NBSIR 74-372

CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATORS FOR SHIPBOARD

FORWARD LOOKING INFRARED APPLICATIONS

Roland 0. Voth

Cryogenics Division

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Boulder, Colorado 80302

Final Report

June 1974

Prepared for

Naval Ordnance Laboratory

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

NBSIR 74-372

CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATORS FOR SHIPBOARD

FORWARD LOOKING INFRARED APPLICATIONS

Roland 0. Voth

Cryogenics Division

Institute for Basic Standards

National Bureau of Standards

Boulder, Colorado 80302

Final Report

June 1974

The results of this report are not to be used for advertising or promotional

purposes, or to indicate endorsement or disapproval of the product(s)

by the National Bureau of Standards

Prepared for

Naval Ordnance Laboratory

Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Frederick B Dent, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS Richard W Roberts Director

CONTENTS

Page

1. Introduction 1

2. Cycles and Definitions 3

3. Operational Requirements 18

3. 1 Cryogenic Requirements 20

3. 1. 1 Refrigeration Temperatures and

Temperature Stability 20

3. 1.2 Refrigerator Capacity 24

3. 1. 3 Cooldown Time 2 5 3.2 Mechanical Requirements 25

3. 2. 1 Location of Refrigerators .... 26

3. 2. 2 Refrigerator Size and Weight ... 28

3. 2. 3 Mechanical Vibration of the Cryogenic

Refrigerator Cold Head 28

4. Responses to Questionnaires 29

5. Evaluation of Refrigerators 40

5. 1 Mean Time Before Failure Values 40

5. 2 Assignment of Weighting Factors 42

6. Results of the Refrigerator Evaluation 47

7. Cryogenic Refrigerators Under Development for

Space Applications 50

8. The Open Cycle Joule-Thomson Refrigerator .... 52

9. Experience of Other Users of Cryogenic

Refrigerators 55

10. Life Cycle Costs 58

10. 1 The Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Costs. . . 59

10. 2 The Open Cycle Joule - Thomson Refrigerator

Costs 60

iii
CONTENTS (Continued)

Page

10. 3 Cost of Operating a Vuilleumie r Refrigerator . 61

11. Discussion 61

11. 1 Recommendations for Additional Work ... 66

12. Acknowledgements 67

13. References 69

iv
LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Schematic of a Carnot cycle refrigerator ... 4

Figure 2. Schematic of a closed cycle Joule -Thomson

refrigerator 7

Figure 3. Sketch of a Stirling cycle refrigerator . , , , 9

Figure 4. Sketch of a Vuilleumier refrigerator .... 12

Figure 5, Schematic of a Gifford-McMahon cycle

refrigerator 14

Figure 6. Sketches of a free expander &: thermal compres sor 16

Figure 7. Schematic of a Brayton cycle refrigerator . . 19

Figure 8. Typical response of a Hg Cd Te detector . 22

Figure 9. Typical D* of a Hg „ Cd Te detector ... 23

.8 ,2

Figure 10. Outline sketch of the receiver turret of a shipboard FLIR unit 27

Figure 11. Shipboard, open cycle, Joule - Thomson

refrigerator 54

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Performance and physical parameters of low

capacity cryogenic refrigerators 30

Table 2. Evaluation criteria for nominal 2 watt and

1 watt refrigerators 43

Table 3. Evaluation results for one watt refrigerators . 48

Table 4. Evaluation results for two watt refrigerators , 49

v
I
CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATORS FOR

SHIPBOARD FORWARD LOOKING INFRARED APPLICATIONS

Roland O. Voth

The Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) has asked the

Cryogenics Division of the National Bureau of Standards to

investigate and evaluate 1) commercially available refrigerators, 2) refrigerators under development, and 3) new or novel

ideas applicable to a refrigerator to cool infrared detectors in a shipboard Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) system. Although

a refrigerator has been selected for two prototype FLIR units,

the study was initiated to select the most appropriate refrigerator for additional purchases of FLIR units. The FLIR requires

a refrigerator capacity of approximately Z watts at 77 K and a physical configuration allowing for an interface to the FLIR

unit. Information was collected by interviewing FLIR manufacturers, surveying refrigerator manufacturers and by contacting users of similar systems. Correlation of this information with the NOL requirements is presented herein. The

primary difference between airborne / spaceborne refrigerators

and a shipborne refrigerator is the accessibility for minor

repairs on-board ship although major repairs may be deferred

for extended periods of time. It is anticipated that the shipboard units will operate away from major maintenance facilities

for periods as long as 6 months, with the refrigerator operating

at least half of this time. Thus, reliability and ease of maintenance are emphasized when evaluating the various systems.

Key words: Cryogenics; infrared detector; 77 K refrigerator;

low capacity; reliability; shipboard.

1. Introduction

Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) sensor technology has advance

significantly in the past few years. Since FLIR's can be used at night

as well as during the day, they are likely to become indispensable

components in future aircraft, ships, missiles, air defense systems,

and etc. Currently, great emphasis is being placed on reducing size

and weight and developing modular systems which will reduce the cost

while improving system reliability and maintainability.

The reliability of early FLIR systems was rather disappointing

because they displayed MTBF' s (mean-time-between-failures) as low
as 10 hours and frequently less than 100 hours. More recent devices

have exhibited higher MTBF values, but these increased values are

still not considered satisfactory. Almost invariably, the most unreliable FLIR component has been the miniature cryogenic refrigerator used

to cool the multi-element IR detector to cryogenic temperatures. Typical field performance MTBF values for these cryogenic refrigerators

lie in the range of 200 to 500 hours. Because (1) experience has shown

that FLIR units aboard ship frequently operate 24 hours a day, (2) electrooptical maintenance and repair facilities are practically nonexistent

aboard a destroyer, and (3) a ship may be required to sail for several

weeks or months before gaining access to repair and maintenance

depots, the past reliability of cryogenic refrigerators for use aboard

ship is unsatisfactory.

In anticipation that in the future the surface navy will employ a multitude of FLIR devices, the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL)

initiated a study to select an "optimum" refrigerator with emphasis on

reliability for shipboard use. Reliability, efficiency, size, weight,

vibration spectra, manufacturing and interfacing considerations, and

cost were included during the selection process.

The study was approached by (1) determining the required characteristics for the cryogenic refrigerator by talking to FLIR manufacturers; (2) determining the characteristics of currently available

refrigerators and of refrigerators being developed under the sponsorship of the U. S. Army, U. S, Air Force, and NASA as they relate to

the projected shipboard requirements; (3) performing a literature

survey for information pertaining to low capacity refrigerators;

(4) performing a trade-off analysis to determine the most suitable

cryogenic device for adoption into the shipboard FLIR unit;

2
and (5) determining if any new or novel ideas could be incorporated into

the cryogenic refrigerator to increase reliability or other desired

characte ristics.

2. Cycles and Definitions

In order to select a refrigerator for a particular application, it

is useful to understand the various thermodynamic cycles used in

cryogenic refrigerators and to understand the various inherent qualities

of each cycle. As is normal in thermodynamics, the efficiency of a thermal device is compared to an ideal cycle. The ideal cycle used to

evaluate cryogenic refrigerators is a Carnot cycle. Figure 1 is a schematic representation of a Carnot refrigerator together with a temperature-entropy representation of the state of the fluid within the

cycle. The Carnot refrigerator removes heat from a low temperature

source and transfers this heat to a higher temperature sink using input

energy consisting of mechanical work. The Carnot cycle consists of

four processes: (1) An isothermal reversible process to remove the

heat, Q^, from the refrigerator, (Z) a reversible adiabatic process in

which the temperature of the fluid drops from T to T , (3) a constant

J. temperature process in which heat, Q^^, enters the refrigerator, and

(4) the reversible adiabatic process increasing the fluid temperature

from Tj to T^. The quantity of heat rejected, Q^, must equal all

energy inputs to the system, or

I Z 1 c

where W is the input work, usually the work of compression. In

refrigerators operating at cryogenic temperatures (77 K), the quantity

3
Heat Sink at Raised

Temperature,

Carnot Refrigerator

Heat Source at Reduced

Temperature, T,

Work Energy

Si!

LU T. —

ENTROPY

Figure 1. Schematic of a Carnot cycle refrigerator.

4
of heat, Qj, is small in relationship to the work term, W , and is

usually ignored when calculating the heat rejected from the system.

From the temperature -entropy diagram (fig. 1), the net amount

of work input into the Carnot cycle is equal to the double crosshatched

area, or

W = T (S - SJ - T (S_ - S ) . (1) c c Z 1 1 Z 1

The useful refrigeration is equal to the single crosshatched area, or

= (S^ - S^) . (2)

Thus, the ideal input work per unit refrigeration for a Carnot refrigerator is equal to

W - T, — = (3)

Ql ^1

The reciprocal of W /Q is the Coefficient of Performance (COP) of an

c 1 ideal Carnot refrigerator. Efficiency of a refrigerator will be defined

as the ideal work per unit refrigeration divided by the work per unit

refrigeration for an actual system,

Eff = (W /QJ. / (W /QJ . (4) c 1 1 c la

All gaseous refrigeration cycles use one or both of two basic

processes to obtain cooling. The first process is the expansion of gas

in an increasing volume, as above a piston, where work is removed

from the fluid during the expansion process, resulting in a temperature

5
reduction. The second process depends on a nonideal gas where even

though the enthalpy of the gas remains constant during a reduction in

pressure due to throttling, the temperature of the gas decreases.

