NBSIR 83-2722

Radiation Curing of Inks and

Coatings

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Measurement Laboratory

Center for Materials Science

Polymer Science and Standards Division

Washington, DC 20234

Annual Report for the Period

October 1, 1981 to September 30, 1982

Issued June 1 983

NATIONAL BUREAU

OF STANDARDS

LIBRART AUG 1 1983

V

NBSIR 82-2722

c.o- RADIATION CURING OF INKS AND

COATINGS

George A. Senich and Roland E. Florin

U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Bureau of Standards

National Measurement Laboratory

Center for Materials Science

Polymer Science and Standards Division

Washington, DC 20234

Annual Report for the Period

October 1, 1981 to September 30, 1982

Issued June 1 983

Prepared for: Bureau of Engraving and Printing

U S. Department of the Treasury

Washington, DC 20228

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Malcolm Baldrige, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS. Ernest Ambler, Director

RADIATION CURING OF INKS AND COATINGS

George A. Senich and Roland E. Florin

Polymer Science and Standards Division

Center for Materials Science

National Measurement Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, DC 20234

ABSTRACT

The science and technology of curing organic materials with radiation

is reviewed. Electron beam, ultraviolet, infrared, microwave, and high'

frequency radiation sources and the resin systems suitable for use with

these sources are considered. Equipment necessary to affect a radiation

cure is discussed and some practical problems unique to each radiation

method are indicated. The application of radiation curing to industrial

processes which employ inks and coatings is covered, with particular

emphasis given to printing with radiation curable formulations. Included

are discussions of the advantages and disadvantages of radiation cured

inks, some typical ink components and formulations, the specialized

machinery required, and the influence of parameters unique to radiation

curing methods on the printing process. Other nonprinting but related

industrial operations utilizing radiation for treating thin films and

coatings are also considered. Some costs, examples, and market statistics

are given for these commercial procedures. Newer nonconventional , but

also nonradiation, alternative curing methods are discussed briefly. A

bibliography of recommended further reading and a list of over two

hundred fifty references are included.
:
CONTENTS

Page

I PURPOSE, SCOPE, AND SUMMARY OF THE REPORT 1

II INTRODUCTION TO RADIATION CURING 3

III ELECTRON BEAM CURING— PRINCIPLES AND MACHINERY 15

A Energy Deposition by Electrons 15

B Commercial EB Curing Machinery 22

C A Few Special EB Curing Problems 26

IV ULTRAVIOLET CURING— PHOTOINITIATORS AND EQUIPMENT 27

A Photoinitiators 27

B Lamps and Associated Equipment 39

C A Few Special UV Curing Problems 48

V UV AND EB RESIN SYSTEMS 52

A Oligomers 52

B Monomers or Reactive Diluents 68

C Coating Formulations 70

VI INFRARED, MICROWAVE, AND HIGH FREQUENCY CURING 7 4

A Infrared Curing 74

B Microwave and High Frequency Curing 77

VII INDUSTRIAL METHODS FOR APPLYING COATINGS 79

VIII UV AND EB CURING OF PRINTING INKS 81

A Printing Methods 81

B Advantages and Disadvantages of Radiation Curing 86

C Ink Components and Formulations 87

D Equipment Requirements for Printing 88

E Influence of Curing Parameters on the Printing Process . 88

IX OTHER RELATED APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION AND RADIATION CURING . 97

X INDUSTRIAL RADIATION CURING APPLICATIONS: COSTS, EXAMPLES,

AND STATISTICS 101

A General Radiation Curing 101

B Printing Inks 105

XI ALTERNATIVE NEWER METHODS FOR NONRADIATION CURING 107

XII CONCLUDING REMARKS 110

XIII RECOMMENDED READING 110

XIV REFERENCES CITED IN TEXT 113

XV OTHER REFERENCES 123
'
1

I PURPOSE, SCOPE, AND SUMMARY OF THE REPORT

The purpose of this report is to survey the open literature on the

radiation curing methods using inks primarily, but also other coatings,

as a background for further research. Newer nonradiation methods and

applications of radiation to fields other than coatings will also be

considered briefly.

The science and technology of curing organic materials with radiation

is the subject of the first part of the report, Chapters II through VI.

The opening section is primarily introductory in nature and encompasses

a definition of the curing process, the motivations for exploiting

solventless curing with radiation, the basic principles of the interaction

of various forms of radiation with matter, and a kinetic scheme for

polymerization and oxidation, chain reactions which can be initiated by

molecular species excited by the aforementioned interactions.

