Promoting Middle East 

Democracy II 

Arab Initiatives

Summary

• The 9/11 attacks shattered the conventional wisdom that the Middle East’s stability—anchored by the region’s authoritarian governments—could endure indefinitely 

and would come at little cost to U.S. interests. Energized by external calls for democratic change, numerous elements in the region—nongovernmental, government, and 

multilateral—have generated reform initiatives.

• The most interesting reform proposals have emerged from human rights and democracy nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Many of them have advocated forcefully 

for political reform. The creation of “national pacts” that could bridge secular and 

Islamist demands for reform, and possibly galvanize the reform movement, emerged 

as one of the most innovative recommendations. 

• Other constituencies (e.g., the business community) also have put forward their own 

visions of reform for the region. These initiatives may not be as comprehensive or target as broad an audience as other reform proposals, but their significance lies in their 

demonstration that reform is a key priority across diverse sectors of Arab society.

• Nearly every Arab government has promoted some type of political reform package. 

These government-sponsored initiatives vary significantly in scope and intent from 

country to country. In addition, the Arab League issued the first Arab multilateral 

pledge for reform in the organization’s history. The substance of these reform proposals represents rather tentative movement toward democratic opening; nonetheless, 

the proposals offer important entry points for a broader dialogue on reform.

• U.S. engagement on reform promotion should be quiet yet consistent. However, given 

flagging U.S. credibility in the region, any public endorsement of specific initiatives 

could doom them to failure. Indeed, restoring and strengthening U.S credibility in 

the region should be the primary objective for U.S. policymakers.

• For now, the United States should seek to buffer its direct engagement on reform 

promotion by working in closer cooperation with European allies and through the 

establishment of a quasi-public Middle East foundation. As well, U.S. officials should 

employ quiet yet forceful diplomacy to pressure governments to roll back repressive 

www.usip.org

1200 17th Street NW • Washington, DC 20036 • 202.457.1700 • fax 202.429.6063

ABOUT THE REPORT

The Arab world has remained remarkably closed to 

the wave of democratic transformation that has 

touched much of the rest of the world. Indeed, 

Freedom House, in its annual 2003 Survey of 

Freedom in the World, noted that over the past 

thirty years, the Middle East and North Africa have 

registered no significant progress toward democracy. 

Recently, many in the region have proposed a variety 

of reform platforms. The Arab League, individual 

governments, and nongovernmental organizations all 

have issued statements or declarations on the need 

for reform. While some of these initiatives seem more 

cosmetic than genuine, the net effect has been to 

open an unprecedented dialogue on reform. 

This report reviews and analyzes the components 

of reform as proposed by those in the region. The 

paper ends with some overarching conclusions on 

Arab reform efforts as well as recommendations for 

U.S. policymakers. A recently published companion 

paper, Promoting Middle East Democracy: The European 

Dimension (Special Report #127), assesses the 

significance of European democracy promotion efforts 

in the Middle East and the potential for transatlantic 

cooperation in this area.

This report was written by Mona Yacoubian, a special 

adviser to the United States Institute of Peace’s 

Muslim World Initiative, a member of the Council on 

Foreign Relations, and an adjunct fellow at the Center 

for Strategic and International Studies.

UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE

SPECIAL REPORT

The views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect 

those of the United States Institute of Peace, which does 

not advocate specific policy positions.

SPECIAL REPORT 136 MAY 2005

CONTENTS

Introduction 2

Defining the Challenge: 

 The Arab Human Development Report 3

“People Power”: 

 Nongovernmental Reform Initiatives 5

 Constituent-based Reform Initiatives 9

The Word from on High: 

Government Reform Initiatives 11

 Multilateral Initiatives: The Tunis Declaration 14

 Conclusions and U.S. Policy Recommendations 14

Mona Yacoubian
2

measures such as arresting reformers, banning opposition parties, and censoring 

the media.

Introduction

In the aftermath of 9/11, international and regional interest has focused intensely on 

the Middle East’s urgent need for reform. The region’s stagnation dates back decades, 

yet, until the 2001 attacks, these long-standing ills received scant attention from governments in the region and their global counterparts. The 9/11 attacks and subsequent 

terrorist operations (Casablanca, Riyadh, Istanbul, Madrid) shattered the conventional 

wisdom that the region’s stability—anchored by its authoritarian governments—could 

endure indefinitely and would come at little cost to U.S. interests. Precisely the opposite 

conclusion has become apparent: Middle East reform is critical for long-term stability and 

regional security. Absent change, the status quo will only breed greater popular disaffection and provide fertile ground for the continued growth of extremism.

Given the linkage between Middle East reform and the region’s long-term stability, 

the United States and its European allies have accelerated calls for reform in the region. 

Entering its second term, the Bush administration has signaled its continued emphasis 

on Middle East reform as a top priority in its foreign policy agenda. Indeed, President 

George W. Bush repeatedly underscored his administration’s pledge to support democratic 

movements in the Middle East during both his second inaugural speech and State of the 

Union address. 

While the United States has engaged more directly over the past few years to promote 

reform through the Middle East Partnership Initiative launched in December 2002 and 

the Broader Middle East and North Africa Initiative unveiled at the June 2004 G-8 summit, its efforts have been directed primarily toward a relatively narrow constituency of 

liberal, secular, pro-Western elites who do not represent the region’s grassroots majority. 

However, numerous Arab reform advocates—from Islamists to businessmen—have proposed a rich array of reform initiatives that merit U.S. policymakers’ attention. Indeed, 

U.S. policymakers largely have ignored moderate Islamist voices for reform, even though 

Islamists retain a strong, populist following in various countries throughout the region. 

Ultimately, successful Arab reform efforts must bridge secular and Islamist demands for 

change. In its quest to promote reform in the region, the United States will need to work 

with moderate Islamists and ruling regimes in the region. It must sell both on the notion 

that sustainable reform should be implemented via a gradual process of change that creates transparent and accountable institutions and respects the rule of law. 

Certainly, the need for democratic change in the region has been well-documented. 

In July 2002, a UN-sponsored Arab Human Development Report, authored by a wellrespected group of Arab scholars, found that Arab countries have the lowest level of 

political freedom of any region in the world. Specifically, the report states that critical 

deficits in freedom, women’s empowerment, and knowledge plague the region. The study 

concludes with an impassioned plea for transforming the region through comprehensive 

political, economic, and social reform.

Yet the Arab world’s democracy deficit should not be misinterpreted as a rejection by 

its citizens of greater opening and reform. Indeed, surveys and polling conducted in the 

Arab world reveal an intense desire for democratic freedoms. For example, a 2002 poll 

conducted by U.S. pollster James Zogby, head of the Arab American Institute, surveyed 

3,200 people in eight Arab countries. Between 90 and 96 percent of respondents rated 

“civil and personal rights” as their highest priority among a list of potential concerns that 

included personal economic conditions, health care, and moral standards.

The intense international interest directed at the need for Middle East reform has 

helped to initiate an unprecedented dialogue about reform in the region. From Morocco 

ABOUT THE INSTITUTE

The United States Institute of Peace is an 

independent, nonpartisan federal institution created by Congress to promote the prevention, management, and peaceful resolution of international 

conflicts. Established in 1984, the Institute meets 

its congressional mandate through an array of 

programs, including research grants, fellowships, 

professional training, education programs from 

high school through graduate school, conferences 

and workshops, library services, and publications. 