The second process is called the Joule - Thomson expansion process.

A schematic of a closed cycle Joule - Thomson (J-T) refrigerator

is shown on figure 2. In the system, a mechanical compressor increases

the pressure of flowing gaseous nitrogen. After the removal of the heat

of compression and remaining gas impurities, the high pressure gas is

cooled by returning low pressure, low temperature gas in the counterflow heat exchanger. The gas is then expanded through the J-T valve,

further reducing its temperature, and after removing heat from the load,

returns to the compressor through the returning leg of the heat exchanger.

Because the J-T expansion effect depends on the gas being nonideal,

high pressure levels are required in the cycle. The high pressure

required for nitrogen gas rsmges between 12. 2 MPa(120 atm) and

40. 5 MPa(400 atm) when entering the J-T heat exchanger. Two types

of J-T cryostats are available for use with infrared detectors. The

first type uses either a small orifice of a fixed size at the high pressure

discharge end of the counterflow heat exchanger or a capillary tube for

the high pressure side of the heat exchanger to provide the required

pressure drop. The capillary tube has a larger cross section area

than the orifice for an equal capacity refrigerator, thereby reducing

the inherent plugging problems of the orifice. The second type

of J-T cryostat is termed a "demand flow" cryostat. The "demand flow"

cryostat has an orifice with a variable cross section area. The area

of the orifice is dependent on the refrigeration temperature amd is

6
Reject 1

1

Heat ^ ^

COMPRESSOR

Low Pressure

Stream

PURIFIER

High Pressure Stream

Counterf low

Heat Exchanger

Joule-Thomson

Expansion Valve

Liquid Air

or

Nitrogen

The compressor and purifier of the Joule -Thorason refrigerator

can be split or located remotely from the cold head.

Figure 2. Schematic of a closed cycle Joule-Thomson refrigerator.

7
controlled by a small nitrogen -filled bellows attached to the cold end

of the heat exchanger. The "demand flow" cryostat is able to adjust

the gas flow rate as the required refrigeration capacity or supply

pressure changes.

The "demand flow" cryostat is generally used in open cycle

applications while the fixed area cryostat is used in closed cycle applications with a fixed capacity compressor. A more technical discussion

of Joule - Thomson refrigerators can be obtained from [l].

The Stirling cycle refrigerator uses work-removing fluid

expansion to obtain reduced temperatures. With correct design, the

path of the cycle on a temperature-entropy diagram nearly duplicates

a Carnot cycle. Thus, the Stirling cycle is a relatively efficient cycle,

and because it is efficient, the unit is usually physically smaller than

any other refrigerator of comparable capacity.

The Stirling cycle employs regenerators which are constructed

of low thermal conductivity enclosures containing lead balls or stacked

perforated disks. During steady state operation, a temperature

gradient exists along the length of the regenerator such that warm gas

passing through the regenerator is cooled by adding heat to the regenerator, and under reverse flow conditions heat is removed from the

regenerator to warm the flowing gas. Ideally, the regenerator should

have a high specific heat, extended heat transfer area, a low void

volume, low pressure drop, and a low longitudinal thermal conductivity.

A more detailed discussion of regenerators can be found in [2].

Figure 3 is a sketch of a Stirling cycle refrigerator. Visualizing

rotation of the crankshaft, the working volume, which consists of the

volume above the pistons and in the regenerator, is changing. This

changing volume causes pressure variation in the working volume.

8
Cold Head

P/^ Reject heat

/

Ambient

Temperature

Head

The Stirling cycle refrigerator is an integral machine.

Figure 3. Sketch of a Stirling cycle refrigerator.

9
The location of the majority of gas in the system also changes with

shaft rotation. At high pressure, with the warm piston at top dead

center, most of the gas is in the low temperature cylinder. As rotation

continues from top dead center; the gas in the cold cylinder is expanded

(reducing its temperature) by the cold piston going down and by gas

leaving the cold area and returning to the warm cylinder. The gas

flowing to the warm cylinder is warmed during its passage through

the regenerator. Finishing the cycle, the gas again flows to the cold

piston after being cooled by the regenerator. A more technical discussion of Stirling cycle operation can be obtained from [3],

Low capacity Stirling cycle refrigerators are available to cool

infrared detectors. Their major advantages are small size and high

efficiency while major disadvantages are reduction in performance

with long term operation, high vibration loads imparted to any connected

loads, and low MTBF values for currently available machines. The

degradation in performance is due to contamination of the relatively

low volume of working fluid (usually helium) with lubrication materials

from the crankcase and other outgassed materials from components

such as electric drive motors that are usually sealed into the crankcase

area. The vibration loads are from the reciprocating pistons. Stirling

machines can be developed to improve or eliminate these disadvantages.

A rhombic drive to eliminate or reduce vibrations and a positive rolling

seal between the working volume and the crankcase to eliminate contamination can be utilized to improve the machine. The positive seals also

allow the use of oil-lubricated bearings in the crankcase instead of

dry-lubricated bearings, significantly increasing the life of the unit.

The Vuilleumier (VM) cycle refrigerator bears a resemblance

to the Stirling cycle units with one major difference; the crankcase

10
volume is connected to the displace r volumes, making the working volume

of the refrigerator constant during rotation of the crankshaft. Varying

pressure with crankshaft rotation is accomplished by heating the high

temperature cylinder to approximately 920 K. Although the working

volume of the cycle is constant, the average temperature and therefore

the average pressure of the working gas varies as the crankshaft

rotates. Figure 4 is a sketch of a VM refrigerator. When the hot

displacer is at the bottom of its stroke, the average temperature of the

gas in the working volume is high, resulting in a high pressure, and

as the crankshaft continues to rotate, the pressure is low when the hot

displacer is at top dead center. Expansion of the gas occurs during this

rotation. The motor used to rotate the crankshaft of a VM refrigerator

is small because it only needs to overcome sliding friction and pressure

drops associated with moving the gas inside the machine. The majority

of the input power is introduced at the hot cylinder making the VM

refrigerator particularly attractive when a high temperature heat source

is already available. For the FLIR application, an electric heater would

be used to heat the high temperature cylinder. A more technical description of the Vuilleumier cycle can be obtained in [4, 5, and 6].

The Vuilleumier (VM) machine has the small size advantage

of the Stirling cycle refrigerator with additional features such as low

loading on the bearings and seals. The low loading allows the use of

lubrication and bearing materials less likely to contaminate the helium

working fluid. Also, the torque required to operate the refrigerator is

low, allowing a different design of the drive motor to eliminate contaminates from this source. Because only a low pressure differential exists

across the displacers, they can be of lighter construction than a Stirling

cycle, thus reducing vibrations due to the reciprocating motion of the

11
Cold Head

The Vuilleumier refrigerator is an integral machine.

Figure 4. Sketch of a Vuilleumier refrigerator.

12
displace r. Major disadvantages of the cycle include the

complex electronics to control the motor speed and the power

to the electric heater on the hot cylinder. Both of these problems can

be solved using state-of-the-art technology. The high temperature

cylinder design has been a problem which appears nearly solved.

Experimentation to increase the life of the VM machine and decrease

its cost is still progressing. The internal helium pressure is quite

high, especially when the refrigerator is at ambient temperature,

making helium leakage from the working volume a problem aggravated

by extremes in the environment. The external seals are being developed,

however, and the problem of helium leakage should diminish with future

machines.

One refrigerator related to the Stirling cycle is the GiffordMcMahon cycle. This cycle has some of the same inherent qualities

of a Stirling and VM cycle such as reversing flow in regenerators; also it has better reliability because an inline gas purifier is used to remove

impurities from unidirectional gas flow before it enters the low temperature portion of the refrigerator. Figure 5 schematically shows a singlestage Gifford-McMahon unit. The low thermal conductivity cylinder is

fitted with a displacer which is sealed against the warm part of the

cylinder. The displacer movement is controlled from outside the

cryostat. A thermal regenerator is also shown in the circuit. Imagine

the displacer in its lowest position with steady- state conditions existing

so that proper thermal gradients exist in the thermal regenerator.

When the compressed-gas supply valve is opened, helium enters the

system, raising the pressure both in the volume at the top of the

cylinder and throughout the system. When the pressure in the regenerator and in the volume above the displacer reaches the maximum,

13
Surge

Volume

Reject

Heat

LJ

a:

Q_

COMPRESSOR

High Pressure Valve

Low Pressure Valve

Surge

Volume

Cold

Station

The compressor, purifier and surge volumes can be split

or located remotely from the cold head.

Figure 5. Schematic of a Gifford-McMahon cycle refrigerator.

