Vegetation of the 

Arctic Slope of Alaska

EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4 

AND ADJACENT AREAS, NORTHERN ALASKA, 1944-53

PART 2, REGIONAL STUDIES

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 302-B

Prepared and published at the request of, and in 

cooperation with, the U. S. Department of the Navy, 

Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves

Vegetation of the 

Arctic Slope of Alaska

By LLOYD A. SPETZMAN

EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4 

AND ADJACENT AREAS, NORTHERN ALASKA, 1944-53

PART 2, REGIONAL STUDIES

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 302-B

Prepared and published at the request of) and in 

cooperation with) the U. S. Department of the Navy) 

Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale Reserves

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1959
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

FRED A. SEATON, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

The U. S. Geological Survey Library has cataloged this publication as follows:

Spetzman, Lloyd Anthony, 1920-

Vegetation of the Arctic Slope of Alaska. Washington, 

U. S. Govt. Print. Off., 1959.

iii, 19-58 p. maps, diagr., tables. 30 cm. (U. S. Geological Survey. Professional paper 302-B. Exploration of Naval Petroleum Reserve no. 4 and adjacent areas, northern Alaska, 1944-53, pt. 2, 

Regional studies)

Prepared and published at the request of, and in cooperation with, 

the U. S. Dept of the Navy, Office of Naval Petroleum and Oil Shale 

Reserves.

Bibliography: p. 54.

1. Botany Arctic regions. 2. Botany Alaska. 3. Arctic regions. 

i. Title. (Series: U. S. Geological Survey. Professional paper 

302-B. Series: U. S. Geological Survey. Exploration of Naval Petroleum Reserve no. 4 and adjacent areas, northern Alaska, 1944-53, 

Pt. 2)

581.9787

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office 

Washington 25, D. C. - Price 55 cents (paper cover)
CONTENTS

Abstract _____________________________

Introduction, _____________________.

Environment_________________________

Coastal plain_____________________

Foothills_________________. 

Mountains_________________.

Plant communities ____________________

Niggerhead meadows____________

Wet sedge meadows_______________

Flood-plain and cutbank communitiesDry upland meadows_____________

South-facing rubble slopes. _ _ _ _

North-facing rubble slopes _ _ _ _ _

Communities on outcrops and talus. _ _ 

Limestone.__________________

Sandstone and conglomerate.____

Shale_.________________

Schist. ____________

Basalt_____________________

Page 

19 

19 

21 

21 

21

23

24

24

24

25

27

27

28

28

28

28

29

29

29

Plant communities Continued Page

Aquatic communities of lakes._____________ _ 29

Successional relationships.__________ ________ 30

Representative localities_______-___._________________ 30

Coastal plain_______________________________ 30

Barrow Village and Point Barrow_______ 30

Alaktak..._____________________ 32

Foothills___________________________ 33

Noluck Lake_____________________ 33

Umiat_______________________ 36

Mountains_ ___________________________________ 37

Killik River near Easter Creek__________ 37

Anaktuvuk Pass near Tulugak Lake____ ___ 37

Lake Schrader and Lake Peters_____________ 39

Annotated list of plants growing on the Arctic Slope of

Alaska._________________________________________ 40

Selected references...______________________________ 54

Index. ____ ___ ____________ _ 55

ILLUSTRATIONS

[Plates 7-10 follow page 22, plates 11,12 follow page 30]

PLATE 7. A. Niggerhead meadow community; B. Wet sedge meadow and oxbow lake on river terrace.

8. A. Vegetation on flood plain of small stream; B. Flood-plain woods.

9. A. Detailed view of Dryas-lichen dry meadow; B. Zone of mountain heather on slope.

10. A. Detailed view of vegetation on sandstone talus; B. Lake-margin vegetation.

11. Vegetation zones, A. Along small intermittent drainage in the foothills; B. Along entrenched stream.

12. Vegetation of sandy outwash with blowouts.

FIGURE 4. Index map showing outline of zones__________

5. Climatic data for the Arctic Slope_________

6. Coastal plain vegetation at Point Barrow area.

7. Foothills vegetation at Noluek Lake__..._

8. Mountain vegetation at Anaktuvuk Pass___

TABLES

Page 

20 

22 

31 

34 

38

TABLE 1. Growing-season temperatures of stations on the coastal plain, foothills, and mountains.

2. Annotated list of plants growing on the Arctic Slope of Alaska._____ _____ _

3. Important and conspicuous lower plants on the Arctic Slope_______._____-_---_ _

Page 

23 

41 

53

EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4 AND ADJACENT AREAS, NORTHERN ALASKA, 1944-53

VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA

By LLOYD A. SPETZMAN

ABSTRACT

The environment of the Arctic Slope is described by physiographic provinces, namely, the coastal plain, foothills, and 

mountains. Topography, rock composition, soil, vegetation, and 

climate are considered for each province.

Six major plant communities, which together compose the 

tundra of the Arctic Slope, are described. These are the niggerhead meadows, wet sedge meadows, dry upland meadows, 

flood-plain and cutbank vegetation, outcrop and talus vegetation, 

and aquatic vegetation of lakes. The dominant and secondary 

plants in each community are given, as well as local variations 

in the vegetation which are related to minor habitat differences 

such as slope exposure or bedrock.

Lines of successional change, primarily for the vegetation in 

the foothills, are suggested.

Seven localities, representing the common habitats of vegetation occurring on the Arctic Slope, are described to illustrate 

natural mosaics of plant communities.

Included is a list of 439 species of higher plants which grow on 

the Arctic Slope, together with their distribution, altitude 

range, abundance, flowering period, and habitat. This list is 

based on about 4,500 collections of plants made from 1945 

through 1951, supplemented by information of previous collections which is compiled in HulteVs flora of Alaska.

INTRODUCTION

Plant collections from the Arctic Slope of Alaska have 

been made periodically since 1826 (Hulten 1940). As 

ships were the prevalent means of transportation, and 

overland travel was very difficult in summer, especially 

across the coastal plain, almost all plant collections 

made before 1945 were from a narrow zone along the 

coast. Thus the foothills and mountains of the Arctic 

Slope remained relatively unexplored botanically until 

1945.

Since 1945 much of the interior of the Arctic Slope 

has been explored botanically in reconnaissance manner 

during the United States Navy's geologic exploration 

of Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4j the U. S. Geological 

Survey participated in that program as a cooperating 

agency, and the present report is a byproduct of that 

cooperative effort. Exploration parties traveled by 

small airplanes on skis, floats, or wheels; by amphibious

tracked vehicles (weasels), which can cross rivers as 

well as hills; and by folding boats, by means of which 

travel started near the mountain front and continued 

down many of the major rivers to the Arctic Ocean. 

Several supply and transportation centers, such as 

Point Barrow, Umiat, and Barter Island, were established by the Navy, from which one could fly to the 

most remote part of the Arctic Slope in a few hours. 

From 1945 to 1951, the Navy provided relatively 

complete aerial photographic coverage of northern 

Alaska, from which good maps were compiled by 

photogrammetric methods.

This vegetation study began in the summer of 1946 

and continued each summer thereafter through 1951. 

In 1946 and 1947, while a student at the University of 

Minnesota, the writer was a summer employee of the 

U. S. Geological Survey, and began a collection of 

Arctic plants. In 1948 and 1949 this study was supported by a grant from the Arctic Institute of North 

America. In 1950 and 1951 the writer was again 

employed by the Geological Survey and continued 

collecting and observing the Arctic flora. During this 

6-year period some 4,500 plants were collected from 

more than 50 localities on the Arctic Slope (fig. 4), of 

which about 3,000 were collected by the writer and 

1,500 by other persons, mostly fellow workers in the 

Survey.

These collections were critically studied at the 

herbarium of the University of Minnesota, under the 

guidance of Prof. W. S. Cooper, with assistance from 

several authorities on Alaskan plants, primarily Eric 

Hulten, of Sweden, and J. P. Anderson, of Iowa State 

College, both authors of works on the flora of Alaska 

(Hulten 1941-50; Anderson 1943-52).

The writer is grateful to the many persons who have 

contributed to this effort; to the Arctic Institute of 

North America, which furnished field expenses in 1948 

and 1949; also to the U. S. Navy and the U. S. Geological Survey, which made this exploration possible.

19
20 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53 

fe
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 21

ENVIRONMENT

The Arctic Slope of Alaska extends from the crest of 

the Brooks Range northward to the Arctic Ocean and 

from the Canada-Alaska boundary, 141° W., westward 

to Cape Lisburne. It extends more than 600 miles 

east-west and from 100 to 200 miles north-south; it 

constitutes one-seventh of Alaska, and is roughly equal 

in area to the State of Minnesota.

The Arctic Slope is divided into three physiographic 

provinces (Payne and others, 1951): the coastal plain, 

the foothills, and the northern slopes of the mountains. 

Each of these provinces has unique topography, geology, 

soil, vegetation, and to some extent climate.

COASTAL PLAIN

The coastal plain extends about 500 miles east-west 

and is as much as 100 miles wide; it ranges from sea 

level generally to about 500 feet and locally to 1,000 

feet in elevation. Parts of the coastal plain were below 

sea le^el as recently as the Quaternary period.

The coastal plain is extremely flat, poorly drained, and 

almost entirely underlain by permafrost from a few 

inches to a few feet below the surface. Frost polygons, 

in the form of shallow depressions as much as 50 feet in 

diameter, separated by low ridges, are prevalent, especially wherever there is vegetation cover. About onefifth of the coastal plain consists of lakes, which remain 

partly frozen until early July, and streams, which thaw 

in June and meander toward the coast in broad, shallow, 

braided, silty to sandy channels.

Surficial material of the coastal plain consists primarily of Quaternary deposits, as much as 250 feet thick, 

of unconsolidated gravel, sand, and clay, in most places 

overlying Upper Cretaceous conglomerate, sandstone, 

and shale. Locally east of the Colville River there are 

hills of unconsolidated Tertiary gravel.

Much of the coastal plain soil is coarse, derived from 

unconsolidated deposits, and generally contains reddishbrown plant remains near the surface. In broad shallow wet depressions, thin deposits of peat are common, 

mostly formed from sedges and mosses. Along flood 

plains and beaches there are clean mineral soils, sorted 

by wind and water.

The climate of the coastal plain (fig. 5; table 1) is 

modified by the adjacent Arctic Ocean. The average 

temperature of the 3 summer months, June through 

August, at Barrow is only 38°F; the average diurnal 

range during this period is 10°, and there are only about 

600 day-degrees above freezing during an entire summer. 

The average frost-free season, 17 days at Barrow, has 

no real significance, because plants are actively growing 

before and after this period, and the microclimate is 

frequently several degrees warmer than the air temperatures recorded.

During the summer months constant strong winds 

average more than 12 miles per hour, and 70 percent of 

the time cloudiness or fog prevails.

FOOTHILLS

The foothills are 10 to 100 miles in width and more 

than 500 miles east-west, narrowing at both ends. In 

elevation, they range from sea level near Cape Lisburne 

to about 2,500 feet along the mountain front. The 

foothills have been above sea level since the Early 

Cretaceous epoch, and for the most part were never 

glaciated. They consist of rolling hills and valleys, with 

moderately drained slopes and poorly drained lowlands. 

Most of the foothills, except possibly along large rivers, 

are underlain by permafrost within a few feet of the 

surface. Frost polygons, outlined by low ridges, are 

typical in lowlands, whereas vegetation hummocks, 

accentuated by frost action, are typical of the uplands. 

There are few lakes in the foothills, and large rivers 

meander down broad incised valleys.

The foothills consist of two subsections. The northern foothills are characterized by long parallel east-west 

ridges and valleys; the ridges commonly are formed of 

sandstone and conglomerate. The southern foothills 

have complex topography, forming isolated hills of sandstone and limestone separated by lowlands commonly 

underlain by softer rocks such as shale.

In the foothills three soil types are widespread: residual silty soils on the uplands, peat deposits in the 

wetter lowlands and depressions, and coarse sand and 

gravel alluvium along the flood plains. Sandy glacial 

outwash is also present locally in valleys near the mountain front. The residual soils, even though subjected to 

considerable frost action, have a characteristic profile. 

The A-horizon is generally dark brown, high in humus, 

acid, and is about 6 inches thick. The B-horizon is 

commonly light gray, silty, acid, and forms adobelike 

masses when dried; it is 1 to 2 feet thick, and locally is 

exposed at the surface in the form of frost boils. The 

C-horizon is perennially frozen, thus preventing downward drainage. Peat soils are formed of detritus of 

mosses, sedges, and small woody plants; they are 

usually permanently frozen a few feet below the surface. 

Alluvial soils contain strata of sand and boulders, and 

they thaw to a depth of several feet, especially where 

they have little plant cover along streams.

The foothills climate (fig. 4; table 1) is more suitable 

for plant growth than the climate of either the coastal 

plain or the mountains, primarily because it is warmer. 

From records compiled at Umiat and scattered field 

observations, the average summer temperatures are at 

least 10° warmer in the foothills than at Barrow or 

Barter Island on the coast. The foothills have more 

hours of summer sunshine, yet greater precipitation
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FIOUBK 5. Climatic data for the Arctic Slope. Average monthly temperature and precipitation at Barrow (29-year record) on the coastal plain and at Umiat (3-year record) in th
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 302 PLATE 7

A. NIGGERHEAD MEADOW COMMUNITY

Dominated by a tufted cottongrass, Eriophorum vaginatum spissum, this is the most common plant community in the foothills. Near Canning River, 2,000 feet elevation,

view west, August 1947.

B. WET SEDGE MEADOW AND OXBOW LAKE ON RIVER TERRACE 

Flat wet areas of sedge, Carex aquatilis, subdivided by darker ridges covered with willow, Salix richardsonii. Sagavanirktok River, 1,500 feet elevation, Jnly 1946.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 302 PLATE 8

Feltleaf willow, Salix alaxe

A. VEGETATION ON FLOOD PLAIN OF SMALL STREAM

msis, 3 to 5 feet high, near banks covered by cottongrass, Eriophorum scheuchzeri and horsetail, Eguisetum arvense.

basin, 1,000 feet elevation, July 1947.

Shaviovik River drainage

B. FLOOD-PLAIN WOODS 

Feltleaf willow, Salix alaxensis, 20 feet high. Umiat, Colville River, 350 feet elevation, August 1947.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 302 PLATE 9

A. DETAILED VIEW OF DRYAS-IACKEN DRY MEADOW 

Plants about 1 inch high. On moraine, south end of Tulugak Lake, July 1949. Detailed view, 1 meter square.

B. ZONE OF MOUNTAIN HEATHER ON SLOPE

Dry-meadow slope showing dark zone (center) of mountain heather, Cassiope tetragona, where snow accumulates, and light zone of Dryas octopetu/u-lichen vegetation

(above). Anaktuvuk Pass near Tulugak Lake, view north, July 1949.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PEOFESSIOKAL PAPER 302 PLATE 10

A. DETAILED VIEW OF VEGETATION ON SANDSTONE TALUS

Sparse growth of Dryopteris fragrans, Saxifraga tricuspidata, Hierochloe alpina, and lichens. Anaktuvuk Pass, mountain slope east of Tulugak Lake, 2,500 feet elevation,

July 1949. Detailed view, 1 meter square.

B. LAKE-MARGIN VEGETATION

Shallow southern end of Lake Peters showing cottongrass, Eriophorum angustifolium, sedge, Carex aquatiles. Lake is opaque from glacial rock flour. View east,

3,500 feet elevation, July 1948.
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 23

TABLE 1. Growing-season temperatures of stations on the coastal plain, foothills, and mountains 

[Items marked with an asterisk (*) indicate data lost. Field observations and IT. 8. Weather Bureau data for Barrow]

Station

1946 

Sagavanirktok River 

(foothills).

Barrow (coastal plain)

1947 

Shaviovik-Canning 

River (foothills).

Barrow (coastal plain)

1948 

Lake Schrader-Sadlerochit River 

(mountains) .

Barrow (coastal plain)

1950 

Noluck Lake (foothills)

Barrow (coastal plain)

Range

Max 

Min 

Mean

Max 

Min 

Mean

Max 

Min 

Mean

Max 

Min 

Mean

Max 

Min 

Mean

Max 

Min 

Mean

Max 

Min 

Mean

Max 

Min 

Mean

5-day temperature summaries (°F) for 

June

76 81 80 70 __ 65 

21 34 33 34 ._ 42 

47 56 55 54 48 50

33 42 53 47 52 48 

19 27 29 30 30 29 

26 34 36 35 38 35

76 70 74 74 74 60 

25 34 30 28 34 28 

42 47 47 46 50 43

32 34 34 32 41 40 

21 21 22 21 26 29 

25 29 28 27 35 34

50 50 55 55 60 55 

20 27 28 26 26 35 

33 33 38 37 43 44

37 33 37 36 38 40 

24 24 22 31 32 32 

27 27 27 32 33 33

46 60 58 66 (*) (*) 

26 29 35 42 (*) (*) 

39 41 45 52 47 44

35 37 42 41 40 49 

21 24 29 32 30 31 

30 30 35 36 34 39

July

75 85 84 75 78 76 

36 39 44 32 31 34 

50 55 64 52 51 54

43 73 61 59 60 50 

27 30 33 27 29 28 

34 47 45 35 38 39

62 54 84 84 84 72 

30 32 34 42 43 40 

44 42 61 62 60 51

40 39 58 61 53 50 

29 29 34 37 32 31 

34 34 41 49 41 39

60 65 68 74 70 75 

35 31 35 33 30 32 

47 46 52 49 44 49

62 62 57 70 42 51 

29 34 34 30 30 33 

38 45 45 42 33 40

(*) (*) (*) (*) (*) 60 

(*) (*) (*) (*) (*) 38 

53 64 58 58 62 49

46 48 49 48 59 38 

32 32 31 32 37 30 

38 40 39 40 47 35

August

59 82 78 78 60 __ 

30 30 31 37 32 __ 

51 56 48 52 44 ..

