 8, 44, 61, 67, 73, 74, 75, 154

San Francisco Mountain, Ariz. 51

San Francisco Mountains 8

San Gabriel, Calif. 51

San Jacinto, Calif. 51

San Jacinto Reserve 50

San Joaquin Valley 72, 163

San Jose, Calif. 61

San Juan, Calif. 61

San Juan, P.R. 86, 87

San Juan River 91

San Luis Valley 2, 5

San Salvador 108

Sanders, James L. 89, 133

Santa Barbara, Calif. 51

Santa Clara Valley 163

Santa Fe Route 75

Santa Monica, Calif., Quadrangle 160

Santa Rosa, Calif. 61

Santiago 109

Santo Domingo City 84

Santo Domingo Surveys 167

Santo Domingo, West Indies 82, 84, 85, 154, 170

Saratoga, N.Y. 154

Sargent, B. Harvey 36

Sargent, F.H. 87

Sargent, Rufus H. 64, 88, 112, 133, 166, 167

Saudi Arabia 131

Savannah, Ga. 42

Scher, Marvin B. 133

Schlachter, Karl E. 71

Schlatter, E.J. 105, 139

Schlesinger, Jackson 111

Schmidt, R.L. 81

Schnurr, Cornelius 81

Schoolcraft Quadrangle 88

Schultz, Jack T. 89, 118

Schwartz, G.C. 82

Science Advisory Board 103

Science Magazine 147

Scotland 170

Scribing 147

Searchlight Triangulation 88

Searle, A. Benson 37, 61, 82

Sears, W.B. 107

Seattle College 154

Seattle, Wash. 63, 75

Second Annual Report 4, 9, 12, 169

Second Guide Meridian 45

Sedan 79

Seely 20

Seitz, Raymond C. 82, 133

Selden, H.S. 12

Selective Military Conscription Bill 77

Seminole Indians 44

Semper, C.H. 61, 82, 86

Senator, The 22

Seneca, Md. 69

Seneca Quadrangles, S.C. 127

Senseney, H.S. 42, 48, 70, 100, 118

Seventeenth Annual Report 45

Seventh Annual Report 24

Seventy-Fifth Anniversary 143

Sevier River 9

Seward, V.S. 67, 85

Shalibo, F.L. 71, 85

Shasta Dam 163

Shasta Route 75

Shauck Quadrangle, Ohio 72

Shaw, Edmund 10

Shawnee-Potawatomi Reservation 45

Shea, R.I. 82

Shelton, Hal 73

Shepard, R.D. 12

Shinagawa, Jack 132

Shipley, J.J. 82

Shoal Pond Brook 71

Shockey, Charles C. 131

Shoran 64, 129

Shoreham Hotel 36

Shoshone National Forest, Wyo. 49

Shumate, J.A. 118

Shumate, W.A. 86

Shumway, W.A. 43

Shuster, Ernest A., Jr. 23, 133

Sierra Blanca, Tex. 18

Sierra, Calif. 51

Sierra Club, Calif. 161
Index 191

Sierra de Luquillo 86

Sierra Nevada 162

Sierra Nevada Mountains 2

Sigma XI 163

Signal Service 12, 25

Silica Creek, British Columbia 53

Silver Cliff, Colo. 14

Simmons, H.E. 82, 118

Simonpietri, Dr. Andre C. 109

Sinclair, C.H. 53

Sinclair, T. & Son 24

Sisson, George E. 133

Skagit River 50

Skagway, Alaska 63

Skeen, Richard A. 132

Slaughter, T. Foster 37, 82

Slick Rock Creek 68

Smith, Chas. E. 7

Smith, D.B. 82

Smith, Dr. Philip S. 63, 165