14
the displace r is moved to the upper position, forcing the gas above it

through the regenerator into the volume which is now below the displace r. The gas is cooled as it gives up heat to the cold regenerator, decreasing

its specific volume and allowing more helium into the system from the

compressed gas supply. The supply valve is closed, and the exhaust

valve is slowly opened. Refrigeration is now produced as each element

of gas does work on elements of gas being exhausted. The fluid is

warmed as it passes through the regenerator and through the heat

absorption station on its way to the compressor. When the pressure

in the system has reached its lowest level, the displacer is moved to

its lowest level, forcing the remaining cold gas into the compressor

intake. At this time, the original thermal pressure state is achieved

and the cycle repeats. A more technical description of a Gifford McMahon

and related cycles is in [2].

Several variations of the split cycle exist. These variations

carry different names such as Split Stirling Cycle, Modified Stirling

Cycle, Split Vuilleumier Cycle and modified Solvay Cycle. Most of

these cycles have a free piston expander. Figure 6a shows a cross

section of the free expander portion of such a cycle. The free piston

works if a pulsating pressure, ambient temperature gas is supplied to

the inlet tube. The seal around the small piston into cavity A is designed

to allow a low rate of gas leakage from above the displacer into the cavity.

This low leakage rate maintains the pressure in cavity A about halfway

between the maximum and minimum pressures in the displacer cavity.

Thus, as the pressure in the displacer cavity is increased, high pressure

works over a larger area on the bottom of the displacer pushing it up.

As the pressure in the displacer cavity decreases to a low pressure,

the remaining pressure in cavity A pushes the displacer back to the

15
A

<

a:z

Ul

o

UJ

cr

Cold Head

Figure 6a. Free expander
lower position. The different names applied to the free piston system

reflect the type of compressor used with the system. In some instances,

the varying pressure is supplied by a valveless reciprocating compressor connected to the expander by a single tube. As the piston in the

compressor moves, the volume of the system varies, resulting in a pulsating pressure. This cycle is termed a modified Stirling cycle or

split Stirling cycle. If the pulsating pressure is supplied by a thermal

compressor (figure 6b), the cycle is termed a split VM cycle. In this

case, the pressure in the cycle is again determined by the average gas

temperature in the system. This cycle offers some of the same advantages as the integral VM refrigerator with a low torque motor requirement together with low stress bearings and seals in the compressor.

The free piston expander can also be used with a compressor with

external surge volumes and valves to obtain the pulsating pressure.

This type of connection (similar to the compressor connections shown

in figure 5) alternately connects the free expander to a high pressure

surge volume or to a low pressure surge volume. This cycle is termed

the modified Solvay cycle. The advantage of the free expander is the

single tube interconnection between the compressor system and the

cold head. Also, no electrical power is required by the expander,

reducing EMI problems, and if the expander is cycled at high speed,

it can be physically very small, allowing inte rchangeability with the

Joule- Thomson cryostat. Cne major difficulty of the free piston

expander when used with the thermal compressor is the volume of the

interconnecting line. This line must be kept fairly short in order to

maintain a low volume of gas in the line so that the refrigerator performance is not materially affected.

17
Figure 7 is a schematic of a reversed Brayton cycle refrigerator.

The Brayton cycle refrigerator appears similar to the J-T refrigerator except that a work producing expander is substituted for the J-T

valve. Refrigerator efficiency is increased by using a work extracting

expander and the pressure levels necessary for efficient operation are

lower than the J-T system. The Brayton cycle is used extensively for

larger refrigerators; however, in low capacity units the expansion device

becomes a design problem. Low capacity reciprocating expanders are

relatively short lived, and efficient turbo expanders are difficult to

manufacture because of the low volume flow rates encountered in low

capacity units. Like the J-T system, gas contamination is a problem

because unlike a regenerator where reversing flow tends to purge

contaminates from the regenerator, the flow through the heat exchanger,

is always in the same direction, tending to continually freeze out

contaminates at the same location in the heat exchanger. During

extended runs, the heat exchanger will tend to become plugged by even

minute quantities of foreign materials in the circulating fluid. Because

of these plugging characteristics and the expander engine design problems,

the use of low capacity Brayton cycle refrigerators has been limited to

developmental machines for space applications where the desirable

characteristics override the other problems.

3. Operational Requirements

The operational requirements for the cryogenic refrigerator are

dependent to a large extent on the design and location of the FLIR unit.

Both the overall FLIR design and its location onboard ship were considered a variable during the refrigerator evaluation. The multielement detectors are mounted within an enclosure supported by double

gimbals, allowing them to "see" in any selected direction. Mirrors

and lenses focus the incoming radiation onto the detectors, cooled to

around 77 K by a cryogenic refrigerator. Electronics associated with

18
Reject --

Heat

COMPRESSOR

PURIFIER

High

Pressure

Low

Pressure

h-HEAT

I EXCHANGER

Work

Out

Cold

Station

The compressor and purifier of the Brayton cycle refrigerator

can be split or located remotely from the cold head.

Figure 7. Schematic of a Brayton cycle refrigerator.

19
the detectors are also within the enclosure, making the EMI emitted

by the refrigerator a major problem which can be eliminated with proper

shielding. Refrigerators or the refrigerator cold head attached to the

detectors must be capable of operation in any orientation as the FLIR

unit is constructed to allow it to look horizontally and straight up anywhere in a 360 degree arc. Currently the rotation is limited to

360 degrees. The compressor for a split cycle refrigerator can be

mounted on the outer gimbal or on the deck. This type of mounting

limits the variance of the compressor from horizontal to the roll or

pitch of the ship. Initial FLIR units will be deck mounted, allowing

accessibility for maintenance, but subsequent units may be mounted

in the superstructure of the ship to give a view less impaired by the

local surroundings while increasing the range of observations. For

deck mounted units, the size of a split cycle compressor is not critical;

however, for units mounted high on the superstructure, large size

and weight become a liability.

The environment in which the refrigerator must operate will

closely follow the ambient environment surrounding the ship except,

in some instances, where the unit mounted in the superstructure may

be affected by stack gases. Thus, the environmental conditions

surrounding the refrigerator will be approximated by the extremes of

the earth's climate,

3. 1 Cryogenic Requirements

3. 1. 1 Refrigeration Temperatures and Temperature Stability

In evaluating a refrigerator for use in a FLIR system, it is

essential to consider, among other things, how the refrigeration

temperature will affect (a) the thermal sensitivity, (b) the spectral

transfer function, and (c) the modulation transfer function of the FLIR.

These parameters are in turn related to the detectivity, responsivity

,

noise spectra, spectral response, and frequency response of the

detector array to be cooled. 20
In the present study, attention is focused on arrays of Hg Cd Te

1 -X X

which are intrinsic photoconductive infrared detectors. The value of

X can vary considerably, resulting in various spectral responses and

other characteristics. However, in the FLIR systems of interest,

the detectors used have x 1=^^ 0. 2, resulting in the typical spectral

response shown in figure 8 for detector temperature equal to about

77 K.

Considering the effect of detector temperature on its responsivity

and noise characteristics, it is more convenient to examine the specific

detectivity (D='=), which incorporates both the responsivity and noise

of a detector. Since both thermally and optically generated carriers

are noise sources for an infrared detector, both the detector temperature and background photon flux affect the detectivity. The detectivity

is also affected by the temporal modulation of the IR radiation impinging

upon the detector.

The background photon flux and temporal modulation of the

incident radiation are related to the field of view and scanning characteristics of the FLIR and are therefore beyond the scope of the present

study. As for the effects of detector temperature upon D*, it has been

well established that D='= varies typically with temperature as shown in

figure 9, where a rather rapid decrease in D=i- is seen to begin at about

80 K. For temperatures below 80 K, and particularly in the region of

60 to 80 K, the change in D''= with temperature is insufficient to cause

any perceptible change in the visual display of the FLIR unit. This

behavior is attributed to Shockley-Read recombination effects [7].

Exception to this must be taken in the 1/f - noise region, which,

however, is of no concern in the case at hand, since all FLIR systems

are designed to modulate the incoming radiation well beyond the "knee"

21
22
10'

70 90 no 120

TEMPERATURE, K

Figure 9. Typical D* of a Hg Cd ^ Te detector.

23
in the \/i - noise region. It can be thus concluded that any refrigerator capable of maintaining a raercury cadmium telluride detector array

at any temperature between 60 and 80 K should result in inappreciable

change in and , consequently, in the thermal sensitivity of the FLIR.

With regard to changes in the detector spectral response due to

variations in its temperature, it is a well-known fact that the spectral

response shifts to shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases.

It has been determined fS] that for Hg, Cd Te such spectral shifts

1 -X X

can be expressed by the empirical relation

Eg = 1. 59 X -0. 25 + 5. 233 (lO"^) T (1-2. 08x) + 0. 327x^ , (5)

where Eg is the energy gap in eV; Eg can be converted to \ (long

he 1 24

wavelength 50% cutoff) by the relation \ = —— = —7:;— . Applying

CO Eg Eg irsr J o eqs 1 and 2 to Hg, Cd Te with x = 0. 2, we find that at T = 60 K,

1 -X X

= 13. 9 ^lM, and at T = 80 K, X^^ = 13 ^lM. Thus, in the range of

60 to 80 K, the spectral shift is only 0. 9 li M. Since the atmospheric

window in the 8 to 14 p. M region has an effective wavelength cutoff

at about 12. 5 p, M over long horizontal over-water paths, it can be

concluded that changes in detector temperatures in the 60 to 80 K range

will not produce any effective changes in the spectral transfer function

of a shipboard FLIR.