45 61 66 52 54 51 

28 31 28 31 29 31 

35 44 39 39 37 39

56 64 73 52 67 64 

31 25 31 28 27 34 

40 44 47 37 44 44

48 47 56 40 60 48 

33 33 34 32 37 32 

36 37 41 34 41 35

79 60 80 57 45 50 

36 34 29 20 14 23 

55 48 48 37 32 34

58 46 55 45 41 37 

35 36 29 27 26 23 

45 40 38 34 32 28

75 63 63 75 65 53 

40 33 36 42 30 29 

52 50 48 56 49 44

57 58 45 47 40 49 

29 33 31 31 31 31 

40 47 36 40 36 39

Frost-free period

June 3-July 24 

(52 days).

July 7-15 

(10 days).

July 3- Aug. 3 

(32 days).

July 9-30 (22 

days).

June 22-July 9 

(17 days).

July 5-19 (15 

days).

June 8-Aug. 

25 (78 days).

June 28-July 

13 (16 days).

than along the coast. Umiat has an average temperature 

from June through August of about 49°F, with a 

summer diurnal range of 20°, and it receives a total of 

about 1,800 day-degrees above freezing in summer. In 

July, days with a maximum temperature of 75°F are 

common, and freezing is relatively rare, though snow 

flurries occasionally occur in midsummer. Precipitation 

is scant, about 4 to 8 inches per year, with the greatest 

amount in summer in the form of light showers.

MOUNTAINS

The Brooks Range is the northerly continuation of 

the Rocky Mountain system. It is widest, highest, and 

most rugged in eastern Alaska, and it decreases in width 

and height westward, from about 9,000 down to 3,000 

feet elevation, over a distance of 500 miles. The lower 

north-south passes through the mountains are at about 

2,000 feet. These mountains were uplifted near the end 

of the Cretaceous period, and have since been continually above sea level. Pleistocene valley glaciation 

was widespread, and small glaciers persist today on some 

mountains which rise above 6,000 feet elevation.

In several valleys along the mountain front, commonly at about 3,000 feet elevation, are large, beautiful

483666-69 2

glacial lakes. Two large springs occur in the mountains, 

Shublik Springs near the Canning River and Tulugak 

Springs in Anaktuvuk Pass.

Exposed bedrock in these mountains includes great 

thicknesses of limestone, sandstone, conglomerate, and 

shale. Schist is also common in the east, as is basalt 

locally.

Because of glaciation, frost action, and rapid erosion 

of steep slopes by running water, little soil has accumulated, and vegetation is sparse in the mountains. Loose 

material is quickly carried down mountain streams into 

broad valleys, where extensive alluvial fans are formed. 

Moraine and outwash deposits are locally common 

along mountain valleys.

Little is known about the climate of the mountains, 

except that it is generally cooler than the adjacent 

foothills in summer. Climate is highly variable from 

place to place, but, in general, temperatures decrease 

with higher elevation. Slope exposure has a great 

influence on microclimate. Further complications are 

caused by convection currents upslope which sometimes cause summer thunder showers, wind channels 

along valleys, wind barriers, and rain shadows.
24 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

PLANT COMMUNITIES

The Arctic Slope lies in the zone where tundra vegetation predominates, north of the transcontinental 

coniferous forest, or taiga zone. Tundra vegetation 

consists of several plant communities which are characteristically treeless, and almost completely cover 

the ground. Where the vegetation is very sparse, 

as in the Brooks Range, rock desert is a more appropriate general name for the vegetation. The distinction 

between arctic and alpine tundra is impossible to make 

on the Arctic Slope, although several species of plants 

are restricted to alpine situations, and form what might 

be called alpine communities. Trees are not entirely 

lacking on the Arctic Slope; along larger valleys in the 

foothills and to a lesser extent in mountain valleys 

there are narrow belts of tree-sized feltleaf willow and, 

locally, balsam poplar. The white spruce-tree line 

along the southern slopes of the Brooks Range occurs 

usually between 1,000 to 2,000 feet elevation. There 

are no natural spruce on the Arctic Slope, but the 

writer in 1949 and 1950 transplanted a few to a southfacing slope at Umiat; they were still alive when last 

observed in 1951.

Six major kinds of plant communities are widespread 

on the Arctic Slope:

1. Niggerhead meadows

2. Wet sedge meadows

3. Dry upland meadows

4. Flood-plain and cutbank vegetation

5. Outcrop and talus vegetation

6. Aquatic vegetation of lakes

There are, naturally, local variations within these 

communities, transitional areas between communities, 

and local areas with other plant communities. Coastal 

plant communities were not sufficiently studied to 

develop generalized descriptions for them.

Plant communities, as described below, consist of 

natural associations of plants restricted, in general, 

to a typical habitat; that is, a close interrelationship 

between the vegetation, climate, soil, drainage, and, 

for some plants, rock type and slope.

NIGGERHEAD MEADOWS

The niggerhead meadow community (pi. 7A) is 

widespread on the Arctic Slope. It is characteristic of 

the elevated southern parts of the coastal plain; it is 

the dominant plant community in the foothills, where it 

continues for tens of miles over gently rolling hills, 

dissected locally by small drainageways lined with 

shrub willows; and it occurs locally along the lower 

slopes of mountain valleys to about 3,000 feet elevation.

These meadows are mostly on residual soil modified 

by frost action as previously described under foothill

soils. Drainage is fair, though water accumulates in 

holes dug down to the frozen layer, and the surface 

soil is usually saturated for a few weeks during the 

spring thaw in late May.

One plant dominates in niggerhead meadows, the 

tussock-forming cottongrass, Eriophorum vaginatum 

spissum, commonly called niggerhead. This species 

forms tussocks 6 to 10 inches across and equally high, 

separated by mossy channels a few inches wide. The 

tussocks flower very early in the growing season, from 

late May through June, at which time they are grazed 

by caribou. Locally, between the tussocks, small 

mounds or patches of bare soil, called frost boils, are 

squeezed to the surface by frost action. Lichens and 

mosses are common in niggerhead meadows.

Secondary plant species scattered through relatively 

closed stands of niggerheads include various grasses 

and sedges, small shrubs, and herbs.

Grasses and sedges:

Arctagrostis latifolia

Carex bigelowii

Luzula confusa

Poa arctica 

Small shrubs:

Betula nana exilis

Dryas integrifolia

Empetrum nigrum

Ledum palustre decumbens

Salix pulchra 

reticulata 

Herbs:

Eutrema edwardsii

Polygonum bistorta plumosum

Rubus chamaemorus

Saussurea angustifolia

Saxifraga hieracifolia 

punctato nelsoniana

Frost boils locally have a few small grasses and herbs.

Small grasses and herbs: 

Chrysosplenium wrightii 

Festuca brachyphylla 

Juncus biglumis

WET SEDGE MEADOWS

About half the area of the coastal plain and about 

one-quarter of the foothills are covered by wet sedge 

meadows (pi. 7.5), but in the mountains they are 

scarce. These meadows are characteristic of flat poorly 

drained lowlands, the margins of flood plains, and lake 

margins. They usually occur on peaty soil that remains saturated throughout the summer, and the surface is usually covered by a few inches of standing 

water. During summer the upper 1 to 2 feet of soil 

thaws, gradually melting downward and forming a 

level frozen subsurface to which one sinks when walking across these meadows. Frost polygons are well
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 25

developed, giving a paddy-field appearance of basins 

50 feet or more across, surrounded by low ridges 6 to 

12 inches high.

Carex is the dominant genus in the wet sedge meadows, comprising about three-fourths of the vegetation. 

Any of several species of sedge or cottongrass may 

dominate in a given part of a wet sedge meadow, because most of the dominant species expand by vegetative growth to form a local patch of only one or two 

species. The flatness of most wet sedge meadows makes 

the habitat within each polygon fairly uniform. Slight 

differences between neighboring polygons, such as water 

level, favors one species of sedge over another, with the 

result that the predominant species may differ in closely 

adjacent polygons. There are many mosses, a few 

minute liverworts, and generally no lichens in this 

community.

Carex aquatilis is usually as abundant as all the other 

Carices combined. This species has a wide habitat 

tolerance; it grows on flood plains, in wet meadows, 

along lake margins, in wet sand, or in peat. The 

largest plants grow as high as 18 inches in the foothills, 

but in the Point Barrow area this species is less than 6 

inches high.

Other sedges which dominate parts of wet sedge 

meadows include:

Carex chordorrhiza 

membranacea 

rariflora 

rotundata

Along the Arctic coast the grass Dupontiafischeri and 

the cottongrass Eriophorum scheuchzeri are locally 

dominant.

Secondary species, fairly common at least in some 

wet sedge meadows, include grasses, sedges, cottongrasses, rushes, small heath shrubs, small willows, 

various herbs, and horsetail. Some of these plants are 

typically found on the flat wet parts of the wet sedge 

meadow, whereas others, especially the shrubs, are 

typically found along the ridges which separate the 

polygonal depressions.

Grasses:

Alopecurus alpinus 

Dupontia fischeri psilosantha 

Hierochloe pauciflora 

Sedges:

Carex bicolor

capillaris

lachenalii

lugens

microglochin

misandra

physocarpa

williamsii

Gottongrasses:

Eriophorum angustifolium

callitrix

russeolum leucothrte 

Horsetail:

Equisetum palustre 

Rushes:

Juncus biglumis

triglumis

Scirpus caespitosus austriacus 

Small heath shrubs:

Andromeda polifolia 

Chamaedaphne calyculata 

Ledum palustre decumbens 

Oxycoccus microcarpus 

Small willows:

Salix fuscescens

pulchra

reticulata

richardsonii 

Herbs:

Cardamine pratensis 

Chrysosplenium tetrandrum 

Lysiella obtusata 

Pedicularis pennellii

sudetica

Petasites frigidus 

Pinguicula villosa

vulgaris

Rubus chamaemorus 

Saxifraga cernua

foliolosa

hirculus

Tofieldia pusilla 

Triglochin maritima 

Valeriana capitata

FLOOD-PLAIN AND OUTBANK COMMUNITIES

Extensive nearly level flood plains and steeply sloping 

cutbanks occur along major streams. The flood plains 

are usually several times the width of the stream under 

normal flow. The cutbanks occur where the stream 

undercuts the walls of the valley. Flood-plain soils 

are, for the most part, coarse gravel, sand, or silt sorted 

by alluvial action; cutbank surfaces are highly variable 

either of bedrock or unconsolidated material. When 

the streams thaw generally in late May to early June, 

the vegetation is partly destroyed on both flood plains 

and cutbanks by floods and floating ice masses, leaving 

bare surfaces upon which plants can readily become 

established later in the summer. Four successive stages 

of vegetation develop in this environment, in the following order: Pioneer stage, tall-shrub stage, low-shrub 

stage, and finally niggerhead meadows. These stages 

evolve as the habitat is gradually changed owing to 

downcutting of the streams, reactional effects of the 

vegetation, and variations in the permafrost level caused 

by insulating effects of the vegetation.

The pioneer or invasion stage is characterized by 

many kinds of plants (about 75 species at Umiat) both
26 EXPLORATION OP NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

woody and herbaceous, usually widely spaced with bare 

areas between individual plants (pi. 8A). Typical pioneer species include horsetails, grasses, sedges and 

rushes, shrubs, and many herbs, especially pinks, mustards, legumes, and composites. Most of these species 

are typical of both flood plains and cutbanks, but several 

are found only on one or the other.

Horsetails:

Equisetum arvense

variegatum 

Grasses:

Agropyron spp. 

Arctagrostis latifolia 

Bromus pumpellianus 

Calamagrostis inexpansa 

Deschampsia caespitosa 

Festuca altaica

rubra 

Hierochloe alpina

odorata 

Poa arctica

glauca

Trisetum spicatum 

Sedges and rushes: 

Carex aquatilis

membranacea

physodcarpa

rupestris 

Eriophorum angustifolium

scheuchzeri 

Juncus arcticus alaskanus

castaneus 

Luzula spp.

Shrubs:

Potentitta fruticosa 

Salix alaxensis

arbusculoides

niphoclada

pulchra

richardsonii

walpolei

Shepherdia canadensis 

Herbs:

Artemisia arctica

tilesii

Aster sibiricus 

Astragalus alpinus

umbellatus

Cardamine richardsonii 

Castilleja pallida 

Cerastium beeringianum 

Draba spp. 

Epilobium angustifolium

latifolium 

Erigeron spp. 

Erysimum pallasii 

Hedysarum alpinum americanum

mackenzii 

Lupinus arcticus 

Melandrium spp. 

Merckia physodes 

Minuartia spp.

Herbs Continued 

Oxytropis spp. 

Papaver macounii 

Parnassia kotzebuei 

Pedicularis spp. 

Phlox sibirica 

Polemonium spp. 

Saxifraga spp. 

Senecio lugens 

Solidago multiradiata 

Taraxacum spp. 

Zygadenus elegans

The tall-shrub stage, which develops several tens of 

years after the pioneer stage, usually on slightly elevated 

parts of the flood plain and along the base of cutbanks, 

consists of dense willows with a sparse undergrowth of 

shale-tolerant herbs, mosses, and lichens. The most 

conspicuous species, by reason of its size, is the feltleaf 

willow, Salix alaxensis (pi. SB), a sparsely branched 

tree 10 to 25 feet high, which spreads by vegetative 

growth to form clumps and patches. In addition to 

the shade effect, this stage has greater competition 

between species, increase in soil humus and litter, and 

cooler soil temperatures.

The principal species in the tall-shrub stage of the 

flood plains in the foothills include trees, shrubs 3 to 10 

feet high, herbs, and many mosses and lichens.

Trees:

Populus tacamahacca 

Salix alaxensis 

Shrubs:

Alnus crispa 

Salix arbusculoides

desertorum

glauca acutifolia

niphoclada

pulchra

richardsonii

walpolei 

Shepherdia canadensis

Herbs:

Aconitum delphinifolium 

Anemone richardsonii 

Astragalus eucosmus 

Dodecatheon frigidum 

Hedysarum alpinum americanum 

Parnassia palustris 

Pedicularis capitata

verticillata

Polemonium acutifiorum 

Polygonum viviparum 

Primula egaliksensis 

Pyrola grandifiora

secunda obtusata 

Valeriana capitata

Following the tall-shrub stage, the low-shrub stage is 

dominated by smaller willows and heath shrubs. Its 

development is correlated with continued accumulation
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 27

of organic debris, abundant growth of mosses, and reduction in the depth of soil thaw in summer because of 

the insulation blanket thus produced. The mossy 

layer is probably unsuitable for germination of many 

kinds of plants. The larger willows may persist locally, 

but gradually die out. On upper parts of cutbanks the 

pioneer stage is generally followed by the low-shrub 

stage.

The principal species in the low-shrub stage are 

shrubs and a few grasses and herbs.

Shrubs:

Arctostaphylos alpina rubra 

Betula nana exilis 

Cassiope tetragona 

Ledum palustre decumbens 

Rhododendron lapponicum 

Salix niphoclada 

pulchra 

richardsonii 

Vaccinium uliginosum

vitis-idaea 

Grasses and herbs:

Arctagrostis latifolia 

Eriophorum vaginatum spissum

With increased organic accumulation the low-shrub 

stage is gradually replaced with the very stable niggerhead meadow community. However, the low-shrub 

may persist for a considerable time on well-drained 

river terraces and steep cutbanks.

DRY UPLAND MEADOWS

This community is found along ridges and on rubble 

slopes, where bedrock is close to the surface, and on 

very porous soil, such as alluvial fans, and the driest 

parts of river terraces. The soil is generally coarse and 

mineral, containing a small amount of humus near the 

surface. Dry meadows are most common along the 

mountain front between 2,000 to 4,000 feet elevation, 

where in places they cover more than half the surface. 

The vegetation of dry meadows is somewhat sparse, 

and usually only a few inches high (pi. 9A) . Plant associations differ from one place to another, but Dryas 

octopetala and lichens are usually of primary importance. 

Dryas octopetala is a low-spreading mat plant a few 

inches high, with twisted prostrate woody stems and 

creamy flowers about an inch across.

Other than Dryas octopetala, there are many kinds of 

low plants, such as grasses, dry-land sedges and rushes, 

ground shrubs, and various herbs, especially pinks, 

saxifrages, legumes, and louseworts.

Grasses:

Arctagrostis latifolia 

Calamagrostis purpurescens 

Festuca brachyphylla, 

Hierochloe alpina

Sedges and rushes: 

Carex misandra 

obtusata

scirpoidea 

Kobresia myosuroides

simpliciuscula 

Luzula confuaa

Shrubs:

Empetrum nigrum 

Loiseleuria procumbens 

Rhododendron lapponicum 

Salix phlebophylla

reticulata

rotundifolia 

Vaccinium vitus-idaea

Herbs:

Bupleurum americanum 

Minuartia arctica

macrocarpa 

Oxytropis gracilis

maydelliana

nigrescens 

Pedicularis lanata

langsdorfii 

Phlox sibirica 

Polygonum viviparum 

Saxifraga flagellaris

oppositifolia

reflexa

Silene acaulis 

Tofieldia coccinea

Around the margins of outcrops of sandstone and 

conglomerate, which form east-west ridges in the 

Noluck Lake area, small rock fragments accumulate on 

moderate slopes. Rubble slopes that face south have 

two distinct seasonal aspects during the growing season 

and a considerably different vegetation than northfacing rubble slopes.

SOUTH-FACING HUBBUB SLOPES

The soil is warm, dry, and partly covered with drymeadow vegetation. The principal species is Dryas 

octopetala. The secondary species give the slopes a 

colorful rock-garden appearance.

Spring aspect, June:

Androsace ochotensis

Draba spp.

Erysimum pallasii

Hierochloe alpina

Kobresia spp.

Oxytropis nigrescens

Pedicularis lanata

Phlox sibirica

Silene repens 

Summer aspect, July:

Antennaria spp.

Arenaria capillaris

Arnica spp.