The following two chapters, III and IV, consider the most common

radiation sources used to induce curing reactions: electron beams (EB)

and ultraviolet (UV) light. The transfer of energy from electrons to

molecules to form excited species and an indication of possible reactions

that these excited molecules may undergo is outlined for materials

subjected to EB bombardment. Since the energy imparted by UV radiation

is much less than for EB, special excitable molecules referred to as

photoinitiators or photosensitizers must be added to insure that exposure to UV light yields the desired chemically reactive species. The

six major groups of these compounds are detailed, with examples of each

type provided. The equipment necessary to affect a radiation cure is

discussed and some practical problems unique to each of these radiation

methods are indicated for both EB and UV curing systems.
2

Since the resin-forming chemical substances employed for EB and UV

radiation curing are often identical, mention of these materials is not

made in either of the preceding two sections but instead is the topic

of Chapter V. The three common types of oligomers or reactive shortchain polymers, namely cationic, thiol -ene, and acrylic, are considered

in detail, as are monomers or reactive diluents. Some examples of the

usage of these and other constituents in typical coating formulations

are presented.

The final discussion of curing promoted by radiation is that of

infrared (IR), microwave, and high frequency curing. It has been

estimated that of all the radiation curing methods, IR has the broadest

potential for use although, at present, EB and UV are exploited commercially to a much greater extent. The mechanisms of curing, typical

equipment required, and some special problems are considered for these

methods, however in less detail than in the earlier chapters covering

EB and UV sources.

The application of radiation curing to industrial processes that

employ inks and coatings is covered in the second part of the report,

Chapters VII through X. First to be discussed are the large-scale

processes of roll, curtain, and spray coating, all of which have been

used to apply radiation curable formulations. Following this, Chapter

VIII gives details on printing with EB and UV curable inks. Included

are a brief summary of the common printing methods, e.g., typography,

planography, intaglio, and silkscreen, a presentation on the advantages

and disadvantages of radiation cured inks, an outline of typical ink

components and formulations, and an indication of the specialized

machinery required. The influence of some parameters unique to radiation

curing methods on the printing process is also considered.
3

Other nonprinting industrial procedures utilizing radiation or

radiation curing, some for treating thin films and coatings, are illustrated in a separate section. These include such diverse commercial

areas as crosslinking wire insulation, rubber tires, and dental fillings,

preparation of resists for microelectronic device fabrication, and

sterilizing medical supplies. The final chapter in this part gives

some costs, examples, and market statistics for the industrial usage of

both radiation curing in general and for radiation cured printing inks.

The report concludes with a chapter on newer nonradiation curing

methods, presenting a short discussion on modified heatset, high solids,

surface coated, and water-based inks, catalytic two part coatings,

electro-deposited coatings, and jet printing; all materials or techniques

which are alternatives to both conventional and radiation curing. A

bibliography of recommended references giving more detailed expositions

on a number of the topics covered in this report is included for further

background reading and can be found in Chapter XIII.

II INTRODUCTION TO RADIATION CURING

Printing inks, paints, and other coatings are applied as a liquid

or paste but must change to a solid and nontacky state before the

painted or coated article can be used. The change is known as curing

or drying. Sometimes it occurs by physical means, the evaporation of a

solvent or dispersion medium for example, and sometimes by chemical

changes such as polymerization and crosslinking. These chemical processes

connect the many relatively small molecules of the original liquid or
4

paste into a large molecular network or insoluble solid, which may be

either rigid or rubbery in consistency depending upon the requirements

of a particular application. Among traditional materials, gravure inks

and many lacquers dry by solvent evaporation while paints and inks

based upon linseed oil "dry" by chemical crosslinking promoted by

oxygen in the air. Considerable time is usually required for curing in

both methods and the evaporation of solvents can result in air pollution

and potential fire hazards. There is also a tendency of the media to

dry upon presses, brushes, sprayers, and other application equipment.

The long cure time requirement raises difficulties in modern production

lines; the other factors have become more acute since the rapid rise of

petroleum prices and the advent of air pollution legislation.

A variety of new curing systems have been devised to avoid or cope

with these difficulties. Many are somewhat alike for inks and coatings.

In particular, methods using radiation have proliferated. "Radiation"

has been given at least three distinct meanings in various contexts:

(a) broadly, all energy traveling as electromagnetic waves or active

particles such as electrons and ions, (b) more narrowly, waves or

particles whose elementary units carry enough energy to break chemical

bonds and cause chemical reaction directly, quite aside from any heating

effect, (c) ionizing radiation, or that having energy much greater than

visible or ultraviolet. A survey of the electromagnetic spectrum

relating the energy, frequency, v, and wavelength, A., of various types

of radiation is shown in Table 1 [1].

