Increasing Americans’ consumption

of fruits and vegetables has been a

mainstay of Federal

dietary guidance for

more than a decade.

USDA’s Food Guide

Pyramid recommends 2-4 servings

of fruit and 3-5 servings of vegetables

daily. As a member

of the 5-A-Day public-private partnership, USDA partners with other government agencies

and private sector groups to promote the health benefits of

fruits and vegetables to consumers.

Fruits and vegetables are leading sources of several essential nutrients such as vitamins A and C, potassium, and

folate. In addition, diets rich in fruits and vegetables are

associated with decreased risk of chronic disease. Now,

with obesity the most prevalent nutrition-related health

problem in America, the role of fruits and vegetables in

helping Americans maintain a healthy weight, or lose

excess weight, is receiving attention.

Eating more fruits and vegetables is common weightcontrol advice. Generally, fruits and vegetables have fewer

calories per serving than most foods, making them a good

substitute for higher-calorie foods. Most are high in dietaryfiber, which promotes a feeling of fullness and may make it

easier for individuals to limit their calorie intake. 

These are biologically plausible reasons to believe that

eating more fruits

and vegetables will

help control or

reduce weight, but

what of the evidence? Several studies suggest an association between fruit

and vegetable consumption and healthy weight status,

but a conclusive

causal link has not

yet been established. Using national food consumption data collected by USDA in 1994-96,

ERS economists Lin and Morrison found eating more fruit

to be associated with a lower body mass index (BMI), a

measure used by health experts to assess body weight in

relationship to height. This was true for both adults and

older children. For vegetables, however, there was no consistent relationship. Lin and Morrison speculate that one

explanation may be the vegetable choices consumers make.

Nutritionists recommend a variety of vegetables, including

regular servings of deep-yellow and dark-green vegetables

prepared with limited amounts of fats and sugars. In contrast, the most popular vegetable choice of most Americans

is fried potatoes. 

A CDC-commissioned review of dietary intervention studies supports the belief that appropriate choices of vegetables, as well as fruits, can be the key to their weight-control

benefits. This review concluded that when interventions that

United States

Department of

Agriculture

Economic 

Research

Service

Agriculture Information Bulletin Number 792-1 October 2004

Understanding Fruit and

Vegetable Choices 

Economic and Behavioral

Influences

Joanne F. Guthrie, jguthrie@ers.usda.gov, 202-694-5373
promoted higher-fiber, more filling fruit and vegetable

choices, along with weight reduction advice, it did seem to

be helpful. Variyam and Callahan found that in a national

sample of adults, those aware of the 5-A-Day program were

less likely to be overweight. The study did not track what

these people actually ate, so we can’t assess the extent to

which fruit and vegetable intake plays a role. Nevertheless,

the 5-A-Day program has restricted its promotional efforts

to fruits and vegetables with limited added calories from fat

and sweeteners, so some inferences may be drawn.

While these studies do not prove a cause-and-effect relationship, making the fruit and vegetable choices recommended by the Food Guide Pyramid and the 5-A-Day

Program certainly seems likely to help consumers with their

weight control efforts, while also providing nutritional benefits. This positive message comes at a time when fruits and

vegetables are increasingly available in convenient forms.

The growth of international trade means increasing availability of a wide range of fresh produce on a year-round

basis. In addition, value-added products such as bagged,

pre-washed spinach and salad or “snack-pack” baby carrots

and celery sticks now provide consumers with convenient

preparation and take-out options.

Has this combination of nutrition promotion, trade expansion, and marketing innovation resulted in increased produce consumption? Sadly, USDA food supply data indicate

that although produce consumption has increased, it still

fails to match recommendations. For vegetables, total consumption is higher, but the choices consumers make do not

match recommendations—too many fried potatoes and too

few servings of deep green and yellow vegetables. 

Why, despite public promotion of their health benefits and

expanded purchasing options, have consumers not responded more to efforts to increase fruit and vegetable consumption? The series of research reports summarized in this

packet examines economic, social, and behavioral factors

influencing consumers’ fruit and vegetable choices. 

The cost of fruits and vegetables is a commonly cited reason why consumers don’t eat more of these healthy foods.

This is somewhat surprising, since rising incomes and low

food prices mean that Americans now spend less of their

income on food than ever before—10.1 percent of disposable personal income in 2002 versus 20.5 percent in 1950.

Using national data on household food purchases, Reed et

al. found numerous affordable options among both fresh

and processed fruits and vegetables whereby consumers

could meet Food Guide Pyramid recommendations for less

than $1 per day. 

Nevertheless, income-constrained consumers may not make

purchasing fruits and vegetables a high priority. Blisard et

al. found that not only do low-income households spend

less on fruits and vegetables than other households, they are

also less likely than higher-income households to respond

to an increase in income by spending more on these foods.

Tellingly, education has a more important effect on purchases of fruits and vegetables than does income, suggesting knowledge of the nutritional importance of these foods

2 Economic Research Service / USDA

Agriculture Information Bulletin 792-1

Why, despite public promotion

of their health benefits and

expanded purchasing options,

have consumers not responded

more to efforts to increase fruit

and vegetable consumption? 

Pyramid-based serving

per capita per day

2002 food

supply1 Recommended

Dark green, leafy 0.18 0.6

Deep yellow .21 .8

Legumes .23 .6 

Other starchy

(mainly potatoes) 1.29 .8

Other vegetables 1.80 1.3

Total vegetables* 3.71 4.0

*May not add due to rounding.

1Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research

Service, Food Supple Data Series provides annual estimates of the

amount of food available for human consumption in the United States.

These figures exclude inedible portions and adjusts for spoilage and

waste. 

Would you like fries with that?