Finally, concerning variations in detector frequency response

with temperature, it has been established that no such changes occur.

Therefore, the modulation transfer function of a FLIR should not be

affected whether the detectors are cooled to 60 K or 80 K.

3. 1. 2 Refrigerator Capacity

The study has been concerned with refrigerators capable of

providing one to two watts of refrigeration in the temperature range of

60 to 80 K. This refrigeration capacity was chosen because the existing

24
shipboard FLIR units require between 1. 5 and two watts of refrigeration

during steady state operation. Future systems are expected to require

refrigeration capacities nearer one watt. Because of the expected

decrease in refrigeration loads, two evaluations were performed- -first,

for a two watt capacity and then for a one watt capacity unit. The 60 K to

80 K temperature range was chosen because all shipboard FLIR units,

whether existing or under development, use mercury cadmium telluride

detectors operated in this range, and it can be safely predicted

that future FLIR units will almost exclusively use detector alloys

requiring cooling in the neighborhood of 77 K.

3. 1. 3 Cooldown Time

Cooldown time for a system which is not running continuously

is an important operational refrigerator characteristic. A cooldown

time of 25 minutes or less was determined to be a requirement for the

shipboard FLIR application. Cooldown times for a refrigerator with

an attached thermal mass containing 3000 joules of latent heat linearily

distributed between 300 to 70 K were used to evaluate refrigerators for

current FLIR units. Future FLIR units are expected to decrease the

attached thermal mass by a factor of two; therefore, during the evaluation of one watt refrigerators, calculated cooldown times for a 1500

joules thermal mass were used.

3. 2 Mechanical Requirements

The mechanical design of FLIR units is not fixed and may change

as the mounting location aboard ship is changed ajid as the state-of-theart for scanning detectors advances. Thus, the mechanical details of

cryogenic refrigerators for use with FLIR units are not fixed. Only

opinions of the FLIR manufacturers describing preferred mechajiical

details can be expressed.

25
3. 2. 1 Location of Refrigerators

Figure 10 is an outline sketch of the receiver turret of a prototype

FLIR unit being delivered to the NOL for deck mounting. The drawing is

shown to an approximate scale of 1 cm = 12 cm. The unit is relativelylarge when compared to airborne units. The supplied cryogenic refrigerator for the unit is a split cycle unit with the compressor occupying

position A on the outer gimbal and the cold head of the refrigerator

occupying position C within the detector enclosure. Flexible lines

interconnect the two units. Position B shown on the drawing indicates

the possible location of a larger compressor, with flexible lines being

used to cross two gimbals. Of course, the integral unit

Vuilleumier and Stirling cycle refrigerators would be located at

position C with only electrical power connections being led through

the two gimbals.

The FLIR manufacturers' preferences appeared to be for an

integral unit located at position C. Various reasons given for this

preference are: (1) flexible gas lines connecting the compressor to

the coldhead together with the many electrical wires leading to the unit

make construction complex; (2) if the interconnecting lines are springy

and apply a residual torque through the gimbals, the positioning motors

would need to be larger to maintain the gimbals at a selected position;

(3) the reliability of the interconnecting flexible tubing, constantly

flexing, was questioned. These disadvantages of split cycle units must

be weighed against those of integral units which are: (1) the size of an

integral unit mounted within the detectors enclosure would generally

be larger than a comparable capacity, split unit, cold head; this increased

size may require a larger overall detector enclosure; (2) heat rejected

by the cryogenic refrigerator would be added to heat generated within

the enclosure by other electrical components; cooling complications

26
.91 m

(36in)

SIDE VIEW

Figure 10. Outline sketch of the receiver turret of a shipboard FLIR unit.

27
may arise from the additional heat; and (3) accessibility for repair

of the integral refrigerator and split cycle cold box would be nearly

the same; however, a compressor located outside the enclosure

would be more accessible for maintenance.

The conclusion was that split units, especially with large

-compressors, may not be as desirable as smaller integral units

although the differences are not great.

3. 2. 2 Refrigerator Size and Weight

Historically, the size and weight characteristics of miniature

cryogenic components developed for FLIR' s have been dictated by

constraints imposed by aircraft environments. One of the results

of these constraints has been rather poor reliability. On the other

hand, the shipboard environment allows for some relaxation regarding

size, weight and power consumption. It may also allow, in some cases,

the use of other cooling schemes, such as open cycle J-T coolers, split

cycle systems where the compressor is fairly large and heavy to achieve

greater reliability and ease in maintenance, liquefied air systems, etc.

Therefore, because the mounting location and the overall design of

the FLIR unit is still somewhat flexible, firm size and weight requirements were not applied during evaluation of the cryogenic refrigerator.

Although large massive units were awarded fewer points than lighter

units, no refrigerators were eliminated because of this parameter.

3, 2. 3 Mechanical Vibration of

the Cryogenic Refrigerator Cold Head

In the past, refrigerator induced vibration has been a difficult

problem for the infrared detector designers because the vibration

impairs the resolution of the detector system. Because of the vibration problem, split cycle refrigerators such as J-T cycles have

been preferred in detector applications. The Stirling cycle refrigerator was also used by condensing air or nitrogen at a remote location.

The liquid was then transferred to the separated detector

28
package using a Leidenfrost transfer technique. From the

discussions with FLIR manufacturers, the concern about mechanical

vibration has practically disappeared. However, the movement of the

cold head in relation to its mounting flange is still considered important.

This movement is caused by pressure fluctuations in the cold head and

by the natural frequency vibration of the cold finger. Radial movement

of the head should be less than 0. 013 mm at a frequency above 400 - 600 Hz. Axial movement is not as important because the depth of focus

of the FLIR system is sufficient to maintain adequate resolution. Indications were that a refrigerator for the FLIR application is chosen for other

qualities, and then the cold finger is redesigned, if necessary, to minimize movement.

4, Responses to Questionnaires

Table 1 is the compiled data received from manufacturers of

cryogenic refrigerators. Data were requested for refrigerators having

capacities of up to 10 watts within the temperature range of 15 to 100 K.

Although the FLIR requirement was for a capacity of approximately one

or two watts at 77 K, the additional information gained by requesting

data for larger units could be used to evaluate a particular cycle or

system. Reliability data was specifically requested, including verification of any supplied MTBF data and/or Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)

data. Except in very few instances, reliability data was not verified and

in most cases was not even supplied. The lack of data is understandable

because maintenance data for many refrigerators running for long periods

of time are required before good MTBF or MTTR data can be generated.

In some systems, changes are still occurring, so reliability data from a predecessor is not completely applicable to the refined system. For the

purposes of evaluation, MTBF values were assigned to each refrigerator

based on limited life cycle tests, user experience with the system or similar systems, manufacturers' information, and theoretical predictions.

29
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Blanks in table 1 indicate that the requested data were not

received, and MTBF numbers listed in the table were numbers supplied

by the manufacturers. Each refrigerator has been assigned an identification number to be used throughout the report,

5, Evaluation of Refrigerators

Data received from manufacturers of cryogenic refrigerators

were broken down into 21 separate categories, and points were assigned

to each category, reflecting weighted- value as agreed upon by the NOL

technical advisor and the author. In most cases, the evaluation was

based on performance and physical size and weights of candidate refrigerators. However, in other instances, the judgment of the author was

involved in selection of points for a particular category. Since the state

of the art for small cryogenic refrigerators is changing rapidly, a

definition of all categories, except those which were purely judgments

of the author, will be made so that weighting factors and the total

number of points may be changed to reflect changes in requirements

and changes in performance, reliability, and availability of cryogenic

refrigerators.

5. 1 Mean Time Before Failure Values

Before defining the weighting factors associated with the categories,

a discussion of the MTBF, the MTTR, and the manufacturers' suggested

maintenance intervals is necessary. A total of 35 points, out of a possible 115 points, was assigned to these three categories because of

the importance placed on reliability. It became apparent over the

course of the study that actual values for these categories, except for

the suggested maintenance interval, were either nonexistent or were

based on experience with similar instead of identical systems and

did not reflect actual field experience. The main reason for the lack

of reliability data was a result of the limited number of refrigerators

40
in the field or because the refrigerators in the field were being used

entirely differently than the projected FLIR use. Thus, the approach

used to determine numbers for MTBF and MTTR was to define the

numbers for a particular cycle or system based on theoretical predictions, interviews with manufacturers and users, and preliminary

life test results. These MTBF numbers were then used throughout

the evaluation where more firmly established numbers were not available.

This approach, although not assigning directly measured reliability data

to a particular refrigerator, did use numbers applicable to a fully

developed refrigerator of the same type. In all instances, the manufacturers' suggested maintenance intervals were used in the evaluation.

Ten points were distributed to a particular refrigerator based

on the suggested maintenance interval. Points were assigned based

on the suggested interval for major maintenance such as compressor

overhaul and not on simple maintenance such as helium recharging,

or adsorber or filter change.

