A Financial System That 

Creates Economic Opportunities

Asset Management and Insurance

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY

OCTOBER 2017
THE

D

EPARTMENT OF THE TREA

S

URY

1789
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY
 

A Financial System 


That Creates Economic Opportunities
 

Asset Management and Insurance
 

Report to President Donald J. Trump 

Executive Order 13772 on Core Principles
 

for Regulating the United States Financial System
 

Steven T. Mnuchin 

Secretary 

Craig S. Phillips 

Counselor to the Secretary 

THE 

D

EPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 

1789 
Staff Acknowledgments 

Secretary Mnuchin and Counselor Phillips would like to thank Treasury staff members for their 

contributions to this report. The staff’s work on the report was led by Jared Sawyer and Dan 

Dorman, and included contributions from Joseph Dickson, Rebekah Goshorn, Sharon Haeger, 

Alex Hart, Gerry Hughes, W. Moses Kim, Daniel McCarty, Bimal Patel, Bill Pelton, Frank 

Ragusa, Jessica Renier, Bruce Saul, Steven Seitz, Brian Smith, James Sonne, Mark Uyeda, and 

Darren Vieira. 
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance iii 

Table of Contents 

Executive Summary ............................................... 1
 

Introduction 3
 

Scope of This Report 3
 

Review of the Process for This Report 4
 

Asset Management Industry in the United States 4
 

Insurance Industry in the United States 5
 

Summary of Issues and Recommendations 6
 

Asset Management ............................................... 11
 

Introduction 13
 

The Regulatory Structure of the Asset 

Management Industry 18
 

Systemic Risk and Stress Testing 29
 

Efficient Regulation and Government Processes 32
 

International Engagement 55
 

Economic Growth and Informed Choices 64
 

Insurance....................................................... 71
 

Introduction 73
 

The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry 80
 

Systemic Risk and Solvency 97
 

Efficient Regulation and Government Processes 105
 

International Engagement 130
 

Economic Growth and Informed Choices 140
 

Appendices .................................................... 145
 

Appendix A: Participants in the Executive Order 

Engagement Process 147
 

Appendix B: Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations 153
 
iv A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance v 

Acronyms and Abbreviations
 

Acronyms and Abbreviations 

’40 Act 

Advisers Act 

AUM 

Banking Report 

BHC 

BICE 

CFPB 

CFTC 

Code 

Compact 

CPO 

CTA 

Dodd-Frank 

DOL 

ECP 

ERISA 

ETF 

EU 

Exchange Act 

Executive Order 

FASB 

FDIC 

FEMA 

FIO 

FINRA 

FRB 

FSB 

FSOC 

Term 

Investment Company Act of 1940 

Investment Advisers Act of 1940 

Assets Under Management 

June 2017 Report published by Treasury on Banks and 

Credit Unions 

Bank Holding Company 

Best Interest Contract Exemption 

Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 

Commodity Futures Trading Commission 

Internal Revenue Code 

Interstate Insurance Product Regulation Compact 

Commodity Pool Operator 

Commodity Trading Advisor 

Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection 

Act 

U.S. Department of Labor 

Exempt Commercial Purchasers 

Employee Retirement Income Security Act 

Exchange Traded Fund 

European Union 

Securities Exchange Act of 1934 

Executive Order 13772 on Core Principles for Regulating 

the United States Financial System 

Financial Accounting Standards Board 

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 

Federal Insurance Office 

Financial Industry Regulatory Authority 

Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System 

Financial Stability Board 

Financial Stability Oversight Council 
vi A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 

 

G-20 

GAAP 

GAO 

GDP 

G-SIFI 

G-SIB 

G-SII 

HHS 

HUD 

IAIS 

IASB 

iCBCM 

ICS 

IFRS 

IIPRC 

IOSCO 

IRA 

IRS 

ISLHC 

L&H 

LTC 

McCarran-Ferguson 

MMMF 

NAIC 

NARAB 

NARAB II 

NAV 

NBNI G-SIFI 

NFA 

NIPR 

Group of 20 

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles 

U.S. Government Accountability Office 

Gross Domestic Product 

Global Systemically Important Financial Institution 

Global Systemically Important Bank 

Global Systemically Important Insurer 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 

International Association of Insurance Supervisors 

International Accounting Standards Board 

Cross-Border Crisis Management Group for Insurers 

Insurance Capital Standard 

International Financial Reporting Standards 

Interstate Insurance Product Regulation Commission 

International Organization of Securities Commissions 

Individual Retirement Account or Individual Retirement 

Annuity 

Internal Revenue Service 

Insurance Savings and Loan Holding Company 

Life and Health 

Long-term Care 

The McCarran–Ferguson Act of 1945, 15 U.S.C. §§ 

1011-1015 

Money Market Mutual Fund 

National Association of Insurance Commissioners 

National Association of Registered Agents and Brokers 

National Association of Registered Agents and Brokers 

Reform Act of 2015 

Net Asset Value 

Non-Bank, Non-Insurer Global Systemically Important 

Financial Institution 

National Futures Association 

National Insurance Producer Registry 
A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance vii 

NRRA 

OCC 

OLA 

OMB 

ORSA 

P&C 

PLMA 

SEC 

Securities Act 

Secretary 

SR Letters 

SRO 

SSB 

Treasury 

TRIA 

TRIP 

UDAAP 

U.S./EU Covered Agreement 

Nonadmitted and Reinsurance Reform Act of 2010 

Office of the Comptroller of the Currency 

Orderly Liquidation Authority 

Office of Management and Budget 

Own Risk and Solvency Assessment 

Property and Casualty 

Producer Licensing Model Act 

U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission 

Securities Act of 1933 

U.S. Treasury Secretary Steven T. Mnuchin 

Supervision and Regulation Letters 

Self-regulatory Organization 

Standard-setting Body 

U.S. Department of the Treasury 

Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 

2015 

Terrorism Risk Insurance Program 

Unfair, Deceptive and Abusive Acts and Practices 

Bilateral Agreement Between the United States of America 

and the European Union On Prudential Measures 

Regarding Insurance and Reinsurance 

Executive Summary
 

Executive Summary • Introduction

Introduction 

President Donald J. Trump established the policy of his Administration to regulate the United 

States financial system in a manner consistent with a set of Core Principles. These principles 

were set forth in Executive Order 13772 on February 3, 2017. This report is prepared by the 

U.S. Department of Treasury (Treasury), under the direction of Secretary Steven T. Mnuchin, in 

response to the Executive Order. This report, as with the prior reports and the subsequent report 

described below, will identify any laws, treaties, regulations, guidance, reporting and record keeping requirements, and other government policies that promote or inhibit federal regulation of the 

U.S. financial system in a manner consistent with the Core Principles. 

The Core Principles are: 

A.	 Empower Americans to make independent financial decisions and informed choices in 

the marketplace, save for retirement, and build individual wealth; 

B.	 Prevent taxpayer-funded bailouts; 

C. Foster economic growth and vibrant financial markets through more rigorous regulatory 

impact analysis that addresses the systemic risk and market failures, such as moral hazard 

and information asymmetry; 

D. Enable American companies to be competitive with foreign firms in domestic and foreign 

markets; 

E.	 Advance American interests in international financial regulatory negotiations and 


meetings;
 

F.	 Make regulation efficient, effective, and appropriately tailored; and 

G. Restore public accountability within federal financial regulatory agencies and rationalize 

the federal financial regulatory framework. 

Scope of This Report 

The financial system encompasses a wide variety of institutions and services and, accordingly, 

Treasury is delivering a series of four reports related to the Executive Order covering: 

•	 The depository system, covering banks, savings associations, and credit unions of all sizes, 

types and regulatory charters (the Banking Report,1

 which was publicly released on June 

12, 2017); 

1. U.S. Department of the Treasury, A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities: Banks and Credit 

Unions (June 2017). 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 3 
Executive Summary • Review of the Process for This Report

•	 Capital markets: debt, equity, commodities and derivatives markets, central clearing and 

other operational functions (the Capital Markets Report,2

 which was publicly released on 

October 6, 2017); 

•	 The asset management and insurance industries, and retail and institutional investment 

products and vehicles (this report); and 

•	 Nonbank financial institutions, financial technology, and financial innovation. 

On April 21, 2017, President Trump issued two Presidential Memoranda to the Secretary of the 

Treasury (Secretary). One calls for Treasury to review the Orderly Liquidation Authority (OLA) 

established in Title II of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act 

(Dodd-Frank). The other calls for Treasury to review the process by which the Financial Stability 

Oversight Council (FSOC) determines that a nonbank financial company could pose a threat to 

the financial stability of the United States and that such entity shall be subject to supervision by 

the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (Federal Reserve) and enhanced prudential 

standards, as well as the process by which the FSOC designates financial market utilities as systemically important. While some of the issues described in this report are relevant to OLA and FSOC 

designations, Treasury will submit separate reports on those topics to the President. 

This report covers the asset management and insurance industries. Specifically, the report examines 

issues related to the regulatory structure of financial entities and products in each of these sectors. 

Review of the Process for This Report 

For this report, Treasury leveraged the engagement process for the Banking Report, connecting 

with more stakeholders and focusing on asset management and insurance issues. As directed by 

the Executive Order, Treasury consulted with the member agencies of the FSOC. Treasury also 

consulted extensively with a wide range of other stakeholders, including trade groups, financial 

services firms, consumer and other advocacy groups, academics, legal experts, and others with 

relevant knowledge. Treasury also reviewed a wide range of data, research, and published material 

from both public and private sources. 

Treasury incorporated the widest possible range of perspectives in evaluating approaches to the 

regulation of the U.S. financial system according to the Core Principles. For a list of organizations 

and individuals providing input to Treasury for the preparation of this report, see Appendix A. 

Asset Management Industry in the United States 

The U.S. asset management industry is the global leader in promoting vibrant capital markets and 

diverse investment and savings opportunities for investors and businesses. An asset manager manages assets on behalf of investors, businesses, and other institutions using different types of funds 

2. U.S. Department of the Treasury, A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities: Capital Markets 

(Oct. 2017). 

4 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Executive Summary • Insurance Industry in the United States

and other investment structures. U.S. asset managers range in size from a few million dollars to 

over five trillion dollars in assets under management. In the United States alone, registered investment companies, a type of investment fund, held almost $20 trillion of assets under management, 

representing the investments of more than 95 million individuals.3 Further demonstrating the 

strength of the U.S. asset management industry, nine of the top 10 largest global asset managers 

are headquartered in the United States. 

Retail and institutional investors and businesses use asset managers to manage their investments. 

The diversity of the products and services offered by asset managers allows for investment customization based on risk appetite, investment objectives, and investment horizon. In the United 

States, the most popular fund structures for retail investors include mutual funds, exchange-traded 

funds (ETFs), and money market mutual funds. Popular investment structures for institutional 

investors include private equity funds, hedge funds, venture capital funds, and managed accounts. 

Some investors prefer active management of their funds, which can be characterized as investment 

managers making investments in an effort to outperform the market, while a growing share of 

investors prefer passive management, which seeks to generate a return that emulates an index or 

benchmark. 

The industry has experienced robust growth in recent years, thanks to asset appreciation, strong 

demand from U.S. households, the aging of the U.S. population, and the rise of defined contribution retirement plans. 

The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is the primary regulator of the asset management 

industry, but other regulators, such as the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and 

state securities regulators, also have responsibilities with respect to asset management. Specific 

regulatory requirements depend on the product offerings and the nature of the services being 

provided. 

Insurance Industry in the United States 

The United States is the world’s largest insurance market, delivering property and casualty, life, and 

health insurance coverage to American consumers and businesses. Policyholders — both individual 

and commercial — utilize diverse insurance products to safeguard themselves, their property, and 

their businesses against unexpected events. In 2016, U.S. direct written premiums represented a 

29% world market share.4 

The industry is stratified based on size, product offerings, ownership structure, and geographic 

footprint. For example, some insurers operate in a single state, while others write policies across 

the globe. Insurers also differ by ownership structure. While some insurers are public companies, 

3.	 Investment Company Institute, 2017 Investment Company Fact Book, at 6, available at: https://www.ici.org/ 

pdf/2017_factbook.pdf (“ICI Fact Book”). 

4.	 Based on global total direct written premiums. Swiss Re Institute, Sigma, World Insurance in 2016: the 

China Growth Engine Steams Ahead (July 5, 2017), available at: http://media.swissre.com/documents/ 

sigma3_2017_en.pdf. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 5 
Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations

others are mutually owned by their policyholders. At year-end 2016, U.S. insurers included 780 

life and health insurers, 2,655 property and casualty insurers, and 1,095 health insurers.5 

The financial health of the industry has continued to improve since the financial crisis. In 2016, 

the U.S. insurance industry’s direct written premiums totaled $1.3 trillion, which represent a 

roughly 15% increase over 2009 levels.6

 The industry also employs more than 2.8 million people.7 

The United States maintains a state-based system for insurance regulation. Both solvency and 

market conduct laws and regulations are set by state legislators and state insurance commissioners. 

Treasury’s Federal Insurance Office (FIO), established by Dodd-Frank, serves as the central insurance authority in the federal government. While not serving a regulatory function, FIO represents 

the United States in international insurance forums, provides insurance policy expertise for the 

federal government, addresses foreign market access issues, and assists the Secretary in administering the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program. The Federal Reserve also supervises certain savings and 

loan holding companies that own insurance companies as well as insurance companies designated 

for Federal Reserve supervision by the FSOC. 

Summary of Issues and Recommendations 

Treasury’s review of the regulatory framework for both asset management and insurance firms has 

identified significant opportunities for reform consistent with the Core Principles: 

•	 Ensuring appropriate evaluation of systemic risk and solvency; 

•	 Promoting efficient regulation and rationalizing the regulatory framework to decrease 

regulatory burdens and maximize product and service offerings; 

•	 Rationalizing U.S. engagement in international forums to promote the U.S. asset management and insurance industries, and encourage firm competitiveness; and 

•	 Enhancing consumer access to a variety of relevant products and services. 

As stated above, Treasury’s recommendations to the President are focused on identifying laws, 

regulations, and other government policies that ensure the regulation of the financial system is in 

accordance with the Core Principles. 

A list of all of Treasury’s recommendations in this report is in Appendix B, including the recommended action, method of implementation (Congressional and/or regulatory action), and identification of the Core Principles addressed. 

Following is a summary of the themes and recommendations in the report. 

5.	 SNL Financial; A.M. Best, Best’s Aggregates & Averages (2016), available at: http://www3.ambest.com/ 

aggavg/toc/archive.aspx. 

6.	 SNL Financial. 

7.	 Sean Kevelighan, Steven Weisbart, and James Lynch, Insurance: Leading Through Disruption, available at: 

https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/Documents/(1)_Marketplace_Update_-_III.pdf 

6 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations

Systemic Risk, Solvency, and Stress Testing 

The financial crisis led to questions — both domestically and internationally — about how to 

address financial stability and create a regulatory framework to mitigate systemic risk. Through the 

passage of Dodd-Frank8

 and efforts of the Financial Stability Board (FSB) and other international 

bodies. A framework emerged that assessed systemic risk posed by specific financial entities. This 

framework took an entity-centric and bank-centric approach to addressing systemic risk. Tools, 

including stress testing and risk management programs, were then implemented to address entities 

posing a heightened risk to the stability of the financial system. Asset management firms and insurance companies have been evaluated for systemic risk and subjected to some enhanced regulatory 

standards. Yet, both have legal, structural, and operational characteristics that make them different 

than banks. 

Treasury’s position is that entity-based evaluations of systemic risk are generally not the best 

approach for mitigating risks arising in the asset management and insurance industries. Treasury 

broadly supports shifting to an activities-based framework, which would identify certain business activities as having higher systemic risk characteristics. An appropriate regulatory framework 

would then be established by primary regulators to address elevated engagement in those activities. 

These recommendations are made in recognition of the fundamental differences in business and 

legal structures between banking, asset management, and insurance. 

Treasury also rejects the need for stress testing of asset management firms. Stress testing is a regulatory tool that can be a part of systemic risk evaluation. Treasury recognizes the possibility of 

liquidity risk that may arise during mutual fund redemptions, but believes a strong liquidity risk 

management framework is a more effective approach to addressing the concern. 

Finally, Treasury supports the ongoing domestic work on insurance capital and liquidity standards. 

To ensure an efficient and effective regulatory framework, state insurance commissioners and the 

Federal Reserve must collaborate with the goal of developing implementable and harmonious 

capital standards that minimize unnecessary regulatory burdens. Further, Treasury supports robust 

liquidity risk management programs for insurers, similar to Treasury’s approach to the asset management industry, and will encourage the state insurance commissioners and the Federal Reserve 

to make progress in this area. 

These recommendations are consistent with the Core Principles. They are designed to foster economic growth and vibrant financial markets through more rigorous regulatory impact analysis 

that addresses systemic risk and solvency. Further, implementing these recommendations would 

help rationalize the regulatory approach to systemic risk, solvency, and stress testing in the asset 

management and insurance industries, thus leading to more efficient, effective, and appropriately 

tailored regulation. 

Efficient Regulation and Government Processes 

Ensuring efficient regulation and government processes is an important component of an effective financial regulatory framework. The asset management industry operates within a regulatory 

8. Public Law No. 111-203. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 7 
Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations

framework that, at its core, consists of laws with origins dating to the 1930s and 1940s. Since that 

time, SEC regulations and guidance as well as statutory changes have tried to keep up with new 

market participants, products, and services. Further, market events, such as the financial crisis, have 

resulted in the addition of new regulatory requirements, which adds complexity for the industry. 

The insurance sector has operated under state laws and regulations for over 150 years. Since the 

passage of McCarran-Ferguson in 1945, the federal government has repeatedly recognized the 

primacy of state insurance regulation. Over time, state laws have evolved; new products, like cyber 

and terrorism insurance, have been developed; and insurers have entered new and foreign markets. 

While regulation of each of these industries is important to protect consumers and the markets, a 

recalibration of regulation and government processes is important from time to time to ensure an 

effective and efficient framework. 

Treasury recommends several changes in the regulatory structure for asset management and in 

government processes for the insurance sector. For example, the SEC should implement regulations to standardize and simplify the approval process for ETFs. If adopted, this rule would 

remove the need to obtain individualized exemptive relief from the SEC for “plain vanilla” ETFs. 

Other recommendations include modernizing fund disclosure material through electronic delivery 

of shareholder material, and harmonizing and rationalizing the fund reporting requirements to 

eliminate overlapping and duplicative requirements. 

For insurers, Treasury is committed to realigning FIO’s operations through five pillars of focus. 

This realignment will help promote the state-based insurance regulatory system in the United 

States, and make FIO’s work more effective. Treasury recommendations also include encouragement of uniform product approval processes and standards at the state level, which will expedite 

the speed of bringing new products to market. Further, Treasury supports the National Association 

of Insurance Commissioners’ work to establish uniform state laws for protecting customer data. 

Such state laws must be uniform and implemented expeditiously to reduce compliance costs for 

multistate insurers and ensure the protection of customer data. 

These recommendations are consistent with the Core Principles. The implementation of these 

recommendations would rationalize our financial regulatory framework to make it more efficient 

and effective. These changes will empower Americans to make independent and informed financial 

decisions that will enable them to save for retirement, build individual wealth, and protect businesses and individuals from unexpected events. 

International Engagement 

International regulatory forums addressing financial services policy have grown in importance since 

the financial crisis. These forums address issues of financial stability, regulatory fragmentation, and 

market access. Some of these forums, such as the FSB, serve a broad mandate — financial stability. 

Others, such as the International Organization of Securities Commissions and the International 

Association of Insurance Supervisors, are specific to the asset management and insurance industries, respectively. As noted, the United States has nine of the 10 largest asset managers in the 

world. Further, the United States represents the world’s largest single-country insurance market by 

a significant margin. Because of the increased globalization of asset management and insurance, 

8 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations

and the ongoing international regulatory dialogue, the United States must remain engaged and 

speak with a strong voice at international forums to promote U.S. interests. 

Treasury recommends continued U.S. engagement in international forums as international regulatory issues are debated and standards are crafted. Such engagement should enable the promotion of 

the U.S. asset management and insurance industries; a coordinated approach by the U.S. members 

of international forums; and placement of the appropriate domestic bodies in international forums 

to address ongoing policy formulation. 

To facilitate the work in international forums, Treasury will work to increase transparency of the 

domestic policymaking and international standard-setting process, and ensure robust domestic 

stakeholder discussions to inform policy priorities. 

These recommendations are consistent with the Core Principles. Their implementation would 

enable American companies to be competitive with foreign firms in domestic and foreign markets, 

and advance American interests in international financial regulatory negotiations and meetings. 

Further, the implementation of these recommendations would help restore public accountability 

in the policymaking of federal financial regulatory agencies. 

Promoting Economic Growth and Informed Choices 

One of the key features of the asset management industry is the vast array of choices available to 

investors. To date, more than 9,500 mutual funds and 1,700 ETFs operate in the United States.9 

For individual investors, mutual funds and ETFs offer easy access to professional management 

and portfolio diversification. Investors can select among stock (equity) funds, bond (fixed-income) 

funds, and funds that invest in multiple asset classes, such as balanced funds and target date funds. 

Within these categories, there are even more choices. For example, an investor can select from 

stock funds that invest in all types of companies or stock funds that invest only in companies in a 

particular sector, with particular financial fundamentals, in a specific market capitalization bracket, 

or within a country or defined geographic region. 

In addition to funds, the asset management industry provides advisory services to individual 

accounts, through which an investor can purchase, sell, and hold securities and money market 

instruments. The myriad of product choices available to investors stems from the strength and 

considerable competition across the U.S. asset management industry. The accessibility of asset 

management services and products to investors facilitates capital formation and economic growth. 

As with any investment, results are not guaranteed and there is risk that investors may lose some or 

all of their original investment. For these reasons, investors should receive effective and informative 

disclosure, so they may make informed choices when investing in the capital markets. In this manner, investors can decide, based on their individual risk tolerances, between the safety of principal 

and the possibility of earning higher returns. 

The financial regulatory framework can directly affect economic growth and how American consumers make financial choices. As Americans build wealth and plan for retirement, the regulation 

9. ICI Fact Book, at 22. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 9 
Executive Summary • Summary of Issues and Recommendations

of investment products and services can lead to an increase in investment-related costs or loss of 

investment opportunities. 

Treasury supports current efforts at the Department of Labor (DOL) to reexamine the implications of the revised fiduciary rule and related exemptions adopted by the DOL in April 2016 (the 

Fiduciary Rule). A delay in full implementation of the Fiduciary Rule is appropriate until the 

relevant issues are evaluated and addressed to best serve retirement investors. Treasury supports 

the SEC’s engagement on this topic, and encourages the DOL and SEC to work with the states to 

evaluate the impacts of a fiduciary rule across markets. 

Treasury recognizes the increasingly important role of the life insurance industry and its products 

in securing retirement income. Treasury recommends strengthening consumer access and choice 

with respect to annuities as investments options within employer-sponsored retirement plans 

such as 401(k) plans. Treasury will also convene an inter-agency task force to develop policies to 

complement reforms at the state level relating to the regulation of long-term care insurance. 

Regulation can also negatively impact growth of the U.S. economy by failing to provide incentives 

for investment or even penalizing certain types of investments. For example, in the persistent low 

interest rate environment, U.S. insurance companies have sought higher-yielding investments, 

including infrastructure investments. Infrastructure projects present an appealing opportunity to 

insurers given the benefits of higher yields and longer durations that may improve profitability and 

asset-liability management, particularly for life insurers. Infrastructure investment is also attractive to property and casualty insurers that historically have been among the largest investors in 

municipal bonds. Infrastructure is a top priority for the Trump administration, and investments 

by insurers can play a role in stimulating infrastructure spending. 

To promote robust investment in American infrastructure, Treasury recommends a reevaluation 

of state insurance capital requirements and how those requirements may be better calibrated to 

encourage insurer infrastructure investment. 

These recommendations are consistent with the Core Principles. The implementation of these recommendations would empower Americans to make informed financial choices, build wealth, and 

save for retirement. Further, their implementation would promote economic growth by ensuring 

U.S. financial firms are globally competitive and investors have access to a full range of investment 

options. 

10 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management
 

Asset Management • Introduction

Introduction 

The U.S. asset management industry is a critical component of the nation’s vibrant financial 

system. The asset management industry plays a key role in capital formation and credit intermediation, facilitates the flow of capital from investors to corporations and governments, and 

enables the growth of retirement savings for millions of Americans. Through mutual funds and 

exchange-traded funds (ETFs), an individual can assemble a diversified portfolio of investments, 

providing exposure to a variety of asset classes, at a very low cost. These financial products form the 

cornerstone for many 401(k) plans, individual retirement accounts, and 529 college savings plans. 

The asset management industry makes it possible for all Americans to participate in the capital 

markets. In 2016, U.S. registered investment companies owned 31% of U.S. corporate equity, 

19% of U.S. and foreign corporate bonds, 13% of U.S. Treasury and government agency securities, and 23% of U.S. municipal securities.10 Notably, U.S. money market mutual funds also 

play a key role in cash management for businesses as well as individuals, managing 22% of U.S. 

nonfinancial businesses’ short-term assets.11 

A key feature of asset management is the separation of the assets of the investment adviser from 

the assets being managed. Asset managers are separate legal entities from their funds. Losses or 

liabilities incurred by one fund are not the responsibility of other funds within the same fund 

complex. For non-fund assets managed by asset managers, custody rules impose a number of 

requirements to safeguard those assets. 

Asset management encompasses a broad number of entities and participants, including: 

•	 Investment companies (also known as investment funds) are pooled vehicles whose 

primary activities are investing, reinvesting, or trading in securities, such as stocks, bonds, 

money market instruments, and other assets. Registered investment companies are 

investment companies that have registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission 

(SEC) and are subject to additional regulatory oversight. 

•	 Mutual funds are the most common form of registered investment company. A mutual 

fund offers a “redeemable security,” meaning an investor purchases and redeems shares 

directly with the fund at a net asset value (NAV) that is set each day based on the market 

value of the fund’s assets. 

•	 Closed-end funds typically raise capital in an initial public offering and investors purchase and sell shares of the fund on the secondary market at market prices, which may 

differ from the fund’s NAV. 

•	 Exchange-traded funds (ETFs) are a particular type of registered investment company. 

ETFs enter into contractual relationships with “authorized participants,” typically large 

broker-dealers, who are permitted to purchase and redeem fund shares directly from the 

ETF. All other investors purchase and sell ETF shares at market prices that may differ 

from the ETF’s NAV. 

10. ICI Fact Book, at ii. 

11. Id. at page 13. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 13 
Asset Management • Introduction

•	 Private funds are pooled investment vehicles not required to register as investment 

companies with the SEC. Generally, they are either limited in the number of investors 

allowed or have investor qualification requirements.12 Hedge funds, venture capital funds, 

and private equity funds are types of private funds. 

•	 A fund complex or fund family is a group of funds that are related and/or share a common investment adviser. 

•	 Investment advisers are fiduciaries in the business of providing investment advice.13 

Investment advisers manage the portfolios of investment companies and/or private funds. 

Some investment advisers provide investment advice to individual clients. A registered 

investment adviser is an investment adviser registered with the SEC or a state securities 

regulator. 

•	 A commodity pool operator (CPO) is an individual or organization that operates a 

commodity pool and solicits funds for that commodity pool. A commodity pool is an 

enterprise in which funds contributed by a number of persons are combined for the 

purpose of trading futures or options on futures, retail off-exchange foreign exchange 

contracts, or swaps, or to invest in another commodity pool.14 

•	 A commodity trading advisor (CTA) is an individual or organization that, for compensation or profit, advises others directly or indirectly on the value of or the advisability 

of trading futures contracts, options on futures, retail off-exchange foreign exchange 

contracts or swaps.15 

Trends and Industry Outlook 

In 2016, assets held by U.S. registered investment companies amounted to almost $20 trillion and 

represented the investments of more than 95 million individuals.16 Gross assets held by private 

funds with SEC-registered investment advisers totaled $11 trillion.17 SEC-registered investment 

advisers reported approximately $70 trillion in regulatory assets under management.18 The industry 

has experienced robust growth in recent years, thanks to asset appreciation, strong demand from 

U.S. households, the aging of the U.S. population, and the rise of defined contribution retirement 

12.	 See, e.g., 15 U.S.C. § 80a-3(c)(1) and (c)(7). 

13.	 15 U.S.C. § 80b-2(a)(11); see SEC v. Capital Gains Research Bureau, Inc., 375 U.S. 180 (1963). 

14.	 See https://www.nfa.futures.org/registration-membership/who-has-to-register/cpo.html. 

15.	 See https://www.nfa.futures.org/registration-membership/who-has-to-register/cta.html. 

16.	 ICI Fact Book, at 9. 

17.	 Division of Investment Management, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Private Funds Statistics, 

Fourth Calendar Quarter 2016 (July 7, 2017), available at: https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/privatefunds-statistics/private-funds-statistics-2016-q4.pdf. 

18.	 Amount of regulatory assets under management provided by SEC staff based on analysis of Form ADV data; 

amount excludes assets managed by state-registered investment advisers. 

14 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management • Introduction

plans. Globally, investable assets in the asset management industry are expected to approach or 

exceed $100 trillion by 2020.19 

Figure 1: Top 20 Worldwide Asset Managers in 2016 ($ billions) 

Rank Firm name Primary Domicile AUM 

1 BlackRock United States $5,148 

2 Vanguard Group United States $3,965 

3 State Street Global Advisors United States $2,468 

4 Fidelity Investments United States $2,131 

5 J.P. Morgan Asset & Wealth Management United States $1,771 

6 BNY Mellon Investment Management United States $1,648 

7 PIMCO United States $1,609 

8 AXA Group France $1,503 

9 Capital Group United States $1,479 

10 Goldman Sachs Group United States $1,379 

11 Prudential Financial United States $1,264 

12 Amundi France $1,141 

13 Legal & General Group U.K. $1,105 

14 BNP Paribas France $1,062 

15 Wellington Management Group United States $979 

16 Northern Trust Asset Management United States $942 

17 TIAA United States $907 

18 Natixis Global Asset Management France $877 

19 HSBC Holdings U.K. $831 

20 Invesco United States $813 

Note: As of December 2016
 

Source: Pensions & Investments, Treasury analysis
 

Investors are shifting from actively managed funds to passively managed funds as investors become 

increasingly conscious of the impact of management fees on long-term wealth creation and preservation.20 Actively managed funds typically seek to outperform the market or a particular index 

or benchmark, whereas passively managed funds emulate an index or benchmark. In addition, 

19.	 The Boston Consulting Group, Global Asset Management 2017: The Innovator’s Advantage (2017), available 

at: http://image-src.bcg.com/Images/BCG-The-Innovators-Advantage-July-2017_tcm9-163905.pdf; see also 

PricewaterhouseCoopers, Asset Management 2020: A Brave New World (2014), available at: https://www. 

pwc.com/gx/en/asset-management/publications/pdfs/pwc-asset-management-2020-a-brave-new-world-final. 

pdf. 

20.	 Morningstar, U.S. Investors Favored Passive Funds over Active by a Record Margin in 2016 (Jan. 11, 2017), 

available at: https://corporate.morningstar.com/US/documents/AssetFlows/AssetFlowsJan2017.pdf. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 15 
Asset Management • Introduction

ETFs — active and passive — are expected to continue to grow as the level of product sophistication continues to increase. Institutions have increasingly used ETFs to achieve specific asset-class 

or geographic exposures, and retail investors, particularly younger investors, employ ETFs as a 

low-cost alternative to both active and passive mutual funds.21 Together, the option to invest in 

actively or passively managed funds, or a combination of both, provides investors customization 

options to meet investment objectives. 

Figure 2: Asset Growth in Exchange-Traded Funds: 1998-2017 ($ billions) 

3,500 

Allocation 

3,000 

2,500 

2,000 

1,500 

1,000 

500 

0 

1998
 

Jan
 

Note: Data are through July 2017 

Source: Morningstar Direct 

U.S. equity 

International equity 

Taxable bond 

Sector equity 

Commodities 

Alternative 

Municipal bond 

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 

21.	 Greenwich Associates, Active Strategies, Indexing and the Rise of ETFs (Q3 2017), available at: https://www. 

ishares.com/us/literature/whitepaper/2017-greenwich-global-research-report-web-en-us.pdf; BlackRock, ETF 

Pulse Survey, available at: https://www.ishares.com/us/about-etfs/etf-pulse (survey conducted in Sept. 2016). 

16 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management • Introduction

Although the largest asset managers have had continued growth in assets under management 

(AUM), fees charged to investors have decreased. On average, expense ratios for stock and bond 

funds have declined substantially over the past 20 years.22 Substantial asset flows are going to fewer 

asset managers and global competition for AUM has placed downward pressure on margins, with 

the effect of making it more difficult for smaller asset managers as well as new entrants to the 

market. For example, the five largest fund families increased their overall percentage of net assets 

to 47% in 2016, up from 36% in 2005.23 Moreover, implementation of compliance regimes under 

the current regulatory framework has put continued pressure on margins, has favored the largest 

asset managers by disproportionately affecting smaller asset managers, and reduced the ability of 

asset managers to reinvest for innovation and long-term growth. 

Figure 3: Asset Growth in Mutual Funds, Money Market Funds, and Exchange-Traded 

Funds: 1993-2017 ($ billions) 

20,000 

15,000 

10,000 

5,000 

0 

1993
 

Feb
 

Note: Data are through July 2017 

Source: Morningstar Direct 

22.	 Investment Company Institute, Trends in the Expenses and Fees of Funds, 2016 (May 2017), available at: 

https://www.ici.org/pdf/per23-03.pdf (finding the average stock fund expense ratio fell from 1.04% in 1996 

to 0.63% in 2016 and the average bond fund expense ratio declined from 0.84% to 0.51% during the same 

period). 

23.	 ICI Fact Book, at 18. 

U.S. mutual funds 

U.S. exchange-traded funds 

U.S. money market funds 

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 17 
Asset Management • The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management Industry

The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management 

Industry 

The SEC, along with state securities regulators, constitute the primary regulators of the 

asset management industry in the United States. Other federal agencies, such as the 

Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), the Department of Labor (DOL), and the 

Internal Revenue Service (IRS), as well as self-regulatory organizations (SROs) such as the 

Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) and the National Futures Association (NFA) 

also affect the asset management industry. In addition, federal, state, and local prosecutors 

engage in criminal enforcement of the securities laws. 

Securities and Exchange Commission 

The SEC’s mission is to protect investors; maintain fair, orderly, and efficient markets; and facilitate capital formation. Broadly, the SEC has jurisdiction over investment companies,24 investment 

advisers, brokers and dealers, securities offerings in the primary and secondary markets, municipal 

advisors, transfer agents, and security-based swap dealers. The SEC is responsible for selectively 

reviewing the disclosures and reports of registered investment companies. The SEC also oversees 

21 national securities exchanges, 10 credit rating agencies, and seven active registered clearing 

agencies, as well as FINRA. Although FINRA does not regulate mutual funds directly, it regulates 

the broker-dealers that sell mutual funds.25 In addition, ETFs are subject to the listing standards of 

the relevant national securities exchange. 

State Securities Regulators 

State securities regulators are generally responsible for regulating investment advisers with less than 

$100 million in assets under management. States may also require the licensing of certain financial 

professionals, including registered representatives and investment adviser representatives. States are 

preempted from regulating securities offerings by registered investment companies.26 States also 

retain the authority to investigate and to bring enforcement actions against persons who engage in 

fraudulent behavior. 

24.	 A common trust fund or similar fund maintained by a bank, subject to certain conditions, is excluded from SEC 

jurisdiction. See 15 U.S.C. § 80a-3(c)(3) and (11). Such collective investment funds are regulated by the banking regulators. See Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Comptroller’s Handbook, Collective Investment 

Funds (May 2014), available at: https://www.occ.treas.gov/publications/publications-by-type/comptrollershandbook/collective-investment-funds/pub-ch-collective-investment.pdf. 

25.	 In this capacity, FINRA administers rules on mutual fund advertising; sales practices, including the sales loads 

that broker-dealers may charge; the incentives provided to registered representatives; and the execution of 

mutual fund portfolio transactions. See http://www.finra.org/industry/mutual-funds. 

26.	 15 U.S.C. § 77r. 

18 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management • The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management Industry

Other Regulatory Agencies 

Commodity Futures Trading Commission 

The CFTC is an independent federal regulatory agency with exclusive jurisdiction over the markets 

for futures, options on futures, and swaps. The CTFC regulates any asset manager that operates as 

a CPO or as a CTA. The CFTC also oversees the NFA. The NFA reviews all disclosure documents 

from CPOs and CTAs, as well as CPO annual pool financial statements. 

Internal Revenue Service 

Most registered investment funds have elected to have pass-through tax treatment under subchapter M of the Internal Revenue Code, which is administered by the IRS. Subchapter M requires 

that the fund comply with a number of conditions, including that at least 90% of the fund’s gross 

income be derived from investing in securities or publicly traded partnerships, and that the fund 

satisfy certain diversification requirements. 

Department of Labor 

The DOL enforces the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA). ERISA 

imposes fiduciary obligations on asset managers that provide services to employee benefit plans, 

such as a defined benefit pension plan. In addition to fiduciary obligations, these asset managers 

are subject to the prohibited transaction provisions of ERISA. 

Reporting and Disclosure 

Investment advisers primarily are regulated under the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 (Advisers 

Act). Investment advisers who have more than $100 million in assets under management or advise 

a registered investment company are generally required to register with the SEC.27 In 2010, DoddFrank amended the Advisers Act, in general, to require advisers to hedge funds and other private 

funds to register with the SEC unless exempted by the Advisers Act from registration.28 

Investment advisers register with the SEC by filing a form that contains extensive information 

about the adviser.29 The SEC uses such information to prepare for, conduct, and implement a 

risk-based examination program of investment advisers. This information is also aggregated by the 

SEC staff to obtain census data, monitor industry trends, and assess emerging risks.30 Information 

filed by investment advisers must be updated on an annual basis, and certain information must be 

27.	 15 U.S.C. § 80b-3. Certain exceptions to registration may apply, such as an investment adviser whose only clients are insurance companies or that is a foreign private adviser. Id. 

28.	 Dodd-Frank exempted from registration investment advisers that solely advise venture capital funds and investment advisers that solely advise private funds if the adviser has AUM in the United States of less than $150 million. See Dodd-Frank §§ 407 and 408. Although not required to register with the SEC, exempt reporting advisers are subject to certain reporting obligations. 17 C.F.R. § 275.204-4. 

29.	 See Form ADV, 17 C.F.R. § 279.1. Form ADV is a joint form that is also used to register as an investment 

adviser with the state securities regulators for advisers not eligible for SEC registration. 

30.	 See Form ADV and Investment Advisers Rules (Aug, 25, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 60418 (Sept. 1, 2016)]. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 19 
Asset Management • The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management Industry

promptly revised if the information previously filed becomes inaccurate.31 This information is also 

publicly available on the Investment Adviser Public Disclosure website.32 

Investment companies are primarily regulated under the Investment Company Act of 1940 (’40 

Act), unless exempt from registration by the ’40 Act. The securities offered and sold by registered 

investment companies to the public must also be registered in compliance with Securities Act 

of 1933 (Securities Act).33 Registered investment companies are also subject to the Securities 

Exchange Act of 1934 (Exchange Act). Registered investment companies are subject to extensive 

SEC rules adopted to implement these statutes. 

To enable investors to make informed decisions, the federal securities laws and SEC regulations 

require a fund that is making a public offering to disclose information about its offering in a 

prospectus at the time of sale to the public and then provide additional information subsequently 

in semiannual reports to shareholders. The prospectus describes the fund’s objectives, fees and 

expenses, performance, investment strategies, risk factors, and management. The fund’s shareholder information provides current financial information, including performance, and portfolio 

holdings. 

Leverage, Liquidity, and Custody 

The ’40 Act limits the ability of mutual funds to engage in leveraged transactions, such as short 

sales, purchases of securities on margin, and derivative transactions, unless those transactions are 

covered by liquid assets or offsetting transactions.34 Additionally, SEC guidelines provide that 

mutual funds must limit their holdings of illiquid securities to 15% of net assets to meet the 

’40 Act requirement that a security be redeemed by its holder within seven days of receipt of a 

redemption request.35 In October 2016, the SEC formalized this requirement into its rules.36 The 

holder of a mutual fund is entitled to receive approximately the proportionate share of the fund’s 

current net assets or its cash equivalent. The value of securities held by a mutual fund is defined as 

the market value, when market quotations are readily available, or fair value, as determined by its 

board of directors, if they are not. SEC rules define the net asset value (NAV) for use in computing 

the price of a redeemable security.37 The calculation of the NAV is required for any changes in the 

fund’s portfolio no later than the first business day following the trade date.38 

31.	 17 C.F.R. § 275.204-1(a). 

32.	 See www.adviserinfo.sec.gov. 

33.	 Typically, an investment company will file a joint registration statement under the Securities Act and the ’40 Act. 

See Form N-1A, 17 C.F.R. §§ 239.15A and 274.11A. Some investment companies may elect not to make a 

public offering of their securities and, in such circumstances, will register only under the ’40 Act. 

34.	 15 U.S.C. § 80a-18; see also Securities Trading Practices of Registered Investment Companies (Apr. 18, 

1979) [44 Fed. Reg. 25128 (Apr. 27, 1979)]. 

35.	 Revisions to Guidelines to Form N-1A (Mar. 12, 1992) [57 Fed. Reg. 9828 (Mar. 20, 1992)]. 

36.	 Investment Company Liquidity Risk Management Programs (Oct. 13, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 82142 (Nov. 18, 

2016)] (adopting new Rule 22e-4(b)(iv)). 

37.	 17 C.F.R. § 270.2a-4. 

38.	 Id. 

20 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management • The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management Industry

For mutual funds, the ’40 Act restricts certain transactions between a mutual fund and its investment adviser, which prevent the adviser from managing the fund for the adviser’s own benefit. 

Finally, the ’40 Act requires investment companies to safeguard custody of fund assets, including 

verification of the assets by an independent public accountant.39 Similarly, non-fund assets managed by an SEC-registered investment adviser are also subject to custody rules and must be kept 

separate from the asset manager.40 These provisions help to ensure that the assets of investors are 

not commingled with the assets of the investment adviser. 

Historical Performance during Periods of Financial Stress 

The performance of the asset management industry during periods of financial stress demonstrates 

that the types of of industry-wide “runs” that occur in the banking industry during a systemic crisis 

have not materialized in the asset management industry outside of money market mutual funds. One 

reason for this outcome is structural; fund assets are financed with the capital of shareholders and 

redemptions constitute market value return of that capital from the fund itself. 

Mutual funds are owned by many investors, each with their own time horizons for investing, their 

own risk preferences, and their own investment goals. Since the turn of the century, aggregate net 

flows — either total net redemptions or subscriptions — into equity and debt funds have rarely 

exceeded more than 1% and 2% of total assets under management on a monthly basis, respectively 

(see Figure 4). This trend continued through the financial crisis, when mass redemptions would 

have been most likely. The chart below outlines monthly net flows into or out of U.S. equity and 

bond funds. 

39. 15 U.S.C. § 80a-17(f); 17 C.F.R. §§ 270.17f-2 and 270.17f-4. 

40. 15 U.S.C. § 80b-18b; 17 C.F.R. § 275.206(4)-2. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 21 
Asset Management • The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management Industry

Figure 4: Equity and Bond Mutual Fund Net Flow Rates: 1993-2017 (percent) 

6 

4 

2 

0 

-2 

-4 

-6 

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 

Mar 

U.S.-registered bond mutual fund net flow rate (taxable and municipal) 

U.S.-registered equity mutual fund net flow rate (international equity, sector equity, U.S. equity) 

Note: Data are through July 2017 

Source: Morningstar Direct 

History of Fund Activity and Closures 

One feature that distinguishes the asset management industry is the ease by which funds are 

formed and terminated, without any disruption to the financial markets. Fund sponsors routinely 

create new funds to meet investor demand, and they merge or liquidate funds that do not attract 

sufficient investor interest. In 2016, 676 mutual funds and ETFs opened, while 688 funds merged 

or were liquidated (see Figure 5).41 This occurred without a material impact on the industry or the 

financial markets. 

41. Morningstar Direct. 

22 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management • The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management Industry

Figure 5: Number of New and Merged/Liquidated Open-Ended Mutual Funds and 

Exchange-traded Funds 2000-2017 (through Oct. 5, 2017) 

1000 New funds 

Merged/liquidated funds 

800 

600 

400 

200 

0 

Source: Morningstar Direct 

Disruptive Market Events and Asset Management 

When disruptive events occur in the asset management industry, significant redemptions at 

individual funds or fund complexes have not led to material market dislocations or longer term 

systemic consequences to the economy. An example of this dynamic was on display following 

the unexpected departure of key personnel from PIMCO in September 2014 (see Figure 6).42 

Specifically, the PIMCO Total Return Fund, directly managed by Bill Gross, experienced fund 

outflows of $120 billion.43 The roughly $60 billion in net redemptions during September and 

October 2014 alone were the largest amount of money ever withdrawn from a fund during a two 

month period.44 Despite these outsized redemption levels, the fund’s returns were above the average 

return of core bond funds.45 More importantly, investors were able to redeem investments made 

at PIMCO and transfer business to other investment managers in an orderly manner without any 

material impact to PIMCO, the other investment managers, or the financial markets more broadly. 