The carriers of radiation, e.g. photons, electrons, or ions, are

initially at high speed or of high kinetic energy, and when they pass

near to or collide with molecules of a target material they can cause
5

TABLE 1

The Wavelength, Frequency, and Energy for Various Types of

Electromagnetic Radiation

Wavelength Frequency Energy, Source and/or Type

X, nm v, s eV

1.25 X 10‘ 52.4 X 10

22 9.9 X 10

7

hard x-rays

1.0 X icf 43.0 X 10

21 1.2 X 10

7 high energy y-ray limit

6.0 X 10-4

5.0 X 10

20 2.1 X 106 90

Y p electrons

4.0 X io"

3

7.5 X 10

19 3.1 X 10

5 60

Co p electrons

1.25 X io'

2

2.4 X 10

19 9.9 X IO

4 high energy soft x-ray

1 imit

2.5 X io" 2

1.2 X 10

19

5.0 X 10

4 low energy y-ray limit

6.8 X io"

2 4.4 X 10

18 1.8 X IO

4 3

H p electrons

1.25 X io"

1

2.4 X 10

18

9.9 X 10

3

low energy soft x-ray

1 imit

2.0 X io"

1

1.5 X 10

18 6.2 X 103

,

2 vacuum UV range

1.8 X 10* 1.7 X 10

lb

6.9 >

2.0 X 10

2

1.5 X 10

15 6.2 short wave UV limit

2.54 X 10

2

1.2 X 10

15 4.9 low pressure Hg lamp

4.0 X 10

2

7.5 X 10

14 3.1 long wave UV limit

4.2 X 10

2 7.1 X IO14

3.0 visible (violet)

6.8 X 10

2

4.4 X 10

14 1.8 visible (red)

7.0 X 10

2

4.3 X IO

14

1.7

3 14 -1 l short wave IR range

2.0 X HT 1.5 X IO

14

6.2 X 10

1

)) 3 13 -1 l medium wave IR range

4.0 X 10

6

7.5 X io

1,5 3.1 X 10

1

))

6 in -3 long wave IR range

1.0 X io

b

3.0 X IO

11

1.2 X 10

6 >

3.3 X 10

6 9.1 X IO10 3.8 X io"

4 short wave microwave

1 imit

1.4 X 10

7

2.1 X IO

10 8.9 X io'

5

K band wavelength center
6

TABLE 1 (continued)

Wavelength

A, nm

Frequency

v, s -1

Energy,

eV

Source and/or Type

3.0 x 10

1.5 x 10

8

2.7 x 10

c

3.0 x 10

8

1.0 x 10-

1.0 x 10

10

1.0 x 10

2.0 x 10-

1.1 x 10-

10 4.1 x 10

-5

8.3 x 10

-6

4.6 x 10

-6

1.0 x 10- 4.1 x 10

-6

3.0 x 10

3.0 x 10'

8

1.2 x 10

-6

1.2 x 10

-7

X band wavelength center

LS band wavelength

center

long wave microwave

1 imit

UHF range

VHF range

Source: After J. Lacey, A. H. Keough, "Radiation Curing, A Discussion

of Advantages, Features, and Applications," Assoc. Finishing

Processes Soc. Manuf. Engrs. , Dearborn, MI, 1980, p. 13.

i
7

ionization, excitation to higher energy states, or fragmentation of the

target, the carriers losing energy in the process. The molecular

processes that can be brought about directly by absorbed radiant energy

are governed by the size of the atomic packet of energy, E, of the

radiation, calculated from the equations:

E - h\> or E = ch/A

where h is Planck's constant and c the speed of light. Photons will be

absorbed by a substance with a probability that varies with the strength

of the absorption spectrum at the wavelength involved. The act of

absorption excites the molecule to a state of higher energy. This

excited molecule may do several things: (a) re-radiate all or a part

of the energy, (b) transfer it to other nearby molecules by a radiationless transition, thus going back to the original state or some other

state of lower energy than the excited state, or (c) break into fragments

or enter into other chemical reactions. Usual energies required to

break a chemical bond are in the range from 125 to 500 kJ/mol (30 to

120 kcal/mol). A few typical values are given in Table 2 [2,3]. In

many instances, much of the absorbed energy will ultimately appear as

heat. Radiation of photon energy too low to break chemical bonds can

still bring about reaction indirectly by raising the temperature of the

absorbing medium and thus accelerating a normal thermal reaction. Thus,

electromagnetic radiation with E on the order of or greater than 1.5 eV

(125 kJ), corresponding to wavelengths lower than 953 nm, i.e. visible,

ultraviolet (UV), x-rays, and gamma-rays, can bring about reaction by

direct photochemical action, while the other lower energy kinds, especially microwave and most infrared (IR), are merely devices for heating.
8

