Thermal Imaging Research Needs for 

First Responders:

Workshop Proceedings

Francine Amon

Nelson Bryner

Anthony Hamins

NIST Special Publication 1040
U.S. Department of Homeland Security 

Michael Chertoff, Secretary 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 

Michael Brown, Under Secretary 

of Emergency Preparedness and Response 

U.S. Fire Administration 

R.David Paulison, Administrator 

Thermal Imaging Research Needs for 

First Responders:

Workshop Proceedings

Francine Amon

Nelson Bryner

Anthony Hamins

Fire Research Division

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

NIST Special Publication 1040 

June 2005

U.S. Department of Commerce

Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary

Technology Administration

Michelle O’Neill, Deputy Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Hratch G. Semerjian, Acting Director
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this 

document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately. Such 

identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the 

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the 

entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 1040

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 1040, 65 pages (June 2005)

CODEN: NSPUE2

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 2005

_________________________________________

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov — Phone: (202) 512-1800 — Fax: (202) 512-2250

Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001
ABSTRACT 

This workshop provided a forum to discuss the strategies, technologies, procedures, best 

practices, research, and development that can significantly improve thermal imaging technology 

for the first responder community. The goal of the workshop was to identify barriers that impede 

advances in the application of thermal imaging technology to emergency response. The program

included experts from the first responder community, thermal imaging camera and component 

manufacturers, fire fighter trainers, and those doing research on thermal imaging, speaking on 

today’s safety challenges. 

After hearing presentations, the workshop divided into three breakout sessions to discuss the 

following four questions: 

What technological advances are needed? 

What are the research needs for first responders? 

What performance metrics are needed and how do they differ from current methods? 

What standards are needed? 

The results of each groups’ deliberations were discussed when the full workshop reconvened. 

The responses from each group were coalesced and listed so that attendees could vote on the 

issues that they felt were most important. Attendees were grouped by their affiliation with 

industry or the first responder community. The combination of issues that relate to image quality 

(a collection of research, performance metrics, and standards needs) was voted to be the most 

important topic overall, and the most important subject for industry representatives. The 

development of camera durability (or ruggedness) metrics and standard testing methods was the 

second-most important subject overall, and the second-most important subject for industry 

representatives. Training and certification for personnel, and human factor/dynamics/ergonomic 

research were the first and second-most important topics for first responders. 

Keywords: thermal imager, evaluation, performance metrics, heat detection, fire fighting, first 

responder, infrared camera, focal plane array 

iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The success of any workshop is dependent on the hard work of the individual speakers, 

facilitators, and participants. These proceedings are an assimilation of the contributions from

everyone involved in the workshop; copies of the presentations are included in Appendix 3. 

Thanks to all who made presentations and to those who participated in the workshop. 

Special thanks go to Chief Brian Duggan of the Northampton Fire Department, Larry Konsin of 

the American Council for Thermal Imaging, and Chief Bruce Varner of the Santa Rosa Fire 

Department, who served as chairs of the breakout sessions and helped bring focus to the 

discussions. In addition, we wish to acknowledge the assistance of Ms. Ellen Altman of NIST, 

who helped with logistics. 

iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ABSTRACT iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

INTRODUCTION 1

Historical overview 1 

Thermal imager characteristics for first responder applications 2 

First responder thermal imaging uses 4 

Thermal imaging standards 4 

WORKSHOP ORGANIZATION AND OBJECTIVES 5 

BREAKOUT GROUP RESULTS 7 

Prioritization 9

Response to discussion questions 10 

Overall thermal imaging priorities 10 

CONCLUSIONS 12

FUTURE WORK 13 

REFERENCES 14

APPENDICES TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1. Workshop Agenda 15 

2. Workshop Attendees 18 

3. Workshop Abstracts and Presentations 22 

A. Workshop Goals and Logistics 22 

B. The Ideal Thermal Imager for the Fire Service 24 

C. The Ideal Thermal Imager for Fire Fighters 26 

D. The Wide-Angle View from a First Responder Trainer 29 

E. Perspectives from Thermal Imaging Camera Manufacturers 34 

F. Perspectives from a Detector Manufacturer 39 

 G. NRL Activities 41 

H. Standards Development Procedures 45 

I. Overview of NIST Efforts to Support Fire Fighter Technologies 48 

J. Overview of NIST Thermal Imager Project 52 

K. Testing Spectral Responsivity of Infrared Cameras 55 

4. Breakout Group Results 58 

A. Breakout Group Unanalyzed Results 58 

B. Technological Advances 61 

C. Research Needs 62 

D. Performance Metrics 63 

E. Standards 64 

F. Voting Combination Key for Figure 1 65 

v 
vi 
THERMAL IMAGING RESEARCH NEEDS FOR FIRST RESPONDERS

INTRODUCTION 

Historical overview

The inherent desire to see in the dark or in obscured conditions has been a part of humanity 

throughout history. Compelling reasons for acquiring this ability have evolved over the ages, 

ranging from the need to see predators or other dangers in the dark, to the need to identify 

victims or hot spots in burning structures. While a simple torch may have sufficed to address the 

former need, an infrared (IR) camera, or thermal imaging camera (TIC), may be necessary to 

fulfill the latter. Thermal imaging science has progressed significantly, especially over the past 

80 years, and now thermal imagers are routinely used in a wide range of applications. 

The concept of thermal imaging followed quickly on the heels of the development of visible 

imaging (television) in the 1920s. Military applications drove advancements in thermal imaging 

and low-light image intensifiers to the point that, in the mid-1940s, the first IR line scanner was 

produced that could create a two-dimensional thermal image. Improvements in detector 

materials and electronics continued, particularly in the 1960s, resulting in the development of 

Forward Looking InfraRed (FLIR) imaging cameras. These cameras produce high quality 

images, however, their detectors require cryogenic cooling to obtain acceptable sensitivity. In 

the 1970s and 1980s, military-funded commercial interests developed detectors that don’t require 

cryogenic cooling, eventually leading to the production of uncooled solid-state imaging arrays 

[1]. Since the declassification of this work in 1992, new thermal imaging applications that 

exploit the lower-cost, smaller-format, uncooled imaging arrays have expanded into many areas, 

including preventive maintenance, process and quality control, non-destructive testing, 

driver/pilot vision enhancement, law enforcement, hazardous chemical detection, and fire 

fighting. The world market for commercial (including first responders) and dual-use military IR 

imaging is approximately $1 billion and is growing 10 % to 20 % annually [2]. Within this 

large commercial and military thermal imaging market, first responder TICs do not currently 

have enough market share to drive the development of specialized IR sensor technology. 

The potential benefits of thermal imaging to fire fighters, essentially giving vision to the blind, 

became evident in the early to mid 1990s. Since then IR technology for first responder 

applications has matured to the point that most emergency response organizations either have 

purchased or are considering the purchase of TICs. 

There is very little documented information available on performance evaluations of thermal 

imagers used in fire environments. One exception is a rigorous series of tests performed on 

commercially available thermal imagers by the U. S. Navy in 1998 [3]. The Navy tests were 

primarily designed to identify imagers that were robust enough to function in the harsh 

environment of a fire onboard a ship. The study considered 27 operational requirements and 

tested cameras provided by 7 manufacturers. Performance evaluations have been ongoing at 

NIST for the past two years, in which images from TICs having different detector types are 

compared in a variety of conditions. Preliminary results from these tests show that the image 

quality varies between detector types and between TICs for different conditions. An example of 

1 
the differences found in image quality is given in Figure 1, in which three TICs are viewing an 

identical scene. While each TIC provides valuable information on the location of hot gases and 

fire, the amount of information available to an observer differs considerably between the three 

TICs. There are many factors other than image quality to consider when making a purchasing 

decision, such as size, weight, cost, ease of operation, etc... 

Figure 1. View of a corridor with a heated mannequin on the floor, and a temperature target and 

reflective strips on the back wall. Hot, smoke-laden gases are entering the corridor from an 

adjacent room on the right. The three TICs are viewing an identical scene at the same moment. 

Thermal imagers are a significant tool for the fire service, enabling fire fighters to find their way 

out of burning structures, locate fires and victims, provide guidance to fire attack teams, and 

perform overhaul operations and fire investigations more effectively [4]. Beginning in fiscal 

year 2001, the United States government established the Assistance to Fire Fighters Grant 

Program (AFG) to provide assistance to fire fighters and enhance their ability to protect against 

fire and fire-related hazards. One-year grants have been awarded to help meet fire departments'

fire fighting and emergency response needs. For the 2004 program year, Congress appropriated 

$750,000,000 and transferred the program's authority from the Federal Emergency Management 

Agency and the United States Fire Administration to the Office for Domestic Preparedness 

within the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) [5]. Under the AFG program, fire 

departments applying for equipment acquisition assistance in the “Operations and Fire Fighter 

Safety” focus area are allowed to purchase up to three TICs, depending on the population of the 

communities they serve. 

Thermal imager characteristics for first responder applications 

Certain characteristics are desirable for thermal imaging applications in which the user 

encounters harsh or visually obstructed environments. For example, fire fighters may need to 

utilize a thermal imager to maneuver within a burning structure. Therefore, a wide field of view 

is beneficial. Temperature measurements may provide useful information in a fire, such as 

permitting a fire fighter to decide whether or not it is safe to enter a room based on the 

temperature of the surfaces, the rate of change of the upper layer temperature, or the location of 

hot spots. 

2 
Most thermal imagers used by the fire service employ two sensitivity modes: a sensitive mode 

for viewing scenes in which the range of temperatures*

 is relatively small, and a less sensitive 

mode for scenes with large temperature ranges. The ability of the camera itself to withstand high 

temperatures is also an important design consideration. Given the severity of the physical 

conditions in which these cameras are used, they must be robust enough to resist damage from

water, abrasion, and impact. The display refresh rate is important in applications in which the 

camera operator may be moving and/or constantly scanning the scene.

The stress of a fire event also dictates the need to keep the operation of the imager as simple as 

possible. Most imagers feature fully automated gain and focus settings, sometimes offering no 

more controls than a large on/off button that can easily be accessed by a fire fighter wearing 

heavy gloves. In some cases, the imager may have one or two added capabilities, such as a zoom

button or a toggle between IR and visible viewing. 

The camera’s IR sensor (or detector) is a critical component. There are currently two wellestablished detector technologies and three sensing materials available in TICs designed for first 

responder applications: detectors made of a ferroelectric ceramic, usually a barium-strontiumtitanate (BST) blend; and microbolometers utilizing thin films with either vanadium oxide (VOx) 

or amorphous silicon (ASi) as the sensing material. The optical system provides an interface 

between the signal processor and the recorded image, and is important to the overall performance 

of the instrument. Camera manufacturers may offer a single detector technology or may choose 

to offer a selection of thermal imager models using different technologies. A diagram of the 

principal imager components is shown in Figure 2. 

Amplifiers

Signal

Processing

Optical

System

Detector

Display

Observer

Infrared system

Volts, frequency,

amplitude, monitor clarity,

observer response

Video

Signal

Output

Target &

Background

Temperature difference,

emissivity, radiant energy,

target size, obscuring media

Input

Figure 2. Principle TIC components. An image is projected into the optical system and focused 

on the detector. The detector converts the image into an electrical signal and conditions the 

signal for output to the display. 

 

*

 The detectors in thermal imagers actually respond to differences in radiated energy, which is related to the 

temperature of an object’s surface. 

3 
First responder thermal imaging uses 

TICs represent a significant investment, typically on the order of $10,000 per camera. Most 

consumers, however, have little guidance on instrument performance beyond manufacturer 

literature and recommendations from other users [6]. This issue is further complicated because 

the demands placed on thermal imagers are application dependent. First responders may use 

thermal imagers for search, rescue, target identification, helicopter pilot or vehicle driver vision 

enhancement, as a tactical decision aid, wildland size up, hot ballast and hidden fire 

identification, code compliance, as a diagnostic tool for emergency medical personnel, or as a 

command and control tool for incident commanders. With the variety of uses, the end users may 

have very different ideas about which imaging properties are most important; sharp image 

contrast may be sufficient for fire fighting applications but advanced fire detection systems may 

require collection of quantitative data from IR imagers. Currently, there are no performance 

guidelines available to aid end users in making purchasing decisions. 

Thermal imaging standards 

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)†

 is currently drafting an umbrella standard on 

electronic safety equipment for emergency services, which includes the electronics embedded in 

TICs. Due to the relatively complex nature of thermal imagers, it is anticipated that a future 

NFPA standard will be published specifically to address TICs. The American Society for 

Testing and Materials (ASTM) has published several testing standards that apply to thermal 

imaging performance and may be useful, if modified, for first responder applications [7-10]. For 

example, ASTM Standard E 1543-00, “Standard Test Method for Noise Equivalent Temperature 

Difference of Thermal Imaging Systems,” might be modified to include a test series in which the 

target temperature ranges from ambient to 400 oC and the temperature of the camera itself is 

increased from ambient to 50 oC. The NFPA Technical Committee is free to consider inclusion 

of existing test standards that bear on thermal imager performance for incorporation into a new 

thermal imager standard. 

The establishment of comprehensive, understandable, consistent performance evaluation 

methods and reporting practices will benefit the first responder community by enabling users to 

identify thermal imaging equipment that best suits their needs. Several categories of standards 

exist. Design standards ensure that thermal imagers employ particular types of signals, 

electronics, power isolation, intrinsic safety considerations, etc. In line with the AFG program, 

which states “Equipment that promotes interoperability with neighboring jurisdictions may 

receive additional consideration in the cost-benefit assessment...”, standards that require 

consistency in user interfaces, such as button types and color, display icons, and switches stand 

to benefit first responders in situations in which several agencies or departments respond to an 

event. Performance standards prescribe the actual testing criteria used to evaluate the 

performance of the instrument. The harsh environment in which TICs are used in first responder 

applications must be considered in the development of performance standards, particularly with 

respect to such issues as temperature stress, impact resistance, heat and flame resistance, and 

immersion/leakage, among others. Standardized test methods state specifically how each test is 

to be performed. Non-binding information, such as best practice suggestions for selection, care, 

and maintenance may be included in the text or appendices of a standard as well. 

 

†

 NFPA Technical Committee for Electronic Safety Equipment (FAE/ELS) 

4 
WORKSHOP ORGANIZATION AND OBJECTIVES 

This workshop provided a forum to discuss the strategies, technologies, procedures, best 

practices, research, and development that can significantly improve fire protection and first 

responder safety and effectiveness through the sensible development of thermal imaging 

technology. The participants included experts from the first responder community, TIC and 

component manufacturers, fire fighter trainers, and those doing research on thermal imaging. 

Many of the participants were involved in thermal imaging in multiple ways, enabling them to 

discuss thermal imaging needs from a variety of perspectives. The workshop agenda and a list of 

attendees are provided in Appendices 1 and 2, respectively. The viewgraphs and abstracts for 

each presentation are provided in Appendix 3. 

The goals of the workshop, outlined in the workshop agenda in Appendix 3A, were to identify 

barriers that impede advances in the application of thermal imaging technology to emergency 

response. In this regard, the workshop explored: 

• Recent Developments in Thermal Imaging Technology 

• Uses of Thermal Imaging during Emergency Operations 

• Special needs for Fire Service Applications 

• End-User Performance Priorities 

• Characterization of Thermal Imaging Performance 

• The Role of Standards Developing Organizations 

• Federal Agency Activity 

• Opportunities for Collaboration 

After the workshop goals were reviewed, the first technical session of presentations was devoted 

to end users. These presentations are found in Appendices 3B-3D. Presenters were asked to 

address the way they currently use and make purchasing decisions for TICs, which technical and 

physical qualities they find important, and the value of features such as colorized images, zoom, 

and toggles for image appearance. The end users indicated a need for low cost, ease of use, 

reliability, and consistency in user interfaces. 

In the second session, camera and detector manufacturers discussed the technological trade-offs 

that manufacturers face in the development of TICs, the difficulties, value, and methods of 

conducting performance testing on thermal imagers, their vision of the future with regard to 

technological advances, and critical issues related to developing industry-wide performance 

standards. These presentations are found in Appendices 3E-3F. TIC manufacturers reported that 

they must consider the relatively small fire service/first responder market and the harsh 

environment in which the cameras are used when making design decisions. The development of 

operational performance standards was something that both the end users and camera 

manufacturers agreed is important. Detector manufacturers predicted that imagers will decrease 

in size, weight, power requirements, and cost, and increase in resolution, thermal sensitivity, and 

the range of conditions at which the detectors can operate effectively. 

The third session was comprised of presentations on government agency involvement and the 

way consensus standards are developed. These presentations are found in Appendices 3G-3H. 

5 
Involvement in funding of thermal imaging standards for first responders and related work by the 

Department of Homeland Security and Office of Law Enforcement Standards was presented‡

. 