The Institute’s Board of Directors is appointed by 

the President of the United States and confirmed 

by the Senate.

BOARD OF DIRECTORS

J. Robinson West (Chair), Chairman, PFC Energy, 

Washington, D.C. • María Otero (Vice Chair), President, 

ACCION International, Boston, Mass. • Betty F. 

Bumpers, Founder and former President, Peace Links, 

Washington, D.C. • Holly J. Burkhalter, Advocacy Director, Physicians for Human Rights, Washington, D.C. • 

Chester A. Crocker, James R. Schlesinger Professor of 

Strategic Studies, School of Foreign Service, Georgetown 

University • Laurie S. Fulton, Partner, Williams and 

Connolly, Washington, D.C. • Charles Horner, Senior 

Fellow, Hudson Institute, Washington, D.C. • Seymour 

Martin Lipset, Hazel Professor of Public Policy, George 

Mason University • Mora L. McLean, President, AfricaAmerica Institute, New York, N.Y.• Barbara W. Snelling,

former State Senator and former Lieutenant Governor, 

Shelburne, Vt. 

MEMBERS EX OFFICIO

Arthur E. Dewey, Assistant Secretary of State for 

Population, Refugees, and Migration • Michael M. Dunn,

Lieutenant General, U.S. Air Force; President, National 

Defense University • Peter W. Rodman, Assistant 

Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs 

• Richard H. Solomon, President, United States 

Institute of Peace (nonvoting)
3

to Saudi Arabia and beyond, governments, nongovernmental groups (both secular and 

Islamist), the media, and others have joined an often freewheeling discussion about the 

need for change. Further, the debate has penetrated popular discourse from television 

call-in shows to Internet chat rooms and weblogs, injecting a populist element into the 

dialogue.

This Special Report examines the numerous reform initiatives emanating from the Arab 

world. Specifically, it reviews reform platforms at the nongovernmental, national, and multilateral levels and assesses their potential for promoting positive change in the region. 

The report concludes by providing some recommendations as to how the U.S. government 

should respond to these Arab world reform proposals.

Defining the Challenge: The Arab Human Development Report

In July 2002, less than a year after the 9/11 attacks, a UN-commissioned panel of thirty 

Arab experts from a variety of disciplines issued the first Arab Human Development Report 

(AHDR) (http://www.undp.org/rbas/ahdr/english2002.html). The report offers a grim 

study on the state of the Arab world. Although planning for the report predated 9/11, 

the attacks imbued the document with a greater sense of urgency. The report, published 

in Arabic, English, and French, laid the groundwork for many of the Arab-initiated reform 

proposals that succeeded it by articulating the political, economic, social, and demographic challenges facing the region. 

In blunt language, the AHDR issues a probing, self-critical look at what has gone 

wrong in the Arab world. Because of its Arab authorship, the study had great resonance, 

providing an instance of introspection that many outside the region complained had been 

lacking. While noting achievements such as an increase in life expectancy and a reduction of abject poverty, the report also points to ominous “warning signals.” For example, 

it states that only sub-Saharan Africa had lower per capita income growth over the past 

twenty years. It also highlights low and declining labor productivity. With 38 percent of 

its population under the age of fourteen, the region’s demographic pressures, spurred by 

demands for jobs and housing, will only intensify. The sense of hopelessness among Arab 

youths is underscored by the team’s finding that 51 percent of older adolescents wanted 

to emigrate from the region. 

The report qualifies poverty in the region as “poverty of capabilities and poverty of 

opportunities.” Ultimately, it finds that the Arab world’s ills are rooted in deficits of freedom, women’s empowerment, and knowledge and that the region’s shortcomings in these 

three areas impede the Arab world from reaching its true potential, effectively isolating 

it from the rest of the world. 

The report dissects each of the three key gaps in detail. Regarding political freedom, 

the Arab world is noted as having the lowest level of political freedom of any region in 

the world. Using a variety of indicators that measure political participation, civil liberties, 

political rights, and civil society, the region falls short, indicating a lack of “voice and 

accountability.” On women’s empowerment, the AHDR highlights Arab women’s lack of 

political and economic participation; women occupied only 3.5 percent of parliamentary 

seats as compared to 11 percent in sub-Saharan Africa and 12.9 percent in Latin America. 

Finally, the report chronicles the region’s “knowledge deficit,” noting, among other 

statistics, that the Arab world has the lowest level of information and communication 

technology access of any region in the world, that only 0.6 percent of the population uses 

the Internet, and that only 1.2 percent own personal computers. The report also notes 

the dearth of scientific research and innovative thinking originating from the region. In 

addition, the entire Arab world translates about 330 books annually, one-fifth of the total 

number translated by Greece. (A subsequent 2003 Arab Human Development Report is 

devoted to this knowledge gap; see http://www.undp.org/rbas/ahdr/english2003.html.) 

The first Arab Human Development Report laid the 

groundwork for many of the 

Arab-initiated reform proposals 

that succeeded it by articulating 

the challenges facing the region.

The Arab world’s ills are rooted 

in deficits of freedom, women’s 

empowerment, and knowledge.
4

The report concludes with a clarion call for reform, saying the Arab world is at a 

“crossroads,” casting the region’s choices in stark terms: its governments can either continue with the status quo, producing ineffective policies that will not meet the region’s 

challenges, or they can strive for an “Arab renaissance, anchored in human development 

that will be actively pursued.” The report also urges “free, honest, efficient and regular 

elections” and the right for opposition parties to exist. It advocates greater checks on 

executive power by assigning oversight responsibilities to the legislative branch, as well 

as the need for an independent judiciary. It recommends the empowerment of civil society through the lifting of administrative obstacles and restrictions. It calls for the rule 

of law and guarantees for basic citizens’ rights, particularly freedom of expression and 

freedom of association. It also encourages the fostering of free and responsible media. 

Finally, it recommends the removal of gender bias in the labor market and greater emphasis on research and development in the “knowledge sciences.”

The Arab Human Development Report is not a reform initiative per se. Rather, it seeks 

to establish the parameters for a reform dialogue, both within the region and internationally. Indeed, the AHDR played a key role in triggering the ongoing debate in the region on 

reform. The 170-page report defines the challenge from an Arab vantage point, sketching 

the key areas for reform in painful detail. It has provided U.S. and European policymakers with an important grounding for their own reform proposals and an Arab “voice” to 

reference when designing reform promotion policies. For example, then-Secretary of State 

Colin Powell, in his speech announcing the Middle East Partnership Initiative, quoted 

from the report, emphasizing that the words “[are] not my words . . . they have come 

from Arab experts who have looked deeply into these issues.” And, not insignificantly, the 

report and subsequent Arab reform initiatives provide some cover against charges that 

the United States is attempting to impose reform on the region from the outside.

While the report’s candid self-assessment provides a critical baseline, it suffers from 

two major drawbacks. First, the report largely evades a key issue, the role of Islam in 

Arab politics and society, and offers an implicit criticism of the role of Islamists through 

its references to an intolerant social environment. This explicit omission likely was intentional, as religion’s role in politics constitutes a lightning rod in the debate over reform. 