Twenty points were assigned to the MTBF evaluation. These

points were based on the best available information and were assigned

as follows:

1. "Vuilleumier Refrigerators: The reliability data for VM

machines is quite limited with very few machines in service. However, during interviews with people knowledgeable about VM machines,

indications were that a 2500 hour MTBF was achievable, and test

results seem to bear out this contention [9 and 10]. Thus, a 2500 hour

MTBF was used for VM machines during the evaluation. The author's

impression is, however, that the basic concept of the Vuilleumier cycle

refrigerator should allow further increases in MTBF as the state of

the art is advanced.

41
2. Stirling Cycle Refrigerator; Although the Stirling cycle

refrigerator has many redeeming features, the reputation for reliability

in low capacity units is not good. A MTBF of 500 hours was used during

the evaluation of currently available low capacity Stirling cycle refrigerators. Several manufacturers of Stirling refrigerators feel that with

some minor design changes the MTBF could be increased to 1000 - 2000

hours and with some major design changes such as rolling seals to allow

oil lubrication of the crankcase while eliminating the contamination problem,

would increase the MTBF to as high as 10,000 hours. To increase the

MTBF of a Stirling cycle to this high value would make them appear quite

attractive for the FLIR application.

3. Gifford McMahon and Solvay: The Gifford McMahon and

Solvay cycles currently have the most operating hours under field

conditions of any refrigerator type. The communication companies use

this type of refrigerator for cooling parametric amplifiers and report a MTBF of greater than 6000 hours for a Gifford McMahon cycle using a

slow turning, oil lubricated compressor. The cold head for this type of

refrigerator is also large and has a slow moving displacer to obtain the

extended life. The MTBF used for the larger machines incorporating

large oil lubricated compressors was 6000 hours, while an MTBF of

4000 hours was used for smaller machines using higher speed, smaller

oil lubricated compressors. For small units using dry lubricated or

very high speed oil lubricated compressors, a 1500 hour MTBF was used

for evaluation purposes.

5. 2 Assignment of Weighting Factors

Table 2 shows the various categories, the number of points

assigned to each category, and the method used to assign points during

the evaluation. Refrigerators with one watt nominal capacity were

evaluated identically with refrigerators having two watts nominal capacity,

except for categories 4, 5, 6, 11 and 12 where the (a) subscripted categories were used to evaluate the one watt machines.
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45
Most of the categories are self-explanatory. The cooldown time

used in category 4 is the cooldown time for an average thermal mass of

13 joules /K for a nominal two watt machine and one half that or

6. 5 joule s/K for a nominal one watt machine. The cooldown time for

the machines cooling an average thermal mass of 1 3 joules/K was

requested during the survey. Several companies did not supply the

requested information, and cooldown time for these refrigerators was

calculated by estimating a room temperature capacity for the refrigerator to be three times the capacity at 77 K. A linear decrease in capacity

was then assumed between 300 and 70 K. Many inaccuracies are preseii'.

in this method of evaluation, but the estimate was only necessary in a few instances, and the resulting numbers are probably conservative [11].

Categories 7, 11, and 12 are weighted against the integral unit.

In category 7 (Heat Rejected at Detector), additional heat rejected near

the detector was assumed to be a problem because of the electronics

located within this closed area. In categories 11 and 12, the size and

weight of the unit mounted in the detector enclosure was considered to

be more of a problem than transversing the two gimbals with flexible

connections. Because of these assumptions, split units did acquire a higher rating than an integral unit located entirely within the detector

enclosure.

In categories 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21, points were assigned

according to the author's best judgment. In category 17 (Vibration),

judgment was necessary because very little information was supplied

by the manufacturers. Points were assigned according to the class

of machine. Stirling cycle machines without rhombic drive were

rated lowest, while Joule Thomson cryostats were assigned the most

points, and other machines were scattered between the two extremes.

46
In category 18 (Manufacturers Credibility), the manufacturer was

assigned 10 points, unless in the author's judgment, the projected

performance for a refrigerator under development appeared to be

overly optimistic .

In category 19 (Interfacing Characteristics), the apparent advantage of split refrigerators was removed because of the reduced number

of points assigned to these units. Both the size of the cold head and

the difficulty of crossing between either one gimbal or two gimbals

were used to determine the number of points assigned to a particular

refrige rator.

In category ZO (Electro-Magnetic -Interference) , the points were

assigned according to the need for power near the detector and the

judged manufacturers' experience in shielding against EMI. Therefore, units that had been used or were specifically designed for use

with an infrared detector rated highest.

Points in category 21 (Development Risk) were assigned based on

the number of refrigerators in the field and the number of estimates

of other performance parameters required during the evaluation. A

relatively low cost per unit, particularly for the VM machine, was

assigned during the evaluation. These costs were used because of

estimates and in some instances guesses received during discussions

with possible users and the manufacturers. Because of the price

uncertainty, the number of points assigned in category 21 were reduced

slightly for VM machines.

6. Results of the Refrigerator Evaluation

Tables 3 and 4 show the total number of points assigned during

the evaluation to refrigerators acceptable for a nominal one watt heat

load and a nominal two watt heat load. The refrigerators receiving

47
Table 3. Evaluation results for one watt refrigerators.

Refrigerator

I. D. Number No. of Points

1 88. 09

10 84. 82

4 ' '3 84. 81

3 84. 74

9 82. 92

18 81. 84

7 80. 25

35 79. 91

16 7 5. 20

' 6 75. 12

19 74. 86

17 71. 59

31 71. 51

24 71. 00

25 69. 96

15 68. 90

1 £ D { . 90

23 65. 85

14 64. 90

37 ' '

, 61. 20

34 60. 12

48
Table 4, Evaluation results for two watt refrigerators.

Refrigerator

I. D. Number No. of Points

4 86. 35

10 84. 15

18 83.54

7 81.78

16 78.49

17 75.40

31 72.28

24 70. 78

25 68. 56

15 68.25

23 67.85

12 67. 10

14 64.75

37 60.20

49
the highest number of points are considered best suited for FLIR device

cooling applications. As could be predicted from the weighting factors,

the refrigerators to which the highest MTBF values were assigned were

rated highest even though the compressors, and occasionally the cold

heads of these units, were heavy and physically large. The higher

rating of these large units was the result of assigning a higher number

of points to the MTBF and the maintenance interval category thsin the

number of points deducted for interfacing problems associated with the

large size, split components. For most installations aboard ship, the

use of a split refrigerator utilizing a physically large compressor is

acceptable; however, if the complications involved in using a split cycle

are prohibitive, an integral unit receiving a high number of points could

be utilized. Based on the current size of the prototype FLIR unit, even

the large size compressors appear small and could be mounted in the

superstructure of the ship (position B, figure 10).

7. Cryogenic Refrigerators Under Development for Space Applications

Several cryogenic refrigerators are currently being developed

for space application. These refrigerators are being developed at

considerable cost to give long term, unattended reliable operation. The

projected cost of this type of unit is $35, 000 to $40, 000 per unit after

development costs, and they have projected unattended life times of one

to five years. The units include several Vuilleumier units, several

turbo machinery Brayton cycle units, and a rotary reciprocating Brayton

cycle unit. Even though the projected long term reliability of these units

would make their application in a FLIR unit desirable, the machines

were not included in the previous evaluation because of their low level

of development, the high cost of the machines, and their unproven

long term reliability.

The VM refrigerators specifically designed for space applications

incorporate closer tolerances and more expensive materials for the seals

50
rider rings, and bearings. One design incorporates rolling seals with

an oil lubricated crankcase to obtain extended life. Another design

uses noncontacting dynamic seals (not subject to wear) together with

inorganic bearing materials, providing minimum contamination of

the working fluid to obtain extended life. Another design is verysimilar to the refrigerators designed for shorter life except that more

expensive seal and rider ring materials are used. Refrigerators

identified by numbers 40 and 41 in table 1 are examples of VM machines

designed for space applications. More technical descriptions of the

VM machines developed for space applications caun be obtained

elsewhere [12, 13, 14].

Reversed Brayton cycle refrigerators using turbomachinery are

under development for space applications; they incorporate gas bearing

supported rotary compressors and expansion turbines. The complexity

of gas bearing systems for use in low capacity refrigerators is apparent

because even though development of this type of unit has been funded

since the 1960's, no low capacity machines of this type are in use in

a field application. Gas bearings were chosen for use in the Brayton

cycle because they allow the high rotational speeds necessary for high

efficiency in the turbomachinery, they have long life because there is

no physical contact in the bearings during operation, and they are

contamination free because the working fluid is used as the bearing

lubricant instead of a foreign material. The low capacity turbomachinery

units have a relatively low efficiency at low temperatures (below 60 K);

however, higher efficiency is possible at 77 K. The turbomachinery

units have a very long cooldown time (2 to 3 hours is estimated), and

if used in the FLIR application, they would need to run continuously

to provide refrigeration within a reasonable time after a need is

51
established. Refrigerator numbers 38 and 39 are examples of two

prototype machines constructed using turbocompressors and expanders.

Because of the remaining problems with the turbomachinery and the

availability of less complex refrigerators for use with the FLIR system,

these units were not considered for use with the FLIR iinit. Additional

information [15, 16] on turbomachinery refrigerators is available.