Smith, George Otis 60, 62, 65, 117

Smith, Glenn S. 37, 58, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 

90, 92, 96, 97, 117, 161, 164, 166, 167

Smith, G.R. 82

Smith, H.B. 86

Smith, H.W. 82

Smith, Joseph F.W. 132

Smith, Olinus 66, 67, 70, 86

Smith, S.W. 135

Smith, W.F. 1

Smith, W.L. 85

Smithsonian Institution 2, 3, 60

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection 162

Smoky Mountains 12

Snake River 38, 65, 157

Snell, A.H. 82

Soap Creek Rapids 92

Soil Conservation Service 89

Sollenberger, Lucy W. 133

Sommers, C.J. 82

Sooners 45

Soreide, Louis S. 132, 133

South Africa 119

South America 167

South Carolina 12, 53, 92, 100, 123, 128, 142, 144, 145

South Central Europe 108

South Dakota 18, 41, 76, 90, 92, 123, 128, 142, 144, 145, 

166

South Dakota State College 161

South Fork of Red River 95

South Interior Building 72

South McAlester, Okla. 45, 46

South Platte, Colo. 51

Southeastern Division 38, 62, 170

Southern Appalachian National Park Commission 97

Southern Appalachian Park Commission 167

Southern Appalachian Region 29

Southern California 3, 41, 50, 73, 163

Southern Central 38

Southern Japan 108

Southwestern Division 169

Southwick, M.L. 82

Spain 86, 155

Sparks, P.H. 82

Speareville, Kans. 18, 22

Special Map Projects Section 123, 135

Special Maps Branch 135, 136, 146, 148, 149

Special Maps Section 130

Special Master 101

Speert, J.L. 107, 135, 139

Sprague, W.G. 82

Spring Valley, Nev. 8

Springfield, Ill. 22

Springfield, Mo. 17

St. Auld 77

St. Elias Range 63

St. George 169

St. Joseph, Mo. 2

St. Louis Bay 90

St. Louis, Mo. 10, 17, 18, 100, 162, 169

St. Louis Observatory 17

St. Louis Quadrangle 163

St. Louis River 90

St. Michael 63

St. Michael Sector 78

St. Nazaire 78, 79

St. Paul, Minn. 119

Staack, John G. 75, 82, 88, 96, 97, 99, 107, 108, 112, 117, 

118, 133, 135, 167, 168

Stabler, Herman 72, 92

Stackpole compensated steel tape 8

Stainback, Governor 67

Staked Plains, Tex. 50

Staley, Glen L., Jr. 132

Stanford University 96

Stanislaus, Calif. 51

Stanton, R.D. 82

State Department 152, 168

State Mapping Advisory Committees 137, 140

Statistical Atlases, 10th and 11th Censuses 155

Steele, Rhea B. 72, 82, 85, 133

Steele, W.G. 50

Stehekin River 50

Stensland, H.J. 82

stereoautograph 128

stereoplanigraph 102, 150

Stevenson, James 10

Stevenson, R.G. 67, 82, 85, 135, 139

Stewart, C.H. 82

Stewart, J.T. 54, 55

Stiefel, A.C. 107, 128, 135

Stoddard, N.H. 168
192 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Stone, Ralph W. 75

