Prepared in cooperation with the

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation

Concentrations of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in 

Creeks, Anchorage, Alaska, 

August and September 1998

Open-File Report 99-236

U.S. Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey
Concentrations of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in 

Creeks, Anchorage, Alaska, August and 

September 1998

By Joseph M. Dorava and Andra Love

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Open-File Report 99-236

Prepared in cooperation with the

ALASKA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

Anchorage, Alaska 

1999
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Charles G. Groat, Director

Use of trade or firm names in this report is for identification 

purposes only and does not constitute endorsement 

by the U.S. Geological Survey.

For additional information:

District Chief

U.S. Geological Survey

4230 University Drive, Suite 201

Anchorage, AK 99508-4664

http://ak.water.usgs.gov

Copies of this report may be purchased from:

U.S. Geological Survey 

Branch of Information Services 

Box 25286 

Denver, CO 80225-0286
CONTENTS

Abstract .............................................................................. 1

Introduction ............................................................................. 1

Standards for Fecal Coliform Bacteria ......................................................... 2

Description of Study Sites................................................................... 2

Study Methods ........................................................................... 4

Sample Collection Procedures .......................................................... 4

Sample Processing ................................................................... 4

Fecal Coliform Concentrations .............................................................. 5

Summary and Discussion ................................................................... 8

References Cited ......................................................................... 9

FIGURE

1. Map showing fecal indicator bacteria sampling sites in local creeks in Anchorage, Alaska ........ 3

TABLES

1. Fecal coliform concentrations in Anchorage creeks, 1988-92 and 1998 ....................... 6

2. Fecal coliform concentrations in Anchorage creeks, August and September 1998 ............... 7

3. Water-quality properties and stream discharge measured in Anchorage creeks during duplicate

sampling, 1998 ................................................................... 8

CONVERSION FACTORS, WATER-QUALITY UNITS, AND VERTICAL DATUM

____________________Multiply_______by_________To obtain_________________

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer

cubic feet per second (fr/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second

In this report, water temperature is reported in degrees Celsius (°C), which can be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) 

by the following equation: °F = 1.8 (°C) + 32

WATER-QUALITY UNITS

mL, milliliter

col/100 mL, fecal coliform colonies per 100 milliliters of water

mg/L, milligrams per liter

Us/cm, microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius

VERTICAL DATUM

Sea level: In this report, "sea level" refers to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 A geodetic datum derived 

from a general adjustment of the first-order level nets of the United States and Canada, formerly called Sea Level 

Datum of 1929.

Contents III
Concentrations of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in Creeks, 

Anchorage, Alaska, August and September 1998

By Joseph M. Dorava and Andra Love

ABSTRACT

Water samples were collected from five 

creeks in undeveloped, semi-developed, and 

developed areas of Anchorage, Alaska, during 

August and September 1998 to determine concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria. In undeveloped areas of Ship, Chester, and Campbell 

Creeks, and the semi-developed area of Rabbit 

Creek, concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria ranged from less than 1 to 16 colonies per 

100 milliliters of water. In the semi-developed 

area of Little Rabbit Creek, concentrations 

ranged from 30 to 860 colonies per 100 milliliters of water. In developed areas of the creeks, 

concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria 

ranged from 6 to 80 colonies per 100 milliliters 

of water.

INTRODUCTION

Federal, State, and municipal agencies 

use fecal indicator bacteria to assess potential 

human health risks from waterborne diseases. 

Fecal indicator bacteria live in warm-blooded 

animals, and are typically introduced to surface 

water with animal and human wastes. Although 

they are not disease causing, the presence of 

fecal indicator bacteria in a water sample is correlated to the presence of several waterborne 

disease-causing organisms (pathogens). 

Because fecal indicator bacteria survive longer, 

occur in greater numbers, and are easier to test 

for than pathogenic bacteria, they are typically 

used as an acceptable measure of a water 

body's suitability for specific uses. The most 

widely used fecal indicator bacteria for the 

assessment of water bodies are fecal coliform.

Although fecal indicator bacteria commonly come from the intestines of warmblooded animals including man, they may also 

be associated with soils, vegetation, and 

insects. Because of the possibility of nonarimal 

sources, the occurrence of fecal coliform does 

not conclusively indicate fecal contamination.