However, Islamists constitute perhaps the single most influential grassroots force in the 

region. As a result, the report does not establish the basis for a clear dialogue for reform 

that reaches across the secular-Islamist divide. 

Second, the report fails to resonate with the Arab “street.” Its authors principally hail 

from the Arab world’s Westernized, liberal elite, a group with limited influence at the 

popular level. Indeed, the report engendered a hostile reaction from many in the Arab 

world, as opposed to the glowing response it received from the West. Yet, grassroots 

sentiment in the region is not inherently antidemocratic; many key themes articulated by 

reformers, such as the need for transparency and accountability, are echoed in Islamist 

discourse. However, in a somewhat predictable circle-the-wagons response, negative 

reaction in the Arabic-language press often stemmed from assertions that the report was 

overly gloomy in its assessment of the Arab world and that the West would exploit the 

report to impose its will on the region. 

Underlying the popular rejection of the report resides a deeper issue, namely the 

ability of democratic reformers to connect with the broader Arab public. Liberal-minded, 

secular reformers often articulate a vision of reform that comports with Western ideals 

of democratic change. Yet, this view typically gets lost in the anti-Western diatribe that 

has come to dominate Arabic-language media and other popular outlets of expression. 

To some extent, the concepts of reform and democracy have become sullied by their 

association with U.S. foreign policy in the region. During the June 2004 Doha Conference (see below), for example, one participant bemoaned “the fact that the language of 

democratic reform in the Arab world has become the stock-in-trade of one of the most 

globally despised U.S. governments in history.” 

The Arab Human Development 

Report defines the challenge 

from an Arab vantage point, 

sketching the key areas for 

reform in painful detail.

Islamists constitute perhaps 

the single most influential 

grassroots force in the region.
5

As such, Arab reform initiatives risk losing all popular credibility as long as they 

are associated with deeply controversial U.S. policies toward Iraq and the Palestinians. 

Indeed, the region’s Westernized liberals form an elite minority, often estranged from 

the grassroots and viewed by many as pawns of the West. To the extent that it is identified with this relatively small Westernized intelligentsia, the Arab Human Development 

Report’s long-term impact on Arab public opinion may be somewhat limited. Certainly, 

without a mass following demanding attention to the problems highlighted in the document, Arab governments have managed largely to ignore the report. 

“People Power”: Nongovernmental Reform Initiatives

The boldest and most detailed reform proposals originating in the Arab world have 

emerged from nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). While NGO-sponsored conferences 

on democratic reform date back twenty years, when a group of seventy-one Arab intellectuals met in Cyprus—no Arab country would host them—and established the Arab 

Organization for Human Rights at a conference entitled “The Arab World’s Democratic 

Crisis,” the past eighteen months have witnessed a significant surge in discussion and 

conferences devoted to democratic reform in the region. 

Indeed, beginning in January 2004, a diverse array of groups ranging from the Arab 

Business Council to the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood has published a variety of reform 

initiatives. The platforms vary, at times significantly, in degree of specificity, scope, seriousness, and independence. Some have been published in partnership with government, 

whereas in other cases the host government’s role is less visible; others are fully independent. Most significantly, many of these reform initiatives have advocated forcefully for 

political reform. A number of these initiatives are examined here, in order of their relative 

significance (determined by content and degree of independence), beginning with those 

that hold the most promise for pushing the reform agenda forward. 

Arab NGOs Beirut Summit Letter, March 19–22, 2004 

(http://www.apfw.org/indexenglish.asp?fname=news\english\12437.htm)

(Arabic: http://www.apfw.org/indexarabic.asp?fname=news%5Carabic%5C12808.htm)

The Arab NGO summit, also known as the Civil Forum, is among the most compelling nongovernmental reform initiatives. The forum comprised fifty-two Arab NGOs from thirteen 

countries and was timed to precede the Arab League summit devoted to the question of 

political reform. Banned from holding their conference in Tunis, where the Arab League summit was scheduled to take place, the four-day forum was held in Beirut. (Due to squabbling 

among Arab governments, the summit was ultimately postponed until May 2004.)

Asserting its independence from any Arab government, the forum issued its final 

communiqué as a letter addressed to Arab kings and presidents. The fourteen-page letter 

underscores the importance of political and constitutional reform for the region’s future, 

lamenting that in the eyes of many in the world, the Middle East has become little more 

than a haven for terrorism and violence. The forum determined that the Arab world’s 

internal problems—regardless of external pressure—demand that the region embark on a 

path of reform or risk facing long-term instability and chaos.

The letter then lists several “general demands” for political reform. These include 

repealing emergency laws, abolishing exceptional courts, releasing political prisoners, 

ending torture, lifting restrictions on forming NGOs, and ensuring basic freedoms. The 

letter also raises the need for constitutional reform and calls for devolving more power 

away from the executive branch to legislative sources of power, specifically to municipal 

councils.

Arab reform initiatives risk losing all popular credibility as 

long as they are associated with 

deeply controversial 

U.S. policies.

The boldest and most detailed 

reform proposals originating 

in the Arab world have 

emerged from nongovernmental 

organizations. 

The Arab NGO summit is 

among the most compelling 

nongovernmental reform 

initiatives.

The forum determined that the 

Arab world’s internal problems 

demand that the region embark 

on a path of reform or risk 

facing long-term instability 

and chaos.
6

Most significantly, the letter highlights the importance of initiating a religious dialogue 

within the Muslim Arab community. The document calls on governments to review both 

religious and nonreligious educational curricula in order to inject more innovative thinking. By the same token, it appeals to Islamic scholars (ulama) and thinkers to debate 

the theological underpinnings of terrorism, extremism, and violence. The document also 

urges those in academe and the media to examine and open forums for discussion of the 

work of “religious innovators” (mujaddadun diniyun) in Arab society.

The Civil Forum letter is significant in several respects. First, the document is comprehensive and detailed, covering nearly every aspect of reform. While some of the 

demands are somewhat vague—for example, “take prompt measures toward administrative and financial reform”—many are quite specific. Further, the letter situates these 

demands within a broader framework of basic principles including respect for human 

rights and fundamental freedoms, acceptance of pluralism, and the renunciation of the 

use of violence.

Second, unlike many other reform initiatives, the Civil Forum letter directly addresses 

the role of Islam within the region and offers constructive suggestions for promoting 

dialogue on this critical matter. The initiative appears to make an important distinction between radicals and moderates. Its recommendations look to marginalize violent, 

extremist elements while allowing for the participation of peaceful moderates. In its 

preamble, the letter warns against adhering to dated interpretations of Islam—an implicit 

reference to the growing popularity of the salafist trend in Islam that calls for a return 

to the practice of Islam as it was during the time of the Prophet Muhammad. At the 

same time, it underscores the right of political participation for all citizens, regardless of 

national, religious, or linguistic “inclinations,” thereby offering an opening for moderate 

Islamist political participation.