The U. S. Navy has done research using thermal imaging technology for damage control and 

situational awareness [3]. The ASTM approach to forming consensus standards and the value of 

such standards was explained. 

The last session of presentations focused on thermal imaging science and research. These 

presentations are found in Appendices 3I-3K. There are several projects underway at NIST that 

support fire fighter technologies: the development of a heat transfer model and new materials for 

protective clothing, a structural collapse prediction tool, tactical decision aids, and virtual fire 

fighter training software. In addition to these projects, NIST is investigating the effectiveness of

various optical performance metrics applicable to TICs used in first responder applications. 

Advanced experimental methods, such as testing of detector spectral responsivity, are being 

studied in the Physics Laboratory at NIST. Research is also being conducted at the Night Vision 

Laboratory, a research laboratory associated with the U. S. Army§

. 

After the presentations, the workshop participants were divided into three groups. Each group 

was composed of representatives from industry, the first responder community, and the scientific 

community. The groups were asked to respond to these four questions: 

• What technological advances are needed? 

• What are the research needs for first responders? 

• What performance metrics are needed and how do they differ from current methods? 

• What standards are needed? 

A chairperson (Chief Brian Duggan, Larry Konsin, and Chief Bruce Varner) moderated each 

group. The results of each group’s discussion were combined and discussed when the workshop 

reconvened, and a vote was taken to prioritize the responses to the questions. An analysis of the 

results is presented in the following section.

 

§

 This presentation is not included in Appendix 3 at the request of the speaker. 

6 
BREAKOUT GROUP RESULTS 

The unanalyzed results of the breakout group discussions are located in Appendix 4A. These 

results reflect more than simple answers to the discussion questions; in some cases the items

listed are important points or questions raised through discussion within the breakout groups and, 

as such, may not be a direct answer to the question at hand. As the discussions proceeded, it 

became clear that some items were relevant in multiple categories. A logical order to the 

questions was revealed as the sessions continued. A wish list of technology advancements set 

the stage for the discussion of technological research needs, as well as the research needed to 

allow adequate measurement of the performance of thermal imagers. These topics dovetailed 

with the identification of performance metrics that evolved from discussion of needed standards. 

In deference to this logic, the results will be discussed following this order. Discussion question 

responses were prioritized when the groups reconvened at the end of the workshop. 

Commonalities among the results of the three groups were apparent when the breakout groups 

reconvened. The same response wasn’t always listed in exactly the same manner among all 

groups, but there was significant overlap among the groups. Conversely, identically listed 

responses may have had different meanings when taken within the context of the group 

discussion. Therefore, commonalities between groups are presented in general categories, with 

related issues listed in the ‘scope’ column of Tables 1 - 4. The number of working groups that 

contributed to the items listed in a category is indicated in the ‘groups’ column. A complete 

listing of breakout group notes is presented in Appendix 4A. 

Table 1. Responses to “What technological advancements for IR imagers are needed?”

Category Scope Groups

Battery & Charger 

Remaining time indicator in minutes, smart and durable 

charger technology, static vs. show time, longer battery life 

with no maintenance 

3 

Image & Display 

Coatings or automatic shutter for lens & display. Is better 

display necessary? Does sensor or display limit image 

quality? Heads-up display, info on the screen, display selftest, more informative icons, broader temperature displays, 

automated pattern recognition and/or image interpretation, 

image fusion (visible and IR) 

3 

Imager 

low-cost with water bottle (sized) packaging and/or handsfree operation, self-test, reliability, less mass, testing 

instrumentation, housing ruggedness, immediate needs 

addressed, stay ON button (no sleep mode), manual 

Electronic Iris (EI) switch, depth perception/range finder 

3 

Sensor Solid state technology improvements, AC and DC coupled 

sensors, application specific technology 2 

Training Advanced training technology 3 

Comment: There should be no ceiling on technological advances

7 
Table 2. Responses to “What are the thermal imaging research needs for first responders?”

Category Scope Groups

Battery & Charger User feedback, discharge curve, effect of fire on battery life, 

flammability, duration needs. 2 

Image & Display 

Degradation with exposure to environment and when 

viewing through soot and weather, compensation for ambient 

light, coatings for condensation & deposition, importance of 

image quality, appropriate field of view, refresh rate, 

contrast. Is display or sensor limiting? Scientific evaluations 

of image quality. 

3 

Imager 

Emissivity settings, pattern recognition and object tracking, 

intrinsic safety, integration with other equipment, ergonomics 

and human factors, self-diagnostic testing, feasibility of 

injury evaluation, temperature display & 

accuracy/calibration. 

3 

Sensor Better sensor material & circuitry for first responder 

application, lower cost, lower power requirement. 2 

Testing Environment Establish fire environment and operational conditions, live 

fire field tests, find failure points and limitations. 2 

 

Table 3. Responses to “What performance metrics are needed for thermal imagers and how do 

they differ from current methods?”

Category Scope Groups

Battery & Charger Battery heat test profile, Battery self test (minutes), Battery

life (1.5 h to 2 h fire) 2 

Image & Display 

Scene dynamic range, image quality: test and quantify,

display quality over temperature range, how the image is 

displayed (contrast), temperature accuracy, focal length, pixel 

saturation, sensitivity figure of merit, Noise Equivalent 

Temperature Difference (NETD), frame rate, quick & dirty

target, field of view. 

3 

Imager 

Reliability (mean time between failures), environmental 

limits of use, stability, subsystem metrics, ease of use, 

manual assembly lines. 

3 

Comment: Draw on existing metrics whenever possible. 

8 
Table 4. Responses to “What standards are needed for thermal imagers?” 

Category Scope Groups

Battery & Charger Battery service guidelines, self-test, minimum life, types, and 

number. 3 

Image & Display 

Simple, quick field test/calibration. Image degradation due 

to smoke and dust. Standard test target. Image quality

standards: contrast?

3 

Imager 

Accelerated life testing. Immersion, flame, corrosion, and 

impact resistance, temperature tolerance. Lens & display

abrasion, condensation, and deposition. Housing inspection 

procedure, intrinsic safety testing, reliability, shall not cause 

or be affected by EMF/RF interference, limit transmission 

range to 90 m (300 ft.), out of range indicator, functionality

across range of operation conditions, minimum operating 

criteria, require gloves-on operation, consideration of 

equipment integration, default settings. 

3 

Training Dissect teaching requirement and set the standard. Traininga big step to see IR without fully understanding it. 2 

User Interface 

Consistent icons, switches, buttons. Default icons. Human 

factors: color scale, palette, gradients. Alarm if unit isn’t 

working properly, maximum weight. American Council for 

Thermal Imaging (ACTI) group to lead follow-on study of 

user interface. 

3 

Comments: Draw on existing standards whenever possible. Standards need to be minimum to assure 

consistency and safety. Standards should not be design limiting; they should be a living document.

A number of items appeared several times in response to multiple questions. For example, the 

need for better batteries, battery chargers, and battery life indicators crossed the boundaries 

between technology advances, battery and charger research needs, battery performance metrics, 

as well as standards needs for battery service guidelines, self-tests and minimum battery life. 

Several other items also appeared in several categories, including equipment integration 

(technological advances and research needs), reliability (technological advances, performance 

metrics and standards), and establishment of environmental limits of use (research, performance 

metrics, and standards). 

Prioritization 

The last activity on the agenda was to prioritize the topics that the attendees felt were most 

critical to address at this time. The responses from each group were coalesced and listed so that 

attendees could vote on the issues they felt were most important. Attendees were grouped by 

their closest affiliation, either with industry or with the first responder community. The complete 

results of the voting, normalized to the total number of votes per discussion question, are shown 

in Appendices 4B-4E. Items that received no votes are omitted from the discussion. The 

response to the individual discussion questions is discussed the following section and the overall 

voting results are discussed in the last section of this part of the proceedings. 

 

9 
Response to discussion questions 

The votes cast for topics related to advancements in technology, which are listed in Table 1 and 

charted in Appendix 4B indicate that reducing the cost and size of thermal imagers through 

technological improvements was considered most important, especially among the first 

responders. Other technological advancements that received attention dealt largely with 

improvements in user interfaces and battery/charger technology. 

Guidance for research in support of thermal imaging for first responders shows, in Table 2 and 

Appendix 4C, that the establishment of a typical operational environment is needed. Research in 

this area would lay the groundwork for developing meaningful metrics and standards on imager 

performance under conditions resembling those experienced by end users. Human factor 

research may include many aspects of the user interface, from the color and placement of buttons 

and display icons to novel methods of hands-free operation to reduction of imager size and 

weight. Research to find an appropriate means by which to measure imaging quality for first 

responder applications, and on developing a distinctive emissivity-based target for fire fighter 

turn-out gear was also found to be important. 

Each of the performance metrics listed in Table 3 and Appendix 4D rely to some degree on the 

environment in which the imager is used. The sensitivity metric received twice the number of 

votes as its nearest competitor, and is particularly dependent on the imager’s operating 

conditions because the detectors tend to become less sensitive when viewing a wide range of 

temperatures. 

As seen in Table 4 and Appendix 4E, the most pressing need for standards is for training and 

certification of personnel. After that, image quality and imager durability standards, 

respectively, are desired. Once again, established operational conditions are needed to facilitate 

the development of these standards. 

Overall thermal imaging priorities 

In order to present the overall voting results in a manner in which reasonable conclusions can be 

made, some of the individual listings found in Appendices 4B-4E were combined into more 

general categories. For example, items related to image quality, such as image quality research, 

sensitivity metric, scene dynamic range metric, and image quality performance metric standard 

were lumped into a single bin labeled “image quality”. Similarly, all entries that referred to 

batteries and chargers were lumped together into a single bin labeled “battery and charger”. The 

information presented in Figure 1 is a result of combining the individual listings into naturally 

occurring categories. The reader is encouraged to peruse Appendix 4 to examine the voting 

results in their entirety. The key to the combination of voting results used to produce Figure 1 is 

found in Appendix 4F. 

The overall voting results indicate that the combination of issues relating to image quality 

(research, performance metrics, and standards) was the most important topic overall, as well as 

the most important subject for industry representatives. Discussion during the workshop 

indicated that improving image quality makes TICs into more valuable and versatile tools. The 

development of camera durability (or ruggedness) metrics and standard testing methods was the 

second-most important subject overall, and the second-most important subject for industry 

10 
representatives. Training and certification for personnel and human factor/dynamics/ergonomic 

research were the first and second-most important topics for first responders. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

RELATIVE PRIORITY OF VOTES

Industry

First Responders

Figure 1. Total consolidated voting results (first responders and industry representatives). Votes 

are shown relative to the total number of votes. 

Voting key for item numbers in abscissa of Figure 5. 

1. Image quality (research, metrics, standards, contrast, sensitivity) 

2. Durability (metric, MTBF, standard test methods for ruggedness) 

3. Training and certification for personnel 

4. Establish minimum/typical test environments 

5. Human factor/ergonomic and human dynamics research 

6. Image display (technology, viewability, metrics) 

7. Battery and charger (life/maintenance, icons, and self-test improvements) 

8. Reduction in imager cost (“water bottle” sized package priced at $2K) 

9. Standard target (for field test/calibration and emissivity target for turnout gear) 

10. Imager self-test procedure and warning system

11 
CONCLUSIONS 

The cost of thermal imagers was the leading topic with regard to technological advancements, 

and was an especially important issue for first responder organizations. 

Establishing a typical set of testing conditions that adequately represent the operational 

environment was acknowledged as the most important research topic. Research in this area 

would lay the groundwork for developing meaningful metrics and standards for imager 

performance under conditions resembling those encountered by first responders. 

Both the first responders and the industry representatives identified the need for a thermal 

sensitivity metric as being most critical with regard to thermal imager performance metrics. 

The voting results showed that training and certification was the most important standards need. 

This topic was also the most important overall issue for first responders, although industry 

representatives also felt that this topic is critical. 

Workshop participants also found that all aspects of batteries and battery chargers (technology, 

research, metrics, and standards) were important to the advancement of thermal imaging. 

The overall voting results indicate that the combination of issues related to image quality 

(research, performance metrics, and standards) was the most important topic overall, as well as 

the most important subject for industry representatives. The development of camera durability 

(or ruggedness) metrics and standard testing methods was the second-most important subject 

overall, and the second-most important subject for industry representatives. 

Training and certification for personnel, and human factor/dynamics/ergonomic research were 

the first and second-most important topics for first responders. These two topics are linked in the 

sense that uniformity in the user interface and ease of camera operation facilitates training and, 

ultimately, acceptance of thermal imagers by the end users. Human factor research also underlies 

the development of standards and performance metrics for user interfaces and drives the 

advancement of certain types of technology, such as display and hands-free technology. 

12 
FUTURE WORK 

This workshop was a first attempt to gather representatives from many sectors of the thermal 

imaging first responder community and industry with the goal of identifying barriers that impede 

advances in the application of thermal imaging technology for first responders. Participants 

included representatives from the first responder community, TIC and component manufacturers, 

fire fighter trainers, and those doing thermal imaging research. The Workshop provided an 

opportunity for participants to learn from each other and to work together to guide future 

developments in thermal imaging. Where go we go from here?

At this time the first responder community does not have a market share of sufficient size to 

drive the development of major TIC components (e.g., detector and display) specifically suited to 

this application. However, as advances are made in IR technology, better technology will likely 

be available for the same cost. 

The need for standardization of the TIC user interfaces, such as button type and color, display 

icons, battery life indicators, etc... has motivated interested parties to form a discussion group in 

order to lay the foundation for future design standards. 

This workshop provided a strong foundation for follow-on efforts among government agencies, 

the first responder community, industry, and academia to: 

• Further identify and refine research needs of the user community 

• Develop performance standards that consider interoperability and integration 

• Demonstrate performance metrics 

• Create standards that will improve the usability and effectiveness of thermal imagers 

Work is ongoing in each of these areas through NFPA and ASTM committees, industry and user 

groups, and at government laboratories including NVL, NRL and NIST. Through the efforts of 

these stakeholders to advance thermal imager use and technology, the safety of first responders 

and the general public can be improved, leading to reductions in losses due to catastrophic 

events. As these efforts gather momentum, new stakeholders and a wider scope of TIC 

usefulness may be identified, promoting further advancements in the application of thermal 

imaging technology for first responders. 

13 
REFERENCES 

[1] R. G. Buser and M. F. Tompsett, Uncooled Infrared Imaging Arrays and Systems, 

Semiconductors and Semimetals 47, Academic Press, Massachusetts (1997) p. 1-16. 

[2] The World Market for Commercial & Dual-Use Military Infrared Imaging and Infrared 

Thermometry Equipment, Market Research Report IRW-C, Maxtech International, Inc., 

Fairfield, CT, 2004, 400 pp. 

[3] F. Crowson, B. Gagnon, and S. Cockerham, Evaluation of Commercially Available Thermal 

Imaging Cameras for Navy Shipboard Fire Fighting, Report No. SS99-001, Department of the 

Navy, Office of the Assistant Secretary (Installations and Environment), Washington, DC, 

February 1999, 60 pp. 

[4] R. D. Lucier, Hot enough for you? Applications of IR thermal imaging equipment in the fire 

service, FLIR Systems [web page], http://www.flirthermography.com/media/026lucier.pdf [last

updated 09/09/00]. 

[5] 2004 Program Guidance for the Assistance to Fire Fighters Grant Program, U. S. Dept. of 

Homeland Security [web page], http://www.usfa.fema.gov/grants/afgp/ [last updated 05/02/05]. 

[6] S. P. Woodworth, Choosing a Thermal Imaging Unit, Fire Engineering, 153 (1), 83-84 

(2000). 

[7] ASTM Standard E 1213-97 Standard Test Method for Minimum Resolvable Temperature 

Difference for Thermal Imaging Systems, ASTM International, West Conshohoken, PA, 2002, 3 

pp. 

[8] ASTM Standard E 1256-95 Standard Test Method for Radiation Thermometers (Single 

Waveband Type), ASTM International, West Conshohoken, PA, 2001, 7 pp. 

[9] ASTM Standard E 1311-89 Standard Test Method for Minimum Detectable Temperature 

Difference for Thermal Imaging Systems, ASTM International, West Conshohoken, PA, 2004, 3 

pp. 

[10] ASTM Standard E 1543-00 Standard Test Method for Noise Equivalent Temperature 

Difference for Thermal Imaging Systems, ASTM International, West Conshohoken, PA, 2000, 4 

pp. 

14 
APPENDIX 1- WORKSHOP AGENDA 

Agenda: Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders 

Day One – December 9th, 2004 

8:00 Coffee & Refreshments (Building 224, Room B245)

8:30 Welcome (Dr. James Hill, Director, Building & Fire Research Laboratory (BFRL), NIST)

8:45 Opening Remarks – Workshop Goals and Logistics (Dr. Anthony Hamins, Leader, Analysis 

and Predictions Group, NIST)

8:55 Self Introductions

9:00 Visionary Presentations - End User’s Response to these Questions: 

How do you currently use thermal imagers?