Stoneham, H.L. 82

Stoner, Sidney N. 61

Stonesifer, C.A. 82

Story, Isabelle F. 67

Stranahan, William 23, 82

Strange, F.C. 82

Striker, A.F. 107, 139

Strohm, Guy W. 132

Sullins, Carl T., Jr. 133

Sullivan 21

Sulphur Bank, Calif. 14

Sulu Archipelago 107, 108

Sundry Civil Bill 5, 6, 9, 19, 38, 39, 46, 49, 52

Sunset Crossing, Utah 9

Supreme Court, U.S. 68, 89, 95, 96, 101

Survey button 57

Survey ensign 57

Surveying and Mapping 106

Surveying and Mapping Division 135

Surveying Camp 167

Survey Order No. 5 70

Survey Order No. 11 70

Survey Order No. 13 59

Survey Order No. 67 76

Survey Order No. 69 76

Survey Order No. 70 76

Survey Order No. 77 76

Survey Order No. 78 167

Survey Order No. 94 82, 84

Survey Order No. 97 83

Survey Order No. 99 Amendment 90

Survey Order No. 100 89

Survey Order No. 106 90

Survey Order No. 114 92

Survey Order No. 128 96

Survey Order No. 140 108

Survey Order No. 140 Modification 108

Survey Order No. 148 110, 111

Survey Order No. 150 63, 112

Survey Order No. 151 112

Survey Order No. 152 113

Survey Order No. 157 113

Survey Order No. 160 113, 121, 125, 126

Survey Order No. 162 116

Survey Order No. 173 122, 123

Survey Order No. 186 124

Survey Order No. 192 125

Survey Order No. 193 125

Survey Order No. 213 128

Survey Order No. 219 135

Survey Order No. 220 135

Survey pennant 57

Susitna River 63

Sutton, Frank 37, 62, 66, 70, 76, 78, 81, 90, 92, 135, 161, 

168

Swannanoa 13

Sweden 119

Swick, J.N. 85

Switzerland 77

Sylvester, Albert H. 36, 61

Syracuse, N.Y. 152

Syracuse University 160

T

Table Mountains, Colo. 14

Tacoma, Wash. 68

Taku 151

Talbert Abrams Award 105

Talladega 19

Tanana River Basin, Alaska 64

Tandy, J.H. 81

Tanganyika, Africa 131

Tatum, Sledge 37, 46, 70, 72, 76, 168

Tau Beta Pi 163

Taylor, B.P. 107

Taylor, H.P. 81

Taylor, Oliver G. 66, 67, 68, 80, 81

Taylor, S.E. 68

Tazewell, Va.–W. Va 43

Technical Memorandum No. 51 110

Technology Section 171

Teller, L.W. 85

Tellico River 68

Temple Act 87, 92, 93, 146

Tennessee 12, 24, 26, 29, 53, 68, 71, 92, 94, 98, 123, 128, 

142, 144, 145, 156, 170

Tennessee River Basin 102, 168

Tennessee Valley 116, 128

Tennessee Valley Authority 88, 102, 111, 128, 164, 168

Tennyson, R.S. 85

Tenth Anniversary 39

Tenth Annual Report 19

Tenth Census 155

Territory Northwest of the River Ohio 76, 156

Territory of Hawaii 61, 66, 67, 70, 92

Territory of Oklahoma 41

Territory of Oregon 157

Territory of Washington 156

Terry, H.M. 85

Teton Reserve 50

Teton, Wyo. 51

Tex, George N. 133

Texas 12, 16, 17, 24, 26, 29, 38, 40, 41, 45, 76, 90, 92, 95, 

96, 98, 123, 128, 142, 144, 145, 151, 160, 169

Thacher, Elwood J. 132

Theaucort, France 79

The Military Engineer 64, 87, 88, 92

Theta Tau 163

Thirteenth Annual Report 42

Thomas, D.J. 85

Thomas, T.E. 85
Index 193

Thomas, Willis 81

Thompson, Almon H. 10, 11, 14, 33, 36, 37, 38, 41, 44, 160, 

168, 169, 170

Denman Thompson 22

Thompson, Gilbert 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 20, 38, 169, 170