42.	 In 2014, PIMCO lost both of its co-chief investment officers, Bill Gross and Mohammed El-Erian. 

43.	 Stephen Foley and Alistair Gray, Pimco Fund Outperforms Bill Gross a Year After ‘Bond King’ Left, The 

Financial Times (Sept. 23, 2015). 

44.	 Morningstar, PIMCO Recap: Flows, Ratings, and Firm-Level Views, Weighing in on PIMCO Six Weeks After 

Bill Gross’ Sudden Departure (Nov. 10, 2014), available at: http://morningstardirect.morningstar.com/clientcomm/MorningstarPIMCORecapFlowsRatingsFirmLevelViews.pdf. 

45.	 Morningstar, PIMCO Update June 2015 (June 4, 2015), at 7, available at: http://corporate.morningstar.com/ 

US/documents/ResearchPapers/COMBINED_PIMCO_June2015%20_FINAL.pdf. 

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2017 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 23 
Asset Management • The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management Industry

Figure 6: PIMCO Taxable Bond Mutual Fund Monthly Net Flows and Total U.S. Taxable 

Bond Mutual Fund Monthly Net Flows (excluding PIMCO) 

$ billions 

40 

-50 

-40 

-30 

-20 

-10 

0 

10 

20 

30 

Total U.S. taxable bond mutual funds 

(excluding PIMCO) 

PIMCO taxable bond mutual funds 

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 

Note: Data are through July 2017 

Source: Morningstar Direct 

Rising Costs and Regulatory Burden 

Although total AUM continues to rise across the asset management industry, so do costs. The 

costs of asset management are expected to soar by 2022. The reasons for rising costs are diverse, 

with commercial cost pressures increasing as firms expand distribution networks and costs rise for 

product development, technology, and data management. However, one of the most important 

drivers of these rising costs is the cost of complying with an increased regulatory burden since the 

financial crisis. For example, in a recent study of global asset managers, banks, and brokers, participants highlighted perceptions that regulations are increasing costs and that compliance spending at 

a typical firm is expected to double over the next five years. Respondents reported that while they 

spend 4% of total revenue on compliance, they expect those costs to rise to up to 10% of total 

revenue by 2022.46 Many of these costs are passed along to individual retail investors in the form 

of expenses higher than they would be if compliance costs had been the same. 

46.	 Duff & Phelps, Global Regulatory Outlook 2017, at 4, available at: https://www.duffandphelps.com/assets/ 

pdfs/publications/compliance-and-regulatory-consulting/2017-global-regulatory-outlook-viewpoint.pdf. 

24 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management • The Regulatory Structure of the Asset Management Industry

The pace of regulatory expansion, reach, and complexity of regulation affecting funds in the asset 

management industry has been significant over the past nine years. Additional rules and regulations such as the SEC money market mutual fund rule reforms, enhanced fund reporting, liquidity 

rulemaking, the DOL fiduciary rule, new SRO rules, and requirements related to Dodd-Frank and 

other compliance regimes, have resulted in a median increase in compliance costs of an estimated 

20% over the past five years.47 Other regulators, such as the CFTC, have added regulatory burdens 

on the asset management industry, as has compliance with the reporting of cost basis of mutual 

fund shares under new IRS rules. Moreover, the global nature of the largest asset management 

firms also creates the need to comply with foreign laws and regulations. These regulatory compliance costs come in the form of legal expenses, preparation of new policies and procedures, creation 

of internal controls, technology expenditures, increased use of third-party service providers, rising 

vendor charges, increased oversight costs, and higher overall requirements for staffing and training. 

Moreover, these costs do not capture the opportunity costs associated with these efforts, including 

diversion of resources from efforts to boost portfolio return, risk management, and improved 

customer service.48 

The directive outlined in Executive Order 13772 provided Treasury the opportunity to initiate a 

much-needed review of the regulation impacting the asset management industry. Appropriately 

tailoring regulation, rationalizing the existing regulatory framework, and reducing redundancy 

would go far to foster the goals of efficient allocation of capital, strong job creation, and lasting 

economic growth. 

47.	 Letter from Paul Schott Stevens, President and CEO, Investment Company Institute, to Secretary Steven 

T. Mnuchin (Apr. 25, 2017) (based on a survey of 42 member firms accounting for 46% of registered fund 

assets). 

48.	 See, e.g., KPMG International, The Costs of Compliance, 2013 KPMG/AIMA/MFA Global Hedge Fund 

Survey, available at: https://home.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/pdf/2014/07/Cost-of-Compliance.pdf. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 25 

Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations 

Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Stress Testing

Systemic Risk and Stress Testing 

Systemic Risk and the Asset Management Industry 

In the wake of the financial crisis, federal regulators and the Financial Stability Oversight Council 

(FSOC) have evaluated systemic risk as it pertains to the asset management industry. The Office 

of Financial Research also published a report in September 2013 titled Asset Management and 

Financial Stability.

49 Particular focus was placed on mutual funds and other pooled investment 

vehicles. The FSOC conducted a review of the asset management industry, which led to a focus on 

asset management products and activities rather than entity-specific evaluation for Federal Reserve 

supervision and enhanced prudential standards.50 

FSOC’s evaluation of systemic risks over the past several years shows fundamental differences 

between asset managers and prudentially regulated institutions such as banks. Asset management is 

an agency-based business model, as opposed to the principal-based business model of banks. This 

means that asset managers manage on behalf of clients (whether a mutual fund, other pooled investment vehicle, or individual account), but they do not generally own the investments themselves.51 

Furthermore, asset managers are legally separated from the funds — the assets and liabilities of 

the manager are distinct from assets and liabilities of the funds. The bank business model directly 

subjects the bank to the risks and obligations of its assets and liabilities. 

To the extent that systemic risks arise from the asset management industry, prudential regulation 

of asset management is unlikely to be the most effective regulatory approach for mitigating these 

risks. Generally, asset managers and investment funds, in contrast to banks, are not highly leveraged and do not engage in maturity and liquidity transformation to the same degree that banks 

do through the use of bank deposits and other forms of credit. Any decline in the value of a fund’s 

assets results in a corresponding reduction in the investor’s investment, whereas a bank’s obligation 

to its depositors and creditors remains the same even if the bank suffers losses on its asset exposures. 

Existing SEC Regulation 

Mutual funds are already subject to long-established regulations that reduce the risks that individual funds present to the broader financial system. Moreover, since the financial crisis, the SEC 

has promulgated a number of new rules designed to further address risks in this sector. 

Registered investment companies have long been subject to a number of requirements under the 

’40 Act and SEC rules and guidance implementing the ’40 Act that help to mitigate the risks of a 

potential “run” on the fund, including: 

49.	 Office of Financial Research, Asset Management and Financial Stability (Sept. 2013), available at: https:// 

www.financialresearch.gov/reports/files/ofr_asset_management_and_financial_stability.pdf. 

50.	 Financial Stability Oversight Council, Update on Review of Asset Management Products and Activities (Apr. 

18, 2016), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fsoc/news/Documents/FSOC%20Update%20 

on%20Review%20of%20Asset%20Management%20Products%20and%20Activities.pdf. 

51.	 An exception to this statement would be the seeding of a new fund by an asset manager, which generally constitutes a de minimis investment. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 29 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Stress Testing

•	 Leverage Limitations: Mutual funds are statutorily prohibited from taking on borrowings that exceed one-third of the portfolio’s assets (i.e., a mutual fund must have $3 of 

assets for every $1 dollar of debt, or a 300% asset coverage requirement).52 

•	 Diversification of Portfolio Holdings: A diversified mutual fund or closed-end fund is 

required to invest more than 75% of its total assets in cash and cash items, government 

securities,53 securities of other registered investment companies, and other securities that 

are limited to not more than 5% of any one issuer.54 All mutual funds and closed-end 

funds are required by federal tax law to meet certain diversification requirements to be 

eligible for pass-through tax treatment. With respect to half of the fund’s assets, the fund 

may hold no more than 5% in the securities of any one issuer.55 With respect to the other 

half of the fund’s assets, the limit is 25%. As a result, the minimum diversification of a 

mutual fund is 25% of its assets in each of two issuers, and 5% of its assets in each of 10 

additional issuers. 

•	 Custody of Assets: Mutual funds are required to maintain strict custody of fund assets 

separate from the assets of the fund manager. This requirement is designed to safeguard 

fund assets from theft or misappropriation. Nearly all mutual funds use bank custodians 

for domestic securities, and the custody agreements are constructed to be robust and 

thorough.56 

•	 Liquidity: At least 85% of a mutual fund’s portfolio must be invested in “liquid securities,” which are defined as assets that can be disposed of within seven days at a price 

approximating market value.57 

•	 Daily Valuation of Fund Assets: Mutual funds must value their portfolio holdings on 

a daily basis, based on market values readily available. There are certain provisions for 

obtaining fair value if no current market price is available for a particular price or if the 

market price is unavailable.58 

Since 2014, the SEC has adopted numerous additional rules impacting the asset management 

industry, which provide additional transparency and mitigate potential systemic risks, including: 

52.	 15 U.S.C. § 80a-18. Closed-end funds are also subject to a 300% asset coverage requirement, but are not 

subject to the limitation of only borrowing from a bank. 

53.	 Government securities include any security issued or guaranteed as to principal or interest by the United States 

or by a person controlled or supervised by and acting as an instrumentality of the U.S. government. See 15 

U.S.C. § 80a-2(a)(16). Securities issued by the Federal National Mortgage Association (Fannie Mae) and the 

Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac) are government securities as long as they satisfy 

such criteria. 

54.	 15 U.S C. § 80a-5(b). 

55.	 26 U.S.C. §§ 851-855 (Subchapter M of the Internal Revenue Code). 

56.	 15 U.S.C. § 80a-17(f); 17 C.F.R. 270.17f-1 (broker-dealer custody); 17 C.F.R. § 270.17f-2 (self-custody); 17 

C.F.R. § 270.17f-4 (securities depositories); 17 C.F.R. § 270.17f-5 (foreign banks); 17 C.F.R. § 270.17f-6 

(futures commission merchants); and 17 C.F.R. § 270.17f-7 (foreign securities depositories). 

57.	 Revisions of Guidelines to Form N-1A (Mar. 12, 1992) [57 Fed. Reg. 9828 (Mar. 20, 1992)]. 

58.	 See 15 U.S.C. § 80a-2; 17 C.F.R. §§ 270.2a-4 and 270.22c-1. 

30 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Stress Testing

•	 Enhancing portfolio reporting by mutual funds, including derivatives disclosure;59 

•	 Requiring implementation of liquidity risk management programs by mutual funds;60 

•	 Moving institutional prime money market funds to a floating NAV and permitting the 

imposition of liquidity fees and redemption gates for money market mutual funds;61 

•	 Providing additional tools to allow funds to effectively pass on costs stemming from 

investor purchase and redemption activity;62 

•	 Improving disclosures provided by registered investment advisers;63 and 

•	 Shortening the securities transaction settlement cycle from three days to two days.64 

Recommendations 

Treasury’s position is that entity-based systemic risk evaluations of asset managers or their funds are 

generally not the best approach for mitigating risks arising from asset management. Rather than 

focus on entity-based evaluations, primary federal regulators should focus on potential systemic 

risks arising from asset management products and activities, and on implementing regulations that 

strengthen the asset management industry as a whole. Treasury recommends that while the FSOC 

maintains primary responsibility for identifying, evaluating, and addressing systemic risks in the 

U.S. financial system, the FSOC look to the SEC to address systemic risks through regulation 

within and across the asset management industry in the United States. 

Stress Testing and the Asset Management Industry 

The promulgation of a statutory requirement for stress testing of large investment advisers and 

mutual funds came about, in part, because of the success of the initial supervisory stress test exercise led by the Federal Reserve for the largest bank holding companies in the midst of the financial 

crisis.65 Dodd-Frank requires certain nonbank financial companies to conduct annual stress tests.66 

Stress testing is required for registered investment companies and registered investment advisers 

having more than $10 billion in consolidated assets. According to information provided by the 

Investment Company Institute, more than 400 funds had $10 billion in assets or more as of July 

31, 2017. 

Under Dodd-Frank, each federal primary financial regulatory agency, in coordination with the 

Federal Reserve and the Federal Insurance Office (FIO), as appropriate, must “issue consistent 

59.	 Investment Company Reporting Modernization (Oct. 13, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 81870 (Nov. 18, 2016)]. 

60.	 Investment Company Liquidity Risk Management Programs (Oct. 13, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 82142 (Nov. 18, 

2016)]. 

61.	 Money Market Fund Reform; Amendments to Form PF (July 23, 2014) [79 Fed. Reg. 47736 (Aug. 14, 2014)]. 

62.	 Investment Company Swing Pricing (Oct. 13, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 82084 (Nov. 18, 2016)]. 

63.	 Form ADV and Investment Advisers Act Rules (Aug. 25, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 60418 (Sep. 1, 2016)]. 

64.	 Securities Transaction Settlement Cycle (Mar. 22, 2017) [82 Fed. Reg. 15564 (Mar. 29, 2017)]. 

65.	 Governor Daniel K. Tarullo, Stress Testing after Five Years (June 25, 2014), available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/tarullo20140625a.htm. 

66.	 See Dodd-Frank § 165(i)(2) (codified at 12 U.S.C. § 5365). 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 31 
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and comparable regulations” to implement the stress tests.67 As with bank stress testing, the methodologies established by the SEC are required to include three sets of conditions: (1) baseline, (2) 

adverse, and (3) severely adverse scenarios. Results are required to be reported to both the SEC and 

the Federal Reserve, and the company is required to publish a summary of the results. In 2014, the 

then-SEC Chair indicated that the SEC staff was evaluating how to tailor stress testing for the asset 

management industry.68 To date, however, no stress testing rule has been proposed by the SEC. 

Prudential stress testing for asset management raises significant implementation challenges. The 

challenge in applying prudential stress-testing to asset managers was recognized by the SEC’s chief 

economist in 2016, when he expressed a number of concerns with these statutory stress-testing 

requirements, including how to engage in such testing when fluctuations in asset values are passed 

through to fund investors by design.69 

Where appropriate, the SEC has imposed regulations on mutual funds to address potential risks 

that funds might face as a result of stressed market conditions, including revised rules for money 

market mutual funds and new liquidity risk management requirements for other mutual funds.70 

Recommendations 

While Treasury endorses the principle of appropriate risk management in the asset management 

industry, it does not support prudential stress testing of investment advisers and investment companies as required by Dodd-Frank. Treasury supports legislative action to amend Dodd-Frank to 

eliminate the stress testing requirement for investment advisers and investment companies. 

In the alternative, Treasury supports the view that the stress testing provisions of Rule 2a-7 for 

money market mutual funds and Rule 22e-4 on liquidity risk management programs, discussed in 

the next section, satisfy the spirit of Dodd-Frank’s stress testing requirements. 

Efficient Regulation and Government Processes 

Liquidity Risk Management 

Liquidity can be defined as the ability by a financial market participant to quickly liquidate assets 

as needed and without a significant impact on price to meet immediate, short-term financial 

obligations with cash. Since the financial crisis, regulators have correctly focused on liquidity risk 

in global financial markets. This concern stems from deep scars left by the liquidity crunch during 

the financial crisis, in which stressed market conditions led rapidly to liquidity crises at various 

market participants as concerned counterparties and investors withdrew credit and funding, which 

67.	 12 U.S.C. § 5365(i)(2)(C). 

68.	 Chair Mary Jo White, Enhancing Risk Monitoring and Regulatory Safeguards for the Asset Management 

Industry (Dec. 11, 2014), available at: https://www.sec.gov/news/speech/2014-spch121114mjw. 

69.	 Rob Tricchinelli, SEC Vexed by Asset Manager Stress Test Rule, Bloomberg BNA (Feb. 8, 2016), available at: 

https://www.bna.com/sec-vexed-asset-n57982067065/. 

70.	 17 C.F.R. § 270.2a-7(g)(8) (money market funds); 17 C.F.R. § 270.22e-4(b)(1)(i)(B) (liquidity risk management 

programs). 

32 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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precipitated further liquidity-driven asset sales, or “fire sales.” An example of how stressed liquidity 

conditions can present risks is the failure of Bear Stearns in 2008, which stemmed in part from the 

rapid withdrawal of credit lines and funding by the firm’s creditors and counterparties as the firm 

experienced losses due to its exposure to subprime mortgages. 

Policymakers and regulators responded to such concerns, particularly the risk that firms do not 

have enough capital and liquid resources to survive stressed markets, through a number of regulations promulgated since the crisis — for example, bank capital and liquidity rules addressed in 

Treasury’s Banking Report. For asset management, policymakers have focused on how to address 

the risks of rapid investor redemptions and their potential impact on fund investors and market 

conditions. For example, the 2015 closure of the Third Avenue Focused Credit Fund highlighted 

how a fund might inadequately manage its liquidity risk, with implications for investors who 

might be unable to redeem their shares in the fund, and market conditions that are potentially 

impacted by a fund’s asset sales to meet its redemption requests. 

Regulations for Liquidity Risk 

The regulatory framework for liquidity risk management of registered investment companies has 

been established through SEC guidance and the requirements of the ’40 Act, as well as more recent 

liquidity rules, such as the Rule 22e-4 under the ’40 Act.71 Private funds, such as hedge funds, 

private equity funds, and venture capital funds, typically have specific contractual provisions governing an investor’s ability to take all or part of an investment out of the fund. 

The ’40 Act requires mutual funds generally to redeem shares at their proportionate share of a 

fund’s NAV within seven days of tender.72 Thus, asset managers have a responsibility to manage 

the liquidity of the fund’s investment portfolios in a manner consistent with their redemption 

obligations. Many investors expect to receive redemption proceeds sooner as some mutual funds 

represent in their prospectuses that they will pay redemption proceeds in fewer than seven days. 

In recognition of the redemption obligation, the SEC has long-standing guidelines containing a 

liquidity standard that generally limits a mutual fund’s aggregate holdings of “illiquid assets” to no 

more than 15% of the fund’s net assets.73 In October 2016, the SEC adopted Rule 22e-4, which 

formalized the 15% limitation on illiquid investments and requires notification to the SEC if the 

level of illiquid investment assets exceeds 15% of its net assets.74 

Under the 15% guidelines, a portfolio security or other asset is considered illiquid if it cannot be 

sold or disposed of in the ordinary course of business within seven days at approximately the value 

at which the fund has valued the investment.75 The 15% guidelines have generally caused funds 

71.	 Investment Company Liquidity Risk Management Programs (Oct. 13, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 82142 (Nov. 18, 

2016)] (“SEC Liquidity Release”). 

72.	 See 15 U.S.C. §§ 80a-2(a)(32) and 80a-22(e). 

73.	 Revisions of Guidelines to Form N-1A (Mar. 12, 1992) [57 Fed. Reg. 9828 (Mar. 20, 1992) (“Form N-1A 

Guidelines Release”); Statement Regarding “Restricted Securities” (Oct. 21, 1969) [35 Fed. Reg. 19989 

(Dec. 31, 1970)]. 

74.	 See SEC Liquidity Release. The liquidity risk management program rules become effective on December 1, 

2018 for all funds except funds that would qualify as smaller entities, whose compliance date is June 1, 2019. 

75.	 Form N-1A Guidelines Release. 

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to limit their exposures to particular types of securities that cannot be sold within seven days and 

that the SEC and staff have indicated may be illiquid, depending on the facts and circumstances. 

To the extent that a fund’s holdings of illiquid securities exceeds 15%, the guidelines have been 

interpreted as preventing the fund from acquiring any additional illiquid assets.76 

Fund managers frequently base their portfolio decisions on evaluation of asset types and certain 

information about the assets, such as issuer type, issuer domicile, duration, credit quality, and 

currency. This approach is appropriate because instruments with similar characteristics are often 

highly comparable and substitutable from a liquidity perspective. In addition, fund managers use 

their judgment in evaluating asset liquidity. Even within an asset class, such as fixed-income, the 

liquidity of issues can differ considerably depending on factors such as credit quality and industry. 

Internal policies and procedures require a certain amount of flexibility to account for market and 

issuer-specific dynamics. 

In addition to making important changes to codify and strengthen the 15% limit on illiquid 

investments, Rule 22e-4 requires all mutual funds (except for money market mutual funds) and 

certain ETFs to adopt a liquidity risk management program. Funds would be required to monitor 

the liquidity risk of their portfolio and determine a minimum percentage of their assets that must 

be invested in highly liquid investments. Under the rule, mutual funds must use a specific, uniform scheme for classifying, reviewing, and reporting the liquidity of each portfolio holding on a 

monthly basis and providing aggregated information to the public on a quarterly basis. Each fund 

is required to classify each of its portfolio investments into one of four defined liquidity categories, 

known as “buckets.” These buckets are intended to take into account relevant market-, trading-, 

and investment-specific considerations, including, among other things, market depth and whether 

sales of an investment would significantly change the market value of the investment.77 

The rule has resulted in funds assessing the adequacy of their liquidity management practices. 

However, concerns have arisen regarding the rule’s approach to measuring liquidity risk, and the 

costs involved in implementing the rule. The rule mandates an overly prescriptive asset classification 

or bucketing methodology despite the fluid, and sometimes subjective, nature of liquidity. This 

uniform bucketing requirement may not help funds improve their current liquidity risk management programs. As a result, funds may continue to use their current methodologies for classifying 

the liquidity of their investments alongside the costly mandated bucketing methodology. 

Recommendations 

Treasury supports robust liquidity risk management programs and believes they are imperative 

to effective fund management and the health of the financial markets. For this reason, Treasury 

supports the 15% limitation on illiquid assets. However, Treasury rejects any highly prescriptive 

regulatory approach to liquidity risk management, such as the bucketing requirement. Instead, 

Treasury supports the SEC adopting a principles-based approach to liquidity risk management 

rulemaking and any associated bucketing requirements. Consistent with these recommendations, 

76.	 Open-End Fund Liquidity Risk Management Programs; Swing Pricing; Re-Opening of Comment Period for 

Investment Company Reporting Modernization Release (Sept. 22, 2015) [80 Fed. Reg. 62274, 622284 n. 92 

(Oct. 15, 2015)]. 

77.	 SEC Liquidity Release. 

34 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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the SEC should take appropriate action to postpone the currently scheduled December 2018 

implementation of Rule 22e-4’s bucketing requirement. 

Swing Pricing 

“Swing pricing” is the process of adjusting the NAV of fund shares to effectively pass on the 

costs from purchase or redemption activity to the investors associated with that activity. Mutual 

funds calculate a daily NAV, typically as of 4 p.m. Eastern Time, which is the price at which 

an investor can purchase or redeem fund shares. SEC rules require that an investor request to 

purchase or redeem mutual fund shares be at a price based on the next NAV calculated after 

the receipt of the request.78 

Some have expressed concerns that investor redemptions could dilute the interests of nonredeeming shareholders, particularly in times of stressed liquidity conditions.79 In this scenario, 

changes in portfolio holdings to satisfy redemptions can occur several business days after the 

redemption request. If these activities and their associated costs are not reflected in the NAV at 

redemption, the costs of providing liquidity to the first redeeming investors could be borne by 

remaining investors in the fund. In other words, the transaction costs may be lower for earlier 

redeeming investors than for later, creating a “first-mover advantage.” This concern has risen 

due to the significant growth in assets managed by funds with less-liquid investments, such as 

fixed-income funds, emerging market debt funds, open-end funds with alternative strategies, 

and emerging market equity funds. 

It has been suggested that swing pricing could protect existing investors from dilution associ 

ated with such purchase-and-redemption activity and may be a useful tool to manage liquid 

ity risks. Pooled investment vehicles in certain foreign jurisdictions, including France, Hong 

Kong, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Singapore, and the United Kingdom, currently 

use various forms of swing pricing to mitigate shareholder dilution associated with other share 

holders’ capital activity.80 

In October 2016, the SEC finalized a rule that would permit mutual funds to use swing pric 

ing on a voluntary basis.81 The SEC also adopted amendments to require certain disclosures by 

funds using swing pricing. The rule changes become effective in November 2018. 

Although Treasury recognizes the theoretical possibility of a first-mover advantage, empirical 

evidence demonstrating the inadequacy of existing liquidity management practices for mutual 

78.	 17 C.F.R. § 270.22c-1. 

79.	 Financial Stability Board, Policy Recommendations to Address Structural Vulnerabilities from Asset 

Management Activities (Jan. 12, 2017), at 11-12, available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/FSBPolicy-Recommendations-on-Asset-Management-Structural-Vulnerabilities.pdf. 

80.	 International Organization of Securities Commissions, Liquidity Management Tools in Collective Investment 

Schemes: Results from an IOSCO Committee 5 Survey to Members (Dec. 2015), at 4, available at: https:// 

www.iosco.org/library/pubdocs/pdf/IOSCOPD517.pdf. 

81.	 Investment Company Swing Pricing (Oct. 13, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 82084 (Nov. 18, 2016)]. Closed-end funds, 

unit investment trusts, ETFs, and money market mutual funds are not permitted to use swing pricing. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 35 
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Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

funds and other registered investment companies is unsubstantiated.82 Treasury observes 

that, given current distribution practices of U.S. mutual funds, there may be practical dif 

ficulties with implementing swing pricing. Unlike foreign jurisdictions, most U.S. funds are 

sold through intermediaries, including broker-dealers, insurance companies, and retirement 

plan record-keepers, which aggregate and net purchases and redemptions in a particular fund. 

Purchase-and-redemption information from these distribution channels may not be known 

until well after NAV is determined. 

Treasury encourages further analysis of whether, and to what extent, swing pricing is imple 

mented by funds. Particular concern should be focused on investor protection and whether 

funds are appropriately setting the amount of the swing as justified by relevant trading costs. 

Derivatives 

Derivatives are essential financial tools that enable portfolio managers of investment companies to 

manage and hedge risk, enhance portfolio liquidity, gain or reduce exposure to certain asset classes, 

manage or equitize cash, and reduce transaction costs. While derivatives can be used for speculative 

activities, funds often use derivatives to mitigate their risks. 

Regulation of Derivatives 

The SEC’s regulation of derivatives stems from a 1979 general statement of policy regarding the 

’40 Act’s treatment of senior securities.83 The use of senior securities by funds is subject to certain 

prohibitions and limits on leverage (or asset coverage).84 While the SEC found that derivatives 

transactions may be considered senior securities and therefore subject to the ’40 Act limitations, 

the SEC staff has also allowed funds to engage in derivatives activities over the years through 

“no-action” letters as long as they met certain other key conditions.85 This approach has been 

developed through a patchwork of more than 30 no-action letters issued by the SEC staff, which 

apply the 1979 statement of principles to various types of derivatives and other transactions on an 

instrument-by-instrument basis.86 

82.	 See, e.g., Sheheryar Malik and Peter Linder, IMF Working Paper On Swing Pricing and Systemic Risk 

Mitigation (July 2017), at footnote 6, available at: http://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2017/07/18/ 

On-Swing-Pricing-and-Systemic-Risk-Mitigation-44957. 

83.	 Securities Trading Practices of Registered Investment Companies (Apr. 18, 1979) [44 Fed. Reg. 25128 (Apr. 

27, 1979)]. 

84.	 The ’40 Act limits the ability of funds to obtain leverage or incur obligations to persons other than the fund’s 

common shareholders through the issuance of senior securities, defined, in part, as bonds, debentures, notes, 

or similar obligations or instruments constituting a security and evidencing indebtedness. The ’40 Act prohibits a mutual fund from issuing or selling any senior security, other than a borrowing from a bank, and subject to a 

requirement to maintain 300% asset coverage. 

85.	 Division of Investment Management, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Registered Investment 

Company Use of Senior Securities — Select Bibliography (last modified June 17, 2016), available at: https:// 

www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/seniorsecurities-bibliography.htm. 

86.	 Use of Derivatives by Registered Investment Companies and Business Development Companies (Dec. 11, 

2015) [80 Fed. Reg. 80884, 80887 (Dec. 28, 2015)]. 

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In December 2015, the SEC proposed new derivatives rules to modernize and refresh the regulation of funds’ derivatives activities.87 The proposed rule would permit mutual funds, ETFs, and 

closed-end funds to enter into derivatives transactions, notwithstanding the ’40 Act’s restrictions 

on the issuance of senior securities, provided the funds comply with the conditions in the proposed 

rule. The proposed rule would impose the following conditions: 

•	 Comply with one of two portfolio limitations, either the exposure-based portfolio limit 

or the risk-based portfolio limit, each of which is designed to limit the fund’s leverage 

obtained through derivatives; 

•	 Segregate an amount of qualifying coverage assets (limited to cash and cash equivalents) 

for derivatives, so funds could meet their obligations in a stress scenario; and 

•	 For funds that engage in more than a limited amount of derivatives transactions or use 

certain complex derivatives transactions, establish a formalized derivatives risk management program. 

While the proposed rule’s comprehensive approach to the regulation of funds’ derivatives activities 

is an improvement from the current piecemeal approach, the proposal has several key concerns. 

First, portfolio limits could unnecessarily restrict funds from using derivatives, even for hedging 

or other risk mitigating purposes. Limiting the risk management and liquidity tools available to 

fund managers would result in less efficient asset management, higher transaction costs, and lower 

returns. The result could be the closure of certain funds, or forced changes to investment strategies 

that would disrupt current business practices and reduce investor choice. 

Second, the proposed rule’s use of gross notional amount as a measure for derivatives exposure 

is problematic. The proposed rule’s exposure-based portfolio limit would require a fund to limit 

its aggregate exposure to 150% of the fund’s net assets calculated based on the aggregate gross 

notional amount of the fund’s derivatives transactions. However, a high gross notional exposure of 

a fund’s portfolio is not necessarily correlated with leverage or risk levels. A recent study conducted 

by economists at the SEC’s Division of Economic and Risk Analysis noted that similar notional 

amounts of derivatives across different underlying asset classes generally do not represent similar 

units of risk.88 High gross notional amounts could lead to a fund being more risky, less risky, or 

equally risky compared with a fund that has no derivatives exposure. Using the gross notional 

amount as a measure for derivatives exposure risks does not take into account the beneficial effects 

of using derivatives in portfolio management. Absent a clearly defined connection between gross 

notional amounts of derivatives and leverage, and evidence that derivatives used for leverage create 

unacceptable levels of risk, the SEC’s proposed rule is problematic. 

Third, while it is important for funds to manage the risks of their derivatives obligations, the rule’s 

limiting of qualifying coverage assets to cash and cash equivalents could require funds to hold more 

of those assets than they would otherwise, potentially reducing investment returns and causing 

tracking errors for funds that follow indexes. 

87.	 Id. 

88.	 Daniel Deli et al., Use of Derivatives by Registered Investment Companies (Dec. 2015), available at: https:// 

www.sec.gov/dera/staff-papers/white-papers/derivatives12-2015.pdf. 

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In October 2016, the SEC also adopted new reporting requirements for registered investment 

companies that would support its effort to modernize derivatives regulations.89 Pursuant to Form 

N-PORT, almost all funds would report information about their monthly portfolio holdings to 

the SEC in a structured data format, including extensive information on derivatives investments. 

Funds would be required to disclose certain characteristics and terms of their investments in 

derivatives to enable a better understanding of the profit-and-loss profile of such investments and 

the exposures created by such investments. The compliance date for the enhanced fund reporting 

is June 1, 2018. 

Recommendations 

While Treasury supports the SEC’s goal of modernizing the regulation of derivatives for funds, 

Treasury has concerns with certain aspects of the proposed rule. Treasury recommends the SEC 

consider a derivatives rule that would include a derivatives risk management program and an asset 

segregation requirement, but reconsider what, if any, portfolio limits should be part of the rule. 

Any portfolio limits, if adopted, should be based on significantly more risk-adjusted measures 

of a fund’s derivatives than the current proposal. The SEC should also reconsider the scope of 

assets that would be considered qualifying coverage assets for purposes of the asset segregation 

requirement. Treasury further recommends that the SEC examine the derivatives data that will be 

reported by funds starting next year and publish analysis based on empirical data regarding their 

use of derivatives. 

Exchange Traded Funds 

Since the introduction of ETFs in 1993, investor interest has continued to grow.90 Although early 

ETFs tracked only broad-based U.S. equity indexes, ETFs are now available to investors in many 

asset classes.91 The large variety of ETFs enables an investor to easily hold a diversified investment 

portfolio, customized to the investor’s risk tolerance. Many ETFs have lower expense ratios and 

may be more tax efficient than traditional mutual funds, features that can be attractive to investors. 

Given their growing market share and expanding diversity of products offerings, ETFs broaden 

the array of choices available to investors. Unlike mutual funds, ETFs trade like stocks on a stock 

exchange, and the price of the ETF changes throughout the day. The purchase and sale of individual 

ETF shares in the market are similar to the purchase and sale of single stocks, and the market price 

of the shares varies during the trading day due to various factors, including the underlying prices 

of the ETF’s assets and the demand for the ETF. ETFs can be actively or passively managed. ETFs 

do not issue or redeem their shares at a NAV; instead, they issue and redeem large blocks of shares 

called creation units, with authorized participants, while other investors pay the ETF market price. 

89.	 Investment Company Reporting Modernization (Oct. 13, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 81870 (Nov. 18, 2016)]. 

90.	 This discussion focuses on ETFs that are registered investment companies. Other exchange traded products 

involve pooled investment vehicles that are not registered under the ’40 Act, because they invest in precious 

metals, futures, or derivative contracts, or other assets not constituting securities. In addition, financial institutions may issue exchange-traded notes, which are senior debt instruments whose returns are based on reference assets, but are not pooled investment vehicles. See Request for Comment on Exchange-Traded Products 

(June 12, 2015) [80 Fed. Reg. 34729 (June 17, 2015)] (“ETF Request for Comment”). 

91.	 ICI Fact Book, at 59. 

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ETF sponsors enter into contractual relationships with financial institutions known as authorized 

participants. Only authorized participants may purchase and redeem shares directly from the ETF, 

and they do so only in creation units, which generally hold 25,000 to 200,000 ETF shares. To 

purchase a creation unit, an authorized participant deposits a basket of securities and other assets 

(a “purchase basket”) with the ETF. The authorized participant receives the creation unit in return 

for the purchase basket, and can hold or split up the creation unit and sell the ETF shares in the 

secondary market. To redeem, the authorized participant acquires a large block of the ETF shares 

on the secondary market and delivers the shares to the ETF. In return, the ETF typically provides a 

basket of certain securities and other assets (a “redemption basket”) to the authorized participant. 

The makeup of purchase and redemption baskets is identified daily by the ETF, generally reflects 

the ETF’s portfolio holdings, and equals the aggregate NAV of the ETF shares comprising a creation unit. 

Arbitrage plays an important role in the purchase and redemption of ETFs. An ETF’s market price 

fluctuates during the trading day, so the intraday market price might not equal the fund’s NAV at 

the end of the day. Thus, authorized participants have economic incentives to reduce the difference 

between the intraday market price and the NAV, because they can trade directly with the ETF at 

the NAV as well as on the market. As a result, the market value of the ETF moves back in line 

with the ETF’s NAV per share, so other investors are able to buy ETF shares at a price closer to the 

ETF’s NAV per share. 

The ETF arbitrage mechanism depends in part on the transparency of the ETF’s portfolio and the 

liquidity of the underlying securities. Transparency of the ETF portfolio facilitates the arbitrage 

mechanism by assisting authorized participants in deciding whether to purchase or redeem creation units based on the relative values of ETF shares in the secondary market and the securities 

comprising the ETF portfolio. The liquidity of securities comprising an ETF’s portfolio facilitates 

the arbitrage mechanism because arbitrageurs must be readily able to purchase and sell the securities comprising the purchase and redemption baskets. 

Regulation of ETFs 

For an ETF to begin trading on a national exchange, the ETF must first file an application with 

the SEC to obtain an exemptive relief order, which exempts the ETF from certain provisions of the 

’40 Act and other SEC rules. As of the end of 2016, the total number of ETFs in the marketplace 

had grown to more than 1,700,92 and exemptive relief orders apply to each ETF. 

The exemptive relief process can involve significant time and expense in addition to the expense of 

creating a new ETF, including registering the fund as an investment company and registering the 

offering of its securities under the Securities Act. Depending on the particular ETF, some exemptive relief orders have unique provisions and require additional scrutiny. To the extent that an 

ETF requires a change in exchange listing standards, a separate rule change process is required and 

handled by the SEC’s Division of Trading and Markets in addition to the exemptive relief order 

92. Id. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 39 
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process managed by the SEC’s Division of Investment Management.93 These divisions within the 

SEC, which administer different underlying statutes, can apply different criteria and requirements 

in obtaining approvals, which can also change over time. 

The SEC proposed a rule in 2008 to streamline this unpredictable, lengthy, and expensive ETF 

approval process. The 2008 rule would have generally codified the exemptive relief orders previously issued by the SEC and would have permitted new ETFs to operate without obtaining 

exemptive relief orders under specified conditions.94 The rule would have limited actively managed ETFs to those that provide portfolio transparency to market participants, thereby promoting 

an effective arbitrage mechanism and reducing significant premiums and discounts in secondary 

market transactions. Under the proposed rule, actively managed ETFs would have been permitted 

to continue to seek exemptive order relief through applications to the SEC.95 This proposal was 

never finalized by the SEC. 

The proposed rule would have permitted ETFs to operate without exemptive relief orders from the 

following provisions of the ’40 Act: 

•	 Issuance of “redeemable securities”: The rule would provide exemptive relief from 

Sections 2(a)(32) and 5(a)(1) of the ’40 Act,96 allowing ETFs to register as open-end 

investment companies despite limiting redemptions solely to creation units while excluding individual ETF shares. 

•	 Trading of ETF shares at negotiated prices: The rule would provide exemptive relief 

from Section 22(d) of the ’40 Act97 and Rule 22c-198 thereunder. This would allow ETF 

shares to be purchased and sold at market prices in secondary market transactions and 

not at a price listed in a prospectus or based on the NAV. 

•	 In-kind transactions between ETFs and affiliates: The rule would provide exemptive 

relief from Section 17(a)(1) and Section 17(a)(2) of the ’40 Act,99 allowing certain affiliated entities of an ETF (including but not limited to entities that own more than 5% of 

its voting securities) the ability to purchase and redeem creation units through in-kind 

transactions. 

93.	 17 C.F.R. § 240.19b-4. Certain ETFs are eligible for under generic listing standards previously approved for an 

exchange. In such situations, only a notice is required to be filed with the SEC within five business days after 

commencement of trading. See ETF Request for Comment, 80 Fed. Reg. at 34737-38. 

94.	 Exchange-Traded Funds (Mar. 11, 2008) [73 Fed. Reg. 14618 (Mar. 18, 2008)]. 

95.	 At the same time, the SEC proposed Rule 12d1-4, which codified much of the anti-pyramiding exemptive relief 

generally obtained by ETFs, but eliminated many of the conditions imposed in previously issued exemptive 

orders and would have allowed investment companies to invest in ETFs in excess of the current limits imposed 

by the ’40 Act. Id. 

96.	 15 U.S.C. §§ 80a-2(a)(32) and 80a-5(a)(1). 

97.	 15 U.S.C. § 80a-22(d). 

98.	 17 C.F.R. § 270.22c-1. 

99.	 15 U.S.C. § 80a-17(a)(1) and (a)(2). 

40 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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•	 Additional time for delivering redemption proceeds: The rule would provide exemptive 

relief from Section 22(e) of the ’40 Act,100 allowing an ETF that includes foreign securities in its redemption basket for a period not exceeding 12 days, upon the tender of a 

creation unit for redemption. 

ETFs relying on the proposed rule would have been required to adhere to the following conditions, 

which were designed to be consistent with the ’40 Act and preserve investor protections: 

•	 Transparency of index and portfolio holdings: The ETF would either need to disclose on 

its website the identities and weightings of the component securities and other assets held 

by that ETF, or have a stated investment objective of obtaining investment returns that 

correspond to the returns of a securities index. The ETF’s disclosures must be accessible 

by the public and free of charge. Intraday changes to portfolio holdings or advance notice 

of portfolio trades would not be required. 

•	 Listing of ETF shares on a national securities exchange and dissemination of the 

intraday value of purchase and redemption baskets: The ETF shares would need to be 

approved for listing and trading on a national securities exchange, which discloses at 

regular intervals and during the trading day the intraday value of the securities comprising the purchase and redemption baskets, calculated on a per-share basis. 

•	 Marketing of ETF shares: ETFs under this rule would be required to identify themselves 

in any sales literature as ETFs and explain that they neither sell nor redeem individual 

ETF shares. ETFs would also need to disclose the prior business day’s NAV and the closing market price of ETF shares in secondary market transactions, as well as other data. 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends that the SEC move forward with a “plain vanilla” ETF rule that allows 

entrants to access the market without the cost and delay of obtaining exemptive relief orders, 

subject to conditions the SEC determines appropriate and in the public interest. To this end, the 

SEC should either re-propose or propose a new rule on ETFs for public comment. 

Adopting a plain vanilla ETF rule would not only reduce cost and delay for new entrants, it 

would also enable ETF sponsors to avoid the potential for costly updates to existing exemptive 

relief orders when introducing new products, and help reduce uneven treatment between ETFs. 

Likewise, a plain vanilla ETF rule would enable the SEC staff to focus efforts on more novel and 

more difficult ETF exemptive relief applications and timely responses to these requests. 

Additionally, to streamline the ETF process and reduce inefficiency, the SEC should consider 

establishing a single process for ETF and related approvals rather than allowing SEC divisions to 

set multiple and sometimes conflicting requirements. 

Business Continuity and Transition Planning 

Business continuity planning plays an important role in allowing investment companies and investment advisers to operate during times of disruption. These plans outline how investment advisers 

100. 15 U.S.C. § 80a-22(e). 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 41 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

would minimize investor impact in the event of a major disruption. For example, such plans may 

designate alternate work sites in case of a natural disaster or other disturbance. Disruptive events 

can include natural disasters, cyberattacks, acts of terrorism, technology failures, and departures 

or unavailability of key employees. Business continuity planning helps to ensure that critical functions and activities can continue to operate in adverse conditions; it can also mitigate negative 

effects and facilitate a return to normal operations. 

As the SEC staff has observed, fund complexes and their service providers have developed and 

continually improved their business continuity plans for decades.101 These efforts have been tested 

in recent times, during the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, natural disasters such as 

Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and Hurricane Sandy in 2012, and the economic disruptions of the 

financial crisis, which included the rapid and unexpected exit of major market participants. 

According to the SEC, investment advisers, both during routine times as well as during non-routine 

disruptions, generally transition client accounts without a significant impact to themselves, their 

clients, or the financial markets.102 This can be attributed to the agency relationship of advisers 

managing the assets on behalf of their clients and the custody and asset segregation requirements 

of the ’40 Act and the Advisers Act and the SEC rules thereunder.103 As a result, transitioning 

accounts from one adviser to another is largely a streamlined process that may not even involve the 

legal transfer or sale of assets.104 

Business continuity plans have long been required under investment advisers’ general fiduciary 

obligations to investors.105 The SEC in 2003 adopted Rule 206(4)-7 under the Advisers Act and 

Rule 38a-1 under the ’40 Act to require investment advisers and investment companies to maintain business continuity plans as part of their compliance policies and procedures.106 These rules 

require investment advisers and funds to adopt and implement written compliance policies and 

procedures, including business continuity plans to the extent they are relevant. As principles-based 

rules, they provide investment advisers and investment companies with flexibility to implement 

a business continuity plan appropriate for that particular entity. Since then, the SEC staff has 

provided continued guidance on business continuity planning. The SEC staff has examined fund 

complexes and their critical service providers’ business continuity plans and capabilities following 

disruptive events, and published their findings and guidance in 2016.107 The SEC examination 

101.	 Division of Investment Management, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, IM Guidance Update 2016­

04, Business Continuity Planning for Registered Investment Companies (June 2016), available at: https:// 

www.sec.gov/investment/im-guidance-2016-04.pdf. 

102.	 Adviser Business Continuity and Transition Plans (June 28, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 43530, 43535 (July 5, 2016)] 

(“Business Continuity Proposing Release”). 

103.	 See 15 U.S.C. § 80a-17(f); 15 U.S.C. § 80b-18b. 

104.	 Business Continuity Proposing Release, 81 Fed. Reg. at 43535. 

105.	 See Compliance Programs of Investment Companies and Investment Advisers (Dec. 17, 2003) [68 Fed. Reg. 

74714, 74716 (Dec. 24, 2003)] (“Compliance Rules Release”). 

106.	 Id. 

107.	 Division of Investment Management, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Guidance Update - Business 

Continuity Planning for Registered Investment Companies (June 2016), available at: www.sec.gov/investment/ 

im-guidance-2016-04.pdf. 