How important are technical qualities? 

How important are physical qualities?

What is the value of features (bells & whistles)? 

What info do you currently use to make purchasing decisions?

9:00 The Ideal Thermal Imager for the Fire Service (Bruce Varner, Fire Chief, City of Santa 

Rosa Fire Department, CA)

9:20 The Ideal Thermal Imager for Fire Fighting (Brian Duggan, Fire Chief, City of 

Northampton Fire Department, MA)

9:40 The Wide-Angle View from a First Responder Trainer (Bob Athanas, President, SAFE-IR, 

Inc.)

10:00 Break

10:10 The Industrial Point of View

10:10 Perspectives from TI Camera Manufacturers (Larry Konsin, P. E., American Council for 

Thermal Imaging)

10:30 Perspectives from a Detector Manufacturer (Tim McCaffrey, Raytheon)

15 
10:50 Standards Development and Government Agency Involvement 

The performance standards creation process. 

Government agency contributions to thermal imaging technology development for first 

responder applications. 

10:50 DOJ/NIJ (Chris Tillery, Deputy Chief, Research and Technology Development Div., NIJ)

11:10 DHS/OLES (Phil Mattson, Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES), NIST)

11:30 NRL (John Farley, Navy Safety & Survivability, Naval Research Laboratory)

11:50 Standards Development Procedures (Terry Clausing, P. E., Chairman, ASTM E-7 

Committee on Non-Destructive Testing) 

12:10 Lunch

1:20 Thermal Imaging Science and Research Activities

1:20 Overview of NIST Efforts to Support Fire Fighter Technologies (Nelson Bryner, Leader, 

Fire Fighting Technology Group, NIST)

1:35 Overview of NIST Thermal Imager Project (Dr. Francine Amon, Analysis and Prediction 

Group, NIST)

1:50 Testing Spectral Responsivity of IR Cameras (Dr. Joseph Rice, Optical Technology 

Division, NIST) 

2:05 Perspectives from the Night Vision Lab (John O’Neill, Lead Electronics Engineer, 

Prototype IRFPA and IR Camera Characterization Laboratory, Night Vision Laboratory)

2:25 Break 

2:40 Purpose and Guidelines for the Working Sessions (Anthony Hamins)

• What are the prioritized research needs for thermal imaging for first responders?

• What performance metrics are needed? How do they differ from current methods?

• What standards are needed? 

• What technological advances are needed?

2:55 Working Sessions

Session 1: (Bldg 224/Rm B245) Coordinator: Nelson Bryner 

Session 2: (Bldg 224/Rm A369) Coordinator: Francine Amon 

Session 3: (Bldg 224/Rm A312) Coordinator: Anthony Hamins 

4:00 Tour of NIST Large Fire Laboratory, AML, and Thermal Imaging Facility (Bldg 205, AML 

Bldg. 216/Rm C106 & Bldg 224/Rm B347)

5:00 Adjourn for the Day

16 
Agenda: Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders 

Day Two – December 10th, 2004 

8:00 Coffee and Refreshments (Building 224, Room B245)

8:30 Reconvene Working Groups (Rooms B245, A312, A369) 

Review working session purpose, progress, questions and issues 

10:00 Break 

10:10 Reconvene Workshop (All Participants)

Sessions provide summary of their discussions 

10:40 Group Discussion (Nelson Bryner, moderator)

Deliberation on working session topics: 

• What are the prioritized research needs for thermal imaging for first responders?

• What performance metrics are needed? How do they differ from current methods?

• What standards are needed? 

• What technological advances are needed?

12:15 Wrap-Up (Nelson Bryner)

12:30 Adjournment

17 
18

APPENDIX 2- WORKSHOP ATTENDEES

Meet the workshop participants, shown here in the long wavelength infrared (above) and visible 

(below) spectra.
Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders 

Name Affiliation Address Email/Phone

1. Francine 

Amon 

Building and Fire 

Research 

Laboratory, NIST 

100 Bureau Drive, 

MS8663 

Bldg. 224, Rm. A269 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

francine.amon@nist.

gov

301-975-4913 

2. Bob Athanas SAFE-IR P.O. Box 297 

Montgomery, NY 12549 

boba@SAFE.IR.com

845-457-2421 

3. William

Grady Baker 

Int’l Association of

Chiefs of Police 

515 N. Washington 

Alexandria, VA 22314 

baker@theiacp.org

703-836-6767 x811 

4. Amir Beeri CTO Camero 

9 Homanut Street 

Netanza ISRAEL 

abeeri@camerotech.com

+972-54-4892157 

5. Garry Briese

Intl Association 

Fire Chiefs 

4025 Fair Ridege Drive 

Fairfax, VA 22033 

gbriese@iafc.org

703-273-0911 

6. Nelson 

Bryner 

Building and Fire 

Research 

Laboratory, NIST 

100 Bureau Drive MS 

8661 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

nelson.bryner@nist.g

ov

301-975-6868 

7. Terry 

Clausing 

Chairman ASTM 

E07.10.04 Infrared 

NDT Methods 

P. O. Box 44055 

Cincinnati OH 45244 

terryc@virtualspectru

m.com

513-831-9625 

8. Chris 

Coombs 

GB Solo North 

America, Inc. 

504 Lake Drive 

Middletown DE 19709 

gbsolona@dca.net

866-442-7656 

9. Stephen 

Costello BAE Systems 

2 Forbes Road, LEX01-

112 

Lexington MA 02421-7306

stephen.costello@bae

systems.com

781-863-3325 

10. Paul Domich

Building and Fire 

Research 

Laboratory, NIST 

100 Bureau Drive 

Bldg. 226, Rm. B228, MS 

860 

domich@nist.gov

301-975-5624 

11. Brian P. 

Duggan 

International 

Association of Fire 

Chiefs, 

Northampton Fire 

Department 

26 Carlon Drive 

Northampton, MA 01060 

bpduggan@comcast.

net

413-587-1039 

12. John Farley

Naval Research 

Laboratory 

Code 6180, Attn: John P. 

Farley 

4555 Overlook Ave. SW

Washington DC 20375-

5320 

farley@ccs.nrl.navy.

mil

202-404-8459 

13. Mike Fergus

International 

Association of 

Chiefs of Police 

515 N. Washington 

Alexandria, VA 22314 

fergus@theiacp.org

703-836-6767 x811 

14. David Fisher

ISG Thermal 

Systems USA, Inc. 

190 Stanley Court 

Lawrenceville GA 30045 

dfisher@isgfire.com

404-403-5343 

19 
Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders 

Name Affiliation Address Email/Phone

15. William

Grosshandler 

Building and 

Fire Research 

Laboratory, 

NIST 

100 Bureau Drive, 

MS8660 

Bldg. 224, Rm. B252 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

william.grosshandler

@nist.gov

301-975-2310 

16. Anthony 

Hamins 

Building and 

Fire Research 

Laboratory, 

NIST 

100 Bureau Drive, 

MS8663 

Bldg. 224, Rm. A269 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

anthony.hamins@nist.

gov

301-975-6598 

17. William E. 

Haskell 

NIOSH/CDC/ 

National 

Personal 

Protective 

Technology 

Laboratory 

P. O. Box 18070 

Pittsburg PA 15236 

whaskell@cdc.gov 

978-590-7882 

18. James Kaye

E2V 

Technologies, 

Inc. 

4 Westchester Plaza 

Elmsford NY 10523 

james.kaye@e2vtech

nologies-na.com

800-342-5338 x845 

19. David 

Kearney L3 Dallax, TX 

kearney@Raytheon.c

om

972-344-2168 

20. Ron Klug Scott Health & 

Safety 

4320 Goldmine Road 

Montrose, NC 28110 

rklug@tycoint.com

704-291-8412 

21. Bob Knabbe SAFE-IR 7 Brooker Drive 

Newburgh, NY 12550 

bobk@SAFE.IR.com

845-551-0676 

22. Larry Konsin 

MSA & 

American 

Council for 

Thermal 

Imaging 

1304 Appleridge Ct. 

Gibsonia PA 15044 or 

Corporate address: 

P.O. Box 426 

Pittsburg PA 15230 

larry.konsin@msanet.

com

412-327-0005 

23. Meredith 

Lawler 

US Fire 

Administration 

USFA 

Emmitsburg, MD 

meredith.meglesl@dh

s.gov

301-447-1421 

24. Courtney 

Liedler 

Nat’l 

Transportation 

Safety Board 

490 L’Enfant Plaza, East, 

SW

Washington, DC 20594 

liedlec@NTSB.gov

202-314-6350 

25. Philip Mattson

Office of Law 

Enforcement 

Standards, NIST 

100 Bureau Drive, 

MS8102 

Bldg. 220, Rm. B218 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

philip.mattson@nist.g

ov

301-975-3396 

20 
Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders 

Name Affiliation Address Email/Phone

26. Tim

McDonald 

International 

Safety 

Instruments 

922 Hurricane Shoals 

Road 

Lawrenceville GA 30043 

mcdonald@intsafety.com

770-962-2552 

27. Shaun F. 

McNally 

Fire Dept. of 

New York 

(FDNY) 

409A Shore Road 

Fort Totten NY 

28. Joe Rice

Physics 

Laboratory, 

NIST 

100 Bureau Drive, 

MS8443 

Bldg. 216, Rm. A105 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

joe.rice@nist.gov

301-975-2133 

29. Paul 

Robinson FDNY (R&D) 409A Shore Road Fort Totten, NY 718-281-8490 

30. Mike 

Scholten 

DRS-Infrared 

Technologies 

13544 N. Central 

Expressway 

Dallas, TX 75243 

mjscholten@drs-irtech.com

972-560-5921 

31. Wesley

Sheridan 

Sage 

Technologies 

2500 Maryland Rd., Suite 

502 

Willow Grove, PA 19090 

sheridanw@gosage.com

215-658-0500 

32. Gary 

Simpson 

Bullard 112 Sheldrake Ct. 

Georgetown KY 40324 

gary_simpson@bullard.com

859-588-3404 

33. David 

Smialeck BAE Systems 

2 Forbes Road, LEX01-

112 

Lexington MA 02421-

7306 

david.c.smialeck@baesyste

ms.com

781-863-4150 

34. Louis 

Stern 

Draeger Safety, 

Inc. 

101 Technology Drive 

Pittsburgh, PA 15275 lou.stern@draeger.com

35. Dr. Yi Su 

Diagnostic 

Instrumentation 

and Analysis 

Laboratory

Mississippi State 

University

205 Research Blvd., 

Research & Technology

Park 

Starkville, MS 39759-

9734 

su@dial.msstate.edu

662-325-3286 

36. Bill Terre Indigo Systems 

70 Castilian Drive 

Goleta, CA 93117 

wterre@indigosystems.com

805-964-9797 

37. Bruce H. 

Varner 

Santa Rosa 

Fire 

Department 

955 Sonoma Avenue 

Santa Rosa, CA 95404 

bvarner@ci.santa-rosa.ca.us

707-543-3500 

38. Robert 

Vettori 

Building and 

Fire Research 

Laboratory, 

NIST 

100 Bureau Drive 

Bldg. 224, Rm. B252, 

MS8661 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

robert.vettori@nist.gov

301-975-6577 

21 
APPENDIX 3.AWorkshop Goals and Logistics 

Anthony Hamins, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, NIST 

Workshop on Thermal Imaging 

Research and Performance Standards

Needs for First Responders

Building and Fire Research Laboratory (BFRL)

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

December 9 and 10, 2004

Workshop Objectives

• identify thermal imaging needs of first responders, with an emphasis

on standards.

• create a research agenda and a roadmap for continued development 

of thermal imaging technology.

• present and obtain feedback on draft performance metrics developed

at NIST.

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders (12/9/04)

Standards

Why standards?

• improve product effectiveness 

• may lead to increased demand

• ad-hoc testing being conducted by agencies

- expensive to develop

- may miss key elements

• improve safety for first responders and the public

Standards Organizations

• advocating scientifically-based consensus codes and standards

• American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

• National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA)

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders (12/9/04)

ASTM Standards

• Test methods: E 1933-99a, E 1543-00, E-1862-97, E-1897-97

• ASTM standards do not address typical use conditions - such as a fire

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders (12/9/04)

22 
NFPA Standards

• Committee on Electronic Safety Equipment (ESE)

- standards for fire fighter equipment

- Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA), 1981

- Personal Alert Safety System (PASS device), 1982

- IR Imagers - life-critical instrumentation lacking standards

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders (12/9/04)

Agenda: Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

Day One – December 9th, 2004

8:45 Opening Remarks – Workshop Goals and Logistics (Dr. Anthony Hamins, NIST)

8:55 Self Introductions

9:00 Visionary Presentations - End User’s Response to these Questions: How do you currently use thermal imagers? How important are technical qualities? How important are physical qualities? What is the value of features (bells & whistles)? What info do you currently use to make purchasing decisions? 9:00 The Ideal Thermal Imager for the Fire Service (Bruce Varner, Fire Chief, Santa Rosa Fire Department, CA)

9:20 The Ideal Thermal Imager for Fire Fighting (Brian Duggan, Fire Chief, Northampton Fire Department, MA)

9:40 The Wide-Angle View from a First Responder Trainer (Bob Athanas, President, SAFE-IR, Inc.)

10:00 Break

10:10 The Industrial Point of View

10:10 Perspectives from TI Camera Manufacturers (Larry Konsin, P. E., American Council for Thermal Imaging)

10:30 Perspectives from a Detector Manufacturer (Tim McCaffrey, Raytheon)

10:50 Standards Development and Government Agency Involvement The performance standards creation process and.Government agency contributions to thermal imaging technology 10:50 DOJ/NIJ (Chris Tillery, Research and Technology Development, NIJ)

11:10 DHS/OLES (Phil Mattson, Office of Law Enforcement Standards (OLES), NIST)

11:30 NRL (John Farley, Navy Safety & Survivability, Naval Research Laboratory)

11:50 Standards Development Procedures (Terry Clausing,Chair, ASTM E-7 Committee on Non-Destructive Testing)

12:10 Lunch

Agenda: Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

Day One – December 9th, 2004

1:20 Thermal Imaging Science and Research Activities

1:20 Overview of NIST Efforts to Support Fire Fighter Technologies (Nelson Bryner, Leader, NIST)

1:35 Overview of NIST Thermal Imager Project (Dr. Francine Amon, Analysis and Prediction Group, NIST)

1:50 Testing Spectral Responsivity of IR Cameras (Dr. Joseph Rice, Optical Technology Division, NIST)

2:05 Perspectives from the Night Vision Lab (John O’Neill, Night Vision Laboratory)

2:25 Break

2:40 Purpose and Guidelines for the Working Sessions (Anthony Hamins)

•What are the prioritized research needs for thermal imaging for first responders?

•What performance metrics are needed? How do they differ from current methods?

•What standards are needed?

•What technological advances are needed?

2:55 Working Sessions

Session 1: (Bldg 224/Rm B245) Coordinator: Nelson Bryner

Session 2: (Bldg 224/Rm A369) Coordinator: Anthony Hamins

Session 3: (Bldg 224/Rm A312) Coordinator: Francine Amon

4:00 Tour of NIST Large Fire Laboratory, AML, and Thermal Imaging Facility (Bldg 205, AML & Bldg Rm B347)

5:00 Adjourn for the Day

Agenda: Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs 

Day Two – December 10th, 2004

8:00 Coffee and Refreshments (Building 224, Room B245)

8:30 Reconvene Working Groups (Rooms B245, A312, A369)

Review working session purpose, progress, questions and issues.

10:00 Break

10:10 Reconvene Workshop (All Participants)

Sessions provide summary of their discussions

10:40 Group Discussion (Nelson Bryner, moderator)

Deliberation on working session topics:

• What are the prioritized research needs for thermal imaging for first responders?

• What performance metrics are needed? How do they differ from current methods?

• What standards are needed?

• What technological advances are needed?

12:15 Wrap-Up (Nelson Bryner)

12:30 Adjournment

Purpose and Guidelines for Working Sessions

• What are the prioritized research needs for thermal imaging for

first responders?

• What performance metrics are needed? How do they differ from

current methods?

• What standards are needed?

• What technological advances are needed?

2:55 Working Sessions

Session 1: (Bldg 224/Rm B245) Coordinator: Nelson Bryner

Session 2: (Bldg 224/Rm A369) Coordinator: Anthony Hamins

Session 3: (Bldg 224/Rm A312) Coordinator: Francine Amon

4:00 Tour of Labs

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders (12/9/04)

23 
APPENDIX 3.BThe Ideal Thermal Imager for the Fire Service: A Fire Chief’s Perspective 

Bruce Varner, Fire Chief, City of Santa Rosa Fire Department, CA 

A Fire Chief’s perspective on the ideal Thermal Imager for the fire service should start with 

affordability (low cost) so as to assure the ability to place at least one imager on every fire 

company in the department. The preference would be to place a unit on every interior position, 

with each sector (division, group) officer and command. The additional officer units should be 

of a design that allows for effective use in daylight conditions to evaluate the structure. In 

preparing for the Workshop on Thermal Imaging at NIST several fire chiefs and senior fire 

officers were consulted to develop the following list of items considered important from a fire 

chief’s perspective. 