From 1988 to 1992, the Municipality of 

Anchorage collected data on fecal coliform 

from numerous creeks (Municipality of 

Anchorage, unpublished data, 1999). On the 

basis of the data collected, five creeks (Ship, 

Chester, Campbell, Rabbit, and Little Rabbit 

Creeks) were included on the 303(d) "List of 

Water Quality-Limited Waterbodies" publication (Alaska Department of Environmental 

Conservation, 1992), and have remained on 

this list through 1998 (ADEC, 1998). The 

unpublished data from the Municipality of 

Anchorage and several previous studies of 

creeks in Anchorage indicate that fecal 

coliform concentrations frequently exceeded 

ADEC standards and were highest during 

snowmelt and storm runoff periods (Brabets 

and Wittenberg, 1983; Brabets, 1987; James M. 

Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc., 1990). 

There are, however, few comparable sets of 

data for undeveloped reaches of these creeks.

To address this lack of data, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), in cooperation with the 

ADEC, collected data to determine the fecal 

coliform concentration from undeveloped or 

semi-developed areas in the upper watersheds 

of five creeks in Anchorage. During an approximate 30-day period from August through September 1998, two to five samples were 

collected from undeveloped areas in the upper 

watersheds of each creek. One "check sample"

Abstract
was collected from a developed site in the 

lower watershed of each of these five creeks. 

The purpose of the check samples was to evaluate whether samples collected during August 

and September 1998 were significantly different from historical samples from the lower 

reaches. This report presents the results of the 

1998 data-collection activity

STANDARDS FOR FECAL COLIFORM 

BACTERIA

Concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria 

in this report are expressed as the geometric 

mean of several samples and are reported as 

number of colonies per 100 milliliters of water 

(col/100 mL). For all potable waters, the detection of 1 col/100 mL may be cause for concern 

for public health (Myers and Wilde, 1997). In 

Alaska, the ADEC water-quality standards for 

a drinking-water supply state that in a 30-day 

period, the geometric mean of samples may not 

exceed 20 col/100 mL, and not more than 10 

percent of the samples may exceed 40 col/100 

mL (ADEC, 1999, p. 7). For water-contact recreation, the ADEC standards indicate that the 

geometric mean of samples collected during a 

30-day period may not exceed 100 col/100 mL 

and not more than one sample, or more than 10 

percent of the samples if there are more than 10 

samples, may exceed 200 col/100 mL (ADEC, 

1999, p. 7). The U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency (1977) considers 200 col/100 mL an 

acceptable threshold for water contact recreation.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY SITES

Ship, Chester, Campbell, Rabbit, and Little Rabbit Creeks were selected for sampling. 

All five originate at about 3,000 ft altitude in 

the Chugach Mountains and flow through the 

Anchorage lowlands to Cook Inlet. Each of 

these creeks has had elevated concentrations of

fecal coliform bacteria (ADEC, 1992, 1998). 

The sampling sites in the upper parts of the 

Ship, Chester, and Campbell Creek watersheds 

(fig. 1) were considered to be in undeveloped 

areas for this study because there was little 

human impact upstream from the sites. The 

sampling sites in the upper parts of the Rabbit 

and Little Rabbit Creek watersheds were considered to be in semi-developed areas for this 

study because only single-family homes separated by large lots were upstream from the 

selected sampling sites. The sampling sites on 

the lower parts of the watersheds of all creeks 

were considered to be in developed areas for 

this study because the areas upstream consisted 

of high-density housing and commercial development. The lower sites were selected as 

closely as possible to the sites previously sampled by the Municipality of Anchorage, and 

reported in reports by Brabets and Witterberg 

(1983), Brabets (1987), and James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers Inc. (1990).

Ship Creek: The sampling site for the 

upper watershed of Ship Creek (fig.l) is 

approximately 7 mi upstream from the Glenn 

Highway and 9 mi upstream from urbarized 

areas. The upper site (not shown on figure 1) is 

accessed by a hiking trail that starts just before 

Arctic Valley Road terminates at Alpenglow 

Ski Area. The trail crosses Ship Creek, and four 

samples were collected about 10 ft upstream 

from this trail crossing. About 0.5 mi downstream from this site, two more samples were 

collected from a tributary to Ship Creek, about 

10 ft upstream from the trail. For this study, 

both these sites were considered as repre^enting undeveloped areas of upper Ship Creek. 

The sampling site in the developed, lower 

watershed of Ship Creek is on the upstream 

side of a bridge where the creek crosses F eeve 

Boulevard (fig. 1).