TABLE 2

Energies of Some Common Covalent Bonds at 298 K

Bond Molecule Bond Energy,

kJ/mol eV

H-H H 2

436 4.52

C-H Paraff i ns 385-435 3.99-4.51

Olefins > 452 > 4.69

Acetylene 523 5.43

Benzene 461 4.78

t-C

4

H

9

-H 1 ~ C

4

H 10

385 3.99

PhCH

2

-H Tol uene 356 3.69

RCO-H Aldehydes 360-366 3.73-3.80

c-c Ethane 368 3.82

PhCH

? -CH?

R Propyl benzene, Butyl benzene 280-289 2.90-3.00

RCO-COR Bi acetyl, Benzil 278-282 2.88-2.93

C=C Ethylene 720 7.47

CeC Acetylene 962 9.98

c-o Aryl alkyl ethers 239-280 2.48-2.90

C=0 C0

? 532 5.52

CeO CO 1076 11.16

C-N Ami nes 255-300 2.65-3.11

0-H h

2o 498 5.17

Alcohol

s

428-439 4.44-4.55

0-0 H2°2 213 2.21

Alkyl peroxides 152-159 1.58-1.65

Acyl peroxides 127 1.32

0=0 °2 498 5.17

S-H h

2

s 377 3.91

s-s *2 425 4.41

s=o S0

2

552 5.73

N-H Nt-L, amines 310-460 3.22-4.77

NeN N, 945 9.80
TABLE 2 (continued)

Bond Molecule Bond Energy,

kJ/mol eV

F-F F 2

157 1.63

Cl-Cl C1

2

243 2.52

Br-Br Br

2

194 2.01

I-I *2 153 1.59

C-F ch

3

f 452 4.69

C-Cl CC1

4

295 3.06

C-Br CH

3

Br 293 3.04

C-I CH31 236 2.45

Source: "CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics," R. C. Weast, Ed.,

63rd Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1982, pp. F185-F202.
There are important differences between the effects of radiation

induced photochemical processes in the visible and UV, which usually

involve absorption of a photon in specific chemical bond systems having

a suitable absorption spectrum, and the action of very high energy

radiation such as gamma rays and electrons. Although there are various

mechanisms for absorption of ionizing radiation in matter, there is a

strong tendency for the absorption of both electrons and gamma rays to

be nonspecific and roughly proportional to the density of the material

traversed. High energy radiation is more penetrating than low energy

radiation of the same kind, and for the same energy, gamma rays are

much more penetrating than electrons. It is thought that the primary

action of gamma and other forms of high energy radiation is to liberate

electrons, so the chemical effect is much like that of irradiation with

an electron beam (EB). The lowest energy x-rays are an exception to

this generalization in that their absorption can be strong for specific

kinds of atoms.

Many important photochemical or radiation induced processes occur

by a chain reaction mechanism. One primary photochemical or radiation

induced chemical reaction, initiation, produces reactive atoms, free

radicals, or ions which start a long sequence of spontaneously occurring

reactions, or propagation. This is especially so with polymerization

and oxidation, as indicated schematically below:

Polymerization

k

l

C + hv 2R- Initiation

k

2

R.j • + M Propagation

V + V

Termi nati on
11

Oxidation

C + hv — 2R- Initiation

R* + 0 9 — R0 o

- Propagation

R0

2

* + RH “* ROOH + RR* + R0

2 — ROOR

R* + R- — RR Termi nation

ro

2

- + ro

2 - Products

In these equations C is an initiator molecule, R* a free radical species,

M a monomer molecule or chain unit, R.» a free radical with i monomer

units in the chain, a polymer molecule containing i monomer units,

and R (without dot) a part of a molecule.

Although the number of primary acts, such as initiation, is often

proportional to the total number of quanta or electrons absorbed irrespective of the intensity or time- rate of absorption, the total amount of

chain reaction varies in a more complicated way. Thus, at steady state:

= kjUC] - k4

[R-] 2 = o

[R-] (5

)' [cAd*5 TM= -k

2 [R-][M] = -k

2 (^ m\i)h

where I is the intensity of radiant illumination and the brackets

denote concentration of the appropriate chemical species. It is apparent

from the final equation that the rate of consumption of monomer, which
12

is equivalent to the rate of production of polymer, is proportional to

the one-half power of both initiator concentration and light intensity.