Later, the forum devotes an entire section to the renewal of religious discourse. Rather 

than signaling the total exclusion of the Islamist political strain, it demonstrates in the 

letter a wish to reach an understanding among the Islamists who eschew violence. The 

forum seeks to embark on a dialogue to renew (reform) Islam with the full participation 

of all its adherents: clerics, scholars, imams, Muslim thinkers, journalists and academics. 

The letter highlights the important role debate and dialogue will play in addressing critical issues related to violence, extremism, and terrorism.

Third, the groups composing the Civil Forum reflect regionwide viewpoints, as well 

as the interests of human rights organizations, women’s groups, and press freedom 

organizations. Collectively, they appear to be truly independent of any government in 

the region. As such, they represent a genuine alternative to government representatives 

and could be well-placed to promote popular aspirations for change, a critical element 

in any reform equation. 

Fourth, the Civil Forum has identified an important follow-up mechanism, namely, the 

holding of parallel NGO conferences to coincide with Arab League summits. Pegging their 

conference to the Arab League meetings will help to ensure both continued follow-up and 

broader public attention to their reform proposals. 

Doha Declaration for Democracy and Reform, June 3–4, 2004

(http://www.npwj.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1715)

The Doha Declaration for Democracy and Reform, although not as detailed or comprehensive as the Civil Forum letter, offers a bold formula for reforming the Arab world. 

The declaration was issued at the end of a two-day conference conceived by Egyptian 

reformer Saad Ed-Din Ibrahim and hosted by Qatar University’s Gulf Studies Center. The 

Qatari government also supported the conference. More than one hundred participants 

from across the Arab world, representing a broad spectrum of journalists, activists, and 

politicians, signed the declaration.

The Doha Declaration for 

Democracy and Reform offers 

a bold formula for reforming 

the Arab world. 
7

The Doha Declaration opens by stating that “democratic change has become a nonnegotiable choice which cannot be postponed.” The statement asserts that no inherent 

contradictions exist between Arab culture, Islam, and democracy, noting that two-thirds 

of the world’s 1.4 billion Muslims already live in democracies. It also admonishes against 

“hiding behind the necessity to resolve the Palestinian question before implementing 

political reform.” It later calls on Arab governments to cease their exploitation of the Iraq 

and Palestine questions to postpone political reform.

The proposal’s key demands include calls for constitutional reforms that will transform 

absolute monarchies into constitutional monarchies and circumscribe presidential powers in republics. The declaration also calls for free and fair elections; the abolition of 

emergency laws, special courts, and extrajudicial procedures; an independent judiciary; 

guarantees for the freedom of expression and association; greater political participation 

for women; and unrestricted freedom to form political parties. The proposal also demands 

the withdrawal of Arab militaries from politics, underscoring the need for civil-military 

transition. The initiative’s follow-up mechanisms include the slated establishment of an 

Arab Democracy Watch based in Qatar. The group will monitor and follow-up on Doha 

Declaration proposals as well as other Arab reform initiatives such as those of Beirut (see 

above), Alexandria, and Sana’a (see below).

The initiative is notable for two key innovations that, if implemented successfully, may 

make significant contributions toward Arab reform promotion. First, the Doha Declaration 

calls for the creation of “national pacts” that would delineate the principles of political 

participation, establishing rules of engagement for the political arena. Fear that Islamist 

opposition groups will exploit any genuine political opening to seize power via elections 

and to implement antidemocratic measures (e.g., shari’a law) constitutes a key obstacle 

to moving forward with serious political reform. Essentially, these charters or pacts could 

lay out the “rules of the game” and establish an agreed-upon set of values and guarantees 

endorsed across the political spectrum, thereby opening the way for freer political participation within the confines of these universal guarantees. Equally important, these pacts 

could help consolidate and strengthen reform advocates, bridging the divide between 

secular and moderate Islamist reformers. By rallying these disparate pro-reform elements, 

the region’s inchoate reform movement could gain important momentum. While the 

national pact concept is still quite vague and in need of further development, it nonetheless offers an innovative approach to a key challenge for reformers. 

Second, the declaration provides an important opening for addressing the issue of 

civil-military transition, a pivotal question for many of the region’s governments as they 

embark on the path of reform. In many Arab countries, particularly those with militarybacked governments, the role of the army as defined by their respective constitutions has 

been kept purposefully vague. In countries such as Algeria or Syria, the military and its 

related security services typically serve the narrowly defined interests of the regime in 

power. The army is often used to ensure against the rise of a powerful domestic opposition 

rather than to safeguard national sovereignty against foreign threats. By raising the issue 

of the military’s role in the political arena, the Doha Declaration could help to initiate a 

much-needed dialogue within countries on defining the future role of the military.

Finally, the Doha conference’s participants included a number of representatives 

reflecting a broad range of political views and issues. Women’s groups, media organizations, human rights groups, and a variety of political parties and other civil society organizations attended the conference. The conference also placed particular emphasis on the 

participation of both women and youth, two key constituent groups who will be critical 

to the success of any reform effort in the region.

The Doha Declaration calls on 

Arab governments to cease their 

exploitation of the Iraq and 

Palestine questions to postpone 

political reform.

Fear that Islamist opposition 

groups will exploit any genuine 

political opening to seize power 

constitutes a key obstacle to 

moving forward with serious 

political reform. 

While the national pact concept is still quite vague and in 

need of further development, it 

nonetheless offers an innovative 

approach to a key challenge for 

reformers.
8

Alexandria Charter, March 12–14 2004

(http://www.arabreformforum.org/English/Document.htm) 

(Arabic: http://www.arabreformforum.org/ar/Files/ArDocument.pdf)

The Alexandria Charter—perhaps the most publicized of Arab reform efforts—was drafted 

by a group of 150 Arab intellectuals, former diplomats, and businessmen (100 Egyptians 

plus 50 from other Arab countries) at the Alexandria Library in March 2004. The Alexandria 

Charter adopts a multidisciplinary approach, addressing political, economic, social, and 

cultural reform. This quasi-governmental conference was opened by Egyptian president 

Hosni Mubarak, and over three days the group hammered out a comprehensive—albeit 

politically timid—reform proposal. 

Its political reform proposals reference the need for a transfer of power, free elections, 

and term limits. It calls for the abolition of emergency laws, explaining that regular laws 

can adequately address all offenses. The charter endorses the freedom to form political 

parties within the framework of existing laws and the constitution, as well as the need 

for a free press via the laws regulating the publication of newspapers. Finally, the document encourages the amendment of restrictive laws governing the establishment of civil 

society institutions. 

The Alexandria Charter is notable for its broad scope and its regionwide representation. 

It also promotes some bold political reforms such as free elections and the lifting of emergency laws. The charter also includes provisions for follow-up, including the establishment 

of an Arab Reform Forum, based at the Alexandria Library, that would facilitate ongoing 

dialogue. Additionally, the charter recommends holding national reform conferences in 

individual countries. A second multinational conference slated for spring 2005 will focus 

on sharing best practices, drawing on reform success stories from across the region.

However, the charter falls short in key areas. Less daring than the Beirut or Doha 

Declarations, the Alexandria Charter offers a “lite” version of reform. The participants 

signed the document as individuals rather than as representatives of specific organizations, leading some to question exactly whom the charter represents or how much weight 

it carries. Further, the document offers caveats to its recommendations by insisting that 

they fall within the purview of existing laws—many of which are restrictive and contribute to the region’s closed political atmosphere. The resulting proposals are fairly dilute. 