• Low cost 

• Light weight 

• Unfailingly reliable (Mission critical) 

• High Quality Image 

• Hands free – Helmet or face piece mount 

• Easy to interchange between users 

• Firefighter Friendly (intuitive) 

• Low maintenance – Very, very rugged 

• Long battery life (low cost replacements) 

• Long term warranty (or option to buy extended warranty at reasonable cost) 

The list is not all-inclusive nor in a particular order of importance. Cost has had an impact on the 

ability of the Fire Service to get units on all companies and indeed has limited the ability of some

departments to have even a single unit available. Various public and private grant programs have 

had a positive impact on the ability of departments to obtain imagers in the past couple of years. 

The ability to use a Thermal Imager for size up, interior evaluation, and indeed as an effective 

tool for search and rescue lies in having at least one imager available on the first arriving fire 

department resource. 

The Ideal Thermal Imager

for the Fire Service

A Fire Chief’s Perspective

Bruce H Varner

Fire Chief

Santa Rosa, CA

• Low cost 

• Light weight

• High Quality Image

• Hands free – Helmet or face piece mount

• Easy to interchange between users

• Firefighter Friendly (intuitive)

• Low maintenance – Very, very rugged 

• Unfailingly reliable (Mission critical)

• Long battery life (low cost replacements)

• Lifetime unlimited warranty

• Certification and Testing (NFPA)

ok, so maybe a couple of these aren’t all that practical, yet!

The Ideal Thermal Imager

for the Fire Service

Santa Rosa Fire Santa Rosa Fire

Workshop on Thermal Imaging

Research Needs for First Responder sponders

Santa Rosa Fire

24 
The sizes, they are a changing Low Cost, we’re getting closer

$75,000.00

$25,000.00

$16,000.00

$12,000.00

$ 8,000.00

Ok, so when do I hear $2000.00 or less? Now 

we are beginning to talk about 1 for every

riding position. We really will have the ability

to see in the fire environment.

It becomes another piece of PERSONAL 

protective equipment.

The Fire Department has had a camera for

a year, and would like to have them on

every piece of fire equipment, but the cost

is prohibitive, said Capt. Bill. Following the

save of 2 firefighters in flashover incident.

Did I mention

rugged?

• Low cost 

• Light weight

• High Quality Image

• Hands free – Helmet or face piece mount

• Easy to interchange between users

• Firefighter Friendly (intuitive)

• Low maintenance – Very rugged

• Unfailingly reliable (Mission critical)

• Long battery life (low cost replacements)

• Lifetime unlimited warranty

• Certification and Testing (NFPA)

Let’s review this again

Santa Rosa FireSanta Rosa Fire

Santa Rosa FireSanta Rosa Fire

25 
APPENDIX 3.CIAFC Partners with the National Institute of Standards and Technology to Improve 

Thermal Imaging 

Brian Duggan, Fire Chief, City of Northampton Fire Department, MA 

During the NIST Thermal Imaging Workshop, The International Association of Fire Chiefs 

(IAFC) provided extensive user driven input from several fire service perspectives and 

emphasized the need for imager related training to increase operational safety and ability. 

Today’s thermal imagers were recognized as life saving tools with significant limitations 

including ergonomics, power supply issues, a high cost that limits use and deployment, and a 

technology that lacks standardization. Working groups focused on research needs, testing and 

the development of standards that would facilitate technological growth but set minimum

standards for the next generation of thermal imagers. 

Reaching beyond the common requests of developing a smaller, cheaper, lighter and less costly 

imager our partnership with NIST focused on the future evolution of the imager, and explored 

uses in a wide variety of fire related operations, emergency medical services, and fire prevention. 

Although it is clear that the larger military and electronics markets limit the ability to develop a 

fire service specific technology, IAFC emphasized the need to integrate this technology into 

other systems. This presentation outlined the extensive amount of equipment required to properly 

outfit today’s firefighter. 

As this technology is enhanced, the IAFC took a strong position that this evolution needs to be 

driven by our needs. Priorities for improvement within the realm of imager technology focused 

upon providing better battery and charging systems, increasing image display quality, 

transitioning to color displays, providing pattern and hazardous condition alerting, and 

integration of the imager into a heads up display. 

26 

Perspectives on The Evolution of

Thermal Imaging

December 9, 2004

Presented by Chief Brian P. Duggan,

Northampton, Massachusetts

November 28, 2004

Interna International Association of Fire Chiefs

Perspecti Perspectives

Experience Base:

• Fire Chief –

• Graduate Professor –

• Fire Service Instructor

• Author of the NFPA

Handbook Information and technology

Chapter
27 

November 28, 2004

International Association of Fire Chiefs

A Great Tool

That Has That Has Saved Lives and 

Increased Eff Increased Effectiveness

Many Uses: 

• Structural/urban

Search and rescue

• Search for the Missing

person

• Detect hidden fire

• Detect malfunctioning 

electrical equipment November 28, 2004

Interna International Association of Fire Chiefs

A Great Tool

Limitations:

• Battery life

• Charging issues

• Calibration and repair issues

• Represents a technological Change, resisted by

some

November 28, 2004

International Association of F on of Fire Chiefs

A Great Tool

That Has Sa t Has Saved Lives

Limitations:

• Takes away from

traditional operations

• Requires more

personnel but those

personnel can do

more

• Inconsistent

deployment

November 28, 2004

International Association of Fire Chiefs

A Great Tool

That Has Saved Li Has Saved Lives

Limitations:

• Fiscal resources = 

price point

• Weight

• Hard to hold

• Another piece of

equipment

November 28, 2004

International Association of F on of Fire Chiefs

Other Pers her Perspectives

Graduate Students:

• Cultural acceptance

• Operational

implementation

• Not maximized as a tool

Fire Instructor: 

• A training need

exists

• False sense of

security

• Not utilized to full 

potential

November 28, 2004

International Association of Fire of Fire Chiefs

The Simple Vie e Simple View of 

Improving Thermal Imaging

• Cheaper

• Lighter

• Smaller

• Easier to hold 

and use
November 28, 2004

International Association of F on of Fire Chiefs

Often times the

biggest challeng biggest challenges 

facing a acing a firefighter

as the end as the end user is user is 

not the heat an heat and 

smoke.

The Fire The Firefighters fighters 

Challenge

November 28, 2004

International Association of Fire of Fire Chiefs

It’s Often the Gear the GearItself

November 28, 2004

International Association of F on of Fire Chiefs

As Christmas Approaches As Christmas Approaches -

Thermal Imager Thermal Imager Wish List

• Color Display

• Brighter

• Pattern Alerting

• Integrated

November 28, 2004

International Association of Fire of Fire Chiefs

As Chri As Christmas Approaches stmas Approaches -

Thermal Imager al Imager Wish List Wish List

• Heads-up display

• Rapid on/off

Capability

• Location Transmitter

• Lifetime maintenance

free battery

November 28, 2004

International Association of F on of Fire Chiefs

A Partnershi Partnership with the Fire th the Fire 

Service

• Work together to find

a balance that forms 

technology that is

harnessed to provide

a use driven tool

• Through standards

we need to drive

development as

opposed to 

technology driving us.

November 28, 2004

International Association of Fire of Fire Chiefs

Questions ???

Contact Information:

Chief Brian P. Duggan

Northampton Fire Department

26 Carlon Drive

Northampton, MA 01060-2373

Telephone (413) 587-1039

E-mail Bduggan@city.northampton.ma.us

Web Address: www.northamptonfire.org

28 
APPENDIX 3.DThe Wide-Angle View from a First Responder 

Bob Athanas, President, SAFE-IR, Inc. 

Webster’s dictionary defines Emergency as “an unknown combination of circumstances which 

calls for immediate action.” In today’s society, that immediate action most often comes from

first responders and, specifically, firefighters. Firefighters, like the military, utilize many tools or 

weapons. Their thorough understanding of these tools, their functions and limitations is essential 

for the proper application of the tool and often the safety and survival of the user. Thermal 

imaging cameras are rapidly becoming one the most valuable tools available for firefighters. Bob 

will briefly touch on the range of needs and applications of thermal imaging cameras for the fire 

service. He will discuss the unquestionable value of the more than 30 models of thermal imagers 

introduced to the fire service in the last 6 years and how their effectiveness is complicated and 

compromised by inconsistency. He will offer some examples of how thermal imaging cameras 

may be simplified through the establishment of standards for manufacture, display, and function. 

Then he will offer a common sense explanation of why these standards will positively impact the 

purchase, training and safe use of thermal imagers in the dynamic and stressful situations faced 

by firefighters. 

Biography: 

Bob Athanas is a 28-year veteran of the fire service who began using a thermal imager in 1991 

and started teaching thermal imaging to firefighters 1996. He is currently assigned to FDNY 

Special Operations and is President of SAFE-IR, INC., an internationally recognized fire service 

thermal imaging training and consulting organization. Bob is an instructor for the NYS First 

Line Supervisors Training Program, FDNY Chief Officers Command Course and Technical 

Rescue School, FDIC, Firehouse Expo, and many colleges, regional, municipal and state fire 

schools. He represents end users as a member of the NFPA Committee on Electronic Safety 

Equipment. 

NIST December 9, 2004

NIST Thermal Imagin ermal ImagingResearch Needsfor 

First RespondersWorkshop

Bob Athanas

SAFE-IR, INC.

December 9, 2004

NIST Headquarters, Gaithersburg, MD

NIST December 9, 2004

American Fire S ican Fire Service

Frequent Frequently Operates Operates

• Dynamic & Stressful Situations.

• Both Man Made and Natural.

• Reconstructed by NIST with their

“Simulation ulation of the Dyn the Dynamics of aFire” reports.

LIFE & DEATH LIFE & DEATH !

29 
NIST December 9, 2004

American Fire S ican Fire Service

Resists Change -Newness

“Hundreds of “Hundreds of years of years of tradition 

unimpeded by progre unimpeded by progress!”

Embrace 

Simplicity

+ Consistency

SAFETYFactor!

NIST December 9, 2004

APPLICATIONS

In every community across A across America, merica, 

Thermal Imagers Imagers have the potent e potential to positively

impact a impact almost every ost every role firefighters are called e called 

upon to perform in today’s society.

NIST December 9, 2004

APPLICATIONS

• Firefighting

-All Types

-All Phases

• Haz-Mat

• EMS

• Technical Rescue

• Exterior Search &Rescue

• Public / Media Relations

• More!

NIST December 9, 2004

APPLICATIONS

Although TIC availability exists in FD’s Although TIC availability exists in FD’s

Users Operate with:

Inadequate, Inconsistent & Inaccurate:

Information

+ Terminology

+ Instruction / Training

Misinfor isinformed / Confused Users!

Thermal Ima ermal Imagers are greatly underutilized! ilized!

NIST December 9, 2004

APPLICATIONS

Since 1995 Since 1995 at any given at any given time

there may be as many there may be as many as;

+ or – 10 TIC Manufacturers with

+ or – 20 TIC Models Available

Different Technologies BST,VoX,Asi,

Different Sizes, Shapes, Features 

NO Consistenc nsistency in Models or Technology!!

Even when madeby the same Manufacturer !

NIST December 9, 2004

LIMITATIONS

NO Standards ! NO Standards !

• Proper Trainin er Training / Understand derstanding

• Terminology

• Features

• Power Suppl r Supply

• Reliability

• Overall Performance & Testing

• More!

30 
NIST December 9, 2004

Switch Operation

• Press to Turn On

• Release to Turn Off

• Hold Down Hold Down To Turn Off

• Press to Turn Off

• Release for Stand By

• Press for Stand By

NIST December 9, 2004

Switches/Functions

Match the correct switch color with the Function

1 2 3 4 5 6 78

a) On / Off f) 2x Zoom

b) Stand By g) ManualShutter

c) Video Xmitt h) A,B

d) Video Overlay i) A,B,C,G

e) Image Capture j) A,E,F

NIST December 9, 2004

ICONS & INDICATORS

Standards M Standards MUST establish stablish 

1 Primary Indicator for each purpose! 1 Primary Indicator for each purpose!

NEED TO BE CONSISTANT & COMPATIBLE WITH PPE

TODAY FIREFIGHTERS USING DIFFERENT TI

MAKES

+MODELS

+MUTUAL AID

Confusion, Inconsistency = Rejection! Confusion, Inconsistency = Rejection!

NIST December 9, 2004

Micro Bolometer

“MODE” INDICATOR

? EI 

L

NIST December 9, 2004

BATTERY POWER LEVEL

Operating Tim Operating Time-Full Charge Full Charge

a) 1 Hour

b) 1 1⁄2 Hours

c) 2 Hours

d) 3 Hours

e) 4 hours

f) 5 Hours

g) 7 Hours

Establish a MINIMUM Opera M Operating range! g range!

NIST December 9, 2004

BATTERY POWER LEVEL

Power Standar Power Standards

Power Level- Display

+ Performance -Time ?

+ Low Power Level-Time?

How Much Time? How Much Time??

% Means Nothing eans Nothing !!

NO INDICATOR AT ALL ! R AT ALL !

31 
NIST December 9, 2004

BATTERY POWER LEVEL

IIIIIIIIII- - -BATTERY

BEEP, BEEP, BEEP BEEP, BEEP, BEEP

+

NIST December 9, 2004

TEMPERATURE 

1200 

800

600

400

200 

100

32

+

DIGITAL ?

THERMOMETER ?

° INCREMENTS ?

CELCIUS ?

FARENHEIGHT ?

MK ?

MAX ?

CROSSHAIRS ?

WHAT DOES AT DOES IT MEAN? IT MEAN?

354 o F

NIST December 9, 2004

TEMPERATURE & COL TEMPERATURE & COLOR

Consistency • 2 COLORS

• 3 COLORS

• FULL COLOR

• Transparent Col arent Colors

• Color vs. Temp

• HOT = Color 

• Cold =Color

• BLACK, WHITE SHADES OF GRAY

NIST December 9, 2004

TEMPERATURE - COLOR

Appears in a Appears in at least Cameras!

• Appears @ different Temperatures

• Appears then Disappears and

• Re-appears Again or

• Appears andstayson andon and on

and on.........

NIST December 9, 2004

TESTING / STANDARDS ANDARDS

What the averageFirefighter doesn’t se fighter doesn’t see 

But reli ut relies on NFPA /NIST to prove: to prove:

Product Product Performance for HIS SAFETY!

• HEAT

• FLAME

• WATER

• IMPACT

• DROP

• DUST

• ABRASION

• VIBRATION

• CORROSION

• RFI

• OVERALL PERFORMANCE !

NIST December 9, 2004

PURCHASE

Allows for Product Compar uct Comparison

• Specifications

• Terminology

• Tests

• Performance Result ormance Results

• Numerical Represent Representation

Standards wi andards will simplify this review! lify this review!

Visibility &Accuracy?

LOW

BATTERY

RED 10

288°F, 302°F, 392F, 600°F, 900°F, 1112°F......

10

32 
NIST December 9, 2004

TRAINING TRAINING

With standards for Thermal Imaging 

Cameras training may also be simplified

and standardized. BASIC OPERATION!

Then the user can concentrate on proper

image interpretation and tactical

application without focusing on function

variables and durability!

NIST December 9, 2004

SUMMARY

STANDARDS willcreate:

Consistency

+ Reliability

+ Simplicity (Users)

+ Accountability

+ Responsibility (Mfrs.)

SAFETY for FIREFIGHTERS

33 
APPENDIX 3.EPerspectives from TIC Manufacturers 

Larry Konsin, American Council for Thermal Imaging 

TIC Manufacturers face many technological trade-offs in designing a Fire Service/First 

Responder (FS/FR) Thermal Imaging Camera (TIC). They find ways to keep infrared sensors 

operating in the harshest environments. The sensors are from sensor suppliers who design to 

military and large commercial requirements – generally not to FS/FR requirements. The FS/FR 

TIC market volume does not support an “applications specific sensor”. Sensors are 70% of the 

cost of a TIC; therefore TIC Manufacturers do not have the flexibility to advance TIC 

technology much further than what the sensors offer. TIC Manufacturers performance test 

sensors to the specifications of the sensor supplier – and to the accepted standards of the FS/FR 

market. Currently, there are no NFPA TIC standards. Manufacturers anticipate new standards 

and are developing TICs to meet them. New standards have to balance the needs/wants of the 

FS/FR end-user with the limits of the sensor applications and cost. TIC Operational Standards 

are urgently needed to establish a common language and understanding for TIC safety and use. 