Since the consumption of initiator and light is proportional to I[C]

and conversion of monomer only to {I[C]} , it is evident that the efficiency of utilization of both initiator and light falls off at high

intensities:

-d[M]/dt

d[C]/dt

arc])

ICC]

* -!< = (ICC]} *

These same arguments apply to initiation by ionizing radiation

except that no initiator is needed. Although gamma radiation has been

used in some polymer applications where very deep penetration is essential

(sterilization, wood and concrete impregnation), the industrial use of

chemically active radiation for coatings and inks has been restricted

to EB and UV, as will be discussed in a later section of the report.

Although, in principle, coatings might be applied as monomers and

simply polymerized to a cured product, the composition of radiation

cured coatings and inks has evolved differently. Most common monomers

are too fluid and too volatile for application as a coating; moreover,

they do not utilize the radiation with the greatest possible efficiency.

Therefore, considerably larger molecules containing some reactive

sites--ol igomers or prepolymers--are used instead as the main component.

In this way only a few additional reactions need occur to make a large

polymer molecule. However, a certain amount of a monomer is also

present to bring about the appropriate application viscosity combined

with the most efficient curing. Peroxide cured compositions of this

general character, consisting of unsaturated polyester and styrene,
13

have had a long record of successful use in wood coating and fiber-glass

composite production and the early experiments with radiation curing

began with them. It was soon realized that oligomers and monomers

containing acrylic ester groups were much faster curing than the styrene

and unsaturated polyester system and that monomer constituents bearing

several reactive functional groups, such as the example trimethyl olpropane

tri acrylate shown in Figure 1, were also faster curing than monofunctional

acrylates. Two nonacrylate systems are also competitive in the coatings

field, the thiol-ene system and the cationic photoinitiator system, but

the overwhelming majority are acrylic based.

Current ionizing radiation and UV cured coating and ink systems

usually contain the following components:

• oligomer

• monomer

• pigment (absent in clear coatings)

• initiator (absent in EB cured materials)

0 minor additives (inhibitors to prevent polymerization in storage,

pigment dispersion aids, etc.)

These systems are such that, in theory, there need be no polymerization

on the handling equipment but only on the coated object after exposure

to radiation. Furthermore, unlike most thermally promoted initiators,

the radiation-sensitive initiators can react at room temperature without

additional heating and the irradiating power of present machines is

such that cure is completed in a very short time. Finally, the monomer,

which serves partially as a thinner during application, is converted to

solid resin and, therefore, air pollution by evaporated solvent is not

a problem. These features combine to make possible a considerable
14

CM

X

o

11

o

I 0= 0

I 0

1 CO CM

X X

0 — 0 —

I 0

1

I

FIGURE

1

The

multifunctional

acrylic

monomer

trimethylolpropane

triacrylate.
15

savings in equipment cleaning, time, heating requirements, and in

solvent recovery or incineration systems. Countering these advantages

is the greater cost of materials and equipment needed for radiation

curing.

Ill ELECTRON BEAM CURING-PRINCIPLES AND MACHINERY

A Energy Deposition by Electrons

To cause chemical reactions, the energy of fast electrons must be

transferred to the molecules of the material irradiated. This happens

in small steps and with many changes in the direction of an electron.

A simple rule is that the probability of an inelastic collision for a

fast electron varies with the inverse square of its velocity [4].

Application of this rule is complicated greatly by scattering of electrons

in the target and by the requirement that the relativistic mass must be

used at the high electron energies encountered. This mass is not a

constant but depends on electron velocity and is typically increased

many-fold over its normal constant value, as required by the principles

of relativity theory. Figures 2, 3, and 4 [5,6] give an accurate

description, calculated from theoretical models, of how the energy

deposition rate varies with depth for electrons penetrating into thicknesses of polymeric materials, and Figure 5 shows the limiting penetration (the x-intercepts from Figure 2) as a function of initial electron

energy [7]. Most of the energetic interaction is with the electrons of

the penetrated material. Since the number of electrons in an atom is

roughly proportional to its relative atomic mass, absorption per unit

distance traversed tends to be proportional to density. Therefore, the

thickness to be irradiated is often given instead as the product of

thickness and density, tp, in units of mg/cm or g/cm .
Penetration,

fi

m

51

130

250

510

1300

16

in

CM

co

Tin

in

c\i

o

in

o

CM

o

m

CM

o

in

o

CM

O

O

e

c

0

1

<1) C

0

CL

sso~] A6J0U3 9As;e|oy

FIGURE

2

Depth-dose

distribution

curves

for

polystyrene

in

the

low

energy

range

.
K,

Mrad-mV(mA-min)