Potatoes lead vegetable choice
may be the critical factor influencing consumer choice. In

another recent ERS study, Lin et al. found that consumers

with more nutrition knowledge also made more healthful

choices, choosing more dark-green and deep-yellow 

vegetables and tomatoes—and fewer fried potatoes—than

other consumers. 

This evidence of the value of information supports investment in nutrition education and promotional campaigns

such as 5-A-Day. However, other personal and lifestyle

characteristics also play a role, and their influences may

enhance or negate information effects. Stewart et al. found

that household characteristics such as the presence of children were important in whether the household ate the varied mix of produce recommended by health authorities. The

household’s ethnic background was also important, with

Asian and Hispanic households more likely to eat a variety

of vegetables. Both these findings remind us that eating is a

social behavior, and the good intentions created by nutrition

information are more likely to be acted upon if they are

compatible with household habits and tastes. Promotional

advice that provides flexible strategies for accommodating

a range of preferences and lifestyles may be more effective

than nutrition information alone.

The most important food-related lifestyle change of the past

two decades is probably the increase in consumption of

food prepared away from home, whether eaten in restaurants or as take-out or home-delivered meals. But when

Americans order their restaurant or take-out meals, fruits

and most vegetables seldom make the list. USDA data indicate that while food prepared away from home makes up

about a third of the average American’s daily caloric intake,

it accounts for less than 1⁄2 a serving of fruit, and 11

/4 servings of vegetables. 

If Americans continue to eat more foods prepared away from

home and continue to eat fewer fruits and vegetables when

they do, this could have a paralyzing effect on campaigns to

increase fruit and vegetable consumption. Lin examined

how demographic trends, increasing nutrition knowledge,

and the shift to more food prepared away from home might

affect future fruit and vegetable consumption patterns.

While increasing nutrition knowledge is expected to raise

fruit and vegetable consumption, increased consumption of

food away from home could nullify these gains.

These findings present a clear challenge to those seeking to

promote fruit and vegetable consumption. Successful produce promotions must get consumers to choose fruits and

vegetables when eating food prepared away from home.

Recently, restaurants and fast-food establishments have

placed more marketing emphasis on healthful menu options

such as salads and fresh-cut fruit. Several of these products

appear to be popular with consumers, in comparison to previous industry attempts to market “healthy choices” that did

not succeed in the marketplace. 

As the research briefs in this series illustrate, many behavioral and economic factors lead to the consumer’s decision

whether to eat fruits and vegetables. Understanding these

factors will help the food industry develop and market fruit

and vegetable products that offer consumers convenience,

flexibility, and options when eating out. But in the end, consumer preference drives the marketplace. To the extent that

a better understanding of factors influencing fruit and vegetable consumption leads to more effective consumer education and promotion strategies, the market should respond,

making it ever-easier for consumers to find appealing ways

to eat their “5-A-Day.”

Further Reading

Blisard, N., H. Stewart, and D. Jolliffe. Are Fruit and

Vegetable Expenditures by Low-Income Households

Responsive to Changes in Income?

Huang, S.W. “Global Trade in Fruits and Vegetables Brings

Variety to the Nation’s Grocery Stores,” Amber Waves, June

2004.

Kaufman, P., C.R. Handy, E.W. McLaughlin, K. Park, G.

M. Green. Understanding the Dynamics of Produce

Markets: Consumption and Consolidation Grow. AIB-758,

Aug. 2000. 

Lin, B-H., and R.M. Morrison. “Higher Fruit Consumption

Linked with Lower Body Mass Index,” Food Review 25(3),

Jan. 2003, pp. 28-32.

Economic Research Service / USDA 3

Agriculture Information Bulletin 792-1

Promotional advice that provides

flexible strategies for accommodating a range of preferences and

lifestyles may be more effective

than nutrition information alone.
Lin, B-H. Fruit and Vegetable Consumption: Looking

Ahead to 2020.

Lin, B-H., L. Mancino, and N. Ballenger. “Factors affecting

vegetable consumption in the United States: An analysis of

food consumption survey data.” Poster presented at

International Society of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical

Activity annual meeting, Washington, DC, June 11, 2004

Lin, B-H., J.F. Guthrie, and E. Frazao. “Nutrient contribution of food away from home,” in America’s Eating Habits:

Changes and Consequences. U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Economic Research Service, AIB-750, 1999. 

Putnam, J., J. Allshouse, and L. Kantor. “U.S. Per Capita

Food Supply Trends: More Calories, Refined

Carbohydrates, and Fats,” Food Review, Dec. 2002. 

Reed, J., E. Frazao, and R. Itskowitz. How Much Do

Americans Pay for Fruits and Vegetables? USDA/ERS.

AIB-790, July 2004. 

Rolls, B..J., J.A. Ello-Martin, and B.C. Tohill. “What Can

Intervention Studies Tell Us about the Relationship

Between Fruit and Vegetable Consumption and Weight

Management?” Nutrition Review, Vol 62, No. 1, Jan. 2004.

Stewart, H., M. Harris, and J.F. Guthrie. What Determines

the Variety of a by Household’s Vegetable Purchases?

U.S. Department of Agriculture and Department of Health

and Human Services. Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

1990, 1995, 2000.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research

Service. “Food expenditures by families and individuals as

a share of disposable personal money income.”

www.ers.usda.gov/briefing/CPIFoodAndExpenditures/Dat

a/table8.htm

Variyam J, and R. Callahan. “Diet-health knowledge,

awareness of federal nutrition information programs, and

obesity.” 2004 Experimental Biology meeting abstracts,

Abstract #6681. www.biosis-select.org/faseb/ index.html.

Accessed August 3, 2004.

4 Economic Research Service / USDA

Agriculture Information Bulletin 792-1

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