Over the years, TIC Manufacturers have meet the demands of the FS/FR market to eliminate 

“white out”, measure temperature, reduce size/weight, improve imagery, reduce cost, and add 

value. The FS/FR market and NFPA, working together with the Manufacturers can continue to 

meet real needs in practical ways. 

1

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

Perspectives from

TIC Manufactures 

Larry Konsin

American Council For 

Thermal Imaging (ACTI)

December 9, 2004

ACTI is comprised of companies who design, manufacture and market

infrared sensors and thermal imaging systems for commercial applications. 

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 2

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

TIC Manufacturers Perspective Background

Purpose of the NIST Workshop:

 improve Fire Service/First Responder (FS/FR) safety and effectiveness

 through sensible development of performance metrics and reporting 

practices with regard to improvement of thermal imaging technology

Goal of the NIST Workshop:

 identify barriers that impede advances in the application of TIC technology

 with follow-on efforts from government agencies, the response 

community, industry, and academia to:

to identify and define research needs of the user community

develop performance standards that consider interoperability and integration

demonstrate performance metrics







34 
December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 3

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

TIC Manufacturers Perspective Background

NIST suggestions for TIC Manufacturers Presentation:

1. What are the technological trade-offs that are faced in producing a TIC?

2. What performance testing is done and how can it improve?

3. What technological advances are on the horizon?

4. What performance standards are most important?

5. What are the most critical issues in establishing performance standards?

Possible Working Session Topics for group discussions:

 What are the prioritized research needs for thermal imaging for FS/FR?

 What performance metrics are needed? 

 How do they differ from current methods?

 What standards are needed?

 What technological advances are needed? 

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 4

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

1. What are the technological trade-offs 

that are faced in producing a TIC?

 Generally, infrared (IR) sensor design is driven by military and large

commercial market applications, not Fire Service/First Responder

(FS/FR) applications. FS/FR TICs are not produced in volumes large

enough to justify the cost of an applications specific sensor. TIC 

Manufacturers, working with the Sensor Manufacturers, must find ways

to enable the sensors to perform and survive the rigors of the “world’s 

harshest environment” which includes:

high external heat, open flame, explosive and IDLH environments

drop (impact), vibration, corrosion, and abrasion (display & lens)

water immersion, water spray

particulate resistance

high internal temperature

radio frequency interference (RFI)

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 5

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

1. What are the technological trade-offs 

that are faced in producing a TIC?

 Additional design responsibilities of the TIC Manufacturer include:

power supply reliability and performance, display synchronization

housing integrity, cable connection integrity

FCC and CE requirements,

electronic end-user warnings such as:

- low power/battery remaining

- high internal temperature

- high scene temperature

 The technological trade-off is that by using available, lower cost nonFS/FR sensors (rather than an applications specific FS/FR sensor), the

TIC Manufacturers must find ways to keep those sensors performing in

environments that they were generally never designed to operate in. 

Also, when the FS/FRs conduct TIC evaluations, they expect TICs to

perform beyond what is normally encountered in most FS/FR TIC

applications – therefore pushing TIC Manufacturers to do even more . 

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 6

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

1. What are the technological trade-offs 

that are faced in producing a TIC?

 The sensor accounts for 70% of the cost of a FS/FR TIC, delivering

50% of the perceived value to the end-user. TIC Manufacturers 

control the remaining 30% of the cost – delivering the remaining

50% of end-user perceived value.

Table 1: Typical TIC Cost and Value to Fire Service/First Responder

Components Designer/Developer % of Cost % of Value

Infrared (IR) Sensor sensor manufacturer 70% 50%

TIC Housing TIC manufacturer 10% 30%

Support Electronics TIC manufacturer 10% 10%

Display and Battery 3rd party suppliers 10% 10%

 Sensor costs heavily influence FS/FR TIC pricing. In the last 10 

years, FS/FR TIC unit pricing has steadily declined by 65% from

$25,000 to $9,000 largely due to sensor cost reductions.

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 7

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

1. What are the technological trade-offs 

that are faced in producing a TIC?

Table 2: End-user TIC Price Reductions Since 1995

Year of Intro Format/FPA End-user Price Price Driver

1995 Helmet Mount 100x100 $25,000 First to market

1997 Hand Held 320x240 $18,000 Lower sensor cost

2001 Hand Held 160x120 $11,000 Lower sensor cost

2004 Hand Held 160x120 $ 9,000 Lower sensor cost

 The technological trade-off is that in the price-sensitive FS/FR market,

TIC Manufacturers do not have the flexibility to advance TIC 

technology much further than what the sensor has to offer.

 Other non-custom components also help keep costs down but hinder

technological advances and performance. Additionally, FS/FR TICs go

through several component changes over the life of the product due to

inconsistent availability of those components.

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 8

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

1. What are the technological trade-offs 

that are faced in producing a TIC?

 For example: display technology is largely controlled by the large 

electronics manufacturers who design and develop applications

specific displays, amortizing their costs over very large volumes. TIC

Manufacturers source the display production overruns and excess

inventory of the large electronics manufacturers to keep costs down. 

 Consequently, most TICs have gone through several display changes

due to inconsistent availability. Often a display changes requires TIC 

housing mold changes and/or new electronics.

Table 3: Additional FS/FR TIC Critical Non-Custom Components

Component Non-Custom Due To: Critical Issue

Displays low FS/FR volumes Inconsistent supply, wrong specs

Connectors low FS/FR volumes Off-the-shelf supply limits design

Low $ Batteries low FS/FR volumes Batteries have special requirements

Low $ Optics low FS/FR volumes Needed for low cost TIC HUD design





















35 
December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 9

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

1. What are the technological trade-offs 

that are faced in producing a TIC?

 Having to use off-the-shelf components, connectors, and switches 

somewhat limits optimization of a FS/FR design due to limited selection 

and availability.

 Most of these components are not designed to meet specific FS/FR

requirements. Displays for example, have to be further protected from 

high heat since their 80°C (176°F) operating temperature limit is far

below the extreme temperatures of the FS/FR market.

 The technological trade-off is again that in the price-sensitive FS/FR 

market, TIC Manufacturers generally do not have the flexibility to

advance the technology beyond what the available components offer.

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 10

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

TIC Manufacturers Perspective Background

Purpose of the NIST Workshop:

 improve Fire Service/First Responder (FS/FR) safety and effectiveness

 through sensible development of performance metrics and reporting 

practices with regard to improvement of thermal imaging technology

Goal of the NIST Workshop:

 identify barriers that impede advances in the application of TIC technology

 with follow-on efforts from government agencies, the response 

community, industry, and academia to:

to identify and define research needs of the user community

develop performance standards that consider interoperability and integration

demonstrate performance metrics

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 11

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

2. What performance testing is done

and how can it improve?

Sensor Performance Testing

 FS/FR TIC performance testing is generally conducted on both the

Sensor and the Total Package (which includes other features, functions,

components and the TIC housing).

 TIC Manufacturers conduct sensor performance testing to ensure that 

the sensor conforms to the published specifications of the Sensor

Manufacturer, and that the sensor meets generally accepted standards 

within the FS/FR market. 

 Since TIC Manufacturers generally do not have much investment or

involvement in the design and development of the sensors (for many of

the reasons explained previously) they tend not to test beyond what

they control.

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 12

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

2. What performance testing is done

and how can it improve?

 Also, since sensors used in FS/FR TICs have somewhat similar 

operational and performance characteristics, there are few additional

sensor performance characteristics for the TIC Manufacturers to test.

 Similarly operating sensors allow TIC Manufacturers to mix brands of 

sensors in their product line – sometimes using a mix of sensors in the

same TIC housing, providing greater selection for the end-user.

 In addition to the sensor testing done by the TIC Manufacturer, further 

applications testing is conducted by the FS/FR TIC end-user during

performance evaluations (live burns, drops, dunks, etc.). This is to

ensure that the sensor will survive the rigors of FS/FR applications and 

deliver the image quality and sensitivity over the range of temperatures 

that the end-user expects. 

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 13

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

2. What performance testing is done

and how can it improve?

Total Package Performance Testing

 The FS/FR market is very Total Package performance testing

oriented. There is not a tool or piece of equipment used by FS/FRs

that is not extensively tested for safety, durability, reliability and ease 

of use. This is "fit for use" testing that is taken to the extreme.

 Since 1896, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) has 

established safety codes and standards for FS/FRs worldwide. Even

though there currently are no NFPA published standards for FS/FR

TICs, existing NFPA standards for other FS/FR tools and equipment 

are setting the benchmark for TICs (examples: drop/impact,

vibration, water/dust ingress, direct flame/heat exposure). As the

NFPA moves toward establishing TIC standards, TIC Manufacturers 

anticipate those standards, and are developing TICs to meet them. 

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 14

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

How can Performance Testing improve?

 Sensor performance testing, above and beyond specification

conformance and “fit for use” testing, generally does not exist. Three 

is no doubt that there will be NFPA sensor performance standards set 

for TICs in the future. These could include:

viewing range

field of view

sensitivity

scene dynamic range

sensor operating temperature.

 These metrics currently exist and once a NFPA standard is

established, will be easily conformed to.

2. What performance testing is done

and how can it improve?

















36 
December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 15

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

 Total package performance testing will be improved once NFPA

standards are established for TICs. Third party testing is currently in

place for NFPA certification of existing tools and equipment for which

NFPA standards have been established.

 Additional standards/performance testing will have to take into

account the balance between the additional needs and wants of the 

FS/FR end-user – and the limits of sensor applications and cost. 

 TIC Manufacturers will always attempt the meet the needs of the

FS/FR market. Unlike other FS/FR tools and equipment though, TICs

are not under the complete control of the TIC Manufacturer. Sensor

performance testing on sensor attributes not controlled by the TIC 

Manufacturer will be an issue.

2. What performance testing is done

and how can it improve?

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 16

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

TIC Manufacturers Perspective Background

Purpose of the NIST Workshop:

 improve Fire Service/First Responder (FS/FR) safety and effectiveness

 through sensible development of performance metrics and reporting 

practices with regard to improvement of thermal imaging technology

Goal of the NIST Workshop:

 identify barriers that impede advances in the application of TIC technology

 with follow-on efforts from government agencies, the response 

community, industry, and academia to:

to identify and define research needs of the user community

develop performance standards that consider interoperability and integration

demonstrate performance metrics

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 17

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

3. What technological advances are 

on the horizon?

 Once FS/FR TICs become NFPA standards driven, the ongoing 

revisions of the standards will have an impact on how the FS/FR TIC

advances technologically in the years to come. 

 Outside of technological advances driven by the NFPA standard,

Sensor Manufacturers who choose to stay in the FS/FR market will

take more of the FS/FR requirements into account when designing

and developing new sensors.

 In addition, sensor costs will continue to decline, making TICs more

available and accessible to the larger FS/FR market.

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 18

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

 Outside of the Sensor and Total Package performance standards 

mentioned previously, there is the area of Operational performance

standards that is most important in a newly developing market.

 Operational performance standards will establish a common language

and understanding in the FS/FR TIC market that generally does not 

exist at this time. With FS/FR TIC market penetration at only 25%,

the opportunity exists to establish operational performance standards 

that can create a universal understanding of how FS/FR TICs operate,

especially with regards to safety.

 (A similar operational performance standard would be the FS/FR

SCBA low air warning that alarms at 25% breathing air remaining.

When the alarm sounds, every firefighter understands what it means

– and what to do).

4. What performance standards are

most important?

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 19

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

 An example of the confusion that exists due to a lack of operational

performance standards for FS/FR TICs is the different settings and 

ranges established by the Manufacturers that could confuse FS/FR endusers when they switch from one TIC to another. 

Table 4: Random Sampling of TIC Operational Settings and Ranges from 

TIC Manufacturers’ Published Information and Specifications

Red Pixels At: Low Battery Indicator Dynamic Range Heat Test

500°F Red LED – 15 min Nominal 315°C 300°F – 15 min

1000°F Flashing Red LED – 1 min 932°F Nominal 500°F – 5 min

887°F 'Low Bat' icon – 20% left 1100°F 80°C – 30 min

900°F Battery Gauge icon 1,024 Temp Levels 500°F – 8 min

4. What performance standards are

most important?

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 20

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

 In addition, there are several different terms used by TIC

Manufacturers, that generally mean the same thing.

Table 5: Random Sampling of TIC Operational Terms from the TIC 

Manufacturers’ Published Information and Specifications

Sensitivity Color Pixels Temp Sensing

Nominal Sensitivity Color Enhancement Relative Heat Indicator

Variable Sensitivity Heat Seeker On-Screen Temp Readout

Temperature Sensitivity Red Hot Direct Temp Measurement

NETD Red-Colorization Relative Temperature Bar

4. What performance standards are

most important?







37 
December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 21

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

 Also, TIC Manufacturers often have several different TICs in their 

product line, often with different settings and ranges due to the use of

different sensors.

 This can create confusion when a Fire Department adds additional new 

TICs to its existing inventory of older TICs from the same TIC 

Manufacturer. 

 Examples of the confusion between the two different models of TIC

could be different warning signs (low battery, high heat) – and different

setting for temperature measurement and red pixel activation. 

 Even with training, usage is open to confusion when multiple models of 

TICs used, especially when TIC usage is sporadic.

4. What performance standards are

most important?

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 22

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

TIC Manufacturers Perspective Background

Purpose of the NIST Workshop:

 improve Fire Service/First Responder (FS/FR) safety and effectiveness

 through sensible development of performance metrics and reporting 

practices with regard to improvement of thermal imaging technology

Goal of the NIST Workshop:

 identify barriers that impede advances in the application of TIC technology

 with follow-on efforts from government agencies, the response 

community, industry, and academia to:

to identify and define research needs of the user community

develop performance standards that consider interoperability and integration

demonstrate performance metrics

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 23

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

5. What are the most critical issues in

establishing performance standards?

 Currently, the TIC and Sensor Manufacturers are meeting the 

growing needs of the FS/FR market. The evidence is seen in the 

market growth in the past several years. 

 The FS/FR market has placed demands on the TIC Manufacturers –

and to date all have been met. Examples are the elimination of

“white out” in 1997, adding temperature measurement beginning in

1998, reducing size and weight beginning in 2001, the ongoing 

improvement of image quality and reduction in cost while adding

value.

 The FS/FR market and the NFPA, working together with the TIC and

Sensor Manufacturers can continue to meet real needs in practical

ways through mutual understanding and cooperation.

December 9, 2004 TIC Manufacturers Perspective 24

NIST Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs

5. What are the most critical issues in

establishing performance standards?

 NFPA will help in establishing Operational and Total Package and

Sensor performance standards. The most critical issues in

establishing Sensor performance standards is whether FS/FR TIC 

needs and budgets match up with the capabilities of the IR sensors.

 If a performance standard is established that requires a sensor for

specific types of fires – or specific FS/FR applications, the standard

could segment the market, requiring both TIC and Sensor

Manufacturers to develop a new FS/FR TIC that might not be viable 

(due to low volume and high cost). Then, no one benefits.

 Also, if a performance standard is established that requires a FS/FR 

applications specific sensor, once it is developed the industry could be

reluctant to advance TIC technology beyond that sensor, realizing the 

initial investment/long payback period due to market segment size.







38 
APPENDIX 3.FPerspectives from a Detector Manufacturer 

Tim McCaffrey, Raytheon Commercial Infrared 

Imaging Core makers have promoted Pyroelectric sensors and MicroBolometers for use in the 

Fire Service/ First Responder applications. Basic utility is now satisfied. For tomorrow, makers 

are focusing on smaller, more efficient engines creating sharper more informative images. 

Fruitful areas for study remain mainly in characterizing features of an image which cue the user 

or which enable greater utility and application. Future users must consciously stay in step with 

commercial motives to assure the widest availability of thermal imaging. 

NIST Workshop on

Thermal Imaging 

Research Needs for 

First Responders

Perspectives from a Detector

Manufacturer

Tim McCaffrey

972-344-5363

Perspectives from a Detector Manufacturer

• Review the differences between the various detector

technologies used in thermal imagers/ IR cameras developed 

for first responders

• How the resulting images differ among detectors

• Technological advances in detectors; envision the future

• Performance standards that are important for the development

of this technology

Detector Technologies

• 240 × 320 pixels

• 48.5 × 48.5 μm pitch

• 100% optical fill factor

• Polyimide thermal isolation mesas

• Bump bonded to ROIC

• NETD = 0.07-0.08 °C typical,

<0.04 °C best

• 240 × 320 pixels

• 48.5 × 48.5 μm pitch

• 100% optical fill factor

• Polyimide thermal isolation mesas

• Bump bonded to ROIC

• NETD = 0.07-0.08 °C typical,

<0.04 °C best

Ferroelectric Properties

Electric Polarization, P

Dielectric Constant, ε

Temperature

Resonant IR Absorber

Thermal Isolation Mesa

Readout IC

Metal Contacts

BST Pixel

614002wL

Hybrid Pyroelectric Detector

•Low thermal mass membrane 

•high thermal isolation

•short thermal time constant: less than a frame

•Resonant Cavity Design for High IR Absorptance

•Pixel resistance (1 V DC detector bias)

•Silicon fab compatible process

Si SUBSTRATE/ROIC

Al REFLECTOR

GAP

aA- -SSi i MEMBRANE (~1200A) MEMBRANE

Detector Technologies

Monolithic a-Si Microbolometer

Structure

39 
Comparing Existing Technologies

Bolometers ...