42 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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staff published observations after reviewing investment advisers’ business continuity plans in the 

aftermath of Hurricane Sandy in August 2013.108 Also in August 2013, the CFTC staff, SEC staff, 

and FINRA published best practices and lessons learned from Hurricane Sandy in relation to 

business continuity plans.109 

In June 2016, the SEC proposed a new Rule 206(4)-4 under the Advisers Act that would require 

registered investment advisers to adopt and implement written business continuity and transition 

plans “reasonably designed to address operational and other risks related to a significant disruption 

in the investment adviser’s operations.”110 The rule has not been finalized. The proposed rule would 

require policies and procedures concerning: (1) business continuity after a significant business 

disruption, and (2) business transition in the event the investment adviser is unable to continue 

providing investment advisory services to clients.111 The proposed rule contains a number of prescriptive requirements for the content of business continuity and transition plans.112 

In proposing the rule, the SEC cited concerns that business continuity planning was inconsistent 

among investment advisers and, in some instances, not sufficiently robust. The costs of compliance 

with the proposed rule could be significant. The SEC estimated that each registered investment 

adviser would initially spend between $11,000 and $1.3 million to upgrade systems and comply 

with other provisions of the proposed rule, and approximately 25% of those amounts for maintenance each subsequent year. These costs would not only be borne by the 12,000 investment 

advisers currently in operation, but also ultimately their clients, as the costs are likely to be passed 

on by the advisers. 

Recommendations 

Treasury strongly endorses the principle of effective and robust business continuity planning by 

investment advisers and investment companies. With the existing principles-based rule already in 

place, there is no compelling need for additional rulemaking in this area. Treasury recommends 

that the current SEC proposal be withdrawn. 

Treasury further recommends that the SEC and its staff continue to work with investment companies, investment advisers, and other relevant parties to recommend improvements to their business 

continuity plans, to the extent that such plans are determined not to be sufficiently robust, and to 

address new issues as they arise. 

108.	 Office of Compliance Inspections and Examinations, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, National Exam 

Program Risk Alert (Aug. 27, 2013), available at: https://www.sec.gov/about/offices/ocie/business-continuityplans-risk-alert.pdf. 

109.	 CFTC Division of Swap Dealers and Intermediary Oversight, SEC National Examination Program, and FINRA, 

Joint Observations of Business Continuity Planning (Aug. 2013), available at: https://www.sec.gov/about/ 

offices/ocie/jointobservations-bcps08072013.pdf. 

110.	 Business Continuity Proposing Release, 81 Fed. Reg. at 43530. 

111.	 Id. at 43537. 

112.	 Id. at 43534-35. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 43 
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Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

Money Market Mutual Fund Reform 

A money market mutual fund (MMMF) is a type of open-end investment company that 

seeks to maintain a stable NAV of $1 per share.113 MMMFs invest in short duration, low risk 

securities such as U.S Treasuries and high quality commercial paper to provide investors with 

liquidity and higher returns than can otherwise be found in other cash equivalent investments. 

The combination of principal stability, liquidity, and competitive yields has made MMMFs 

popular with retail and institutional investors as a cash management vehicle. 

MMMFs were first established in the early 1970s as a solution to the Federal Reserve’s thenRegulation Q, which at the time prohibited bank demand deposits from paying interest and 

capped the rate of interest on other types of bank accounts at 5.25%.114 MMMFs are typically 

used by investors seeking short-term, liquid, and cash-like investments with the potential for 

some incremental yield relative to cash held at a bank. 

During the fall of 2008, many MMMFs experienced large-scale redemptions and other money 

market funds saw reduced liquidity for the securities of otherwise credit-worthy issuers.115 

Due to illiquidity concerns across the market, some MMMFs were not able to satisfy investor 

redemption requests. In September 2008, the Reserve Primary Fund’s exposure to Lehman 

Brothers led the fund to “break the buck,” or fall below the value of $1 per share. 

The federal government subsequently intervened in the money market, specifically through the 

Asset-Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility. The facility 

was introduced to help MMMFs that held asset-backed commercial paper (ABCP) meet inves 

tors’ demands for redemptions, and to foster liquidity in the ABCP market and money market 

mutual funds more generally. 

In addition, in September 2008, Treasury established a Temporary Guarantee Program for 

Money Market Funds to guarantee the share price of any publicly offered eligible MMMF 

that applied to and paid a fee for participation in the program.116 The program was designed to 

address temporary dislocations in the credit markets. President Bush approved Treasury’s use 

of the assets of the Exchange Stabilization Fund to guarantee payments under the program.117 

In 2010, the SEC undertook a series of reforms to Rule 2a-7, which governs MMMFs. The 

reforms included: (1) daily and weekly liquidity minimums of 10% and 30% of total assets 

respectively, (2) general liquidity requirements, which require portfolio managers to determine 

113.	 See https://www.federalreserve.gov/regreform/reform-glossary.htm (money-market mutual fund). 

114.	 Investment Company Institute, Report of the Money Market Working Group (Mar. 17, 2009), at 21, available at: 

https://ici.org/pdf/ppr_09_mmwg.pdf. 

115.	 Division of Risk, Strategy, and Financial Innovation, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Responses 

to Questions Posed by Commissioners Aguilar, Paredes, and Gallagher (Nov. 30, 2012), at 7, available at: 

https://www.sec.gov/news/studies/2012/money-market-funds-memo-2012.pdf (noting that prime money market fund assets fell by 24%, or $498 billion, during the period September 2, 2008 to October 7, 2008). 

116.	 See U.S. Department of the Treasury, Press Release (Sept. 29, 2008), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/ 

press-center/press-releases/Pages/hp1161.aspx. 

117.	 Id. Section 131 of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, Public Law No. 110-343 (codified at 12 

U.S.C. § 5236), subsequently limited the establishment of any future guaranty program for MMMFs. 

44 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

whether they have additional liquidity needs beyond the rule’s minimum requirements to 

meet reasonably foreseeable shareholder redemptions, (3) portfolio maturity limits of weighted 

average maturity of 60 days or less, and weighted average life of 120 days or less, (4) stress 

testing requirements, requiring funds to determine how they would perform in stressed market 

conditions, (5) portfolio holdings disclosure requirements for the funds to file a report with 

the SEC on a monthly basis, and (6) new Rule 22e-3, which permits fund boards to suspend 

redemptions and payment of redemption proceeds.118 

In 2014, the SEC, following the issuance of proposed recommendations by the FSOC, under 

took additional reforms, the pillar of which requires “prime” (non-government) institutional 

MMMFs to float the NAV of their shares instead of letting the funds maintain the stable 

$1 NAV per share. In addition, boards of directors were given discretion to lower “gates” on 

redemptions, or charge fees of up to 2% if market stress causes a fund’s weekly liquid assets to 

fall below 30%. Retail and government MMMFs were exempted from the rule.119 The compli 

ance date for the floating NAV requirement and liquidity fees and gates was October 14, 2016. 

By October 31, 2016, prime and tax-exempt MMMFs experienced a decrease in assets of $1 

trillion since the beginning of the year, and government MMMFs saw an increase in assets of 

$968 billion during the same period.120 

Dual SEC and CFTC Registration 

In 2012, the CFTC adopted rules that required certain investment companies and investment 

advisers to register with the CFTC as commodity pool operators (CPOs), even if already required 

to register with the SEC.121 Commodity pools are collective investment vehicles designed to trade 

in commodity interests, including futures, options on futures, retail foreign exchange transactions, 

and swaps. 

Registered Investment Companies 

Prior to the 2012 CFTC amendments, investment companies registered with the SEC, and their 

principals or employees, were effectively exempt from the CFTC’s definition of CPOs. The 2012 

amendments, however, narrowed the universe of SEC-registered investment companies and their 

advisers that could be exempt from the CPO definition to funds whose commodity transactions 

(other than for bona fide hedging purposes) do not require aggregate initial margin and premiums 

in excess of 5% of their portfolio’s liquidation value, and where the aggregate net notional value of 

commodity transactions does not exceed 100%.122 Under the 2012 amendments, SEC-registered 

investment companies must also refrain from marketing themselves as vehicles for trading in the 

118.	 Money Market Fund Reform (Feb. 23, 2010) [75 Fed. Reg. 10060 (Mar. 4, 2010)]. 

119.	 Money Market Fund Reform; Amendments to Form PF (July 23, 2014) [79 Fed. Reg. 47736 (Aug. 14, 2014)]. 

120.	 Division of Investment Management, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Money Market Fund Statistics 

(Aug. 18, 2017), at 4, available at: https://www.sec.gov/divisions/investment/mmf-statistics/mmf-statistics-2017-7.pdf. 

121.	 Commodity Pool Operators and Compliance Trading Advisors: Compliance Obligations (Feb. 8, 2012) [77 Fed. 

Reg. 11252 (Feb. 24, 2012)] (“CPO/CTA Compliance Obligations”). 

122.	 17 C.F.R. § 4.5 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 45 
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commodity futures, commodity options, or swaps markets to qualify for exemption from the CPO 

definition. 

The CFTC took action in this area in response to a petition filed by the National Futures 

Association (NFA). The CFTC said one reason for promulgating the amendments was that certain 

SEC-registered investment companies were offering “de facto” commodity pools while claiming 

an exemption under the Commodity Exchange Act (CEA).123 In its petition to the CFTC, the 

NFA expressed concern that three SEC-registered investment companies were being marketed 

to retail customers as commodity futures investments, but were not subject to CFTC and NFA 

regulation.124 In response to public comment that many SEC-registered funds would be swept into 

the CPO definition under the amendments, the CFTC stated that its oversight of these investment 

companies was necessary despite the fact that they were already registered with the SEC.125 

According to the Investment Company Institute, as of early 2016, 101 advisers to SEC-registered 

investment companies were required to dually register with the CFTC after the amendments and 

be subject to separate reporting and regulatory obligations imposed by the CFTC and NFA. Even 

though the CFTC presented the de facto commodity pool issue as one of the principal reasons 

for its 2012 amendments, the CFTC’s expanded jurisdiction now captures many funds that do 

not resemble, or compete with, traditional commodity pools.126 These funds must comply with 

the separate regulatory regime administered by the CFTC and NFA, including obligations for 

disclosure, shareholder reports, financial statements, recordkeeping, and periodic reports under 

the CEA. Although the CFTC provided limited relief to investment companies subject to dual 

registration and regulation by the SEC and CFTC, funds and their advisers must still demonstrate 

compliance with the conditions of such exemptions.127 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends amending the CFTC rules so an investment company registered with the 

SEC and its adviser are exempt from dual registration and regulation by the CFTC as a CPO. To 

address concerns of de facto commodity pools operating without sufficient oversight, the CFTC 

and the SEC should work together to identify a single regulator for these entities, with the goal 

that oversight of these entities will either remain with the SEC or be transferred to the CFTC 

123.	 CPO/CTA Compliance Obligations, at 11254. 

124.	 Letter from Thomas W. Sexton, III, Senior Vice President and General Counsel, NFA, to David Stawick, Office 

of the Secretariat, CFTC (Aug. 18, 2010), available at: https://www.nfa.futures.org/news/newsPetition. 

asp?ArticleID=3630. 

125.	 CPO/CTA Compliance Obligations, 77 Fed. Reg. at 11254. 

126.	 The ICI indicated that the 101 investment advisers served approximately 500 funds that were no longer eligible 

for the CPO exclusion. 

127.	 Harmonization of Compliance Obligations for Registered Investment Companies Required to Register as 

Commodity Pool Operators (Aug. 12, 2013) [78 Fed. Reg. 52,308 (Aug. 22, 2013)]. For example, for relief 

under certain exemptions, the CFTC can make its own independent assessment as to whether disclosures from 

a registered investment company satisfy its obligations under the federal securities laws as well as any informal SEC staff guidance. See 17 U.S.C. § 4.12(c). In 2017, the CFTC updated its recordkeeping requirements 

under the CEA, including amendments that would provide better alignment of CFTC provisions with SEC provisions, but the separate CFTC regulatory structure remains for dually registered entities. See Recordkeeping 

(May 23, 2017) [82 Fed. Reg. 24479 (May 30, 2017)]. 

46 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

and NFA. Treasury further recommends that the CFTC and the SEC cooperate to share information provided by their respective regulated entities so disclosures made to one agency can address 

the information needs of the other agency to monitor the markets for securities and derivatives 

transactions.128 

Advisers to Private Funds 

Advisers to private funds are now generally subject to SEC oversight, after Title IV of Dodd-Frank 

eliminated the applicable exemption from registration under the ’40 Act for such advisers.129 After 

the 2012 amendments, certain advisers to private funds are also required to register with the 

CFTC as CPOs. Specifically, if private funds are offered to investors who are “qualified eligible 

persons” or accredited investors under the SEC’s Regulation D, both the funds and their advisers 

must register with the CFTC as CPOs.130 As a result, certain advisers to private funds are required 

to register with the SEC as an investment adviser and also register with the CFTC as CPOs. 

By comparison, the regulatory treatment of investment advisers that could potentially be categorized as commodity trading advisors (CTAs) is less onerous, and includes provisions designed to 

prevent dual registration requirements with not only the SEC, but also with the CFTC as CTAs. 

Dodd-Frank contained provisions stating that SEC-registered investment advisers are not required 

to register with the CFTC as CTAs if they are not advising commodity pools engaged primarily 

in trading commodity interests. Conversely, a CFTC-registered CTA is not required to register 

with the SEC as an investment adviser, unless its predominant business is giving securities-related 

advice.131 Dodd-Frank did not include similar provisions designed to prevent dual registration 

requirements for CPOs. 

Under the 2012 CFTC rule, many private fund advisers are required to dually register with the 

SEC as investment advisers and the CFTC as CPOs. In the 2012 rulemaking, the CFTC rejected 

commenter suggestions to provide a limited exemption from the CPO registration requirement for 

SEC-registered investment advisers that are not primarily engaged in trading commodity interests, 

finding that dual registration was “not irreconcilable” with Dodd-Frank.132 The CFTC provided no 

analysis of why SEC regulation of investment advisers was inadequate and merely responded that 

“regulation is necessary to ensure a well-functioning market and to provide investor protection.”133 

Thus, absent the availability of a different exemption such as the de minimis exemption, advisers to 

private funds are subject to dual registration with the SEC as investment advisers and the CFTC as 

CPOs, and must comply with the separate regulatory regime under the CFTC and NFA. 

128.	 This recommendation also applies with respect to private fund advisers. 

129.	 See Dodd-Frank § 403. 

130.	 CPO/CTA Compliance Obligations, 77 Fed. Reg. at 11264. The CFTC retained a de minimis exemption for 

entities will less than 5% exposure to commodity interests. Id. at 11261. 

131.	 Dodd-Frank §§ 403 and 749. 

132.	 CPO/CTA Compliance Obligations, 77 Fed. Reg. at 11261-62. 

133.	 Id. at 11262. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 47 
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Recommendations 

Treasury recommends amendments to the CFTC rules that would exempt private funds and their 

advisers from registration as CPOs if the advisers are subject to regulatory oversight by the SEC. 

Treasury also recommends that the CFTC review and determine what, if any, exemptions should 

be made available for SEC-exempt reporting advisers. 

Modernizing the Delivery of Registered Fund Disclosures 

The Securities Act, the Exchange Act, and the ’40 Act impose an extensive set of disclosure requirements on registered investment companies so that investors can make informed investment decisions.134 For example, when purchasing shares of a mutual fund, an investor must be provided with 

a prospectus that contains information about the fund’s objectives, fees and expenses, performance, 

investment strategies, risk factors, performance, and management.135 Mutual funds, ETFs, and 

closed-end funds are required to send a semiannual report to investors, which contains updated 

financial information, a list of the fund’s portfolio securities, and other information.136 The regulatory default is to provide these disclosures in paper by mail unless consent has been obtained for 

electronic delivery. Unfortunately, paper disclosures are often discarded by fund shareholders.137 

Delivering these disclosures in paper comes at a significant expense, which are paid out of fund 

assets. 

Promoting transparency in financial markets and providing appropriate disclosure is a fundamental part of investor protection. Transparency of fund information remains critical to a dynamic 

asset management industry and investor trust and well-being. However, regulatory requirements 

must adapt appropriately to advances in technology and increased access to the Internet across the 

United States. As shown in Figure 7, 84% of U.S. adults have access to the Internet,138 and 92% 

of all mutual fund-owning households have access.139 

134.	 See, e.g., 15 U.S.C. §§ 77e(b), 78m(a), 78o(d), and 80a-29. 

135.	 See, e.g., Form N-1A, 17 C.F.R. §§ 239.15A and 274.11A. 

136.	 17 C.F.R. §§ 270.30e-1 and 270.30e-2. 

137.	 Office of Investor Education and Advocacy, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Mandatory Disclosure 

Documents Telephone Survey (July 30, 2008), at 78, available at: https://www.sec.gov/pdf/disclosuredocs.pdf 

(finding that 50% never, very rarely, or rarely read fund shareholder reports). 

138.	 Andrew Perrin and Maeve Duggan, Pew Research Center, Americans’ Internet Access: 2000-2015 (June 26, 

2015), available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/06/26/americans-internet-access-2000-2015/. 

139.	 ICI Fact Book, at 129. 

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Figure 7: American Adults Who Use the Internet: 2000-2015 (percent) 

100 

75 

50 

25 

0 

2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 

Source: Pew Research Center surveys 

In 2009, the SEC amended its rules to provide mutual funds with a new option for satisfying 

prospectus delivery obligations.140 Under the rule, a fund could give key information to investors 

in a summary prospectus and post the complete statutory prospectus, the statement of additional 

information, and the two most recent shareholder reports on a website.141 Funds that elect to use 

a summary prospectus must send the statutory prospectus to the investor upon request. According 

to SEC staff, the vast majority of funds now use a summary prospectus. 

In May 2015, the SEC proposed Rule 30e-3 under the ’40 Act that would permit a mutual fund 

to transmit shareholder reports through a website.142 A fund relying on the proposed rule would 

be required to comply with certain conditions, including making the shareholder report and other 

information publicly accessible and free of charge on a website, providing notice to shareholders of 

the availability of the shareholder report online, and allowing shareholders to request paper copies 

by mail. The website materials must be presented in a format convenient for reading online and 

printing on paper and permit a person to retain an electronic version. Most notably, the proposed 

rule would permit the use of implied consent to delivery by website in the absence of further 

instruction from the shareholder. The rule has not been finalized by the SEC. 

140. Enhanced Disclosure and New Prospectus Delivery Option for Registered Open-End Management Investment 

Companies (Jan. 13, 2009) [74 Fed. Reg. 4546 (Jan. 26, 2009)]. 

141. 17 C.F.R. § 230.498. 

142. Investment Company Reporting Modernization (May 20, 2015) [80 Fed. Reg. 33590 (June 12, 2015)]. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 49 
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The delivery of fund reports and other materials by electronic means, such as a website, would 

enable significant cost savings. Electronic delivery could also enable a greater level of detail and 

information to reach investors through an online platform that would likely enhance the user 

experience and provide greater educational value for investors. For fund shareholder reports alone, 

such a change could save investors up to $2 billion over the next 10 years while reducing significant 

environmental waste.143 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends that the SEC finalize its proposed rule to modernize its shareholder report 

disclosure requirements and permit the use of implied consent for electronic disclosures. The SEC 

should explore other areas for which the delivery of information to investors through an electronic 

medium using implied consent is appropriate and consistent with investor protection. As part of 

this effort, Treasury encourages consideration of innovative uses of new technology to enhance the 

delivery of information to fund investors. 

Notwithstanding the benefits of electronic delivery, Treasury recognizes that not all persons have 

access to the Internet. In addition, some investors will prefer to receive their disclosures in paper 

rather than electronically. Consistent with the Core Principles, Treasury strongly believes that 

investors should retain the choice to continue receiving paper disclosures. 

Asset Management Reporting and Disclosure Requirements 

Ensuring the prudent, efficient, and effective collection of data by financial regulators is critical 

to their role of overseeing the financial markets. The asset management industry is subject to a 

significant number of reporting obligations, which provide regulatory and public transparency 

into their activities. 

Reporting obligations are imposed both at the asset manager level and the fund level. These obligations come from a variety of sources, including the securities laws, the derivatives laws, and SRO 

rules. 

Investment advisers must report certain information on Form ADV to register with either the SEC 

or the states, and once registered, must update the form annually.144 In 2016, the SEC adopted 

amendments to Form ADV, which included enhanced disclosure requirements on separately managed accounts advised by asset managers.145 Investment advisers to private funds also need to 

provide information on Form PF.146 Form PF contains specific disclosure requirements for large 

hedge fund advisers, large liquidity fund advisers, and large private equity advisers. If the registered 

investment adviser is also a publicly traded company, the adviser will have additional reporting 

143.	 ICI Viewpoints, The SEC’s Online-Delivery Gift to Fund Shareholders (Apr. 4, 2016), available at: https://www. 

ici.org/viewpoints/view_16_sec_shareholder_gift. 

144.	 15 U.S.C. § 80b-3(c); 17 C.F.R. § 275.204-1. 

145.	 Form ADV and Investment Adviser Act Rules (Aug. 25, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 60418 (Sept. 1, 2016)]. 

146.	 17 C.F.R. § 275.204(b)-1. 

50 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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obligations under the federal securities laws to file audited financial statements and other information with the SEC.147 

Registered investment companies are subject to many ongoing disclosure requirements. Mutual 

funds, which are engaged in a continuous offering, must update their prospectuses and registration 

statements on an annual basis.148 Funds other than MMMFs are required to report portfolio holdings on a quarterly basis.149 The portfolio holdings data will be significantly enhanced by recently 

adopted Form N-PORT, which will require reporting on a monthly basis once it becomes effective.150 In addition, funds will be required to report aggregate purchase and sales of fund shares on 

Form N-PORT.151 As part of its rulemaking to modernize fund reporting, the SEC introduced an 

annual requirement to provide census-like information on a new form, Form N-CEN. Registered 

investment companies are required to report their proxy voting record through Form N-PX on an 

annual basis.152 

The SEC requires MMMFs to disclose information pursuant to a specially tailored reporting 

regime.153 The SEC requires MMMFs to report their portfolio holdings monthly and to publicly 

disclose monthly holdings on the fund’s website.154 MMMFs also have a requirement to report 

to the SEC within one business day after the occurrence of a material event, such as a default, 

insolvency of a portfolio security, or imposition of liquidity fees.155 

Asset managers and investment companies are subject to reporting obligations that generally apply 

to any market participant. Funds must report significant stakes in public companies by filing 

Schedule 13D or 13G.156 Asset managers, registered investment companies, and private funds may 

also be required to file Form 13H under the large trader reporting rules.157 Asset managers who 

exercise investment discretion over at least $100 million in equity securities traded on national 

securities exchanges must report positions quarterly on Schedule 13F.158 

Asset managers who are commodity pool operators or commodity trading advisers have additional 

reporting obligations. CPOs and CTAs register with the CFTC through the National Futures 

Association, an SRO.159 Although Form PF is a joint form for investment advisers to private funds, 

147.	 See 15 U.S.C. §§ 78(m) and 78o(d) and rules thereunder. 

148.	 15 U.S.C. § 77j(a)(3). 

149.	 Registered investment companies are required to disclose publicly their schedule of investments on Form N-Q 

after the first and third quarters of their fiscal year and on Form N-CSR after the second and fourth quarters of 

their fiscal year. 

150.	 Investment Company Reporting Modernization (Oct. 13, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 81870 (Dec, 18, 2016)]. 

151.	 Id. 

152.	 17 C.F.R. § 270.30b1-4. 

153.	 Money Market Fund Reform (Feb. 23, 2010) [75 Fed. Reg. 10060 (Mar. 4, 2010)]. 

154.	 17 C.F.R. §§ 270.30b1-7 and 270.2a-7(h)(10). 

155.	 17 C.F.R. § 270.30b1-8. 

156.	 17 C.F.R. § 240.13d-1. 

157.	 See Large Trader Reporting (July 27, 2011) [76 Fed. Reg. 46960 (Aug. 3, 2011)]. 

158.	 17 C.F.R. § 240.13f-1. 

159.	 See https://www.nfa.futures.org/registration-membership/who-has-to-register/index.html. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 51 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

CPOs, and CTAs, asset managers have asserted that under some circumstances they must still 

make reports on Forms CPO-PQR, CTA-PR, PQR, and PR. To the extent that the asset manager 

is filing SEC reports on the same pooled investment vehicle, there may be some duplication. 

The SEC, CFTC, and NFA have undertaken efforts to harmonize reporting obligations, but in 

outreach meetings with Treasury, asset managers indicated that differences remained in reporting 

with respect to definitional terms, methodologies, and timing. 

Duplicative reporting requirements can add considerable burden and costs to funds that are passed 

on to investors. Reporting requirements can be particularly challenging to the extent that an asset 

manager serves as investment adviser to mutual funds, ETFs, private funds, and separately managed accounts. With new reporting requirements, asset managers and funds are working toward 

meeting reporting deadlines, but are faced with time-consuming operational complexities of integrating and developing new systems to pull information from different sources, coordinating with 

third party service providers, and testing to ensure that information is accurate. 

Among the more troubling aspects of reporting are multiple types of required reporting 

formats that essentially request the same information, but in a slightly different manner 

or based on different timing, for example, when some reports are based on calendar year 

while others use fiscal year. The cumulative effect of these duplicative and onerous regulatory requirements serves to artificially inflate costs, which are passed on to the individual 

investor. Cost of reporting requirements also serve as barriers to entry for new competitors, 

thereby depriving investors of more choices. 

Recommendations 

Treasury strongly endorses the principle of transparency and investor protection as it pertains to 

the asset management industry and financial markets more broadly. Thorough reporting of fund 

holdings and other key financial data is essential to a well-functioning financial system. 

However, given the immense data reporting requirements added over the past few years, the SEC, 

the CFTC, SROs, and other regulators should work together to rationalize and harmonize the 

reporting regimes. Where possible, duplicative forms should be combined and any unnecessary or 

inconsistent data collection should be eliminated. Treasury recommends that regulators continue 

to update reporting requirements to utilize structured data where appropriate. 

52 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
-

Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

Information Security 

Information security and protection is of paramount importance in an increasingly digital 

global financial system. The collection of data by federal agencies and regulators into a single 

system or data repository administered by one or multiple entities can raise serious information 

security concerns if not adequately protected. A security breach could expose firms or funds in 

the asset management industry to predatory trading practices or the replication of proprietary 

fund investment strategies, among other concerns. A security breach also has the potential to 

result in material loss of value for shareholders and individual investors in affected funds. 

A Government Accountability Office (GAO) report released in July 2017 noted that the SEC 

“improved the security controls over its key financial systems and information” from a previ 

ous GAO audit but had not fully implemented prior GAO recommendations focused on 

protecting fund information and the systems and networks in which that data is administered. 

Furthermore, GAO uncovered additional data security control deficiencies impacting the 

“confidentiality, integrity, and availability of its information systems.”160 

Cybersecurity intrusions to non-public information maintained by federal financial regulators 

have already occurred. In September 2017, the SEC announced that a software vulnerability 

in the test filing component of its EDGAR system was exploited and resulted in access to 

non-public information, which may have provided the basis for illicit gains through trading.161 

Treasury recommends that all regulatory agencies that collect any form of data from registered 

firms in the asset management industry redouble efforts to ensure the information security 

measures are meeting and exceeding standards set by Congress and the recommendations of 

other federal oversight bodies such as the GAO. 

The Volcker Rule 

Section 619 of Dodd-Frank is commonly referred to as the Volcker Rule. Five federal regulatory 

agencies are responsible for implementing the rule: the Federal Reserve, Federal Deposit Insurance 

Corporation (FDIC), Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), SEC, and CFTC. 

Treasury has a statutory role to coordinate the rulemaking. The Volcker Rule was discussed in 

detail in Treasury’s June 2017 Report published by Treasury on Banks and Credit Unions (Banking 

Report). 

In the Banking Report, Treasury recommended substantial amendment to the Volcker Rule. 

Treasury recommended that the proprietary trading restrictions of the Volcker Rule not apply to 

banking entities with greater than $10 billion in assets unless they exceed a threshold amount of 

trading assets and liabilities. Treasury also identified ways of reducing the complexity of the rule to 

decrease regulatory burden, such as simplifying the definition of proprietary trading and allowing 

banking entities to more easily hedge their risks and conduct market-making activities. Treasury 

160.	 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Information Security: SEC Improved Control of Financial Systems but 

Needs to Take Additional Actions (July 2017). 

161.	 Chairman Jay Clayton, Statement on Cybersecurity (Sept. 20, 2017), available at: https://www.sec.gov/news/ 

public-statement/statement-clayton-2017-09-20. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 53 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

also recommended changes to the compliance program requirements to decrease regulatory burden, and increased coordination among the five responsible regulatory agencies. 

Some provisions of the Volcker Rule have a particular impact on the asset management industry. 

In the Banking Report, Treasury recommended modifying the covered fund provisions of the rule 

to decrease regulatory burden, including by refining the definition of “covered fund” and extending the seeding period exemption from one year to three years. Treasury further recommended 

that banking entities other than depository institutions and their holding companies should be 

permitted to share a name with funds they sponsor, provided that the separate identity of the fund 

is clearly disclosed to investors. Finally, the Volcker Rule’s application on affiliates and subsidiaries 

of “banking entities” is predicated on the Bank Holding Company Act’s definition of “control”, 

which may not be appropriate for certain funds. 

Since the publication of Treasury’s Banking Report, the FSOC has considered potential improvements to the Volcker Rule;162 the three federal banking regulators announced that they would not 

take action under the Volcker Rule for certain foreign funds for one year;163 the Federal Reserve 

issued new guidance on the procedures banking entities can follow to request extensions of the 

one-year seeding period for covered funds;164 and the OCC issued a request for public comment 

on potential changes to the Volcker Rule.165 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends regulators take further action to reduce the burden of the Volcker Rule on 

asset managers and investors. The relevant agencies should continue to refrain from enforcing the 

Volcker Rule’s proprietary trading restrictions against foreign private funds that are not “covered 

funds” under the rule until a permanent solution to the identified challenges is implemented. The 

agencies should also forbear on enforcement of the restriction on funds sharing names with banking entities, consistent with the recommendation in Treasury’s Banking Report under Executive 

Order 13772. Treasury also recommends that Congress revise the definition of “banking entity” to 

encompass only insured depository institutions, their holding companies, foreign banking organizations, and affiliates and subsidiaries of such entities, defined as those in which there is 25% or 

more voting equity or voting power on the investment committee.166 

162.	 U.S. Department of the Treasury, Press Release (July 28, 2017), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fsoc/council-meetings/Documents/7-28-17%20FSOC%20readout.pdf. 

163.	 Joint Press Release (July 21, 2017), available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/pressreleases/ 

bcreg20170721a.htm. 

164.	 Division of Supervision and Regulation, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Procedures for a 

Banking Entity to Request an Extension of the One-Year Seeding Period for a Covered Fund (July 24, 2017), 

available at: https://www.federalreserve.gov/supervisionreg/srletters/sr1705.htm. 

165.	 Proprietary Trading and Certain Interests in and Relationships with Covered Funds (Volcker Rule); Request for 

Public Input (Aug. 1, 2017) [82 Fed. Reg. 36692 (Aug. 7, 2017)]. 

166.	 See 12 U.S.C. § 1841(a)(2)(A). 

54 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
 

Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

International Engagement 

The United States features the most vibrant capital markets in the world. Fourteen of the 20 largest 

global asset managers, in terms of assets under management, are based in the United States, and the 

world’s 20 largest mutual funds are managed by U.S. asset managers. Market-based intermediation 

through asset management entities enhances the efficiency, and contributes to the overall resilience, 

of the domestic and international financial systems. Because these successful U.S. businesses are 

multinational companies, appropriate regulatory cooperation across jurisdictions is vital to promote a global level playing field for these firms. The U.S. regulators and private sector participants 

are actively engaged in bilateral and multilateral forums to promote consistent regulatory standards 

across borders. 

Figure 8: Top 50 Worldwide Mutual Funds, Money Market Funds, and 

Exchange-Traded Funds 

Rank Name Domicile Total Net Assets 

($ millions) 

1 Vanguard Total Stock Market Index Fund United States 596,476 

2 Vanguard S&P 500 ETF Index Fund United States 338,259 

3 Vanguard Total International Stock Index Fund United States 295,121 

4 SPDR S&P 500 ETF United States 242,542 

5 Vanguard Institutional Index Fund United States 229,582 

6 Vanguard Total Bond Market Index Fund United States 185,539 

7 American Funds The Growth Fund of America United States 167,278 

8 American Funds EuroPacific Growth Fund United States 149,890 

9 JPMorgan U.S. Government Money Market Fund United States 142,072 

10 Vanguard Total Bond Market II Index Fund United States 133,884 

11 Fidelity Government Cash Reserves United States 130,878 

12 Fidelity 500 Index Fund United States 122,893 

13 iShares Core S&P 500 ETF United States 121,908 

14 Fidelity Contrafund Fund United States 116,093 

15 American Funds American Balanced Fund United States 115,903 

16 American Funds The Income Fund of America United States 107,503 

17 American Funds Capital Income Builder United States 106,279 

18 Vanguard Wellington Fund United States 101,663 

19 Vanguard Prime Money Market Fund United States 96,140 

20 Fidelity Investments Money Market Funds Government Portfolio United States 95,018 

21 American Funds Washington Mutual Investors Fund United States 93,681 

22 JPMorgan Liquidity Funds - U.S. Dollar Liquidity Fund Luxembourg 93,625 

23 American Funds Capital World Growth and Income Fund United States 93,100 

24 Vanguard Developed Markets Index Fund United States 92,798 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 55 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Figure 8: Top 50 Worldwide Mutual Funds, Money Market Funds, and 

Exchange-Traded Funds continued 

Rank Name Domicile Total Net Assets 

($ millions) 

25 PIMCO Income Fund United States 92,007 

26 American Funds Fundamental Investors United States 89,502 

27 Vanguard Total International Bond Index Fund United States 88,550 

28 American Funds Investment Company of America United States 88,381 

29 Vanguard Mid Cap Index Fund United States 87,954 

30 Fidelity Government Money Market Fund United States 85,294 

31 Goldman Sachs Financial Square Government Fund United States 85,007 

32 Franklin Income Fund United States 83,129 

33 Vanguard Emerging Markets Stock Index Fund United States 81,755 

34 Metropolitan West Total Return Bond Fund United States 79,765 

35 BlackRock Liquidity Funds FedFund United States 79,259 

36 iShares MSCI EAFE ETF United States 78,691 

37 Vanguard Small Cap Index Fund United States 77,622 

38 Vanguard Federal Money Market Fund United States 76,194 

39 PIMCO Total Return Fund United States 73,295 

40 American Funds New Perspective Fund United States 71,360 

41 AustralianSuper Balanced Australia 67,931 

42 Dreyfus Government Cash Management Fund United States 67,290 

43 Dodge & Cox Stock Fund United States 67,181 

44 Vanguard Growth Index Fund United States 66,398 

45 Federated Government Obligations Fund United States 66,249 

46 Vanguard REIT Index Fund United States 64,623 

47 Dodge & Cox International Stock Fund United States 64,392 

48 Vanguard Short Term Investment Grade Fund United States 62,089 

49 Wells Fargo Government Money Market Fund United States 60,768 

50 Amundi Cash Corporate France 59,612 

Source: Morningstar Direct 

Note: Assets as of 7/2017 

Multilateral standard setting framework 

The International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) is the international body that 

brings together the world’s securities regulators and is recognized as the international standard-setter 

for the securities sector. IOSCO develops and promotes adherence to internationally recognized 

56 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

standards for securities regulation. Its members are 215 securities regulators, including the SEC 

and the CFTC, from 115 jurisdictions.167 

IOSCO works closely with the Financial Stability Board (FSB) on the international regulatory 

reform agenda. The FSB was established in 2009 as the successor to the Financial Stability Forum, 

with a broadened mandate to promote financial stability.168 The FSB membership consists of 70 

representatives from 25 jurisdictions and 10 international organizations and standard-setting bodies (SSBs).169 Treasury, the Federal Reserve, and the SEC are the U.S. members of the FSB.170 

The CFTC is not a member, but participates in select FSB activities. It is important to note, in 

the context of multilateral standard setting, that entities such as IOSCO and FSB have no legal 

authority or jurisdiction over the United States. 

The FSB’s objective is to enhance cooperation at the international level regarding the work of 

national financial authorities and international SSBs to develop and promote the implementation 

of effective regulatory, supervisory, and other financial-sector policies. In collaboration with other 

international financial institutions, the FSB works to identify and propose measures for vulnerabilities affecting financial systems in the interest of global financial stability.171 

Because the objectives of the FSB are broadly worded, the FSB has wide parameters in which to 

operate. In some cases, the FSB has gone beyond its core mission of enhancing global financial 

stability into areas where the connection has been more tenuous. For example, the FSB has had 

extensive work streams on measures to address firm-level misconduct risk, monitor compensation 

structures, and evaluate governance frameworks that appear more supervisory in nature than related 

to financial stability. A second example is the FSB’s efforts to work on climate-related financial 

disclosures, on which the FSB convened a task force of private individuals to develop voluntary 

disclosure standards. Treasury strongly believes that the FSB’s objectives should be focused on its 

mission of enhancing global financial stability. 

One of the Core Principles is to advance American interests in international financial regulatory 

negotiations and meetings. To this end, U.S. engagement in the FSB and international financial 

regulatory SSBs remains important to promote financial stability, level the playing field for U.S. 

financial institutions, and prevent unnecessary and overly burdensome regulatory standard-setting 

that could stifle financial innovation. While the FSB has a wide mandate to evaluate whether 

various vulnerabilities could create global financial stability risk and should be addressed through 

regulatory action, Treasury’s position is that the FSB’s activities should be limited to its purpose 

of monitoring and enhancing global financial stability. Wherever possible, financial stability risk 

assessments and standards should be tailored to industry sectors and undertaken by the appropriate 

167.	 See https://www.iosco.org/about/?subsection=about_iosco. 

168.	 See http://www.fsb.org/about/#history. 

169.	 Financial Stability Board, 3rd Annual Report (July 25, 2016), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/ 

uploads/FSB-3rd-Annual-Report.pdf. 

170.	 Americans may also participate in the plenary based of their roles in other capacities. For example, the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York currently serves as chairman of the Committee on the Global 

Financial System and participates in the FSB plenary in that capacity. 

171.	 See Charter of the Financial Stability Board (June 2012), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/ 

FSB-Charter-with-revised-Annex-FINAL.pdf. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 57 
Bas

Sup

Develo

standa

Develo

system

(with F

Develo

non-ce

IOSCO

Monito

standa

Inte

Secu

Develo

adhere

oversig

Enhan

promo

market

Exchan

market

implem

Int

Ins

Develo

system

compa

Develo

Figure 9: Se

Architecture 

Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Figure 9: Selected International Bodies Comprising the International Financial 

Architecture 

Reports on progress of implementation 

Financial Stability Board (FSB) 

Coordinator for International 

Financial Reforms 

Develop standards on resolution regimes, 

compensation 

Identify global systemically important 

financial institutions (with Basel Committee, 

IAIS1, IOSCO2) 

Monitor reform implementation across 

members and financial sector vulnerabilities 

Report to G20 

Promote adherance to international 

standards 

Group of Twenty (G20) 

Major Global Economies 

Recommended 

standards 

Reports 

Identify and commit to key financial Tasks Coordinates reform areas 

Delegate reform standards development and implementation monitoring to 


other international organizations
 

Endorse standards developed by 

international organizations 

International Monetary Fund (IMF) 

Global Financial Sector 

Institution 

Review and assessment of financial sectors 

(e.g. through Article IV surveillance, 

mandatory financial stability assessments, 

Financial Sector Assessment Program, 

reports on the observance of standards and 

codes) 

Conduct early warning exercises jointly with 

FSB 

Work with FSB and others on standards 

development issues

Recommended standards 

1 International Association of Insurance Supervisors 

2 International Organization of Securities Commissions 

Source: GAO (2014), Treasury analysis, based on international organization websites and U.S. federal agencies 

58 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
es, 

ttee, 

ities

F)

tors 

ts, 

 and 

with 

s 

on

al agencies

ncial 

Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Figure 9: Selected International Bodies Comprising the International Financial 

Architecture continued 

Standard-setting bodies (SSBs) 

Basel Committee on Banking 

Supervision (Basel Committee) 

Banking 

Develops capital, liquidity, and leverage 

standards (Basel 2, 2.5, 3) 

Develops framework for global 

systemically important banks (G-SIBs) 

(with FSB) 

Develops margin requirements for 

non-centrally cleared derivatives (with 

IOSCO) 

Monitor Compliance with Basel 

standards 

International Organization of
 

Securities Commissions (IOSCO)
 

Securities 

Develop, implement, and promote 

adherence to standards of regulation, 

oversight, and enforcement 

Enhance investor protection and 

promote confidence in securities 

markets integrity 

Exchange information to develop 

markets, strengthen infrastructure, and 

implement appropriate regulation 

International Association of 

Insurance Supervisors (IAIS) 

Insurance 

Develops framework for global 

systemically important insurance 

companies (G-SIIs) 

Develops Insurance Core Principles 

International Accounting Standards 

Board (IASB) 

Accounting 

Develop high quality, understandable, 

enforceable, and globally accepted 

accounting standards 

International Association of Deposit 


Insurers (IADI)
 

Deposit Insurance 

Develop principles for strengthening 

national deposit insurance 

arrangements 

Committee on Payment and 

Settlement Systems (CPSS) 

Payment and Settlement 

Develop principles for financial market 

infrastructures (with IOSCO) 

Monitor financial market infrastructures 

(with IOSCO) 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 59 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

standard-setter with the necessary technical supervisory expertise (e.g., IOSCO for asset management and the International Association of Insurance Supervisors (IAIS) for insurance). 

Multilateral work on asset management 

Global systemically important financial institutions (G-SIFIs) are defined by the FSB as 

financial institutions whose distress or disorderly failure, because of their size, complexity 

and systemic interconnectedness, would cause significant disruption to the wider financial system and economic activity. The FSB’s initial attention on too-big-to-fail institutions 

was the catalyst to establish a framework focused on financial institutions, known as the 

entity-based approach. As the FSB developed this framework, the need for a differentiated 

approach to diverse sectors within the financial system became clear. This was particularly 

true in the areas of insurance and asset management. 

In 2014 and 2015, the FSB undertook two rounds of consultations on proposed methodologies 

for identifying nonbank, non-insurer global systemically important financial institutions (NBNI 

G-SIFIs). These methodologies proposed to evaluate the global footprint of asset management 

firms, broker-dealers, and finance companies. The FSB’s 2014 consultation on asset management 

asked for public feedback on a number of methods for identifying NBNI G-SIFIs that were generally based on size of assets under management.172 There was considerable push back to this 

approach, as it would have, in effect, singled out U.S. mutual funds as the only funds that would be 

subject to further review for NBNI G-SIFI designation, and did not adequately take into account 

the underlying risks of the funds or their fund managers. 

In March 2015, the FSB issued a second consultative document that suggested a revised methodology for identifying NBNI G-SIFIs that also used size as the initial screening method for funds.173 

The consultation suggested two options for funds: (1) $100 billion in net assets under management, or (2) $200 billion in gross assets under management unless it could be demonstrated that 

the fund is not a dominant player in its markets. Asset managers would be subject to consideration 

if they held $100 billion on their balance sheets or had $1 trillion of assets under management. As 

with the 2014 consultation, the initial screening criteria would have effectively centered on large 

U.S. mutual funds and U.S. asset managers as candidates for G-SIFI designation. 

Subsequently, the FSB and IOSCO concluded that working on activities, rather than specific 

entities, would be a more appropriate way to monitor and address any systemic risk in the asset 

management sector. The FSB’s initial NBNI G-SIFI methodologies for the asset management 

industry were never finalized or approved. More recently, in January 2017, the FSB acknowledged 

172.	 Financial Stability Board and IOSCO, Consultative Document, Assessment Methodologies for Identifying 

Non-Bank Non-Insurer Global Systemically Important Financial Institutions: Proposed High-Level Framework 

and Specific Methodologies (Jan. 8, 2014), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/r_140108. 

pdf. 

173.	 Financial Stability Board and IOSCO, 2nd Consultative Document, Assessment Methodologies for Identifying 

Non-Bank Non-Insurer Global Systemically Important Financial Institutions: Proposed High-Level Framework 

and Specific Methodologies (Mar. 4, 2015), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/2nd-ConDoc-on-NBNI-G-SIFI-methodologies.pdf. 

60 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

that asset managers and investment funds pose very different structural issues from banks and 

insurance companies because asset managers act as agents who are appointed by investors in accordance with pre-defined investment strategies.174 

Instead of an entities-based approach, the FSB, in consultation with IOSCO, set out 14 policy 

recommendations to address the structural vulnerabilities from asset management activities that 

could potentially present financial stability risks.175 The FSB identified four structural vulnerabilities associated with asset management activities posing potential financial stability risks: 

(1) liquidity mismatch between fund investments and redemption terms for open-end funds, 

(2) leverage within investment funds, (3) operational risk and challenges at asset managers in 

stressed conditions, and (4) securities lending activities of asset managers and funds. The FSB 

viewed liquidity mismatch and leverage as the key vulnerabilities on which to focus. 

In July 2017, IOSCO proposed to reaffirm and enhance the guidance set out in the 2013 Liquidity 

Report as proposed in a new consultation on liquidity risk management for funds.176 IOSCO has 

been asked to complete its work on the liquidity recommendations by the end of 2017 and on 

leverage measures by the end of 2018. 