K,

Mrad-mV(mA-min)

17

0.2 0.3

te,g/cm2

FIGURES 3 and 4 Depth-dose distribution curves for polyethylene or water (after passage through 40 pm titanium window

and 10 cm air; high energy range). Ordinates are energy deposition rate as Becker-Bly area processing

coefficient K. Electron energy, MeV: A, 0.4; B, 0.7;

C, 1.0; D, 2.0; E, 4.0; F, 10.0.
18

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

FIGURE 5 Penetration as a function of energy for electrons in polystyrene.

Penetration,

fim
19

The outstanding exception to the general rule stated above is

hydrogen, which is about twice as rich in electrons per unit mass as

the elements of higher relative atomic mass. This fact accounts for a

large part of the dependence of the optimal tp upon material composition

for organic substances with varying hydrogen contents, as illustrated in

Table 3. The thickness values [6] given in Table 3 are related to the

penetration range of electrons in the materials shown in Figure 5 but are

smaller because allowance is made in the table for the following two

practical factors. First, a portion of the electron path is through the

window and the air space between the window and the sample, which dissipates

otherwise useful electron energy. The second factor involves the objective

of an approximately uniform exposure for curing in all layers of the

coating. This can be achieved at the far end of the sample, where the

rate of energy deposition has fallen to perhaps fifty to sixty percent

of the surface rate, by using excess electron energy at the expense of

allowing some of the beam to escape into the substrate, thereby wasting

the beam energy remaining. Low energy electrons are advantageous for thin

coatings because they conform with requirement two above, but on the

other hand, a larger fraction of the total energy is consumed passing

through the window and the air layer. Matters such as these are discussed

systematically and in more detail by several authors [5-7].

The energy absorbed per unit mass is called the dose; customary

units are the rad, 10 millijoules per kilogram, and its multiple the

megarad. The most recent work sometimes uses the SI recommended unit

for absorbed dose, the gray. Table 4 gives definitions of units,

terms, and conversion factors commonly used in discussions of radiation

curing [6,8]. One unit deserves some special explanation. The yield
TABLE 3

Optimum Product Thickness for Electron Beam Irradiation

of Several Organic Materials

Electron

Energy, MeV

Optimum Value of

Polyethylene

Thickness Density

Polystyrene

Product3

, g/cm^

Carbon

0.3 0.019 0.020 0.022

0.4 0.051 0.054 0.059

0.5 0.085 0.090 0.098

0.6 0.119 0.127 0.138

0.8 0.190 0.203 0.220

1.0 0.263 0.278 0.302

1.5 0.449 0.475 0.517

2.0 0.634 0.671 0.733

3.0 1.02 1.08 1.18

4.0 1.40 1.48 1.61

5.0 1.77 1.88 2.04

10.0 3.68 3.90 4.24

aValue given is tp

t

for equal entrance and exit doses, adjusted for

beam window and air layer (40 pm Ti and 10 cm air).

Source: R. C. Becker, J. H. Radi at. Phys. Chem.

Bly, M. R. Cleland, J. P. Farrell,

14, 353 (1975).
21

TABLE 4

Definition of Terms, Units, and Conversion Factors Used in Radiation Curing

dose = Amount of energy absorbed per unit mass; e.g. gray, rad

gray (Gy) Unit of dose, equal to absorption of one joule per

kilogram (J/kg)

rad (rd) = 0.01 gray = 100 erg/g

dose rate = Dose per unit time; e.g. gray or rad per second

energy (joule) =

-34

h*v = (Planck constant, 6.626 x 10 J*s)*(frequency, s ^) = h*c/A. = h*(velocity of light, 3.0 x g

10 m/s)/(wavelength, m)

eV Electron volt, unit of energy equivalent to the

kinetic energy acquired by an electron accelerated

across a potential of one volt

Quantum yield, number of atoms or molecules undergoing

a particular process per quantum of absorbed radiation

G-value = Energy yield (akin to 4>), number of atoms or molecules

undergoing a particular process per 100 eV absorbed

energy

K Becker et al. area processing coefficient used to relate

dose, conveyor width, beam current, and conveyor speed

as follows:

o 1 angstrom (A) =

. M . K • (current, mA)

dose, Mrad = 7---/;-u ^ 7 *-3— , • %

* (width, m) • (speed, m/min)