3⁄4 have demonstrated excellent

potential for low NETD

3⁄4 have essentially ideal MTF

3⁄4 are monolithic and producible

3⁄4 are limited by spatial noise

3⁄4 But require occasional 

“touchup”

3⁄4 But require factory calibration

3⁄4 But require precision A/D 

converters, multiple-field 

memory, substantial

processing capability

Pyroelectrics ...

3⁄4 have minimal spatial noise

3⁄4 robust in highly variable 

scene and ambient

environments

3⁄4 require lower-bit A/D

converter

3⁄4 have low MTF

3⁄4 But requires temperature 

stabilization

3⁄4 But pixel size is not readily

reducible

3⁄4 But improvement potential is

relatively low

Image differences

• Other than on

the fire ground

Image attributes

• Glare obscures figures

• Detail lost in the shadows

• Is the un-burning wall a risk?

• Note the thermocline above the 

rescuer’s Head

• See body and room detail in the 

presence of flame

Advances in Detectors

OEM set priorities for core makers

Reduce camera, FPA and optics size, weight and cost

320x240 advancing to 1024x768

NETD’s approaching 20mK

Reduced smear; smoother images, crisp images

Scene temperature ranges over 1000F

Ambient conditions from –40C to +85C

Power at the core under 1⁄2 Watt

Performance Standards

• Dynamic Range management

• Wavelength of operation

• MRT vs. NETD et al

• Response of the eye to

– Spatial noise

– Temporal noise

– Clarity, crispness

– Contrast

• Performance at ambient extremes

– Endurance at temperature

– Startup

– Stability of the Optics

– Scenes colder or hotter than the camera

• Impact on domestic vs. International

mkt.

40 
APPENDIX 3.GNRL Thermal Imaging Review

John P. Farley, Navy Safety and Survivability, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington DC 

The Naval Research Laboratory’s Navy Technology Center for Safety and Survivability 

reviewed the Navy’s efforts related to developing the use of thermal imaging technologies for 

naval combatants. The presentation provided information on the Navy’s full-scale RDT&E test 

ship, ex-USS SHADWELL, which is a major facility at the Naval Research Laboratory for the 

protection of life and property, under the auspices of the Navy Technology Center for Safety and 

Survivability. The presentation included insight into the on-going program efforts for 

developing both fixed and portable thermal imaging technologies, which included work related 

to the DD(X) Autonomic Fire Suppression System (AFSS), Flight Deck Engineering 

Development Model (EDM) Flight Deck testing, the CVN 21 Hangar Bay testing, and the 

development of Machine Vision technologies (Near IR capabilities). The presentation also 

included a Navy perspective for future hand held/hands-free portable thermal imaging 

requirements. 

Biography: 

Mr. John Farley is a Fire Test Engineer for the Naval Research Laboratory and is the Project 

Officer for the ex-USS SHADWELL responsible for testing and development of shipboard fire 

protection technology, procedures, and policy for the US Navy. 

Security Classification of the Brief: UNCLASSIFIED 

Workshop on Thermal Imaging

National Institute of Standards and Technology

9-10 December 2004

John P. Farley

NRL, Code 6180

202.404.8459

farley@ccs.nrl.navy.mil NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 2

Outline

• NRL NTCSS Background

• Damage Control Recoverability Overview

• Thermal Imaging Fixed Systems

• Thermal Imaging Portable Systems

• Integrated DC Situational Awareness for 

Improved DC Communications

41 
NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 3

Navy Technology Center for

Safety & Survivability

• Dedicated to studies on active & passive fire

protection, flooding, and chemical defense

• Realistic, time-critical scientific 

measurement, modeling, and performance

analysis

– Sensors, materials, equipment, personnel, doctrine, 

tactics, and command & control

• Application of basic and theoretical research 

and development

– Fire models, predictive tools, agents, sensors, systems,

and technology

• Evaluation of hardware/software concepts

and experiments with users

– Systems Commands, OPNAV staffs, Navy Warfare

Centers, Navy Laboratories, Fleet Commands,

Training communities

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 4

‘97 ‘98 ‘99 ‘00 ‘03

LPD-17 Water mist and SES Installation

? ? ?

LPD-17 Water mist & 

Smoke Ejection System

(SES) Design Validation

Damage Control 

Recoverability Overview 

‘01 ‘02

Development of DC-ARM Technologies

(Supervisory Control, Early Warning

Fire Detection System, Distributed water 

mist, Smart Valves

‘04 ‘05 ‘06

Development of FFP FNC

Advanced Damage Control

(ADC) Technologies including 

Hybrid Water Mist and Machine

Vision

ONR Thrust

• Water Mist optimization

• Blast Mitigation

• Aerosol Dynamics

• Network Fire and Smoke

Simulator

‘07

Transitioning Damage Control -

Automation for Reduced

Manning (DC-ARM) technologies

into DD(X) AFSS EDM with the

addition of PDA cooling

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 5

Thermal Imaging 

Fixed System Initiatives

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 6

Multi-Sensory Video Image Detection System for

Situational Awareness

PI: Dr. Susan Rose-Pehrsson, Naval Research Laboratory, Code

6112, Washington, DC 20375-5342, 202-767-3138,

rosepehrsson@nrl.navy.mil

Sponsor: Office of Naval Research

Intelligent Machine

Vision Algorithms

Operational Capability: Under the ONR program, NRL is developing a

damage control detection system using multisensory, multivariate methods

and machine vision for motion and shape recognition, to detect flaming and 

smoldering fires, pipe and hull ruptures, and flooding. The modular

architectural design allows this system to be expanded to new and different

missions of interest to the Department of Defense and homeland security. 

Data fusion methods can be modified to provide surveillance and detection 

of these events. This technology is very attractive for mass transit systems

because it combines surveillance with fire detection. 

Performance Targets: The system will detect objects, unusual human

behaviors, and unusual events, including fire detection. The system will 

monitor events, provide pre-alarm and alarm conditions for unusual events,

store, archive and index alarms for easy recall.

Cost of Ownership: Cost is reduced by the reduced manning

requirements, use of existing surveillance cameras and dual use of

hardware for many functions.

Sensor

Fusion 

Processing

& 

Monitoring

Approach:

Use an innovative architectural design for a prototype

real-time remote detection system based on existing 

and emerging technology. System will be modular and 

expandable using visible and near-infrared images,

spectral and acoustic sensors with analysis by machine

vision and pattern recognition. Data fusion and

analysis methods will be configured for sensitive and

selective early event recognition. Uses current 

advances in commercial video image fire detection. 

Sensor

Suite

NIR

Camera(s)

Microphone Acquisition

& Analysis

Spectral

LWVD

Acoustics

Video Image

Analyses

Fusion Machine

Prototype

Field monitoring

Sensor Analysis

And 

Data Packaging

Visible

Spectrum

Camera(s)

Client

XML

Library

Data

Converter

Sensor Systems

Computers

TCP/IP

Network

Server

XML

Library

Fusion

Command

And

Control

Human

Interface

(GUI)

Pattern

Recognition 

Algorithms

Fusion System

Computers

Supervisory

Control

System

Sensor

Suite

NIR

Camera(s)

Microphone Acquisition

& Analysis

Spectral

LWVD

Acoustics

Video Image

Analyses

Fusion Machine

Prototype

Field monitoring

Sensor Analysis

And 

Data Packaging

Visible

Spectrum

Camera(s)

Client

XML

Library

Data

Converter

Client

XML

Library

Data

Converter

Sensor Systems

Computers

TCP/IP

Network

Server

XML

Library

Fusion

Command

And

Control

Human

Interface

(GUI)

Pattern

Recognition 

Algorithms

Fusion System

Computers

Supervisory

Control

System

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 7

Spectral-Based Volume Sensor (SBVS)

Strategy:

–Optical detection of fire, smoke, and other hazards

• Detection methods outside visible spectral region

• Potential security applications

– Integrate with and augment video/machine vision

–Match spectral window for detection to fire emission

–Limited to economical and reliable methods/devices

Machine Vision

Data Fusion

Supervisory

Control

(VSCS) 

Approach:

Long wavelength video detection (LWVD):

– Nightvision: 

• Use extended red/NIR sensitivity of standard CCDs

• Long wavelength filter suppresses visible image for higher contrast

– Augment visible cameras: 

• Detects reflected flame & hot objects

• Modest thermal imaging

Discreet spectral sensors – SBVS Testbed

– COTS (IR/UV) detectors and novel in-house sensors

– In-house analysis of emission bands: 

• Standard (UV, IR) 

• Novel (vis/NIR photodiodes, 589 nm, 766 nm, NIR)

SBVS Testbed

Long wavelength

video detection

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 8

LWVD Recent Progress

Long wavelength video detection (LWVD):

– Nightvision detection utilizing extended

red/NIR sensitivity of standard CCDs

– Detects reflected flame emission and hot

objects/bulkheads: 

• Filtered nightvision cameras and NRL 

luminosity algorithm

• Minimum temperature for hot object

detection ~ 400oC

– Develop LWVD system for integration with

data fusion / prototype

• Stand alone implementation with

multilevel output

• Fusion system compatible output

Minimum detectable temperature ~ 400 C

Time / seconds

0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500

0

80

Thermocouple Temperature / o

C

0

100

200

300

400

500

S 600 ource Luminosity

Thermocouple

Blackbody Calc.

Technologies needed to close

Survivability Recoverability Gap

• Integrated DC communications

• Passive fire protection

• Enhanced magazine fire protection

system

• Universal water mist system

Spectral-based 

Detection

Base-Line Corr. Norm. Luminosity 20

40

60

42 
NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 9

Regular Video Nightvision Video

VS1-24 Non-FOV Fire Source

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 10

• AFFF tele-robotic firefighting

nozzles (TFNs)

• AFFF deck nozzles

• AFFF hose reel stations 

• Multipurpose Aviation Decking 

Material (MADMAT) 

• Enhanced visual sensors (IR

and visual cameras)

DD(X) Flight Deck EDM Tests

Landing area fire suppression

design concepts:

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 11

EDM Configuration – IR Cameras

• 2 Camera sets in EDM.

• IR and Visual Cameras

• Tilt / Pan / Zoom

• Multiple (4) windows on

console screen in HCS.

• Cameras provide ability to

control TFN operation both

locally and remotely

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 12

Thermal Imaging 

Portable Systems

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 13

Portable NFTI Background

• Need identified during British

Falklands War

• Initial technology based on

valve tube (Vidicon, Pedican,

Hevicon)

• Significant size/weight and 

maintenance issues 

• Newer technologies have

moved to solid state (micro 

bolometer sensor)

NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 14

Future Portable NFTI Requirements

• Hands-free vs hand-held 

capability

• Wireless interface 

• Ability to work in high humidity

environments

• Tolerance to high heat

environments

• Ability to distribute IR images

43 
NIST_NIFTI_DEC_04 15

Integrated DC Situational Awareness 

for Improved DC Communications

•Based on actual shipboard casualties and 15 years of real scale tests with Fleet participants,

communications continues to be the number one Damage Control issue which impedes DC 

performance

•Current DC Communications are inadequate and not integrated with DC systems and sensors

• Determine the efficacy of wearable computer/PDA

for real-time DC communications

• Investigate the opportunities of integrating DC

sensors and or machine vision technologies for

enhanced DC communications network

• Build on NAVSEA/BIW RF network initiatives to

provide a damage tolerant and compatible DC

communications system

• Scope - transform existing stovepipe (stand alone)

technologies into a fully integrated communications 

system

• Fleet Number One Priority for Damage 

Control

44 
APPENDIX 3.HStandards Development Procedures 

Terry Clausing, ASTM Committee E-7 on Non-Destructive Testing 

What are “standards” and why are they important to us? The best answer to this question is 

illustrated in areas where we each, as individuals, have personal experience and interaction with 

standards in our lives. As individuals in a modern society communication with each other is 

critical. Imagine for a moment that each company that manufactures telephones used a different 

wiring scheme and different connectors on the telephones. We take for granted being able to plug 

that little connector from the phone into the wall outlet (both use a connector referred to as RJ11) and use any telephone manufactured by a host of manufacturing companies. The wiring 

scheme and connector are governed by “standards” adopted by the industry. Those of you who 

are world travelers and computer users have a more intimate knowledge of how this simple 

standard that we all use in the USA impacts basic communications when traveling to other 

countries with “different standards”. 

Standards as they apply to this NIST Workshop affect a smaller percentage of the population but 

may be equally important in our everyday lives. The issue at hand has to do with understanding 

the needs of First Responders and Thermal Imaging Equipment. Those people charged with 

protecting our lives and property do so by risking their own. The purpose of creating a standard 

for thermal imaging for first responders applies the very principles of the primary purpose of all 

standards – “They should be universal achievements in science and shared hopes for health, 

safety and the environment.” (James A. Thomas, ASTM President). Our purpose in this 

gathering is to understand better the needs of First Responders to form a basis of quantifying 

how thermal imaging equipment fulfills the role of protecting people and property. 

Three organizations are recognized in the establishment of pertinent standards. ASTM 

establishes consensus standards for materials and testing procedures. NFPA establishes 

consensus standards for fire prevention and safety. And ASNT establishes supportive standards 

for establishing the education and training of personnel involved in infrared and thermal test 

methods. 

This presentation discusses 

• how standards are developed 

• who participates in establishing standards 

• who votes on the standards 

• who is required to use the standards 

Biography: 

Mr. Clausing is chairman of ASTM E07.10.04 infrared non-destructive testing standards 

subcommittee and chairman of ASNT Infrared / Thermal Methods Committee. 

45 
STANDARDS L. Terry Clausing, PE

NIST Workshop on

Thermal Imaging Research Needs 

for First Responders

Standards

• What are 

Standards?

• Why do they

matter to us?

ASTM Standards: 

Two Basic Values

• ASTM Standards for Testing and Materials:

– Quality:

• A high quality standard meets the expectations of its

users

– Relevance:

• A standard that is relevant has meaning in the 

marketplace

Standards:

Quality and Relevance

• They should be the language and facilitators

of trade, never the pawns of political

ambitions.

• They should be universal achievements in

science and shared hopes for health, safety

and the environment. – James A. Thomas, ASTM President

Standards:

How do they get developed?

• Development of PC’s

– The original IBM-PC

– The DEC Rainbow

– The TI-PRO

– The Apple LISA

– All PC’s, 

• Each different

• The Compaq:

– First IBM-Compatible

– A “STANDARD” is born!

Standards:

Who can create them?

• Three guys from Texas Instruments who started 

Compaq Computer Corp.

• Who can create a standard?

– Just about anyone

• The more significant issue:

– What purpose does the standard serve?

– And what value is it to others?

46 
ASTM Infrared Standards

• Why did ASTM 

choose to create 

standards on NETD, 

MRT and MDTD

– Scientific comparison

• Why not “contrast”?

– What purpose?

– What value to others?

Standards

Purpose and Value

• ASTM –

– Standards for materials 

and testing procedures

• NFPA

– Standards for fire 

prevention and safety

• ASNT

– Standards for training

and certification of

personnel

Standards Organizations

• National Consensus Standards

– Developed by the same persons it affects

– Adopted by a nationally recognized organization

• Example – The National Electric Code

– Written by the NFPA

• Who uses consensus standards?

– OSHA and local governments

– Is the NEC “law”?

ASTM: 

How Standards Get Developed

• Identification of a need

• Form a new “Task Group” within the appropriate ASTM

technical committee

– Identify individuals with expertise and interest

– Task Group members do NOT need to be members of

ASTM to participate (but is encouraged)

• Develop a draft document, define objectives and register it 

as a new “Work item” at the annual meeting (Jan 05)

• Seek participation from the users of the standard

• Review ASTM Standards “Form and Style” document

ASTM Standards

• How long does it take?

• Who participates?

• Who votes?

• How are negative

votes handled?

• Who uses the 

standard?