The rotary- reciprocating refrigeration system under development [17] also uses gas lubricated bearings to support the compressor

and expansion pistons. The compressor and expansion pistons are

rotated to maintain the gas film in the supporting bearings and to

provide the correct valving sequence during the cycle while a superimposed reciprocating motion provides the high and low pressure in

the cycle. An overall thermal efficiency for the rotary reciprocating

system should be higher than a comparable turbomachine system.

Because of the design parameters of nonattended operation for long

periods of time for this refrigerator, the complex gas bearing design,

and the complex electrical control system required for operation, the

cost of a rotary reciprocating refrigerator would be high, and the

system was not considered for the FLIR application.

8. The Open Cycle Joule -Thomson Refrigerator

During the course of the study, it was discovered that ships

for which FLIR units are planned already have an onboard high pressure

air supply. The pressure available is between 20 and 30 MPa

making the use of this supply for an open cycle Joule- Thomson refrigerator possible. Redundant, and in most cases, nonlubricated compressors

are aboard ships providing the reliable high pressure supply.

Calculated air flow through the Joule -Thomson refrigerator for a heat load of one watt is approximately 0. 00315 gm/sec and twice that

or . 00631 gm/sec for a two watt heat load for a 26 MPa supply. Purifica

tion systems are available to remove impurities from an air stream to

allow the operation of the refrigerator.

52
The suggested approach would be to use a large purifier connected

to the high pressure supply and then flexible connections to the gimbaled

FLIR unit. A tube with an inner diameter of 1. 5 mm could be used for

most of the connecting piping. Flexible tubing of suitable size is available to use through the gimbals. A small purifier located adjacent to

the cold head would remove all remaining impurities before the air

enters the cryostat. The Joule-Thomson cryostat should be a demand

flow type (numbers 2, 42 and 43), which allows quick cooldown and yet

conserves the air supply during steady state operation. Figure 1 1 is a schematic of the suggested system.

If the open cycle Joule- Thomson refrigerator had been evaluated

along with the closed cycle refrigerators, it would rate near the top

for both the one watt and two watt refrigerators because of the high

reliability of the high pressure air supply.

Projected functional qualities of the Joule - Thomson refrigerator

are: (1) the lowest temperature for a two watt or one watt load would

be 78 K; (2) cooldown time with load using a demand flow Joule - Thomson

valve would be approximately four minutes; (3) no heat would be rejected

near the dete ctors - -in fact, a low flow of ambient temperature reject

air would be available for additional cooling within the gimbaled enclosure;

(4) operating ambient temperature limits would not be important except

to the supply compressors; and (5) interfacing problems are not severe

except for the flexible connections leading through the gimbals.

The major problem with an open Joule - Thomson refrigerator

resides in the purification system. The suggested maximum impurities

in the purified air for successful operation of a Joule - Thomson refrigerator are as follows:

Water Vapor - Dewpoint: - 33 C (-92F) or lower

Carbon Dioxide: 1 part per million by weight or less

53
Vent

From

High Pressure —f

Air Supply

PURIFIER to

remove impurities

and particulates

from Air Supply

Remote ON -OFF

Valve

Final

Purifier

Flexible High

Pressure Tubing

.Z8J<J

Cold Station

Figure 11. Shipboard, open cycle, Joule- Thomson refrigerator.

54
Hydrocarbons: 1 part per million by weight or less

Solid Particles: 5 microns maximum size.

Several manufacturers produce applicable high pressure purification

systems capable of achieving the required purity. A typical system

is available for approximately $4000 that is reportedly adequate for

purifying 25. 5 kg of air. At the calculated flow, this system would

last for 2248 hours of steady state operation at a one watt nominal

heat load. After depletion of the chemical desiccants, they must be

replaced at a cost of $8. 36 per charge. Similar purification systems

have been proposed for use with oxygen-nitrogen generators and

there is no reason to believe the system could not be acceptable for

use on board ship.

9. Experience of Other Users of Cryogenic Refrigerators

Discussions were held during visits to Wright Patterson Air

Force Base and the Night Vision Laboratories with Air Force and

Army personnel working with small cryogenic refrigerators. The

discussions at both facilities were largely directed towards small

refrigerators with application to IR detectors. These refrigerators

were being developed either under contract to outside manufacturers

or in-house at the facilities. A large amount of money has been spent

in the last several years to develop small, low weight, and reliable

refrigerators; personnel at both facilities had high expectations that

reliable small cryogenic refrigerators would soon be available at

acceptable prices.

The Air Force believes that sufficient data has currently been

collected to indicate an MTBF for the VM refrigerator of at least

2000 hours. The only maintenance required during the operating period

is the addition of helium every 500 - 1000 hours. The major difficulty

with reaching the 2000 hour MTBF involved the electronic heater controls

55
and power inverter for the drive motor. They felt these problems

have now been solved, allowing the achievement of the 2000 hour MTBF.

They also felt that the life of the machine can be extended beyond 2000

hours as experience is gained with the hot rider rings, one of the

remaining major problems. The Air Force also felt the VM machines

would approach a cost of $3000 per unit after an initial investment to

set up an assembly line to produce large quantities of the machines.

They are trying to standarize on a particular refrigerator configuration

that could be used throughout at least the Air Force, allowing the

machine to be mass produced in large quantities. The proposed configuration would be a split cycle VM; i. e. , the free piston expander

would be connected to a thermal compressor by a single length of tubing.

The Air Force felt that the vibration and temperature stability

of the VM was compatible with infrared detectors. Interfacing was also

no problem, especially with the split cycle VM. One problem does exist

with the VM, that is the refrigeration capacity of the unit decreases

during its lifetime. This degradation in performance is not unique with

the VM, as other types of refrigerators also display a degradation in

performance after long term use. Insufficient data exists at this time

to define the degradation in terms of the time of operation; however,

purchasing a refrigerator with approximately 20% extra capacity when

new allows sufficient remaining capacity at the end of its life.

Some refrigerators currently used for airborne application by

the Air Force were showing an MTBF of less than 200 hours, while

others were showing an MTBF of approximately 500 hours. These

relatively low MTBF figures when compared to long life obtained in laboratory tests for the same refrigerators were attributed to the extreme

environmental conditions aboard the aircraft.

56
The Army was not as firm on which refrigerator they would

finally use. They felt the application should determine the choice of

refrigerator. In some instances, where a heat source was available,

the VM machine was the logical choice, while if efficiency and extremely

small size were requirements, the Stirling cycle refrigerator may be

more suitable. They also felt that if the required performance was

specified, reputable manufacturers in the field of cryogenic refrigerators could produce an acceptable refrigerator. They thought the manufacturer could produce a machine to match a required MTBF figure;

however, one must be willing to pay for long MTBF requirements.

The Army is involved with development work on an integral Stirling

cycle refrigerator utilizing rhombic drive to minimize vibrations, a

split cycle Stirling cycle refrigerator utilizing a free piston expander,

and a low cost VM machine.

Telephone contact was established with the Naval Electronics Laboratory who is in the process of purchasing 14 VM machines to be mounted with

detectors in the superstructure of the ship. They chose VM machines

because they will be installed in areas not accessible for repair, and

they felt the VM was the most reliable refrigerator. They felt the VM

machine was capable of long term operation without maintenance,

though the machines being purchased were to have a disappointing

guaranteed 3000 hour MTBF. The detector unit was designed to rotate

continuously in a single direction, so beside rider rings for

electrical interconnections, the additional complication of interconnecting a large split cycle refrigerator was not considered practical. The

continuous rotation was one reason for not using an open cycle

Joule - Thomson air refrigerator; the other reason was, in the opinion

of the Navy, the high pressure air could not be purified sufficiently

57
to allow for continuous reliable operation of the Joule - Thomson refrigerator. The judged deficiency of the purification process was based

on experience with airborne Joule -Thomson refrigerators where the

cryostats would begin to plug after 6 hours of continuous operation,

requiring a warm-up to clear the Joule - Thomson throttling valve of

contaminates before the unit could again be cooled down.

Telephone contact was also established with a communication

company using cryogenic refrigerators to cool parametric amplifiers

on ground based communication antennas. They were extremely

concerned about reliability; hence, two cryogenic refrigerators are

used at each site so that a failure of either refrigerator would not

close down the antenna system. The Gifford-McMahon refrigerators,

currently installed, have slow running oil lubricated compressors. Their

experience has been very good with a reported MTBF of 6500 hours for

24 refrigerators operating over the last 4 years.

They felt that this MTBF was actually low because several

failures used to calculate the MTBF could be traced to vendor problems

with associated equipment, and if these failures were eliminated from

consideration, the calculated MTBF would increase to 9000 hours.

They were not familiar with small size refrigerators normally used

with infrared detectors, but said that if reliability were a requirement

large oil lubricated compressors together with a Gifford McMahon type

split cycle would achieve extended MTBF times.

10. Life Cycle Costs

To exactly predict the cost of operation for a cryogenic refrigerator used in the FLIR system is quite difficult. However, based on

initial cost and cost of repair parts, at least the cost of repairs can

58
be determined based on the manufacturers' suggested maintenance

intervals and the normal costs of the repairs. The maintenance

intervals will, of course, differ with experience in the field, and

the costs of repairs will also change as bulk purchases reduce the

costs. In the following section, the costs of maintenance for three

systems will be compared based on the recommended maintenance

intervals supplied by the manufacturers. Some of the costs are of

course estimates because very little experience has occurred with

one of the types of refrigerator.