Around the same time, the FSB issued another assessment covering shadow banking, including 

asset management, and announced that it would continue to hold open the option to focus on any 

residual entity-based source of systemic risk.177 Specifically, the FSB recommended that all member 

authorities establish a systematic process for ensuring that any entities or activities that could pose 

material financial stability risks are brought within the regulatory perimeter. The FSB reiterated 

that it and IOSCO “will re-visit the proposed [NBNI G-SIFI] methodologies after IOSCO completes its work to operationalize the FSB recommendations to address asset management structural 

vulnerabilities, with a focus on any residual entity-based sources of systemic risk from distress or 

disorderly failure that cannot be effectively addressed by market-wide activities-based policies.”178 

174.	 Financial Stability Board, Policy Recommendations to Address Structural Vulnerabilities from Asset 

Management Activities (Jan. 12, 2017), at 8, available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/FSB-PolicyRecommendations-on-Asset-Management-Structural-Vulnerabilities.pdf (“FSB Policy Recommendations”). The 

limited historical evidence of systemic risks arising from investment funds cited by the FSB includes few examples — the 1998 collapse of leveraged hedge fund Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) and issues with 

money market mutual funds (MMMFs) during the 2008 financial crisis. LTCM occurred during a period during which private funds and their investment advisers were generally exempt from SEC registration and reporting requirements; that situation has been rectified and the SEC and Office of Financial Research now receive 

extensive data on private funds. MMMFs are distinctly different in operation than other types of funds, and the 

SEC’s recent structural reforms of MMMFs significantly addressed the risks they could pose. 

175.	 Id. 

176.	 International Organization of Securities Commissions, Consultation on CIS Liquidity Risk Management 

Recommendations (July 2017), available at: https://www.iosco.org/library/pubdocs/pdf/IOSCOPD573.pdf. The 

consultation period ended in September 2017. 

177.	 Financial Stability Board, Assessment of Shadow Banking Activities, Risks and the Adequacy of Post-Crisis 

Policy Tools to Address Financial Stability Concerns (July 3, 2017), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/P300617-1.pdf. 

178.	 Id. at 18. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 61 
 

Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Improving transparency and accountability 

While international standards are not binding on the United States and must be separately 

implemented by domestic regulators, FSB members and stakeholders can benefit from 

increased transparency and accountability in the international standard setting process. 

Although the FSB has published consultative drafts of some proposed policy documents, 

these consultations are not subject to requirements comparable to the Administrative 

Procedure Act. Also, FSB consultative drafts and other policy papers generally do not disclose whether the responsible party for drafting such papers is from the FSB secretariat or 

from an FSB member agency. 

Figure 10: The G-20 Initiated Financial Reform Process 

Group of Twenty 

(G20) 

Individual G20 

members 

International 

bodies 

Individual member 

jurisdictions 

Translate reform 

Identifies reform 	 Agree to areas into 

commitments implementation Implementation standards 

Monitor 

Recommend standards 

Source: GAO (2014), based on international organization website information 

Additionally, the FSB’s meetings with industry are generally invitation-only during public consultation periods, and without public records of its discussions. Commenters on FSB policy recommendations can request confidential treatment, which further restricts the ability of the public to 

benefit from responses of commenters. Thus, the public may not have full insight as to the analysis 

and data that FSB is considering. There is also no FSB requirement to conduct pre-implementation 

economic analysis.179 Unlike in the United States, where agencies conducting a rulemaking must 

examine all relevant data provided by interested persons after the notice and comment period has 

ended and articulate a basis for their actions, the FSB is not required to do so. 

179.	 Treasury supports the FSB’s efforts to evaluate the effects of financial regulatory reforms. See Financial 

Stability Board, Framework for Post-Implementation Evaluation of the Effects of the G20 Financial Regulatory 

Reforms (July 3, 2017), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/P030717-4.pdf. 

62 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
 

Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Use of “Shadow Banking” 

FSB reports and other reports often use the term “shadow banking” to describe credit intermediation involving entities and actitivities (fully or partly) outside of the regular banking system. 

Notwithstanding the inclusion of a footnote disclaimer180 that appear in select FSB documents, 

Treasury prefers to transition to a different term, “market based finance.” Applying the term “shadow 

banking” to registered investment companies is particularly inappropriate as the word "shadow" 

could be interpreted as implying insufficient regulatory oversight, or disclosure. Registered investment companies, as described in this report, are regulated by the SEC and provide extensive public 

and regulatory transparency of fund portfolio holdings on a quarterly, monthly and, in some cases, 

daily basis. 

Recommendations 

Treasury strongly supports continued U.S. participation in international SSBs such as the FSB and 

IOSCO to promote U.S. interests. Moreover, Treasury believes that the U.S. should play a leading 

role in those SSBs, particularly with respect to financial market supervision and asset management 

where our firms and markets are the largest in the world. U.S. agencies that have seats on the FSB, 

IOSCO, or other international SSBs, as well as staff members from U.S. regulators assigned to 

work with these entities, should more effectively coordinate their representation on behalf of the 

United States. 

Treasury recommends further improvements to the FSB and SSB processes to better promote 

transparency, accountability, and appropriate representation with respect to policymaking. We 

encourage the FSB to expand its practice of posting summaries of the comments raised in the 

consultation process and changes made to address such comments.181 

Treasury recommends that U.S. representatives to FSB and IOSCO review the particular processes 

used by each international SSB and work to ensure that they utilize a collaborative process that 

includes, where appropriate, economic analysis and subject-matter expertise at the relevant SSB. 

Processes for international SSBs should be thorough, fair, and provide appropriate opportunity 

for public input and discussion. Those processes should include clear definition of issues to be 

addressed, rigorous examination of evidence, and reasoned analysis and explanations. 

Treasury recommends that the FSB transition away from using the term “shadow banking” in its 

monitoring of credit intermediation outside of the regular banking sector. 

180.	 The standard footnote, as used in the FSB’s 2016 Shadow Banking Monitoring Report states that: “The FSB 

defines shadow banking as ‘credit intermediation involving entities and activities (fully or partly) outside of the 

regular banking system.’ Some authorities and market participants prefer to use other terms such as ‘marketbased finance’ instead of ‘shadow banking.’ The use of the term ‘shadow banking’ is not intended to cast a 

pejorative tone on this system of credit intermediation. However, the FSB uses the term ‘shadow banking’ as 

this is the most commonly employed and, in particular, has been used in earlier G20 communications.” Treasury 

notes that some FSB documents, such as press releases, do not contain the full disclaimer. 

181.	 See, e.g., Financial Stability Board, Guidance on Central Counterparty Resolution and Resolution Planning: 

Overview of Responses to the Public Consultation (July 24, 2017), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/P250717-3.pdf. References to specific comment letters in the summaries could further improve 

transparency. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 63 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

Finally, and more specific to the work on asset management and insurance, the U.S. members of 

the FSB should work to revise the G-SIFI framework so it appropriately takes into account the differentiated ways that sectors are structured and manage risks. Reliance on the technical supervisory 

expertise at the SSBs is important to this tailoring effort. 

Economic Growth and Informed Choices 

The asset management industry plays an important role in facilitating the flow of resources from 

investors into the capital markets. A significant amount of such resources is provided by retirement 

savings. Having a broad array of choices permits retirement investors to select investments that match 

their particular risk tolerances. Robust capital markets can promote economic growth, including 

job creation, infrastructure development, and increased standards of living. Regulatory burdens that 

impede capital formation or reduce investment choices can lessen the efficiency of the market in 

allocating capital and potentially lower economic growth. 

Standards of Conduct for Financial Professionals 

The standards of conduct applicable to financial professionals derive from numerous sources – 

principally, the SEC, the Department of Labor (DOL), state securities and insurance regulators, 

and self-regulatory organizations such as the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA). 

As a practical matter, different standards of conduct apply to financial professionals depending upon the customers that they are servicing, the types of services being provided, and the 

products being offered. 

ERISA and the DOL Fiduciary Rule 

The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) imposes fiduciary obligations on 

a person who engages in specified activities with respect to an employee benefit plan or its assets, 

including rendering investment advice for a fee or other compensation. Title I of ERISA imposes 

an affirmative prudence and loyalty obligation on fiduciaries to an employee benefit plan and also 

prohibits fiduciaries from engaging in prohibited transactions involving conflicts of interest with 

respect to the plan. Title II of ERISA, which was codified in the Internal Revenue Code (Code), 

imposes excise taxes on fiduciaries and other disqualified persons who engage in prohibited transactions involving conflicts of interest with respect to a plan or IRA. Pursuant to Reorganization 

Plan No. 4 of 1978, the DOL has regulatory and interpretive authority with respect to the Code’s 

prohibited transaction rules, including the definition of fiduciary, and can issue administrative 

exemptions from the prohibited transaction rules and excise taxes. 

ERISA broadly provides that a person is a fiduciary to the extent “he renders investment advice for 

a fee or other compensation, direct or indirect, with respect to any moneys or property” of the plan 

or IRA.182 Under the prior regulatory definition of fiduciary adopted in 1975, a person was deemed 

to be a fiduciary to a plan or IRA with respect to any particular instance of advice only if he or she 

satisfied a five-part test. Fiduciary status attached to a person who (1) rendered investment advice 

182. ERISA § 3(21)(A) and Code § 4975(e)(3). 

64 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

(2) on a regular basis, (3) pursuant to a mutual understanding that the advice (4) would serve as 

a primary basis for investment decisions and (5) would be individualized. Under this definition, 

fiduciary status frequently did not attach to investment advice provided to employee benefit plans 

or IRA owners.183 

In April 2016, the DOL amended its definition of fiduciary and adopted several related administrative exemptions from the prohibited transaction provisions in ERISA and the Code (collectively, 

the Fiduciary Rule). The new definition of fiduciary expanded the scope of persons defined to be 

fiduciaries, for purposes of (1) the fiduciary prudence and loyalty obligation provisions of ERISA 

that apply to plans, (2) the prohibited transaction rules of ERISA that apply to plans, and (3) 

the prohibited transaction rules of the Code that apply to plans and IRAs.184 In adopting the 

Fiduciary Rule, the DOL emphasized changes in the U.S. retirement savings landscape since the 

enactment of ERISA, particularly the shift from employer sponsored defined benefit pension plans 

to participant-directed defined contribution plans, such as 401(k) plans. The DOL also noted the 

widespread growth of assets in IRAs, identifying that individuals are increasingly responsible for 

managing their own retirement savings. In this context, the DOL expressed concerns that financial 

professionals often operate within compensation structures that do not align with their customers’ 

interest and that create incentives and other conflicts of interest to steer customers into particular 

products that are more costly or complex than similar available products.185 

Under the Fiduciary Rule, certain types of fees and compensation, such as commissions, 12b-1 

fees,186 and revenue sharing payments, received by financial professionals covered by the new definition of fiduciary may be considered “prohibited transactions” under ERISA and the Code. These 

compensation arrangements are commonly used by financial professionals who provide services, 

including advice, to IRAs and IRA owners. To permit fiduciaries to receive these types of otherwise 

prohibited compensation, sell only a limited range of products, and not be subject to an obligation to provide ongoing advice, the DOL adopted new administrative exemptions, most notably 

the Best Interest Contract Exemption (BICE).187 The BICE requires, among other conditions, 

adherence to certain impartial conduct standards, including providing advice in the retirement 

investor’s best interest, charging no more than reasonable compensation, and avoiding misleading 

statements. The BICE also imposes certain disclosure obligations and, for IRAs, requires a written 

contract that acknowledges fiduciary status and prohibits the inclusion of provisions that would 

limit or disclaim liability or waive rights to participate in a class action or similar type of legal 

183.	 For example, broker-dealers might be outside the definition of fiduciary if they provided advice on a one-time 

basis or if their customer agreed that the advice would not be the primary basis for investment decisions. 

184.	 Definition of the Term “Fiduciary”; Conflict of Interest Rule-Retirement Investment Advice (Apr. 1, 2016) [81 

Fed. Reg. 20945 (Apr. 8, 2016)]. 

185.	 81 Fed. Reg. at 20949-20951 (summarizing the DOL’s analysis of harm caused by conflicts of interest). 

186.	 Refers to payments made pursuant to a plan adopted under ’40 Act Rule 12b-1. 

187.	 Best Interest Contract Exemption (Apr. 1, 2016) [81 Fed. Reg. 21002 (April 8, 2016)]. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 65 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

proceeding.188 Compliance with certain conditions of the BICE, including the requirement to 

enter into a written contract, is not required for advice to place plan assets or IRA assets in an 

investment vehicle where only “level fees” are charged, such as an asset-based fee. 

Securities and Insurance Laws 

Financial professionals, including those advising on securities investments in IRA accounts, have 

been long subject to rules under federal and state securities laws that impose standards of conduct 

designed to protect retail investors. Although investment advisers and broker-dealers frequently 

offer the same or substantially similar services when providing personalized investment advice for 

securities transactions, they have been regulated through two different federal statutes that take 

different approaches to investor protection. 

Investment advisers are fiduciaries under either the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 (the Advisers 

Act) or state securities laws.189,190 This designation does not, however, necessarily result in fiduciary 

status under ERISA. Broker-dealers are regulated under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and 

generally subject to the suitability standard under rules of FINRA as well as other FINRA requirements, and are subject to FINRA inspections and enforcement.191 Similarly, under most state 

insurance laws and regulations, insurance agents must comply with suitability standards when 

recommending annuity products to consumers.192 

There has been considerable discussion over the years as to whether broker-dealers and investment 

advisers should be subject to the same standard of conduct. As the SEC has noted,193 studies have 

188.	 This condition would prevent financial institutions relying on the BICE from including arbitration limitations in 

the written contract. However, on August 30, 2017, the DOL formally announced that it will not pursue a claim 

against any fiduciary based on failure to satisfy the BICE if the sole reason for the failure is inclusion of an arbitration limitation. See U.S. Department of Labor, Field Assistance Bulletin No. 2017-03, Enforcement Policy 

on Arbitration Limitations in the Best Interest Contract Exemption and Principal Transactions Exemptions 

(Aug. 30, 2017), available at: https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ebsa/employers-and-advisers/guidance/field-assistance-bulletins/2017-03. The Treasury and IRS have confirmed that a similar enforcement policy applies to 

IRAs under the Code. U.S. Internal Revenue Service, Non-Applicability of Excise Taxes Under Section 4975 to 

Conform with DOL Temporary Enforcement Policy on Fiduciary Duty Rule, Announcement 2017-4, available 

at: https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-drop/a-17-04.pdf. 

189.	 As a fiduciary, an adviser’s duty includes an obligation to act in the best interest of its clients, including duties of 

loyalty and care, and to avoid or mitigate any conflicts of interest with clients. See Staff of U.S. Securities and 

Exchange Commission, Study on Investment Advisers and Broker-Dealers (Jan. 2011), available at: https:// 

www.sec.gov/news/studies/2011/913studyfinal.pdf. 

190.	 In 1996, the National Securities Markets Improvement Act allocated oversight of investment advisers between 

the SEC and state securities regulators, with the SEC responsible for investment advisers with $25 million or 

more in assets under management or who advise a registered investment company. Dodd-Frank subsequently 

raised this threshold to $100 million. 

191.	 Under the suitability standard, a broker-dealer must have reasonable grounds for believing that the investment is suitable for the customer based upon information about the customer and the customer’s individual 

needs and circumstances. FINRA Rule 2111, available at: http://finra.complinet.com/en/display/display_main. 

html?rbid=2403&element_id=9859. 

192.	 See National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Suitability in Annuity Transactions Model Regulation, 

available at: http://www.naic.org/store/free/MDL-275.pdf. 

193.	 See, e.g., Duties of Brokers, Dealers, and Investment Advisers (Mar. 1, 2013) [78 Fed. Reg. 14848, 14849 

(March 7, 2013)]. 

66 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

found that retail customers are often not aware of a financial professional’s status as a broker-dealer 

or investment adviser or the different regulatory approaches for these entities and the different 

duties that flow from them.194 Section 913(g) of Dodd-Frank provided the SEC with discretionary 

authority to adopt rules that require the standard of conduct for broker-dealers, when providing 

personalized investment advice to a retail customer, to be no less stringent than for investment 

advisers. However, Section 913(g) also clarified that if the SEC adopted a uniform standard, a 

broker-dealer’s receipt of commission-based compensation or sale of a limited range of products 

would not be considered a violation as applied to a broker or dealer, and that the uniform standard 

would not require a broker or dealer to have a continuing duty of care or loyalty to the customer 

after providing personalized investment advice about securities.195 

Status of the Fiduciary Rule 

On February 3, 2017, President Trump issued a memorandum (the Presidential Memorandum) 

directing the DOL to re-examine the Fiduciary Rule to determine whether it may adversely 

affect the ability of Americans to gain access to retirement information and financial advice.196 

Specifically, the President directed that the DOL consider (1) whether the anticipated applicability 

of the final rule has harmed or is likely to harm investors due to a reduction of Americans’ access to 

certain retirement savings offerings, retirement product structures, retirement savings information, 

or related financial advice; (2) whether the anticipated applicability of the final rule has resulted 

in dislocations or disruptions within the retirement services industry that may adversely affect 

investors or retirees; and (3) whether the final rule is likely to cause an increase in litigation, and 

an increase in the prices that investors and retirees must pay to gain access to retirement services. 

The President directed that if the DOL makes an affirmative determination as to any of the above 

three considerations, or the DOL concludes for any other reason, after appropriate review, that 

the Fiduciary Rule, prohibited transaction exemptions (PTEs), or both are inconsistent with the 

priority of the Administration “to empower Americans to make their own financial decisions, to 

facilitate their ability to save for retirement and build the individual wealth necessary to afford 

typical lifetime expenses, such as buying a home and paying for college, and to withstand unexpected financial emergencies,”197 then the DOL shall publish for notice and comment a proposed 

rule rescinding or revising the Fiduciary Rule, as appropriate and as consistent with law. 

Subsequently, the DOL extended the applicability date of the new fiduciary definition and 

the impartial conduct standards from April 10 to June 9, 2017 and set January 1, 2018 as the 

194.	 See, e.g., Angela A. Hung, et al, RAND Institute for Civil Justice, Investor and Industry Perspectives on 

Investment Advisers and Broker-Dealers (2008), available at: https://www.sec.gov/news/press/2008/2008-1_ 

randiabdreport.pdf. The same report also found, based on a survey, that retail customers were generally satisfied with their financial professional, be it a representative of a broker-dealer or an investment adviser. 

195.	 It should be noted that since 1975, IRA advisers, including registered investment advisers, broker dealers, and 

insurance agents, who met the conditions of the 1975 DOL rule were subject to uniform standards under the 

prohibited transaction provisions of the Code. 

196.	 Memorandum from President Trump for the Secretary of Labor on Fiduciary Duty Rule (Feb. 3, 2017) [82 Fed. 

Reg. 9675 (February 7, 2017)]. 

197.	 Id. at section I(b). 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 67 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

compliance date for all remaining provisions of the Fiduciary Rule.198 The DOL later proposed 

to extend the compliance date for the full Fiduciary Rule to July 1, 2019.199 The DOL released a 

request for information seeking public comments on the Fiduciary Rule, with comments due on 

September 15, 2017.200 

In June 2017, SEC Chairman Jay Clayton issued a statement requesting comments on the standard of care under the federal securities laws that should apply to investment advisers and brokerdealers serving retail investors, including retirement investors.201 Chairman Clayton’s statement 

noted Secretary of Labor Alexander Acosta’s prior statement that the two agencies should engage 

constructively with each other in this area.202 

Treasury’s Stakeholder Engagement and Perspective 

Treasury supports the current efforts at the DOL to re-examine the implications of the Fiduciary 

Rule. Treasury believes it is appropriate to delay full implementation of the Fiduciary Rule until 

the relevant issues, including costs of the rule and exemptions, are evaluated and addressed to best 

serve investors, and believes that such assessment and resolution of standard of conduct issues 

should include participation by the SEC and other regulators. 

A review of the DOL rulemaking record demonstrates stakeholders’ serious concerns that the 

Fiduciary Rule will have unintended consequences and is likely to (1) harm investors due to a 

reduction of Americans’ access to certain retirement savings offerings, retirement product structures, retirement savings information, or related financial advice; (2) result in dislocations or 

disruptions within the retirement services industry that may adversely affect investors and retirees; 

and (3) cause an increase in litigation, and an increase in the prices that investors and retirees must 

pay to gain access to retirement services. As part of the process for preparing this report, Treasury 

has heard similar and other specific stakeholder concerns that the Fiduciary Rule may (1) raise 

incremental costs for financial service providers that will be passed on to retirement investors; (2) 

create an uneven playing field in the market for certain financial products, strategies, and business 

198.	 Definition of the Term “Fiduciary”; Conflict of Interest Rule – Retirement Advice; Best Interest Contract 

Exemption (Prohibited Transaction Exemptions 2016-01); Class Exemption for Principal Transactions in Certain 

Assets Between Investment Advice Fiduciaries and Employee Benefit Plans and IRAs (Prohibited Transaction 

Exemption 2016-02); Prohibited Transaction Exemptions 75-1, 77-4, 80-83, 83-1, 84-24 and 86-128 (Apr. 3, 

2017) [82 Fed. Reg. 16902 (Apr. 7, 2017)] (to be codified at 29 C.F.R. Part 2510). 

199.	 Extension of Transition Period and Delay of Applicability Dates; Best Interest Contract Exemption (PTE 2016– 

01); Class Exemption for Principal Transactions in Certain Assets Between Investment Advice Fiduciaries 

and Employee Benefit Plans and IRAs (PTE 2016–02); Prohibited Transaction Exemption 84– 24 for Certain 

Transactions Involving Insurance Agents and Brokers, Pension Consultants, Insurance Companies, and 

Investment Company Principal Underwriters (PTE 84-24) (Aug. 28, 2017) [82 Fed. Reg. 41365 (Aug. 31, 

2017)]. 

200.	 Request for Information Regarding the Fiduciary Rule and Prohibited Transaction Exemptions (June 29, 2017) 

[82 Fed. Reg. 31278 (July 6, 2017)]. 

201.	 Chairman Jay Clayton, Public Comments from Retail Investors and Other Interested Parties on Standards of 

Conduct for Investment Advisers and Broker-Dealers (June 1, 2017), available at: https://www.sec.gov/news/ 

public-statement/statement-chairman-clayton-2017-05-31. 

202.	 See Secretary Alexander Acosta, Deregulators Must Follow the Law, So Regulators Will Too, Wall Street 

Journal (May 23, 2017), at A19. 

68 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

models over others that could influence recommendations based on ease of compliance rather 

than the investor’s best interest; (3) result in higher fees for IRA investors; and (4) create different 

compliance requirements based on the tax treatment of different accounts, which could create 

unintended imbalances in the market between those accounts. 

In the ever changing investment advice landscape, some stakeholders also noted that industry 

has been working to improve investment advice but may need more time to implement changes, 

including the adoption of new products and solutions, and the implementation of new technologies that can deliver low-cost advice and education. Finally, other stakeholders contend that the 

Fiduciary Rule should be implemented without changes to prevent exposing consumers to losses 

that will compound over time. Treasury encourages DOL to consider these stakeholder comments 

along with the many other public comments it receives as it continues to evaluate the Fiduciary 

Rule. 

Treasury believes that conflicts of interest should be addressed in a manner that preserves, to the 

extent possible, access to a wide range of asset classes, investment products, business models, distribution channels, and other relevant features of financial services that benefit American workers 

and their families – those that may already have significant investment assets, those just starting to 

save, those who may already have a high level of financial sophistication, and those just beginning 

to learn or who choose to rely on others for investment advice. Accordingly, Treasury believes that 

conflicts of interest should be addressed in a manner that does not disrupt the free functioning of 

the markets and access to financial services. 

Notwithstanding the similar tax treatment accorded to 401(k) plans and IRAs, Treasury has heard 

suggestions that it is not clear that, as a matter of public policy, the DOL should be the regulator 

of financial professionals for IRAs or that the ERISA fiduciary standards that apply to plans should 

also be applied to IRAs through the BICE.203 Moreover, the DOL’s Fiduciary Rule by statutory 

design regulates only IRAs and not other retail accounts, creating the possibility that many financial professionals will elect to adopt different practices for accounts that are nearly identical except 

that some are eligible for favorable tax rules and others are not. This aspect of the Fiduciary Rule 

creates potential marketplace imbalances and opportunities for unnecessary duplication due to 

different rule sets seeking to address the same concerns, although there were and continue to be 

inconsistencies among other regulators. 

Financial professionals involved in securities are already extensively regulated and examined by 

the SEC and state securities regulators and, in the case of broker-dealers, by FINRA. Since 2015, 

SEC staff has placed a special priority on examining investment advisers and broker-dealers on 

203.	 See, e.g., Statement of Bradford P. Campbell before the House Committee on Education and the Workforce, 

Hearing on “Regulatory Barriers Facing Workers and Families Saving for Retirement” (May 18, 2017), available 

at: https://edworkforce.house.gov/uploadedfiles/testimony_campbell.pdf. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 69 
Asset Management: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

matters of importance for investors saving for retirement.204 Treasury believes that the SEC has 

the ability to address investor protection concerns through a variety of means, such as requiring, directly or indirectly through FINRA, appropriate supervisory and compliance programs by 

retirement service providers and regulation of marketing and disclosure materials used by them. 

The SEC also oversees FINRA and is authorized by law to cooperate with the states to effectuate 

greater uniformity in securities matters.205 The SEC’s jurisdiction extends to financial professionals 

for both IRAs and other investment accounts, and state insurance regulators, where granted the 

necessary authority from state legislatures, can apply the same rules for annuities held both within 

and outside of IRAs. Within the federal regulatory framework, Treasury believes that the SEC and 

DOL should work together to address standards of conduct for financial professionals who provide 

investment advice to IRA and non-IRA accounts. 

Treasury also recommends that the DOL and the SEC engage with state insurance regulators 

regarding the impact of standards of care on the annuities market. Because annuities are the only 

financial services product that can provide a guaranteed lifetime income stream, and because longevity risk (the risk of outliving one’s assets) has become a key retirement concern, annuities are 

an important contributor to the Core Principle of empowering Americans to save for retirement. 

Given the size and scale of the annuities market,206 federal regulators should coordinate with the 

states in order to achieve consistent standards of conduct across product lines.207 

In summary, Treasury encourages the SEC, the DOL, and the states to work together to implement a regulatory framework appropriately tailored to both preserve investor choice and protect 

retirement investors in an efficient and effective manner. 

204.	 Office of Compliance Inspections and Examinations, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, RetirementTargeted Industry Reviews and Examinations Initiative (June 22, 2015), available at: https://www.sec.gov/ 

about/offices/ocie/retirement-targeted-industry-reviews-and-examinations-initiative.pdf; see also U.S. Securities 

and Exchange Commission, Press Release 2017-7 (Jan. 12, 2017), available at: https://www.sec.gov/news/ 

pressrelease/2017-7.html (announcing that senior investors and retirement investments continue to be on the 

SEC exam priority list for 2017). 

205.	 See 15 U.S.C. 77s(d). 

206.	 Individual annuity sales in 2016 totaled $222.1 billion. LIMRA Secure Retirement Institute, Individual Annuities 

(2016, 4th Quarter). 

207.	 The NAIC is considering incorporation of a best interest standard into its model regulation on annuity suitability. 

See NAIC Annuity Suitability (A) Working Group, Meeting Summary Report (Aug. 6, 2017), available at: http:// 

www.naic.org/meetings1708/cmte_a_2017_summer_nm_materials.pdf?1503696953048. 

70 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance
 

Insurance • Introduction

Introduction 

The U.S. insurance industry is the largest, most competitive, and most diverse in the world. The 

industry provides important retirement planning tools for individuals, and its products allow both 

commercial and individual policyholders to obtain protection for a range of risks. Relying on the 

financial security provided by this risk transfer, policyholders are able to direct resources that they 

otherwise would have to reserve for such uncertainties to productive economic activity, such as 

capital investment. 

Figure 11: Total Direct Written Premiums for L&H and P&C Insurance Sectors 

($ billions) 

1,300 

1,250 

1,200 

1,150 

1,100 

1,050 

1,000 

950 

2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 

Source: SNL Financial 

At year-end 2016, the U.S. insurance industry included 2,655 property and casualty (P&C) 

insurers, 780 life and health (L&H) insurers, and 1,095 health insurers,208 which generated 29% 

of global total direct written premiums.209 In 2016, the U.S. insurance industry’s direct written 

premiums totaled $1.3 trillion, as shown in Figure 11.210 The industry employs more than 2.8 

208. SNL Financial; A.M. Best, Best’s Aggregates & Averages (2016), available at: http://www3.ambest.com/ 

aggavg/toc/archive.aspx. 

209. Swiss Re Institute Sigma, World Insurance in 2016: the China Growth Engine Steams Ahead (2017), available at http://media.swissre.com/documents/sigma3_2017_en.pdf. 

210. SNL Financial. Life and health insurers’ premiums generally consist of those generated from sales of annuities 

and life insurance; property and casualty insurers’ premiums generally consist of those generated from sales 

of auto, home, and commercial property and liability insurance. Figures exclude results from insurers that are 

licensed to write only health insurance. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 73 
Insurance • Introduction

million people.211 Further, with total assets exceeding $8.5 trillion, insurers are major participants 

in the economy through their investments, and play a notable role with respect to infrastructure 

investment.212 For example, holdings of U.S. insurers currently account for more than 10% of 

the $3.8 trillion municipal bond market. Local, regional, and national insurers and reinsurers 

participate in the diverse U.S. insurance market. Recognizing its vitality, non-U.S. insurers also 

increasingly participate in the U.S. market (for example, through primary insurance operations 

and reinsurance). Similarly, U.S. insurers increasingly recognize opportunities for growth overseas, 

both in established and developing economies. 

The primary insurance marketplace can be categorized in several different ways, one of which is by 

line of business. Typically the insurance lines of business are categorized as follows213: 

•	 Property and Casualty (P&C) insurance. Property and casualty insurers offer protection to policyholders for financial loss associated with damage to physical property and 

loss from legal liability. This includes automotive, home, and commercial property and 

liability insurance. Figure 12 shows the top 10 largest U.S. P&C insurance groups ranked 

by total personal and commercial lines’ direct written premiums, including their market 

share, for 2016. 

•	 Life and Health (L&H) insurance. Life insurers offer life insurance and annuities, and 

some may also be licensed to issue insurance coverage for losses associated with accidents 

or disability. L&H insurers offer their products to both individuals and groups. Figure 13 

shows the top 10 largest U.S. L&H insurance (life insurance and annuities only) groups 

ranked by direct written premiums, including their market share, for 2016. 

Like the banking sector, the primary insurance marketplace can be categorized by size and type 

of organization. The insurance industry includes insurers licensed in only one state, licensed in all 

50 states, and licensed throughout the United States and around the globe. Insurers can also be 

categorized by whether they are organized as a stock or mutual insurance company, whether they 

own a depository institution, whether they are evaluated by FSOC for supervision by the Federal 

Reserve, or whether they are identified by the Financial Stability Board (FSB) as a global systemically important insurer (G-SII). 

The insurance marketplace can also be categorized as “admitted” or “nonadmitted.” Carriers in 

the admitted market (sometimes referred to as “standard” insurers) qualify by filing an application with the insurance department of each jurisdiction where they conduct business, receiving 

approval, and complying with each state’s insurance laws and regulations, including requirements 

for filing and approval of policy forms and rates. 

211.	 Sean Kevelighan, Steven Weisbart, and James Lynch, Insurance: Leading Through Disruption, available at: 

https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/Documents/(1)_Marketplace_Update_-_III.pdf 

212.	 SNL Financial. Includes L&H and P&C U.S. legal entity insurers. 

213.	 In addition to the P&C and L&H sectors described below, a third U.S. insurance sector is health insurance. 

The health insurance sector includes companies licensed solely as health insurers or Health Maintenance 

Organizations, and also generally includes government programs such as Medicare and Medicaid. A detailed 

analysis of the health sector is not included in this report. 

74 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
 

Insurance • Introduction

Figure 12: U.S. Combined Lines Direct Premiums Written by P&C Insurance Groups 

($ billions) 

Total Direct Premiums Written 2016
 

$610.2
 

State Farm 

$62.2 

Top 100 

Berkshire Hathaway $525.0 $33.3 

Liberty Mutual 

$31.1 

Allstate 

$30.9 Top 10 

$283.7 

Progressive 

$24.0 

Travelers Companies 

$23.9 

Chubb Limited 

$20.7 Top 25 

Nationwide Mutual $397.0 $19.8 

Farmers $19.7 

USAA $18.3 

Source: SNL Financial (includes all lines of business) 

Carriers in the nonadmitted market (sometimes referred to as “surplus lines” insurers) are less 

strictly regulated than carriers in the admitted market, and are exempt from form and rate requirements. The purpose of surplus lines is to permit access to products that are not otherwise available 

through admitted lines. There are approximately 200 insurers approved or eligible to sell surplus 

lines coverage in the United States.214 In 2016, premiums in the surplus lines market totaled 

more than $25 billion.215 As shown in Figure 14, excess and surplus lines premiums grew steadily 

between 2011 and 2015 with increasing market share; in 2016, excess and surplus lines premiums 

flattened, leading to a slight decrease in market share. 

214.	 Government Accountability Office, Property and Casualty Insurance Effects of the Nonadmitted and 

Reinsurance Reform Act of 2010 (Jan. 2014), at 1, available at: http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/660245.pdf. 

215.	 See Business Insurance, Excess and Surplus Lines Premiums Up in 2016, available at: http://www.businessinsurance.com/article/20170124/NEWS06/912311565/ 

Excess-and-surplus-lines-premiums-up-in-2016-stamping-offices. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 75 
 

Insurance • Introduction

Figure 13: U.S. Direct Premiums Written by L&H Insurance Groups ($ billions) 

Total Direct Premiums Written 2016 

$625.0 

Top 100 

$616.3 

Top 25 

$492.1 

Source: SNL Financial (includes all lines of business) 

MetLife 

$95.1 

Prudential Financial 

$45.9 

New York Life 

$30.9 

Principal Financial 

$28.2 

Massachusetts Mutual 

$23.5 

American International Group 

$22.5 

Jackson National $22.1 

AXA SA $21.9 

AEGON NV $21.1 

Lincoln National $19.4 

Top 10 

$330.6 

Risks typically written in the surplus lines market include: (1) nonstandard risks (e.g., those with 

unusual underwriting requirements), (2) unique risks that admitted carriers do not offer, and (3) 

capacity risks for which an insured seeks a higher level of coverage than admitted insurers are willing 

to provide.216 For example, surplus lines insurers may write policies to cover a research laboratory 

working on an unproven drug, a special sporting event, or liabilities arising from environmental 

impairment.217 

216. Government Accountability Office, Property and Casualty Insurance Effects of the Nonadmitted 

and Reinsurance Reform Act of 2010 (Jan. 2014), at 9 (text box), available at: http://www.gao.gov/ 

assets/670/660245.pdf. 

217. Id. at 7. 

76 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
i 

Insurance • Introduction

Figure 14: U.S. Excess & Surplus Lines Direct Premiums Written and Market Share 

4.3 

4.4 

4.5 

4.6 

4.7 

4.8 

4.9 

5.0 

5.1 

5.2 

0 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

Market share (percent)

$ Billions 

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 

Excess & surplus lines direct premiums written (left axis) 

Excess & surplus lines market share (right axis) 

Source: SNL Financial 

Reinsurers, i.e., insurance companies that specialize in assuming risks from other insurance 

companies, are also critical to a well-functioning insurance marketplace. U.S. insurers depend on 

reinsurers — domiciled in the United States and abroad — to support the issuance of new policies, 

minimize loss fluctuations, and limit or diversify risk.218 In 2017, global reinsurer capital was approximately $605 billion, including $86 billion of capital markets reinsurance, both of which are record 

levels.219 Globally, in 2016, the top 50 reinsurers had gross written premiums of $225.3 billion.220 

218.	 Reinsurance is a contract of indemnity between commercial parties — an insurer (i.e., the “cedent” or “ceding 

insurer”) and one or more reinsurers (i.e., “assuming insurers”) — by which, in exchange for a premium, a specified portion of the risks under one or more insurance policies written by the cedent are transferred (ceded) to 

the reinsurers. 

219.	 Aon Benfield, Reinsurance Market Outlook June and July 2017 Update, at 2. 

220.	 See www3.ambest.com/bestweek/DisplayBinary.aspx?TY=P&record_code=265357&URatingId=2666445. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 77 
Insurance • Introduction

Figure 15: Composition of Investment Portfolio for P&C Insurance Sector 

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

 Bonds 65.4% 62.5% 61.5% 62.1% 61.3%

 Preferred Stocks 0.9% 0.8% 1.0% 0.9% 0.7%

 Common Stocks 18.3% 21.4% 21.5% 21.1% 21.8%

 Mortgage Loans 0.4% 0.5% 0.7% 0.8% 0.9%

 Real Estate 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8%

 Contract Loans 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

 Derivatives 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

 Cash & Short Term Investments 6.0% 5.6% 5.9% 5.8% 5.8%

 Other Investments 8.3% 8.4% 8.7% 8.5% 8.6% 

Total Cash & Invested Assets 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 

Source: SNL Financial 

Figure 16: Composition of General Account Investment Portfolio for the L&H Insurance 

Sector* 

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

 Bonds 74.7% 74.7% 73.9% 73.8% 73.5%

 Preferred Stocks 0.2% 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2%

 Common Stocks 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0% 2.2%

 Mortgage Loans 9.9% 10.1% 10.3% 10.9% 11.2%

 Real Estate 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6%

 Contract Loans 3.7% 3.7% 3.6% 3.4% 3.3%

 Derivatives 1.2% 1.1% 1.6% 1.5% 1.6%

 Cash & Short Term Investments 3.1% 2.7% 2.8% 2.8% 2.6%

 Other Investments 4.4% 4.7% 4.9% 4.7% 4.7% 

Total Cash & Invested Assets 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 

Share of Total General Account Assets 94.9% 94.7% 94.7% 94.7% 94.5% 

General Account Assets / Total Assets 63.6% 61.2% 61.3% 61.8% 62.3% 

Separate Account Assets / Total Assets 36.4% 38.8% 38.7% 38.2% 37.7% 

*	 L&H insurers maintain a General Account and Separate Accounts. Separate Accounts, as the name implies, are held apart from 

the general investment account of an insurer and hold and invest proceeds from the sales of products for which policyholders 

retain the investment risks. 

Source: SNL Financial 

78 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance • Introduction

In some cases, the federal government is also a direct participant in the insurance marketplace. 

For instance, the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation provides reinsurance to commercial writers 

of crop insurance; Treasury, through the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program (TRIP), provides a 

backstop for insured commercial P&C losses resulting from a “certified act of terrorism;” and the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency, through the National Flood Insurance Program, offers 

residential and commercial flood insurance. 

State governments also participate in the insurance marketplace. To ensure their residents have 

access to necessary insurance products, some states serve as insurers of last resort for individuals 

who cannot obtain insurance in the voluntary market. Florida, for instance, has created a P&C 

insurer that provides homeowners insurance to costal homeowners who would otherwise be unable 

to purchase such insurance.221 Such residual market coverage is typically offered in most states for 

workers’ compensation, personal automobile liability, and property insurance. 

The insurance industry as a whole is an important participant in U.S. capital markets. The U.S. 

insurance industry held approximately $5.5 trillion in cash and invested assets at the end of 

2016.222 In addition, insurers held $3.8 trillion in the bond market and $432 billion in the stock 

market at year-end 2016.223 Figures 15 and 16 show asset allocations for the P&C and L&H 

sectors, respectively, for the last five years. Infrastructure investments are particularly attractive to 

life insurers due to their long durations and stable cash flows. 

Trends and Industry Outlook 

The U.S. insurance industry is in sound financial condition, with L&H sector capital and surplus 

reaching a record $380.7 billion at year-end 2016, a 3.7% increase over the prior year, while the 

P&C sector reported year-end 2016 policyholder surplus of $712.3 billion, up 3.6% from 2015 

and also a record high.224 During the period from 2010 through 2016, the surplus bases of the 

L&H and P&C sectors experienced annual average growth rates of 3.9% and 4.7% respectively. 

This solid capital base allows insurers to invest in the capital markets and in their own growth with 

confidence that they can absorb unexpected adverse developments in the general economy and in 

the insurance markets they serve. 

Despite its strong balance sheet, the industry has faced headwinds, which have dampened its 

operating performance in recent years. The L&H sector’s earnings peaked at $42.3 billion in 2013, 

followed by three years of lower earnings in a fairly close range. The “low for long” interest rate 

environment has been a significant drag on the investment income of both sectors, although this 

negative impact is more pronounced for L&H insurers. Other factors affecting L&H operating 

results include slow sales growth (less than 2% annually225) and strained underwriting performance. 

221.	 Citizens Property Insurance Corporation, Who We Are, available at: https://www.citizensfla.com/who-we-are. 

222.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Capital Markets Special Report, available at: http://naic.org/ 

capital_markets_archive/160606.htm. 

223.	 SNL Financial. Common stock investments total does not include affiliated investments. 

224.	 Unless otherwise noted, the source for all data in the “Trends and Outlook” section is SNL Financial. 

225.	 McKinsey & Company, Rethinking US Life Insurance Distribution (May 2016), at 5, available at: http://www. 

mckinsey.com/industries/financial-services/our-insights/rethinking-us-life-insurance-distribution. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 79 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

After three consecutive years of underwriting profit, the P&C sector recorded an underwriting loss 

in 2016 and its net income fell to $44.4 billion, a 24% drop from 2015 and 38% lower than peak 

net income of $71.6 billion in 2013. In the commercial lines segment, profit margins are under 

pressure from the effects of soft prices, lack of organic growth, and competition from alternative 

sources of capital such as hedge funds, foreign investors, and the capital markets.226 The auto insurance segment is facing sharp increases in the frequency and severity of claims, as auto insurance 

losses and expenses have exceeded premiums for 10 consecutive years.227 

Going forward, in addition to low interest rates, both sectors will be challenged by rapidly changing technology, shifts in consumer expectations and preferences, cybersecurity risks, and regulatory 

uncertainty. Some of the keys to success for the industry and individual companies include the 

ability to execute strategic decisions quickly and effectively, understand and harness technology, and 

maintain pricing discipline and superior risk management during periods of stress and volatility. 

The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry 

The Primacy of State Regulation 

The 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the five U.S. territories are the primary regulators of 

the business of insurance in the United States. For over 150 years, the U.S. state-based insurance 

regulatory system has promoted the primary objective of protecting policyholders. 

State legislatures enact insurance laws, which are implemented and enforced by state regulators 

primarily through adoption of rules and regulations governing the conduct of insurers and the 

rights of consumers. Insurance regulators operate within the state executive branches, either as 

stand-alone offices or as divisions of larger departments. Most insurance commissioners are either 

appointed by the governor for a set term or serve at the pleasure of the governor; however, in 11 

states, the commissioner is elected by popular vote.228 

Broadly speaking, state regulation is divided into prudential regulation (frequently referred to as 

“solvency” regulation) and marketplace regulation. Prudential regulation consists of oversight of 

an insurer’s financial condition and its ability to satisfy policyholder claims. State statutes require 

insurers to meet minimum capital standards and financial reporting requirements, and regulate 

financial aspects of an insurer’s operations such as establishing reserves for payment of future 

claims, selecting and managing investments, obtaining reinsurance, conducting risk management, 

and engaging in transactions with affiliates. The state where an insurer is incorporated is primarily 

responsible for its financial oversight as well as for sanctioning or taking other remedial actions if 

an insurer operates in an unsafe and unsound manner. 

226.	 PriceWaterhouseCoopers, Top Insurance Industry Issues in 2017 (2017), at 17, available at: https://www.pwc. 

com/us/en/insurance/publications/assets/pwc-2017-insurance-top-issues.pdf. 

227.	 Insurance Information Institute, Personal Automobile Insurance: More Accidents, Larger Claims Drive 

Costs Higher (October 2016), at 4, available at: http://www.iii.org/sites/default/files/docs/pdf/auto_rates_ 

wp_092716-62.pdf. 

228.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, State Commissioners Elected/Appointed, available at: http:// 

www.naic.org/documents/members_state_commissioners_elected_appointed.pdf. 

80 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

Marketplace regulation governs an insurer’s business conduct, such as the pricing of premiums, 

advertising, minimum standards governing the terms of insurance policies, payment of claims, and 

licensing of insurance agents and brokers, together with general issues of consumer protection and 

access to insurance. Each state where an insurer operates regulates the insurer’s market conduct in 

that state. Accordingly, although many insurers operate on a multistate or national basis, each state 

regulates its own insurance markets, and this regulation may not be uniform from state to state. 

Reinsurers are regulated by the states through direct regulation of licensed reinsurers and their 

reinsurance transactions. State insurance regulators directly regulate reinsurers domiciled in their 

state, as well as U.S. reinsurers that are licensed in their state but domiciled elsewhere. Reinsurers 

and primary insurers are subject to the same set of solvency laws and regulations. State insurance 

regulators also indirectly regulate reinsurance transactions through the credit for reinsurance regulations, which, among other things, require insurers to meet certain prescribed financial statement 

account criteria. 