Astragalus lepagei
EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

Summer aspect, July Continued 

Bromus pumpelliamts 

Bupleurum americanum 

Calamagrostis purpurascens 

Carex rupestris 

Castilleja pattida 

Delphinium brachycentrum 

Dianthus repens 

Epilobium latifolium 

Erigeron spp. 

Potentilla spp. 

Taraxacum spp. 

Tofieldia coccinea

NORTH-FACING BUBBLE SLOPES

The soil is cool, moist, and almost completely covered 

with plants, primarily Dry as octopetala and saxifrages, 

with Cassiope tetragona in snow-accumulation areas 

(pi. 9J5). Vegetation is composed of moss, herbs, and 

low shrubs:

Arctostaphylos alpina rubra 

Astragalus umbellatus 

Diapensia lapponica obovata 

Empetrum nigrum 

Qeum glaciate 

Lloydia serotina 

Loiseleuria procumbens 

Lupinus arcticus 

Lycopodium selago adpressum 

Myosotis alpestris asiatica 

Oxytropis mertensiana 

Pedicularis langsdorfii 

Pyrola grandiflora 

Salix reticulata 

Saussurea angustifolia 

Saxifraga bronchialis funstonii

davurica grandipetala

eschscholtzii

serpyllifolia

tricuspidata

Senecio atropurpureus tomentosa 

Therofon richardsonii 

Vaccinium uliginosum

Patches of grass grow around ground squirrel diggings 

along ridge crests: 

Ardagrostis latifolia 

Poa arctica 

glauca 

Trisetum spicatum

COMMUNITIES ON OUTCROPS AND TALUS

Communities on outcrops and talus occur mainly 

in the higher parts of the foothills and in the mountains 

from about 1,500 to 4,500 feet elevation. Above 4,500 

feet most of the mountains are bare except for rock 

lichens, but a few flowering plants grow up to about 

6,000 feet.

The vegetation consists of only a scattering of plants, 

not combined into characteristic communities. Extensive areas of bare rock are exposed between patches 

of plants. Each plant, confined to a small pocket of

shallow rocky soil, finds little competition from other 

species.

Several minor varieties, related to differences in 

rock type and exposure, have been distinguished, but 

further study would undoubtedly reveal additional 

minor varieties.

LIMESTONE

Limestone, of the Lisburne group, which forms many 

rugged peaks in the Brooks Kange, appears ashy gray 

and barren from a distance. It is very resistant to 

weathering, and forms little soil (pH of about 7 to 8) 

which accumulates in crevices. This limestone has a 

very scant vegetation, chiefly of saxifrages:

Sasifraga caespitosa sileneflora 

davurica grandipetala 

oppositifolia 

tricuspidata

Scattered ferns, grasses, dwarf herbs, and mat shrubs 

are also common:

Androsace ochotensis 

Cystopteris fragilis 

Dryas octopetala 

Festuca brachyphylla 

Chytropis nigrescens 

Phlox sibirica 

Poa arctica 

Tofieldia coccinea 

Woodsia glabella

Dense patches of mountain heather, Cassiope tetragona, are found in snow-accumulation areas.

SANDSTONE AND CONGLOMERATE

Sandstone and conglomerate (pi. 10A), which form 

ridges along the mountain front, commonly appear 

greenish brown from a distance. They are resistant 

to weathering and form coarse soils with a pH of about 

5 to 7.

Various plants, such as Dryas octopetala, Saxifraga 

spp., or Smelkowskia calycina, are locally dominant on 

these rocks. Scattered about the coarse rock fragments 

are ferns, grasses, and small herbs:

Arenaria capillaris 

Dianthus repens 

Dryopteris fragrans 

Hierochloe alpina 

Kobresia myosuroides 

Luzula confusa 

Poa glauca 

Saxifraga bronchialis funstonii

davurica grandipetala

eschscholtzii

oppositifolia

serpyllifolia

tricuspidata 

Selaginella sibirica 

Silene acaulis

repens 

Woodsia glabella
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 29

SHALE

Shale outcrops generally consist of crumbling bare 

gray-black unstable slopes, usually with a stream 

undercutting the base. Shale is very weakly resistant 

to weathering and erodes rapidly. Very few plants 

can get a footing on such material, A few herbs, 

usually with deep tap roots, form a scattered growth 

locally:

Crepis nana 

Descurainia sophioides 

Epilobium angustifolium 

Ermania borealis 

Erysimum inconspicuum 

Oxytropis mertensiana

SCHIST

Schist outcrops generally appear bluish from a distance. They are moderately resistant to weathering, 

and form well-drained flaky soil. The vegetation of 

ferns, grasses, saxifrages, and low shrubs is somewhat 

similar to that found on sandstone:

Betula glandulosa 

Carex scirpoidea 

Cystopteris fragilis 

Dryopteris fragrans 

Empetrum nigrum 

Festuca brachyphylla 

Lycopodium selago adpressum 

Poa alpina

glauca

Salix rotundifolia 

Saxifraga davurica grandipetala

eschscholtzii

oppositifolia

refiexa

Selaginella sibirica 

Woodsia glabella

BASALT

Several exposures of reddish-brown basalt occur 

east of the Canning River. They are moderately resistant to weathering, and had a vegetation intermediate between that on limestone and sandstone, of 

ferns, grasses, and saxifrages:

Carex rupestris

scirpoidea 

Dryopteris fragrans 

Festuca brachyphylla 

Saxifraga bronchialis funstonii

eschschoUzii

tricuspidata 

Selaginella sibirca 

Woodsia glabella

AQUATIC COMMUNITIES OF LAKES

Almost all aquatic vegetation of the Arctic Slope 

occurs in lakes. On the coastal plain, broad generally 

shallow lakes make up about 20 percent of the surface. 

In the foothills and locally in the mountains oxbow 

lakes along major valleys are the predominant type.

Along the mountain front are several very large beautiful glacial lakes in valleys dammed by moraine, 

including from east to west Lake Peters (pi. 10.B) and 

Schrader, Sagavanirktok, Shainin, Chandler, and 

Kurupa Lakes. Lake bottoms are usually of organic 

muck, though some oxbow lakes have sandy bottoms 

and some mountain lakes have boulder bottoms. 

Lake shores are commonly surrounded by ice-push 

ridges as much as 6 feet high.

Rivers on the Arctic Slope do not contain higher 

plant vegetation except locally in backwaters. Most 

of the smaller streams dry up or freeze to the bottom 

in winter, and these have clean sand or gravel bottoms. 

Some streams, as the outlet of Lake Schrader, are 

perennial and have algae-covered rocky bottoms.

Two large perennial springs occur on the Arctic 

Slope, Tulugak Springs in Anaktuvuk Pass and Shublik 

Springs in the Canning River valley. These areas 

contain a few species of plants not found elsewhere 

in the region.

Very few kinds of higher aquatic plants grow on the 

Arctic Slope, and their distribution is erratic. Plant 

communities in each lake are usually arranged in concentric bands, corresponding to depth of water. Most 

vegetation is limited to water less than 4 feet deep, and 

the depth preferred by any given species decreases 

from the foothills northward into the more severe 

climatic conditions of the coastal plain. Each species 

forms an extensive colony, mostly by vegetative 

means, once it becomes established, thus excluding 

most other species. Two ecologic life forms occur, 

rooted submerged and rooted emergent aquatics. 

The former are relatively unimportant and usually 

lacking; the latter play an important part in the obliteration of lakes through the accumulation of peat. 

In small lakes, the remains of emergent aquatics from 

the lake margins accumulate, with the result that 

the water is gradually replaced by fibrous organic 

debris and the bottom gradually freezes to higher 

levels, which eventually permits the development of 

a mat of vegetation over the lake bed. Thus, a wet 

sedge meadow is finally formed.

In the spring growth of aquatic plants is retarded, 

owing to the slow warming of the water, but in the 

fall the water helps to protect the plants from freezing 

during early frosts.

The principal aquatic plants are submerged rooted 

aquatics, which grow in as much as 4 feet of water, 

emergent rooted aquatics, in 1 to 3 feet of water, and 

marginal emergent aquatics, in less than 1 foot of water.

Submerged rooted aquatics: 

Potamogeton spp. 

Ranunculus gmelini yukonensis 

Sparganiwn hyperboreum
30 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

Emergent rooted aquatics:

Arctophila fulva

Equisetum limosum

Hippuris vulgaris

Menyanthes trifoliata

Potentilla palustris

Ranunculus pattasii 

Marginal emergent aquatics:

Carex aquatilis

Eriophorum angustifolium

Caltha palustris arctica

Alopecurus alpinus

Sandy lake shores commonly have scattered plants 

on the beach, with willow thickets a few feet above lake 

level.

SUCCESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS

A single climax vegetation type does not exist for 

the entire Arctic Slope, because various parts of this 

area differ so greatly in topography, soil, geology, and 

climate. However, lines of succession leading to niggerhead meadow climax are fairly clear in the foothills, and 

possibly a second climax of Dn/as-liehen dry meadow 

occurs in the low mountains.

In the foothills the niggerhead meadow may be accepted as the climatic climax, for the following reasons:

1. Niggerhead meadow is by far the most extensive 

community, covering an estimated 60 percent of 

the foothills province, as well as parts of the 

coastal plain and mountains. It grows equally 

well on various kinds of soil, on ridges and in 

valleys, and on all slope exposures, as long as the 

gradient is moderate.

2. It is believed by the writer to have been little disturbed by climatic change or such agencies as 

fire for the past several centuries. Since the 

Cretaceous period this province has remained 

above sea level and most of it has not been glaciated. Thus, the vegetation has had time to develop considerable uniformity.

Field observations suggest convergence of several lines 

of succession, xerarch, mesarch, and hydrarch, into niggerhead meadow. This is summarized as follows:

Xerarch Mesarch Hydrarch 

(bedrock ridges') (flood plain) (lake)

Pioneer plants 

Crevice plants Tall shrubs Aquatic plants

I Low shrubs 4 

Low shrubs » Niggerhead meadow* Wet sedge meadow

The coastal plain is very young; parts of it were below 

sea level into the Quaternary period. Much of it has 

extremely poor drainage; wet sedge meadows occupy 

about half of the area. Coastal-plain vegetation does 

not show very clear lines of succession, and needs 

further study.

In the mountains atmospheric and soil conditions are 

very erratic. Slopes and ridges are unstable and poorly 

vegetated, whereas the valleys have been overrun by 

Quaternary glaciers and extensive Recent alluvial fans. 

The most widespread plant community between 2,000 

to 4,000 feet is the Dryas-lichen dry meadow, which 

may prove to be the climax vegetation for this area, 

which also is in need of further study.

REPRESENTATIVE LOCALITIES

Descriptions given here are of seven representative 

localities on the Arctic Slope in which rather intensive 

investigation was carried on. These are intended to 

supplement the general treatment just presented, by 

showing specific examples of vegetation consisting of 

several major and minor plant communities in mosaic. 

Local environmental factors and local terrain features 

of general interest are also described.

COASTAL PLAIN

BAHROW VILLAGE A3STD POINT BAHROW

Situation. Point Barrow (fig. 6) is the most northerly 

point of land in Alaska. For this reason it has attracted 

scientists for the past century. In the native village 

of several hundred people, houses are scattered with 

no special arrangement, as there are practically no 

streets. The houses have no underground wells or 

pipes because the soil is constantly frozen almost to 

the surface; however, underground rooms are used to 

store frozen meat. In favorable weather many of the 

natives live in tents along the sandy coastal beach. 

In general, they are a part of the natural environment, 

and do little to disturb natural vegetation.

The coastal plain around Barrow is flat and has many 

lakes. In July and August land travel is very difficult 

across this area. The Arctic Ocean is frozen during 

most of the year, and pack ice frequently lies along the 

shore in midsummer.

Point Barrow probably has the most severe climate 

of any part of the coastal plain. The average frost-free 

season is 17 days, the July average temperature is 

40°F, and there is no physiographic hindrance to the 

constant strong winds.

Vegetation. One hundred and eight species of higher 

plants have been identified within a few miles of 

Barrow. Plants are, for the most part, depauperate 

and poorly formed. One life form which seems to 

survive well here is the perennial, rhizomatous grass 

with shallow roots. This sort of plant has sufficient 

underground storage tissue to develop new leaves in 

short favorable periods and has strongly developed 

vegetative reproduction; it is protected during winter 

by even a thin snow.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PEOFESSIONAI, PAPER 302 PLATE 11

A. ALONG SMALL INTERMITTENT DRAINAGE IN THE FOOTHILLS

Stream margin zone of sedges, Carex aquatilis and Petasites frigidus; higher zone of willow shruhs, Salix pulchra and S. richardsonii, about 3 feet high. West side of

Shaviovik River drainage basin, view east, 700 feet elevation, June 1947.

B. ALONG ENTRENCHED STREAM, LOOKING WEST

North-facing (left) side with mountain heather, Cassiope tetragona and dwarf birch, Betula nana, above the snowfield; willow mats, Salix polaris and S. reticulata, a 

few inches high, below the snow; willow shrubs, Salix alaxensis and S. richardsonii, 5 to 10 feet high, along the stream; and willow clumps, Salix niphoclada, 

2 feet high, on the south-facing (right) slope. West side of Sadlerochit River, 2,000 feet elevation, late July 1948.

VEGETATION ZONES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 302 PLATE 12

VEGETATION OF SANDY OUTWASH WITH BLOWOUTS

Feltleaf willow. Salix alaxensis (left center), and low willow thickets, Salix niphoclada, S. viulpoei, and 5. glaucn acutifolia, Anaktuvuk River near Tulugak Lake,

view west, 1,800 feet elevation, July 1948.
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 31

156°30'

Base from U.S.Coast and Geodetic Survey map 156°30'

EXPLANATION

Moist polygonal meadow Upland meadows on moderately

drained ridges and valley slopes

Sandy beach

Wet sedge meadow

Inhabited area

FIGURE 6. Coastal plain vegetation at Point Barrow area.

Wet sedge meadows around Barrow Village and Point 

Barrow are numerous along the margins of lakes and 

in poorly drained depressions. Carex aguatilis seems 

to be the most common species, but very few fruiting 

plants were observed during the 1949 growing season. 

Fruits are probably formed only in favorable years. 

Plants locally important in wet sledge meadows include 

grasses, Alopecurus alpinus, Dupontia fischeri, and

488606 69 3

cottongrasses, Eriophorum russeolum leucothrix, E. 

scheuchzeri. Also common are Arctic holygrass, 

Hierochloe pauciftora, and bog lousewort, Pedicularis 

sudetica.

Aquatic plants occur in shallow water along the 

margins of small lakes and ponds, namely: Arctophtta 

Julva, Caltha palustris arctica, in places submerged 

with floating leaves, Carex aguatilis, Eriophorum
32 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

angustifolium, Hippuris vulgaris, Ranunculus gmelini 

yukonensis, E. pallasii, and Sparganium sp.

East of Barrow the lakes and lowlands are separated 

by moist grassy polygonal meadows, and better drained 

low ridges and stream valley slopes, sparsely covered 

with depauperate plants, mostly less than 3 inches 

high. Common plants of these meadows include:

Car ex misandra 

Luzula confu&a 

Pedicularis lanata

langsdorfii 

Petasites frigidus 

Salix ovalifolia camdensis

rotundifolia 

Saxifraga hierachifolia

oppositifolia 

Vaccinium iritis-idaea

A few miles southwest of Barrow sea cliffs of silt 

rise to 15 feet in elevation. Actively eroding slopes 

of silty soil face the sea and border small gullies which 

dissect the cliff. On these fresh surfaces a scattered 

growth of small herbs grow:

Juncus biglumis 

Oxyria digyna 

Polygonum viviparum 

Ranunculus pygmaeus 

Saxifraga rivularis

On the drier uplands between gullies grow Festuca 

brachyphytta and Rumex arcticus.

A coastal strip of sand extends from Barrow Village 

for 5 miles to the northeast, and beyond this a sandspit 

continues another 5 miles to Point Barrow. Along the 

northwest side of these sands no plants grow near the 

water, but several feet above sea level are dense grassy 

patches of Elymus arenarius mollis and scattered mats 

of Honchenka peploides and Mertensia martima. In 

small depressions, protected from the wind, lichen 

colonies have developed. On the southeast side of the 

sandspit, bordering Elson Lagoon, slight depressions 

provide sufficient protection for the development of 

scattered stands of small herbs:

Cochlearia officinalis 

Ranunculus pygmaeus 

Saxifraga rivularis

caespitosa sileneflora 

Cerastium beeringianum 

Papaver sp. 

Draba lactea

Larger depressions, giving better protection, exhibit 

a grassy community of Alopecurus alpinus, ArctophUa 

fulva, and Dupontia fischeri, with lesser amounts 

of Poo, arctica, Calamagrostis neglecta, Pucdnellia 

paupercula, Salix pukhra, and Potentilla emerginata.

On the west brackish shore of the sandspit bordering 

Elson Lagoon the only important higher plant is a 

small grass, Pucdnellia phryganoides.

Around the native village the ground is somewhat 

disturbed where natives excavate cellars and dig sod 

blocks. Common invaders following disturbance include:

Phippsia algida 

Oxyria digyna 

Cochlearis officinalis 

Ranunculus pygmaeus

AJJAKTAK

Situation. Alaktak is about 50 miles southeast of 

Point Barrow and about 10 miles from the coast. It 

is in a very flat area covered with lakes, wet meadows, 

and meandering streams. During spring flooding by 

the Ikpikpuk Kiver most of this area is submerged. A 

solitary reindeer ranchhouse is on a low sandhill, perhaps 10 feet higher than the surrounding flat. This 

hill is composed of relatively clean sand, probably deposited by wind which eroded the sandy and silty 

flood plain of the Ikpikpuk Kiver, a few hundred yards 

to the west of the ranchhouse. Other similar sandhills 

3 miles to the east are obviously small dunes.

About 60 percent of this area is wet sedge meadow, 

30 percent lakes, and 10 percent flood plain and dunes. 