ASTM Standards

Technological advancements

• Technology and needs change over time

– Standards are reviewed every 5 years

• ASTM Membership

– $75 per year

– Includes one VOLUME of ASTM Standards

– Non-destructive Testing is Vol 3.03 

47 
APPENDIX 3.IOverview of NIST Efforts to Support Fire Fighter Technologies 

Nelson Bryner, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, NIST 

The goal of the Advanced Fire Service Technologies (AFST) Program is to enable a shift to an 

information rich environment for safer and more effective fire service operations through new 

technology, measurement standards, and training tools. The research currently sponsored by 

AFST focuses on fire fighter protective clothing, tactical decision aids, virtual fire fighter 

training, and thermal imaging camera performance evaluation methods. The fire fighter 

protective clothing research includes development of new clothing materials and heat transfer 

modeling software that captures heat and moisture transport and predicts burn injuries through 

fire fighter protective clothing. Tactical decision aids, such as methods by which structural 

collapse may be predicted, and building information systems that provide data to fire fighters en 

route to a fire scene, are also under development. Virtual fire fighter training and visualization 

software that will allow a fire fighter to “walk through” a burning structure is being investigated. 

Methods of measuring the performance of thermal imaging cameras used by fire fighters, based 

on the environment in which they are used, are being studied with the intend of providing the 

underlying science to future performance standards. 

Overview of NIST Efforts to

Support Fire Fighter Technologies

nelson.bryner@nist.gov

301-975-6868 http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/

Advanced Fire Service Technologies - 2004

Objective - Reduce fire fighter line-of-service deaths

and burn injuries by:

1) Providing new technology, measurement standards,

and training tools; and 

2) Enabling a shift to an information rich environment

for greater situational awareness.

Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs 

for 

First Responders

December 9 - 10, 2004

48 
Heat Transfer Model for Fire Fighter Protective Clothing

•Complete PPE material properties database

for “used gear”

•Complete Heat Transfer Model GUI

• Comprehensive model of Heat and Moisture Transport

• Protective Clothing Performance Simulator

• Skin Model and Predicting Burn Injury

• Effect of Moisture, Compression on Burn

Injury

New Materials for Protective Clothing

Material Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)

Carbon nanotube 37,000 – 2,500 

(calc)

Graphite 100-200

Polymers 0.01 – 0.1

Carbon

Nanotubes

New Materials for Protective Clothing

Surface Temperature as a function of time

300

350

400

450

500

550

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Time (s)

Temperature (K)

Isotropic

Anisotropic * 10

Anisotropic * 100

New Materials for Protective Clothing

- Heat flux = 4 kW/m2

- Thickness = 0.045 +/- 0.005 mm 40

60

80

30

40

50

SWNT film PAN / 10% SWNT film

10 min

Full Ensemble Test Apparatus/Heat Transfer Model Validation

•To identify “thermally susceptible” areas of components in the 

protective ensemble.

•To assess the NIST PPE Heat Transfer model

Structural Collapse Prediction

•Provide adequate warning to fire fighters of impending collapse

•Portable, quick, and easy to install

unsuccessful

unsuccessful

Duron - Harvey Mudd College

•Adapt acoustic sensors for detecting leaks

In hydroelectric dams

Field tested prototype 

•Single family home

•Industrial warehouse

•Strip shopping mall Ignition Collapse

•Evaluated thermal imagers/cameras -

•Examined laser mappers -

49 
Structural Collapse Prediction

• A real-time acquisition and analysis capability

• The HOBS Panel provides real-time capabilities for

– Multiple sensor data acquisition and storage

– Signal processing

– Collapse Index Analyses and Parameter adjustments

– Fire-induced vibration and collapse index monitoring

• HOBS Indicators include

– Root Mean Squared (RMS)

– Power Spectral Density (PSD)

– Frequency Bandwidth (FreqBand)

– Shock Response Spectrum (SRS)

– Random Decrement (RD)

– Damping

– Intensity

Health of Burning Structures (HOBS)

Tactical Decision Aids

Provide fire fighters with tactical information before arrival

•Information Rich Environment

Building sensors – data available at fire panel

Wireless transfer of floorplans and alarms on apparatus display

•Standards

What is being measured

How reported to fire panel – fire fighter

NFAC Task Group: 2002 NFPA 72 Annex Graphics Annunciator Panel

Standard with Icons adopted

•Training tools

How to deploy search and suppression teams

Tactical Decision Aids

Layer 1

Layer 3

Tactical Decision Aids

ALARM SUPERVISORY 

SECURITY TROUBLE

POW

ER

ON

AUDIBLE

S

SILENC

ED

PARTIAL

SYDI SABLED

ALARM SUPERVISORY 

SECURITY TROUBLE

POW

ER

ON

AUDIBLE

S

SILENC

ED

PARTIAL

SYDI SABLED

Commercial Implementation (Siemens Fire Finder)

Available Systems Active Systems

Virtual Fire Fighter Trainers

Fire Dynamic Simulator Computer Model –

Includes

Chemistry & Physics

Material Properties

Predict

Temperature

Gas concentration

Thermal fluxes

Insert Fire Fighter

Hose Stream

Ventilation

IR Camera

Evaluating the Performance of 

Thermal Imagers and Infrared Cameras

•Fire service use thermal imagers and infrared cameras

•Currently there is r thermal

imagers or infrared cameras

•Evaluate performance of thermal imagers 

and infrared cameras

•Lab-scale experiments

•Full-scale field tests

•Develop standard test protocol for evaluating critical

performance characteristics

•Locate “hot spots”

•Track spread of fire

•Locate downed occupants and fallen fire fighters

no performance standard fo

50 
Fire Fighting Technology Group - 2004

Project Leaders -

Dan Madrzykowski- (daniel.madrzykowski@nist.gov)

Recreation of Fire Patterns

Sim. Fire Burn Patterns w/Computer Models

College Dormitory Fires

Analysis of Indicators in Firesetting

NFA Training Program 

Heat Transfer Model

Nelson Bryner (nelson.bryner@nist.gov)

Meas. and Simulation of Real Ignition

Structural Collapse Prediction

Urban Wildland Fire Spread

Fire Fighting Technology Group - 2004

Project Leaders -

Nelson Bryner – (nelson.bryner@nist.gov)

Thermal Imager Performance

In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills

Advanced PASS Devices

David Stroup – (david.stroup@nist.gov)

Structural Collapse Prediction

Fire Performance of Building Design

Method of Fire Resistance Determination

Fire Fighting Technology Group - 2004

Project Leaders -

Randy Lawson –(james.lawson@nist.gov)

Fire Service Technologies and Guidelines

Heat Transfer Model

Doug Walton – (william.walton@nist.gov)

Positive Pressure Ventilation

In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills

Hose Stream Effectiveness

Fire Reconstruction/Recreation

Bob Vettori – (robert.vettori@nist.gov)

Sprinkler Activation under Sloped Ceiling

Fire Fighting Technology Group - 2004

Contact Fire at NIST ?

Website - http://fire.nist.gov

http://www.bfrl.nist.gov

FireDOC - on web

Fire Research Information Service

Gaithersburg, MD

Paul Reneke 301-975-6696

Fire Data - pubs/web

Models - pubs/web

Videos - call or e-mail

Fire Fighter Safety Simulation

Equipment Standards for First Responders

Community Scale Fire Spread

Fire Safety and Preparedness

Thermal Imagers

Firefighter Protective Clothing

Fire Codes & Standards

51 
APPENDIX 3.JOverview of NIST Thermal Imager Project 

Francine Amon, Building and Fire Research Laboratory, NIST 

Thermal imaging cameras are rapidly becoming integral equipment for first responders for use in 

structure fires. Currently there are no standardized test methods or performance metrics 

available to the users or manufacturers of these instruments. The Building and Fire Research 

Laboratory (BFRL) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is developing a 

testing facility and methods to evaluate the performance of thermal imagers used by fire fighters 

to search for victims and hot spots in burning structures. The facility is used to test the 

performance of currently available imagers and advanced fire detection systems, as well as serve 

as a test bed for new technology. An evaluation of the performance of different thermal imaging 

detector technologies under field conditions has also been performed. Results of this project will 

provide a quantifiable physical and scientific basis upon which industry standards for imaging 

performance, testing protocols and reporting practices related to the performance of thermal 

imaging cameras can be developed. The background and approach that shape the evaluation 

procedure for the thermal imagers are the primary focus of this presentation. 

T

1

Overview of NIST

Thermal Imager 

Project Project

Francine Amon

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Funded in part by the United States Fire Administration T

2

Outline

Performance metrics

Categories, types

Combinations & modifications

First Responder Conditions

Testing Approach

Full-scale

Bench-scale

Results

Summary

•

–

–

•

•

–

–

•

•

T

3

Types of Pe pes of Performance Metrics

Display and Button Conformity

Temperature bar or indicator

“EI” symbol

Use of color

Design/Integrity Requirements

Immersion, impact, heat, vibration, etc...

Power life, alarms, intrinsic safety

RF/EMF interference

How do you know if it passes a test?

Optical performance

•

–

–

–

•

–

–

–

•

–

T

4

Conventional entional Opto-Electric 

Performance Metrics

Distortion (DIST) Bad pixel finder

Boresight Align.

NER, NEFD,

NEP, D*

Residual nonuniformityModulation

Transfer (MTF)

Above tests vs. 

background temp.

3d Noise (NEDT) Narcissus & MRTD Offset

Min. Det. Temp. 

Dif. (MDTD)

Visual spatial 

noise

Ensquared

Energy (EE)

& 

NPSD

Auto-MRTD (req. 

other tests)

Visual temporal 

noise

Slit Response 

NPSD (SRF)

Image Stats. 

Non-uniformity

Field of View: 

& IFOV

SiTF, RL, DR, 

PRNU

Observer 

Response

Overall Image

Quality

Geometric

Resolution

Gain Response 

& Noise

Ghosting

Contrast 

Transfer (CTF)

Spatial NEDT

Temporal NEDT & 

Min. Res. Temp. 

FOV Dif. (MRTD)

Soel et. al., Proceedings of SPIE, 2002

52 
T

5

FFTIC Perform C Performance Metrics nce Metrics

Is there a simple way to characterize 

imager optical performance for this

application?

Can we combine/modify some of the 

conventional metrics?

CTF & MRTD? NETD?

Independent of gain, offset, focus

Metrics shall not favor a particular 

technology

How would the metric(s) be meaningful to

the end users?

•

•

–

–

•

•

T

6

Contrast Transfer Functi ansfer Function

The CTF measures the system response to spatial 

frequencies, usually graphed as function of frequency

CTF =

Imax-Imin

Imax+Imin

T

7

Minimum Resolvable

Temperature Difference (MRTD) Temperature Difference (MRTD)

The MRTD measures the system response to radiation differences 

as a function of spatial frequency

Requires trained observer





 



 =

−

mrad

cycles

s

D F

3 10 MRTD = ∆T,

T

8

Combine and mbine and/or Modify

Establish a set of tests that simulate 

firefighting environmental conditions

Combine CTF & MRTD to measure spatial

and temperature resolution?

Consider use of other established metrics

Field of View (FOV), Dynamic temperature range,

NEDT, Ghosting

Report as a chart? Family of curves?

Average over range of temperatures or

∆Ts?

•

•

• –

•

T

9

First Responder Conditi Conditions

Presence of smoke, dust, water, steam

Elevated temperatures...in layers

Flames in field of view

Navigation tool in thick smoke

Focus: 1 m to infinity

Automatic controls/minimal user input

•

•

•

•

•

•

T

10

Testing Appr Testing Approach

• Full-scale tests with various targets

– Temperatures

– Soot concentrations

– Dust and water effects

• Laboratory tests

– Well-characterized cell contents

– Variable gas/target/background 

temperatures

53 
T

11

Full Scale Tests e Tests

•

•

•

Cameras in upper and lower layer

Targets: exit signs, mannequins, cold tubes

Soot, dust, steam, varying fuels T

12

Target Design Target Design 

Cool/Cool

Hot/Cool Cool/Hot

Hot/Hot

Hot upper

layer

Steam 

and dust

Open 

flames

T

13

IR source &

interferometer

FTIR

(detector)

Target:

Differential

temperature

pattern

Spherical mirror

N2 purge stream

Blackbody

(target background)

Thermal Imager

Media OUT

Media IN

Media IN Fold mirror

Bench-Scale Testing Facili Scale Testing Facility (l)

Optical Cell

Propylene Air

Rotameters

N2

Virtual

impactor

Soot Delivery System

To optical

cell

Length = 30.5 cm

(vol ~ 3.9 L)

Burner

T

14

Bench-Scale Testing Facilit Scale Testing Facility (ll)

Imager

Cell

Optics

Target

Soot &

Hot Gas

Source

Ask Francine for a lab tour at break or adjournment (burner)

Soot

Measurement 

system

T

16

Summary

Focus on optical performance...design/integrity

standards also considered

Combine or modify conventional testing:

eliminate trained observer and include fire

environment

Bench-scale facility design derived from fullscale testing

CTF results show vast differences in camera

performance

Product-neutral evaluation

•

•

•

•

•

T

17

Acknowledgments

Funds for this project have been provided by the 

United States Fire Administration and NIST. 

The assistance of the capable crew at the LFF is

very much appreciated as well.

54 
APPENDIX 3.KTesting Spectral Responsivity of IR Cameras 

Joseph Rice, Optical Technology Division, NIST 

We discuss current measurement capabilities and new testing techniques being developed in the 

Optical Technology Division of NIST that may be applicable to testing device models used by 

designers of thermal imaging cameras such as those in use by first responders. Existing 

capabilities include calibration of customer blackbody sources, calibration of customer IR 

cameras using NIST standard blackbody sources, and spectral measurement of reflectance, 

transmittance, and emittance of customer supplied samples of IR materials. We describe a new 

capability, the measurement of spectral responsivity, which has recently been developed from

near-IR out to 5 micrometers and applied to single pixel radiometers. We are extending this 

technique and generalizing it to enable testing of infrared cameras. We present preliminary 

results for uniform scenes where tunable infrared lasers illuminate an integrating sphere, 

diffusing the light to fill the imaging system optics. Results from these tests show that signal-tonoise ratio, uniformity, stability, and other characteristics are favorable for use of this technique 

in the characterization of infrared imaging systems. We also describe a proposed generalization 

of this technique, to include scenes with arbitrary, controlled spatial content such as bar patterns 

or even real scenes, by illuminating a commercially available digital micro-mirror device. 

Testing Spectral Responsivity of IR Cameras

Joseph Rice

Collaborators: Jun Zhang, George Eppeldauer

Keith Lykke, Leonard Hanssen, Ben Tsai, and Howard Yoon

Optical Technology Division

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

Workshop on Thermal Imaging Research Needs for First Responders

December 9, 2004

Contact: joe.rice@nist.gov

•Discuss the technology of IR imaging.

•Discuss technological advances in testing infrared imaging systems.

•Discuss the current and future testing and calibration capabilities of

the NIST Optical Technology Division as related to IR imaging.

Outline

55 
Technology Example: Microbolometer Pixel

•IR radiation is absorbed in microbridge, heating it.

•Supporting legs provide electrical contact and thermal isolation.

•Vanadium Oxide microbridge electrical resistance changes when heated.

•Monolithic pixel readout circuitry converts resistance change into electrical signal.

•Has been developed into 320 x 240 arrays for uncooled thermal imaging applications.

From: R. A. Wood, “Monolithic silicon microbolometer arrays,” Chapter 3 of Uncooled Infrared Imaging Arrays

and Systems, Semiconductors and Semimetals 47, P. W. Kruse and D. D. Skatrud, eds. Academic Press, San Diego (1997).

0.1

1

10

100

1000

10000

Radiance

(Wm-2sr-1micron-1)

1000 K (1340 deg F)

300 K (80 deg F)

0.80

0.85

0.90

0.95

1.00

Transmittance Factor

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20

Responsivity (Proxy)

Wavelength (μm)

Signal = Radiance * Transmittance * Responsivity + Background

Radiance

•Depends on scene

(what we want to see).

•Shown is blackbody.

Transmittance

•Depends on environment.

•Can be very complex.

•Objects in path absorb IR and

re-emit at other temperatures.

•Shown is effect of 1 meter of

air at 48% relative humidity.

Relative Spectral Responsivity

•Depends on camera design.

•Not flat-topped.

•Usually there is out-of-band.

•Data not often available.

Basic Principles behind the SIRCUS Technique

Producing a source that is

• Spatially uniform (Lambertian)

• Monochromatic

• Tunable continuously over a broad range

• high radiance,

• of (known) radiance

A variety of tunable lasers

cw dye laser

pump laser beam

fiber-coupled into an integrating sphere

Ideally suited for measurements of

• In-band relative spectral responsivity. 

• Out-of-band-spectral responsivity.

• Spatial characterization.

• Absolute radiometric calibration.