Chester Creek: The sampling site in the 

upper part of Chester Creek (fig. 1) is on Fort 

Richardson about 3 mi upstream from Muldoon

2 Concentrations of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in Creeks, Anchorage, Alaska, August and September 1998
61° 

15'

150° 149°45'

61° 

05'

Ship Cr 

(7 miles upst 

from Gleofmwv)

A Site in undeveloped area

Jk Site in semi-developed area

A Site in developed area

0 1 3 MILES

0123 KILOMETERS

_____________|_________

Figure 1. Fecal indicator bacteria sampling sites in local creeks in Anchorage, Alaska.

Description of Study Sites 3
Road. Only three samples were collected at this 

site because access was delayed by military 

permitting. The sampling site in the developed, 

lower part of Chester Creek is about 100 ft 

downstream from the culvert where the creek 

crosses Arctic Boulevard (fig. 1).

Campbell Creek: The sampling site in 

the upper part of Campbell Creek is on the 

North Fork (fig. 1). Access to this sampling site 

is from Basher Road, which is east of Campbell 

Airstrip Road (not labeled on figure 1). At the 

end of Basher Road, a steep trail leads directly 

down to the creek. Water samples were collected at a site about 5 ft upstream from this 

trail crossing. The sampling site in the developed, lower part of Campbell Creek is 

upstream from where the creek crosses Dimond 

Boulevard (fig. 1).

Rabbit Creek: The sampling site in the 

upper semi-developed part of Rabbit Creek is 

approximately 25 ft upstream from where the 

creek crosses Hillside Drive (fig. 1). Although 

considerable recent development was evident 

upstream from the sampling site, it was 

selected for this study because access to sites 

farther upstream was limited, and data had been 

collected at this site in previous years. The sampling site in the developed, lower part of Rabbit 

Creek is upstream from where the creek crosses 

the Old Seward Highway (fig. 1).

Little Rabbit Creek: The sampling site 

in the upper, semi-developed part of Little Rabbit Creek (fig. 1) was about 50 ft east of George 

Road, near the intersection of George Road and 

Nickleen Drive (not labeled on figure 1). 

Recent development also was evident upstream 

from this sampling site, but it too was selected 

for this study because access to sites farther 

upstream was limited, and data had been collected at this site in previous years. The sampling site in the developed, lower part of Little 

Rabbit Creek is at the Old Seward Highway 

(fig. 1).

STUDY METHODS

Sample Collection Procedures

Routine samples were taken according to 

methods prescribed by the American Public 

Health Association and others (1992). Sterile 

100-mL sample bottles were obtained and 

remained closed until the sample was taken. At 

a point equidistant from both banks, the bottle 

was placed top downward in the water approximately 6-12 in. from the surface, and then 

turned until the top pointed slightly upward in 

the direction of the streamflow. The cap was 

then removed and a water sample was collected. The cap was replaced and the bottle was 

removed from the water. Bottles were labeled 

with collector's name, date, time, site name, 

and bottle code. At each site, a single 100-mL 

sample was collected and kept chilled until 

delivered to a commercial laboratory in 

Anchorage.

A duplicate sample of water was also collected once at each undeveloped site. This 

duplicate sample of about 500 mL of water was 

collected using two sterile 250-mL bottles and 

methods similar to those described above. 

Additionally, stream discharge, water temperature, specific conductance, pH, and dissolvedoxygen concentrations were determined at each 

site during duplicate water sampling.

Sampling times were selected to sys*ematically collect samples during an approximate 

30-day-long period without concern for documenting specific flow regimes such as perk or 

low flows. Samples were collected once a veek 

from early August through the first week in 

September. The duplicate sample was collected 

at each site during the last site visit.

Sample Processing

Routine samples were processed by the 

Anchorage laboratory of Columbia Analytical 

Services, Inc. (CASI); duplicate samples were 

processed by USGS personnel. The time span 

from routine sample collection to delivery at

4 Concentrations of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in Creeks, Anchorage, Alaska, August and September 1998
the CASI laboratory did not exceed 24 hours. 

Holding times (the time span from collection to 

the beginning of incubation) for duplicate samples processed at the USGS laboratory did not 

exceed 6 hours. Holding times for routine samples processed at the CASI laboratory did not 

exceed 24 hours (Kim Tiplady, CASI analyst, 

oral commun., 1999).