Under the McCarran-Ferguson Act passed by Congress in 1945,229 state laws governing the 

business of insurance are not invalidated, impaired, or superseded by any federal law unless the 

federal law specifically relates to the business of insurance.230 McCarran-Ferguson states that “the 

continued regulation and taxation by the several States of the business of insurance is in the public 

interest, and that silence on the part of Congress shall not be construed to impose any barrier to 

the regulation or taxation of such business by the several states.”231 

State regulation of the insurance industry is coordinated through the National Association of 

Insurance Commissioners (NAIC), a voluntary organization whose membership consists of the 

chief insurance regulatory officials of the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and five U.S. territories.232 The NAIC was originally formed in 1871, and reorganized in 1999 as a nonprofit corporation. The NAIC describes itself as “the U.S. standard-setting and regulatory support organization” 

through which “state insurance regulators establish standards and best practices, conduct peer 

review and coordinate their regulatory oversight.”233 The NAIC also provides centralized support 

services and programs to assist states in exercising certain statutory responsibilities.234 

Although the NAIC is not itself a regulator or government authority, it plays a central role in 

state insurance regulation and policy through its development of model laws and regulations for 

229.	 The McCarran–Ferguson Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1011-1015. 

230.	 Id. at § 1012(b). 

231.	 In limited circumstances, Congress has determined that national or international interests require legislation that 

mandates uniformity of state insurance laws or regulations, while keeping regulation at the state level. For example, the Nonadmitted and Reinsurance Reform Act of 2010 sets uniform standards for surplus lines insurers 

and reinsurers while also providing that the laws of an insurer or reinsurer’s state of domicile control. 

232.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, About the NAIC, available at: http://naic.org/index_about. 

htm. 

233.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, 2016 Annual Report: Inspiring Innovation (Apr. 8, 2017). 

234.	 For example, the NAIC developed and maintains the Interstate Insurance Product Regulation Commission, a 

centralized life insurance product approval process for participating states; the National Insurance Producer 

Registry, a national electronic database of licensed insurance agents; and the System for Electronic Rate and 

Form Filing, an electronic form and rate filing system for insurance products. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 81 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

consideration by the states,235 helping state regulators conduct peer review, and coordinating regulatory oversight of the insurance sector. The NAIC also provides regulatory, actuarial, legal, and 

technical resources and expertise to state insurance departments. 

The Financial Regulation Standards and Accreditation Program of the NAIC is an important 

component of prudential oversight by state insurance regulators.236 Accreditation is a certification 

given to a state insurance department once it has demonstrated that it has met and continues to 

meet an assortment of legal, financial, and organizational standards as determined by a committee 

of its peers. A state becomes accredited by adopting specified NAIC model laws and regulations in 

the form adopted by the NAIC or in a substantially similar manner.237 All 50 states, the District of 

Columbia, and Puerto Rico are accredited as of July 2017.238 

Federal Government Involvement in the Business of Insurance 

Although the states have been and remain the primary regulators of the insurance industry, the 

federal government has long had a significant impact on insurers and the business of insurance. 

This role can take several forms, but some of the more significant impacts include: 

•	 Prudential regulation, including the Federal Reserve’s regulation of FSOC-designated 

insurers and savings and loan holding companies that own insurance companies; 

•	 Monitoring and reporting on the insurance industry, and developing federal policy on 

prudential aspects of international insurance matters through the Federal Insurance 

Office (FIO), including the negotiation of “covered agreements;” 

•	 The regulation of financial products or markets which include, but are not limited 

to, insurance, such as the SEC’s regulation of securities and the CFTC’s regulation of 

derivatives; 

•	 Taxation of insurers and their products through the IRS under Treasury’s supervision; 

and 

•	 Federal insurance programs, including the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s 

administration of the National Flood Insurance Program and Treasury’s administration of 

the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program. 

The next section provides a brief overview of some of the key federal entities that have a role in 

regulating the business of insurance. 

235.	 Model laws and regulations become effective only if and when they are officially enacted or promulgated by a 

state. Actual laws and regulations may vary, sometimes significantly, from NAIC models. 

236.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Accreditation (Jan. 6, 2017), available at: http://www.naic. 

org/cipr_topics/topic_accreditation.htm. See also National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Financial 

Regulation Standards and Accreditation Program (August 2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/documents/ 

cmte_f_frsa_pamphlet.pdf. 

237.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, New or Revised Financial Solvency Regulation-Related 

Model Laws and Regulations Status Regarding Consideration for Accreditation as of August 10, 2017, available at: http://www.naic.org/documents/committees_f_related_model_law_stat_accred.pdf. 

238.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Financial Regulation Standards and Accreditation Program 

– Accredited U.S. Jurisdictions, available at: http://www.naic.org/cmte_f_accredited_states.htm. 

82 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

Financial Stability Oversight Council 

The Financial Stability Oversight Council (FSOC) was established by Dodd-Frank239 and is 

charged with three purposes. Generally, those are to: (1) identify risks to the financial stability of 

the United States, (2) promote market discipline, and (3) respond to threats to the financial stability of the United States.240 The FSOC consists of 10 voting members — including an independent 

member with insurance expertise — and five nonvoting members — including a state insurance 

commissioner and the FIO Director.241 

Section 113 of Dodd-Frank authorizes the FSOC to designate a nonbank financial company for 

supervision by the Federal Reserve and enhanced prudential standards if the FSOC determines 

that the company’s material financial distress — or the nature, scope, size, scale, concentration, 

interconnectedness, or mix of its activities — could pose a threat to U.S. financial stability.242 A 

“nonbank financial company” is defined to include insurance companies.243 

The FSOC also has the authority to examine specific activities of potential systemic importance.244 

Section 120 of Dodd-Frank permits the FSOC to provide for more stringent regulation of a financial activity by issuing recommendations to the primary financial regulatory agencies to apply new 

or heightened standards and safeguards for a financial activity.245 To issue such a recommendation, 

the FSOC must determine that the conduct, scope, nature, size, scale, concentration, or interconnectedness of such activity could create or increase the risk of significant liquidity, credit, or other 

problems spreading among, for example, U.S. financial markets.246 

Federal Insurance Office 

Title V of Dodd-Frank established the Federal Insurance Office in Treasury.247 Title V vested FIO 

with authority to monitor all aspects of the insurance sector except health insurance, monitor the 

extent to which traditionally underserved communities and consumers have access to affordable 

insurance products, represent the United States on prudential aspects of international insurance 

matters, including at the International Association of Insurance Supervisors, assist the Secretary 

in negotiating covered agreements, consult with the states regarding insurance matters of national 

importance and prudential insurance matters of international importance, and perform such other 

239.	 12 U.S.C. § 5321. 

240.	 12 U.S.C. § 5322. Specifically, the FSOC is charged: (1) to identify risks to the financial stability of the United 

States that could arise from the material financial distress or failure, or ongoing activities, of large, interconnected bank holding companies or nonbank financial companies, or that could arise outside the financial services marketplace; (2) to promote market discipline, by eliminating expectations on the part of shareholders, 

creditors, and counterparties of such companies that the U.S. government will shield them from losses in the 

event of failure; and (3) to respond to emerging threats to the stability of the U.S. financial system. 

241.	 12 U.S.C. § 5321. The Secretary serves as the Chairperson of the FSOC. 

242.	 12 U.S.C. § 5323(a). 

243.	 12 U.S.C. § 5311(a)(4). 

244.	 12 U.S.C. § 5330(a). 

245.	 Id. 

246.	 Id. 

247.	 31 U.S.C. § 313(a). 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 83 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

related duties and authorities as may be assigned to FIO by the Secretary.248 FIO also assists the 

Secretary in administering TRIP.249 

Federal Regulators and Agencies Involved in Insurance 

Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System 

The Federal Reserve serves a central role in the financial system overseeing monetary policy through 

the Federal Open Market Committee as well as operating, through the Federal Reserve Banks, key 

components of the payment, clearing, and settlement system. Its mission also includes maintaining 

the stability of the financial system. The Federal Reserve also regulates bank holding companies, 

savings and loan holding companies, state-chartered member banks and, in certain instances, 

nonbank financial companies. 

The Federal Reserve regulates nonbank financial companies with significant insurance activities 

that have been designated by the FSOC pursuant to Section 113 of Dodd-Frank.250 For these 

insurers, the Federal Reserve is required by Section 165 of Dodd-Frank to establish enhanced 

prudential standards, including more stringent risk-based capital requirements and stress tests.251 

Title III of Dodd-Frank also transferred to the Federal Reserve the supervisory functions related 

to savings and loan holding companies and their non-depository subsidiaries that were performed 

by the Office of Thrift Supervision until July 2011.252 The Federal Reserve acts as the group-wide 

supervisor for these firms, some of which are primarily engaged in the business of insurance.253 

Securities and Exchange Commission 

The mission of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is to protect investors, maintain 

fair, orderly, and efficient markets, and facilitate capital formation. Broadly, the SEC has jurisdiction over brokers and dealers, securities offerings in the primary and secondary markets, investment companies, investment advisers, credit rating agencies, and security-based swap dealers. 

Some insurance products are subject to registration with the SEC under the Securities Act254 and 

248. 31 U.S.C. § 313(c). In addition, Dodd-Frank assigns specific duties to the Director of FIO. Pursuant to Title I, 

the Director serves as a nonvoting member of the FSOC. Under Title II, the affirmative approval of the Director, 

along with a vote of two-thirds of the members of the Federal Reserve then serving, is required before the 

Secretary may make a determination on whether to seek the appointment of the Federal Deposit Insurance 

Corporation as receiver of an insurance company. 

249. For purposes of this report, TRIP refers to the program, as it is administered through regulations found in 31 

C.F.R. Part 50. 

250. 12 U.S.C. § 5323(a). 

251. 12 U.S.C. § 5365. 

252. 12 U.S.C. § 5412. 

253. Id. 

254. 15 U.S.C. § 77a et seq. Section 3(a)(8) of the Securities Act exempts any insurance policy or annuity contract 

issued by a corporation subject to the supervision of a state insurance commissioner. However, courts and the 

SEC have determined that certain insurance products are not within the scope of Section 3(a)(8). See, e.g., 

Definition of “Annuity Contract or Optional Annuity Contract,” Securities Act Release No. 6558 (Nov. 21, 1984), 

[49 Fed. Reg. 46750 (Nov. 28, 1984)]; SEC v. Variable Annuity Life Ins. Co., 359 U.S. 65 (1959); SEC v. 

United Benefit Life Ins. Co., 387 US. 202 (1967). 

84 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

to other federal securities laws. Also, the separate accounts underlying variable life insurance policies and annuity contracts are generally regulated as investment companies under the Investment 

Company Act of 1940 (’40 Act).255 

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation 

The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) works to maintain stability and public confidence in the nation’s financial system by insuring deposits, examining and supervising statechartered banks that are not members of the Federal Reserve System for safety and soundness 

and consumer protection, working to make large and complex financial institutions resolvable, 

and acting as the receiver of failed banks.256 The FDIC has in place rules and regulations that 

govern the actions of FDIC-insured institutions, including rules and regulations regarding capital 

adequacy for supervised institutions.257 Pursuant to Title II of Dodd-Frank, the FDIC may also 

be appointed receiver of insurance companies that are determined to pose a significant risk to 

the nation’s financial stability if the Secretary, in consultation with the President, makes certain 

determinations following the recommendation of the Federal Reserve and the Director of the 

Federal Insurance Office. 

Office of the Comptroller of the Currency 

The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) charters, regulates, and supervises all 

national banks and federal savings associations, as well as federal branches and agencies of foreign 

banks. The purpose of the OCC is to ensure that supervised institutions operate in a safe and 

sound manner, provide fair access to financial services, treat customers fairly, and comply with 

applicable laws and regulations. In coordination with other U.S. banking regulators and international standard setters, the OCC identifies and develops policies to address emerging risks to 

bank capital. Title III of Dodd-Frank abolished the Office of Thrift Supervision and transferred 

the supervision and regulation of federally chartered savings associations, including those affiliated 

with insurers, to the OCC.258 

Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 

In limited circumstances, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) can regulate insurers or their activities. Created by Title X of Dodd-Frank, the CFPB has authority, which was 

previously divided among seven agencies, over 18 enumerated federal consumer financial laws. 

It regulates the offering and provision of consumer financial products and services under federal 

255. Investment Company Act of 1940, 15 U.S.C. §§ 80a-1-80a-64. 

256. Banking Act of 1933, Public Law 73-66, 48 Stat. 162. 

257. See 12 C.F.R. Part 324. 

258. 12 U.S.C. § 5412. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 85 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

consumer financial laws, develops consumer financial education initiatives, and researches and 

monitors the market for financial services.259 

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 

The mission of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) is to create strong, 

sustainable, inclusive communities and quality affordable homes for all. To that end, the Federal 

Housing Administration (FHA) within HUD provides mortgage insurance on loans made by 

FHA-approved lenders throughout the United States and its territories. FHA insures mortgages 

on single family and multifamily homes (including manufactured homes) and hospitals. It is the 

largest insurer of mortgages in the world, insuring over 38 million properties since its inception in 

1934.260 Among other things, HUD is vested with the authority to engage in formal adjudications 

of housing discrimination claims pursuant to the Fair Housing Act. 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

The Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) administers the Medicaid and Medicare 

programs, which together pay approximately two-thirds of the costs of long-term care in the United 

States.261 HHS has also adopted and enforces the “Standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable 

Health Information,” also known as the HIPAA Privacy Rule,262 which established a set of national 

standards for the protection of certain health information required under the Health Insurance 

Portability and Accountability Act of 1996. 

Commodity Futures Trading Commission 

The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) was established in 1974 as an independent 

federal regulatory agency with exclusive jurisdiction over the markets for commodity futures and 

options on futures. The CFTC’s jurisdiction also extends to many other types of derivative contracts, including futures contracts on energy products, metals, financial assets and indexes, interest 

rates, and other financial, commercial, or economic contingencies. In 2010, Dodd-Frank amended 

the Commodity Exchange Act — governing futures markets and the CFTC’s authorities — to, 

among other things, expand the CFTC’s jurisdiction to include swaps, or derivative contracts that 

are based not on underlying assets or commodities, but on the exchange of financial instruments. 

Derivatives are used extensively by insurers (typically larger insurers), generally for hedging commercial risk. Accordingly, CFTC regulations can significantly affect insurers’ ability to efficiently 

hedge and manage their business risks in financial markets. 

259.	 12 U.S.C. §§ 5491 and 5493. The CFPB has, with regard to federal consumer financial laws, supervisory and 

enforcement authority over: (1) banks, thrifts, and credit unions with assets over $10 billion, as well as their affiliates; (2) all nonbank residential mortgage originators, brokers, and servicers; (3) all payday lenders; (4) all nonbank private student lenders; (5) larger participants in markets for other consumer financial products or services 

as determined by CFPB rulemaking; and (6) other firms where the CFPB has reasonable cause to determine 

their conduct poses risks to consumers related to the offering or provision of consumer financial products or 

services. 12 U.S.C. §§ 5514 and 5515. 

260.	 See U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, The Federal Housing Administration (FHA), available at: https://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/housing/fhahistory. 

261.	 Peter Gallanis, et al., State of the Long-Term Care Insurance Industry: NOLHGA Presentation to the NAIC 

(Mar. 30, 2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/documents/cmte_e_mlwg_related_state_of_ltc_industry.pdf. 

262.	 45 C.F.R. § 160; 45 C.F.R. § 164 Subparts A and E. 

86 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

Internal Revenue Service 

Section 7801 of the Internal Revenue Code (Code) provides the Secretary with full authority to 

administer and enforce internal revenue laws. The Code affords certain life insurance and annuity 

products favorable tax treatment that makes those products more attractive to some consumers. 

Examples include tax-free death benefits under life insurance policies and tax-deferred growth 

of cash values within life insurance and annuities. The Internal Revenue Service also administers 

provisions of the Code that are unique to taxation of L&H and P&C insurers. 

The following chart provides examples of involvement in insurance by the entities described above 

as well as other federal regulators and agencies. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 87 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

Other Federal Regulators and Agencies Involved in Insurance 

Agency Examples of Involvement 

Board of Governors of the 

Federal Reserve System 

(Federal Reserve) 

Commodity Futures Trading 

Commission (CFTC) 

The Federal Reserve regulates nonbank financial companies with significant 

insurance activities that have been designated by the FSOC pursuant to 

Section 113 of Dodd-Frank. The Federal Reserve also has a supervisory 

role with respect to savings and loan holding companies (SLHCs), 

including insurer-owned savings and loan holding companies, and their 

non-depository subsidiaries. The Federal Reserve acts as the group-wide 

supervisor for these firms, some of which are primarily engaged in the 

business of insurance. 

Dodd-Frank amended the Commodity Exchange Act – governing futures 

markets and the CFTC’s authorities – to, among other things, expand the 

CFTC’s jurisdiction to include swaps, or derivative contracts that are based 

not upon underlying assets or commodities but upon the exchange of 

financial instruments. Derivatives are used extensively by insurers (typically 

larger insurers) generally for hedging commercial risk. 

Consumer Financial Protection In limited circumstances, the CFPB can regulate insurers or their activities. 

Bureau (CFPB) Created by Title X of Dodd-Frank, the CFPB regulates the offering and 

provision of consumer financial products and services under federal 

consumer financial laws, develops consumer financial education initiatives, 

and researches and monitors the market for financial services. 

Export-Import Bank of the 

United States 

Wholly-owned federal government corporation that provides financing for 

export operations where private financing is unavailable; support includes 

export credit insurance that insures accounts receivable against commercial 

or political risk.1 

Federal Aviation Administration	 Issues insurance for air operations that the President decides are necessary 

in the interest of air commerce or national security or to carry out the foreign 

policy of the United States; subject to indemnities from the agency or 

department sponsoring the flights.2 

Federal Communications 

Commission 

Regulates the telemarketing of insurance products under the Telephone 

Consumer Protection Act (including its Do Not Call Registry).3 

Federal Crop Insurance Administers the Federal Crop Insurance Program, under which the federal 

Corporation in the U.S. government reinsures commercial writers of crop insurance.4 

Department of Agriculture 

Federal Deposit Insurance The FDIC may be appointed receiver of systemically important insurance 

Corporation (FDIC) companies that are determined to pose a significant risk to the nation’s 

financial stability if the Secretary, in consultation with the President, makes 

certain determinations following the recommendation of the Federal Reserve 

and the Director of the Federal Insurance Office. 

Federal Emergency Administers the National Flood Insurance Program.5 

Management Agency in the 

U.S. Department of Homeland 

Security 

88 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

Other Federal Regulators and Agencies Involved in Insurance continued 

Agency Examples of Involvement 

Federal Housing Finance 

Agency in the U.S. Department 

of Housing and Urban 

Development 

Establishes requirements for the issuers of private mortgage insurance.6 

Federal Maritime Administration Can issue marine war risk insurance on an emergency, stand-by basis which 

becomes effective simultaneously with the automatic termination of ocean 

marine commercial war risk insurance policies; sets insurance requirements 

for vessels or technology financed by the Federal Ship Financing Program.7 

Federal Trade Commission Has jurisdiction over deceptive insurance advertising practices when not 

regulated by state law.8 

Internal Revenue Service (IRS) Section 7801 of the Internal Revenue Code (Code), provides the Secretary 

with full authority to administer and enforce internal revenue laws. The Code 

affords certain life insurance and annuity products favorable tax treatment 

that makes those products more attractive to some consumers. Examples 

include tax-free death benefits under life insurance policies and tax-deferred 

growth of cash values within life insurance and annuities. The IRS also 

administers provisions of the Code that are unique to taxation of L&H and 

P&C insurers. 

Nuclear Regulatory Commission Sets regulations for insurance requirements for nuclear reactors and other 

facilities pursuant to the Price-Anderson Act.9 

Office of the Comptroller of the 

Currency (OCC) 

The OCC identifies and develops policies to address emerging risks to bank 

capital. Title III of Dodd-Frank abolished the Office of Thrift Supervision and 

transferred the supervision and regulation of federally chartered savings 

associations, including those owned by insurers, to the OCC. 

Office of Finance and 

Insurance Industries in the U.S. 

Department of Commerce 

Deploys policy, promotion, and analysis work to expand U.S. financial 

services exports, attract investment to the United States, and facilitate 

the growth and development of new and inclusive segments of finance, 

including in the area of insurance. 

Overseas Private Investment 

Corporation 

Government corporation providing political risk insurance to support 

investment by U.S. businesses in emerging markets.10 

Securities and Exchange 

Commission (SEC) 

Unless otherwise exempted, insurance products constitute securities and 

are subject to registration with the SEC under the Securities Act and to 

other federal securities laws. The separate accounts underlying variable 

life insurance policies and annuity contracts are generally regulated as 

investment companies under the ’40 Act. 

United States Trade 

Representative 

Authorized jointly with Treasury to enter into covered agreements with 

foreign governments respecting insurance.11 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 89 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

Other Federal Regulators and Agencies Involved in Insurance continued 

Agency Examples of Involvement 

U.S. Department of Health and 

Human Services (HHS) 

HHS administers the Medicaid and Medicare programs, which together 

pay approximately two-thirds of the costs of long-term care in the United 

States. HHS has also adopted and enforces the “Standards for Privacy of 

Individually Identifiable Health Information,” also known as the HIPAA Rule, 

which established a set of national standards for the protection of certain 

health information required under the Health Insurance Portability and 

Accountability Act of 1996. 

U.S. Department of Homeland	 Sets insurance requirements under the SAFETY Act, under which 

Security	 companies licensed to provide anti-terrorism products and services are 

released from liability in excess of insurance limits.12 

U.S. Department of Housing and	 The Federal Housing Administration (FHA) within HUD provides mortgage 

Urban Development (HUD)	 insurance on loans made by FHA-approved lenders throughout the United 

States and its territories. FHA insures mortgages on single family and 

multifamily homes (including manufactured homes) and hospitals. 

U.S. Department of Labor	 Administers major disability compensation programs for coal miners, 

longshoremen and harbor workers, energy employees, and federal workers; 

regulates compliance with the Employee Retirement Income Security Act 

(ERISA). 

1.	 Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act, Pub. L. 114-94, 129 Stat. 1312 (2015). 

2.	 49 U.S.C. § 44301, et seq. 

3.	 47 U.S.C. § 227; 47 CFR 64.1200. 

4.	 Federal Crop Insurance Act (7 U.S.C. § 1505 Management of Corporation); Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Title 

7- Agriculture, Subtitle B-Regulations of the Department of Agriculture, Chapter IV - Federal Crop Insurance Corporation 

(general administrative regulations of the FCIC) codified in 7 CFR 400; regulations pertaining to private sector plans of 

insurance submissions are published in Subpart V, 7 CFR 400.700-722. 

5.	 42 U.S.C. Chapter 50. 

6.	 Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008, Pub. L. 110-289 (2008). 

7.	 46 U.S.C. Chapter 539 (Pub. L. 109-304) (war risk insurance provisions); 46 CFR Part 308 (implementing regulations). 

8.	 Federal Trade Commission v. Travelers Health Association, 363 US 293 (1960); McCarran-Ferguson Act, 15 U.S.C 

§1012(b). 

9.	 42 U.S.C. § 2210. 

10. Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (as amended), 22 U.S.C. 2191. 

11. Dodd-Frank, Title V (Pub. L. 111-203, 124 Stat. 1376). 

12. Homeland Security Act of 2002, Public Law 107-296. 

Source: Treasury internal analysis 

90 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

The Financial Crisis, Insurers, and Dodd-Frank 

The financial crisis was precipitated by ill-designed public policies, inadequate oversight, and 

numerous events, including a decline in housing prices, an increase in mortgage delinquencies, 

and deterioration in the value of mortgage-backed securities. As the crisis spread throughout the 

financial system, some of the largest financial institutions suffered significant losses. Like other 

parts of the financial sector, the insurance industry was affected in several ways, including by the 

extension of extraordinary government assistance to American International Group, or AIG. The 

crisis also contributed to the failure of financial guaranty insurers, and caused a number of insurers 

to seek federal emergency liquidity assistance, including for the purpose of stabilizing capital levels 

for variable annuity products. This prompted policymakers to develop reforms at the domestic and 

international level to remedy weaknesses in the financial system that were exposed during the crisis. 

Net income for both the L&H and P&C sectors fell dramatically from pre-crisis levels in 2008, 

but this decline was mainly due to realized capital losses on insurers’ investment portfolios rather 

than underwriting activities. As a result, asset values dropped and capital and surplus accounts 

were negatively impacted by losses. However, solvency concerns and failures in the industry were 

relatively limited. From 1980 to 2010, there were 291 failures of life insurance companies in the 

United States, but the peak period for failures was from 1989 to 1994 (when a total of 152 life 

insurers failed), not during the financial crisis.263 P&C insurer failures followed a similar pattern, with overly competitive pricing and increases in reserves cited as possible causes.264 In 2008 

and 2009, there were 18 life insurance company receiverships and nine liquidations,265 while the 

P&C sector experienced 19 receiverships and 11 liquidations.266 By the end of 2009, capital and 

surplus levels for both sectors of the U.S. insurance industry had recovered to pre-crisis levels, 

while financial leverage was slightly lower than pre-crisis, where it has remained through 2016. 

Figure 17 presents selected financial data for the L&H and P&C sectors, showing their financial 

performance and condition in the years around, and following, the financial crisis. 

263.	 Stephen Robb, Society of Actuaries, Comparative Failure Experience in the U.S. and Canadian Life 

Insurance and Banking Industries from 1980 to 2010 (Mar. 2013), available at:https://www.soa.org/ 

research-reports/2013/research-2013-comparative-failure-experience/. 

264.	 David F. Bradford, editor, The Economics of Property-Casualty Insurance (1998), available at: http://www. 

nber.org/chapters/c6941.pdf. A 1990 report issued by the House Committee on Energy and Commerce’s 

Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations entitled Failed Promises: Insurance Company Insolvencies 

found that the then current system of solvency regulation was inadequate due to the insurance industry’s rapid 

expansion, underpricing, inadequate oversight, inadequate loss reserves, poor reinsurance transactions, and 

fraud (U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Energy and Commerce, Subcommittee on Oversight and 

Investigations, Failed Promises: Insurance Company Insolvencies, 101st Cong., 2nd Sess., Committee Print 

101-P (Washington: GPO 1990)). 

265.	 In a receivership, a court-appointed receiver has custodial responsibility for the property of an insurer, including 

tangible and intangible assets and rights in cases where the insurer cannot meet its financial obligations. In a 

liquidation, the insolvent insurer’s operations are concluded, and its assets are distributed among policyholders, 

creditors, and shareholders, according to the hierarchy of claims established by state law. 

266.	 Government Accountability Office, Impact of and Regulatory Response to the 2007-2009 Financial Crisis 

(June 2013), at 17, available at: https://www.gao.gov/assets/660/655612.pdf. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 91 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

Figure 17: Selected Financial Data - U.S. Insurance Industry 

L&H Insurance Sector ($ billions) 

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Premiums, Consideration, & 565.93 597.01 608.19 493.01 561.96 

Deposits 

Net Investment Income 161.53 168.04 162.19 156.62 164.14 

Net Income 37.01 31.63 (52.31) 21.53 28.05 

Total Assets 3,005.42 3,086.62 3,178.98 3,230.48 3,356.50 

Policyholders’ Surplus 253.10 266.94 251.77 290.69 306.43 

Leverage 11.87 11.56 12.63 11.11 10.95 

Source: SNL Financial 

P&C Insurance Sector ($ billions) 

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 

Net Premiums Written 448.91 446.94 440.35 423.08 426.22 

Net Investment Income 53.14 56.50 53.13 48.40 48.10 

Net Income 66.45 63.62 3.71 32.20 37.22 

Total Assets 1,452.52 1,506.30 1,447.81 1,491.67 1,548.38 

Policyholders’ Surplus 497.08 529.13 461.76 517.97 561.78 

Leverage	 2.92 2.85 3.14 2.88 2.76 

Source: SNL Financial 

In response to the crisis, Congress passed Dodd-Frank in 2010. Dodd-Frank is enormous in its 

scale, reach, and complexity. Given its scale, it is difficult to summarize the totality of Dodd-Frank. 

Key characteristics of Dodd-Frank with significant implications for the insurance industry include: 

•	 Mitigation of Systemic Risk: Title I of Dodd-Frank established the FSOC for the 

oversight of systemic risks. Among other responsibilities and authorities, the FSOC can 

designate nonbank financial companies for Federal Reserve supervision, and can designate 

financial market utilities as systemically important. Dodd-Frank also requires the Federal 

Reserve to adopt enhanced prudential standards for U.S. bank holding companies having 

total assets of at least $50 billion, along with certain foreign banking organizations and 

designated nonbank financial companies. 

92 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance • The Regulatory Structure of the Insurance Industry

•	 Resolution Planning: Title II of Dodd-Frank established a non-bankruptcy mechanism 

for resolving financial companies, including insurance companies, whose failure and 

resolution under otherwise applicable federal or state law would have serious adverse 

effects on U.S. financial stability. To do so in the case of an eligible insurance company, 

the affirmative approval of the FIO Director, along with a vote of two-thirds of the 

members of the Federal Reserve then serving, is required before the Secretary may 

make a determination on whether to seek the appointment of the FDIC as receiver of 

such insurance company. In most cases, however, Dodd-Frank allows state resolution 

mechanisms to operate so long as state insurance regulators act within 60 days. If state 

insurance regulators fail to act, Title II allows the FDIC to resolve the affected insurance 

company under applicable state law. 

•	 Elimination of the Office of Thrift Supervision: Title III of Dodd-Frank eliminated the 

Office of Thrift Supervision and transferred its duties to the OCC, the Federal Reserve, 

and the FDIC.267 Among other things, this transfer of powers and duties made the 

Federal Reserve the group-wide supervisor for insurance parent companies with insured 

depository institutions.268 

•	 Creation of the Federal Insurance Office: Title V of Dodd-Frank established FIO in 

Treasury. 

•	 Derivatives: Title VII of Dodd-Frank created a new structure for regulating over-thecounter derivatives, which are used by insurers and their affiliates to hedge their investments and other business risks. 

•	 Securities Act Exemption: Section 989J of Dodd-Frank (the “Harkin Amendment”) 

directs the SEC to treat certain life insurance and annuity products as exempt securities 

under the Securities Act, subject to specified conditions. 

267. 12 U.S.C. § 5412. 

268. Id. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 93 

Insurance: 

Findings and Recommendations 

Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Solvency

Systemic Risk and Solvency 

Systemic Risk and the Insurance Industry 

The financial crisis exposed gaps in the regulation of the insurance industry, including a lack of 

regulatory oversight of non-insurance activities undertaken by insurance companies. For example, 

AIG Financial Products Corporation and AIG Securities Lending Corporation — two non-insurance affiliates of AIG — led to the near-failure of AIG, which threatened the financial stability of 

the United States. 

Section 113 of Dodd-Frank authorizes the FSOC to designate a nonbank financial company to be 

subject to supervision by the Federal Reserve and enhanced prudential standards if the company’s 

material financial distress — or the nature, scope, size, scale, concentration, interconnectedness, or 

mix of its activities — could pose a threat to U.S. financial stability.269 Three of the four companies 

initially designated by the FSOC under Section 113 were insurers. AIG and Prudential Financial 

were designated by the FSOC in 2013; MetLife was designated in 2014.270 In March 2016, a 

federal court order rescinded the FSOC designation of MetLife, which has been appealed by the 

the FSOC and remains pending. In September 2017, the FSOC announced that it rescinded the 

designation of AIG.271 

As noted earlier, Dodd-Frank also authorizes the FSOC to examine activities of potential systemic 

importance. The FSOC has previously issued proposed recommendations under its Section 120 

authority with respect to the regulation of money market mutual funds,272 but has not used this 

authority to address risks in the insurance industry. 

Many stakeholders have argued that entity-based systemic risk evalutions of individual insurers 

may not be the best approach for mitigating risks arising from the insurance industry. These 

commenters state that such evaluations may not take into account the fundamental differences 

between insurers’ business models and those of depository institutions. Finally, stakeholders noted 

that entity-based systemic risk evaluations are targeted toward only a limited number of firms 

and therefore may not be best for mitigating systemic risk, particularly in cases where activities or 

practices are undertaken by a significant number of industry participants. 

Recommendations 

Treasury’s position is that entity-based systemic risk evaluations of insurance companies generally 

are not the best approach for mitigating risks arising from the insurance industry. Rather than 

focus on entity-based systemic risk evaluations, insurance regulators should focus on potential risks 

arising from insurance products and activities, and on implementing regulations that strengthen 

the insurance industry as a whole. Also, while the FSOC maintains primary responsibility for 

269.	 12 U.S.C. § 5323(a) (1). 

270.	 See U.S. Department of the Treasury, Financial Stability Oversight Council, available at: https://www.treasury. 

gov/initiatives/fsoc/designations/Pages/default.aspx. 

271.	 Id. 

272.	 Notice Seeking Comment on Asset Management Products and Activities (Dec. 18, 2014), [79 Fed. Reg. 

77488 (Dec. 24, 2014)]. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 97 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Solvency

identifying, evaluating, and addressing systemic risks in the U.S. financial system, the states are the 

primary regulators of the insurance industry in the United States, and insurance regulation at the 

federal level should be conducted in coordination with the states. 

International Association of Insurance Supervisors 

In many ways, the international response to the financial crisis mirrored that of the United States. 

In April 2009, the Group of 20 (G-20) established the Financial Stability Board (FSB) to monitor 

and make recommendations about the global financial system. A key initiative of the FSB is the 

identification of systemically important financial institutions (SIFIs), which are defined as financial institutions whose distress or disorderly failure, because of their size, complexity, and systemic 

interconnectedness, would cause significant disruption to economic activity and the wider financial system. Among other things, the International Association of Insurance Supervisors (IAIS) is 

charged by the FSB with recommending insurers that should be identified as SIFIs (i.e., global 

systemically important insurers, or G-SIIs). 

In 2013, the IAIS developed an assessment methodology to inform its recommendation to the 

FSB of insurers that may be eligible for identification as G-SIIs. In July 2013, the FSB — in 

consultation with the IAIS and national authorities — identified an initial list of nine G-SIIs. An 

annual process for potential identification was subsequently conducted, with nine G-SIIs being 

identified in each year. 

In November 2016, the FSB announced its G-SII list, and in 2017 the IAIS announced its intention to explore an activities-based approach to address systemic risk as a possible complement to 

the G-SII entity-based assessment approach.273 Unlike an entity-based approach, which focuses on 

the extent to which any single insurance company poses a threat to the broader financial system, an 

activities-based approach examines risk across insurers to assess vulnerabilities that may be relevant 

to financial stability.274 

In January 2017, the IAIS established the Systemic Risk Assessment Task Force with responsibility to assess and measure systemically risky activities through an activities-based approach and 

improve cross-sectoral consistency in systemic risk measurement. The work plan of the task force 

involves publication of an initial consultation paper in 2017, followed by a second, more detailed, 

consultation paper in late 2018. These consultations would each seek stakeholder input on the 

development of an activities-based assessment. 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends that FIO and the other U.S. members of the IAIS support the IAIS’ work 

on the activities-based approach. Such an approach is a more appropriate method of assessing 

potential systemic risk in the global insurance market. The U.S. members of the IAIS should advocate for the development of an activities-based framework that is proportionate and appropriately 

273.	 International Association of Insurance Supervisors, Systemic Risk and Insurance, Presentation 

at Annual Global Seminar (June 29, 2017), available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/ 

file/67325/2-alberto-corinti-170611-sratf-presentation-to-stakeholders. 

274.	 Id. 

98 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Solvency

tailored to the U.S. insurance market. In recognition of the activities-based approach, the IAIS 

should reassess its existing G-SII policy measures, including how to improve the IAIS’ 2014 guidance on liquidity management and planning.275 

Treasury also recommends that FIO and the other U.S. members of the IAIS take steps to improve 

the IAIS G-SII assessment methodology and consider how to increase transparency with respect 

to the assessment methodology’s development. U.S. members of the IAIS should advocate that the 

IAIS enhance its work on cross-sectoral consistency with other financial sectors — such as through 

work with the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision — which will allow the IAIS to better 

assess the potential global systemic risk of insurers. 

Preserving Solvency: Capital Initiatives 

Insurers assume risk from policyholders that may give rise to future payment obligations, which 

makes capital a particularly important consideration for insurer solvency.276 For long duration 

business lines (e.g., life insurance) insurers are exposed to potentially significant levels of interest 

rate risk because the markets for assets to back these obligations are limited to investments that 

may mature before the maturation of the obligations they offset. Therefore, capital serves as a safety 

net in cases where actual payments exceed reserves. Similarly, short duration business lines (e.g., 

property insurance) rely on capital to serve as a buffer for unexpected, often catastrophe-related, 

losses that may exceed reserves. 

Insurance regulation in the United States includes the supervision of both the nature and extent 

of an insurer’s capital. As insurance markets become more global, supervisors in the United States 

and elsewhere are increasingly aware of the need to understand the financial viability of insurers 

that are based elsewhere but operate in their markets. One way to enhance understanding among 

supervisors in different jurisdictions may be through a commonly understood, quantitative capital 

standard that would be applied at the group level. With respect to insurance, a “group” refers to 

two or more insurance legal entities that coexist as part of a corporate family by virtue of ownership 

or affiliation. 

While some foreign jurisdictions currently have a group capital requirement that is applicable to 

insurers, no such standard exists in the United States. The current state-based solvency regulation 

framework in the United States applies capital requirements only at the insurance legal-entity level. 

State and federal authorities have recently taken steps toward the development of insurance group 

capital frameworks. 

There are currently three distinct organizations working on development of group-wide capital 

initiatives that could be applicable to U.S. insurers: (1) the NAIC and state insurance regulators, 

(2) the Federal Reserve, and (3) the IAIS.277 

275.	 See https://www.iaisweb.org/page/supervisory-material/ 

financial-stability-and-macroprudential-policy-and-surveillance//file/47800/liquidity-guidance-final. 

276.	 Reserves for claims and future payment obligations are treated as liabilities by insurers. 

277.	 The group capital standard in development at the IAIS includes involvement by U.S. members of the IAIS. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 99 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Solvency

State Regulator Capital Initiatives 

At the state level, insurance regulators impose minimum capital requirements on a legal entity 

basis but have not, to date, developed a capital assessment for insurance groups. In late 2015, 

state insurance regulators, through the NAIC, expressed the intention to construct a U.S. group 

capital calculation using a risk-based capital aggregation approach. The states’ approach would use 

existing regulatory capital calculations for all entities within the holding company structure, rather 

than developing replacement or additional standards.278 

Federal Reserve Capital Initiatives 

In June 2016, the Federal Reserve published an advance notice of proposed rulemaking on 

Capital Requirements for Supervised Institutions Significantly Engaged in Insurance Activities.279 

The advance notice invites comment on two approaches to group capital requirements for these 

institutions: (1) a “building block approach” that uses existing legal entity capital requirements 

as the basis for measuring insurance depository institution holding companies (e.g., savings and 

loans holding companies, or SLHCs) and (2) a “consolidated approach” for insurance companies 

designated by the FSOC. 

The proposed building block approach would sum capital resources and sum capital requirements 

across different legal entities in the group to arrive at one group-level amount for each. Capital 

requirements would generally be the sum of the capital requirements at each regulated insurance 

or depository institution’s subsidiary, based on the regulatory capital rules of each respective subsidiary’s lead insurance or banking regulator.280 The Federal Reserve’s proposed building block 

approach is conceptually similar to the aggregation approach being considered by the NAIC and 

state regulators. 

The proposed consolidated approach would categorize all consolidated assets and insurance liabilities into risk segments tailored to account for the liability structure and other unique features 

of the insurance group. It would then apply risk factors to the amounts in each risk segment. 

The approach would be based on U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), with 

appropriate adjustments for regulatory purposes. The consolidated approach would also allow for 

supervisory stress testing. 

Recommendations 

The group capital initiatives by the NAIC, the states, and the Federal Reserve should be harmonized, to the extent possible, to mitigate duplicative and unnecessary regulatory burdens for U.S. 

278.	 For example, this approach would use risk-based capital for U.S. legal entity insurers, jurisdiction-appropriate 

calculations for non-U.S. legal entities, and Basel Committee on Banking Supervision requirements for banking entities. For legal entities without existing capital requirements (i.e., non-regulated financial services entities), 

a standard would need to be adopted. For multi-national insurers, this approach may need to address how to 

aggregate jurisdictional requirements of multiple countries that differ in design and calibration. 

279.	 Capital Requirements for Supervised Institutions Significantly Engaged in Insurance Activities (June 9, 2016), 

[81 Fed. Reg. 38631 (June 14, 2016)]. 

280.	 Additionally, adjustments may be needed to address other exposures, e.g., to harmonize permitted accounting 

practices that vary across states. 

100 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Solvency

insurers. The Secretary will direct FIO to consult with the state insurance regulators, the NAIC, 

and the Federal Reserve on their respective group capital initiatives to produce the best outcomes 

for U.S. insurers, U.S. policyholders, and the U.S. insurance market. The Secretary will also direct 

FIO to coordinate this work. FIO will then advocate for the U.S. approach to group capital in 

international forums. 

IAIS Capital Initiatives 

The work of the state regulators, the NAIC, and the Federal Reserve being conducted will influence 

the United States’ position with respect to group capital initiatives in development at the IAIS. The 

IAIS Insurance Capital Standard (ICS) is being developed as part of the Common Framework for 

the Supervision of Internationally Active Insurance Groups (ComFrame).281 ComFrame aspires to 

provide a more uniform approach to group capital through a risk-based group capital standard that 

is understood by supervisors across jurisdictions. The ICS has several foundational building blocks: 

(1) a valuation basis for assets and liabilities, (2) a capital requirement that considers all relevant and 

material risks and is calibrated at a sufficient level, and (3) criteria to determine qualifying capital 

resources that are available to meet that capital requirement.282 The ICS is also intended to replace 

the Basic Capital Requirement as the foundation for the Higher Loss-Absorbency Requirement.283 

The Higher Loss-Absorbency Requirement is subject to further review and improvement, and is 

scheduled to be implemented beginning in 2022, once revised, and apply to any G-SIIs identified 

in 2020. 

While adoption of the ICS by the IAIS is not scheduled until late 2019, the work product in 

development highlights potential issues that suggest the remaining work will be complex and 

challenging. First, the IAIS needs to determine the way forward once the ICS development process 

is complete. In an effort to do so, the IAIS recently called for more options in Version 1.0 with 

respect to valuation methodologies and capital resources to be tested than had originally been 

envisioned. 

281.	 The IAIS defines an Internationally Active Insurance Group (IAIG) as a large, internationally active group that 

includes at least one insurance activity where: (1) premiums are written in not fewer than three jurisdictions 

(including the home jurisdiction), and gross premiums written outside the home jurisdiction are not less than 

10% of the group’s total gross written premiums, and (2) based on a rolling three-year average, total assets 

are not less than $50 billion, or gross written premiums are not less than $10 billion. See IAIS, Common 

Framework for the Supervision of Internationally Active Insurance Groups, Revised DRAFT, at 2 (Sept. 

2014), available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/page/supervisory-material/common-framework//file/58726/ 

revised-comframe-draft-2014. 

282.	 IAIS, Consultation on Risk-based Global Insurance Capital Standard (ICS) Version 1.0 Public Consultation 

Document, available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/page/consultations/closed-consultations/risk-based-globalinsurance-capital-standard--second-consultation//file/61557/2016-risk-based-global-insurance-capital-standard-ics-consultation-document. The IAIS began field testing the ICS in 2013, with the process evolving 

through annual iterations to include testing of these three components. 

283.	 International Association of Insurance Supervisors, Basic Capital Requirement for G-SIIs (Oct. 23, 2014); 

International Association of Insurance Supervisors, Higher Loss Absorbency Requirement for Globally 

Systemic Important Issuers-(G-SIIs), (Oct. 5, 2015), available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/page/supervisory-material/financial-stability-and-macroprudential-policy-and-surveillance.https://www.iaisweb.org/page/ 

supervisory-material/financial-stability-and-macroprudential-policy-and-surveillance. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 101 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Systemic Risk and Solvency

Another key issue is comparability. Comparability involves the valuation of assets and liabilities, 

which can affect the consistency of outcomes across jurisdictions. The valuation method preferred 

by the majority of members is a market-adjusted valuation, similar to that used in the European 

Union’s Solvency II insurance regulatory regime, which makes certain adjustments to attempt to 

mitigate the volatility and inconsistency of a pure market-based valuation. Nevertheless, concerns 

persist among some industry stakeholders as to whether the market adjustments currently being 

tested by the IAIS sufficiently reduce the potential adverse non-economic volatility impacts or 

whether they sufficiently reflect the manner in which insurers manage risks. 

With respect to valuation, the IAIS is also considering financial reporting that uses GAAP, with 

jurisdictionally specific adjustments to increase comparability. This approach has the advantage of 

basing the ICS valuation on amounts that have been determined and presented based on published 

guidance by accounting standard setters, and have been subjected to independent audit. The adoption of a financial reporting-based approach also needs to consider the differences between GAAP 

developed by the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), which is used in the United 

States, and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) developed by the International 

Accounting Standards Board (IASB), which is used by many other countries. 

Recommendations 

It is critical that the U.S. members of the IAIS present a consistent, unified approach to ICS 

development. Such standards should recognize the diverse approaches to solvency regulation taken 

by various jurisdictions around the globe. A core goal should be to ensure that the ICS initiative 

accommodates the U.S. insurance business model and the existing state-based regulatory system. 

Such standards should also be developed in a manner that recognizes the variety of supervisory 

approaches to valuation and accounting requirements, and definitions of what constitutes capital. 