Thompson, J.C. 81

Thompson, Morris M. 105, 107, 135, 139

Thompson, Mrs. Gilbert 170

Thompson, William C. 85, 132, 133

Thorn, Wm. H. 49

Thornton, Karl 67

Thurston, R.F. 139

Tibbott, Edward W. 132

Tie Sing 72

Timmons, G.E. 82

Tingey, W.A. 118

Tipton, Iowa 25

Todd, Wright R. 133

Toledo, Ohio 103

Tonkawa Reservation 45

Tonto Cliff 56

Tonto Terrace 55, 56

Topocraft Club 101

Topocraft Newsnotes 101

Topographic Branch Notes 101

Topographic Committee 56, 62, 170

Topographic Corps 146

Topographic Division 38, 40, 65, 95, 105, 107, 109, 122, 

123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 135, 136, 137, 

138, 139, 140, 146, 147, 148, 151, 155, 163

Topographic Division Bulletin 13, 58, 127, 140, 149

Topographic Instructions 152

Topographic Mapping by Photogrammetric Methods 94

Topographic Mapping Policy Committee 105

Topographic Surveying 171

Topographic Vocational Program 162

Toul 78

Towill, R.M. 85

Town, F.S. 50

Townville, S.C. 127

Towsend, H.M. 105

Towson, R.M. 20, 21, 45

Training Films 93

Transcontinental Survey 62

trans-Mississippi plains 94

Treasury Department 11, 48, 104

Treasury Department Procurement Division 104

Treaty of Peace 89

tri-lens camera 64, 80, 85

Trial Board 60

Triangle Club 36, 49

Tribute to Gilbert Thompson 170

Tribute to Henry Gannett 159

Tribute to Survey Wives 151

The 20-Year Topographers 37

Trimble, Kelley W. 82, 87, 88, 91, 100

trimetrogon mapping 126, 148, 154

trimetrogon photography 64, 130

Trimetrogon Section 123, 126, 127, 136

Triplett, G.A. 82

Tromso, Norway 61

Trowbridge, William P., Jr. 5, 39

Troy, N.Y. 19, 33, 154

Truman, President Harry S. 110

Tuba City Indian Agency 56

Tuckasegee River 13

Tucker, L.E. 69

Tufts, William O. 53, 67, 68, 70, 75, 80, 82, 87

Tuna Creek 56

Tureene Barracks 77

Turkey 116, 164

Turkish Army 108

Turner, Cecil A. 89

Turner Ranch 72

Tusayan, Ariz. 24

Tuttle, Basil 85

Tweedy, Frank 37, 38

Twelfth Annual Report 41

Twelfth Census 155

Twelfth International Geological Congress 65

Twenty-eighth Annual Report 58

Twenty-fifth Annual Report 151

Twenty-first Annual Report 50, 162

Twenty-second Annual Report 162

Twenty-third Annual Report 5

Twenty-Year Club 36

Twenty-year Service Topographers 155

Twinplex 148, 149

Tyler, W.B. 85

U

U.S. Air Force 85, 130, 136, 149

U.S. Army 1, 3, 12, 53, 57, 69, 73, 77, 80, 84, 85, 87, 90, 96, 

116, 162, 163

U.S. Engineers 4, 154, 164, 166

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 5 156

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 13 156

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 48 18

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 49 18

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 50 18

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 76 156

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 154 50

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 160 156

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 171 156

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 175 47

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 185 47

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 187 151

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 226 156

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 227 57

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 274 156

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 281 48

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 302 52
194 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 307 157