Soils here include alluvial silt and sand, windblown 

sand, and peat.

Vegetation. Wet sedge meadows here are dominated 

by sedges, primarily Carex aquatilis. In addition these 

areas have 

Alopecurus alpinus 

Carex chordorrhiza

lachenalii

membranacea

rariflora

Chrysosplenium tetrandrum 

Dupontia fischeri 

Eriophorum scheuchzeri 

Pedicularis sudetica 

Saxifraga foliolosa

Aquatic species growing in the lakes were about the 

same as those found at Barrow, but individual plants 

were somewhat larger. Along the flood plain are 

patches of willows as much as 2 feet high, including:

Salix alaxensis 

anglorum 

arctica 

niphoclada 

ovalifolia camdensis 

pulchra 

reticulata 

richardsonii
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLO?E OF ALASKA

Between the small patches of willows were scattered 

herbs including 

Chrysanthemum huronense 

Equisetum arvense

variegatum

Juncus arcticus alaskanus 

Merckia physodes 

Parnassia kotzebuei 

Senedo congestus 

Taraxacum lacerum 

Valeriana capitata

Sandhills were thickly populated with colorful flowering plants when observed in early August. The 

species seen were as follows:

Anemone panriflora 

Antennaria ongustata 

Arctagrostis latifolia 

Armeria martitima 

Astragalus alpinus

umbellatus 

Campanula uniflora 

Cardamine pratensis

richardsonii 

Carex maritima 

Cerastium beeringianum 

Chrysanthemum integrifolium 

Delphinium brachycentrum 

Descurainia sophioides 

Draba spp. 

Dryas integrifolia 

Erigeron eriocephalus 

Festuca brachyphylla 

Melandrium apetalum 

Minuartia arctica 

Papaver alboroseum

radicatum 

Parrya nudicaulis 

Pedicularis capitata

lanata

langsdorfii 

Poa arctica

Ranunculus pedatifidus affinis 

Saussurea angustifolia 

Saxifraga hieracifolia

nivalis

oppositifolia

punctata nelsoniana 

Senedo alropurpureut frigidus 

Silene acaulis 

Stellaria laeta 

Trisetum spicatum *

Two miles north of the ranchhouse, on the southern 

margin of a lake which has been pirated by a stream 

meander, are silty erosion slopes 6 feet high. Small 

herbs found on these slopes include:

Oxyria digyna 

Ranunculus lapponicus 

Epilobium anagallidifolium

FOOTHILLS

NOLUCK

Situation. Noluck Lake (fig. 7) is in the southwestern part of the foothills about 200 miles west of 

Umiat, 160 miles east of Cape Lisburne, and 6 miles 

north of the mountains. The lake is about 2 miles 

long, 1 mile wide, and about 10 feet deep; it is 2,200 

feet above sea level. The east-west depression in which 

the lake is situated primarily consists of shale; parallel 

ridges of sandstone and conglomerate, rising as much 

as 500 feet higher than the lake, are north and south 

of it. Rocks surrounding Noluck Lake are Early 

Cretaceous.

The drainage from an area of about 8 square miles 

flows into Noluck Lake, and Meridian Creek flows out 

of the lake over a bedrock outlet. Meridian Creek 

flows northward hi a narrow incised channel to the 

Colville River. Few lakes occur in this general area.

No trees grow around the margins of the lake, but 

old willow logs as large as 3 inches hi diameter were 

found in some of the eroding lake banks beneath 5 to 

10 feet of alluvial sediment.

Evidence of former human inhabitants occurs in 

middens containing much chipped and charred bone, 

mostly of caribou, associated with chert stones formed 

into cutting tools. These were found along the western 

shore of the lake beneath 6 to 18 inches of peaty soil; 

chipped chert fragments were also found along rocky 

ridges which overlook the lake. More recent Eskimo 

camp remains, such as antler tent stakes and white 

spruce logs, probably carried here from the south side 

of the range, were also found. A well-preserved muskox skull was dug from a streambank south of the lake 

below 10 feet of frozen silt, and mammoth leg bones 

were collected from the Storm Creek flood plain.

One and one-half miles west of the lake is the westernmost tributary of the Colville River, Storm Creek, 

which drains the area around Thunder Mountain 10 

miles to the south. During summer this somewhat 

braided stream is about 25 feet wide and 1 foot deep. 

Willows grow to a height of 5 feet along its valley.

The frost-free season in 1950 lasted 78 days, and the 

average July temperature was 57°F. Ice on the lake 

began to break up on June 20 and was completely gone 

by July 3. The highest temperatures, the greatest 

development of plants, and the period during which 

clouds of mosquitoes was prevalent was from June 25 

to July 25. The first fall frost came with a light snow 

on August 25 . Some plants were hi bloom from May 1 7 

until early September.

Vegetation. Niggerhead meadows cover most of the 

moderately rolling uplands. Grasses, herbs, and low 

shrubs grow between the tufts of niggerhead cotton-
34 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

. . . .'.'.'. . . ' . 'Sandstone' .'.'.'. ' ^i

I

Base compiled from aerial 

photographs

160 45'

EXPLANATION

Niggerhead meadow Dry meadows, including vegetation 

on outcrops and rubble

Wet sedge meadow

Flood-plain vegetation Late ice and snow areas Crests and divides

FIGTJEE 7. Foothills vegetation at Noluck Lake.
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 35

grass. Many small drainageways with intermittent 

streams occur throughout the rolling niggerhead meadows (pi. 11 A). These are usually small linear depressions, 6 to 15 feet below the surrounding level, which 

remain partly filled with snow somewhat later in spring 

than the surrounding meadows. Two minor plant communities grow along these drainageways; in the lowest 

part the vegetation, grassy in aspect, consists of sedges 

and herbs:

Anemone richardsonii 

Caltha palustris arctica 

Carex aquatilis

lachenalii

membranacea 

Equisetum arvense

variegatum 

Eriophorum angustifolium

scheuchzeri 

Juncus castaneus 

Ranunculus nivalis 

Saxifraga cernua

hirculus

Along the sides of these depressions are dense low 

willow thickets, Salix pulchra, with a colorful herbaceous undergrowth:

Aconitum delphinifolium 

Anemone parviflora 

Artemisia spp. 

Astragalus umbellatus 

Carex montanensis 

Cerastium beeringianum 

Corydalis pauciflora 

Dodecatheon frigidum 

Logotis glauca stelleri 

Myosotis alpestris asiatica 

Pedicularis capitata 

Petasites frigidus 

Polemonium acutiflorum 

Polygonum bistorta plumosum 

Salix reticulata

Saxifraga punctata nelsoniana 

Valeriana capitata

Most of the dry meadows around Noluck Lake occur 

on rubble slopes, where bedrock closely underlies the 

surface, and drainage is good. Locally dry meadows 

have the aspect of a well-kept rock garden. There 

seems to be little competition between plants; individuals do not generally touch one another. About half 

of the higher plant cover consists of mats of Dryas 

octopetala. In addition there was a scattering of many 

other species, which showed some preference for northor south-facing slopes, as described in the generalized 

section. On south-facing sandstone block talus of Tent 

Mountain on the south side of Noluck Lake, the most 

common plant is Smelowskia calycina, integrifolia.

Lowlands, saturated during most of the summer and 

containing wet sedge meadows, cover extensive areas 

around Noluck Lake. Some of these, though not all,

483666 5» i

represent former lake beds. The vegetation is similar 

to that described under major plant communities.

Around the border of Noluck Lake, submerged in 

about 3 feet of water with a sandy bottom, Potamogeton 

pectinatus grows. In shallower parts of this and other 

small lakes is a grassy growth of emergent aquatics, 

such as:

Arctophila fulva 

Caltha palustris arctica 

Carex aquatilis 

Eriophorum angustifolium 

Hippuris vulgaris 

Potentilla palustris 

Ranunculus gmelini yukonensis

hyperboreus

pallasii 

Sparganium hyperboreum

The roots of these plants usually form in the water 

a tangled fibrous mat, insufficient to support the weight 

of a man, which extends downward about 2 feet to a 

frozen layer below. The transition from aquatic vegetation to wet sedge meadow occurs in some places.

Along Storm Creek, west of Noluck Lake, there are 

sand and gravel flood plains. Most of these support 

patches of willows, 2 to 5 feet high, including 

Salix alaxensis 

niphoclada 

pulchra 

walpolei

Beneath the willows and scattered over the sands are 

many colorful herbs and grassy plants 

Arnica spp. 

Artemisia spp. 

Aster sibiricus 

Astragalus alpinus

umbellatus 

Carex aquatilis

membranacea 

Cardamine bellidifolia 

Castilleja pallida 

Cerastium beeringianum 

Crepis nana 

Draba spp. 

Equisetum spp. 

Erigeron purpuratus 

Festuca altaica

Hedysarum alpinum americanum 

Juncus castaneus 

Luzula confusa 

Melandrium taylorae 

Merckia physodes 

Oxytropis spp. 

Papaver macounii 

Parnassia kotzebuei 

Pedicularis capitata 

Polygonum bistorta plumosum 

Senecio spp. 

Stellaria spp. 

laraxacum spp.
36 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

Moderately late-melting snow patches (pi. lljB) provide seepage downslope late into summer, and commonly have a vegetation mat dominated by mountain 

heather, Cassiope tetragona. In places, however, where 

the snow barely melts by the end of summer, as in deep 

gullies, or on steep north-facing slopes seldom reached 

by the sun, vegetation is almost absent. The species 

which occur sparsely in very late snow patches are 

Oxyria digyna 

Phippsia algida 

Poa paucispicula 

Ranunculus nivalis

pygmaeus 

Saxifraga caespitosa silenefiora

rivularis

UMIAT

Situation. Umiat airstrip is on a river terrace on the 

north side of the Colville River 3 miles west of Umiat 

Mountain (elev 915 feet), a landmark which from the 

south looks like an overturned boat. The river valley 

is 2% miles wide at this point, and the valley flat is 

about 350 feet in elevation. The Colville River flows 

east, is usually very clear, and is confined to a few channels, the widest of which is one-fourth to one-half mile 

across and about 10 feet deep in summer. The riverbed consists of clean sand and gravel, and there are no 

higher aquatic plants in the main channels.

The flood plain is made up of gravel bars, sand bars, 

and higher islands which are under water only in spring 

floods. Many of the bars are barren and level enough 

for the landing of small airplanes on wheels. Willow 

trees and shrubs are common on the islands.

Along the valley, terraces stand well above the river 

under normal conditions. On these terraces are shrub 

thickets or wet sedge meadows, depending on local 

drainage. Old stream meander scars with oxbow lakes 

are also common features. The largest meander scar 

is between Umiat and the north side of the valley; the 

scar contains within a 3-mile span 12 fairly large oxbow 

lakes. The largest, Umiat Lake, is 1 mile long.

Cutbanks and bluffs are common along the river 

where it flows against the sides of the valley. The 

largest of these is a steep slope from the top of Umiat 

Mountain (915 ft) down to the river (350 ft). Talus 

slopes have formed along former cutbanks. Outcrops 

of sandstone preserve fairly steep bluffs along the 

valley.

The rolling hills away from the valley are covered 

with niggerhead tundra, except along small ephemeral 

streams and on widely scattered ridges where bedrock 

is at or near the surface. In these places shrub willows 

occur.

Soils of the valley are mostly coarse alluvium or peat, 

whereas those of the rolling hills away from the valley 

are mainly residual and silty. Solifluction is pronounced 

on Red Hill a few miles northwest of Umiat; some of the 

red silty unstable soil is almost without vegetation.

Vegetation. Two hundred fifty species of higher 

plants grow within a few miles of Umiat. Niggerhead 

meadows, essentially as already described under major 

plant communities, cover about 80 percent of the rolling 

hills away from the Colville valley, with willowbrush 

following small drainageways.

Flood plains and cutbanks have the vegetation features previously described in the generalized section 

(p. 25), including barren flood-plain bars with scattered 

plants, willow woods, alderbrush, willowbrush, and 

niggerhead meadows.

At Umiat the aquatic vegetation in 20 oxbow lakes, 

averaging about one-eighth mile in length and 2 to 6 

feet in depth, was compared and found to be highly 

variable. Sparganium hyperboreum, Hippuris vulgaris, 

Menyanthes trifoliata, and Potentilla palustris were 

found in about two-thirds of the lakes, all but the last 

forming pure stands. The following plants grew in 

only one-tenth of the lakes:

Ranunculus pallasii

gmelini yukonensis 

Utricularia macrorhiza 

Equisetum limosum 

Caltha palustris arctica 

Arctophila fulva

Concentric zonation was evident in all lakes, but the 

patterns were variable. No submerged rooted aquatics 

were observed, though Potamogeton was collected from 

other lakes near Umiat. The free-floating Utricularia 

grows in shallow water. Sparganium, with floating 

leaves, is in the deepest water about 3 feet. At 2-foot 

depth Menyanthes, Equisetum, and Arctophila occur in 

various combinations; at 1 foot, Potentilla and Hippuris 

dominated. Car ex aquatUis and Eriophorum angustifolium grow around all the lakes. This zonation suggests an order of succession, with the lake eventually 

changing to a Carex-Eriophorum wet sedge meadow.

Wet sedge meadows occur on the river terraces, especially between lakes along old meander scars. They 

are divided into polygonal areas 10 to 50 feet across by 

small ridges as much as 1 foot high formed by frost 

action. A few inches of water stands within the polygons, usually fairly uniform in depth within individual 

polygons. Few plant species grow in any one polygon. 

Carex is most abundant in the centers of the polygons, 

whereas Salix is most important along the intervening 

ridges.
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 37

Three miles north of Umiat, as well as locally elsewhere in this area, sandstone is exposed along high 

ridges. Certain plants of alpine affinity grow here:

Anemone patens multifida 

Arctostaphylos alpina rubra 

Betula gladulosa 

Cystopteris fragilis 

Diapensia lapponica obovata 

Kobresia myosuroides

simpliciuscula 

Loiseleuria procumbens 

Lycopodium selago adpressum 

Tofieldia coccinea 

Woodsia glabella

Solifluction slopes poorly covered with vegetation 

occur on Red Hill. Species growing here include:

Dryas integrifolia 

Elymus innowtus 

Minuartia macrocarpa 

Saxifraga oppositifolia 

Silene acaulis 

Spirea beauverdiana

Silty erosion slopes along Bearpaw Creek had scattered Descurainia sophioides. Owing to the activities 

of the white man and earth-moving machines, scattered 

areas near Umiat have been stripped of their natural 

vegetative cover or burned. The area of the airstrip 

has had an interesting development. The soil here is 

fine sand, pH 6.2. In 1947, I saw only two plants of 

Senecio congestus near Umiat; in 1950 both sides of the 

airstrip were lined with a vigorous weedy growth 3 

feet high, of this species.

MOUNTAINS 

RIVER NEAR EASTER CREEK*

On a steep south-facing slope along a tributary 

stream, at an elevation of 3,000 feet, is a small grove of 

Populus tacamahacca. The average height of the trees 

was 8 feet, the maximum 12; the diameter 1% to 2 

inches. This is the highest elevation at which balsam 

popular has been found on the Arctic Slope.

On the north face of a summit ridge, on quartzite, 

shale, and sandstone rubble at 6,100 feet elevation 

the highest elevation from which higher plants have 

been collected thus far on the Arctic Slope sparse 

growth of the following species was found.

Luzula confusa

Potentilla elegans

Saxifraga bronchialis funstonii

serpyllifolia 

Selaginella sibirica 

Smelowskia calycina integrifolia

1 Observations by Arthur Lachenbruch in 1949.

ANAKTLVUK PASS NEAR TUTiUGAK LAKE

Situation. The pass (elev 1,800 ft) was studied 

along the north side around Tulugak Lake (fig. 8) 

where the valley is about 46 miles wide, with mountains 

rising 3,000 to 4,000 feet higher on both sides. Alluvial 

fans occupy about one-third of the valley on either side, 

with the central third occupied by the Anaktuvuk 

River and its flood plain, plus moraine and outwash 

deposits containing many pit lakes. Anaktuvuk River, 

which has a bed of fine sand, is shallow and turbid. 

Small dunes and blowouts (pi. 12) have developed 

especially on the north side of stream meanders. 

Mountains along the sides of the valley are limestone 

of the Lisburne group and conglomerate and sandstone 

of the Noatak formation. Tulugak is a deep lake 

about 1 mile long and K mile wide and is fed by the 

large perennial Tulugak Springs along its east side.

Vegetation. The most widespread plant community 

at lower elevations in Anaktuvuk Pass is the Dryaslichen dry meadow, which is found on rubble slopes, 

alluvial fans, and well-drained outwash. This vegetation is usually about 1 inch high, and about 90 percent 

of the higher plant cover is Dryas octopetala. Other 

species found are as follows:

Anemone parviflora 

Arnica spp.

Bupleurum americanum 

Carex capillaris

rupestris

scirpoidea 

Hierochloe alpina 

Kobresia myosuroides 

Lupinus arcticus 

Oxytropis maydelliana

nigrescens

Pedicularis capitata 

Polygonum viviparum 

Silene acaulis 

Tofieldia coccinea

True niggerhead meadow is not extensive at these 

higher elevations; it occurs only locally on alluvial 

slopes with seepage. The following species were found 

in association:

Carex aquatilis

bigelowii

membranacea 

Dryas integrifolia 

Eriophorum angustifolium

vaginatum spissum 

Salix reticulata

Many areas intermediate in moisture conditions 

between the J9n/as-lichen dry meadows and moist 

niggerhead meadows, such as well-drained alpine 

slopes and river terraces, support a low woody growth
38 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM BESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

151°30' 151°20'

151°30' Base compiled from aerial photographs 151°20'

EXPLANATION

Dry meadows, 

local brush

Wet sedge meadow

Flood-plain vegetation Shifting sand

w

Willow

p

Poplar

Icefield

A

Alder

Sparse vegetation 

on outcrops and talus

Landform boundary

?