-8 -4 -1

10 cm = 10 micrometer (pm) = 10 nanometer (nm)

1 megarad (Mrad) = 10^ rad = 10^ gray = 10 watt*s/g = 6.25 x 10^ eV/g

1 MeV 10

6

eV = 1.6 x 10

" 13

J = 9.6 x 10

7

kJ/mol = 1.6 x 10

‘ 6

erg

1 watt (W) = J/s = Gy kg/s = 10^ rad*g/s = 10

7

erg/s

Source: After J. Lacey, A. H. Keough, "Radiation Curing, A Discussion of

Advantages, Features, and Applications," Assoc. Finishing

Processes Soc. Manuf. Engrs. , Dearborn, MI, 1980, p. 13.
22

of any chemical process or species is stated as the G-value, i.e.,

atoms or molecules per 100 eV absorbed energy. The G-values for primary

processes range from a small fraction of a unit to several units; a

G-value of about fifteen would correspond to nearly total efficiency in

breaking very strong chemical bonds of about 7 eV and is rarely achieved.

On the other hand, G-values for chain reactions can range in the hundreds

or thousands depending on the chain kinetics. A few typical G-values

for various chemical processes or products are shown in Table 5 [9].

As an example of how the preceding information is typically used,

processors knowing the layer thickness to be irradiated and the desired

dose can determine the accelerating voltage needed from the thickness

of the material to be penetrated (see Table 3 for example). They would

then use conveyor speeds and beam currents satisfying the area processing

coefficient equation, found at the end of Table 4. Many coatings have

now been developed to cure adequately with doses of the order of 1 Mrad.

It is fortunate that this is so, at least for work with paper substrates,

since much higher doses damage the substrate profoundly. For example,

10 Mrad totally destroyed the folding endurance of banknote paper [10,11].

B Commercial EB Curing Machinery

Although UV today has a larger share of the market, ionizing

radiation developed earlier as a source of initiation. The important

commercial sources of ionizing radiation are gamma rays (mostly from

cobalt 60) and EB machines. The latter are much more powerful and have

the advantage that they can be turned off when not in use. In operation,

electrons are emitted from a heated filament in an evacuated chamber,

accelerated and deflected by electrostatic and electromagnetic fields,

and finally allowed to escape from the vacuum tube through a thin foil
23

TABLE 5

G-Values for Radiation Processes or Products

n-Heptane, 1 i q. , consumed g (-c

7

h

i6

) -

6.8

n-Heptane, liq. , H

2 produced G(H2

) = 4.2, 3.9

n-Heptane, liq. G(CH4

) = 0.09

n-Heptane, liq. G(C

2

H

4

) = 0.18

n-Heptane, liq. G(C

2

H

6

) = 0.25

n-Octane, radicals by iodine uptake G(-I

2

) = 3.3, 4.3

n-Paraffins, dimers G(dimer) = 3 - 5

Benzene, radicals by iodine uptake g(-i

2

) = 0.66

Toluene, radicals by iodine uptake g(-i

2

) = 2.4

Acetic acid g(h

2

) = 0.9

Acetic acid G(C0) -

0.5

Acetic acid g(co

2

) = 2.8

Polystyrene G(crosslinks) = 0.05

Poly(methyl methacrylate) 25 °C G(scissions) = 1.23

Cellulose G(scissions) = 10

Methyl acrylate3 G(main chain units) = 600

Styrene

3 G(main chain units) = 1000

Methyl methacrylate3 G(main chain units) = 2000

Acrylonitrile3 G(main chain units) - 40000

cl Expected to be highly dependent upon dose rate and other conditions.

Source: A. Chari esby, "Atomic Radiation and Polymers," Pergamon,

New York, 1960, pp. 186-190, 295, 343, 362, and 388.
24

window. Two types are in use: (a) the scanned beam machines, in which

the electrons are generated nearly as a point source and the narrow

beam scanned electromagnetical ly over the desired area, as in a television

tube, and (b) the linear-filament type or curtain processor, in which

electrons are emitted from a line-source filament, which can be up to a

meter or more in length, and are accelerated perpendicular to the filament

in a continuous linear curtain. Figure 6 shows the two types diagrammatically [5], The former type, of which there are several subclasses,

can produce electrons of low or high energy, up to several MeV. The

linear filament models are restricted to low energies, on the order of

350 keV or less. In industrial curing, the work to be processed is

carried past the window of the electron machine on a conveyor. If a

scanning model is used, the scanning rate is so much more rapid than

the conveyor speed that practically uniform coverage results. The

energy consumed by EB curing is especially low, sometimes estimated as

one-tenth that of UV curing, which is in turn less than that of any

kind of gas heating [12].