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 788 95, 96, 152, 164

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 809 152

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin No. 817 90, 95, 154

U.S. Lake Survey 17, 18, 66, 171

U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. 77

U.S. Transit of Venus Commission 171

Ucker, C.S., Jr. 82

Uganda 131

Uinkaret District, Ariz. 165

Uinkaret Mountains 8

underwater contours 124

Union Station 19, 62

Unitarian Church 22

United States–Canadian Boundary Survey 151

Universal Transverse Mercator 125

University of Chicago 89

University of Cincinnati 152

University of Georgia 159

University of Illinois 3, 103, 161

University of Iowa 103

University of Michigan 151, 171

University of Missouri–Rolla 163

University of Missouri–Rolla Booster Club 163

University of Pennsylvania 2

University of Virginia 160

University of Washington 154

University of Wisconsin 103, 167

Upper Mississippi Valley 167

Upper Missouri River 38

Upper Peninsula 11

Upton, W.B., Jr. 82, 139

Urbana, Ill. 117, 161

Urquhart, Charles F. 37, 45, 68

Utah 3, 8, 9, 12, 24, 51, 55, 70, 90, 91, 92, 98, 99, 119, 124, 

128, 142, 144, 145, 153, 160, 162, 165, 168, 169

Utah Centennial 119

Utah State Historical Society 168

Ute Indians 3

V

Van Brunt, E.E. 128

Van Camp, C.P. 105, 123, 139

Van Hook, C.G. 43

Van Zandt, F.K. 97, 135

Vance, Walter N. 72

Vancouver Island, British Columbia 65

VE Day 110

Venezuela 119

Venezuelan Boundary Commission 23

Verdun 79

Vermont 12, 44, 92, 98, 101, 102, 119, 123, 128, 140, 142, 

144, 145

Vermont–New Hampshire Boundary Line 101

Veterans Bureau 89

Vinton, Herbert J. 132

Virginia 12, 26, 29, 40, 48, 51, 58, 59, 68, 69, 71, 83, 92, 98, 

123, 128, 143, 144, 145, 149, 156, 160, 163

Virgin Islands 146

Virgin River 3

Vishnu Quadrangle 54, 56

VJ Day 110

W

Wainwright, D.R. 82

Walcott, Charles D. 7, 8, 39, 44, 47, 57, 60, 61, 62 162

Waldorf-Astoria 143

Walhalla Plateau 55

Walker, Albert M. 37, 59, 72, 73, 77, 80, 82

Walker, E.T. 82, 85

Walker Lake 14

Walker, Lee 89, 162

walkie-talkie 147

Wallace, H.S. 7, 37

Walling, Henry F. 11, 12

Walsh, Houston T. 132

Wann, W.C 82

War Department 1, 2, 3, 6, 39, 66, 77, 91, 103, 107, 108, 

109, 119, 152, 153, 154

Ward, J.S. 85

Wardle, C.W. 82

Warm Creek 169

Warner, H.G. 87

Warren Counties, Miss. 101

Warren, G.K. 1

Wasatch Mountains 8

Washington 6, 13, 19, 20, 24, 26, 35, 36, 39, 41, 48, 52, 60, 

62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 76, 78, 90, 92, 99, 100, 109, 

110, 119, 124, 129, 136, 140, 144, 149, 153, 154, 160, 

161, 162, 163, 164

Washington Barracks 78

Washington, D.C. 6, 13, 19, 24, 35, 39, 52, 60, 67, 70, 78, 

109, 110, 119, 136, 144, 149, 153, 162, 163, 164

Washington, General 1

Washington Hotel 96

Washington Observatory 10, 17

Washington Reserve 50

Washington Society of Engineers 144

Washington Territory 12, 30, 156, 157

Washington University 40, 41, 161

Wasson, Theron 82

Watauga River 12

Water Resources Division 123, 142

Water-Supply Paper 44 53

Water-Supply Paper 115 54

Watkins, J.L. 131, 139

Watson, Dallas H. 78, 82, 85, 86, 112, 123, 132, 165, 170

Watson, Professor 151

Weather Bureau 25

Webster 13

Webster, Albert L. 8, 9, 10, 14, 170

Weeks Act 71
Index 195

Weeks, Arline G. 67

Weeks, John W. 71

Weiser, Idaho 91

Weishapple, C.E. 118

Wellington, Kans. 22

Wender, W.G. 85

West Indies 82, 84, 116, 154

West Point 153

West Point, Miss. 159

West Virginia 12, 26, 29, 40, 43, 51, 58, 59, 68, 71, 92, 98, 

123, 128, 143, 144, 145, 149

Western Division 37, 41, 57, 169

Western Society of Engineers 117

Western States and Territories 29

Western Territories 32

Western Union Telegraph Company 40

Westfield, Mass. 2

Whaley, Frank L. 97, 133

Wheat, Joseph H. 37, 66, 69, 79, 80, 82, 88, 105, 108, 159

Wheaton College, Ill. 168

Wheeler, George E. 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, 14, 19, 28, 29, 30, 

43, 155, 170

Wheeler, Patrick 7

Wheeler Survey 3, 4, 5, 9, 11, 14, 19, 28, 50, 62, 144, 169

Wheeling, U.S. Gunboat 63

Whipple, A.W. 1

White House 20, 96

White Mountains 71

White River 3, 63

White River, Colo. 51

Whitherspoon, D.C. 37

Whitman, J.M. 37, 70, 101, 106

Whitmore, George D. 105, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 123, 