Both CASI and USGS used in-house 

quality control/assurance procedures such as 

running a beginning blank and an ending blank, 

and using sterile buffered water for each sample. Fecal coliform concentrations were determined as the geometric mean using various 

sample volumes for duplicate samples. CASI 

also reported fecal concentrations as geometric 

means per 100 mL for the routine samples (Kim 

Tiplady, CASI analyst, oral commun., 1999).

All fecal coliform concentrations for this 

study were determined with the membrane-filter method (Myers and Wilde, 1997; American 

Public Health Association and others, 1992). In 

general, the water sample or a diluted sample of 

the water is filtered through a membrane filter 

using a low-pressure vacuum pump. The membrane filter is then placed in a petri dish filled 

with a nutrient-rich incubation medium. The 

bacteria in the water sample that are retained on 

the filter develop into visible colonies after 

incubation under specific conditions. For fecal 

coliform, these conditions include 24±2 hours 

of growth at a temperature of 44.5±0.2 °C 

(Myers and Wilde, 1997). The visible colonies 

are then counted to provide a quantitative value 

of bacteria present in the sample volume tested. 

The concentration value reported is the geometric mean value per 100 mL of water, which is 

based on several sub-sample volumes with various colony counts for each sample. Under the 

best or "ideal" analytical conditions, counts 

would range from 20 to 60 colonies for each 

sample tested. For duplicate samples analyzed 

during this study, sample results were identified 

in those instances where non-ideal counting 

conditions existed (see table 2 later in this 

report). Geometric means can only be calculated if all values are non-zero. For this report, 

all reported values of zero and of "less then 1" 

were converted to 1 before the geometric mean 

was calculated. The geometric means were then 

rounded using standard engineering practice 

and reported to the nearest whole colony.

FECAL COLIFORM CONCENTRATICNS

Ship Creek: The Municipality of 

Anchorage has numerous studies and data that 

provide historical information on fecal 

coliform concentrations in Ship Creek. For this 

report, a published subset (Montgomery-Watson Engineers, 1993) of these data was used. 

This subset consisted of 27 samples having a 

geometric mean concentration of 16 col/100 

mL (table 1). The samples were collected from 

three sites (Glenn Highway, Reeve Boulevard, 

and Post Road) during 1988-92. The geometric 

mean of six samples collected between August 

6 and September 4,1998, from the upper, undeveloped area was 2 col/100 mL (table 2). No 

individual samples had concentrations that 

were greater than the ADEC threshold of 40 

col/100 mL. These concentrations were all 

within the ADEC threshold for water contact 

recreation.

The geometric mean of 2 col/100 mL of 

the six samples from the undeveloped reach is 

much less than both the 16 col/100 mL fcr the 

historical subset and 26 col/100 mL for the 

August September historical subset (tabl°. 1). 

The single check sample from the developed 

area during the current study, however, was 7 

col/100 mL (table 2), which is also well below 

the geometric means of the historical values.

Chester Creek: Unpublished data from 

the files of the Municipality of Anchorage indicate that the mean concentration, based on 62 

samples, in the developed lower reach of Caster Creek was 442 col/100 mL (table 1). The 

check sample collected from the lower reach on 

September 4 was 80 coVlOO mL (table 2). The

Fecal Coliform Concentrations 5
Table 1 . Fecal coliform concentrations in Anchorage creeks, 1988-92 and 1998

[Concentration in colonies per 100 rnilliliters of water]

1988-92 Municipality of Anchorage unpublished data 1998 USGS data

Creek

Ship Creek

Chester Creek

Campbell Creek

Rabbit Creek

Little Rabbit Creek

Geometric 

mean 

concentration

16

442

55

25

111

No. of 

samples

27

62

370

56

249

August/ 

September 

geometric 

mean

concentration

26

695

47

53

257

No. of 

samples

6

18

68

18

67

August/ 

September 

geometric 

mean

concentration

3

6

3

8

270

No. of 

samples

6

3

6

6

6

geometric mean of three samples collected 

between August 19 and September 4 from the 

upper, undeveloped reach was 5 col/100 mL, 

and no sample exceeded 40 col/100 mL. 

Although the 80 col/100 mL in the check sample is well below the historical average of 442 

col/100 mL, both the check sample and the historical data indicate a large difference in fecal 

coliform concentrations between the developed 

and undeveloped reaches.