The three systems to be compared are a system with a large

oil lubricated compressor and a Gifford-McMahon split cycle cold

head, the open cycle Joule- Thomson refrigerator using high pressure

air already available from a supply aboard ship, and a Vuilleumier

refrigerator. The Vuilleumier refrigerator presented the most

difficulty when estimates of repair costs were to be determined. The

initial cost of Vuilleumier refrigerators is not known accurately,

let alone the repair costs.

10, 1 The Gifford-McMahon Refrigerator Costs

In order to make the cost estimates, repairs for refrigerator

number 4 were used to represent this type of refrigerator, although

the costs involved with any similar refrigerator that employs an oil ^ lubricated air conditioning compressor converted to helium use and a separate cold head should be nearly the same. The initial cost for the

refrigerator without any additional costs involved with interfacing the

refrigerator is $6500. An adsorber used with the compressor should

be changed every 3000 hours of operation at a cost of $95 from the

factory. The cold head in the refrigerator can be refurbished in less

than one hour, in place, for less than $100. The cold head refurbishment

)

59
will be accomplished every 6000 hours for this cost analysis, although refrigerators will probably run much longer without maintenance. The oil

lubricated compressor has run as long as 10,000 - 20,000 hours without

any maintenance; however, for our costing analysis, the compressor

will be replaced every 8000 hours at a cost of $500. The basis used

to calculate costs is half-time operation for five years or a total of

21,900 hours. Thus, the total cost for the operation of a single refrigerator for five years is:

10. 2 The Open Cycle Joule -Thomson Refrigerator Costs

The primary cost incurred by the open cycle Joule-Thomson

refrigerator is the cost of purifying the air. The initial costs used in

the calculations were $4000 for the air purifier, $400 for the JouleThomson cryostat, and $2000 for the interconnecting plumbing, including

a remote on-off high pressure valve. During the calculation, the purifier life was five years with the only cost associated with the purifier

being that of replacing the chemicals. The Joule-Thomson cryostat

will probably last much longer; however in the cost calculation, it will

be replaced every 8000 hours. The on-off valve and connecting plumbing

were replaced once during the five year life. The purifier materials

must be replaced every 2200 hours for a one watt heat load at a cost

of $8. 36. Thus, the resulting cost of maintenance for a one watt

refrigerator, not including any maintenance of the supply compressors,

is:

21000 21 QOO 2000 + 4000 + 400 + --7^77 (8. 36) + (400 + 100) = $7851. 97 . 2Z0U oUUU

60
The cost for a two watt refrigerator would be:

2000 + 4000 + 400 +^^^ (8. 36) + (400 + 100) = 7935. 19 . 1100 oOUO

10. 3 Cost of Operating a Vuilleumier Refrigerator

The operating cost for a VM machine over the five year period

is much harder to estimate. The initial cost of $3000 for a VM refrigerator used during the evaluation may have been an optimistic number,

as a $3000 VM refrigerator is not yet available. A possible feature of

a low cost VM may include a welded construction to insure helium leak

tight sealing; this construction allows for easy initial assembly but does

not allow for easy overhaul. In order to make a comparison of costs

(based on information that a VM machine is well worn after 25 00 hours

of operation), the overhaul costs chosen for a VM were one -third to

one -half its initial cost. This estimate makes the cost of maintenance

high, but when compared to overhauling an internal combustion auto

engine, the costs would appear to be reasonable. Costs for five years

of operation if overhaul costs are one -third the initial cost are:

3000 + (1000) = $11,760. 2500

Based on the estimate of the repair costs being one -half the initial

purchase cost, the maintenance cost for a single machine becomes

3000 + ^ll^Jl (1500) = $16,140. 2500

11. Discussion

Because of the early developmental stage of a shipboard FLIR

unit, volume, weight, and physical shape restrictions for the cryogenic

refrigerator are not firmly established. Also, any type of refrigerator

61
is capable of meeting the functional requirements of the FLIR unit with

minimal modification. Therefore, selection of a refrigerator should

be made primarily on the basis of reliability cuid cost. Several small

size and low weight refrigerators under development promise high

reliability; however, other physically larger xinits have been used

extensively and show extended MTBF's.

The recommendations for a cryogenic refrigerator will be

divided into two groups. Group 1 will be for a split refrigerator with

the compressors located at A or B in figure 10. Group 2 will be a , recommendation for an integral refrigerator located at C in figure 10.

The first recommendation in group 1 is the Gifford McMahon

cycle refrigerator with the large oil lubricated compressor which has

been so successful for the communication companies. This refrigerator type is identified by numbers 1, 4, and 7 in table 1. Because the

compressor for these refrigerators is large, it will be located off the

gimbals at B in figure 10. Several problems remain in the use of oil

lubricated compressors. One problem is the effect of roll and pitch

of the ship on operation of the oil lubricated compressor. Manufacturers specifications indicate a maximum deviation from horizontal

of ± 10 degrees for oil lubricated compressors; however, this specification is for a permanent installation and whether or not a temporary

roll to 40 degrees would seriously effect compressor operation is

debatable. Obviously, many oil lubricated compressors such as air

compressors and air conditioning compressors are used aboard ship.

The oil-lubricated compressors used with the refrigerator numbers 1,

4, and 7 are air conditioning compressors converted to helium use

and probably can be used aboard ship without any modification. Manufacturers of compressors who were contacted during the study indicated

that the roll and pitch problem was not that severe and most compressors

62
could be used either directly or with some simple modification.

Another problem with using the large system involves the flexible

connection between the remote compressor and the internal cold head,

the proto-type FLIR system currently being purchased by the Navy

has the compressor located on the outer gimbal with flexible connections

to the inner gimbal. Because the rotation of the outer gimbal is currently limited to 360 degrees, a flexible connection between a compressor located at position B, figure 10 and the inner gimbal is possible.

However, if continuous rotation of the outer gimbal is visualized, the

use of a remote compressor is probably no longer acceptable due to

the increased complexity of a nonleaking rotating joint.

The second recommendation in group 1 is the open cycle Joule

Thomson refrigerator. This refrigeration system was the least

expensive unit considered for operation over five years, but besides

the problem of the flexible connections required between the remote

compressors and the internal gimbal, there is the added problem of

purification of the air being used by the system. Although the technology of purification is highly developed, only actual experience of

long term use for a similar system could prove the long term reliability

of the system. Some users of Joule-Thomson systems expressed some

doubt that continuous operation without plugging was within the state of

the art while others felt the problem was readily solvable. Present

use of the low capacity Joule - Thomson systems is for relatively short

periods of time (up to six hours), and during these periods, some

plugging of the Joule -Thomson valve has been evident with airborne

Joule- Thomson refrigerators. The airborne systems, however, have

limited space for the purifier and do not reflect the performance of a larger purification system of modern design. The only reason the

Joule - Thomson refrigerator was placed second was because of the

slightly unknown nature of the purification system.
The third recommendation for a refrigerator in group 1 would

be to use a split cycle but with the compressor located on the outer

gimbal. Three cycles fall under this recommendation and are

identified by numbers 9, 10, and 18 in table 1. This type of refrigerator cannot exhibit the extended MTBF figures of the previous

systems because of the state of the art of nonlubricated machinery

and/or the high rotational speeds required in miniaturized oil lubricated

equipment. The compressor orientation is not a problem with nonlubricated compressors, but the flexible connection between outer

gimbal and the inner enclosure still exists. The flexible connection

should not be a problem because the inner gimbal travel will be limited

to a maximum travel of 90 degrees.

The last recommendation in group 1 is the split cycle VM refrigerator with the compressor located on the outer gimbal. The line

length between the compressor and the cold head must be limited to

less than 1 meter to maintain an acceptable performance. If a longer

line is required by physical constraints, the split VM is not acceptable.

The split VM is currently being developed so no current model appears

in table 1. Integral refrigerators in group 2 present a more difficult rating

task. The use of the less reliable small integral refrigerator should

be limited to situations where refrigerators from the first group are

not feasible due to the complexity of flexible connections or other

problems. At least based on the present rating system, an integral

unit cannot be rated as highly as a split system because of rejected

heat within the FLIR enclosure, the large physical size and weight of

an integral unit when compared to the cold head size and weight of a split

64
cycle, and the low or unproven reliability (MTBF's) of many of the

small integral units. Several small units do have respectable MTBF's;

however, the maintenance interval, for instance, the compressor overhaul interval is relatively short (500 hours or less).

The highest or 1st rating to an integral unit would have to be for

a Vuilleumier cycle refrigerator. Refrigerators numbered 24 and 31

are the best current models of the VM machine available for this application. The VM has many ardent supporters as evidenced by the large

amounts of development money spent. The basic cycle and design

allows for low seal wear and reduced contamination because the electric

drive motor is not in the working volume. Also, the bearings have low

loading, resulting in longer life when compared to a Stirling cycle

refrigerator. The cost of a VM system is also a question at this time

with some development being funded to produce a machine costing less

than $3000 with a MTBF design goal of 3000 hours. The quoted cost

per machine is not the total cost of the machine because a significant

investment, not included in the $3000 cost, is required to set up a production line for the developed refrigerator. The manufacturers'

suggested maintenance intervals for these machines are also approximately 3000 hours.