The IAIS should reexamine its current timeline to deliver ICS Version 2.0 in 2019. Treasury recommends that the IAIS postpone ICS Version 2.0 until a later date to allow further consultation 

with IAIS members and stakeholders on the development of an ICS that is implementable in all 

major insurance markets. Additionally, the valuation methodology of the ICS will be affected by 

the ongoing work of the IASB and the FASB. A delay in implementation of the ICS would enable 

the IAIS to incorporate these potential accounting changes within the ICS, which could result in 

an improved global capital standard. 

Preserving Solvency: Liquidity Initiatives 

Understanding liquidity risk is a critical component of insurance solvency regulation and 

oversight. Generally, liquidity can be defined as the ability of a financial market participant 

to quickly liquidate assets, without substantial price concessions, to meet immediate, 

short-term financial obligations. Potential cash outflows in a stress environment can cause 

liquidity issues, and may lead to asset sales at distressed prices. Such a scenario not only has 

solvency-related implications for an individual insurer, but potentially for broader financial 

markets as well. Significantly tighter access to credit, for example, would have a significant 

impact on the ability to secure short-term debt financing among other spillover effects. 

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PriceWaterhouseCoopers has outlined several core aspects of liquidity which, in Treasury’s 

view, provides a structured approach to any evaluation of liquidity that may be undertaken by 

policymakers.284 

State Regulator Liquidity Initiatives 

In August 2017, the NAIC launched its Macro-Prudential Initiative, which will consider, among 

other things, liquidity needs of large life insurers.285 Particularly, the NAIC’s Financial Stability 

Task Force created a new Liquidity Assessment Subgroup.286 In its proposal to create the subgroup, 

the Financial Stability Task Force explained that state regulators currently have little substantive 

data on insurers’ liquidity risk, do not require liquidity stress testing, and thus have no common 

measure to assess insurers’ level of liquidity risk. This raised concerns regarding how larger insurers 

would perform under liquidity stress, and how such an event might impact the broader financial 

markets.287 The new subgroup is charged with constructing a liquidity stress framework based on a 

review of existing data related to liquidity risk, as well as gaps in that data that do not fully address 

regulatory needs.288 

Federal Reserve Liquidity Initiatives 

Pursuant to Section 165 of Dodd-Frank, in June 2016 the Federal Reserve issued a Proposed 

Rule on Enhanced Prudential Standards for Systemically Important Insurance Companies that 

seeks to mitigate liquidity risks at systemically important insurance companies, and account for 

differences between bank holding companies and systemically important insurance companies. 289 

The proposal would require a systemically important insurance company designated by the FSOC 

to implement a number of provisions to manage its liquidity risk, and includes requirements to: 

(1) meet key internal control requirements with respect to liquidity risk management, (2) generate 

comprehensive cash-flow projections, (3) establish and monitor liquidity risk tolerance, and (4) 

maintain a contingency funding plan to manage liquidity stress events when normal sources of 

funding may not be available.290 The proposed rule also would introduce liquidity stress-testing 

requirements and would require the company to maintain liquid assets that are sufficient to meet 

284.	 PriceWaterhouseCoopers LLP., Global Financial Markets Liquidity Study (Aug. 2015), available at: http://www. 

pwc.se/sv/pdf-reports/global-financial-markets-liquidity-study.pdf. 

285.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Financial Stability (EX) Task Force: Meeting Summary 

Report (August 6, 2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/meetings1708/cmte_ex_financial_stability_tf_2017_ 

summer_nm_summary.pdf. 

286.	 Id. 

287.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, FSTF Proposal for Liquidity Assessment Subgroup (August 

6, 2017), available at: http://naic.org/meetings1708/cmte_ex_financial_stability_tf_2017_summer_nm_materials_3.pdf. 

288.	 Id. 

289.	 Enhanced Prudential Standards for Systemically Important Insurance Companies (June 9, 2016), [81 Fed. 

Reg. 38610 (June 14, 2016)]. Among other things, Section 165 requires that enhanced prudential standards 

include liquidity requirements. 

290.	 Id. 

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net cash outflows for 90 days over the range of liquidity stress scenarios used in internal stress 

testing.291 

IAIS Liquidity Initiatives 

In 2014, the IAIS set forth guidance to group-wide supervisors on the direction of liquidity management planning for G-SIIs.292 The principles defined by the IAIS as part of an effective liquidity 

management plan include: (1) development of a policy statement on the near- and long-term risk 

tolerance, (2) explanation of the corporate governance structure that will oversee the liquidity 

management, (3) a method for analyzing an insurer’s liquidity risk through various time horizons 

and scenarios, and (4) annual reporting by G-SIIs to their group-wide supervisor.293 The guidance, 

which is meant to complement existing liquidity arrangements, outlines the key supervisory features that would be expected of a G-SII.294 In a 2016 report, Systemic Risk from Insurance Product 

Features, the IAIS studied the extent to which certain product features could pose substantial 

liquidity risk.295 The IAIS also noted that the updated methodology for the assessment of G-SIIs296 

was revised to more appropriately account for certain liquidity features in insurance products. 

Moving forward, the IAIS Systemic Risk Assessment Task Force is expected to perform an activities-based assessment of liquidity risk in the global insurance sector. 

Recommendations 

Treasury supports robust liquidity risk management programs for insurers and encourages state 

insurance regulators, the NAIC, and the Federal Reserve to continue their work on addressing 

potential liquidity risk in the insurance sector. The Secretary will direct FIO to monitor developments in liquidity management and liquidity stress testing, and to encourage state insurance 

regulators, the NAIC, and the Federal Reserve to continue to make progress on domestic liquidity 

risk initiatives. The Secretary will also direct FIO to advocate for improvements to the existing 

IAIS standards regarding liquidity management and planning. 

Efficient Regulation and Government Processes 

Role of State and Federal Regulation 

The state-based insurance regulatory system has a 150-year record of protecting the rights of policyholders and regulating insurers. For the most part, the system has been effective. This is due, in 

291.	 Id. 

292.	 International Association of Insurance Supervisors, Guidance on Liquidity Management and Planning (October 

22, 2014), available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/file/47800/liquidity-guidance-final. 

293.	 Id. 

294.	 Id. 

295.	 International Association of Insurance Supervisors, Systemic Risk from Insurance Product Features (June 16, 

2016) available at: http://www.iaisweb.org/file/61174/systemic-risk-from-insurance-product-features. 

296.	 Id. 

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part, to the knowledge and experience of state legislators and regulators who are well-positioned to 

tailor regulation to the activities of their stakeholders and respond to their citizens’ unique needs. 

Treasury endorses the state-based regulatory model for the U.S. insurance industry and recommends narrowing the scope of federal involvement as detailed throughout this section. Treasury 

also recognizes the importance of the federal government’s involvement in the administration of 

key insurance programs that provide stability, certainty, and opportunity to Americans and their 

businesses. There are, however, areas for improvement of these programs, which are detailed below. 

Despite the strengths of the state-based insurance regulatory system, stakeholders voiced concerns 

that the system exhibits a degree of inefficiency by virtue of inconsistent laws and regulations 

among the states. This section recommends that states and the NAIC take targeted action to make 

regulation efficient, effective, and appropriately tailored, as contemplated by the Core Principles. 

Stakeholders also expressed that lawmakers, regulators, and policymakers have missed opportunities to collaborate at both the federal and state levels. Such collaboration would advance American 

interests abroad, make regulation more efficient, and foster economic growth. Treasury therefore 

recommends enhanced collaboration, both between the state and federal governments, and within 

the federal government. 

Finally, Treasury recognizes that the increasingly international dimension of the insurance business 

mandates a federal presence that advances American interests in international negotiations and 

meetings. Treasury recommends robust engagement in international standard-setting bodies to 

ensure that the U.S. insurance stakeholders and the federal government are well-represented and 

that those representatives more effectively coordinate their positions and policies prior to major 

international meetings. 

The Revised Role of the Federal Insurance Office 

Among other things, FIO was established to address the lack of insurance industry expertise in 

the federal government, assist in the administration of certain government insurance programs 

and activities, and provide a U.S. federal government perspective in an increasingly globalized 

industry. To better align FIO with its statutory framework and to ensure consistency with the 

long-established U.S. policy of state-based insurance regulation, Treasury has crafted five pillars 

that will guide FIO’s mission: 

•	 Promote the U.S. state-based insurance regulatory system and advocate for the U.S. 

insurance sector in international forums and negotiations, and in foreign markets. 

•	 Provide insurance policy expertise and advice to the federal government, state insurance 

regulators, and industry through the publication of comprehensive research and analysis, 

consultation on emerging issues, and evaluation of federal insurance programs. 

•	 Provide coordinated and collaborative leadership on insurance issues that engage the 

federal government and state insurance regulators, including through enhanced coordination between the federal government and state insurance regulators. 

•	 Protect the U.S. financial system and economy by advising the Secretary and the FSOC 

on insurance-related matters that may pose a threat to U.S. financial stability. 

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•	 Protect America’s financial security by promoting access to insurance products and 

administering the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program. 

These five pillars are being established to advance the Core Principles of Executive Order 13772. 

First, they will enable U.S. insurance companies to be more competitive in foreign markets, 

where U.S. firms actively participate and, in some cases, see opportunity for continued expansion. 

Second, they will advance U.S. interests in various international forums by ensuring appropriate 

and coordinated advocacy for the U.S. state-based insurance regulatory system, the U.S. insurance 

sector, and U.S. policyholders, which will enable the United States to be more effective in developing insurance policy. Finally, the pillars are intended to ensure that regulation is efficient, effective, 

and appropriately tailored by enhancing the collaboration between state and federal agencies and 

improving consultation with state insurance regulators, while providing expertise for research and 

analysis. Additional examples of FIO’s revised role can be found throughout the insurance section 

of this report. 

Recommendations 

To ensure FIO is accountable to these core pillars, Treasury is committed to FIO’s increased transparency and stakeholder engagement, and will implement mechanisms to achieve these objectives. 

For example, Treasury is committed to making its international negotiating posture and actions 

more accessible to various stakeholders through both public and private forums. Additionally, 

Treasury and FIO are committed to more regular and consistent engagement with state insurance 

regulators and stakeholders on developing issues of importance to the insurance industry, state 

regulators, and U.S. policyholders. 

The Federal Reserve’s Regulation of Insurer Savings and Loan Holding 

Companies 

Business groups primarily engaged in the business of insurance that own insured depository 

institutions may be subject to supervision by the Federal Reserve. Pursuant to Regulation Q, 

the Federal Reserve acts as the group-wide supervisor for savings and loan holding companies 

(SLHCs) in cases where: (1) an insurance underwriting company is the ultimate parent company 

of a SLHC affiliate, or (2) a SLHC holds 25% or more of its total consolidated assets in insurance 

underwriting subsidiaries.297 In these cases, SLHCs may be referred to as insurance SLHCs, or 

ISLHCs. 

Federal Reserve supervision includes an evaluation of the impact of material subsidiaries and business units on the consolidated and banking entities.298 The Federal Reserve’s supervisory regime 

297.	 12 C.F.R. § 217.2. Most ISLHCs are organized as mutual insurance companies that are structured in a manner 

such that the parent company is an operating insurance company, not a holding company without other business operations. 

298.	 Federal Reserve reviews include discovery reviews, targeted reviews, and enhanced continuous monitoring 

reviews; annual rating of an institution, reviews of corporate governance, enterprise risk management, compliance, and internal audit; requirements for capital and liquidity; and reviews of investments and investment risk 

management. 

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includes substantial recordkeeping and reporting requirements.299 For example: Federal Reserve 

Forms Y-6 and Y-11 require substantial financial reporting, Form FR Y-8 requires that affiliated 

transactions be reported to the Federal Reserve, and enterprise risk management and corporate 

governance practices are reported to the Federal Reserve pursuant to Form F and SR Letters. These 

compliance requirements impose significant costs on ISLHCs. 

Federal Reserve supervision also includes continuous examination of the financial condition of 

ISLHCs through a number of discovery and targeted reviews. These examinations also generate 

significant costs. ISLHCs must pay an annual assessment for Federal Reserve supervision and 

examinations.300 

State insurance regulators impose the same or similar recordkeeping, reporting, and examination 

requirements.301 Like the Federal Reserve, state insurance regulators require extensive annual 

financial reports,302 require reports on affiliated transactions,303 evaluate risk management and corporate governance, 304 apply risk-based capital requirements,305 conduct annual financial condition 

analyses, and conduct periodic financial condition examinations that can last years.306 Such examinations must be conducted at least once every five years. State insurance regulators are reimbursed 

by insurers for costs associated with their examinations. 

299.	 Section 5000 (BHC Inspection Program) includes references to records that an ISLHC must provide access 

to in an examination. See https://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/supmanual/bhc/5000p1.pdf. Federal 

Reserve supervision of ISLHCs is guided by its Supervision Manuals and Supervision and Regulation Letters 

(SR Letters). See https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/supmanual.htm (supervisory manual); https:// 

www.federalreserve.gov/supervisionreg/srletters/srletters.htm (SR Letters). 

300.	 This assessment is based on total consolidated assets. For example, one stakeholder represented to Treasury 

that its most recent annual Federal Reserve assessment cost $5.3 million, compared to the $1.5 million cost of 

its most recent full scope financial condition examination conducted by state insurance regulators. 

301.	 The relative consistency of states’ work product is maintained through the NAIC’s Financial Regulation 

Standards and Accreditation Program; currently, all 50 states are accredited under this program. 

302.	 See, e.g., National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Form B and Annual Statements; Annual and 

Quarterly Statement Blanks, 2016 Edition, NAIC, 2017, and Annual and Quarterly Statement Instructions, 

2016 Edition, NAIC, 2017. 

303.	 See, e.g., National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Annual Statements; Annual and Quarterly 

Statement Blanks, 2016 Edition, NAIC, 2017, and Annual and Quarterly Statement Instructions, 2016 Edition, 

NAIC, 2017. 

304.	 See, e.g., National Association of Insurance Commissioners, ORSA and Form F: NAIC, Risk Management and 

Own Risk Solvency Assessment Model Act, available at: http://www.naic.org/store/free/MDL-505.pdf; NAIC 

Insurance Holding Company System Model Regulation with Reporting Forms and Instructions, available at: 

www.naic.org/store/free/MDL-450.pdf. 

305.	 National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Financial Analysis Handbook (2016), available at: www. 

naic.org/prod_serv/FAH-ZU-16-02.pdf. 

306.	 State insurance regulator supervision is primarily guided by the NAIC’s Financial Condition Examiner’s 

Handbook, and its Financial Analysis Handbook 2016 Edition. State insurance regulators also apply corrective measures (in the case of a breach of various levels of capital requirements); require enterprise risk reporting, conduct and/or participate in supervisory colleges (for large multi-state groups); require annual independent audits of financial statements, audit committees, and internal audit functions; and have in place regulatory 

requirements for approval of material intercompany transactions and extraordinary dividends. 

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The duplicative supervision of ISLHCs at the state and federal levels is costly and inefficient. 

The duplicative supervisory, recordkeeping, and reporting requirements of ISLHCs by the Federal 

Reserve and state insurance regulators may also contribute to an unlevel playing field for these 

insurers as compared to insurers that do not own insured depository institutions. 

Recommendations 

To reduce duplicative and inefficient oversight, Treasury recommends that the Federal Reserve leverage information procured from ISLHCs by state regulators and the NAIC, including information 

regarding an ISLHC’s ultimate parent company. The Federal Reserve should also harmonize its 

financial reporting and recordkeeping requirements with corresponding state regulatory requirements. To this end, Treasury recommends that the Federal Reserve, state insurance regulators, and 

NAIC establish formal procedures and take steps that will better coordinate the supervision and 

examinations of insurers regulated by both state insurance regulators and the Federal Reserve. 

Treasury also recommends that the Federal Reserve reassess whether its ISLHC examinations are 

appropriately tailored and proportionate to the unique business model of each ISLHC, and the 

size, organizational structure, and potential risks posed by each ISLHC. 

The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau 

Title X of Dodd-Frank expressly excludes the “business of insurance” from the list of financial 

products and services within the CFPB’s jurisdiction.307 Dodd-Frank also prohibits the CFPB 

from exercising enforcement authority over “a person regulated by a State insurance regulator.”308 

A “person” is defined to be “any person that is engaged in the business of insurance and subject to 

regulation by any State insurance regulator, but only to the extent that such person acts in such 

capacity.” 309 

There are, however, a limited number of exceptions where the CFPB may exercise its authority over 

the business of insurance and persons regulated by state insurance regulators: 

•	 If an insurer offers a financial product or service to the extent that the insurer is engaged 

in the offering or provision of a consumer financial product or service310 (e.g., debt 

protection contracts that are administered by insurers on behalf of a bank311); 

307.	 12 U.S.C. § 5481(15)(C). The “business of insurance” is defined by Dodd-Frank as “the writing of insurance 

or the reinsuring of risk by an insurer, including all acts necessary to such writing or reinsuring and the activities 

relating to the writing of insurance or the reinsuring of risks conducted by persons who act as, or are, officers, 

directors, agents, or employees of insurers or who are other persons authorized to act on behalf of such persons.” 12 U.S.C. §5481(3). 

308.	 12 U.S.C. § 5517(f)(1). 

309.	 12 U.S.C. §5481(22). A “person” is defined to include both individuals and entities. 

310.	 12 U.S.C. § 5517(f)(2). 

311.	 James C. Sivon and Adam D. Maarec, The CFPB and the Business of Insurance: An Analysis of the Scope of 

the CFPB’s Authority Over Insurance Sales, 68 Consumer Fin. L.Q. Rep 190, 192. 

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•	 To supervise and enforce violations of federal consumer laws312 (e.g., violations of the 

Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act that relate to insurers313); 

•	 If persons knowingly or recklessly provide substantial assistance in an Unfair, Deceptive, 

or Abusive Acts and Practices (UDAAP) violation314 (i.e., if an insurer knowingly or recklessly supports a covered person or service provider in violation of the UDAAP provisions 

of Dodd-Frank315); or 

•	 To request information from a person regulated by a state insurance regulator in connection with the CFPB’s rulemaking, investigative, subpoena, or hearing powers.316 

Despite the general exclusions, these statutory exceptions create considerable uncertainty concerning what the CFPB can examine or regulate. Insurers are concerned that, if the CFPB interprets 

the exceptions broadly, it could potentially regulate insurers or the business of insurance in a 

manner more expansive than the statutory exceptions intend. Such regulatory actions could also 

be duplicative of actions undertaken by state insurance regulators. 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends that Congress clarify the “business of insurance” exception to ensure that 

the CFPB does not engage in the oversight of activities already monitored by state insurance 

regulators. 

The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 

Congress enacted Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 — commonly known as the Fair 

Housing Act (FHA) — to “provide, within constitutional limitations, for fair housing throughout 

the United States.”317 To accomplish this, the FHA made it unlawful to “refuse to sell or rent after 

the making of a bona fide offer, or to refuse to negotiate for the sale or rental of, or otherwise make 

unavailable or deny, a dwelling to any person because of race, color, religion, or national origin.”318 

The FHA also makes it unlawful “[t]o discriminate against any person in the terms, conditions, or 

privileges of sale or rental of a dwelling, or in the provision of services or facilities in connection 

therewith,” (i.e., disparate treatment) because of those same protected characteristics.319 HUD is 

vested with the authority to engage in formal adjudications of housing discrimination claims, as 

312.	 12 U.S.C. §§ 5517(f)(2), 5514(e), 5515(d), 5516(e); 5517(n). See also 12 U.S.C. § 5481 (12). 

313.	 James C. Sivon and Adam D. Maarec, The CFPB and the Business of Insurance: An Analysis of the Scope of 

the CFPB’s Authority Over Insurance Sales, 68 Consumer Fin. L.Q. Rep 190, 192. 

314.	 12 U.S.C. § 5536(a)(3). This authority may be applied to insurers only to the extent that the company provides 

non-insurance services to a covered person or service provider. 

315.	 12 U.S.C. §§ 5531, 5536. 

316.	 12 U.S.C. § 5517(n)(2). 

317.	 12 U.S.C. § 3604(a). 

318.	 12 U.S.C. § 3604(b) 

319.	 Id. Twenty years later, Congress amended the FHA to also include sex, familial status, and handicap as protected characteristics. 

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well as the authority to issue rules — following a notice and comment period — to effectuate the 

goals of the FHA.320 

In 2011, HUD proposed a rule that would also impose a duty to avoid practices that are neutral by legal and regulatory definitions but with discriminatory effects (i.e., disparate impact).321 

This, among other things, would require entities covered by the rule to assess whether adverse fair 

housing consequences result from any business practice, even if such practices have no explicit 

discriminatory features. 

HUD has expressed its intention to apply the disparate impact rule to the insurance industry.322 

If this application leads to collection and evaluation of data on protected classes under insurance 

policies, this could be challenging as state insurance regulations ordinarily prohibit the consideration of protected characteristics in the evaluation and pooling of risk,323 and such data collection 

is expressly prohibited by insurance laws of at least one state.324 To the extent that otherwise nondiscriminatory underwriting practices result in disparate outcomes, the rule could also impose 

unnecessary burdens on insurers and force them to alter practices in a manner that may not be 

actuarially sound.325 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends that HUD reconsider its use of the disparate impact rule. In particular, HUD should consider whether the disparate impact rule, as applied, is consistent with 

McCarran-Ferguson and existing state law. HUD should also reconsider whether such a rule 

would have a disruptive effect on the availability of homeowners insurance and whether 

the rule is reconcilable with actuarially sound principles. 

320.	 12 U.S.C. § 3612. 

321.	 24 C.F.R. § 100.500. 

322.	 See, e.g., Implementation of the Fair Housing Act’s Discriminatory Effects Standard; Final Rule (Feb. 8, 2013) 

[78 Fed. Reg. 11459 (Feb. 15, 2013) at 11475], available at: https://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/documents/hudd 

oc?id=discriminatoryeffectrule.pdf. 

323.	 See, e.g., 215 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/424(3); Alaska Stat. § 21.36.090; Ky.Rev.Stat. Ann. § 304.12–085; Mass 

Gen. Laws Ann. ch. 175 § 4C; Me.Rev.Stat. tit. 24–A, § 2303(1)(G); Okla. Stat. Ann. tit. 36, § 985; S.C.Code 

Ann. § 38–75–1210(B)(1); Tenn.Code Ann. § 56–5–303(a)(2)(d); Tex. Ins.Code Ann. § 544.002. 

324.	 Md. Code Ann. Ins. § 27-501(c)(1). See also, American Insurance Association v. U.S. Department of Housing 

and Urban Development, 74 F. Supp. 3d 30 at 46 (D.D.C. 2014). In Property Casualty Insurers Association 

of America v. Donovan, the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Illinois held that HUD had failed to 

give adequate consideration to the arguments that the rule, as applied to insurers, (1) violates the McCarranFerguson Act, (2) violates the “filed rate” doctrine, and (3) is inconsistent with the “fundamental nature of 

insurance.” The case was remanded to HUD for consideration of those issues. Property Casualty Insurers 

Association of America v. Donovan, 66 F. Supp. 3d 1018 (N.D. Ill. 2014). On October 5, 2016, after reconsideration of the insurance industry comments in accordance with the court’s decision in Donovan, HUD determined that categorical exemptions or safe harbors for insurance practices are unworkable and inconsistent 

with the broad fair housing objectives and obligations embodied in the Act. [81. Fed. Reg. 69012-02 (Oct. 5, 

2016)]. 

325.	 See American Insurance Association v. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 74 F. Supp. 3d 

30 at 46 (D.D.C. 2014). 

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The Securities and Exchange Commission 

Because variable annuities are non-exempt securities, they generally must be registered with the 

SEC326 and sold with a prospectus, i.e., a disclosure document containing detailed information 

about the product, its features, and associated risks. A variable annuity prospectus can range from 

100 to 300 pages in length and contains dense legal, actuarial, and regulatory language not readily 

understood by retail investors. In addition, securities laws require preparation and delivery of 

an annual prospectus update327 that repeats much of the information contained in the original 

prospectus, without a roadmap to help investors identify the relevant changes. 

For almost a decade, the insurance industry has advocated for: (1) a user-friendly summary prospectus that explains key information about the annuity contract, and (2) a streamlined annual 

update document that is available online at any time, for both new investors and investors who 

already own annuity contracts.328 Even though it adopted a summary prospectus for mutual funds 

in 2009,329 the SEC has yet to act with respect to variable annuities. 

In its report to Congress on objectives for fiscal year 2018, the SEC’s Office of the Investor 

Advocate characterized the variable annuity summary prospectus initiative as a promising idea that 

appears noncontroversial but has languished behind other rulemaking priorities.330 In addition, in 

May 2015 the SEC proposed Rule 30e-3, which would allow mutual funds to provide statutorily 

required shareholder reports on the Internet.331 In the variable annuity context, this proposal would 

lower costs while improving the effectiveness of disclosure by allowing variable annuity contract 

owners to access and search the voluminous information they currently receive in paper form for 

each investment fund underlying their contracts.332 

In addition to securities regulation, the SEC directs accounting and auditing practices and policies 

for publicly held companies in the United States. To develop financial accounting and reporting 

standards, the SEC Office of the Chief Accountant works with the independent FASB, which 

sets financial accounting and reporting standards for public and private companies and nonprofit 

organizations that follow GAAP.333 The SEC and FASB also take into account standards set by the 

326.	 See SEC Form N-4, available at: https://www.sec.gov/about/forms/formn-4.pdf. 

327.	 17 C.F.R. § 230.485(b). 

328.	 See, e.g., Letter from the Committee of Annuity Insurers to the Honorable Walter J. Clayton III (July 11, 2017), 

available at: https://www.annuity-insurers.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/EV_Chairman-Clayton-Letter-onbehalf-of-the-Committee-of-Annuity-Insurers.pdf (“Clayton Letter”). 

329.	 Enhanced Disclosure and New Prospectus Delivery Option For Registered Open-End Management Investment 

Companies (Jan. 13, 2009) [74 Fed. Reg. 4545 (Jan. 26, 2009)], available at: http://www.sec.gov/rules/ 

final/2009/33-8998.pdf. 

330.	 Office of the Investor Advocate, Report on Objectives Fiscal Year 2018, at 1, available at: https://www.sec.gov/ 

files/sec-office-investor-advocate-report-on-objectives-fy2018.pdf. 

331.	 See supra at 49. 

332.	 In an informal survey conducted in 2015, several members of the Committee of Annuity Insurers indicated that 

they send approximately one billion pages per year to contract owners to meet their statutory obligation to 

deliver annual and semi-annual fund reports. Letter from the Committee of Annuity Insurers to the Honorable 

Mary Jo White (July 22, 2016), at 4, available at: https://www.sec.gov/comments/s7-08-15/s70815-612.pdf. 

333.	 See Office of the Chief Accountant, About the Office, Securities Exchange Commission, available at: https:// 

www.sec.gov/page/oca-section-landing. 

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IASB, which develops IFRS and has the mission of developing a single set of globally accepted 

accounting standards.334 

Some insurers have expressed concern that the SEC may accept FASB and IFRS standards without 

sufficiently taking their unique business models into account.335 

Recommendations 

Treasury believes that a variable annuity summary prospectus and streamlined annual update 

would offer substantial benefits to consumers and insurers. Moreover, allowing online access to 

annual prospectus updates and annual and semiannual underlying fund reports would both lower 

expenses and improve the quality of disclosure by making it readily accessible and searchable. 

Accordingly, Treasury recommends that the SEC prioritize annuity-related disclosure reform by 

proposing a rule permitting a variable annuity summary prospectus and a streamlined prospectus 

update, while continuing to provide appropriate disclosure to investors. The SEC should also 

move forward with finalization of Rule 30e-3. Finally, the SEC should take steps to improve the 

efficiency and effectiveness of the regulation of insurance products under its jurisdiction.336 

To develop accounting standards that appropriately reflect insurers’ unique business models, 

Treasury also encourages the SEC to enhance its engagement with the insurance sector, including 

state insurance regulators and the NAIC. Specifically, the SEC should engage with insurance regulators and stakeholders to assess how FASB and IFRS standards could affect the insurance industry. 

Terrorism Risk Insurance Program 

Data Collection 

Treasury, through FIO, is required to collect information annually concerning the effectiveness of 

the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program (“TRIP” or “Program”). This information, in turn, forms the 

334.	 In addition to GAAP, all insurers utilize an accounting standard known as Statutory Accounting Principles (SAP) 

that utilizes the GAAP framework, but is tailored to permit regulators to analyze the unique nature of the business of insurance. Developed by the NAIC, SAP focuses on the balance sheet, rather than the income statement, and emphasizes insurer liquidity. See National Association of Insurance Commissioners, Statutory 

Accounting Principles (last updated July 11, 2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/cipr_topics/topic_statutory_accounting_principles.htm. 

335.	 See Acceptance from Foreign Private Issuers of Financial Statements Prepared in Accordance with 

International Financial Reporting Standards without Reconciliation to U.S. GAAP (Dec. 21, 2007) [73 Fed. Reg. 

985 (Jan. 4, 2008)]. For example, in 2007, the SEC issued a final rule in which it accepted financial statements 

prepared according to IFRS that are included in SEC filings from foreign private securities issuers. 

336.	 For example, life insurers are increasingly offering annuity contracts that are not exempt securities but also are 

not eligible for registration on Form N-4, which is specifically tailored to variable annuities. To offer their products, these insurers must use registration forms designed for equity or debt offerings by public companies. 

Waiver of disclosure requirements that are irrelevant to regulated insurance product offerings would reduce 

regulatory costs and improve consumer disclosure. See Clayton Letter. 

112 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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basis for annual reports that Treasury is required to submit to Congress concerning the Program.337 

Treasury collects this information from a number of sources, including insurance rating bureaus 

and directly from participating insurers. Much (although not all) of the data collected by Treasury 

for its analyses is on a state or national level. Even at this level of detail, the data collected by 

Treasury to fulfill its statutory mandate requires substantial effort on the part of reporting insurers. 

For example, Treasury calculates that insurance groups that write on a nationwide basis could be 

required to report more than 8,000 individual data elements, some of which must be generated by 

reference to even more detailed information. 

In 2016, state insurance regulators also began collecting data on terrorism risk insurance. Although 

much of the information sought by the states is similar in nature to that collected by FIO, the state 

data calls have sought information — from individual insurance companies and in some cases on 

a policy- and zip-code-level basis — which is more granular than the data requested by Treasury. 

By comparison, because of the request for various kinds of information at a policy level, the state 

data call could generate a reporting obligation into the millions of individual data elements for 

individual insurance companies that write large numbers of TRIP-eligible lines policies on a 

nationwide basis. Although individual responding insurers that issue smaller numbers of TRIPeligible lines policies will be subject to a lesser burden, the data call burden on insurance groups 

writing terrorism risk insurance subject to the Program can be significant. 

Throughout Treasury’s engagement, stakeholders routinely commented that these data calls serve 

the same or similar purposes, and that the multiple data calls, on different bases, create an undue 

burden on portions of the insurance industry. 

Recommendations 

The Secretary will direct FIO to coordinate with state insurance regulators and the NAIC to 

attempt to eliminate or reduce the inconsistencies between the existing data calls concerning terrorism risk insurance. Assuming this can be done, state insurance regulators and FIO should also 

explore the possibility of conducting a single data call that can serve the needs of both federal and 

state authorities while reducing unnecessary compliance costs on industry. 

337.	 Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 §§ 104(h)(1), (2), 108(h); 15 U.S.C. § 6701 note (“TRIA”). Because the 

provisions of TRIA, as amended (including the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2015, 

Public Law No. 114-1, 129 Stat. 3), appear in a note of the United States Code, references to the provisions 

of TRIA or the 2015 Reauthorization Act are identified by the sections of the law (e.g., TRIA § 102(1) (definition of an “act of terrorism”). See also Federal Insurance Office, U.S. Department of the Treasury, Report on 

the Overall Effectiveness of the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program (June 2016), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/reports-and-notices/Documents/2016_TRIP_Effectiveness_%20Report_FINAL.pdf; 

see also Federal Insurance Office, U.S. Department of the Treasury, Study of Small Insurer Competitiveness 

in the Terrorism Risk Insurance Marketplace (June 2017), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/ 

reports-and-notices/Documents/Study_of_Small_Insurer_Competitiveness_in_the_Terrorism_Risk_Insurance_ 

Marketplace_(June_2017).pdf. 

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Certifying an “Act of Terrorism” 

Section 107 of the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2015 (TRIP 

Reauthorization Act)338 required Treasury to issue a report concerning the process by which an act 

of terrorism is certified by the Secretary (Certification Process)339 for purposes of the Program, and 

also to promulgate final rules concerning the Certification Process. Treasury’s report concerning 

the Certification Process was issued in October 2015.340 In April 2016, Treasury issued a proposed 

rule and received a number of comments suggesting changes. In December 2016, Treasury made 

certain changes to the proposed rule, and issued an interim final rule — subject to a further 

opportunity for comment — concerning the Certification Process. 341 

The Certification Process set forth in the interim final rule requires Treasury to notify the public 

when the process commences, and provide updates as the process continues. The interim final 

rule does not obligate Treasury to commence a Certification Process at any specific time after an 

event has occurred, given that uncertainties regarding the circumstances of the event or the extent 

of insured losses, for example, may not permit Treasury to commence a Certification Process at 

a specifically designated time. Stakeholders have stated that this approach does not provide them 

with sufficient certainty when they are required to handle claims arising out of a particular event. 

This uncertainty is generated in part because an insured that failed to purchase terrorism coverage 

may be subject to an exclusion triggered only in the event the Secretary certifies an event as an act 

of terrorism. 

The Treasury rules concerning the Certification Process provide for a transparent process that will 

notify the public if a particular event is being evaluated as to whether it is an act of terrorism under 

the TRIP Reauthorization Act. Such information will permit policyholders and insurers to assess 

their rights and responsibilities in light of the Program in a timely fashion. Treasury would only 

evaluate an event for certification as an “act of terrorism” under TRIA, however, if the event had 

some reasonable likelihood of resulting in insured losses in excess of the certification threshold. 

Recommendations 

The Secretary will direct FIO to be proactive in applying this Certification Process in connection 

with any event that has some reasonable likelihood of resulting in more than $5 million in insured 

losses under TRIA, to provide transparency to the public as to whether the event is under consideration by the Secretary for purposes of the Program. State regulators, policyholders, and insurers are 

likewise encouraged to inform Treasury whenever they believe an “act of terrorism” under TRIA 

338.	 Pub. L. 114-1, 129 Stat. 3. 

339.	 See TRIP Reauthorization Act § 107. 

340.	 U.S. Department of the Treasury, The Process for Certifying an “Act of Terrorism” under the Terrorism 

Risk Insurance Act of 2002 (Oct. 2015), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/reports-andnotices/Documents/2015%20Report%20on%20the%20Certification%20Process%20under%20the%20 

Terrorism%20-%20Production%20Version.pdf. 

341.	 See TRIP Certification [81 Fed. Reg. 88592 (Dec. 7, 2016)] (“Certification”) (as codified at 31 C.F.R. § 50.60­

50.63); Terrorism Risk Insurance Program [81 Fed. Reg. 93756 (Dec. 21, 2016)]. 

114 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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has taken place, for which they have some reason to believe total insured losses are or will be in 

excess of $5 million.342 

The Advisory Committee on Risk-Sharing Mechanisms 

The Advisory Committee on Risk-Sharing Mechanisms (ACRSM) is a federal advisory committee 

established by the TRIP Reauthorization Act. ACRSM is statutorily required to provide advice, 

recommendations, and encouragement with respect to the creation and development of non-governmental risk-sharing mechanisms to protect against losses arising from acts of terrorism.343 The 

ACRSM is comprised of nine members who are representatives of insurers, reinsurers, and capital 

market participants.344 The ACRSM is now investigating the potential for increasing private participation in the terrorism risk insurance market. To facilitate its exploration of these topics, the 

ACRSM created five subcommittees (Direct Insurance, Reinsurance, Capital Markets, Exploration 

of Catastrophic Risks in Other Markets, and Consumer Interests). 

Recommendations 

In recognition of the importance of the Program and the upcoming consideration of any further 

reauthorization, the Secretary encourages the ACRSM to continue its efforts and develop recommendations for FIO. In particular, the work of the ACRSM should focus on how to increase 

private market participation in the terrorism insurance marketplace, with the goal of providing 

enhanced taxpayer protection in a way that does not result in market dislocations for the consumers and providers of terrorism risk insurance. FIO should also evaluate potential ways to increase 

private market participation in the terrorism insurance marketplace. Increased private market 

participation will protect, and help promote, the security and financial and economic strength of 

the United States. 

Insurer Data Security 

To protect the integrity of, and confidence in, the insurance marketplace, it is important to protect the personal identifiable information (PII), private health information (PHI), and financial 

information of policyholders and other third parties stored on insurers’ systems. The protection 

of information systems is also crucial for the integrity and resilience of insurers’ operations. As the 

2015 data breaches at health insurers Anthem, Inc. and Premera Blue Cross illustrate,345 insurers 

are attractive targets for cyber criminals and other hackers. The U.S. insurance industry has great 

diversity, ranging from large companies with global presences to local insurers that operate in only 

a single county. Although large insurers generally have sophisticated cybersecurity systems and 

342.	 See TRIP, Certification, 81 Fed. Reg. at 88595 (Dec. 7, 2016)] (“[N]othing in TRIA or Treasury’s proposed rules 

prohibits a stakeholder from contacting Treasury to bring to its attention an event that the stakeholder believes 

might be subject to certification under TRIA, or other information relevant to that event.”). 

343.	 TRIP Reauthorization Act § 110. 

344.	 15 U.S.C. § 6701, note. 

345.	 Anthem, Inc., Statement Regarding Cyber Attack against Anthem (Feb. 5, 2015), available at: https://www. 

anthem.com/health-insurance/about-us/pressreleasedetails/WI/2015/1813/statement-regarding-cyber-attackagainst-anthem; Premera Blue Cross, About the Cyberattack (Mar. 2015), available at: https://www.premera. 

com/wa/visitor/about-the-cyberattack. 

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Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

practices, the same is not necessarily true for smaller insurers.346 Regardless of size, it is critical that 

all insurers protect policyholder and third party information. 

Cybersecurity and data security are national policy issues that require coordination among federal 

and state public sector entities and partnership between the public and private sectors. Officials 

and regulators at both federal and state levels of government are working with insurers to improve 

the cybersecurity of the insurance industry, and are focused on increasing insurer cybersecurity 

while decreasing the burdens imposed by the proliferation of non-uniform data security and data 

breach notification laws and regulations. 

Most states have had insurance-specific data protection laws on the books for many years.347 In 

recent years, the NAIC has moved to improve protection of PII and PHI possessed by insurers. 

In addition to data security requirements, every state except for Alabama and South Dakota has 

enacted data breach notification requirements through “legislation requiring private or governmental entities to notify individuals of security breaches of information involving personally identifiable 

information.”348 

In October 2017, after a year and a half of development, the NAIC adopted an Insurance Data 

Security Model Law.349 Subject to certain exceptions, the NAIC Insurance Data Security Model 

Law is intended to apply to insurers, agents, and other licensees. The model law addresses: (1) the 

implementation of information security programs, (2) investigation of cybersecurity events, including risk assessment and risk management, as well as oversight of third-party service providers, and 

(3) notification to state insurance regulators about cybersecurity events, including but not limited 

to providing relevant state insurance commissioners with a description of how the information 

was exposed, lost, stolen, or breached; how the event was discovered; the period during which the 

information system was compromised; the total number of consumers affected in the state; and the 

efforts being undertaken to remediate the situation. The Insurance Data Security Model Law does 

not, however, require data breach notification to consumers,350 nor would it displace existing state 

laws regarding data privacy or data breach notification. 

346.	 Fitch Ratings noted that smaller insurers would have to “allocate significant new resources and bear significant 

costs to meet the requirements” in the NAIC’s Insurance Data Security Model Law. See Fitch Ratings, Press 

Release: NAIC Rules May Boost U.S. Insurers’ Cyber Risk Management (Aug. 16, 2017), available at: https:// 

www.fitchratings.com/site/pr/1027897. 

347.	 Between 1980 and 2002, the NAIC released three model laws and regulations regarding data privacy and 

information security: (1) the Insurance Information and Privacy Protection Model Act; (2) the Privacy of 

Consumer Financial and Health Information Model Regulation; and (3) the Standards for Safeguarding 

Consumer Information Model Regulation. Not all states have adopted laws that are the same or substantially 

similar to each of these models. 

348.	 National Conference of State Legislatures, Security Breach Notification Laws (last updated Apr. 12, 2017), 

available at: http://www.ncsl.org/research/telecommunications-and-information-technology/security-breachnotification-laws.aspx. 

349.	 See NAIC, NAIC Passes Insurance Data Security Model Law (Oct. 24, 2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/ 

Releases/2017_docs/naic_passes_data_security_model_law.htm; NAIC, Data Security Model Law v6 clean 

(Aug. 7, 2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/documents/cmte_ex_cswg_final_model_law_v6_clean.pdf. 

350.	 The Insurance Data Security Model Law requires notification to consumers only if there already is an applicable 

state data breach notification law. 

116 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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New York State has moved forward to address data security. On March 1, 2017, the New York 

Department of Financial Services (NYDFS) implemented a new cybersecurity regulation for entities under its jurisdiction, Cybersecurity Requirements for Financial Services Companies.351 The 

regulation requires banks, insurance companies, and other financial services institutions regulated 

by the NYDFS “to establish and maintain a cybersecurity program designed to protect consumers’ 

private data and ensure the safety and soundness of New York’s financial services industry.”352 The 

regulation is the first of its kind at the state level and is similar in many respects to the Insurance 

Data Security Model Law. 

The Insurance Data Security Model Law will not necessarily result in nationally uniform insurance laws regarding data breach notification and data security. The model law does not address 

consumer notification, and the degree of discretion and flexibility afforded to states in adopting 

and implementing NAIC model laws may undercut uniformity with regard to data security. Even 

though the Insurance Data Security Model Law has been adopted by the NAIC, as with all model 

laws, it still needs to be enacted by states to enter into force. Such enactment may take some states 

several years, and even then, uniform adoption is not guaranteed. Further, the Insurance Data 

Security Model Law will supplement, not replace, other state laws regarding privacy and consumer 

data, including insurer-specific laws consistent with existing NAIC model laws and regulations. 

Because these laws are neither uniform nor specific to insurers, complying with this patchwork of 

breach notification laws poses regulatory challenges and inefficiencies for insurers that operate in 

multiple states. 

Recommendations 

Treasury supports the state-based system of insurance regulation and recognizes that many aspects 

of the business of insurance are local in nature and do not lend themselves to uniform national 

approaches. However, data security, data breach notifications, and more broadly, cybersecurity 

are also issues of national concern. U.S. insurers should be subject to the same requirements for 

cybersecurity and protection of PII and PHI regardless of where they are domiciled and operate, 

and U.S. policyholders should be able to expect the same level of protection of their personal data 

regardless of where they live. 

Treasury recommends prompt adoption of the NAIC Insurance Data Security Model Law by the 

states. Treasury further recommends that that if adoption and implementation of the Insurance 

Data Security Model Law by the states do not result in uniform data security regulations within 

five years, Congress pass a law setting forth requirements for insurer data security, but leaving 

supervision and enforcement with state insurance regulators. 

Treasury also recommends that state legislators, state regulators, and the NAIC work to expeditiously pass uniform legislation regarding data breach notification for insurers, and encourages the 

NAIC to make any such model law an accreditation standard. If adoption and implementation 

351.	 New York State Department of Financial Services, Cybersecurity Requirements for Financial Services 

Companies (Feb. 13, 2017), 23 NYCRR Part 500. 

352.	 New York State, Press Release: Governor Cuomo Announces First-In-The-Nation Cybersecurity Regulation 

protecting Consumers and Financial Institutions from Cyber-Attacks to Take Effect March 1 (Feb. 16, 2017), 

available at: http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/press/pr1702161.htm. 

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of data breach notification efforts by the states do not result in uniform requirements within 

five years, Treasury encourages Congress to pass a law setting forth requirements for data breach 

notification specific to insurers. Such legislation should leave supervision and enforcement with 

state insurance regulators. 

Insurer Cyber Threats 

Treasury serves as the federal interface for matters involving cyber threats and cybersecurity for 

institutions within the financial services sector, including insurers.353 The Secretary also chairs the 

Financial and Banking Information Infrastructure Committee (FBIIC), a coordinating body of 

financial regulatory agencies — including a representative of state insurance regulators — tasked 

with improving the reliability and security of the financial-sector infrastructure. The FBIIC regularly collaborates with the Financial Services Sector Coordinating Council (FSSCC), a private-sector body that works with Treasury toward the shared goal of maintaining a robust and resilient 

financial services sector. 

Treasury also works with the insurance industry and state and federal insurance regulators to 

improve insurance-sector cybersecurity through improved information sharing, effective supervision by relevant regulators, and increased coordination between the public and private sectors. For 

example, in August 2017, together with the FSSCC, Treasury led a public-private tabletop exercise 

with participants from the insurance industry, state regulators, the NAIC, and law enforcement 

community. Employing a simulated cyber incident, this tabletop exercise was designed to identify 

key challenges for effective public-private response and coordination. Treasury also works closely 

with the Financial Services Information Sharing and Analysis Center (FS-ISAC), a cyber and 

physical threat intelligence analysis and sharing resourse for the financial services sector, including 

insurers. 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends that steps be taken to improve information sharing within the insurance 

industry. Insurance industry cyber security is enhanced when insurers share information with each 

other about threats and best practices, and collaborate with the public sector on cybersecurity 

issues. Treasury and state insurance regulators should continue to promote insurer participation 

in the FS-ISAC and similar entities, particularly among the thousands of small and regional firms 

that operate within the United States that may not yet be engaged with such national information 

sharing efforts. In addition, the Secretary will direct FIO to establish a working group charged 

with assessing cybersecurity challenges for the insurance sector and issuing recommendations to 

insurance sector participants and relevant regulators, with particular attention paid to small and 

regional insurers. 