As noted above, its proposal to lift restrictions on political parties is qualified by asserting 

that these parties must be within the confines of existing laws and the constitution. In 

Egypt, like many countries in the region, religious-based parties are banned, effectively 

sidelining some of the most potent political forces. Similarly, the charter advocates the 

need for a free press, but qualifies the proposal by endorsing the continuation of a press 

code regulating the media.

 More generally, the document largely avoids the question of Islam, sidestepping 

another key issue that the region must confront. Indeed, Islamists, as well as other civil 

society groups, were largely excluded from the conference. Of the 150 participants, only 

one or two were considered to represent an Islamist viewpoint. Some have suggested that 

religion was purposefully excluded in order to define political legitimacy by citizenship 

rather than religion. The charter’s cultural reform section touches on the role of religion, 

calling for the “eradication” (qada’a) of any form of religious extremism in school curricula, mosques, and the media. The stark language used appears to signal an unwillingness 

to reach out to more moderate Islamist elements.

Ultimately, the Alexandria Charter falters due to its lack of independence. The Egyptian 

government’s influence is clearly discernible. Some Egyptian observers charge the conference was essentially hijacked by the Egyptian government, which wanted to control 

its outcome and ensure against any proposals that would be viewed as a threat to the 

Egyptian state. In any event, Mubarak’s speech opening the conference conveyed a strong 

The Alexandria Charter is 

notable for its broad scope and 

its regionwide representation. 

Ultimately, the Alexandria 

Charter falters due to its 

lack of independence.
9

symbolic message—the conference was organized with the blessing of the Egyptian government. Participants, therefore, could not easily rock the boat. 

The Sana’a Declaration, January 10–12, 2004

(http://www.caabu.org/press/documents/sanaa-declaration-html.htm)

The Sana’a Declaration emerged from a conference of 820 participants representing fiftytwo countries and included representatives from governments as well as a variety of 

civil society organizations and political parties. Cosponsored by the Yemeni government, 

the declaration, although vague, calls for elected legislatures, an independent judiciary, 

respect for the rule of law, women’s empowerment, and a free and independent media. 

The document also underscores the important role to be played by the private sector as 

a key partner in any reform effort.

The most salient aspect of the Sana’a Declaration is its emphasis on the need to 

strengthen the partnership between government and civil society. While such a partnership risks leading to the co-option of nongovernmental organizations by strong 

governments, some element of partnership and dialogue is necessary for the successful 

promotion of reform in the region. The conference offered government officials and civil 

society activists an important opportunity to exchange views. As part of its follow-up, the 

conference established an Arab Democratic Dialogue Forum as an instrument to promote 

dialogue between “diverse [public and nongovernmental] actors.”

As one of the first Arab reform initiatives following the publication of the Arab Human 

Development Report, the Sana’a Declaration marked an important first step. However, 

subsequent initiatives, such as the Civil Forum letter and the Doha Declaration, offer more 

detailed and substantive recommendations. The Sana’a Declaration’s proposals lack specificity, often relying on vague generalities, rather than concrete policy recommendations. 

Finally, the declaration’s reference to the Palestinian question serves to dilute the document by digressing from reform and raising an issue often exploited by Arab governments 

to distract public attention away from the need for political change.

Constituent-based Reform Initiatives 

In addition to the numerous nongovernmental reform initiatives, some more narrowly 

defined constituencies have put forward their own vision of reform for the region. These 

initiatives are not as comprehensive and do not target as broad an audience as other 

reform proposals. However, their significance derives from their connection to reform proponents who hail from diverse sectors of Arab society. Two specific constituencies—the 

business sector and the Islamists—will be highlighted briefly in this report.

The Arab Business Council Declaration, January 2004 

(http://www.weforum.org/pdf/ABC/ABC_R1.pdfclr) 

Established in June 2003 as part of the World Economic Forum, the Arab Business Council 

focuses primarily on global competitiveness issues, seeking to elevate the Arab private 

sector in order for it to compete at a global level. The council’s January 2004 document, 

therefore, is directed at economic-reform priorities in the Arab world. The declaration 

underscores the need for good governance as a critical element in enhancing competitiveness.

Specifically, the Arab Business Council Declaration calls for respecting the rule of law 

and enhancing transparency and accountability. The document also highlights the need to 

address corruption and to ensure an independent judiciary and calls for the establishment 

of a public-private partnership, fostering the role of civil society in the reform process.

The most salient aspect of the 

Sana’a Declaration is its emphasis on the need to strengthen 

the partnership between government and civil society.

The Arab Business Council 

focuses primarily on global competitiveness issues, seeking to 

elevate the Arab private sector 

in order for it to compete at a 

global level.
10

While limited in scope, the Arab Business Council Declaration is significant in that it 

represents another important constituency for reform. Although collaboration on reform 

between the business sector and civil society has been minimal to date, private-sector 

interests intersect with those of the nongovernmental sector with regard to promoting 

good governance. (However, deeply entrenched business elites are often vested in the 

status quo and may be averse to reform measures.) The council’s declaration does not 

offer recommendations for follow-up mechanisms. Nonetheless, it remains an important 

statement for the record, placing Arab business interests squarely on the side of reform 

promotion.

Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood Reform Initiative, March 13, 2004

(Arabic: http://www.afaqarabia.com/asp/Article.asp)

The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood (MB), Egypt’s most powerful opposition force, issued 

its own comprehensive reform platform in March 2004. The MB’s reform initiative is fairly 

detailed, addressing several types of reform, including political, electoral, judicial, economic, social, educational, and religious. The platform also features a section devoted to 

the status of women. 

In a preamble to the proposal, the MB’s general guide, Muhammad Mahdi Akef, rails 

against foreign intervention, decrying the “persistent and continuing attempts to impose 

change on the region from outside,” specifically accusing the United States of trying to 

impose its hegemony on the region. He also characterizes the “small doses of reform” by 

the Egyptian government as too little and too gradual.

Regarding political reform, the eleven-page document asserts the MB’s adherence 

to a “democratic and constitutional parliamentary republic within the realm of Islamic 

principles.” It then calls on all political parties to agree to a national charter (mithaq 

watani) that would guarantee basic freedoms, as well as the unfettered transfer of power 

through free elections. (Clearly, this is a response to charges that if elected, Islamists 

would institute a theocracy resulting in “one man, one vote, one time.”) It also calls for 

universal suffrage, presidential term limits, the right of both men and women to serve in 

parliament, and the withdrawal of the military from political life. It demands the abolition 

of emergency laws, the release of political detainees, and an end to torture.

The reform initiative seems to signal the MB’s commitment to democratic principles 

(including equal rights for women) and appears to diminish the importance of the more 

controversial elements of its Islamization program. However, many important questions 

remain unanswered. Principally, how will the group reconcile its position on the implementation of shari’a law with its professed commitment to democratic reform? The Brotherhood’s current position on shari’a law remains purposefully vague in the document. 

Additionally, is the Brotherhood’s reform initiative a tactical maneuver designed to exploit 

the region’s current focus on reform, or does it represent a genuine shift in thinking? 