Spring

FIQUEE 8. Mountain vegetation at Anaktuvuk Pass.
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 39

of willow, birch, and heath shrubs, with herbaceous 

undergrowth.

Willow, birch, and heath shrubs: 

Arctostaphylos alpina rubra 

Betula nana exilis 

Cassiope tetragona 

Dryas integrifolia 

Rhododendron lapponicum 

Salix arctica 

reticulata

Herbaceous undergrowth: 

Anemone parvifiora 

Astragalus umbellatus 

Equisetum palustre 

Hedysarum alpinum americanum 

Polygonum viviparum 

Tofieldia pusilla

Near the base of the alluvial fans, where seepage 

occurs, there is tall brush of feltleaf willow, Salix 

alaxensis, and some alder Alnus crispa, the former with 

an undergrowth of common horsetail, Equisetum 

arvense. Near the southwest end of Tulugak Lake, on 

a south-facing bank, is a small stand of Populus tacamahacca 10 feet tall, 3 inches in diameter, and about 30 

years old. The flood-plain habitat is poorly developed 

along Anaktuvuk River in the pass, for the river is 

incised with few bars on which plants can become 

established.

In the lowlands along the river are scattered wet 

sedge meadows, where the soil had a pH range from 

4.3 to 6.5. Carex aquatilis was the most common 

species; the following were also growing:

Andromeda polifolia 

Carex chordorrhiza

membranacea

misandra

rariflora

rotundata

Equisetum palustre 

Eriophorum scheuchzeri 

Juncus biglumis

triglumis

Pedicularis sudetica 

Rubus chamaemorus 

Salix reticulata

richardsonii

No higher aquatic plants were found in Tulugak 

Lake. However, in a shallow lake, about 1 mile southwest of Tulugak Lake, two concentric zones occurred; 

in the deepest water ArctophUa fulva with some Sparganium hyperboreum formed a zone about 75 feet wide; 

next to shore was a zone about 20 feet wide of Eriophorum angustifolium with some Hippuris vulgaris, 

Alopecurus alpinus, and Caltha palustris. On the shore 

were willows, Salix alaxensis and S. richardsonii, as 

much as 10 feet high.

Vegetation on outcrops and talus showed some variation correlated with type of rock. The vegetation on 

limestone and on sandstone differed considerably, 

though Dryas octopetala was important on both. On 

sandstone and conglomerate the vegetation is noticeably denser than on limestone. Late snow areas were, 

as usual, characterized by Cassiope tetragona; other 

heaths were sometimes found with it.

TiATTR SCHRAJDER AND TjATTK PETERS

Situation. Lake Schrader and Lake Peters south of 

it are two large connected lakes in a deep glacial trough. 

They are separated from one another by a glaciofluvial fan formed by Snake Creek, which flows into the 

lakes from the west. The lakes are at an elevation 

of about 3,500 feet, and each lake is about 7 miles long 

and 2 miles wide. Mountain streams fed by melting 

snow and small glaciers flow into the lakes, and the 

lake fork of the Sadlerochit River flows northward out 

of Lake Schrader. The water of Lake Peters is opaque 

from glacial rock flour; Lake Schrader is clear, its 

bottom is covered with clean boulders, and along its 

margin are ice-push ridges, as much as 6 feet high, containing boulders as large as 2 feet in diameter. In 

1948 ice covered parts of these lakes until July 18.

Mountains surround the lakes on all but the north 

side; the highest is Mount Chamberlin, 9,131 feet high, 

a few miles southeast. Around Lake Peters most of the 

mountains are of schist of the Neruokpuk formation, 

but around Lake Schrader there is also limestone of the 

Lisburne group. Lateral moraine deposits form low 

hills along the sides of the lakes, and a moraine dam 

establishes the north end of Lake Schrader.

In 1948 the terminus of the glacier on Mount Chamberlin was at about 4,500 feet, and along Glacier Creek, 

the valley below the glacier, there is a series of moraines 

containing boulders as large as 10 feet in diameter.

Vegetation. The vegetation of these mountains is 

very complex, with local variation due to bedrock, soil 

accumulation, slope exposure, drainage, and difference 

in elevation.

From an elevation of 3,500 to 4,000 feet the vegetation 

cover, made up of about 150 species of higher plants, 

was in most places complete. Dry meadows were most 

extensive, with minor amounts of niggerhead meadow, 

lake-margin wet sedge meadows, and flood-plain communities. Over the rocky glacial moraines, a thin soil 

has formed on which there was no general dominance, 

but local concentrations of Dryas, Salix, Cassiope, 

Minuartia, and heath shrub communities. Alluvial 

flood plains and fans supported vegetation similar to 

the generalized flood-plain community previously described but with fewer species. Salix alaxensis was 6 

feet high near Lake Peters. It was not found above
40 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

4,000 feet; at this elevation it grew about 2 feet high. 

Between 4,000 and 5,000 feet most of the vegetation, 

consisting of about 80 species is confined to rock crevices 

and the borders of small mountain streams. Many 

of the stream-margin species are sparsely represented 

along a few streams, and some streams have bare bedrock channels. On north-facing slopes with late snow 

patches Cassiope tetragona is the dominant species, but, 

in general, the most widespread genus in this elevational 

zone is Saxifraga. Slopes on these mountains, facing 

in various directions, are as steep as 30° or more, and 

little soil accumulates. Permafrost is absent in the 

thin layer of soil and rock fragments overlying the bedrock, and drainage is excessive. Many plant communities are localized around seepage from snowfields 

at higher elevations. The important species of Saxifraga hi this zone are 

Saxifraga bronchialis funstonii 

caespitosa sileneflora 

davurica grandipetala 

eschscholtzii 

flagettaris 

oppositifolia 

punctata nelsoniana 

reflexa 

serpyllifolia 

tricuspidata

Other common species include 

Androsace chamaejasme lehmanniana

Arctostaphylos alpina

Artemisia glomerata

Betula sp. (dwarf)

Bupleurum americanum

Cardamine bellidifolia

Cassiope tetragona

Dianthus repens 

Dryopteria fragrans 

Empetrum nigrum 

Erysimum paUasii 

Festuca brachyphylla 

Oeum glaciale

rossii

Hierochloe alpina 

Isuzula confusa 

Lycopodium selago adpressum

Minuartia macrocarpa 

Oxytropis mertensiana

nigrescens 

Pedicular is capitata

lanata

Phlox sibirica 

Potentilla biflora

uniflora 

Salix reticulata 

Selaginella sibirica 

Smelowskia calycina 

Therofon richardsonii 

Trisetum spicatum 

Vaccinium uliginosum

vitis-idaea

Above 5,000 feet on the northwest side of Mount 

Chamberlin there are a few flowering plants, but none 

grow above 6,000 feet. The only common higher plant 

species in this zone are Luzula confusa, Potentilla elegans, 

and Selaginetta sibirica; rock lichens are extensive.

ANNOTATED LIST OP PLANTS GROWING ON 

THE ARCTIC SLOPE OP ALASKA

Table 2 is based on about 3,000 plant specimens collected by the writer from 1946 through 1951; collections 

reported by Hulten (1941-50) from this area; and the 

following additional material:

Name of collector 

Robert Black________________

Robert Chapman______________

Robert Champan and Robert

Fellows. 

Robert Chapman, Richard Olson,

and William D'Olier. 

Paul Emerson_______________

Clare Gudim._________________

Lawrence Irving_______________

George Gryc and Alien Kover___ 

Arthur Lachenbruch.__________

Arthur Lachenbruch and Milton

Lachenbruch. 

Richard Olson_______________

Peter Scholander_____________

Peter Scholander and Walter Flagg__ 

Lloyd Spetzman and Russell

McGregor. 

Ray Thompson..______________

Robert Thompson.__ _______

Irvin Tailleur_____.-.______

Number of 

Year plants

1946,1947, I960.. 284

1946,1949.___.__ 85

1945_-__--_--- 35

1950.

1950.

1949.

1947.

1950.

1949.

1950.

1947,1948,1950. _

1949, 1950.

60

52

40

19

29

50

42

8

295

225

160

30

17

115

1,546
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 41

k HI!

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TABLE 2. Annotated list of plants growing on the Arctic Slope of Alaska Continued

Botanical name

Qramineae Continued 

Calamagrostis canadewis (Michx.) 

Beauv. 

inexpinsa A. Gray. ________

negleeta (Ehrh.) Qaerta. ___ . ...

purpurescens R. Br. ...............

Colpodium wrightii Scribn. and Merr. .. 

Deschampsia caespitosa (L.) Beauv. .... 

ssp. orientalis Hult. ________

Dupontia fischeri R. Br. . .........

ssp. psilosantha, (Rupr.) Hult. .....

Elymus arenarim L. ssp. moUis (Trin.) 

Hult. 

innovatus Seal.. ....................

Festuca altaica Trin. ...................

brachyphytta Schult. ...............

rubra L. ____________ .

Hierochloc alpina (Sw.) R. and 8. ___ 

odorata (L.) Wahl. .................

pauciflora R. Br. __________

Phippsia algida (Soland.) R. Br. .......

Poa alpigena (Fr.) Lindm. .............

alpina L. ______________

arctica R. Br. ......................

brachyanthera Hult. ...._...........

glauca VahL . ...................

hispidula Vasey. __________

komarovii Roshew. _____ . ......

lanata Scribn. and Merr. ..........

paucispicula Scribn. and Merr. .... 

stenantha Trin. ___________

sp ................. ....

Puccinettia angustata (R. Br.) Rand 

and Redfleld. 

hauptiana (Krecz.) Kit. ............

paupercula (Holm) Fern, and 

Weath. 

phryganoides (Trin.) Scribn. and 

Merr. 

Trisetum spicatum (L.) Richt. .........

Oyperaceae: 

Carer albo-nigra Mack. . .___...........

aguatUis Wahl. ___________

atrofusca Schk. . __________

aurea Nutt. ________

tricolor All. ........... ..............

bigeJoioii Torr. and Schwein. ___

capilloris L. ... .. .............

Common name

Grass family Continued

Oolpodium _______

Tufted hairgrass. .......

Beach ryegrass _____

Alpine bluegrass __ . ...

Glaucous speargrass.. ...

Creeping alkaligrass .....

Sedge family:

Hairlike sedge... __

Distribution 

(See fig. 4)

Arctic Slope

Coastal plain

I

X

H

X 

H

X

H

X

H 

H

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....

X 

H

H

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X

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X

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"x"

H

X 

X 

X

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X

X

Foothills

I

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

H

X

X

X

X

Central

X

X 

X

X

X

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

X

"x"

X

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X 

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1

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X

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X

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"x"

X

X

X

X

X 

X 

X

Mountains

1

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....

"x"

----

X

"x"

X

X

....

X

Central

X 

X

X 

X

X

X

X 

X

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CO

 s

1 

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X 

X

X

H 

X

X 

X

X 

X

X

....

 -

X

X 

X 

X

Elevation 

range (feet 

above sea 

level)

1,000 

350-3, 000

0-3,500 

350-3,500

500 

} 350-3,000

0-100 

0-2,500

0-50 

350-2, 500

350-3,500 

0-5,000

0-3,500 

0-5,500

350 

0-3,000 

0-2,200

0-3,000

100-5,000 

0-4,000 

2, 000-6, 000 

0-5,000 

2,200

2,500 

2, 000-4, 000 

350 

2,500-4,000

350-2, 000 

0-3,500 

0-10 

0-4,500

4,000 

0-3,500 

500 

800

350-3,000 

0-3,500 

350-3.000

Abundance

L

S

S 

S

L 

C

C 

C

L

S

o

C

o 

o

L 

C 

L

C

S 

A 

L 

C 

L

L 

L 

L

S

S 

S 

L 

A 

L

L 

A 

L 

L

S 

O 

0

Ftowering period(ordinal 

numbers ofmonths)

7 

7

7-8 

7-8

7 

7-8

7-8 

7-8

8 

7-8

7-8 

6-7

7 

6-7

7 

7 

7

7-8

7 

7-8 

7 

7-8 

7

7 

7 

7 

7

7-8 

7 

7 

6-7

7 

7-8 

7 

7

7 

7-S 

7-8

Hab

Moist meadow, Maybe Creek. 

Moist meadows.

Wet meadows, sandbars, and silty 

Dry alpine meadows; talus of li

sandbars. 

Silt slope, south face of Red Hill a

Bare sandbars; limestone and shal

Wet meadows, with sedges or in p

Wet sedge meadows, thinly scatter

Pure patches on coastal sand dune

Sandbars, silty slopes, common on 

side of Colville River at Umiat. 

Dry sandy river terraces. 

Cutbanks, dry meadows, rubble 

limestone. 

Sandy flood plains and cutbanks.

Dry meadows, cutbanks, rubble s

stone, limestone, shale, and cher

Flood-plain sands along Colville R

Wet sedge meadows and oxbow lak

Disturbed silty soil along coast; b

under very late snowfields along 

Sandy flood plains; dry meadows a

Sandy alpine rubble slopes. 

Dry meadows and alpine slopes. 

Rocky alpine situations. 

Flood-plain sands, cutbanks, alpin

Dry south-facing slope along Nuka 

Habitat unknown; Point Barrow. 

Dry alluvial fan, east side of Anak

Wet bare late-snow areas. 

Habitat unknown, probably flood

panicle of 6-15 small spiklets. 

slopes.

Habitat unknown, Point Lay.

B are wet silty flood-plains and lake 

1941-50.) Wet silty soil. (See P. langeana in 

Silty tidal-zone flats along Arctic c

Flood-plains, cutbanks, dry mead

stone and shale. 

Habitat unknown; King Point, A

Sunny silty slopes west of Lake Sc

Wet sedge meadows; stream and la

Dry slopes at Umiat. 

Sagavanirktok River forks wet me

of Anaktuvuk Pass. 

Wet silty soil; wet sedge meadow m

Niggerhead tundra meadows. 

Dry meadows, knolls, slopes.
rariflora (Wahl.) Smith ..........

rotundata Wahl. __________

(Steud.) Hult.

vapinata Tausch __________

(Blomgr.) Hult.

Hult. 

Kobresia myosuroides (Vill.) Fiorl and

Paol. 

simpliciuscula (Wahl.) Mack. .- ..

Scirpus caespitosus L. ssp. austriacus

- (Palla.) Asch. and Graebn. 

Juncaceae: 

Juncus arcticus WUld. ssp. alaskanus

Hult.

castaneus Smith __________

mvltiftora (Retz.) Lej. var. frlglda

(Buch.) Sam. 

nivalis (Laest.) Beurl. var. lakifolia

(Kjellm.) Sam.

Melanthaceae:

pusilla (Michx.) Pers. _______

Liliaceae:

Lloydia serotina (L.) Reich. ............

sedge.

Bellard kobresia- _ .

Rush family:

rush.

Bunchflower family:

Lily family: 

Wild chives.......... ...

AID lily.. .. . . . 

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2, 000-3, 500

350-3, 500

0-3,000

350-2,000

0-3, 000

0-3,500

350-2, 000

0-4,000

500-3,500

0-3,500

350

350-3,500

350-3,500

2,000-4,000

0-3,500

0-2,500

350-3, 500

0-5,000

0-800

500

350-2, 500

350-2, 500

0-4,000

350-2,200

0-3,500

0-3,500

0-3,500

0-4,000

0-5,000

0-3,500

350-3, 000

0-3,500

0-3,500

350-3,500

0-6,000

500-3,500

0-4,000

350-2,000

500-3,000

350-3,500

QKA_O nnn

0-4.500

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7-8

7-8

7-8

7-8

7-8

7-87

7-8

7-8

7-877

7-8

7-87

7-8

7-8

7-8

6-777777

7-8

7-8

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6-7

6-7

6-7

7-8

7-8

7-8

7-8

7-8

7-8

7-8

7-8

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6-7

Dry river-terrace meadows. 

Wet sedge meadows; wet river ter

Wet meadow, Sagavanirktok R

woods, Noatak River terrace.

Habitat unknown, probably dry m

Habitat unknown, Umiat area.

Stream and wet sedge meadow m

Habitat unknown; Price River.

Dry river-terrace meadows.

Margins of small streams and we

shallow water.

Sedge meadows along river terrace

Sandy shores of lakes and streams

Wet sandy stream margins; in som

Wet sedge meadows.

Dry meadows; rocky slopes of san

sedge meadows.

Cutbanks and moist valleys of sm

Dry slopes and meadows; limeston

Habitat unknown. 

Dry meadows and south-facing ru

Stream-margin sands.

Sedge meadows; damp rocky alpin

Coastal wet sedge meadows.

Higher parts of wet sedge meadow

Wet sedge meadows in shallow sta

Dry alpine meadows; rubble slope

Dry meadows, alpine rubble slo

glomerate, shale, and chert; also 

Sedge meadows, Colville and Etiv

Coastal wet sedge meadows aroun

River forks.

Dry south-facing gravel slope at U

Habitat unknown; Umiat area.

Coastal; habitat unknown; Point 

Dry meadows.

Do.

Emergent hydrophyte of lake m

sedge meadows.

Sedge meadows.

Wet sedge meadows; usually in st

Habitat unknown; probably wet s

Wet sedge meadows and wet sand 

Do.

Niggerhead meadows; rolling mo

on the Arctic Slope. 

Dry slopes and hilltops; sandstone 

Dry slopes and alpine meadows.

Wet sedge meadows; usually in sh

Wet sandy margins of streams and 

Margins of wet sedge meadows; si

Sandy margins of streams and lak

Margins of wet sedge meadows.

Dry meadows, stream terraces, ro

Rocky alpine meadows.

Dry meadows and river terraces.

Moist sedge meadows, Umiat and 

Umiat; habitat unknown.

Dry rocky alpine slopes and hillto

Margins of wet sedge meadows. 

Dry slopes, cutbanks, and sandba

Habitat unknown; Noatak River 

Moist rocky open slopes.
44 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, 1044-53
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 45

« -

:3^§ -gl §MI sMl^ s
46 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53
Mey.