353. Presidential Policy Directive 21: Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience. 

118 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
 

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Challenges in the Cyber Insurance Market 

As cyber risks have increased over the last two decades, the insurance industry has responded 

with a variety of insurance products. These products — loosely referred to as “cyber insurance” 

— cover risks arising “from the use of electronic data and its transmission, including technology 

tools such as the Internet and telecommunications networks,” as well as “physical damage that 

can be caused by cyber attacks, fraud committed by misuse of data, any liability arising from 

data storage, and the availability, integrity, and confidentiality of electronic information.”354 

By providing a risk transfer mechanism, cyber insurance contributes to the financial resilience 

of policyholders that suffer a cybersecurity incident or attack. This is especially important 

given that the average cost of a data breach is $3.62 million.355 Cyber insurance policies may 

also provide access to pre- and post-breach resources to help policyholders reduce their vulner 

ability to, or recover from, such events. 

The cyber insurance market reached an estimated $3 to $4 billion in gross premiums in 2016, 

with the large majority of the demand historically (and presently) based in the United States.356 

In comparison, the cyber insurance market was estimated to be approximately $2.75 billion in 

2015 and $2 billion in 2014. 357 Currently, approximately 100 insurers offer cyber insurance 

products.358 The market for cyber insurance is relatively concentrated, however, with the top 

15 insurers comprising more than 80% of the market in 2016.359 

Two related obstacles to the continued growth of the cyber insurance market are: (1) a lack 

of relevant data regarding evolving cyber risks, and (2) the threat of accumulation risk. At the 

center of these challenges is the difficulty in collecting and analyzing data regarding cyber risks. 

Industry representatives acknowledge that “the availability of data on cyber risk is scarce” and 

“even if historical data are available, the fast changing environment might render this data 

354.	 CRO Forum, Cyber Resilience: The Cyber Risk Challenge and the Role of Insurance (Dec. 2014), at 5, available at: http://www.thecroforum.org/cyber-resilience-cyber-risk-challenge-role-insurance/. Cyber losses arising out of a certified act of terrorism may be covered under the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program (Program) [81 

Fed. Reg. 95312 (Dec. 27, 2016). However, cyber losses can arise in a variety of ways and cause impacts that 

would not satisfy the requirements of the Program. 

355.	 Ponemon Institute Study, Cost of Data Breach Study 2017 (June 13, 2017), available at: https://www. 

ponemon.org/library/2017-cost-of-data-breach-study-united-states. 

356.	 Standard & Poor’s, Looking Before They Leap: U.S. Insurers Dip Their Toes In The Cyber-Risk Pool (June 

2015), available at: https://www.globalcreditportal.com/ratingsdirect/renderArticle.do?articleId=1403078&Sct 

ArtId=320678. 

357.	 U.S. Department of the Treasury, Federal Insurance Office, Annual Report on the Insurance Industry (Sept. 

2015), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/reports-and-notices/Documents/2015%20FIO%20 

Annual%20Report_Final.pdf; U.S. Department of the Treasury, Federal Insurance Office, Annual Report on 

the Insurance Industry (Sept. 2016), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/reports-and-notices/ 

Documents/2016_Annual_Report.pdf. 

358.	 NAIC, Report on the Cybersecurity Insurance Coverage Supplement (Aug. 6, 2017), available at: http://www. 

naic.org/documents/cmte_ex_cybersecurity_tf_rpt_cyber_ins_coverage_suppliment.pdf. 

359.	 Insurance Journal, Cyber Insurance Premium Volume Grew 35% to $1.3 Billion in 2016 (June 23, 2017), 

available at: http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/06/23/455508.htm. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 119 
 

 

 

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useless.”360 Thus, insurers may lack “the necessary inputs for creating a reliable cyber model” 

that would mirror the advanced modeling done for other types of catastrophic risk, such as 

hurricanes.361 Without the data to better assess exposure of individual policyholders to cyber 

losses, insurers have difficulty appropriately understanding accumulation risk (i.e., the risk that 

a single cybersecurity incident causes losses to multiple policyholders across multiple lines of 

insurance). For example, insurers have difficulty analyzing the risk of multiple policyholders 

using the same software, hardware, or third-party service providers.362 An attack that targets 

such commonly used products or services could cause enormous losses, both insured and 

uninsured.363 

To assess the need for more and better data regarding cyber risk and associated losses, the 

Department of Homeland Security formed a Cyber Incident and Analysis Working Group, 

made up of chief information security officers and chief security officers from various critical 

infrastructure sectors, insurers, and cybersecurity professionals. This working group focused 

on the feasibility of a cyber incident database, publishing several white papers on the topic.364 

While neither the insurance industry nor any other private sector actor has developed the data 

base proposed by the working group, the industry is working to improve data collection and 

the modeling of cyber risks. For example, individual insurers rely on proprietary collections 

of claims and other data, and catastrophe risk modelers are creating new tools for insurers.365 

Product Approval and Speed to Market 

The state-based insurance product approval process varies from state to state, as do compliance 

standards for insurers. Some states require products to be approved before they are offered (i.e., 

prior approval); others allow introduction to the market without approval so long as specified 

standards are met (i.e., use and file); and still others reserve the option to review a product after 

its introduction (i.e., file and use). Both the duration of review and the substantive standards for 

approval can vary based on different rules and regulations, the opinions of individual examiners, 

and state insurance department resource constraints. 

360.	 Geneva Association, Ten Key Questions on Cyber Risk and Cyber Risk Insurance (Nov. 

2016), available at: https://www.genevaassociation.org/research-topics/cyber-and-innovation/ 

ten-key-questions-cyber-risk-and-cyber-risk-insurance. 

361.	 AIR, Issue Brief: Insuring Cyber Risks (July 2017), available at: www.air-worldwide.com/publications/ 

white-papers/documents/insuring-cyber-risk. 

362.	 AIG, Cyber Today: Outlook, Underwriting Challenges, and Recommendations (presentation, Federal Advisory 

Committee on Insurance, Washington, D.C., Aug. 17, 2017). 

363.	 Cyence and Lloyd’s, Counting the Cost: Cyber Exposure Decoded (2017), available at: https://www.lloyds. 

com/news-and-insight/risk-insight/library/technology/countingthecost. 

364.	 Department of Homeland Security, Cybersecurity Insurance (last published June 30, 2016), available at: 

https://www.dhs.gov/cybersecurity-insurance. 

365.	 Insurance Journal, New Modeling Product from AIR Worldwide Analyzes Client Cyber Risk (Apr. 24, 2017), 

available at: http://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2017/04/24/448698.htm; Insurance Journal, 

RMS Expands Range of ‘Cyber-Physical’ Models for Property Insurers (Apr. 6, 2017), available at: http://www. 

insurancejournal.com/news/international/2017/04/06/447172.htm. 

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Such variability can be problematic for the many insurers that conduct business on a regional or 

other multistate basis, including numerous large carriers operating in multiple markets nationwide. For these companies, lack of uniformity in key aspects of regulation can create significant 

burdens and undermine efficient and effective regulation. In particular, inconsistent standards with 

respect to speed-to-market in the product approval process can harm product innovation and the 

competiveness of insurance products compared to other financial products, while also increasing 

costs and reducing consumer choice. 

The Interstate Insurance Product Regulation Commission (IIPRC) 

The states and the NAIC and have long recognized concerns over lack of uniformity in product 

approvals and taken steps to improve the process. In July 2003, the NAIC adopted the Interstate 

Insurance Product Regulation Compact (Compact), which created the Interstate Insurance Product 

Regulation Commission (IIPRC).366 The IIPRC develops uniform product standards for specified 

life insurance, annuity, disability income, and long-term care products.367 If a product is filed for 

approval with the IIPRC, its uniform product approval standards supersede the standards of any 

compacting state unless the insurer submits a product directly to a compacting state’s insurance 

regulator (and not the IIPRC) for approval. 

Despite the IIPRC’s accomplishments, the nationwide uniformity and efficiency of the product 

approval process remain a work in progress.368 California, Florida, and New York, which collectively 

represented 20.5% of nationwide premium in 2015, have not joined the Compact. Insurance company representatives have called attention to a common pattern: a new product obtains approval 

in a majority of states through the IIPRC or direct filings within several months, but approval in 

the remaining states, including some states with large populations, can take additional months 

or even years. In some cases, a product is never approved by all states. In addition, even when 

products are approved, inconsistent or conflicting state laws, regulations, and regulatory practices 

create state-by-state variations, resulting in significant additional costs for insurers with respect to 

product administration and marketing. 

Recommendations 

To increase consumer choice and decrease costs for both insurers and, by extension, consumers, 

Treasury encourages the NAIC to bring in states that have not yet joined the Compact. Treasury 

also encourages the IIPRC to continue its efforts to complete the development of standards for 

366.	 Upon the adoption of the Compact by a state, the state is allowed the join the IIPRC. The IIPRC came into 

existence in May 2006 upon meeting the threshold requirement of 26 states or 40% of premium volume 

nationwide. 

367.	 The IIPRC currently has 45 members (44 states and Puerto Rico) representing about 70% of nationwide premium volume. In 2016, the 226 insurers registered with the IIPRC submitted 1,059 products for review, of 

which 976 were approved with an average approval time of 30 days. For statistical information regarding participation in the Compact and product approvals, see the IIPRC’s website, available at: http://www.insurancecompact.org/. 

368.	 Treasury recognizes that improving the speed-to-market of financial products presents challenges for regulators, 

given the pace of market changes and product innovation. Treasury further recognizes the productive efforts 

of the NAIC, including establishment of the IIPRC and the continuing work of the Speed to Market Working 

Group under the Innovation and Technology Task Force. 

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all product lines within its authority. Finally, Treasury recommends that the states take steps to 

mitigate inconsistent or conflicting state laws, regulations, and practices applicable to approval of 

insurance products. 

Commercial Lines Regulation 

Commercial insurance (i.e., insurance coverage for business) is a subset of P&C insurance that 

had over $294 billion in direct written premiums in 2016 (see Figure 18). Commercial insurance 

is an important component to economic growth because it allows businesses to transfer some of 

the risks associated with doing business. To cover the risk involved in the many different kinds of 

businesses, commercial lines insurers sell over 20 major insurance coverages and dozens of specialty 

products.369 The unique nature of commercial operations makes standardized policy forms impractical, which creates demand for custom (i.e., manuscript) policies to address insurance needs. 

369. Insurance Information Institute, Commercial Insurance—Introduction, available at: http://www.iii.org/ 

publications/commercial-insurance/introduction. 

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Figure 18: U.S. Commercial Lines Direct Premiums Written by P&C Insurance Groups 

($ billions) 

Total Direct Premiums Written 2016
 

$294.0
 

Chubb Limited 

$16.5 

Travelers Companies 

$16.5 

Liberty Mutual 

$14.1 

American International 

Group $13.1 

Top 10 Zurich 

$12.6 $112.5

CNA Financial 

$9.8 

Nationwide Mutual 

$8.3 

Hartford Financial $7.7 

Berkshire Hathaway

 $7.6 

Tokio Marine $6.3 

Source: SNL Financial (includes all lines of business) 

Insurance sold to sophisticated commercial policyholders is, for several reasons, generally subject 

to less regulatory scrutiny than policies sold to individuals and families. Commercial policyholders 

often have insurance subject-matter expertise and bargaining power that individual consumers 

lack. Commercial policyholders are also better able to self-insure against risk of loss associated with 

coverage disputes or insurer insolvency. 

The rate, form, and policy form filing requirements, particularly for commercial lines, present 

potential opportunities for state insurance regulation to become more efficient, effective, and 

appropriately tailored. Stakeholders noted that admitted insurers in commercial lines often face 

inconsistent and lengthy product approval periods that limit their ability to meet policyholder 

needs. Insurers that attempt to file products nationwide can be subject to significant transaction 

costs, which can be passed on to consumers. Additionally, certain stakeholders noted that this 

filing process can be a barrier to the development of new and innovative products. 

Top 100 

$252.3 

Top 25 

$174.6 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 123 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

Policymakers at the state and federal levels have enacted legislation that may be beneficial for 

state insurance regulators and the NAIC to consider as they look to improve the uniformity and 

efficiency of commercial lines regulation. To date, most solutions involve exempting policyholders 

or insurers from some of the regulatory hurdles in cases where potential commercial buyers meet 

specified criteria relating to premium paid, the buyer’s size, or the nature of the risk being insured. 

For instance, in 2010, Congress passed the Non-Admitted and Reinsurance Reform Act of 2010 

(NRRA),370 which applies to nonadmitted insurers. “Nonadmitted” insurers function to permit 

access to products that would not ordinarily be available through the admitted market.371 Risks 

typically written in the nonadmitted market include: (1) nonstandard risk (e.g., those with unusual 

underwriting requirements), (2) unique risks that admitted carriers do not offer, and (3) capacity 

risks for which an insured seeks a higher level of coverage than admitted insurers are willing to 

provide. 

Subject to two conditions, the NRRA exempts brokers who are looking to place commercial risk 

from completing a due diligence search372 in the admitted market prior to placing risk in the 

non-admitted market.373 In many cases, this is advantageous to exempt commercial purchasers 

(ECPs) because the non-admitted market can be more cost effective for specialized risk than the 

admitted market. Insurance products are also specialized to meet commerical purchaser needs and 

are not subject to a potentially lengthy state regulatory approval process. 

Similarly, New York’s “Free Trade Zone” exempts insurers from some filing requirements for eligible 

risks when the insurer has a special license to do so. The Free Trade Zone divides risks into two 

classes, one based on the level of annual premium, or Class 1, and the other based on the nature of 

the risks (specifically, risks that are of an unusual nature, present a high loss hazard, or are difficult 

to place) or Class 2.374 These filing exemptions allow some insurers to respond quickly to requests 

for coverage, and to tailor the policy language to the particular needs of buyers. 

In 2015, the NAIC’s Commercial Lines Working Group also issued recommendations to streamline the regulation of commercial insurance products by: (1) revising its definition of ECP to 

achieve greater uniformity, (2) allowing the use of manuscript policies without prior approval, 

(3) establishing conditions for exempting multistate risks from form and rate filing requirements, 

and (4) encouraging states to review existing authority to improve the efficiency and effectiveness 

370.	 15 U.S.C. § 8206. 

371.	 For additional discussion of admitted and nonadmitted insurers, see supra at 74-75. 

372.	 State due diligence requirements typically call for brokers to establish that a statutorily determined number of 

admitted insurers (usually two or three) declined to underwrite the risk before the broker may attempt to place 

the coverage with nonadmitted insurers. 

373.	 Generally, exempt commercial purchasers are defined by the NRRA as any person purchasing commercial insurance that: (1) retains a qualified risk manager to negotiate insurance coverage; (2) has paid aggregate insurance premiums in excess of $100,000 in the immediately preceding 12 months; and (3) either (a) 

possesses a net worth in excess of $20,000,000; (b) employs more than 500 full-time or full-time equivalent employees or is a member of an affiliated group employing more than 1,000 employees; (c) is a not-forprofit organization or public entity generating annual budgeted expenditures of at least $30,000,000; or (d) is a 

municipality with a population in excess of 50,000 persons. 15 U.S.C. § 8206. 

374.	 New York State Insurance Department, Special Risk Insurance (11 NYCRR 16). 

124 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

of rate and form review for commercial lines.375 If implemented, such recommendations would 

also streamline the ability of admitted insurers to meet buyer needs. To date, the NAIC has not 

formally acted on any of these recommendations, and stakeholders expressed that momentum to 

deregulate commercial lines appears to have stalled. 

Recommendations 

Treasury encourages state legislators, state regulators, the NAIC, and insurance stakeholders to work 

together on proposals for more efficient regulation of commercial lines products. If implemented 

in a manner that is appropriately tailored and with sufficient consumer safeguards, commercial 

lines deregulation can decrease costs for insurers, encourage innovation, and mitigate uncertainties 

created by inconsistent and conflicting state laws, regulations, and practices. To promote competition and meet market demands in a timely fashion, states should consider the ECP definition 

under the NRRA, New York’s Free Trade Zone, and the 2015 NAIC Commercial Lines Working 

Group recommendations. 

Producer Licensing and Appointments 

State laws require insurance agents and brokers (collectively, “producers”) to be licensed in every 

jurisdiction where they conduct business. According to the NAIC, more than 2.2 million individuals and over 230,000 business entities, many of which are small businesses, were licensed as 

producers in 2016.376 

Due to the increasingly interstate nature of the business of insurance, producers are often required 

to obtain licenses in more than one state. Individually licensed producers collectively hold more 

than 6.2 million separate insurance licenses, while licensed business entities hold approximately 

520,000 separate insurance licenses.377 Nearly 15,000 business entities are licensed to operate in 

more than five jurisdictions and approximately 232,000 individual producers are licensed in five or 

more jurisdictions. However, a lack of reciprocity between the states and multiple layers of licensing requirements make obtaining and maintaining producer licenses a costly and time-consuming 

practice. Many states impose additional conditions on non-resident producers and choose not to 

recognize licensing determinations made by the insurance regulators in the producer’s home state. 

For instance, some states require nonresidents to obtain an individual insurance license, obtain a 

license for the applicant’s agency, and register as a foreign corporation with the secretary of state. 

Licensing compliance costs have a disproportionate competitive effect on small and mid-sized 

businesses with smaller economies of scale. One industry association noted that approximately 

60% of its members have at least one person on staff whose duties are dedicated to obtaining 

and maintaining the appropriate licenses for the agency and its personnel, and that agencies must 

devote significant resources to licensing compliance. 

375.	 NAIC Commercial Lines (EX) Working Group, Recommendations (June 29, 2015), available at: http://www. 

naic.org/documents/cmte_c_170608_clwg_final_rec.pdf. 

376.	 NAIC, 2016 Insurance Department, Resources Capital Report (June 2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/ 

prod_serv/STA-BB-16-01.pdf. 

377.	 Id. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 125 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

National Association of Registered Agents and Brokers 

To address licensing inefficiencies and related issues — and with the strong support of the industry 

and its regulators — on January 12, 2015, the President signed into law the National Association 

of Registered Agents and Brokers Reform Act of 2015 (NARAB II).378 

The purpose of NARAB II is to establish a one-stop licensing compliance mechanism for insurance 

producers operating outside their home states, while preserving the longstanding authority of states 

to oversee insurance producers. To do so, NARAB II establishes a 13-member Board of Directors 

to govern and supervise all activities of the association. Members of the Board of Directors — 

consisting of eight state insurance commissioners and five industry members with demonstrated 

expertise in producer licensing — are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of 

the Senate.379 In 2016, representatives for 10 of the 13 NARAB Board of Director positions were 

nominated, but not confirmed. Without a board to establish, govern, and supervise its activities, 

the Association is still not operational.380 

The proper implementation of NARAB II should spur economic growth by helping to facilitate 

insurance transactions across state lines. NARAB II will reduce the redundancies that every agent 

licensed in multiple states must currently navigate, and provide consumers with additional options. 

Recommendations 

Treasury will take steps to expeditiously recommend nominees to President Trump who can be 

sent to the Senate for confirmation. To do so, the Secretary will direct FIO to solicit nominee recommendations and work with stakeholders on the Association’s establishment. To ensure sufficient 

regulatory expertise, Treasury also recommends that the appointment process proceed in a manner 

to maintain a quorum composed of a majority of state insurance regulators. 

Producer Appointments 

In a majority of states, some insurance producers cannot act on behalf of an insurance company 

unless the producer is appointed by the insurer as its agent.381 A producer acts as an agent of an 

insurer when the producer is compensated for selling, soliciting, or negotiating any product of the 

insurer. In order for producers to be appointed in a particular state, insurers must typically submit 

a notice of appointment to that state’s department of insurance and pay a fee. 

378.	 15 U.S.C. § 6751 et seq. See also 2016 Federal Insurance Office, Annual Report. NARAB II reestablished the 

National Association of Registered Agents and Brokers (the Association), which was originally authorized by the 

Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999 [Pub L, No. 106–102, 113 Stat. 1338], but never established. 

379.	 The Association may not receive, accept, or borrow any amounts from the federal government to pay for, or 

reimburse it for the costs of establishing or operating the association (15 U.S.C. § 6763). 

380.	 National Association of Professional Surplus Lines Offices, Ltd., NAPSLO Questions and Answers: 

Implementation of National Association of Registered Agents and Brokers (NARAB), available at: https://www. 

napslo.org/wcm/Legislative_Advocacy___PAC/NARAB_Implementation/wcm/Legislative_Advocacy___PAC/ 

NARAB_Implementation.aspx?hkey=4929bb49-1a7b-4a55-bb73-2493d731026f. 

381.	 See NAIC, Producer Licensing Model Law and State Adoption Chart, available at: http://www.naic.org/store/ 

free/MDL-218.pdf (“Adoption Chart”). 

126 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

State regulators have taken steps to promote uniformity in agent appointments, such as establishing the National Insurance Producer Registry (NIPR, an affiliate of the NAIC), a public-private 

partnership that hosts a website permitting agents, agencies, and insurers to apply for licenses and 

make appointments. All 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, 

and Puerto Rico now use the NIPR.382 At least 40 states have also adopted the NAIC Producer 

Licensing Model Act (PLMA) in whole or part, which has provided additional uniformity for the 

producer licensing process, including appointments as insurer agents.383 

Despite these advancements, inconsistencies with respect to producer appointments remain problematic. The producer appointment portion of the PLMA is optional, and states that have adopted 

the language interpret it in a number of ways.384 For instance, some states interpret the PLMA to 

mean that appointments may be filed either within 15 days from execution of the agency contract 

or within 15 days after the insurer receives the initial submission of business from the producer, 

while others conclude that the appointment must occur at the earlier of the two times. 

In addition, insurance regulators are likely to have most or all of a producer’s information (e.g., 

which insurers have appointed the producer) on hand or readily accessible through other means. 

Although specific requirements vary by state, in most cases, the producer appointment requirement is in addition to requirements for: (1) corporate licenses for the business, (2) individual agent 

licenses, (3) agency licenses, (4) agency affiliation requirements, (5) insurer licenses, and (6) insurer 

appointments, which are required by insurers and compel agents and agencies to be appointed by 

the insurer to sell the insurer’s products. 

Recommendations 

Treasury encourages state regulators and the NAIC to assess how to increase the efficiency and 

uniformity of the producer appointment process. This assessment should focus on reducing inefficiencies and unnecessary compliance burdens. For instance, Treasury encourages all states to 

adopt the PLMA and encourages regulators to interpret appointment provisions of the PLMA 

consistently. Treasury also encourages state legislators, state regulators, and the NAIC to consider 

whether the information received from the appointment reporting process is already procured or 

available by other requirements imposed on producers and/or insurers and, if not, whether such 

information can be obtained through other, more efficient means. 

382.	 See NAIC and CIPR, National Insurance Producer Registry (NIPR), available at: http://www.naic.org/cipr_topics/topic_nipr.htm. 

383.	 Adoption Chart. 

384.	 Id. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 127 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

Regulatory Structure and Issues of Duplication, Overlap, and Fragmentation 

Federal Interagency Coordination 

While the business of insurance is primarily regulated at the state level, numerous federal agencies 

or authorities are involved in insurance with varying roles and responsibilities. An internal Treasury 

analysis indicates that more than 20 federal agencies or authorities are involved in varying degrees 

with insurance or the insurance industry.385 In some cases, the federal government itself is a participant in the insurance sector, either as a consumer or provider of insurance through a specific 

program. 

Furthermore, insurance markets and activities have evolved in scope and complexity, thereby 

requiring some federal agencies to set forth rules specifically addressing the business of insurance. 

The advent of insurance-linked securities, the sale of variable life insurance and annuities, and 

the use of derivatives by insurers are examples of areas where federal regulation directly impacts 

the business of insurance. At times, federal agencies have not adequately considered the unique 

business model of insurers when promulgating rules and regulations, such as instances where prudential rules do not appropriately reflect the differences between banks and insurers. 

The convergence of insurance with other financial sector products, along with the increasingly 

global nature of markets and economies, suggests that the business of insurance will continue to 

have implications at the federal level. It is important that the federal government develop an effective and harmonized approach to engagement with the insurance sector that adequately reflects the 

nature and existing regulatory regime of the business. 

Recommendations 

In addition to the specific recommendations of coordination detailed throughout this report, 

Treasury recommends that federal agencies and entities establish formal mechanisms to promote 

coordination and communication across the federal government with respect to insurance-related 

issues. Federal agencies and entities should also establish policies and procedures that take into 

account the similarities and differences of insurers and other types of businesses within the financial sector, such as banks and mutual funds. 

Rather than conferring with federal agencies regarding insurance-related issues on an informal, 

ad hoc basis, FIO should establish a more structured and rationalized approach to its engagement 

with federal agencies and entities on insurance-related issues. Also, to promote coordination of 

the federal government’s authority with respect to insurance, FIO should consult with and advise 

federal agencies and entities conducting rulemaking or policy action that relates to insurance. 

State and Federal Coordination 

As discussed, certain insurance activities, products, and issues are within the scope of both federal 

and state regulators. In exercising their respective authorities, state and federal regulators may 

take positions that create tension, conflict, or duplication between state and federal requirements. 

Throughout the stakeholder engagement process, stakeholders suggested that there could be 

385. See, e.g., “Other Federal Regulators and Agencies Involved in Insurance,” supra at 88-90. 

128 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Efficient Regulation and Government Processes

improved communication and coordination between state and federal regulators on subjects where 

they share jurisdiction. 

Additionally, several of the leading insurance regulatory and public policy issues facing the insurance market may be appropriate for various levels of involvement by both state and the federal 

governments. For example, cybersecurity and data protection, the use of big data in insurance 

underwriting, rapid advances in innovative technology, and investments in infrastructure are all 

issues on which state and federal governments should engage. 

Recommendations 

As the primary regulators of insurance, states should be consulted and afforded the opportunity to 

provide input when the business of insurance is implicated at the federal level. In furtherance of 

this objective, FIO should lead coordination efforts among federal and state agencies to improve 

communication and develop policy with respect to insurance-related issues. Such engagement 

will help to mitigate overlapping or duplicative mandates and promote coordination on issues of 

mutual concern to the insurance sector. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 129 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

International Engagement 

Multilateral Standard Setting Framework 

The Financial Stability Board 

The Financial Stability Board (FSB) was established in 2009 after the G-20 London Summit as 

the G-20’s financial regulatory reform implementation organization.386 The FSB is established 

to coordinate at the international level regarding the work of national financial authorities and 

international standard-setting bodies (including the IAIS), and to develop and promote the implementation of effective regulatory, supervisory, and other financial sector policies. In collaboration 

with other international financial institutions, the FSB intends to address vulnerabilities affecting 

financial systems in the interest of global financial stability.387 

The FSB’s membership consists of 70 representatives from 25 jurisdictions and 10 international 

organizations and standard-setting bodies.388 Treasury, the Federal Reserve, and the SEC are the 

U.S. members of the FSB.389 It is important to note, in the context of multilateral standard setting, 

that entities such as the FSB have no legal authority or jurisdiction over the United States. 

The International Association of Insurance Supervisors 

Established in 1994, the IAIS is the international standard-setting body responsible for developing 

and assisting in the implementation of principles, standards, and other supporting material for the 

supervision of the insurance sector.390 The IAIS’s objectives are: to promote effective and globally 

consistent supervision of the insurance industry, to develop and maintain fair, safe, and stable insurance markets, and to contribute to global financial stability.391 IAIS members include insurance 

supervisors and regulators from more than 200 jurisdictions in approximately 140 countries.392 

In addition to FIO, the other U.S.-based members of the IAIS are the 56 state and territory 

insurance regulators who represent the individual sovereign jurisdictions within the United States, 

the NAIC, and the Federal Reserve.393 Collectively, this group is informally known as “Team 

U.S.A.” The IAIS does not have regulatory power or legal authority, and any standards agreed 

upon at the IAIS are not binding and must be adopted voluntarily by each member jurisdiction. 

386.	 See http://www.fsb.org/about/history; see also supra at 57-59. 

387.	 See FSB, Charter, available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/FSB-Charter-with-revised-AnnexFINAL.pdf. 

388.	 Financial Stability Board, 3rd Annual Report (July 25, 2016), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/ 

uploads/FSB-3rd-Annual-Report.pdf. 

389.	 U.S. authorities may also participate in the FSB plenary based of their roles in other capacities. For example, 

the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York currently serves as Chairman of the Committee on the 

Global Financial System and participates in the FSB plenary in that capacity. 

390.	 See https://www.iaisweb.org. 

391.	 Id. 

392.	 Id. 

393.	 FIO became a full member of the IAIS in 2012 and the Federal Reserve became a full member in 2014. 

130 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Any international standards are not effective in the United States unless implemented through the 

relevant state and/or federal legislative process. 

Figure 19: U.S. Federal Agencies Membership in Selected International Bodies

Source: GAO, based on international organization and U.S. federal agency information

U.S. federal agencies International bodies

Commodity Futures Trading 

Commission

Group of Twenty (G20) - Finance 

Ministers and Central Bank Governors

Financial Stability Board (FSB)

Basel Committee on Banking 

Supervision

International Organization of Securities 

Commissions

International Association of Insurance 

Supervisors

Committee on Payment and Settlement 

Systems

International Association of Deposit 

Insurers

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

Federal Reserve Board of Governors

Office of the Comptroller 

of the Currency

Securities and Exchange Commission

U.S. Department of the Treasury

U.S. federal agency is a member of 

indicated international body

U.S. federal agency is not a member of FSB 

but participates in select FSB activities

Multilateral Work on Insurance 

The Financial Stability Board 

As noted above, a key initiative of the FSB is the identification of SIFIs, and the IAIS is charged 

by the FSB with recommending insurers for potential SIFI identification. In 2013, the IAIS developed an assessment methodology to inform a recommendation to the FSB of insurers that may be 

eligible for identification as a G-SIFI.394 In July 2013, the FSB — in consultation with the IAIS 

394.	 FSB, Global Systemically Important Insurers and the Policy Measures That Will Apply to Them (July 18, 

2013), available at: http://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/r_130718.pdf?page_moved=1. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 131 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

and national authorities — identified an initial list of nine insurers that are G-SIIs.395 An annual 

identification process was subsequently conducted, with nine insurers identified as G-SIIs, which 

will be subject to a set of G-SIIs policy measures developed by IAIS consistent with FSB’s general 

G-SIFI framework.396 

The FSB is also the standard-setting body for resolution issues for G-SIIs, having promulgated the 

Key Attributes for Effective Resolution Regimes for Financial Institutions. The FSB’s Cross-Border 

Crisis Management Group for Insurers (iCBCM) assists and supports regulatory authorities in the 

development and implementation of resolution-related policy measures. Specifically, the iCBCM 

assists the Resolution Steering Group in developing and maintaining implementation guidance 

for resolution regimes for systemically important insurers; monitoring the progress of Crisis 

Management Groups (CMGs) for each G-SII and the negotiation of cross-border cooperation 

agreements among CMG members; and the development of guidance on resolution strategies and 

recovery and resolution plans for G-SIIs. 

Throughout Treasury’s engagement with insurance stakeholders, representatives argued that there 

was an absence of U.S. insurance expertise at the FSB, 397 which impairs both the FSB and the U.S. 

insurance industry. First, stakeholders expressed that the FSB is unable to fully appreciate the U.S. 

insurance industry, its regulatory regime, and the U.S. insurer resolution process. Second, insurance stakeholders expressed concern that they do not have adequate representation at the FSB, 

which is important to ensure that any FSB actions sufficiently consider the insurance business 

model. Further, stakeholders expressed that the FSB’s efforts on insurance-related issues, such as 

the identification of G-SIIs, is too heavily influenced by the central banks and prudential regulators 

that have a disproportionate representation at the FSB. 

Recommendations 

U.S. engagement in the FSB and international financial regulatory standard-setting bodies, such as 

the IAIS, remains important to promote financial stability, level the playing field for U.S. financial 

institutions, and prevent unnecessary and overly burdensome regulatory standard-setting that 

could stifle financial innovation. While the FSB has a wide mandate to evaluate whether various 

vulnerabilities could create global financial stability risk and should be addressed through regulatory action, Treasury strongly believes that the FSB’s activities should be limited to its purpose 

of monitoring and enhancing global financial stability. Wherever possible, financial stability risk 

assessments and standards should be tailored to industry sectors and undertaken by the appropriate 

standard setter with the necessary technical supervisory expertise, including, for insurance-related 

matters, the IAIS. Moreover, U.S. members of the FSB should work to revise the G-SIFI framework 

so it appropriately takes into account the differentiated ways sectors are structured and manage 

risks. Reliance on the technical supervisory expertise at the standard-setting bodies, such as the 

IAIS, is important to this tailoring effort. 

395.	 Id. 

396.	 IAIS, Global Systemically Important Insurers; Updated Assessment Methodology, available at: https://www. 

iaisweb.org/file/61179/updated-g-sii-assessment-methodology-16-june-2016 

397.	 See FSB, Members of the Financial Stability Board, available at: http://www.fsb.org/about/ 

organisation-and-governance/members-of-the-financial-stability-board/. 

132 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Treasury is also concerned that the FSB’s efforts remain overly influenced by prudential regulatory 

perspectives and may, in certain instances, insufficiently take into account the differences between 

the banking and insurance industries and their different regulatory regimes. Accordingly, Treasury 

believes that the FSB should better utilize the expertise of the IAIS on insurance-related issues 

where appropriate. To ensure that insurance stakeholders’ concerns are fully appreciated, Treasury 

will also advocate for increased transparency and stakeholder engagement at the FSB, as well as for 

standards and principles consistent with the state-based U.S. insurance regulatory system. 

The International Association of Insurance Supervisors 

There are four key IAIS bodies: (1) the General Meeting, (2) the Executive Committee, (3) the 

Financial Stability and Technical Committee, and (4) the Implementation Committee. Much of 

the IAIS’s standard-setting work is headed by the Financial Stability and Technical Committee, 

which reports directly to the Executive Committee. In 2016, the IAIS established the Financial 

Stability and Technical Committee by merging the Financial Stability Committee and Technical 

Committee.398 

Reporting to the IAIS committees are multiple working groups and task forces that focus on a 

range of prudential regulation and supervision topics, including financial stability and market conduct. For example, the Capital Solvency and Field Testing Working Group and the Insurance Groups 

Working Group — both of which report to the Financial Stability and Technical Committee — are 

charged with developing the ICS and supervisory materials related to group supervision, respectively. 

Recommendations 

To the extent that the IAIS considers any future organizational changes to its existing structure, 

Treasury recommends that these changes be done in a manner that ensures appropriate and geographically balanced representation and committee leadership among the IAIS members. 

398. See IAIS, January Newsletter, available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/page/news/newsletter-archive/file/58705/ 

iais-newsletter-january-2016. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 133 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Figure 20: International Association of Insurance Supervisors Organizational Structure 

(updated March 2017) 

General Meeting 

Executive Committee Coordination Group 

Systemic Risk 

Assessment Task Force Supervisory Forum 

Financial Stability and 

Technical Committee 

Implementation 

Committee 

Budget 

Committee 

Audit and Risk 

Committee 

Supervisory 

Material Review 

Task Force 

Financial Crime 

Task Force 

Reinsurance 

Task Force 

Financial Inclusion 

Working Group 

Accounting and 

Auditing Working 

Group 

Capital, Solvency 

and Field Testing 

Working Group 

Governance 

Working Group 

G-SII Analysts 

Working Group 

Insurance Groups 

Working Group 

Market Conduct 

Working Group 

Macroprudential 

Policy and 

Surveillance 

Working Group 

Resolution 

Working Group 

Signatories 

Working Group 

SAPR Task Force 

on Market 

Conduct 

SAPR Task Force 

on Supervisory 

Measures 

Core Curriculum 

Task Force 

IAIS entities involved in development of international capital standards, 

reporting jointly to financial stability and technical committees 

IAIS entities involved in development of international capital standards 

G-SII - Global systemically important insurer 

IAIS - International Association of Insurance Supervisors 

SAPR - Self-Assessment and Peer Review 

Source: IAIS 

134 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

Transparency 

In 2014, the IAIS adopted reforms to improve its financial independence, efficiency, and transparency by eliminating a prior IAIS policy under which stakeholders paid an annual fee to attend IAIS 

meetings as “observers.”399 The new policy, which went into effect in January 2015, eliminates the 

distinction between stakeholders that pay fees and those that do not.400 The IAIS has also recently 

developed a Stakeholder Engagement Plan and published a plan summary emphasizing the IAIS’ 

new engagement opportunities and commitments.401 The IAIS has also begun posting summaries 

of the stakeholder comments raised in the consultation process. 

Although the elimination of stakeholder fees mitigated disparate treatment of stakeholders, this 

policy change also had the effect of further restricting the ability of industry and consumer stakeholders to provide significant feedback at the IAIS. In particular, stakeholders have commented 

that the process is not sufficiently transparent during the early stages of the standard development 

process. Instead, stakeholders are generally able to participate only after policies are, in effect, 

developed, and any such engagement takes the form of a consultation rather than collaborative 

discussion. Treasury believes that the IAIS, IAIS members, and stakeholders can benefit from 

increased transparency and accountability in the international standard-setting process. 

Recommendations 

Although the IAIS has taken initial steps to improve stakeholder transparency, Treasury recommends that the IAIS take additional action to further increase transparency and stakeholder input 

into IAIS decision-making. Treasury will continue to encourage U.S. members of the IAIS to collectively advocate for increased transparency and collaboration during the international standard 

development process. Specifically, Treasury will advocate for increased utilization of stakeholder 

workshops and informational sessions — both in person and by teleconference — to further 

involve stakeholders. 

Role of the Federal Insurance Office 

Although international standards are not self-executing, numerous federal agencies participate in 

standard development processes at international financial standard-setting bodies (SSBs). Among 

other things, this is done to enable that: (1) U.S. interests are well-represented in international 

standard-setting bodies, (2) the federal government is able to consider potential competitive 

impacts on the U.S. and global economies, and (3) standards contemplated by SSBs are consistent 

with this Administration’s policies and objectives. 

However, as discussed above, the insurance sector is unique among the financial services industry 

because it is primarily regulated at the state level. Thus, when the IAIS was founded in 1994, there 

399.	 Federal Insurance Office, Annual Report, 2016, at 69, available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/ 

reports-and-notices/Documents/2016_Annual_Report.pdf. 

400.	 Id. 

401.	 IAIS, [Draft] Stakeholder Engagement Plan for Stakeholder Feedback (November 23, 2016), at 3, 

available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/page/consultations/closed-consultations/draft-stakeholderengagement-plan; IAIS, Brief Overview of IAIS Stakeholder Engagement Plan (March 20, 2017), 

available at: https://www.iaisweb.org/page/about-the-iais/policies-and-procedures/file/65583/ 

brief-overview-of-comprehensive-stakeholder-engagement-plan. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 135 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

was no federal agency with insurance expertise to ensure that U.S. interests were represented.402 

Stakeholders noted to Treasury that the absence of a federal voice was concerning because there was 

often inconsistency among state insurance commissioners, frequent changes in state commissioner 

leadership at the IAIS, and Constitutional impediments on the ability of state insurance commissioners to speak on behalf of the United States. 

Among other reasons, Congress established FIO to lead coordination efforts among U.S. IAIS 

members to: (1) enable the federal government to express its position on insurance-related matters 

in international forums, (2) enable the federal government to coordinate and develop policies that 

are consistent across the financial services sector, and (3) provide a stable and consistent voice from 

the United States in support of the U.S. industry and its regulators at the international level. 

Stakeholders have expressed to Treasury that a unified federal voice promoting the state-based 

regulatory system and the interests of the U.S. insurance sector is essential to enable the United 

States to enhance its influence at the IAIS and within other international standard-setting forums. 

Stakeholders have also expressed that FIO has historically not done enough to ensure that, when 

possible, there is one coordinated message from “Team U.S.A.” 

Recommendations 

Treasury strongly supports continued U.S. participation in international SSBs such as the IAIS to 

promote U.S. interests. Treasury has redefined FIO’s mission at the IAIS to, among other things: (1) 

advocate for the U.S. state-based insurance regulatory system, U.S. consumers, the U.S. insurance 

sector, and growth in the broader U.S. economy, (2) coordinate the views of Team U.S.A., and 

(3) promote greater transparency and stakeholder engagement in international standard-setting 

forums. To assist in the furtherance of its core mission and to promote U.S. economic interests, Treasury believes FIO should have a permanent, voting membership on the IAIS Executive 

Committee. 

Improved Coordination and Transparency 

Since the time when FIO and the Federal Reserve became members of the IAIS, federal and 

state entities have coordinated efforts and attempted to harmonize policy on prudential aspects of 

international insurance matters.403 FIO regularly convenes U.S. stakeholder sessions at Treasury 

and interested stakeholders regularly meet with FIO, state insurance regulators, the NAIC, and the 

Federal Reserve. However, Team U.S.A. has not achieved a unified and consistent policy position 

at the IAIS and other international forums. This is due, in part, to the autonomy, unique perspective, and different mandate of each individual U.S. member of the IAIS.404 One consistent concern 

noted by stakeholders is that the inability of Team U.S.A. to collaborate and speak with a unified 

voice at the IAIS detracts from the collective influence of the U.S. members. This view was also 

402.	 The NAIC and insurance regulators of each of the 50 states, five territories, and the District of Columbia were 

members of the IAIS prior to FIO’s establishment. 

403.	 For instance, Team U.S.A. members regularly hold ad-hoc and scheduled calls and meetings. 

404.	 Each member of Team U.S.A. has different perspectives and priorities. For example, and as a general matter, state insurance regulators and the NAIC focus on policyholder protection, the Federal Reserve focuses on 

safety and soundness, and FIO develops federal policy on prudential aspects of international insurance matters. 

136 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

included in a 2015 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report.405 Stakeholders noted that 

it would be beneficial to the U.S. insurance sector to have increased transparency and stakeholder 

input in the development of policy positions by Team USA. 

Recommendations 

U.S. representatives at the IAIS should advance policy positions that best represent the interests 

of the U.S. insurance sector, U.S. consumers, the state-based U.S. insurance regulatory system, 

and the U.S. economy. Treasury recognizes that each member of Team U.S.A. has a different 

mandate. Nevertheless, Treasury believes that the U.S. members of the IAIS will be best-positioned 

to advance American interests if Team U.S.A. coordinates its efforts and harmonizes its policy 

positions at the IAIS. 

In furtherance of this objective, Treasury recommends that an enhanced interagency process 

between the U.S. members of the IAIS be established to ensure stronger and more efficient coordination on international prudential insurance matters. Treasury endorses the 2015 GAO report 

recommendation that Team U.S.A. develop best practices to implement and sustain interagency 

collaborative efforts, and the Secretary will direct FIO to coordinate with the other U.S. members 

of the IAIS to formally define and implement this strengthened collaborative process. 

To increase transparency, the Secretary will also direct FIO to conduct quarterly coordination 

meetings for stakeholders to engage with Team U.S.A. members on issues arising at the IAIS. 

Additionally, the Secretary will direct FIO to consider establishing an advisory committee or other 

mechanism, such as issuing formal requests for information, to provide increased stakeholder input 

to members of Team U.S.A. 

Advancing American Competiveness Abroad 

Access to Foreign Markets by U.S. Insurers 

Emerging markets present significant opportunities for the insurance industry and foreign jurisdictions to develop an insurance marketplace that protects policyholders, encourages investment, 

and encourages expansion. The economic growth rate in certain emerging markets significantly 

outpaces the rest of the world.406 With respect to insurance, the economic growth rate of emerging 

markets outpaces the overall average, due in part to the fact that emerging markets have low 

insurance penetration and density relative to more developed economies. 

Some emerging markets have seen rapid expansion in recent years. For example, premiums in 

emerging Asian economies grew by 17% in 2016, compared to 3% premium growth in the U.S. 

over the same time. The Chinese market largely drove this growth as life premiums grew by 29%.407 

405.	 GAO, International Insurance Capital Standards, Collaboration among U.S. Stakeholders Has Improved but 

Could Be Enhanced, at 36-43, available at: http://www.gao.gov/assets/680/671043.pdf. 

406.	 For example, in 2016, India remained the fastest growing major economy with real GDP growth of 7%. 

Likewise, China, the world’s second largest economy, experienced real GDP growth of 6.7%. By contrast, real 

GDP growth for the global economy was 2.5%. See Swiss Re Institute, sigma No 3/2017, at 3, available at: 

http://institute.swissre.com/research/overview/sigma/3_2017.html. (“Sigma No 3/2017”). 

407.	 See Sigma No 3/2017 at 9. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 137 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

In other emerging markets, the insurance penetration remains relatively low. In India, for example, 

insurers write only 1.5% of the world’s total insurance premiums,408 notwithstanding the country’s 

large population and other economic factors that make the Indian insurance marketplace ripe for 

significant growth. 