Given the movement’s illiberal tendencies, a strong dose of skepticism is warranted.

Despite these key questions, the MB initiative is a significant document that could represent an important opening for bringing moderate Islamists into the dialogue on reform. 

Specifically, the Brotherhood’s proposal for a national charter agreed on by all political 

parties has merit. It offers a key opportunity to engage all elements of the political spectrum in a dialogue to determine a set of shared democratic values and principles to which 

all parties can adhere. Establishment of such a charter would constitute a significant first 

step on the path toward reform.

Indeed, credible reform must be inclusive. Although the MB platform is Egypt-specific, 

it raises the bigger issue of the Islamist role in reform promotion. Islamists represent 

perhaps the most powerful populist force in the Arab world today and are usually best 

poised to exploit political openings. However, while reform is often viewed as a potent 

antidote to extremism, the prospect of moderate Islamists in politics is colored by fears 

The Brotherhood’s current 

position on shari’a law 

remains purposefully vague.

The MB initiative is a significant 

document that could represent 

an important opening for bringing moderate Islamists into the 

dialogue on reform.
11

that Islamists coming to power via free elections would overturn a democratic system. 

The alternative notion of a peaceful evolution of Islamist politics that results in Islamists 

working within a system has not been fully considered. (Here, the case of the Justice and 

Development Party in Turkey is instructive.) The MB platform, if genuine, could offer a 

useful model for other Islamist groups in the region who seek to play a constructive role 

in the reform process. 

The Word from on High: Government Reform Initiatives

Reform initiatives have been proposed not only by Arab nongovernmental initiatives but 

also by the region’s governments. Following the international outcry over Islamist terrorism in the wake of the 9/11 attacks, many Arab states have promoted some type of 

political reform package. Indeed, governments ranging from the religiously conservative 

absolute monarchy in Saudi Arabia to Syria’s staunchly secular regime appear to be jumping on the reform bandwagon. 

The government-sponsored initiatives vary significantly in scope and intent from 

country to country. An emerging tension between antiterrorism measures implemented by 

governments in the region and calls for reform is also evident. Often, government reform 

efforts are largely cosmetic, designed to relieve pressure for change bubbling from below 

without implementing substantial and deep-rooted reforms. In some instances, government reform policies have translated into an expansion of political space, allowing an 

outlet for the expression of opposition. In fewer cases, government promises of reform 

have led to relatively free and fair elections. In nearly every case, political openings have 

been tenuous and fragile, subject to the whims of those in power. However, even if government calls for reform are superficial rather than genuine, they offer a potential entry 

point for the promotion of genuine change.

The following section offers a brief sampling of the reform efforts from each of the 

Arab world’s subregions: North Africa, the Levant, and the Gulf, as well as Egypt. The 

examples chosen reflect either the significance of the reform initiatives (Morocco and 

Jordan) or the pivotal importance of the states promoting the reform package (Egypt and 

Saudi Arabia).

Morocco

Considered by many observers to be among the most open of Arab countries (despite 

the king’s near-absolute authority), Morocco has implemented some important political 

reforms over the past few years. In 2003, the Moroccan parliament approved changes to 

Morocco’s family code, yielding one of the most progressive laws on women’s rights in the 

Arab world. In addition, the 2002 legislative elections were widely considered to be free 

and fair. The Moroccan parliament boasts a diverse group of members: female MPs make up 

more than 10 percent of the body and the opposition Islamist Justice and Development 

Party represents the third-largest bloc. The 2003 municipal elections were also considered 

to be largely transparent, despite isolated reports of fraud. 

The government has also held a series of hearings on its past human rights violations, 

generating significant popular interest. Established in January 2004, the Equity and Reconciliation Commission is investigating government human rights violations committed 

between 1956 and 1999, earning praise from numerous human rights groups. In addition, 

the Moroccan media is considered relatively open and has a variety of outlets. Morocco 

also holds claim to a vibrant NGO sector, and the Berber language, once outlawed, is now 

taught in schools.

However, controversial antiterrorism legislation, passed in May 2003 following terrorist attacks in Casablanca, may signal a rollback of Morocco’s nascent political opening. 

(Indeed, an October 2004 Human Rights Watch report warned that “important elements 

Even if government calls for 

reform are superficial rather 

than genuine, they offer a 

potential entry point for the 

promotion of genuine change.

Considered by many observers 

to be among the most open of 

Arab countries, Morocco has 

implemented some important 

political reforms over the past 

few years.
12

of progress [on human rights] may now be endangered” following the Moroccan authorities’ response to the attack.) The law allows police the right to hold suspects for up to 

twelve days without charging them or allowing them access to a lawyer. It also allows 

authorities to intercept phone, mail, and Internet communications and to search homes 

and businesses without a warrant. The Moroccan press has also been increasingly subject 

to greater restrictions, somewhat compromising its relatively open status. Meanwhile, 

Amnesty International reported a sharp increase in reported cases of torture, while Moroccan human rights groups have questioned the fairness of a number of terrorism trials held 

in the wake of the Casablanca attacks.

The Moroccan government’s reform agenda appears to be in a holding pattern, if not in 

a backslide. Security concerns now trump demands for continued political opening. As a 

result, the kingdom’s policies weigh in favor of antiterrorism measures and are presented 

as Morocco’s contribution to the global war on terror. 

Jordan

Wedged between the turmoil in Iraq and the bloody Palestinian-Israeli conflict, Jordan 

has emerged as a relatively tolerant country. Over the past two years, Jordan’s reform plan 

has comprised several components, including parliamentary and municipal elections, the 

creation of a ministry for political development, and the establishment of a new Human 

Rights Center. However, more recently the Jordanian government has shifted away from 

allowing greater political freedoms and has focused instead on less-threatening administrative reform. Indeed, the kingdom’s reform efforts are captive to popular sentiment over 

Iraq and Israel and seem somewhat tenuous, serving essentially as a pressure reliever. 

Therefore, any genuine political opening in Jordan remains vulnerable to a change in 

government policy.

After an electoral hiatus, the kingdom held parliamentary and municipal elections in 

2003. The elections were deemed to be largely fair, with no significant reports of fraud. 

However, government gerrymandering favored tribal candidates who support the monarchy. Even so, the parliament includes some opposition elements, including the Islamic 

Action Front. Jordanians are also still contending with the impact of more than two 

hundred temporary royal decrees that were passed between 2001 and 2003, when parliament was dissolved. The decrees have dampened freedoms of expression, the press, and 

assembly and have been used to quash dissent. In a crackdown on September 9, 2004, 

thirty-eight Islamic leaders and activists were rounded up for violating a decree that 

prohibits political commentary inside mosques.

Despite its claim that political reform is a key priority, the Jordanian government’s 

future political reform plans were thrown into question following an October 2004 cabinet reshuffle. The cabinet change was accompanied by a government announcement that 

administrative reform, namely streamlining the bureaucracy, would become a top priority. 

This new emphasis on largely technical administrative issues could signal a troubling shift 

away from more meaningful reform measures. Indeed, as part of this administrative reform 

plan, King Abdullah unveiled in January 2005 a plan to establish elected local councils 

to oversee the development and budget of local public services. However, this initiative 

toward decentralization may be a diversion from real, deep-rooted political reform that 

would allow for a genuine shift in political power.