Crassulaceae:

Imm (Raf.) Hult. 

Saxifragaceae:

(Small) Hult.

(Sternb.) Hult.

(Engl. and Irm.) Hult.

flagellaria Willd. .....^.... .........

Meracifolw, Waldst. and Kit.

Don) Hult.

Qrossulariaceae :

Rosaceae:

romi (R. Br.) Ser. ... _______

Potentittabiflora Willd. . ________

tiookeriana Lehm. .. __ ______

pulchetta R. Br. _________

vaMiana Lehm. ___________

viraulata A. Nels. __________

Orpine family:

Saxifrage family:

nassus.

nassus.

Hawkweed-leaved saxifrage.

Alpine saxifrage-. .

frage.

Gooseberry family:

Rose family:

avens.

avens.

Two-flowered cinquefoil.

Pretty cinquefoil ____

XXX

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1,500

360-800

0-2,000

0-2,000

0-4,000

350-5, 000

0-4,000

360-3,000

350-6, 000

0-6,000

0-3,500

1,000-5,000

2,000-5,500

0-6,000

0-3,000

0-4,000

0-4,000

0-4,000

0-6,000

0-4,000

360-5,000

0-4,600

2,000-6,000

2,000

350-4, 600

300-4,000

350-2,000

0-4,000

350-5,000

1,000-5,000

1, 500-4, 000

2. 000-4, 000

3, 000-6, 000

0-4,000

0-4,000

350-3,500

1,500-3,500

1,000-4,500

0-3,000

0-50

0-3,500

0-3,500

350-1,500

T, 0

T, 0

T, R

T,

T, 0RCC00CC

1C0R0oRO0CRO

T, C0

T, CAC0CLO0R

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6-7

6-77

6-7878

7-8

6-7

5-7777777777777

6-7

6-7

6-7

6-77877

6-7

6-7

6-76

6-7

6-7777777

7-87777

Well-drained limestone pebble allu

Moist meadow siapes, sandbars, a

Sandy stream and lake margins.

Coarse dry alpine rubble slopes an

and conglomerate. 

Var. integrifolia all along mounta

mountain front; var. porsildii in 

tuvuk Pass.

Only a few plants found; Sadleroc

Sandbars, Umiat and Sagavanirkt

Dry coastal meadows and dry san

Barter Island.

This species is yellowish and has 

tak; coastal wet sedge meadow a

Semiaquatic, margins of ponds, sl

areas.

Moist alpine outcrops of shale and 

gerhead meadows.

Moist soil along streams.

Sandy and silty flood plains.

Dry alpine meadows, ridges, rubb

limestone, and shale. 

Coastal sandy beaches, sandbars

sandstone and limestone. 

Wet soil along streams; wet sedge 

Alpine moist rocky slopes; crevice

Alpine crevices in limestone, sa

basalt,

Dry alpine meadows, mountain sl

conglomerate, and basalti 

Wet meadows, late-snow areas. 

Moist valleys and moist rolling m

Wet sedge meadows.

Dry meadows and rubble slopes.

Moist rocky alpine slopes, crevic

schist, and basalt; late-snow ar

meadows.

Valley and upland meadows, rive

Habitat unknown; coastal.

Dry rubble slopes, cutbanks, and c

schist, and gabbro. 

Coastal sandy beaches, late-snow 

Moist alpine rubble slopes of sand

Tundra meadow John River at Hu

Cutbanks, ridges, dry rubble slop

glomerate and limestone. 

Habitat unknown; Cape Lisburne

Moist rocky alpine slopes, usually 

South-facing brush slopes; Umia

Anaktuvuk Pass.

Moist to wet meadows, niggerhea

Dry alpine meadows and rubble 

conglomerate. Most abundant 

Moist alpine meadows and talus, 

Moist mossy river terraces. 

Dry rocky slopes and crevices in 

Moist crevices in sandstone and l

Moist meadows, cutbanks, and ta

Cutbanks, brush slopes, and wood

Cutbanks and rubble slopes.

Dry cutbanks, Canning River ea

Cutbanks and rubble slopes.

Wet sedge meadows and lake mar

Dry coastal meadows.

Dry meadows and rubble slopes.

Dry cutbanks, alluvial fans, and 

Gravel cutbanks; Umiat and Sad
48 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

(sqinora jo sjaqnmn
Ericaceae:

rubra Hult.

Ledum poftw tre L. ssp. decumbent (Ait.) 

Hult.

Rhododendron lappontcum (L.) Wahl. ..

vitis-idaea L. ssp. minus Lodd. 

Dlapenslaceae:

fSchmidt) Hult. 

Primuiaceae:

lehmanniana (Spreng.) Hult.

Plumbaginaceae : 

Armeria maritima (Mill.) Willd. .......

Gentlanaceae:

Polemonlaceae :

fioraginaceae:

chowifosoftis DC

Vesterg. 

Scrophulariaceae:

and S.) Trautv.

oederi Vahl. ...-...- ..... ....

mtdeUca Willd. . ...... .....

vertidUata L

Lentlbularlaceae: 

Pinguicula viUow L.

Orobanchaceae: 

Botchntokta rottica (C. and 8.) Fedtsch. -

Plantaginaceae: 

Plantaoo canetctw Adams _______

Large-flowered wintergreen.

Heath family: 

Bog rosemary ___________

KlTmlHntilnlr

Four-angled mountain

heather. 

Leatherleaf

Narrow-leaved Labrador 

tea.

Lapland rhododendron.. 

Bog blueberry _______

Mountain cranberry __

Diapensia family: 

Diapensia

Primrose family:

Greenland primrose __

Leadwork family:

Gentian family:

Moss gentian ________

Buckbean.. ______

Phlox family: 

Siberian phlox _____

Jacob's ladder _____

Northern Jacob's ladder.

Borage family: 

Mountain forget-me-notForget-me-not __

Figwort family:

Few-flowered lousewort.

Labrador lousewort

Woolly lousewort _ . ...

wort. 

Bladderwort family:

Broomrape family: 

Poque . _ _ ...

Plantain family: 

Plantain. 

X

X

X

X 

X

X

H

H

F

H

F

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0-4,000

360-3,500

0-3,600

0-4,000

3,600

0-5,000

360

0-4,500 

500-3,600

360

0-1,000 

0-5,000

0-4,000 

500-3,600

0-3,600

1,000-4,500

350-2,500

1,000-3,000

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350-2,000

0-4,000

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1,600-3,500

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350-2,500

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350-2,000

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0-2,000

350-1,500

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350

350

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7

7

7

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6-7

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6-7 

7

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6-7 

6-7

6-7 

7

6-7

6

6-7

6-7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7-8

6-7

7

6-7

6

6

7-8

7

7

7-8

7

6-7

6-7

7

6-7

6-7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

7

Damp mossy meadows along rive

Do.

Wet sedge meadows along river v

Dry alpine slopes, dry bevel along 

ices in sandstone and limestone.

Grassy alpine meadow, northeast 

Snow accumulation areas in depr

moist meadows; alpine crevices 

Wet sedge meadows along Colville 

Elver-terrace meadows and brush

Dry rocky alpine slopes and glaci

Sphagnum wet meadow at Umiat

Well-drained brush slopes.

Cutbanks, shrub meadows, wet 

slopes. 

Moist niggerhead meadows, dam

meadows.

Eocky alpine slopes and sandston

Dry barren slopes and rocky alpin

Alpine rubble slopes of shale, sand

Dry cutbanks and shale outcrops

Moist shady slopes along small a

Habitat unknown; Arctic coast of 

Coastal sea cliffs and silty cutban

Silty stream margins in shade at 

tuvuk Pass. 

Habitat unknown, Cape Lisburne

Dry coastal meadows east of Po

terrace.

Arctic and alpine silty erosion slo

Dry slopes and alluvial sands.

Dry alpine slopes and flood-plain s

Collected south of Anaktuvuk P

junction in grassy meadow. 

Emergent aquatic In shallow p

Sagavanirktok Elver.

Dry alpine slopes, cutbanks, and 

Grassy meadows.

Dry sandy slopes, cutbanks, and 

Dry hilltops, rubble slopes, and c

Dry hilltops and rubble slopes aro

Coastal sandy beaches.

Floor of balsam poplar woods, No

Seepage areas and along mountain 

Dry alpine meadows and rubble s

Sandbars and dry rubble slopes.

Moist valley meadows, seepage ar

Moist to dry meadows and flood 

Mossy slopes and river terraces.

Dry arctic and alpine meadows a

Moist meadows and river terraces

Damp meadows.

Wet sedge meadows in Anaktuvu

Wet sedge meadows and wet soil; 

Sedge bogs, commonly an emerge

Sandbars and river terraces; from 

Silty soil at pond margins.

Wet bare silty soil next to small l

Submerged aquatic in about 3 ft o

Umiat.

Parasitic on shallow roots of Aln

distribution (which see).

Gravel cutbanks; Umiat and Sha
50 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

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52 EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

Plants collected by the writer were distributed as 

follows: The first set is deposited at the herbarium 

of the University of Minnesota; sample sets of duplicates 

were sent to the U. S. National Herbarium, Washington, D. C.; the National Herbarium of Canada, Ottawa; 

the National Museum of Sweden, Stockholm; Iowa 

State College, Ames; and the University of Alaska, 

Fairbanks.

Botanical names, in general, follow Hulten's flora 

(1941-50). Several botanists assisted in determining 

plant species of the following groups:

Botanist Determination 

J. P. Anderson ___________________ General determinations

C. R. Ball.._____________ Salix

L. Benson_______________________ Ranunculus

W. H. Drury__ _________ __________ Smelowskia

G. Haglund______________________ Taraxacum

C. L. Hitchcock_,________________ Draba

E. Hulte"n________________________ General determinations

A. E. PorsikL____________________ Antennaria

C. O. RosendahL_________________ Chrysosplenium

J. R. Swallen___________________ Some grasses

Common names, in general, follow Anderson's flora 

(1943-52). Final selection of all names, botanical and 

common, was made by the writer.

As of 1951 there were known to be 439 species (table 

2), representing 154 genera, and 53 families, of higher 

plantsjm the Arctic Slope. The largest families are 

Familitt

Composites. 

Sedges. ____

Grasses____.

Mustards. _. 

Pinks. ___.. 

Willows. __. 

ButtercupsSaxifrages. _. 

Roses. .....

Peas______.

Genera

14

4

16

15

11

2

6

4

6

5

Species 

51 

49 

41 

31 

28 

27 

24 

24 

20 

20

The largest genera are 

Genera Species 

Carex.... ________... 38 

Salix__________________ 26

______________ 18

______________ 12

Genera Species 

Dra6a_________________ 12

Otcyfrop*s______________ 11

Poa_________________ 11

Pedicularis__ _________ 9

The "Distribution" column in table 2 is designed 

to compare the kind and number of species within 

each of the three physiographic provinces, and from 

west to east. The distribution list of the Noatak 

drainage basin was added merely because scattered 

collections were made from this relatively unknown 

area.

The coastal plain contains 284 species, the foothills 

390, and the mountains 316. Thus, the foothills have 

the richest flora, for two principal reasons: first, the 

foothills climate is warmer and better suited for plant 

growth than the other two provinces, and second, 

within the foothills there are local habitats similar to

most of those found in both the coastal plain and the 

mountains.

In the western part of the Arctic Slope there are 288 

species, in the central part 382, and in the eastern 

part 356. The western part is relatively poor in 

species, partly because of its limited mountain environment. The central part is richest, as it contains a 

considerable overlap of species from east and west and 

also from the south, for species seem to have migrated 

north through low passes, such as Anaktuvuk. It also 

contains the Colville River valley with its highly 

developed flora. The eastern part is relatively rich 

because of its well-developed mountain flora.

As shown on the table, elevation range includes the 

known range of all species. Abundance is relative in 

terms of "abundant," "common," "scarce," or "local" 

for each species as it occurs on the Arctic Slope.

The flowering period is described in terms of numbered months. The growing season for most plants 

on the Arctic Slope is from mid-June to mid-August, 

although several kinds of plants are actively growing a 

few weeks before or after this period in favorable 

locations. The growing season is shortened locally 

where the climate is more severe, as along the coast 

cooled by the Arctic Ocean, in places where snow persists late into summer, and high in the mountains. 

Mild freezing during the growing season has little 

visible effect on the plants, but occasional severe frosts 

in midsummer cause injury to many kinds of flowering 

plants. In August 1948 the effects of mild frost, severe 

frost, and snow cover on plants were observed at about 

1,000 feet elevation along the Sadlerochit River. 

During the middle of the month, snow accumulated 

to a depth of 6 inches, accompanied by temperatures 

a few degrees below freezing. The snow persisted on 

tundra-covered lowlands but soon melted on sandbars 

and rocky slopes. This mild freezing had no noticeable 

effect on lichens, grasses, and the leaves of woody 

plants. Snow protected dense low vegetation, but on 

snow-free sandbars and outcrops there was frost wilting 

of flowers and leaves of plants, such as epilobium, 

artemisia, aconitum, saxifrage, and ferns. Plants in 

bud or gone to seed showed less frost damage than 

plants in full bloom. Later in the month the temperature dropped to 14°F on a clear cold night. The 

snow continued to protect much of the dense low 

vegetation, and in wet places the water protected 

emergent aquatic plants from freezing. However, 

practically all herbs on sandbars were killed or severely 

wilted, and even the young leaves of willows were 

wilted.

Habitat includes the various kinds of places where 

the plants have been found growing.
VEGETATION OF THE ARCTIC SLOPE OF ALASKA 53

TABLE 3. Important and conspicuous lower plants on the Arctic Slope

Botanicalname Common name Habitat 

Algae:

Nostoc sp_______________-_-________ ____________________________________ Green gelatinous layer over small tundra

	pools. 

Fungi:

Lycoperdon sp___________-__________ Puffball_____________________________ Moist meadows; erosion slopes.

Russula sp__________________ _ ___________ _________ Alpine meadows.

Lichens:

Alectoria bicolor _ _ _______________ Pale-tipped main lichen.____________ Rocky hilltops; dry meadows.

nigricans________ ____ Black main lichen________________ Do.

ochroleuca.. _____ ____ Yellow main lichen__ ______________ Do.

Cetraria cucullata.-.____ ____ Curled lichen____ ___________ __ Tundra meadows.

islandica____ _ _____ Iceland moss________________ ____ Do.

juniperina. ___________________ Yellow cedar lichen___________________ Rocky hills; bark.

nivalis_______ _____________ Snow lichen________________________ Moist alpine slopes.

richardsonii-. ________________ Brown shield lichen_______________ Do.

Cladonia amaurocraea- ____________ Quill lichen_________________ ______ Moist slopes.

cocci/era___________ ______ Cup lichen________________ _ Do.

fimbriata_____________________ Trumpet lichen______________________ Do.

gracilis- ____________ _________ Spoon lichen_________________________ Alpine meadows.

rangiferina----------- __________ Reindeer lichen______________________ Do.

sylvatica- ____________________ Woodland reindeer lichen____________ Alpine slopes.

Dactylina arctica- ___________________ Brown finger lichen.________________ Tundra meadows.

Haematomma sp____________________ Blood lichen_______________________ Sandstone talus.

Lobaria linita______ __________ Lung lichen________________________ Tundra slopes.

Nephroma arcticum__________________ Arctic kidney lichen__________________ Do.

Parmelia spp_________-----_---_____ Boulder shield lichen________________ Rocky slopes.

Peltigera aphthosa. __________________ Spotted leather lichen_______________ Do.

canina, --- ________ _______ Dog lichen._ ______________________ River terraces.

Physcia spp________-__-___ _____ Blister lichen.__________________ Rocky slopes.

Solorina spp_____ ____________ Dimpled lichen. ________________ Moist soil.

Sphaerophorus fltfo&0sws______________ Coral lichen_________________________ Tundra meadows.

Stereocaulon tomentosum _____________ Brittle lichen ________________________ Sandbars, dry meadows.

Teloschistes spp_____________________ Orange lichen________________________ Bird perch rocks.

Thamnolia vermicularis- _____________ Worm lichen_____________________ Alpine meadows.

Umbilicaria spp________- ____ Rock tripe_________________________ Rocky slopes; mountain tops.

Liverworts:

Marchantia polymorpha.. ______ ___ _____________________________ Wet bare soil.

Mosses:

Aulacomnium spp_______ ________ ___________________________________ Tundra meadows.

Bryum spp_ ____ ______ ______________ _________ ____ Do.

Ceratodon 2rarpwrews_________________ Red-stemmed moss___________________ Moist sandy soil.

Climacium spp___________________ Tree moss_____________________ Moist meadows.

Dicranum spp____________________ Windblown moss_______________ Do.

Drepanocladus spp__________________ Sickle-branch moss_________________ Do.

Hylocomium splendens_____ _____ _______________ __________________ Do.

Hypnum spp_______________________ Christmastree moss___________________ Do.

Mnium spp________________________ Oval-leaved moss_____________________ Moist stream valleys.

Polytrichium juniperinum. _________ Hair-cap moss.__________________ Tundra meadows.

Rhacomitrium lanuginosum. ________ Rock moss____________________ Dry rocky slopes.

Sphagnum spp___________________ Chinking moss_____________________ Very acid bogs.
EXPLORATION OF NAVAL PETROLEUM RESERVE NO. 4, ALASKA, 1944-53

SELECTED REFERENCES

Anderson, J. P., 1943-52, Flora of Alaska and adjacent parts of 

Canada: Iowa State College Jour. Sci. in 9 parts 1943, v. 17, 

no. 1, p. 137-175; 1944, v. 18, no. 4, p. 381-445; 1945, v. 19, 

no. 2, p. 133-205; 1946, v. 20, no. 2, p. 213-257; 1946, v. 

20, no. 3, p. 297-347; 1947, v. 21, no. 4, p. 363-423; 1949, 

v. 23, no. 2, pi. 137-187; 1950, v. 24, no. 2, p. 219-271; 

1952, v. 26, no. 3, p. 387-453.