Despite these opportunities, certain jurisdictions have imposed measures that prevent host 

jurisdictions from achieving greater insurance penetration and realizing the associated benefits 

including better risk management and possibly higher economic growth rates, which could be 

reached through a more open approach to foreign insurers and investment. The nature of the 

restrictions varies in scope, application, and line of business. For example, some jurisdictions place 

caps on foreign direct investment, thereby keeping domestic joint-venture partners in a controlling 

position. Others restrict the transfer of data and impose local server requirements. Still others 

restrict the manner in which insurers may purchase reinsurance from non-domestic reinsurers, 

which undermines the fundamental insurance principle of global risk diversification, increases the 

vulnerability of financial stability consequences, and inhibits domestic competition. 

These measures also restrict the ability of non-domestic insurers, reinsurers, and intermediaries 

— including those domiciled in the United States — from competing on a level playing field. 

Regardless of purpose, the result of such measures by certain countries is to provide a strategic 

advantage and market position to their domestic insurers, to the detriment of U.S. companies. By 

contrast, few barriers to entry exist for insurers and reinsurers seeking to do business in the United 

States. This has helped make the United States the world’s largest insurance market with 29% of 

the global market share. Certain market access restrictions may also be inconsistent with certain 

IAIS Insurance Core Principles. 

Recommendations 

The Secretary will direct FIO and the Undersecretary for International Affairs to enhance engagement in multilateral and bilateral dialogues on issues concerning the insurance sector’s international market access. These dialogues should work to prevent market access restrictions in other 

jurisdictions, as well as evaluate potential measures that could be taken to protect the competitiveness of U.S. companies in global markets. Such dialogues should also promote access to insurance 

products and services in jurisdictions where market penetration is low. Treasury will coordinate 

with other federal agencies and entities that are engaged in multilateral and bilateral dialogues on 

market access issues affecting the insurance industry. 

In addition, Treasury recommends that members of Team U.S.A. encourage the IAIS to analyze 

whether certain market access restrictions such as forced domestic retention of reinsurance risk 

and foreign direct investment are consistent with the goals of the IAIS Insurance Core Principles. 

Covered Agreements 

Title V of Dodd-Frank authorizes the Secretary and the United States Trade Representative 

jointly to negotiate a covered agreement on behalf of the United States. A covered agreement is an 

408. PWC, India Insurance Perspective (July 24, 2017), available at: http://www.pwc.in/assets/pdfs/publications/2017/india-insurance-perspective.pdf. 

138 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • International Engagement

international agreement regarding prudential measures with respect to the business of insurance 

or reinsurance that achieves a level of protection for insurance and reinsurance consumers that is 

substantially equivalent to the level of protection achieved under state insurance or reinsurance 

regulation.409 

In January 2017, the United States and the European Union (EU) announced their agreement on 

final legal text of a covered agreement formally titled Bilateral Agreement Between the United States 

of America and the European Union On Prudential Measures Regarding Insurance and Reinsurance 

(U.S.-EU Covered Agreement). The U.S.-EU Covered Agreement addresses three areas of insurance and reinsurance prudential measures: (1) group supervision, (2) reinsurance supervision, 

including collateral and local presence requirements, and (3) exchange of information between 

supervisory authorities. 

The U.S.-EU Covered Agreement promotes U.S. interests by allowing U.S. insurers with EU 

operations to avoid burdensome worldwide group capital, governance, and reporting requirements 

under the EU’s “Solvency II” prudential regulatory system for insurers, as well as EU local presence 

and collateral requirements for U.S. reinsurers. Of most interest for the EU, the Agreement builds 

on NAIC initiatives underway at the state level and commits the United States to eliminating 

state-based reinsurance collateral requirements as applied to premiums ceded to EU reinsurers 

that meet the consumer protection standards specified in the Agreement. Collateral elimination 

for EU reinsurers will apply prospectively only, on a national basis, and according to the timeline 

established in the Agreement. 

On September 22, 2017, the U.S.-EU Covered Agreement was signed by the Secretary and the 

U.S. Trade Representative on behalf of the United States, and the Estonian and EU Ambassadors 

to the United States on behalf of the EU. The Secretary noted that “by providing regulatory clarity 

and reducing regulatory burdens, the Agreement enables American companies to be more competitive in the EU, enhances opportunities for U.S. insurers and reinsurers at home and abroad, and 

furthers the administration’s goal of sustained economic growth.”410 

In conjunction with signing the Agreement, the United States released a Policy Statement411 that 

provides additional clarity for the domestic insurance sector on certain terms of the Agreement, 

and addresses how the United States intends to implement the Agreement. The Policy Statement 

emphasizes that the Agreement “affirms the U.S. system of insurance regulation, including the role 

of state insurance regulators as the primary supervisors of the business of insurance” in the United 

States and explains that the U.S.-EU Covered Agreement supports the principles specified in the 

Core Principles Executive Order. 412 The Policy Statement also recognizes the key implementation 

409.	 31 U.S.C. § 313(r)(2). 

410.	 Treasury, USTR Sign Covered Agreement on Prudential Insurance and Reinsurance Measures with the 

European Union (Sept. 22, 2017), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/ 

sm0164.aspx. 

411.	 Treasury, Statement of the United States on the Covered Agreement with the European Union (Sept. 22, 

2017), available at: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/reports-and-notices/Documents/US_Covered_ 

Agreement_Policy_Statement_Issued_September_2017.pdf. 

412.	 Id. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 139 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

role that state insurance regulators will play in meeting U.S. obligations under the Agreement, 

including revising relevant laws concerning credit for reinsurance.413 

Given the benefits associated with the U.S.-EU Covered Agreement, additional covered agreements 

may be mutually beneficial to the United States and other foreign jurisdictions. For example, 

should the United Kingdom (U.K.) withdraw from the EU, the United States should consider 

whether it would be mutually beneficial for the United States and the U.K. to enter into negotiations on prudential insurance and reinsurance matters, similar to those addressed by the U.S.-EU 

Covered Agreement. The U.K. is the fourth largest global insurance market by life and nonlife 

direct written premium and companies domiciled there — including the Lloyd’s market — are 

important sources of insurance and reinsurance capacity in the United States.414 

Recommendations 

Treasury believes that appropriate transparency and regular, substantive engagement with stakeholders is necessary for the proper implementation of the U.S.-EU Covered Agreement. Accordingly, 

the Secretary will direct FIO to continue to improve its coordination with state insurance regulators, the NAIC, and other stakeholders as the provisions of the U.S.-EU Covered Agreement are 

implemented in the respective jurisdictions. Treasury will also coordinate and consult with the 

Office of the United States Trade Representative, Congress, state insurance commissioners, and 

other industry stakeholders as it explores entering into covered agreement negotiations with other 

foreign jurisdictions. 

Economic Growth and Informed Choices 

Insurer Investment in Infrastructure 

Due to a persistent low interest rate environment over the past 10 years, the net yield on invested 

assets achieved by insurers has steadily declined. As a result, insurers have increasingly sought 

out higher-yielding alternatives, one of which is infrastructure investment. Infrastructure investments are a key priority of the Trump Administration,415 and may be funded publicly, privately, 

or through public-private partnerships. In the United States, the main funding vehicle for infrastructure projects historically has been through the municipal bond market. More recently, private 

equity investment in infrastructure projects has increased as well. 

Insurers find equity investments in public/private partnerships especially appealing. This 

is particularly true for life insurers, which benefit from not only potentially higher yields 

413.	 Id. 

414.	 Insurance Information Institute, Insurance Fact Book 2017, Premiums, World Life and Nonlife Insurance in 

2016, available at: https://www.iii.org/publications/insurance-fact-book-2017/world-insurance-markets/premiums (sub. req.). Industry stakeholders have expressed concerns about the effect of the U.K.’s withdrawal from 

EU, in view of the recently finalized covered agreement with the EU. 

415.	 See The White House, President Trump is Working to Rebuild our Nation’s Infrastructure 

(Feb. 28, 2017), available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/02/28/ 

president-trump-working-rebuild-our-nations-infrastructure. 

140 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

and returns, but more importantly, long-duration assets that better match cash flows on 

long-duration insurance liabilities. Infrastructure investment is also attractive to property 

and casualty insurers that historically have been among the largest investors in municipal 

bonds. 

Nevertheless, current state requirements regarding the amount and type of capital insurers must 

hold do not reflect the special features of infrastructure investments and, in some cases, may actually penalize insurers to the point that such investments are not economically viable. As such, 

more calibrated regulatory treatment of infrastructure investments, particularly as regards capital 

requirements, may allow insurers to consider committing more funds to this investment class. 

State insurance regulators, through the NAIC, are taking preliminary steps to explore revising 

Risk-Based Capital standards to permit increased insurer investment in infrastructure projects.416 

Recommendations 

Treasury recommends that state insurance regulators and the NAIC evaluate potential steps to 

encourage the development of more calibrated regulatory treatment of high-quality infrastructure 

investments. Specifically, and in a manner that safeguards financial stability, state regulators and 

the NAIC should consider revising Risk-Based Capital charges to reflect the stable cash flows 

of high-quality infrastructure investments as compared to general equity investments with more 

volatile returns. 

Retirement Security 

The Promotion of Lifetime Retirement Income 

The life insurance industry and its products play an important role in providing a secure retirement 

for millions of Americans. The retiree population (i.e., individuals age 65 and older) continues to 

expand rapidly, mainly due to the aging of the estimated 76 million members of the Baby Boom 

generation.417 However, even as the need for retirement income is growing, research indicates that 

about half of working-age households are at risk of being unable to maintain their standard of living in retirement.418 A primary reason for Americans’ lack of readiness for retirement is “longevity 

risk,” or the risk of outliving assets accumulated during the retiree’s working years.419 

416.	 NAIC, Valuation of Securities (E) Task Force Special Session: Infrastructure Investment (Agenda) (August 28, 

2016), http://www.naic.org/meetings1608/committees_e_vos_ssi_2016_summer_nm_agenda.pdf. 

417.	 Insured Retirement Institute, Boomer Expectations for Retirement 2017, at 3, available at: https://www.myirionline.org/docs/default-source/research/iri_boomers-expectations-for-retirement-2017.pdf. 

418.	 Alicia H. Munnell, Wenliang Hou, and Geoffrey T. Sanzenbacher, Do Householders Have a Good Sense of 

Their Retirement Preparedness?, Center for Retirement Research (Feb. 2017), Number 17-4, available at: 

http://crr.bc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/IB_17-4.pdf. 

419.	 Today, for a couple age 65, there is an 85 percent chance one will live to age 85, and a 67 percent chance 

one will reach age 90; also, for one in four couples, one will reach age 95. Insured Retirement Institute, State 

of the Insured Retirement Industry: 2016 Review & 2017 Outlook, at 25, available at: https://www.myirionline. 

org/docs/default-source/research/iri-state-of-the-insured-retirement-industry---2016-review-and-2017-outlook. 

pdf?sfvrsn=2. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 141 
Insurance: Findings and Recommendations • Economic Growth and Informed Choices

Although 401(k) plans and other defined contribution plans are important retirement savings 

vehicles, they differ from traditional pension plans in that 401(k) plans are designed and used 

primarily for asset accumulation rather than as a source of guaranteed income. In addition, only 

about two-thirds of private sector workers have access to any type of employer-sponsored retirement 

plan,420 and even workers enrolled in a 401(k) plan have limited access to sources of guaranteed 

lifetime income under the plan. Apart from Social Security and pensions, annuities421 are the only 

retirement savings products offering a guaranteed income stream that cannot be outlived. This 

feature alone can make annuities a valuable component of a retirement savings portfolio. Despite 

the benefits that annuities can provide, they are not widely offered in defined contribution plans. 

Employers cite concerns over legal liability under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act 

of 1974 (ERISA) as the principal deterrent to offering an in-plan annuity option.422 In 2008, the 

Department of Labor (DOL) adopted a “safe harbor” rule providing that plan sponsors selecting 

an annuity provider could satisfy the fiduciary standard of ERISA by meeting specified conditions, 

including “appropriately” considering information “sufficient” to assess the annuity provider’s ability to make all future payments under the annuity contract.423 Because these terms are not defined, 

and because the safe harbor rule requires plan fiduciaries to reach conclusions about the solvency 

of the annuity provider years or decades into the future, many employers and their professional 

advisors are not comfortable relying on the safe harbor. 

In 2014, the DOL published information indicating that it was developing amendments to the 

safe harbor rule to provide plan sponsors with more certainty that they have discharged their 

obligation when selecting an annuity provider.424 To date, however, the DOL has not issued any 

proposals to replace or amend the safe harbor.425 

The prudence of a fiduciary decision under ERISA is based on the particular facts and circumstances, making it difficult to establish bright-line tests for conduct deemed to satisfy 

420.	 Bipartisan Policy Center, Securing Our Financial Future: Report of the Commission on Retirement 

Security and Personal Savings (June 2016), at 20, available at: https://bipartisanpolicy.org/wp-content/ 

uploads/2016/06/BPC-Retirement-Security-Report.pdf. 

421.	 In an annuity contract, in exchange for a premium, a life insurer agrees to make scheduled payments for the lifetimes of one or more persons, or for a specified number of years. Annuities are available in a number of different forms. In the simplest form, known as a single premium immediate annuity, an individual pays one upfront 

premium and the insurer begins to make regular payments not later than one year from the issuance of the contract. In a deferred annuity, the insurer guarantees a fixed income starting at a future date in exchange for a single premium or a series of premiums beginning at the date of purchase. Deferred annuities with guaranteed 

payments that do not begin until an advanced age (such as 85) are generally referred to as longevity annuities. 

422.	 See Government Accountability Office, DOL Could Take Steps to Improve Retirement Income Options for 

Plan Participants (August 2016), at 26-32, available at: http://www.gao.gov/assets/680/678924.pdf. 

423.	 29 C.F.R. § 2550.404a-4. 

424.	 Introduction to the Regulatory Agenda of Federal Regulatory and Deregulatory Actions [79 Fed. Reg. 895, 

1024 (Jan. 7, 2014)]. 

425.	 On July 13, 2015, the DOL issued guidance on the selection and monitoring of annuity providers for benefit distributions from defined contribution plans. This guidance did not address any issues relating to selecting and monitoring providers of in-plan investment options. See DOL, Field Assistance Bulletin No. 2015­

02 (July 13, 2015), available at: https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ebsa/employers-and-advisers/guidance/ 

field-assistance-bulletins/2015-02. 

142 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 
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the fiduciary standard. While Treasury acknowledges this challenge, it also believes that the 

sponsors of many employer retirement plans, particularly for small to mid-size employers, 

may not possess the financial sophistication or have access to affordable advice for evaluating the ability of a life insurer to make all future payments under an annuity contract that 

may last for decades. 

Recommendations 

To encourage the availability of in-plan annuity options and promote broader consumer choice, 

Treasury recommends that the Department of Labor and Treasury develop proposals on how to 

establish or certify one or more expert, independent fiduciary entities to assess the long-term 

financial strength of annuity providers. These assessments, which could be in the form of ratings or 

other specific metrics, could assist ERISA-governed plan sponsors in complying with their fiduciary duty obligations in selecting annuity providers for plans and enable fiduciaries to rely on such 

assessments as a safe harbor. This independent fiduciary function would not otherwise affect the 

fiduciaries’ ERISA responsibilities to evaluate all other aspects of the annuity purchase decision. 

Long-Term Care Insurance 

Long-term care (LTC) refers to the means of meeting the health or personal care needs of individuals who are unable to care for themselves without assistance. The federal Medicare and Medicaid 

programs combined pay for almost two thirds of LTC expenditures,426 which are projected to 

increase significantly due to the expanding senior population and increased life expectancy.427 

Since the 1970s, private insurers have offered LTC insurance to protect against the risk of needing 

long-term care at older ages. Sales of LTC insurance peaked in the early 2000s but have since 

experienced a steep decline based primarily on the business decisions of numerous insurers to exit 

the market. In response, state insurance regulators and the NAIC are actively reviewing a range of 

LTC insurance issues and potential policy changes to stabilize and potentially regrow the private 

market. For example, in April 2017 the NAIC established a Long Term Care Insurance Task Force 

and released a list of 10 federal public policy changes that could help to increase private long-term 

care financing options for middle-income Americans.428 These changes included allowing participants in employer-sponsored retirement plans to make penalty-free withdrawals to purchase LTC 

insurance, creating LTC savings accounts similar to Health Savings Accounts, and establishing 

more generous federal tax incentives for LTC insurance. 

426.	 In 2015, U.S. spending on long-term care was funded primarily by Medicare and Medicaid (63%), with a 

20% contribution from direct out-of-pocket spending and three percent from private LTC insurance. See Peter 

Gallanis, et al., State of the Long-Term Care Insurance Industry: NOLHGA Presentation to the NAIC (presentation, NAIC, March 30, 2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/documents/cmte_e_mlwg_related_state_of_ 

ltc_industry.pdf. 

427.	 An estimated 12 million Americans currently need LTC, a number projected to reach 27 million by 2050. See 

Bipartisan Policy Center, Initial Recommendations to Improve the Financing of Long-Term Care (Feb. 2016), 

available at: https://cdn.bipartisanpolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/BPC-Health-Long-Term-CareFinancing-Recommendations.pdf. 

428.	 NAIC Long Term Care (B) Subgroup, Long Term Care Federal Policy Options to Present to Congress (Apr. 3, 

2017), available at: http://www.naic.org/documents/government_relations_ltc_fed_policy_opt.pdf. 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management and Insurance 143 
Recommendations 

Given the growing social need for LTC and the resulting strain on public resources, state and 

federal officials should collaborate on addressing the challenges of financing LTC. In addition 

to the existing state efforts to address problems in the LTC insurance market, the challenges 

in financing LTC require a coordinated response from the federal government because 

they are of national interest. Accordingly, Treasury will convene an inter-agency task force, 

including representatives of the Department of Health and Human Services, Treasury, the 

IRS, and the Office of Management and Budget, to develop policies to complement reforms 

at the state level relating to the regulation of long-term care insurance. The task force’s work 

should be coordinated with the ongoing work of state insurance regulators and the NAIC. 
Appendix A 

Participants in the Executive Order 

Engagement Process 

Appendix A • Participants in the Executive Order Engagement Process

Participants in the Executive Order 

Engagement Process 

Academics 

Adi Sunderam, Harvard Business
 

School
 

Anat Admati, Stanford Graduate
 

School of Business
 

Arnold Kling, Independent Scholar 

Arthur Wilmarth, Jr., George
 

Washington University Law School
 

David Skeel, University of
 

Pennsylvania Law School
 

Jay Rosengard, Harvard Kennedy
 

School
 

John Cochrane, Stanford University
 

Hoover Institution
 

John Taylor, Stanford University
 

Hoover Institution
 

Lawrence White, New York
 

University Stern School of Business
 

Mark Willis, New York University
 

Furman Center
 

Richard Herring, University of
 

Pennsylvania, The Wharton School
 

Roberta Romano, Yale Law School 

Robin Greenwood, Harvard
 

Business School
 

Sanjai Bhagat, University of
 

Colorado Leeds School of Business
 

Consumer Advocates 

AARP Coalition for Investor Choice 

Americans for Financial Reform Consumer Federation of America 

Regulators and Government Related Entities 

Consumer Financial Protection 

Bureau 

Financial Industry Regulatory 

Authority 

Federal Deposit Insurance 

Corporation 

National Association of Insurance 

Commissioners 

Federal Reserve Board North American Securities 

Administrators Association 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 147 
Appendix A • Participants in the Executive OrderEngagement Process 

Office of the Comptroller of the 

Currency 

U.S. Securities and Exchange 

Commission 

U.S. Commodity Futures Trading 

Commission 

Industry and Trade Groups 

Ace Group (Chubb) The Cypress Group 

Aegon N.V. (Transamerica) Dodge and Cox 

Aflac Inc. Federated Investors Inc. 

American International Group, Inc. Fidelity Investments 

Allianz SE Financial Services Roundtable 

Allstate Corporation Franklin Templeton Investments 

Alvarez and Marsal, LLC Foley & Lardner LLP 

American Council of Life Insurers GEICO Corporation 

American Insurance Association 

American Investment Council 

Aon plc 

Government Finance Officers 

Association 

The Guardian Life Insurance 

Company of America 

Association for Financial 

Professionals 

Independent Insurance Agents and 

Brokers of America, Inc. 

AXA S.A. Insured Retirement Institute 

BlackRock Invesco 

Capital Group 

Cincinnati Financial Corporation 

Council of Insurance Agents and 

Brokers 

Jackson National Life Insurance 

Company 

JP Morgan Asset Management 

Legg Mason 

148 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 
Appendix A • Participants in the Executive OrderEngagement Process 

Liberty Mutual Group, Inc. Oliver Wyman Group 

Lincoln Financial Bancorp, Inc. Pacific Life Insurance Company 

Lloyd’s PIMCO 

Managed Funds Association The Principal Financial Group 

Manulife Financial Corporation 

(John Hancock) 

Progressive Corporation 

Marsh and McLennan Companies, 

Inc. 

Massachusetts Mutual Life
 

Insurance Company
 

Mesirow Financial 

MetLife, Inc. 

National Association of Mutual
 

Insurance Companies
 

National Conference of Insurance
 

Guaranty Funds
 

Prudential Financial, Inc. 

Property Casualty Insurers
 

Association of America
 

Reinsurance Association of
 

America
 

RGA Reinsurance Company 

State Farm Mutual Automobile
 

Insurance Company
 

State Street Global Advisors 

Sonecon LLC. 

National Organization of Life Swiss Re Ltd. 

& Health Insurance Guaranty 

Associations T. Rowe Price 

Nationwide Mutual Insurance The Hartford Financial Services
 

Company Group, Inc.
 

Natixis 

Neuberger Berman 

New York Life Insurance Company 

Nomura Securities 

Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance
 

Company
 

Odyssey Re Holdings Corporation 

Teachers Insurance and Annuity
 

Association of America
 

Transatlantic Reinsurance Company 

Travelers Companies, Inc. 

United States Automobile
 

Association
 

Vanguard 

Waddell and Reed 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 149 
Appendix A • Participants in the Executive OrderEngagement Process 

Wellington Management Investment Advisers Association 

XL Group Ltd. Investment Company Institute 

Zurich Insurance Company Ltd. 

Institutional Limited Partners 

Association 

Securities Industry and Financial 

Markets Association 

Sullivan and Cromwell 

Think Tanks 

American Enterprise Institute Competitive Enterprise Institute 

Aspen Institute Heritage Foundation 

Better Markets Hoover Institution 

Bipartisan Policy Center 

Brookings Institution 

CATO Institute 

Center for American Progress 

Committee on Capital Markets
 

Regulation
 

Mercatus Center at George
 

Washington University
 

New America 

Pew Charitable Trust 

R Street Institute 

Urban Institute 

150 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 
Appendix B 

Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations 

Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations
 

Asset Management 

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Systemic Risk and Stress Testing 

Treasury’s position is that entity-based systemic risk evaluations of asset managers or their funds are generally not the best approach for mitigating risks 

arising from asset management. Instead, primary federal regulators should 

focus on potential risks arising from asset management products and activities, and on implementing regulations that strengthen the asset management 

industry as a whole. 

SEC C, D, F 

The FSOC should maintain primary responsibility for identifying, evaluating, 

and addressing systemic risks in the U.S. financial system, and the SEC 

should remain the primary federal regulator of the asset management industry 

in the United States. 

FSOC, 

SEC F, G 

Treasury supports legislative action to amend Dodd-Frank to eliminate the 

stress testing requirement for investment advisers and investment companies. Congress F 

Liquidity Risk Management 

Treasury supports the 15% limitation on illiquid assets. SEC A,C,F 

Treasury supports the SEC adopting a principles-based approach to liquidity risk management rulemaking and any associated bucketing requirements. 

The SEC should take appropriate action to postpone the currently scheduled 

December 2018 implementation of Rule 22e-4’s bucketing requirement. 

SEC A, C, F 

Derivatives 

The SEC should consider a derivatives rule that would include a derivatives 

risk management program and an asset segregation requirement, but 

reconsider what, if any, portfolio limits should be part of the rule. The SEC 

should also reconsider the scope of assets that would be considered 

qualifying coverage assets for purposes of the asset segregation requirement. 

SEC A, C, F 

The SEC should examine the derivatives data that will be reported by funds 

starting next year and publish analysis based on empirical data regarding their 

use of derivatives. 

SEC C 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 153 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Exchange Traded Funds 

The SEC should move forward with a “plain-vanilla” ETF rule that allows 

entrants to access the market without the cost and delay of obtaining 

exemptive relief orders, subject to conditions the SEC determines appropriate 

and in the public interest. To this end, the SEC should either re-propose or 

propose a new rule on ETFs for public comment. 

SEC A, C, F 

The SEC should consider establishing a single process for ETF and related 

approvals rather than allowing SEC divisions to set multiple and sometimes 

conflicting requirements. 

SEC A, F 

Business Continuity and Transition Planning 

The current SEC proposal on business continuity and transition planning 

should be withdrawn. With the existing principles-based rule already in place, 

there is no compelling need for additional rulemaking in this area. 

SEC F, G 

The SEC and its staff should continue to work with investment companies, 

investment advisers, and other relevant parties to recommend improvements 

to business continuity plans, to the extent that such plans are determined not 

to be sufficiently robust, and to address new issues as they arise. 

SEC C, F, G 

Dual CFTC and SEC Registration 

The CFTC should amend its rules so that an investment company registered 

with the SEC and its adviser are exempt from dual registration and regulation 

by the CFTC as a CPO. To address concerns of de facto commodity pools 

operating without sufficient oversight, the CFTC and the SEC should work 

together to identify a single regulator for these entities, with the goal that oversight of these entities will either remain with the SEC or be transferred to the 

CFTC and NFA. 

CFTC, 

SEC 

A, C, F, 

G 

The CFTC and the SEC should cooperate to share information provided by 

their respective regulated entities so that disclosures made to one agency can 

address the information needs of the other agency to monitor the markets for 

securities and derivatives transactions. 

CFTC, 

SEC G 

The CFTC should amend its rules to exempt private funds and their advisers 

from registration as CPOs if the advisers are subject to regulatory oversight 

by the SEC. Treasury also recommends that the CFTC review and determine 

what, if any, exemptions should be made available for SEC exempt reporting 

advisers. 

CFTC A, C, F, 

G 

154 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Modernizing the Delivery of Fund Disclosures 

The SEC should finalize its proposed rule to modernize its shareholder report 

disclosure requirements and permit the use of implied consent for electronic 

disclosures. 

SEC A, F 

The SEC should explore other areas for which the delivery information to 

investors through an electronic medium using implied consent is appropriate 

and consistent with investor protection; however, investors should retain the 

choice to continue to receive paper disclosures. 

SEC A, F, G 

Asset Management Reporting and Disclosure Requirements 

The SEC, the CFTC, SROs, and other regulators should work together to 

rationalize and harmonize the reporting regimes. Where possible, duplicative SEC, 

forms should be combined and any unnecessary or inconsistent data 

collection should be eliminated. Treasury recommends that regulators 

CFTC, 

SROs, F, G 

continue to update reporting requirements to utilize structured data where States 

appropriate. 

Volcker Rule 

Regulators should take further action to reduce the burden of the Volcker 

Rule on asset managers and investors. The relevant agencies should continue 

to refrain from enforcing the Volcker Rule’s proprietary trading restrictions 

against foreign private funds that are not “covered funds” under the rule until a 

permanent solution to the identified challenges is implemented. 

FRB, 

FDIC, 

OCC, 

SEC, 

CFTC 

D, F 

The agencies should also forbear on enforcement of the restriction on funds 

sharing names with banking entities, consistent with Treasury’s Banking 

Report. 

FRB, 

FDIC, 

OCC, 

SEC, 

CFTC 

A, D, F 

Congress should revise the definition of “banking entity” to encompass only 

insured depository institutions, their holding companies, foreign banking 

organizations, and affiliates and subsidiaries of such entities that are at least 

25% owned or otherwise controlled by such entities. 

Congress D, F 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 155 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

International Engagement 

The United States should play a leading role in international standard-setting 

bodies such as the FSB and IOSCO, particularly with respect to financial 

market supervision and asset management where U.S. firms and markets are 

the largest in the world. 

FRB, 

SEC, 

CFTC 

E 

Treasury recommends further improvements to the FSB and SSB processes 

to better promote transparency, accountability, and appropriate representation 

with respect to policymaking. 

FRB, 

SEC, 

CFTC 

E 

Treasury recommends that U.S. representatives to FSB and IOSCO review 

the particular processes used by each international standard-setting body and 

work to ensure that they utilize a collaborative process that includes, where 

appropriate, economic analysis and subject matter expertise at the relevant 

standard setting body. 

FRB, 

SEC, 

CFTC 

E 

Treasury recommends that the FSB transition away from using the term 

“shadow banking” to describe registered investment companies and their 

investment advisers. 

FRB, 

SEC E 

The U.S. members of the FSB should work to revise the G-SIFI framework so 

that it appropriately takes into account the differentiated ways that sectors are 

structured and manage risks. 

FRB, 

SEC E 

156 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Economic Growth and Informed Choices 

Treasury supports the current efforts at the DOL to re-examine the implications 

of the Fiduciary Rule. Treasury believes it is appropriate to delay full implementation of the Fiduciary Rule until the relevant issues, including costs of the 

rule and exemptions, are evaluated and addressed to best serve investors, and 

believes that such assessment and resolution of standard of conduct issues 

should include participation by the SEC and other regulators. 

DOL, 

SEC A, C, F 

Treasury believes that conflicts of interest should be addressed in a manner 

that preserves, to the extent possible, access to a wide range of asset classes, 

investment products, business models, distribution channels, and other relevant 

features of financial services that benefit American workers and their families. 

DOL, 

SEC A, F 

Within the federal regulatory framework, Treasury believes that the SEC and 

DOL should work together to address standards of conduct for financial professionals who provide investment advice to IRA and non-IRA accounts. 

DOL, 

SEC A, G 

Treasury recommends that the DOL and the SEC engage with state insurance regulators regarding the impact of the standards of care on the annuities 

market. 

DOL, 

SEC, 

NAIC, 

States 

A, G 

Treasury encourages the SEC, the DOL, and the states to work together to 

implement a regulatory framework appropriately tailored to both preserve 

investor choice and protect retirement investors in an efficient and effective 

manner. 

DOL, 

SEC C 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 157 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Insurance 

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Systemic Risk and the Insurance Industry 

Treasury’s position is that entity-based systemic risk evaluations of insurance 

companies are generally not the best approach for mitigating risks arising from 

insurance. Instead, insurance regulators should focus on potential risks arising 

from insurance products and activities, and on implementing regulations that 

strengthen the insurance industry as a whole. Insurance regulation at the federal level should be conducted in coordination with the states. 

FRB, 

States 

B, D, F, 

G 

FIO and the other U.S. members of the IAIS should support the IAIS’ work on 

the activities-based approach because it a more appropriate method of assessing potential systemic risk in the global insurance market. The U.S. members 

of the IAIS should advocate for the development of an activities-based framework that is proportionate and appropriately tailored to the U.S. insurance market. The IAIS should reassess its existing G-SII policy measures, including how 

to improve the IAIS’ 2014 guidance on liquidity management and planning. FIO 

and the other U.S. members of the IAIS should also take steps to improve the 

Treasury, 

FRB, 

States 

B, D, E, 

F, G 

IAIS G-SII assessment methodology and consider how to increase transparency 

with respect to the assessment methodology’s development. U.S. members of 

the IAIS should advocate that the IAIS enhance its work on cross-sectoral consistency with other financial sectors – such as through work with the Basel 

Committee on Banking Supervision. 

Preserving Solvency: Capital Initiatives 

The group capital initiatives by the NAIC, the states, and the Federal Reserve 

should be harmonized, to the extent possible, to mitigate duplicative and 

unnecessary regulatory burdens for U.S. insurers. The Secretary will direct 

FIO to consult with the state insurance regulators, the NAIC, and the Federal 

Reserve on their respective group capital initiatives to produce the best outcomes for U.S. insurers, U.S. policyholders, and the U.S. insurance market. 

The Secretary will direct FIO to coordinate this work. FIO will then advocate 

for the U.S. approach to group capital in international forums. 

FRB, 

States 

Treasury 

D, E, F 

The ICS should recognize the diverse approaches to solvency regulation taken 

by various jurisdictions around the globe. A core goal should be to ensure that 

the ICS initiative accommodates the U.S. insurance business model and the 

existing state-based regulatory system. Such standards should also be developed in a manner that recognizes the variety of supervisory approaches to valuation and accounting requirements, and definitions of what constitutes capital. The IAIS should reexamine its current timeline to deliver ICS Version 2.0 in 

2019. The IAIS should postpone ICS Version 2.0 until a later date to allow further consultation with IAIS members and stakeholders on the development of 

an ICS that is implementable in all major insurance markets. 

FRB, 

States, 

Treasury 

D,E 

158 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Preserving Solvency: Liquidity Initiatives 

Treasury encourages state insurance regulators, the NAIC, and the Federal 

Reserve to continue their work on addressing potential liquidity risk in the 

insurance sector. The Secretary will direct FIO to monitor developments in 

liquidity management and liquidity stress testing, and to encourage state insur- FRB, B, D, 

ance regulators, the NAIC, and the Federal Reserve to make progress on States E F 

domestic liquidity risk initiatives. The Secretary will also direct FIO to advocate for improvements to the existing international standards regarding liquidity management and planning. 

Role of State and Federal Regulation 

Treasury is committed to FIO’s increased transparency and stakeholder 

engagement, and will implement mechanisms to achieve these objectives. 

Treasury and FIO are also committed to more regular and consistent engagement with state insurance regulators and stakeholders on developing issues of 

importance to the insurance industry, state regulators, and U.S. policyholders. 

Treasury F, G 

The Federal Reserve should leverage information procured from ISLHCs by 

state regulators and the NAIC, including information regarding an ISLHC’s 

ultimate parent company. The Federal Reserve should also harmonize its financial reporting and recordkeeping requirements with corresponding state regulatory requirements. The Federal Reserve, state insurance regulators, and the 

NAIC should establish formal procedures to better coordinate the supervision 

and examinations of insurers regulated by both state insurance regulators and 

the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve should reassess whether its ISLHC 

examinations are appropriately tailored and proportionate to the unique business model of each ISLHC, and the size, organizational structure, and potential risks posed by each ISLHC. 

FRB F, G 

Congress should clarify the “business of insurance” exception to ensure that 

the CFPB does not engage in the oversight of activities already monitored by 

state insurance regulators. 

Congress CFPB F, G 

HUD should reconsider its use of the disparate impact rule. In particular, HUD 

should consider whether the disparate impact rule, as applied, is consistent 

with McCarran-Ferguson and existing state law. HUD should also reconsider 

whether such a rule would have a disruptive effect on the availability of homeowners insurance and whether the rule is reconcilable with actuarially sound 

principles. 

HUD F, G 

The SEC should prioritize annuity-related disclosure reform by proposing a rule 

permitting a variable annuity summary prospectus and a streamlined prospectus update, while continuing to provide appropriate disclosure to investors. The 

SEC should also move forward with finalization of Rule 30e-3, and take steps to 

improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the regulation of insurance products 

under its jurisdiction. The SEC should enhance its engagement with the insurance sector, including state insurance regulators and the NAIC, to assess how 

FASB and IFRS standards could affect the insurance industry. 

SEC A, F 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 159 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Terrorism Risk Insurance Program 

The Secretary will direct FIO to coordinate with state insurance regulators and 

the NAIC to attempt to eliminate or reduce the inconsistencies between existing data calls concerning terrorism risk insurance. State insurance regulators 

and FIO should also explore the possibility of conducting a single data call 

that can serve the needs of both federal and state authorities while reducing 

unnecessary compliance costs on industry. 

Treasury, 

States F, G 

The Secretary will direct FIO to be proactive in applying the Certification 

Process in connection with any event that has some reasonable likelihood of 

resulting in more than $5 million in insured losses under TRIA. State regulators, policyholders, and insurers are likewise encouraged to inform Treasury 

whenever they believe an “act of terrorism” under TRIA has taken place, for 

which they have some reason to believe total insured losses are or will be in 

excess of $5 million. 

Treasury, 

States F, G 

The Secretary encourages the ACRSM to continue its efforts and develop 

recommendations for FIO. The work of the ACRSM should focus on how to 

increase private market participation in the terrorism insurance marketplace. 

FIO should also evaluate potential ways to increase private market participation in the terrorism insurance marketplace. 

Treasury F, G 

Insurer Data Security 

The states should promptly adopt the NAIC Insurance Data Security Model 

Law. If adoption and implementation of the Insurance Data Security Model 

Law by the states do not result in uniform data security regulations within five 

years, Congress should pass a law setting forth requirements for insurer data 

security, but leaving supervision and enforcement with state insurance regulators. State legislators, regulators, and the NAIC should also work to expeditiously pass uniform legislation regarding data breach notification for insur- Congress States F, G 

ers, and the NAIC is encouraged to make any such model law an accreditation 

standard. If adoption and implementation of data breach notification efforts by 

the states do not result in uniform requirements within five years, Congress 

should pass a law setting forth requirements for data breach notification specific to insurers. Such legislation should leave supervision and enforcement 

with state insurance regulators. 

Insurer Cyber Threats 

Steps should be taken to improve information sharing within the insurance 

industry. Treasury and state insurance regulators should continue to promote 

insurer participation in the FS-ISAC and similar entities, particularly among the 

thousands of small and regional firms that operate within the United States 

that may not yet be engaged with such national information sharing efforts. Treasury F, G 

The Secretary will direct FIO to establish a working group charged with 

assessing cybersecurity challenges for the insurance sector and issuing recommendations to insurance sector participants and relevant regulators, with 

particular attention paid to small and regional insurers. 

160 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Product Approval and Speed to Market 

Treasury encourages the NAIC to bring in states that have not yet joined the 

Compact. Treasury also encourages the IIPRC to continue its efforts to complete the development of standards for all product lines within its authority. 

States should take steps to mitigate inconsistent or conflicting state laws, regulations, and practices applicable to approval of insurance products. 

States D, F, G 

Treasury encourages state legislators, state regulators, the NAIC, and insurance stakeholders to work together on proposals for more efficient regulation of commercial lines products. To promote competition and meet market 

demands in a timely fashion, states should consider the ECP definition under 

the NRRA, New York’s Free Trade Zone, and the 2015 NAIC Commercial 

Lines Working Group recommendations. 

States D, F, G, 

Producer Licensing and Appointments 

Treasury will take steps to expeditiously recommend nominees for the Board 

of Directors of NARAB II to President Trump who can be sent to the Senate 

for confirmation. To do so, the Secretary will direct FIO to solicit nominee 

recommendations and work with stakeholders on the establishment of the 

Association. The appointment process should proceed in a manner to maintain 

a quorum composed of a majority of state insurance regulators. 

Treasury A, D, F 

Treasury encourages state regulators and the NAIC to assess how to increase 

the efficiency and uniformity of the producer appointment process. Treasury 

also encourages all states to adopt the PLMA and encourages regulators to 

interpret appointment provisions of the PLMA consistently. State legislators, 

regulators, and the NAIC should consider whether the information received 

from the appointment reporting process is already procured or available by 

other requirements imposed on producers and/or insurers and, if not, whether 

such information can be obtained through other, more efficient means. 

States D, F, G 

Regulatory Structure and Issues of Duplication, Overlap, and Fragmentation 

Federal agencies and entities should establish formal mechanisms to promote 

coordination and communication across the federal government with respect to 

insurance-related issues. Federal agencies and entities should also establish policies and procedures that take into account the similarities and differences of 

insurers and others types of businesses in the financial sector, such as banks 

and mutual funds. FIO should establish a more structured and rationalized 

approach to its engagement with federal agencies and entities on insurancerelated issues. Also, FIO should consult with and advise federal agencies and 

entities conducting rulemaking or policy action that relates to insurance. 

All (e.g. 

FRB, 

CFTC, 

SEC, 

FEMA) 

C, F, G 

States should be consulted and afforded the opportunity to provide input 

when the business of insurance is implicated at the federal level. FIO should 

lead coordination efforts among federal and state agencies to improve 

communication and develop policy with respect to insurance-related issues. 

All (e.g. 

DHS, 

FBIIC) 

F, G 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 161 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Multilateral Work on Insurance 

The FSB’s activities should be limited to its purpose of monitoring and 

enhancing global financial stability. Wherever possible, financial stability risk 

assessments and standards should be tailored to industry sectors and undertaken by the appropriate standard setter with the necessary technical supervisory expertise, including, for insurance-related matters, the IAIS. Moreover, 

U.S. members of the FSB should work to revise the G-SIFI framework so that 

it appropriately takes into account the differentiated ways that sectors are 

structured and manage risks. The FSB should better utilize the expertise of the 

IAIS on insurance-related issues where appropriate. Treasury will also advocate for increased transparency and stakeholder engagement at the FSB, as 

well as for standards and principles consistent with the state-based U.S. insurance regulatory system. 

Treasury D, E 

Any future organizational changes to the IAIS’ existing structure should be 

done in a manner that ensures appropriate and geographically balanced 

representation and committee leadership among the IAIS members. 

FRB, 

States, 

Treasury 

D, E 

The IAIS should take additional action to further increase transparency and 

stakeholder input into IAIS decision-making. Treasury will continue to encourage U.S. members of the IAIS to collectively advocate for increased transparency and collaboration during the international standard development process. Treasury will advocate for increased utilization of stakeholder workshops 

and informational sessions — both in person and by teleconference — to further 

involve stakeholders. 

Treasury, 

FRB, 

States 

D, E 

Treasury has redefined FIO’s mission at the IAIS to, among other things: (1) 

advocate for the U.S. state-based insurance regulatory system, U.S. consumers, the U.S. insurance sector, and growth in the broader U.S. economy, 

(2) coordinate the views of Team U.S.A., and (3) promote greater transparency and stakeholder engagement in international standard-setting forums. 

FIO should have a permanent, voting membership on the IAIS Executive 

Committee. 

Treasury D, E 

U.S. representatives at the IAIS should advance policy positions that best represent the interests of the U.S. insurance sector, U.S. consumers, the statebased U.S. insurance regulatory system, and the U.S. economy. An enhanced 

inter-agency coordination process between the U.S. members of the IAIS 

should be established to ensure stronger and more efficient coordination on 

international prudential insurance matters. The Secretary will direct FIO to 

coordinate with the other U.S. members of the IAIS to formally define and 

implement this strengthened collaborative process. The Secretary will also 

direct FIO to conduct quarterly coordination meetings for stakeholders to 

engage with Team U.S.A. members on issues arising at the IAIS. Additionally, 

the Secretary will direct FIO to consider establishing an advisory committee or 

other mechanism, such as issuing formal requests for information, to provide 

increased stakeholder input to members of Team U.S.A. 

Treasury, 

FRB, 

States. 

D, E 

162 A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 
Appendix B • Regulatory and Legislative Recommendations

Recommendation 

Policy Responsibility Core 

Principle Congress Regulator 

Advancing American Competiveness Abroad 

The Secretary will direct FIO and the Undersecretary for International Affairs 

to enhance engagement in multilateral and bilateral dialogues on issues concerning the insurance sector’s international market access. Treasury will coordinate with other federal agencies and entities that are engaged in multilateral 

and bilateral dialogues on market access issues affecting the insurance industry. Members of Team U.S.A. should encourage the IAIS to analyze whether 

certain market access restrictions are consistent with the goals of the IAIS 

Insurance Core Principles. 

Treasury D, E 

The Secretary will direct FIO to continue to improve its coordination with state 

insurance regulators, the NAIC, and other stakeholders as the provisions of 

the U.S.-EU Covered Agreement are implemented in the respective jurisdictions. Treasury will also coordinate and consult with the Office of the United 

States Trade Representative, Congress, state insurance commissioners, and 

other industry stakeholders as it explores entering into covered agreement 

negotiations with other foreign jurisdictions. 

Treasury 

USTR D, E 

Insurer Investment in Infrastructure 

State insurance regulators and the NAIC should evaluate potential steps to 

encourage the development of more calibrated regulatory treatment of highquality infrastructure investments. Specifically, and in a manner that safeguards financial stability, state regulators and the NAIC should consider revis­ States F 

ing Risk-Based Capital charges to reflect the stable cash flows of high-quality 

infrastructure investments as compared to general equity investments with 

more volatile returns.

Retirement Security 

The Department of Labor and Treasury should develop proposals on how to 

establish or certify one or more expert, independent fiduciary entities to assess 

the long-term financial strength of annuity providers. These assessments, 

which could be in the form of ratings or other specific metrics, could assist 

ERISA-governed plan sponsors in complying with their fiduciary duty obligations in selecting annuity providers for plans and enable fiduciaries to rely on 

such assessments as a safe harbor. 

DOL, 

Treasury A, F, G 

Treasury will convene an inter-agency task force, including representatives 

of the Department of Health and Human Services, Treasury, the IRS, and 

the Office of Management and Budget, to develop policies to complement 

reforms at the state level relating to the regulation of long-term care insurance. 

The task force’s work should be coordinated with the ongoing work of state 

insurance regulators and the NAIC. 

Treasury, 

HHS, 

IRS, 

OMB, 

etc. 

A, C, G 

A Financial System That Creates Economic Opportunities • Asset Management & Insurance 163 

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2017-04858 (Rev. 1) • Department of the Treasury • Departmental Offices • www.treasury.gov