135, 139, 149

Whitney, Josiah D. 3, 4, 155

Who’s Who in America 169, 171

Wichita, Kans. 20, 21

Wichita, Okla. 51

Wick, F. Neil 132

Wigwam, British Columbia 53

Wilbur, Ray Lyman 96

Wilcoxon, Ralph F. 82, 112, 123, 132, 133

Wiley, C.H. 85

Williams, A.C. 82

Williams, Ariz. 54

Williams, C.C. 103

Williamson, R.S. 4

Williford, Paul 85

Williford, Wilbur 133

Willis, Bailey 23

Willow Springs Trading Post 56

Wilson, Allen D. 3, 7, 160

Wilson, A.V., 82

Wilson, C.C. 7

Wilson, George H. 7, 8

Wilson, Herbert M. 10, 14, 37, 38, 41, 44, 53, 56, 60, 62, 

112, 135, 154, 157, 170

Wilson, John A. 86

Wilson, John H. 69, 78, 80, 82

Wilson, John R.P. 132

Wilson, Ronald M. 67, 79, 82, 88, 105, 107, 117, 131, 132, 

135, 139

Wind River Range 155

Wingate Division 9, 10, 169, 170

Wingate, E.G. 67

Wingate, N. Mex. 24

Winnemucce Lake 14

Wisconsin 12, 40, 42, 53, 90, 92, 94, 98, 103, 123, 128, 143, 

144, 145, 156, 167

Withers, Powell P. 19

Witherspoon, E.E. 71

Witkege, F.L. 135, 139

Wittemore, Ray 133

Wix, O.L. 85

Wong, Richard B. 132

Wood, W.J. 85

Woodford, J.F. 82

Woodhouse, E.H. 82

Woodward, Robert S. 17, 18, 40, 157, 171

Woodworth, C.L 82

Word, Frank 91

World War I 77, 85, 87, 88, 89, 112, 116, 117, 146, 152, 154, 

161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 170

World War II 64, 65, 73, 78, 101, 104, 106, 107, 108, 116, 

119, 126, 130, 146, 148, 149, 154, 162, 167

Wormser, Felix 144

Wrather, Dr. William E. 109, 112, 113, 116, 117, 122, 124, 

125, 126, 128, 135, 136, 143, 144

Wright, C.W. 64

Wright, F.E. 171

Wright, F.W. 171

Wright, P.E. 64

Wright, Philo B. 7

Wyoming 2, 3, 7, 12, 29, 41, 49, 51, 67, 76, 90, 92, 98, 112, 

124, 128, 140, 144, 145, 155, 161

Wytheville 43

X

Y

Yarbrough, Arthur 82

Yeager, Arthur 86

Yeates, Charles M. 12, 13, 43

Yellow River 167

Yellowstone Lake 165

Yellowstone, Mont. 14, 51

Yellowstone 73

Yellowstone National Park 2, 67, 75, 165

Yellowstone Reserve 50

Yellowstone River 38

Yellowstone, Wyo. 51

Yetter, Ensign Desmond M. 107
196 History of the Topographic Branch (Division)

Yoakum, B.H. 82, 85, 86, 87

Yorktown 88

Yosemite National Park, Calif. 51, 67, 73, 154

Yosemite National Park Commission 67

Yugoslavia 107, 108

Yukon Delta 63

Yukon River 63

Yukon Valley 63

Yuma, Ariz. 61

Z

Zeiss Company 102

Zeiss Stereoplanigraph 102

Zens, William F. 133, 139

Zion National Park 67, 99

Zoroaster Temple 55

Zuni Mountains 10

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 3

Topographer George S. Druhot working with a tripod, 

planetable, and alidade at Kahekili Leap, on the island 

of Oahu in Hawaii, 1928.
Evans and Frye—History of the Topographic Branch (Division)—Circular 1341

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