Campbell Creek: Unpublished data 

from the Municipality of Anchorage indicate 

that 370 samples collected for the lower, developed reach have yielded an average of 55 

col/100 mL (table 1). The check sample collected on September 5 from the developed 

reach was 68 col/100 mL (table 2), which is 

near this historical average. Five samples collected from the upper, undeveloped reach 

between August 5 and September 5, however, 

averaged only 2 col/100 mL. A very significant 

difference in concentrations of fecal coliform 

bacteria seems to exist between the developed 

and undeveloped areas.

Rabbit Creek: According to Municipal 

files, 56 samples from the lower, developed 

part of the creek averaged 25 col/100 mL (table 

1). The check sample collected on September 5 

contained 12 col/100 mL (table 2). The five 

samples collected from the semi-developed 

area between August 5 and September 5 had a 

geometric mean of 6 col/100 mL. Although 6 

col/100 mL for the semi-developed area 

appears to be significantly less than the longterm mean for the lower watershed, 25 col/100 

mL, this conclusion is not valid. The check 

sample for the developed area during the 1998 

field season was 12 col/100 mL, which was 

within the range of values for the semi-developed area and significantly lower than the historical values. The observed differences may be 

caused by geographic, temporal, or other factors.

Little Rabbit Creek: Municipal files 

indicate that 249 samples have been collected 

from the developed part of the creek. These 

samples averaged 111 col/100 mL (table 1). 

The check sample collected from this fame 

reach on September 5 contained 68 col/100 mL

6 Concentrations of Fecal Coliform Bacteria in Creeks, Anchorage, Alaska, August and September 1998
Table 2. Fecal coliform concentrations in Anchorage creeks, August and 

September 1998

[col/100 mL, colonies per 100 milliliters of water]

Date

Fecal coliform concentration 

(col/100 mL)

Undeveloped Developed 

site site

Date

Fecal coliform concentration 

(col/100 mL)

Semi-developed Developed 

site site

Ship Creek

August 6

August 1 1

August 17

August 27

September 4

September 4

Geometric mean

6

<1

2

2

a2 a8

2 6

2 7

Chester Creek

August 19

September 4

September 4

Geometric mean

2

a?

10 80

5

Campbell Creek

August 5

August 1 1

August 17

August 28

August 28

September 5

Geometric mean

6

6

2

a<l

<1

2 68

2

Rabbit Creek

August 5

August 10

August 17

August 28

August 28

September 5

Geometric mean

<1

6

8

a6

14

16 12

6

Little Rabbit Creek

August 5

August 10

August 17

August 28

August 28

September 5

Geometric mean

30

350

860

a !60

100

120 68

161

aQuality assurance/quality control duplicate; non-ideal counts

(table 2). Five samples collected from the semideveloped reach during August 5 to September 

5 had a geometric mean of 161 col/100 mL. The 

mean of 161 col/100 mL is biased by two very 

high values on August 10 and 17, during which 

time there were no comparable values for the 

developed reach. The August 10 and 17 values

may represent a temporal change that may also 

have occurred but was undetected in the lower 

reach. The apparent conclusion that the mean 

concentration in the upper watershed (161 

col/100 mL) is greater than the mean concentration in the lower watershed (111 col/100 mL) 

is tenuous (table 1).

Fecal Coliform Concentrations 7
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

In four of the five Anchorage creeks 

(Ship, Chester, Campbell, Rabbit) tested during 

this study, the concentration of fecal coliform 

was less than the State's threshold for drinkingwater supply (20 col/100 mL). In Little Rabbit 

Creek, however, the concentration of fecal 

coliform exceeded the threshold for drinking 

water in every sample and exceeded the threshold for water-contact recreation (200 col/100 

mL) in two samples.

The expected result of fecal coliform bacteria sampling along each creek was that concentrations would be substantially higher at the 

developed sites than at the undeveloped and 

semi-developed sites. Fecal coliform bacteria 

concentrations were higher at the developed 

sites than at the undeveloped sites for same-day 

samples on Ship Creek, Chester Creek, and 

Campbell Creek. In contrast, the concentration 

of fecal coliform bacteria was lower at the 

developed sites than at the semi-developed 

sites for same-day samples on Rabbit Creek 

and Little Rabbit Creek.

For Ship, Chester, and Campbell Creeks, 

concentrations of fecal coliform on September

4 and 5 were lower at the undeveloped sites 

than they were at the developed sites. For Rabbit and Little Rabbit Creeks, however, concentrations of fecal coliform on September 5 were 

higher at the semi-developed site than they 

were at the developed site (table 2).