The second choice in group 2 is the Stirling cycle refrigerator

(No. 35). The currently available machines have MTBF's that are

not nearly high enough to fulfill the requirements of the FLIR. With

additional development, however, a machine could be built that would

be competitive with the VM refrigerator. The developed machine

would probably employ a rhombic drive to decrease vibration and rolling

metal seals to insulate the crankcase from the helium working volume,

allowing oil lubrication of the crankcase. Some preliminary development work has shown this approach is feasible.

65
11. 1 Recommendations For Additional Work

Depending on the procurement time schedule, additional development work on refrigeration systems for FLIR units may be attractive.

If final decisions can be reached for firm operational requirements of

the refrigerator, a split unit, if a split unit with oil lubricated compressor still fulfills the physical requirements, should be developed

which exactly matches the operational requirements. Although the

split units did rate high in the current evaluation, they did not exactly

match the requirements of refrigeration capacity as a function of temperature, cooldown time, etc. This is reflected in the lower than

perfect score for the units in these categories. The development could

insure a solution to the compressor orientation problem and with some

design effort, smaller compressors and cold heads may be possible.

The development cost for this type of system would be relatively low

because of the advanced state of the art for these refrigerators.

If the open cycle J-T system is acceptable as the primary refrigerator, tests to determine the long life capability of air purifiers should

be conducted. Again, the tests should nearly duplicate the projected

operating environment and duty cycle requirements of the cryogenic

refrigerator with several J-T systems operating on high pressure air

for extended periods of time. The operating experience gained from

these tests would be valuable not only to show the overall reliability

of the system but also to obtain experience on how and when purifier

materials should be changed.

Development of an integral refrigerator to exactly match the

FLIR operational requirements could also be attractive but the major

need, especially for the VM refrigerator, is for life tests to determine

a meaningful MTBF of a refrigerator designed for the FLIR use. The

life tests should be designed to duplicate the environmental conditions

anticipated and also the anticipated duty cycle, i. e. , 12 hours on,

66
12 hours off. Since life tests of any significance must be over a longer

period than necessary to have most of a large number of the machines

under test to fail, a life test to prove the reliability of a machine should

be initiated a year or longer before final installation of the refrigerator

is anticipated.

12. Acknowledgments

The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Spyros K,

Petropoulos of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory for his assistance during

the preparation of this report. The following persons also gave valuable

assistance in private communications by letter, telephone conversation,

or personal visit. The company affiliations of these contributors have

been included but this in no way implies approval, endorsement, or recommendation of a specific product by the National Bureau of

Standards.

1. Carroll, J. E. , and Coombs, G. P. , Cryogenic Technology,

Inc.

2. Colyer, D. B. , and Fleming, R. B. , General Electric

Company

3. Cowans, K. C. , and Bennett, M. O. , Kinergetics

Incorporated

4. Gifford, W. E. , and Ackermann, R. A. , Cryomech Inc.

5. Goff, J. , Marlow Industries

6. Granke, P. J. , and Buller, J. S. , Santa Barbara

Research Center

7. Harkless, L. B. , and Schmitt, J. L. , Honeywell Radiation

Center

8. Hunt, R. S. , Airesearch Manufacturing Company, A

Division of the Garrett Corporation

67
9. Johnson, J. , Clarke, Major W. D. , White, R. , and

Haskin, W. , AFFDL Wright- Patter son Air Force Base

10. Liberty, J. C. , Longsworth, R. C. , and Senn, R. J. , Air Products and Chemical Inc.

11. Miller, L. , Pitcher, G. K. , Ballas, C. , Jr. , North

American Philips Corporation

12. Patterson, W. T. , Warren, J. , and Blackwell, C. A, , Communications Satellite Corporation

13. Powers, K. J. , Naval Electronics Laboratory

14. Rodak, S. , and Horn, S. B. , NVL U. S. Army, Fort Belvoir

15. Shreve, R. E. , RCA Corporation

16. Taylor, C. O. , Pruett, G. R. , Dix, R. , and Hopper, G. , Texas Instruments Inc.

17. Yoshimoto, H. , Kercheval, J. E, , Urbach, E. , and

Berry, R. L. , Hughes Aircraft Company

68
13. References

Dean, J. W. , and Mann, D. B„ , The Joule- Thomson Process

in Cryogenic Refrigeration Systems, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S. ), Tech. Note 227 (February 1965).

Barron, R. , Cryogenic Systems, pp. 323, 338 (McGraw-Hill

Book Company, New York, N. Y. , 1966).

Walker, G. , Stirling Cycle Machines (Clarendon Press,

Oxford, 1973).

Pitcher, G. K. , and duPre, F. K. , Miniature Vuilleumier

Cycle Refrigeration, Advances in Cryogenic Engineering 15 , Ed. K. D. Timmerhaus, pp. 447-51 (Plenum Press,

New York, N. Y. , 1970).

Wright, P. E. , Final Report For ICICLE Feasibility Study,

ATL-RCA Technical Report, Contract No. NAS5-21039

(1972).

Doody, R. D. , Final Report on 77 K Vuilleumier Cycle Cryogenic

Refrigerator Systems for Ground Applications, Hughes A/C

Technical Report P70-343 (1970).

Borrello, S, R. , et al. , Cooling requirements for BLIP

performance of intrinsic photoconductors. Infrared Physics

1J_, 225-232 (1971).

Schmit, J. L. , and Stelzer, E. L, , Temperature and alloy

compositional dependences of the energy gap of Hg Cd Te,

Journal of Applied Physics 40 , No. 12,4865-4869 (November 1969)

Rodak, S. , High-Performance 77 K Vuilleumier Cycle Cooler

for Night Vision Applications (To be published in 197 3).

69
Harkless, L. B. , Reliability Test Results on VM Coolers,

Technical Report AFFDL-TR-73- 149 (December 1973).

Jensen, H. L. , Nast, T. C. , et al. , Investigation of External

Refrigeration Systems for Long Term Cryogenic Storage,

Final Report, LMSC-A981632, pp. 3-120-24 (February 1971).

Browing, C. W. , Miller, W. S. , and Potter, I, L. , 75 K

Vuilleumier Cryogenic Refrigerator, Final Report,

AiResearch Report No. 72-8687(1972).

Riha, F. J. , III, Development of Long-Life, High- Capacity

Vuilleumier Refrigeration System for Space Applications,

Parts I, II, and III, Tech. Report No. AFFDL- TR-7 1 -92 ( 197 1 ). Pitcher, G. K. , Development of Spacecraft Vuilleumier

Cryogenic Refrigerators, Part II. Development and

Fabrication, Technical Report AFFDL- TR-7 1 - 147

(July 1972).

Colyer, D. B. , Hurley, J. D. , and Oney, W. R. , Long

Life Turbo-Refrigerators for Unattended Space

Applications, Technical Report AFFDL-TR-7 3- 149

(December 1973).

Wapato, P. G. , Design and Development of a Miniature

Nonreciprocating Closed-Cycle Cryogenic Cooler,

Technical Report No. AFFL-TR-67-9 (1967).

Breckenridge , R. W. , Jr. , Summary of Rotary- Reciprocating

Refrigerator Technology (To be published - 197 3).

70
NBS-n4A (REV. 7-73)

U .S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBSIR 74-3722. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATORS FOR

SHIPBOARD FORWARD LOOKING INFRARED APPLICATION

5. Publication Date

e

Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S)

Roland O, Voth

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS , Boulder Labs.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Washington, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. 2750557

11. Contract/ Grant No. Inter-Agency Project

Order No. P. O. 3-0133

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Naval Ordnance LaboratorySilver Spring , Maryland 20910

13. Type of Report & Period Covered

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most sigriificant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.) The Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) has asked the Cryogenics Division

of the National Bureau of Standards to investigate and evaluate 1) commercially

available refrigerators, 2) refrigerators under development, and 3) new or novel

ideas applicable to a refrigerator to cool infrared detectors in a shipboard

Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) system. Although a refrigerator has been

selected for two prototype FLIR units, the study was initiated to select the most

appropriate refrigerator for additional purchases of FLIR units. The FLIR

requires a refrigerator capacity of approximately 2 watts at 77 K and a physical

configuration allowing for an interface to the FLIR vmit. Information was collected

by interviewing FLIR manufacturers, surveying refrigerator manufacturers and

by contacting users of similar systems. Correlation of this information with the

NOL requirements is presented herein. The primary difference between

airborne /spaceborne refrigerators and a shipborne refrigerator is the accessibility for minor repairs on-board ship although major repairs may be deferred for

extended periods of time. It is anticipated that the shipboard units will operate

away from major maintenance facilities, for periods as long as 6 months, with the

refrigerator operating at least half of this time. Thus, reliability and ease of

maintenance are emphasized when evaluating the various systems.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons

)

Cryogenics; infrared detector; 77 K refrigerator; low capacity; reliability;

shipboard.

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