Egypt

Typically, reform proposals in Egypt, largely channeled through the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP), have been somewhat cosmetic and often motivated by the Egyptian 

government’s desire to appear responsive to external (largely U.S.) pressure to reform. 

However, President Mubarak’s surprise announcement in late February calling for multicandidate presidential elections is significant. While additional steps are needed to ensure a 

fair vote—slated for fall 2005—the announcement could herald a historic move toward 

The Moroccan government’s 

reform agenda appears to 

be in a holding pattern, 

if not in a backslide. 

The Jordanian government’s 

future political reform plans 

were thrown into question 

following an October 2004 

cabinet reshuffle.

Typically, reform proposals in 

Egypt have been somewhat 

cosmetic and often motivated 

by the Egyptian government’s 

desire to appear responsive 

to external pressure.
13

democracy in Egypt. Other Egyptian government measures are also noteworthy, even if 

they are not always long-lived. For example, in October 2004, the government licensed 

the opposition Al-Ghad (Tomorrow) party after having earlier rejected its application 

three times. This secular party boasts a pro-reform platform that seeks to balance presidential power by bolstering the legislative branch. In addition, two new daily newspapers 

with liberal leanings were given permission to publish. However, these gains dissipated 

in early 2005 when authorities arrested Ayman Nour, the Al-Ghad party’s founder, and 

temporarily banned the party’s newspaper.

Indeed, despite a lot of talk about the need for reform in various conferences and 

meetings, significant obstacles to deep-rooted political opening remain. The September 

2003 NDP conference gave lip service to the need for democratic reform, publicizing its 

“new thinking” and offering vague proposals for reform. Meanwhile, the 2004 NDP conference introduced several minor reform measures, but the party endorsed an unprecedented 

fifth term for President Mubarak. NDP leaders also refused to consider opposition calls for 

lifting the twenty-three-year-old emergency laws and for implementing presidential term 

limits. In addition, this past May witnessed a major crackdown on Islamist opposition 

activists, resulting in fifty arrests and the shutdown of the Muslim Brotherhood’s website. 

As a result of mounting government harassment, opposition forces representing a wide 

spectrum of political views have uniformly greeted the government’s reform proposals 

with deep skepticism.

Ultimately, the Egyptian government’s flirtation with political reform will be balanced 

by concerns over leadership succession and how to shape post-Mubarak Egypt. The government’s dialogue on reform has thus been characterized by its reluctance to implement 

several key elements of any meaningful reform package, such as annulling the emergency 

laws and lifting restrictions on political parties. In addition, any multicandidate presidential election will likely be highly managed by the Egyptian government to ensure its total 

control over the process. In light of deep uncertainty about the post-Mubarak era and 

continuing instability in Iraq, more deeply-rooted reform is not likely in the near term.

Saudi Arabia

Soon after 9/11, many in the West turned a sharply critical eye toward Saudi Arabia, 

which produced fifteen of the nineteen hijackers. The Saudi government’s initial reaction 

was defensive; key Saudi leaders refused to acknowledge the role played by their deeply 

conservative society—anchored in puritanical Wahhabi Islam—and closed political 

system. However, since 2003 the Saudis have embarked on a reform program that has 

included the first nationwide municipal elections in decades and a series of “National 

Dialogues.” At the same time, a spate of terrorist attacks beginning in May 2003 has shattered the kingdom’s sense of security, once again putting Saudi officials on the defensive 

and threatening to derail the kingdom’s embryonic reforms.

The government held municipal elections on February 10, 2005, drawing an estimated 

82 percent voter turnout. While tightly controlled—women could not run or even vote, 

and the government approved all candidates—the vote represents a significant milestone 

on the path toward greater political opening. The kingdom has also relaxed press restrictions, established a human rights organization, set up a committee to review school 

curricula, and enhanced the powers of the appointed consultative council by allowing it 

to propose legislation.

In addition, three National Dialogues on various areas of reform were held over a 

yearlong period. The first discussion took place in June 2003 in Riyadh and focused on 

religion, bringing together representatives of the religious establishment, opposition 

preachers, Shiite elements, and Sufis. The second dialogue, in December 2003, occurred 

in Mecca and explored the rise of Islamic militancy and related social issues; the third 

session, which was held in June 2004 in Medina, examined the role of women. 

Since 2003 the Saudis have 

embarked on a reform program 

that has included the first 

nationwide municipal 

elections in decades and a 

series of “National Dialogues.”
14

At the same time, the Saudi government’s reform gestures have been marred by the 

arrest and harassment of reformers and other measures that ensure that the regime retains 

full control over the reform process. Therefore, the government’s longer-term intentions 

remain unclear. While the greater openness in Saudi society is notable, questions about 

the government’s seriousness as well as Saudi society’s capacity to absorb change remain 

at the forefront of concerns. However, should the reform initiative in the kingdom—a 

bastion of extremist Islam—meet with success, its impact would reverberate across the 

Muslim world. 

Multilateral Initiatives: The Tunis Declaration

(http://www.arabsummit.tn/en/tunis-declaration.htm)

(Arabic: http://www.daralhayat.net/actions/print.php)

Judged by its content, the Tunis Declaration, issued by Arab governments following the 

May 2004 Arab League summit, holds the least promise of all reform initiatives. Compelled 

to develop a unified response to the G-8’s Broader Middle East Initiative, the Arab League 

signed the thirteen-point Tunis Declaration, calling in vague terms for a wide range of 

reforms. However, the document represents the first multilateral Arab call for reform and 

offers an important entry point for Western governments as they confer with their Arab 

counterparts on the need for reform. 

While the Tunis Declaration is symbolically important, the document suffers from several key flaws. First, the declaration reflects the least common denominator with respect 

to reform proposals, offering nothing new or innovative. Second, the declaration lacks 

specificity, instead relying on a series of vague endorsements of reform in principle without committing to anything more substantive. For example, it calls for “consolidating the 

democratic practice by enlarging participation in political and public life,” but it does not 

propose any real steps, such as lifting restrictions on NGOs. Third, the Arab League made 

no attempt to reach out to civil society activists and take their views into consideration. 

Indeed, the document was roundly criticized by Arab NGOs, claiming the declaration made 

rhetorical promises but offered no concrete programs or policies.

Therefore, the Tunis Declaration’s significance lies not in its substance but in the cover 

it provides for those who seek to engage Arab governments on the question of reform. 

While the prospects of constructive multilateral Arab engagement on the question of 

reform remain slim, the Tunis Declaration offers a key point of reference. At a minimum, 

Western governments can refer to the document, calling Arab governments on their 

promise to move toward greater reform. Ultimately, disagreements among Arab countries 

regarding the pace and direction of reform, as well as the differing internal dynamics of 

each country, suggest that successful Arab reform initiatives are unlikely to emerge from 

multilateral Arab venues.

Conclusions and U.S. Policy Recommendations

Several conclusions can be made about Arab reform initiatives from which important U.S. 

policy recommendations can be drawn.