Drury, W. H., Jr., and Rollins, R. C., 1952, The North American 

representatives of Smelowskia (Cruciferae); Rhodora, v. 54, 

p. 85-119.

Holm, Theodore, 1922, Contributions to the morphology, synonymy, and geographical distribution of Arctic plants in 

Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18, v. 5, 

Botany, part B: Ottawa, F. A. Acland, printer, 139 p.

Hult6n, Eric, 1937, Flora of the Aleutian Islands: Stockholm, 

Tryckeri aktiebolaget Thule, 397 p.

 1940, History of botanical exploration in Alaska and 

Yukon Territories from the time of their discovery to 1940: 

Lunds Bot. Mus., Botaniska notiser 50, p. 289-346.

1941-50, Flora of Alaska and Yukon: Lunds Universitets

Arsskrift, new ser., sec. 2 in 10 parts 1941, v. 37, no. 1, p. 

1-128; 1942, v. 38, no. 1, p. 129-412; 1943, v. 39, no. 1, 

p. 413-568; 1944, v. 40, no. 1, p. 569-796; 1945, v. 41, no. 

1, p. 797-978; 1946, v. 42, no. 1, p. 979-1066; 1947, v. 43, 

no. 1, p. 1067-1200; 1948, v. 44, no. 1, p. 1201-1342; 1949, 

v. 45, no. 1, p. 1343-1482; 1950, v. 46, no. 1, p. 1483-1902.

Johansen, Frits, 1924, General observations on the vegetation 

in Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18, v. 

5, Botany, part C: Ottawa, F. A. Acland, printer, 85 p.

Jordal, L. H., 1952, Some new entities in the flora of the Brooks 

Range, Alaska: Rhodora, v. 54, no. 638, p. 35-39.

Macoun, J. M., and Holm, Theodore, 1921, Vascular plants, in 

Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18, v. 5, 

Botany, part A: Ottawa, F. A. Acland, printer, 51 p.

Ostenfeld, C. H., and Gelert, 0., 1902, Flora Arctica (Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae and Monocotyledones): Copenhagen, Nordiske Forlag, Bogforlaget Ernst Bojensen, 136 p.

Payne, T. G., and others, 1951, Geology of the Arctic Slope of

Alaska: U. S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inv. Map OM

126, 3 sheets. 

Pennell, F. W., 1934, Castilleja in Alaska and northwestern

Canada: Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Proc., v. 86, p. 517-

540. 

Polunin, Nicholas, 1948, Botany of the Canadian eastern Arctic,

part 3 Vegetation and ecology: Canada Natl. Mus. Bull.

104, 304 p. 

Porsild, A. E., 1937, Flora of the Northwest Territories, Canada's

western Northland: Ottawa, J. 0. Patenande, printer, p.

130-141.

 1939, Contributions to the Flora of Alaska: Rhodora, v.

41. p. 141-183, 199-254, 262-301.

 1947, the genus Dryas in North America: Canadian FieldNaturalist, v. 61, no. 6, p. 175-192.

 1943, Materials for a flora of the continental northwest 

territories of Canada: Sargentia, v. 4, p. 1-79.

 1950, The genus Antennaria in northwest Canada: 

Canadian Field-Naturalist, v. 64, no. 1, p. 1-25.

 1951, Plant life in the Arctic: Canadian Geog. Jour., v.

42. no. 3, p. 120-145.

 1951, Two new Oxtropis from Arctic Alaska and Yukon: 

Canadian Field-Naturalist, v. 65, no. 2, p. 76-79.

1955, The vascular plants of the western Canadian

Arctic archipelago: Canada Natl. Mus. Bull. 135, 226 p.

Raup, H. M., 1947, The botany of southwestern Mackenzie: 

Sargentia, v. 6, p. 1-275.

Sharpies, A. W., 1938, Alaska wild flowers: Stanford, Calif., 

Stanford Univ. Press, 156 p.

Swallen, J. R., 1944, The Alaskan species of Puccinellia: Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 34, p. 16-23.

Taylor, R. F., 1929, Pocket guide to Alaska trees: U. S. Dept. 

Agr. Misc. Pub. 55.

Wiggins, I. L., 1951, The distribution of vascular plants on 

polygonal ground near Point Barrow, Alaska: Stanford 

Univ. Dudley Herbarium Contr., v. 4, pt. 3, p. 41-56.
INDEX

Page 

Achittea borealis................................. 50

lanulosa.................................... 50

Acknowledgments____ .._______ 19 

Aconitum delphinifolium..................... 26,35,45

Agropyron...................................... 26

alaskanum ............................... 41

latiglume................................... 41

sericeum.................................... 41

trachycaulum............................... 41

Alaktak......... ......................... 32-33

Alectoria bicolor................................. 53

nigricans.................................... 53

ochroleuca................................... 53

Algae. 29,.53

Attium sibiricum................................ 43

Alluvial fans, Recent. _ 23,30,37,39 

Alnus crispa................................. 26,39,44

Alopecurus alpinus................. 25,30,31,32,39,41

Anaktuvuk Pass. .__~ 23,29,37,38,39,52; pi. 9JB 

Anaktuvuk River____ .____ 37,39; pi. 12 

Andromeda polifolia.......................... 25,39,49

Androsace chamaejasme lehmanniana............ 40,49

ochotensis ............................. 27,28,49

septentrionalis.............................. 49

Anemone drummondii........................... 45

multiceps................................... 45

nardssiflora................................. 45

parviflora.......................... 33,35,37,39,45

patens multifida............................. 37,45

richardsonii.............................. 26,35,45

Antennaria..................................... 27,52

alaskana.................................... 50

angustata................................... 33,50

compacta................................... 50

ekmaniana.................................. 50

isolepis... 50

phUonipha.................................. 50

subcanescens................................ 50

Arabis lyrata.................................... 46

kamchatica.............................. 46

Arctagrostis latifolia................. 24,26,27,28,33,41

Arctic Institute of North America_______ 19 

Arctic Ocean.______.________ 19,21,30,52 

ArctophUafulva.. ............. 30,31,32,35,36,39,41

Arctostaphylos alpina rubra......... 27,28,37,39,40,49

uva-ursi..................................... 49

Arenaria capidaris........................... 27,28,45

dicranoides.................................. 45

Armeria martUima.............................. 33,49

Arnica....................................... 27,35,37

alpina augustifolia.......................... 50

lessingii..................................... 50

louiseana frigida............................. 50

Artemisia....................................... 35

alaskana.................................... 50

arctica...................................... 26,50

comata.................................. 50

borealis..................................... 50

frigida....................................... 50

globularia................................... 50

glomerata................................... 40,50

tUesii... ................................. 26,50

Aster sibiricus............................... 26,35,50

Astragalus alpinus........................ 26,33,35,48

eucosmus................................... 26,48

lepagei...................................... 27,48

nutzotmensis................................ 48

umbellatus...................... 26,28,33,35,39,48

Aulacomnium.................................. 53

Page 

Barrow........ -................ 21,22,23,30-32

Basalt outcrop, vegetation___________ 29 

Barter Island___________________ 19,21 

Bearpaw Creek ______ 37 

Betula.......................................... 40

glandulosa............................... 29,37,45

nana exilis............................ 24,27,39,45

Boschniakia rossica.............................. 49

Botanists, list._ _________._-_ 52 

Braya purpurescens............................. 46

Bromuspumpellianus. ...................... 26,28,41

Brooks Range..._ 21,23,24,28

Bryum......................................... 53

Bupleurum americanum............... 27,28,37,40,48

Calamagrostis canadensis........................ 42

inexpansa................................... 26,42

neglecta..................................... 32,42

purpurescew............................ 27,28,42

Caltha palustris arctica.............. 30,31,35,36,39,45

Campanula lasiocarpa.......................... 50

uniflora..................................... 33,50

Canning River______________ 23, 29; pi. 7A 

Cape Lisburne... ____ 21,33 

Cardamine bellidifolia........................ 35,40,46

microphyUa................................... 46

pratensis................................. 25,33,46

purpurea................................... 46

richardsonii.-............................ 26,33,46

Carex........................................ 25,36,52

albowigra................................... 42

aquatUis.- 25,26,30,31,32,35,36,37,39,42; pis. 7B,

10JB, 11-4 

atrofusca.....-.............................. 42

aurea....................................... 42

bicolor...................................... 25,42

bigelowii................................. 24,37,42

capUlaris................................ 25,37,42

capitata..................................... 43

chordorrhiza........................... 25,32,39,43

concinna.................................... 43

garberi bifaria .............................. 43

glacialis..................................... 43

glareosa..................................... 43

gynocrates................................... 43

krausei..................................... 43

lachenalii................................ 25,35,43

lugens................................... 25,32,43

maritima................................... 33,43

membranacea................ 25,26,32,35,37,39,43

microglochin................................ 25,43

misandra.......................... 25,27,32,39,43

montanensis................................ 35,43

nardina..................................... 43

neurocleana................................. 43

obtusata..................................... 27,43

physocarpa............................... 25,26,43

podocarpa................................... 43

ramenskii . 43

rarifiora.............................. 25,32,39,43

rotundata................................ 25,39,43

rupestris........................ 26,27,28,29,37,43

scirpoidea............................. 27,29,37,43

stylosa...................................... 43

subspathacea................................ 43

supina spaniocarpa......................... 43

tenuiflora................................... 43

ursina...................................... 43

Carex Continued Page 

vaginata.................................... 43

wiUiamsii................................... 25, 43

Cassiope tetragma..... 27,28,36,39,40,49; pis. 9JB, 1LB

CastUleja hyperborea............................ 49

pallida................................ 26,28,35,49

caudata................................. 49

elegans.................................. 49

Cerastium arcticum............................. 45

beeringianum...................... 26,32,33,35,45

maximum................................... 45

Ceratodon purpureus............................ 53

Cetraria cucuUata............................... 53

islandica.................................... 53

juniperina.................................. 53

nivalis...................................... 53

richardsonii............. 53

Chamaedaphnecalyculata....................... 25,49

Chamberlin, Mount_______________ 39,40 

Chandler, Lake_________________ 29 

Chrysanthemum arcticum polaris... .......... 50

huronense................................... 33,50

integrifolium................................ 33,50

Chrysosplenium................................. 52

iowensis.................................... 47

tetrandrum............................... 25,32,47

wrightii..................................... 24,47

Cladonia amaurocraea........................... 53

cocci/era__.._._.... 53

fimbriata.................................... 53

gracilis.... . . 53

rangiferma.................................. 53

sylvatica.................................... 53

Claytonia acutifolia graminifolia................. 45

actrmentosa.................................. 45

tuberosa..................................... 45

Climacium...................................... 53

Climate, Brooks Range 23 

coastal plain...... 21,22,23,30,52

foothills..___.___....__._.___ 21-23

Climax vegetation_____ .... 30

Coastal plain, aquatic communities of shallow

lakes....._._ _ ._- 29,31-33

distribution, plants... 20,41-51 

species.. 52 

environment______ 21 

niggerhead meadows community... 24,30 

number of plant species. . 52 

vegetation, Alaktak....-__ _ . 32-33

Barrow.______ 30-32

Point Barrow_. 30-32

wet sedge meadows_ 24,30,31,32

Cochlearia offlcinalis............................. 32,46

Colpodium wrightii............. .. 42

Colville River.... 21,33,36,52; pi. 8.4

Collectors of plant specimens, list 40 

Conioselinium cnidiifolium...................... 48

Corallorhiza trifida.............................. 44

Corydalis paudflora............................. 35,46

Crepisnana................................. 29,35,50

Cretaceous sedimentary rocks. 21,33 

Cfgstopterisfragilis..................... 28,29,37,40,41

D

Dactylina arctica................................ 63

Delphinium brachycintmm................... 28,33,45

glaucum.................................... 45

Deschampsia caespitosa.......................... 26,42

glauca......,........... ___...._... 42

oriental^................................ 42

Descurainia sophioides.................... 29,33,37,46

55
56 INDEX

Page

Determination of plant species_______ 52 

Dianthus repent............................. 28,40,45

Diapensia lapponica obovata.................. 28,37,49

Dicranum...................................... 53

Distribution of plants collected 52

Dodecatheonfrigidum......................... 26,35,49

Douglasia arctica................................ 49

Draba................................. 26,27,33,35,52

alpina...................................... 46

ehamissonis................................. 46

cinerea...................................... 46

crassifolia................................... 46

ezalata...................................... 46

fladnizensis................................. 46

glabdla.*................................... 46

lactea..-................................... 32,46

la.nceola.ta................................... 46

longipes..................................... 46

macrocarpa................................. 46

ntoalis...................................... 46

Drainage, coastal plain_-________ 21,30 

foothills...._____......._ 33,35,36; pi. IIA

mountain slopes_______________ 39

niggerhead meadows_________ 24

Drepanocladui.................................. 53

Dryas............................... 30,37,39; pi. 9A

integrifolia......................... 24,33,37,39,47

octopetala................ 27,28,35,37,39,47;pi. 9B

Dryopterisfragrans..........___ 28,29,40,41; pi. 10.4

Dupontiafischeri.......................... 25,31,32,42

psilosantha.............................. 25,42

E

Easter Creek__._ ________ 37 

Elevation, Brooks Eange..______..... . 23

coastal plain. _ 21

foothills.___________.__.___ 21,36

Elson Lagoon...________________ 31,32

Elymus arenariui mollis........................ 32,42

innovates................................... 37,42

Empetrum nigrum........_____ 24,27,28,29,40,48

EpUobium anagattidifolium...................... 33,48

angustifolium............................ 26,29,48

latifolium................................ 26,28,48

leptocarpum................................ 48

palustre..................................... 48

Equisetum...................................... 35

arvense.................... 26,33,35,39,41; pi. 8.4

limosum................................. 30,36,41

palustre.................................. 25,39,41

pratense.................................... 41

sdrpoides................................... 41

variegatum 26,33,35,41

Erigeron........................................ 26,28

eriocephalus............______ 33,50

grandifiorut................................. 50

humUis..................................... 50

hyperboreus................................. 50

muirii...................................... 50

purpuratus................................. 35,50

yukonensis.................................. 50

Eriophorumangustifolium.... 25,26,30,31,35,36,37,39,

43; pi. 10B 

brachyantherum............................. 43

callttrix..................................... 25,43

medium..................................... 43

russeolum leucothrix...................... 25,31,43

scheuchzeri ......... 25,26,31,32,35,39,43; pi. 8.4

vaginatum spismm............. 24,27,37,43; pi. 7A

Eritrichium aretioides........................... 49

ehamissonis,................................ 49

Ermania borialis................................ 29,46

Erysimum inconspicuum........................ 29,46

paUasii............................... 26,27,40,46

Eskimo camp remains______________ 33 

Eutrema edwardsii.............................. 24,46

P 

Family.

botanical name: Pag* 

Betulaceae. 44-45 

Boraginaceae. 49 

Campanulaceae__ ... 50 

Caprifoliaceae.. _ 50 

Caryophyllaceae 45 

Chenopodiaceae.. . 45 

Compositae. 50-51 

Crassulaceae._ ,-_ 47 

Cruciferae___ ___ 46-47 

Cyperaceae... 42-43 

Diapensiaceae.. . 49 

Elaeagnaceae. 48 

Empetraceae_ 48 

Equisetaceae_ 41 

Ericaceae____ ____ 49 

Fumariaceae.._ _ -- 46 

Qentianaceae 49 

Qramineae_ 41-42 

Grossulariaceae_ _ . 47 

Halorrhagidaceae 48 

Juncaceae__ 43 

Leguminosae. _ 48 

Lentibulariaceae.- . 49 

Liliaceae--. 43 

Linaeeae_____ ___ 48 

Lycopodiaceae.. 41 

Melanthaceae__ 43 

... 41 

. 48 

Orchidaceae.. . . 44 

Orobanchaeeae_ ___ 49 

Papaveraceae..--..-_ 46 

Pinaceae.___._ .___ 41 

Plantaginaceae_ - 49 

Plumbaginaceae.. ___ 49 

Polemoniaceae. ... 49 

Polygonaceae... 45 

Polypodiaceae.. ___ 41 

Portulacaceae._ 45 

Primulaceae.. . 49 

Pyrolaceae... 48-49 

Ranunculaeeae_ ____ 45-46 

Rosaceae... . 47-48 

Rubiaeeae 50 

 44 

_____._______. 47 

Scheuchzeriaceae....___ 41 

Scrophulariaceae.-. 49 

Selaginellaceae.._-___ 41 

Sparganiaceae__ ___ _ 41 

Umbelliferae__-_________ - 48 

Valerianaceae.--. 50 

Violaceae- . 48

common name:

arrowgrass . 41 

birch_.__.___.___.... 38,39,44-45

bladderwort. . 49 

bluebell.. 50

borage.______.__._ 49 

broomrape.. 49 

buckwheat_ __ 45 

bunchflower ... 43 

bur-reed__ _ 41 

buttercup____________-__ 45-46,52 

clubmoss. 41 

composite_ 26,50,52 

crowberry___ __.... 48

diapensia________________ 49 

evening-primrose. __ 48 

fern..._ _______... .. 28,29,41,52 

figwort...__.._______ __ 27,31,49 

flax . 48

fumewort_ 46 

gentian___-__ ______ 49 

gooseberry . 47 

goosefoot_ 45

Family Continued

common name continued Page 

grass 24,25, 

26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,35,41-42,52 

heath..... 25,26,39,49 

honeysuckle 50 

horsetail __.___._.__- 25,26,39,41 

leadwort___ ______.__ 49 

lily... .- 43 

madder_ . _-_ 50 

mare's tail____-__________ 48 

mustard.... . .. 26,46-47,52 

oleaster_....__ _____-_ 48 

orchid__________________ 44 

orpine- 47 

parsley. _ ______ 48 

pea- . _ _ 26,27,48,52 

phlox . 49 

pine _-____.____ __ 24,41 

pink..________._______ 26,27,45,52 

plantain_________________ 49 

pondweed. ___..._ 41 

poppy. . 46 

primrose- 49 

purslane . _ 45 

rose __ ________ 47-48,52 

rush.______ _______ 25,26,27,43 

__ _____ 27,28,29,47,52

 . 21,24, 

25,26,27,31,32,33,35,42-43,52

 41

valerian_ _________ 50

violet ._ 48

willow.. _ __- 24,25,26,27,30,32,

33,35,36,37,38,39,44,52; pi. 8B

wlntergreen..___._________ 48-49

Festuca aUaica............................... 26,35,42

braehyphytta...... ........ 24,27,28,29,32,33,40,42

TUbra....................................... 26,42

Flood plains, plant communities________ 25-26,

32-33,35,36,38,39

Foothills, aquatic communities of lakes___ 29,35,36

distribution, plants.. ________ 20,41-51

species _... . 52

dry meadows community__________ 35

environment-... . _________ 21,23

niggerhead meadows community __ 24,30,33-35

number of plant species ______ 52

outcrop and talus communities_______ 27,28

vegetation, Noluck Lake__________ 33-36

sandstone outcrops... 37

Umiat _ ___ _._ 36-37

wet sedge meadows ________ 24,35,36

Frost boils_____-- _________ 24

Fungi.. _ __ __.._ 53

Galium boreale.................................. 50

trifidum.. . .................. 50

Genera, number of plant. _________ 52

Gentiana glauca................................. 49

propinqua.................................. 49

prostrate.................................... 49

Oeum glaciale... ........................... 28,4o, 47

rossii....................................... 40,47

Glacial lakes.._____.____________ 29

Glaciation.________._____.____ 23,39

Glacier Creek__________________ 39

Habitat of plants _- __ - 39,41-51,52-53 

Haematomma................................... 53

Hedysarum alpinum americanum......... 26,35,39,48

mackenzii................................... 26,48

HierocMoe alpina .......... 26,27,28,37,40,42; pi. 104

odorata..................................... 26,42

paueiftora................................ 25,31,42
INDEX 57

Page 

Hippuris tetraphylla......................~ . 48

vulgaris -..................... 30,32,35,36,39,48

Honchenyapeploides............................ 32,45

Hylocomium splendent.......................... 53

Hyjmum....................................... 53

Ikpikpuk River. . .. ... 32

Juncus arcticus alaskanus.................... 26,33,43

biglumis........................... 24,25,32,39,43

castaneus................................ 26,35,43

triglumis................................. 25,39,43

Junipents communis montana.................. 41

Killik River__ .... _ _ _ ._ 37 

Kobresia........................................ 27

myosuroides.......... ............... 27,28,37,43

simpliciuscula... ...................... 27,37,43

Koenigia tslandica.............................. 45

Kurupa, Lake__________________ 29

Lagotis glauca stelleri............................ 35,49

Lathyrus maritimus________________ 48 

Ledum palustre decumbms................ 24,25,27,49

Lesgueretta arctica.............................. 47

Lichens- .. . 24,25,26, 27, 28,30,32,40,52,53

Linnaea borealis................................ 50

Linum perenne lewisii.......................... 48

Lisburne group, limestone_ __ . - 28,37,39 

Liverworts._________-___-__--_ 25,53 

Lloydia serotina................................. 28,43

Lobaria linita................................... 53

Localities, representative.__..__ _.._ 30-40 

Logotis glauca stetteri............................ 35

Loiseleuria procumbent.................... 27,28,37,49

Lomatogonium rotatum.......................... 49

Lupinus arcticus.......................... 26,28,37,48

Luzula......................................... 26

confusa................... 24,27,28,32,35,37,40,43

muttiflorafrigida............................ 43

nivalis latifolia.............................. 43

parviflora................................... 43

wahlenbergii.... ________________ 43

Lycoperdon..................................... 53

Lycopodium annotinum pugens....--------- 41

selago adpreswm................... 28,29,37,40,41

Lysiella obtusata.. ..........................__ 25,44

M

Marchantia polymorpha. 53 

Matricaria ambigua............................. 50

Melandrium.................................... 26

apetalum................................... 33,45

furcatum.................................... 45

taylorae____________________ 35,45 

Menyanthes Mfoliata......................... 30,36,49

Merckia physodes. ______________ 26,33,35,45 

Meridian Creek..________________ 33 

Mertensia martima.............................. 32,49

paniculata.. ............. 49

Minuartia...................................... 26,39

arctica................................... 27,33,45

biflora...................................... 45

elegans...................................... 45

laricifolia................................... 45

macrocarpa........................... 27,37,40,45

obtusiloba................................... 45

rubella...................................... 45

Mnium......................................... 53

Moehringia lateriflora........................... 45

Page 

Moneses uniflora................................ 48

Monolepis nuttalliana_______.__ _. 45 

Mosses..- . 21,24,25,26,27,28,53

Mountains, aquatic communities of lakes_ 29,39 

distribution, plants___________ 20,41-51 

species..__ _____ _ _- 52 

dry meadow community__ 27,30,37-39 

environment_____________-__- 23 

flood-plain communities___-___ 39 

niggerhead meadows community..... 24,30,37,39

number of plant species. _______. __. 52

vegetation on limestone of Lisburne group.. 28

sandstone and conglomerate talus ... 28,

37,39; pi. 10B

wet sedge meadows__.__ __. _ 24,38,39 

Myosotis alpestris asiatica.................... 28,35,49

N

Nephroma arcticum............................. 53

Neruokpuk formation___.__..__ - 39 

Noatak drainage basin_____________. 20,52 

Noatak formation_________________ 37 

Noluck Lake_ ___ _ 23,27,33-36

Nostoc........................ .............. 53

0

Oxycoccus microcarpus.......................... 25,49

Oxyriadigyna............................. 32,33,36,45

Oxytropis .................................. 26,35,52

deflexa...................................... 48

gradlis...................................... 27,48

jordalii..................................... 48

kokrinensis............. 48

koyukukensis................................ 48

leucantha................................... 48

maydelliana.............................. 27,37,48

mertensiana........................... 28,29,40,48

nigrescens.......................... 27,28,37,40,48

bryophila............................... 48

pygmaea.. .. ........................ 48

scammaniana............................... 48

viscida...................................... 48

Papaver..................................___ 32

alboroseum........-.. ..................... 33,46

macowiii.-.............................. 26,35,46

radicatum................ ................ 33,46

Parmelia....................................... 53

Parnassia hotzebuei....................... 26,33,35,47

palustris.................................... 26,47

Parrya nudicaulis.................. _ 33,47

Peat-_____._______.________.. 21,29 

Pedicularis..................................... 26,52

capitata......................... 26,33,35,37,40,49

labradorica.................................. 49

lanata............................. 27,32,33,40,49

langsdorfti.......... .............27,28,32,33,49

lapponicum.................... ........... 49

oederi. 49 

pennellii.................................... 25,49

sudefica............................ 25,31,32,39,49

verticittata.................................. 26,49

Peltigera aphthosa............................... 53

canina........................._ 53

Permafrost_____________________ 21,25 

Petasitesfrigidus.................. 25,32,35,50;pi. 11A

hyperboreus......................__-__ 50

Peters, Lake... 29,39-40; pi. 10B

Phippsiaalgida_. -..--.................... 32,36,42

Phloxsibirica.......................... 26,27,28,40,49

Physcia......................................... 53

Physiographic provinces_ 21,62 

Picea glauca............................. .... 41

Pinguicula villosa............................... 25,49

vulgaris..................................... 25,49

Plant collections . 19-20

Page 

Plant communities, aquatic vegetation of lakes

24,29-30,31,32-33,35,36,39

dry upland meadows_ 24,27-28,35,37,39; pi. 9A

flood-plain and eutbank vegetation.. 24,25-27,32-

33,35,36,39; pi. 8

major__._ __ _ __.____ 24

niggerhead meadows. . 24,27,

30,33-35,36,37,39; pi. 7A

outcrop and talus vegetation..._ 24,27,28-29,37,

38; pi. 104 

wet sedge meadows_ - .... 24-25,

29,30,31,32,35,36,39; pi. 7B 

Plantago canescens.............................. 49

Poo.......___ _...._....____ 62

alpigena.................................... 42

alpina...................................... 29,42

arctica.......................... 24,26,28,32,33,42

brachyanthera............................... 42

glauca................................ 26,28,29,42

hispidula................................... 42

komarovii,.................................. 42

lanata...................................... 42

paucispicula................................ 36,42

stenantha................................... 42

Point Barrow. _______________ 19,25,30-32 

Polemonium.................................... 26

acutiflorum.............................. 26,35,49

boreale...................................... 49

Polygons, frost.__-_... . __ 21,24-25,36 

Polygonum bistorta plumosum................ 24, 35,45

viviparum....................... 26,27,32,37,39,45

Polytrichium juniperinum....................... 53

Populustacamahacca..................... 26,37,39,44

Potamogeton. ................................. 29,36

alpinus tenuifolius.......................... 41

filiformis.................................... 41

pectinatus ................................. 35,41

Potentate .................................... 28,52

biflora...................................... 40,47

ekgans-.................................. 37,40,47

emerginata.................................. 32,47

fruticosa.................................... 26,47

kookertana.................................. 47

muUiftda.................................... 47

nivea....................................... 47

palustris................................ 30, 36, 47

pulchella.................................... 47

uniflora.................................... 40, 47

vahliana.................................... 47

virgulata.................................... 47

Precipitation . 23, 52 

Previous studies__________________ 19 

Primula borealis.. .............................. 49

egaliksensis................................. 26, 49

tschuktschorum............... _.__.. 49

Puccinellia angustata............................ 42

hauptiana................................... 42

paupercula................................. 32,42

phryganodes................................ 32, 42

Pyrola grandiflora........................... 26, 28, 49

secunda obtusata............................ 26, 49

Q

Quaternary deposits.. 21 

Quaternary glaciers____ __ 30,39

R

Ranunculus.................................... 52

aquatftis eradicatus.......................... 46

flammula filiformis ........................ 46

gelidus...................................... 46

glacialis chamissonis......................... 46

gmelini yukonensis................ 29, 32, 35,36, 46

hyperboreus................................. 35,46

lapponicus................................. 33, 46

nivalis................................... 35,36, 46

pattasii........................... 30,32, 35,36, 46

pedatifidusaffinis........................... 33,
INDEX

Ranuncutut Continued Page 

pwmaeut...... . . 32,36,46

 oMnef .... __...... ......____ 46

sulphureut..................___.____ 46

turneri...................................... 46

Red Hill__________.____......._ 36,37

Eelationships, successional___________ 30 

Rhacomttrium lanuginosum...... . _ 53

Rhododendron lapponieum__________ 27,39,49 

Ribes triate ................................... 47

River terraces.. _ __ __..____ 27,36 

Rock desert__...._______________ 24

Rorippa polustris............................... 47

Rosa ocfcttten*.__________________ 48 

Rubble slopes, Noluck Lake area__ -__- 27-28,35 

Rubus ardicus.................................. 48

chamaemorus........................ 24, 25,39,48

Rumex acetosa alpestris.......................... 45

arcticus-................................... 32, 45

RiHtula..........___.__.______.__ 63

Sadlerochit River..._............. 23,39,52; pi. 11B

Sagavanirktok, Lake______________ 29 

Sagavanirktok River... .... _ 23; pi. 7J3

Sagina intermedia............................... 45

Salix........................................ 36,39,52

alaxentit............. 26,32,35,39,44; pis. 8,11J3, 12

anglorum................................... 32,44

antiplasta............................... 44

araiodada............................... 44

arbutcidoidet-.. ........................... 26,44

arctica................................... 32,39,44

arct.olitoralis~,.............................. 44

bardayi..................................... 44

barrattiana angustifolia...................... 44

brachycarpa mexiae.......................... 44

chamissonis................................. 44

desertorum.................................. 26,44

flagettaria. ................... __..__ 44

fuscescena................................... 25,44

reducta................__ __..__ 44

glacialis..................................... 44

glauca...................................... 44

acutifolia......................... 26,44; pi. 12

glabrescent.............................. 44

mackenziana maerogemma................_ 44

myrtUUfolia................................. 44

niphodada. ......... 26,27,32,35,49; pis. 11B.12

ovalifolia camdensis.......................... 32,44

phlebophytta................................ 27,44

polaris selwynensis.... _ . 44; pi. 11JB

pidchra...................... 24,25,26,27,32,35,44

palmeri .............................. 44

yukonensis.............................. 44

reticulata.. 24,25,27,28,32,35,37,39,40,44; pi. 11B 

gigantifolia.............................. 44

subrotunda.............................. 44

richardtonii.......... 25,26,27,32,39,44; pis. 7B, 11

rotundifolia........................... 27,29,32,44

tetchettima................................. 44

walpolei.......................... 26,35,44; pi. 12

Sautturea angustifolia..................... 24,28,33,50

eiscida yukmentis........................... 50

Saxifraga................................. 26,28,40,52

bronchiaUsfunstonU.-.-........... 28,29,37,40,47

Saxifraga Continued

caespitosa sUeneflora................ 28,32,36,40,47

cernua................................... 25,35,47

davurica grandipetala.................. 28,29,40,47

enchschottzii........................... 28,29,40,47

flageUaris .- ..........-............. 27,40,47

foliologa.................................. 25,32,47

hieracifolia........................... 24,32,33,47

Mreulua................................. 25,35,47

nivalis...................................... 33,47

oppotitlfolia............ 27, 28, 29,32, 33, 37, 40, 47

punctate nelsoniana............... 24,33,35,40,47

radiata...................................... 47

reflexa.....-.......-...........-. . 27, 29, 40, 47

rivularis................................. 32,36,47

serpvttifolia..-....................... 28,37,40, 47

tricuapidata .......... . 28,29,40,47; pi. 104

unalatchensis............................... 47

Schist outcrops, vegetation___..._...... 29

Schrader, Lake______________ 23, 29,39-40 

Scirpua coespitosus austriocus................... 25,43

Sedum roteum irtteyrifolium..................... 47

Selaginetta sibirica..-. .-.-...... 28,29,37,40,41

Senecio......................................... 35

alaskanus................................... 51

atropurpureut frigidus..... 33,51

tomentosa............................... 28, 51

congestus................................ 33,37, 51

fuscatus..................................... 51

hyperborealit................................ 51

lugens...................................... 26, 51

resedifolius.................................. 51

Shainin, Lake__________________ 29 

Shale outcrops, vegetation.. 29,37 

Shaviovik River......-.. . . pis. SA, 11A

Shepherdia canadensis........................... 26,48

Shublik Springs... . 23, 29 

SOene a&atUt....... . .- ..- 27, 28,33,37, 45

repens................................... 27, 28, 45

Smelowskia..................................... 52

calycina................................. 28,40,47

integrifolia........................... 35,37,47

media................................... 47

porsUdii...... . .................... 47

Snake Creek__________________ 39 

Soils:

alluvial.. - 21, 27,32,36

coastal plain__ 21,32 

flaky schist_ 29 

flood-plain.. . . 21,25,32

foothills.-.... 21, 24, 36, 37

mineral________-___.... _ 21, 27

peat . ... 21, 24,32, 33, 36

residual..__...._...._ ... 21, 24,36

sandstone and conglomerate.. 28

type. 21

windblown___.__ . 32

Solidago multiradiata............................ 26,61

Solorina........................................ 53

Sparganium.................................... 32

hyperborean............. ........ 29,36,36,39,41

Sphaerophorua globosus.......................... 53

Sphagnum^.................................... 53

Species, number of plant.. _ . ,. 62 

Spiraea beauverdiana............................ 37,48

Stages of vegetation__ . 25,26-27

Page 

Stettarla........................................ 35

crassifolia................................... 45

humijusa................................... 45

laeta........................................ 33,45

laxmannii.......................... 45

longipes.-............................ ..... 45

monantha................................... 45

Stereocaulon tomentomm....- 63

Storm Creek. __.__________-__ 33,35

Taraxacum.......................-....... 26,28,35,52

alaskanum..................... .. 51

eurylepium................................. 51

festivum.................................... 51

hyperarcticum...........- 51

lacerum_..__.__..__.... __ 33,51

lateritium................................... 51

maurolepium...--.......................... 51

phymatocarpum ......-................... 51

Tdoschiaes..................................... 53

Temperature, coastal plain_________ 21-23,30 

foothills..... . 21-23,33

mountains______________ 23

Tent Mountain_________________ 35 

Tertiary gravel__ .. _ .. _ 21 

Thalictrum alpinum............................ 46

Thamnolia vermicular!*......................... 53

Therofon richardtonii......................... 28,40,47

Thlaspi arcticum............................. 47

Thunder Mountain______________~ 33 

Tofieldiacoccinea. ..................... 27,28,37,43

pusitta................................... 25,39,43

Topography, foothills_...._____ __ 21

Torularia humttia ............................ 47

Transportation. 19 

Triglochin maritima............................. 25,41

palustris.......................... .... . 41

Trisetum sibiricum.............................. 42

spicatum..-.. .................. 26,28,33,40,42

Tulugak Lake._____ __ . 37,39; pis. 9,10.4 

Tulugak Springs..____-_....... .. 23,29,37

Tundra._...... _ 24,36,52

TT

UmbUicaria..................................... 53

Umiat-.. ....... 19,21,22,23,24,25,33,36-37; pi. 8B

Umiat, Lake.__ __..__ . .. 36 

Umiat Mountain_______ _ _ - 36 

Utrteularia macrorhiza.......................... 36,49

VaeciniumuMginosum.................... 27,28,40,49

vitis-idaea............................. 27,32,40,49

VaUriana capitata..................... 25,26,33,35,50

Viburnum edule................................ 50

Viola epipsila repens.. .. 48

W

White spruce. 24,41 

Woodsia alpina................................. 41

glabeUa............................... 28,29,37,41

Osensit..................................... 41

Zygadenus elegans.............................. 26,43