At the developed sampling sites, Ship 

Creek and Rabbit Creek had mean concentrations of fecal coliform less than the 20 

col/100 mL water-quality standard for drinking-water supply. However, the concentration 

of fecal coliform at the developed sampling 

sites on Chester, Campbell, and Little Rabbit 

Creeks (80, 68, and 68 col/100 mL, respectively; table 2) each exceeded the 20 

col/100 mL water-quality standard for drinking-water supply. All samples collected had 

mean concentrations of fecal coliform that 

were lower than the ADEC standard for watercontact recreation.

In addition to the measurements of fecal 

coliform bacteria, selected water-quality properties and stream discharge were measured 

(table 3) during the duplicate sampling trip?, to 

give a general indication of water conditions 

during sample collection.

Table 3. Water-quality properties and stream discharge measured in Anchorage 

creeks during duplicate sampling, 1998

[°C, degree Celsius; |iS/cm, microsiemen per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius; mg/L, milligrams per liter; 

ft3/s, cubic feet per second]

Site

Water-quality properties

Date Temperature Specific Dissolved Discharge

pH conductance oxygen (ft3/s)

(US/cm) (mg/L)

Ship Creek

Chester Creek

Campbell Creek

Rabbit Creek

Little Rabbit Creek

September 4

September 4

August 28

August 28

August 28

8.9

6^6

4.0

3.5

3.5

8.1

8.1

7.5

6.9

7.7

169

129

136

64

100

13.5

12.8

12.8

12.7

12.9

4.1

20

22

5.3

8 Concentrations of Fecal Cotiform Bacteria in Creeks, Anchorage, Alaska, August and September 1998
Generally, fecal coliform concentrations 

determined from duplicate samples were similar to those in the routine samples (table 2). For 

example, duplicate samples collected at Chester Creek and Rabbit Creek differed by only a 

few colonies, and at Ship Creek and Campbell 

Creek they were exactly the same.

Municipality of Anchorage data from 

1988-92 show that fecal coliform concentrations were generally higher during the months 

of August and September than annual concentration values (table 1). With the exception of 

Little Rabbit Creek, concentrations measured 

in the 1998 study were much lower than those 

reported in prior years (tables 1 and 2). The 

temporal variability at most sites, however, is 1 

to 2 orders of magnitude. Larger data sets over 

longer periods of time are necessary to define 

long-term trends at the sites described in this 

report.

REFERENCES CITED

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 

1992, Section 303(d) List of water quality-limited 

waterbodies: Alaska Department of Environmental 

Conservation Air and Water Quality Division.

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 

1998, Section 303(d) List of water quality-limited 

waterbodies: Alaska Department of Environmental 

Conservation Air and Water Quality Division.

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 

1999, Water-quality standards, 18 A AC 70, as 

amended through May 27, 1999: Accessed on May 

28, 1999 at http://www.state.ak.us/locaUakpages/ 

ENVCONSERV/titlelS/titlelS.htm

American Public Health Association, American Water 

Works Association, and Water Pollution Control 

Federation, 1992, Standard methods for the eramination of water and wastewater (18th ed.): Paltimore, Victor Graphics, Inc.

Brabets, T.P., 1987, Quantity and quality of urban rmoff 

from the Chester Creek basin, Anchorage, Alaska: 

U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 86-4312, 58 p.

Brabets, T.P., and Wittenberg, L.A., 1983, Surface-water 

quality in the Campbell Creek basin, Anchorage, 

Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 83-496, 28 p.

James M. Montgomery, Consulting Engineers, Inc., 

1990, Water quality monitoring program, 1989/90 

annual report for Municipality of Anchorage, 

Department of Health and Human Services: available from Municipality of Anchorage, Department 

of Health and Human Services, variously pagirated.

Montgomery Watson (in association with HDR Engineering, Inc.), 1993, Areawide water quality monitoring program 1988-1992 interpretive report: 

Report prepared for the Municipality of Anchorage.

Myers, D.N., and Wilde, F.D., eds., 1997, National field 

manual for the collection of water-quality data 

Biological indicators: U.S. Geological Survey 

Techniques of Water-Resources Investigation, book 

9, chapter A7, variously paginated.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1977, Quality 

criteria for water, 1976: U.S. Government Printing 

Office, 256 p.

References Cited 9