The Nature of Arab Reform Efforts

• As Arab governments stand to become net losers in any real reform effort, most 

government-sponsored initiatives are motivated by self-preservation and a desire to 

maintain the status quo rather than a wish to implement genuine change. Therefore, 

Should the reform initiative in 

the kingdom meet with success, 

its impact would reverberate 

across the Muslim world.

Successful Arab reform initiatives are unlikely to emerge 

from multilateral Arab venues.
15

the boldest and most detailed Arab reform initiatives will generally originate from 

independent nongovernmental entities.

• All Arab reform initiatives share key common demands. These include calls for free 

and fair elections; constitutional reforms that feature a diminishing of executive 

power and a commensurate increase in legislative and judicial powers; the repeal of 

emergency laws and the abolishment of exceptional courts; an end to the practice of 

torture; and the lifting of restrictions on civil society, NGOs, and the media.

• Successful reform in the region must be inclusive; all nonviolent elements of the 

political spectrum, from Marxists to Islamists, need to be consulted and their viewpoints weighed and negotiated in any process designed to arrive at a comprehensive 

reform plan. To date, Islamists—perhaps the most influential grassroots opposition 

element—have been largely excluded from both government and nongovernmental 

initiatives. Greater effort to engage moderate Islamists in a reform dialogue is necessary. Bridging the divide between Islamists and secularists will be a critical component of successful reform efforts.

• The creation of national pacts to generate a set of common values and goals for 

reform stands as one of the most promising recommendations to date. By bringing 

together secular and Islamist reformers, these pacts could unify key reform advocates, accelerating the momentum for change. Unlike previous pacts (e.g., Jordan’s 

1991 National Charter) devised by governments to co-opt opposition elements, these 

agreements would allow government and opposition elements to work together to 

construct a mutually agreed-on set of values, such as those relating to the role of 

Islam in politics and the “road map” for reform. If constructed in good faith, such 

pacts could go a long way toward clarifying a number of worrisome ambiguities for 

both government and civil society. 

• Nearly all of the reform initiatives, from nongovernmental to multilateral, suffer—to 

varying degrees—from a lack of specificity. Even the best-conceived nongovernmental efforts reflect broader regionwide concerns rather than country-specific priorities. 

Further, the initiatives offer little in the way of specifying how their proposals should 

be implemented. All of the proposals would benefit from more specific detail on the 

means of accomplishing the reform objectives.

• Nongovernmental reform initiatives that hold the greatest promise, such as the 

Beirut Letter and the Doha Declaration, need further thought and development. 

Specifically, these initiatives should be translated into country-specific action plans that 

identify and prioritize key reforms and then elaborate on specific steps for achieving 

these goals.

U.S. Policy Recommendations

• Bolstering U.S. credibility in the region stands as a key priority for policymakers. 

However, given the United States’ faltering credibility in the Arab world, U.S. policymakers should steer clear of publicly endorsing any particular initiative. While the 

Beirut Letter and the Doha Declaration hold the greatest promise, any direct U.S. 

endorsement of these efforts could doom them. With a few exceptions, Arab reformers 

repeatedly suggest that any public association with the United States would dramatically diminish their credibility at home.

• Instead, U.S. policymakers should raise the urgent need for reform, as emphasized 

by Arab reformers, at the bilateral level. Consistent yet quiet diplomatic pressure, 

coupled with financial enticements for positive movement on reform (see below), 

offers the greatest chance of success. Both Washington and diplomats in the field 

need to signal that reform is a key objective by repeatedly pressing for the release 

of imprisoned reformers, an end to press censorship, and the cessation of repressive 

emergency laws.

Successful reform in the region 

must be inclusive; all nonviolent.

The creation of “national pacts” 

to generate a set of common 

values and goals for reform 

stands as one of the most promising recommendations to date.

U.S. policymakers should steer 

clear of publicly endorsing any 

particular initiative.
• Engagement with moderate Islamist reformers is essential. Given the Islamists’ strong 

popular appeal, the United States can no longer afford to call for democratic change 

in the region while ignoring one of its most powerful political forces. The United 

States should underscore the commonalities among the demands of secular and 

Islamist reformers, leveraging the overlap between them to inject greater momentum 

toward broad reform in the region.

• Positive conditionality, which involves offering financial and other incentives for forward movement on reform, deserves further exploration. Specifically, U.S. policymakers should work to identify key “benchmarks” that adequately measure the progress of 

political reform. In particular, the creation of bulleted “action plans”—that is, laying 

out specific reform-oriented goals, a model favored by the European Union—might 

offer a useful format for the United States and its Arab counterparts. Incentives such 

as increased aid or enhanced market access could then be tied to the completion of 

specific action items, offering a stepped, benefit-based approach to reform.

• Greater cooperation and coordination with the United States’ European allies could 

also improve the prospects for successful Arab reform efforts. The United States and 

its European allies can undertake several key measures to help move Arab reform 

forward. These include enhancing the transatlantic policy dialogue on Middle East 

reform; identifying shared transatlantic interests and objectives; coordinating more 

closely public statements on key reform-related events, such as elections; and synchronizing reform incentives. (For further elaboration on these and other recommendations, see “Transatlantic Cooperation on Democracy Promotion in the Middle East: 

Ten Recommendations for Enhanced Cooperation,” http://www.usip.org/research/

reports/usipfride.pdf.)

• In addition, the United States should consider establishing a quasi-public, privately 

run Middle East foundation as the key mechanism for administering political-reform 

promotion projects. A Middle East foundation would provide the necessary “arm’s 

length” from the U.S. government, creating an important buffer for sensitive political-reform projects. Indeed, U.S. policymakers should resist the urge to publicly promote U.S. aid in the region, as U.S. credibility there will be enhanced through solid 

progress on reform than through flashy public rollouts and prominent U.S. branding 

of projects. A Middle East foundation would also provide an instrument for addressing 

policy interests that, by nature, are extremely long term and go beyond the purview 

of the traditional policymaking apparatus.

• U.S. policymakers should think ahead and anticipate potential reform-promoting 

opportunities. Specifically, they should look for milestone events, such as elections or succession scenarios, and devise policy options that exploit these potential 

openings for reform when they occur. For example, the Egyptian government will be 

holding presidential elections in the fall of 2005. The United States should strongly 

urge the Egyptian government to ensure that elections are free and fair and to allow 

international observers. Furthermore, both Egypt and Saudi Arabia, pivotal states in 

the region, will undergo leadership successions in the near to medium term. U.S. policymakers should explore options for ensuring that these transitions—to the extent 

possible—result in more open political systems.

• Finally, at a strategic level, U.S. policymakers need to reconcile U.S. counterterrorism 

policies with the goals of democracy promotion in the region. To date, regimes in the 

region are sent mixed messages. They are both asked to reform and to cooperate in 

the war on terror. A successful U.S. policy for promoting reform in the region must 

answer the vexing question of how to nurture civil society while guarding against 

extremism. In this regard, a comprehensive Helsinki-type process (the early inspiration for the Broader Middle East Initiative) in which political, economic, and security 

issues are linked and addressed in a coordinated fashion may offer a promising 

approach.

United States 

Institute of Peace

1200 17th Street NW

Washington, DC 20036

www.usip.org

An online edition of this report can be 

found at our website (www.usip.org), 

together with additional information 

on the subject.