Goal: Measurements at the 0.1 % level

SIRCUS = Spectral Irradiance and Radiance Responsivity Calibrations using Uniform Sources

0.1

1

10

100

1000

10000

CO2 normal power

CO2 isotope power

CO laser power (mW)

Quantum Cascade Laser

PPLN OPO (signal)

PPLN OPO (idler)

Tandem OPO (with CdSe)

1064nm (fundamental Nd:YAG)

LBO OPO

Wavelength (micrometers)

Wavelengths and Powers for SIRCUS IR

1 1 2 5 0

PPLN OPO 

(idler) LBO

OPO

CO2

CO

Quantum Cascade Lasers

Tandem OPO (with CdSe)

PPLN OPO 

(signal)

1064nm (fundamental Nd:YAG)

PPLN OPO Difference (with AgGaS2)

Under

Development

Existing

Integrating

Sphere

Unit

Under Test

Reference

Radiometer

Monitor Detector

(output to

stabilizer)

IR SIRCUS: Infrared Spectral Irradiance and Radiance Responsivity

Calibrations with Uniform Sources

Tunable Laser

Wavemeter

Exit

Port

Lens

Computer

Intensity

Stabilizer

Chopper

Speckleremover

Reference Radiometers

Electrically Substituted Bolometer (ESB)

InGaAs (working standard)

Extended InGaAs (working standard)

Germanium, InSb, MCT (working standard)

Wavelengths (microns)

1.064 YAG (10 W)

1.4 - 4.9 OPO (continuous, 0.5 to 1 W)

9 – 11 CO2 (discrete 10 lines, W)

9-11 Isotopic CO2 (discrete 10 lines, W)

4.8 - >6 CO (discrete, lots of lines, W)

5-12 OPO difference (continuous, mW)

4-12 OPO pumped OPO (continuous 10-100 mW)

8-12 Quantum Cascade (continuous, several units)

Intensity Stabilizers

Fresnel Attenuator (broadband, slow response)

EOM (medium bandwidth, fast response, 1-5 μm)

AOM (narrow bandwidth, fast response) 

Speckle-removers

Wobbly Mirror (slow)

Vibrating Fiber (fast)

Black: Existing

Red: Under development

Acknowledgement The IR-SIRCUS facility at NIST is being developed with the support of the United States Air Force through

the Calibration Coordination Group (CCG03-511). Development of the SIRCUS facility was also supported by the CCG.

Electrically Substituted Bolometer (ESB):

Reference Detector at IR SIRCUS

•A liquid-helium-cooled bolometer stabilized with electrical substitution

•NEP = 30 pW/Hz1/2 @ 15 Hz for 1 cm diameter detector @ 5 Kelvin

Gold-Black Coating

(Heater and

Absorber)

NbTi (superconducting)

Heater Leads

Si Chip Thermistor

(Bolometer)

Sapphire Layer & 

Aluminum Film

Copper

Mount

Thermistor

Lead

T

R

Fixed 

Operating 

Point

Thermistor Resistance

I- I+

V- V+

56 
0

2 105

4 105

6 105

8 105

1 106

4200 4300 4400 4500 4600 4700 4800 4900

InSb5 at 200 kohm gain

1.5 % (k=1) measurement uncertainty

1

10

100

1000

104

105

106

4200 4300 4400 4500 4600 4700 4800 4900

InSb5 at 200 kohm gain

1.5 % (k=1) measurement uncertainty

Wavelength [nm]

Linear Scale

Log Scale

Example: InSb Radiometer Calibrated at IR SIRCUS

Response of a cooled InSb camera with laser tuned to 3.329 μm

Spectralon Integrating Sphere Diffuse-gold Integrating Sphere

•128 ×128 array focused on exit port (89 mm or 75 mm diameter) of integrating spheres.

•Acquire frame with laser-illumination and subtract frame without laser illumination.

•Color scale is percent of maximum count difference.

Response using an uncooled microbolometer array camera

with laser tuned to 10.6 μm

•320 × 240 array focused on exit port (75 mm diameter) of diffuse gold integrating sphere.

•Acquire frame with laser-illumination

•Subtract thermal background frame (acquired without laser illumination).

•Color scale is percent of maximum count difference.

•Wobbly mirror was used to reduce laser speckle: Images show incomplete de-speckling.

•Complete de-speckling by vibrating a fiber feeding the laser into the sphere.

With 100 Hz wobbly mirror With 200 Hz wobbly mirror

Dynamic Infrared Scene Generator Technology

Reflective Scene Generators

•2-D array of aluminum micromirrors (TI’s DMD)

on a 12 to 17 micron pitch.

•Each mirror can be moved to either an ON position

or an OFF position, separated by 20 degrees tilt angle.

•800 x 600, 1024 x 768, and 1280 x 1024 formats

currently available.

•Spectral range determined by illuminating source and DMD.

•Blackbody-illuminated versions are commercially available

in the $100 K price range.

Emissive Scene Generators

•512 x 512 array of microresistors that can be individually heated

electrically, thus emitting broadband IR radiation.

•Operation similar in principle to microbolometer run backwards.

•Used in some military IR scene simulation facilities.

•Systems tend to cost >$1M.

Wavemeter

Monitor Photodiode (output to stabilizer)

Diffuse Projection Screen

or Collimator

Mirror Array

Spectrum

Analyzer

Modified Projector

Camera Under Test

Computer

Reference Detector

Intensity Stabilizer

Chopper

or Shutter

Proposed Method: PIXSIR (PIXel Spectral Irradiance and Radiance Responsivity)

A laser-illuminated mirror array projecting tunable monochromatic structured IR scenes

Tunable Laser

Current thermal-imaging testing and calibration capabilities.

•Spectrally characterize/calibrate single pixel IR detectors at IR-SIRCUS up to 5 micrometers.

•Calibrate customer blackbody sources used for thermal-imager testing/calibration (ABIR).

•Calibrate customer imaging cameras against accurate NIST blackbody sources (ABIR).

•Measure reflectance, transmittance, and emittance of customer-provided material samples

at FTIR spectrophotometry facility.

Possible future thermal-imaging testing and calibration capabilities.

•Spectrally characterize/calibrate single pixel IR detectors at IR-SIRCUS up to 20 micrometers.

•Spectrally characterize/calibrate IR imaging cameras at IR-SIRCUS up to 20 micrometers.

•Test IR imaging cameras with a broadband dynamic scene generator.

•Test IR imaging cameras with a spectrally-tunable dynamic scene generator at IR-SIRCUS.

Ambient Background Infrared (ABIR) facility FTIR Spectrophotometry facility

57 
APPENDIX 4.A- BREAKOUT GROUP UNANALYZED RESULTS 

Table 5. Chief Brian Duggan Group- Discussion Summary. 

Research needs for first responders? What performance metrics are needed? 

How do they differ from current methods? 

Display- compensate for ambient light Durability- drop test 

Self test (automatic diagnostic) Environmental limits of use 

Effect of fire on battery- discharge curve, flammability Ease of use 

Verify battery duration needs- 1 charge per use? Image quality- test and quantify (color, brightness, etc) 

Intrinsic safety- shock, expl. (hazmat, fire, industrial) Display quality- over temperature range 

Pattern recognition/image interpretation Stability- hot, cold

Ergonomics Intrinsic safety

Image quality- what is acceptable image degradation? Standard test target 

Integration of equipment- location, data trans, turn out gear Corrosion test

Scientific evaluation of image quality EMF/RF interference- European RFI std. 89/36/EEC 

Tracking an object- pattern recognition Battery self test (minutes) 

Human dynamic research and training (avoid danger) Battery life (1.5 - 2 hours, fire) 

Appropriate field of view Temperature accuracy 

Injury evaluation Focal length 

Conditions of use (environment, failure pts., live fire meas.)Mission critical reliability 

Test of imagers (limitations, temperature accuracy) 

User interface- temperature display: lights vs. numbers 

What standards are needed? What technological advances are needed? 

Durability Battery operating life remaining in minutes 

Environmental limits Automated image/pattern recognition

Maximum weight Batteries w/infinite life and zero maintenance 

Image quality Cheaper imagers 

Display uniformity (icons, temp. gradients, colors, etc) Broader temperature displays

Alarm- warning if imager isn't working properly Image interpretation (artificial intelligence) 

Immersion Heads-up display

Battery time remaining- battery types, number Depth perception- range determination finder 

Consideration of equipment integration Image fusion (visible and IR) 

Draw on existing relevant standards and practices Uses: 

Police: Search, target ID, helicopter/vehicle, night vision

NOTE: stds to be minimum, to assure consistency tactical decision aid 

and safety. No ceiling on technological advances, Fire: Search, rescue, wildland, hot ballast, hidden fire, 

not design limiting, should be a living document. code compliance 

 EMS: medical/health

 Command and Control (C+C) 

58
Table 6. Larry Konsin Group- Discussion Summary 

Research needs for first responders? What performance metrics are needed? 

How do they differ from current methods? 

Battery- User feedback Sensitivity figure of merit (FOM) 

Display- degradation with repeated exposure How the image is displayed (contrast) 

Image degradation when viewing thru weather Scene dynamic range 

Lower cost sensors- new processing, materials Pixel saturation 

Emissivity setting(s) Battery and heat test profile 

IR emitter for turn-out gear Reliability mean time between failures (MTBF) 

 

What standards are needed? What technological advances are needed? 

Operational functions- Icons, switches, etc... Both standards and training 

Dissect teach requirement and set the standard Both AC-coupled and DC-coupled 

ACTI* task group to study user interface Heads-Up Display (HUD) and info on the screen 

Reliability of performance Establish minimums

Operational: human factors- color scale, palette Improvements in reliability 

Testing Go from $8K to $2K, how?

Certification and Training Hands free operation w/lower cost

User Interface Progression: How good is good enough? (pretty good) 

 human factor Internal sensors to check imager 

 quick utility value Battery remaining time in minutes 

 proficiency Smart charger technology (9 mo. old battery problem) 

 mastery Default settings: draw on existing conventions 

Draw on existing standards when possible Battery static time vs. show time 

Image quality standards- contrast? Solid state technology improvements 

Display standards Smaller mass 

Accelerated life testing Goal: 5 yr life with 5 hr/yr at T > 250 oF?

Time left on battery Display technology drives image quality 

 NOTE: Phil Perconti ran displays group at NVL 

Sensors and read out integrated circuits specifically for first responders

 Ruggedness of housing 

 Testing instrumentation 

*Amercian Council for Thermal Imaging

59
Table 7. Chief Bruce Varner Group- Discussion Summary. 

Research needs for first responders? What performance metrics are needed? 

How do they differ from current methods? 

Is sensor or display limiting image quality? Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) 

Find range of operation conditions Frame rate

Establish design criteria Subsystem metrics 

Coatings for lens/display- condensation/deposition Manual assemble lines 

Find importance of image quality Quick & dirty target- 3 or 5 bars, cheap, pass/fail 

Field tests with videotape 

Sensors, displays, refresh rate, contrast, power, cost 

Intrinsic safety 

Human factors for user friendliness, intuition 

What standards are needed? What technological advances are needed? 

Shall not cause EMF/RF interference Integration with other equipment

Shall not be effected by other equipment Immediate need addressed: make current tech. work for now

Limit image transmission to 90 m (300 ft), per FCC Water bottle package at $2K 

IC out of range Display- driven by avail. technology, function of packaging 

Training- big step to see IR w/o full understanding it Is sensor or display limiting image quality 

Functionality across range of operation Do we need a better display?

Image degradation due to smoke and dust Long battery life 

Impact resistance test Coatings for lens/display (rain-ex?) 

High and Low temperature performance test Automatic shutter for lens/display 

Abrasion of lens and display screen test Hands free, non-distracting, vision unobstructed tech. 

Deposition and condensation resistance test Face-piece mounted display 

Instrinsic safety test "Stay ON" button- no sleep mode 

Flame resistance test Mode switch for electronic iris (EI or no EI) 

Corrosion resistance test Self test in field for operability- 3 bad pixels and out

Minimum operating criteria- go in, do task, get out Smart, durable chargers 

Guidelines for battery service More informative icons

Consistent, meaningful icons- extended set optional Battery life remaining in minutes 

Require gloves-on operation 

Field test/calibration- simple and quick 

Housing inspection procedure 

Training and certification standard 

Performance standard 

Selection, Care & Maintenance document (SCAM) 

60
APPENDIX 4.B- TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES 

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

1 2 3 4 567 8 9 10 11

ITEM NUMBER (see key below)

FRACTION OF VOTES 

Industry

First Responder

Figure 2. Voting results for responses to the question, “What technological advancements are 

needed?” Votes are shown as a fraction of the total number of votes cast in response to this 

question. 

Voting key for item numbers in abscissa of Figure 2. 

1. Reduction in imager cost (“water bottle” sized package priced at $2K) 

2. Heads up or visor display technology 

3. Battery charger technology improvements 

4. Battery life/maintenance improvements 

5. Compensation for ambient light (to see display) 

6. Immediate need addressed- make current tech. work for now 

7. Battery self-test technology 

8. Depth perception technology 

9. Intrinsic safety improvements 

10. Battery life and heat exposure profile technology

11. Integration with other equipment

61
APPENDIX 4.C- RESEARCH NEEDS 

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

123 4 5 678

ITEM NUMBER (see key below)

FRACTION OF VOTES

Industry

First Responder

Figure 3. Voting results for responses to the question, “What are the research needs for first 

responders?” Votes are shown as a fraction of the total number of votes cast in response to this 

question. 

Voting key for item numbers in abscissa of Figure 3. 

1. Establish minimum/typical environmental test conditions 

2. Human factor/ergonomic research (make imagers user friendly) 

3. Image quality research (contrast, sensitivity) 

4. Develop emissivity target for turnout gear 

5. Identify performance limiting components: display? sensor?

6. Study feasibility of integration with other equipment 

7. Human dynamic research and training materials (ex: avoid danger) 

8. Develop a Selection, Care and Maintenance (SCAM) document 

62
APPENDIX 4.D- PERFORMANCE METRICS 

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

123 456

ITEM NUMBER (see key below)

FRACTION OF VOTES

Industry

First Responder

Figure 4. Voting results for responses to the question, “What performance metrics are needed 

and how do they differ from current methods?” Votes are shown as a fraction of the total 

number of votes cast in response to this question. 

Voting key for item numbers in abscissa of Figure 4. 

1. Thermal sensitivity metric 

2. Image display metric 

3. Durability metric 

4. Imager quality metric 

5. Reliability- Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) metric 

6. Scene dynamic range metric 

63
APPENDIX 4.E- STANDARDS 

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

1 2 345 678 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

ITEM NUMBER (see key below)

FRACTION OF VOTES 

Industry

First Responders

Figure 5. Voting results for responses to the question, “What standards are needed?” Votes are 

shown as a fraction of the total number of votes cast in response to this question. 

Voting key for item numbers in abscissa of Figure 5. 

1. Training and certification for personnel (includes environmental conditions) 

2. Imager performance standard (image quality) 

3. Casing/housing testing standard (impact, water immersion, corrosion, etc...) 

4. Field test/calibration for imager using standard target 

5. Lens/display integrity standard (abrasion, condensation, deposition, etc...) 

6. Alarm or warning for nonfunctioning imager standard 

7. Define minimum range of operation 

8. User interface standard (display icons, buttons) 

9. Battery self-test standard 

10. Minimum battery life standard 

11. Temperature measurement accuracy/calibration standard 

12. Reliability MTBF standard 

13. Maximum weight standard 

14. RFI testing standard 

15. Imager self-testing standard procedure 

64
APPENDIX 4.F- VOTING COMBINATION KEY FOR FIGURE 1 

The items listed in Appendices 4.B – 4.E were combined to form Figure 1 in the main 

proceedings body. The goal was to try to consolidate the information so that readers could get a 

sense of the voting results without getting deeply involved in the details of the four figures in 

Appendix 4. It is possible that individuals may interpret this information differently. In the 

following table each item listed in Figure 1 of the text is comprised of the sum of the 

corresponding source items from Figures 2 – 5 in Appendix 4 listed in the right-hand column of 

the table. 

Table 8. Voting combination key for Figure 1. 

Figure 1 item number Appendix Figure – item number 

1 Fig 3 – 3, Fig 4 – 1 

Fig 4 – 6, Fig 5 – 2 

2 

Fig 2 – 9, Fig 4 – 3 

Fig 4 – 4, Fig 4 – 5 

Fig 5 – 3, Fig 5 – 5 

Fig 5 – 12, Fig 5 – 14 

3 Fig 5 – 1 

4 Fig 3 – 1, Fig 5 – 7 

5 

Fig 2 – 8, Fig 3 – 2 

Fig 3 – 7, Fig 5 – 8 

Fig 5 – 13 

6 Fig 2 – 2, Fig 2 – 5 

Fig 4 – 2 

7 

Fig 2 – 3, Fig 2 – 4 

Fig 2 – 7, Fig 2 – 10 

Fig 5 – 9, Fig 5 – 10 

8 Fig 2 – 1 

9 Fig 3 – 4, Fig 5 – 4 

10 Fig 5 – 6, Fig 5 - 15 

 

65