EB machines of the scanning type have been made by High Voltage

* Engineering Corporation in the kilovolt and megavolt range of accelerating

potential, with powers up to 100 kW and beam current levels of 100 to

200 mil 1 i amperes. Costs in 1979 had decreased to $3000 to $5000 per

kilowatt output for high voltage equipment and to about $1500 per mi 1 1 i

ampere for low-voltage (150 to 300 keV) equipment [13]. Scanning high

voltage machines to 200 kW at 4 MeV and 100 kW at 5 MeV are made by

Radiation Dynamics, Incorporated (a subsidiary of the Monsanto Co.)

Certain commercial equipment, instruments, or materials are identified

in this report. Such identification does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Bureau of Standards, nor does it imply that

the materials or equipment identified are necessarily the best available

for the purpose.
Cable

Pressurized

Gas

Scanner

Electron

Gun

Pressure

Vessel

Vacuum

Window

(a) Conventional Hybrid System

Vacuum

Electron

Gun

Focusing/Modulator

Structure

(b) Curtain Processor

FIGURE 6 Two electron beam source types currently available.
26

under the name Dynamitron [14]. A 150 keV scanning machine with a

remarkably thin window, 12.5 pm titanium, has been developed in Germany

by Polymer Physik [15].

The principal linear electrode machine in the United States is the

Electrocurtain, available from Energy Sciences, Incorporated. A production line 122 cm wide has been described as well as pilot plant equipment

for laminating, coating, and ink application with a width of 46 cm and

speeds ranging from 10 to 500 cm/s [16,17]. At 1 Mrad applied dose, a

line speed of 250 cm/s requires a source output power of 60 W/cm (2.7 kW

in a 46 cm wide machine) at a beam current of 18 mA. Details have

recently been given on maintenance of the Electrocurtain; for example,

filament life may be from 3,000 to 10,000 hours before replacement [18].

Somewhat similar machines, e.g. T.I.G.E.R. [19], have been developed in

England.

C A Few Special EB Curing Problems

EB machines require considerable shielding. Although electrons

are readily stopped, the x-rays produced by their collisions with

matter are much more penetrating. Small, low voltage machines are sold

as complete packages with lead shielding included. The shielding

requirements are more severe for high voltage units where concrete,

earth, and gravel are usually employed.

The passage of electrons through air produces appreciable ozone,

which is a powerful curing inhibitor for most coating compositions and

also a potential health hazard. Therefore, an inert atmosphere is

usually employed in the vicinity of irradiation. Although nitrogen can

be used, large installations instead often generate an inert gas blanket

by burning methane with slightly less than the stoichiometric amount of
27

air needed for complete combustion [20]. The common use of inert

atmospheres in EB applications obviates any difficulty with the

inhibition of curing by oxygen, which can occur in UV initiated

processes.

Pigments can cause severe limitations in UV curing but are often

of little concern for EB curing, even for thick layers. The penetration

2

"distance," in mg/cm .will differ only slightly from that of a clear

lacquer. In an ink or paint containing finely divided, dense inorganic

pigment, some of the electrons are "stopped" by the pigment. Such

electrons can nevertheless induce chemical reactions in nearby regions

of the organic matrix [21,22]. More difficulty is likely to be encountered not with inorganic pigments but with organic ones, which contain

complex aromatic ring systems liable to change color on irradiation.

In addition, aromatic ring molecules in solution often have a protective

action, causing lower G-values for free radicals than would otherwise

occur [22]. In many experiments, however, these potential difficulties

with pigments have been realized only marginally or not at all [21,23].

IV ULTRAVIOLET CURING-PHOTOINITIATORS AND EQUIPMENT

A Photoinitiators

A very comprehensive list of photoinitiation systems, as of 1968,

was given by Oster and Yang [24]. Only a few classes of these compounds

seem to have been used in UV cured coating formulations although early

patents cover many others, e.g. numerous halogen and sulfur compounds [25].

The agents most often used have been grouped systematically by several

authors [25-27]. Although the classifications of many two-component

initiators overlap, the following six groups are often distinguished:
28

Type 1: Initiators that generate radicals by direct photofragmentation. Especially prominent are the two subgroups based on the chemical

structures given below:

a Benzoin ethers, which are cleaved as indicated in Figure 7. There

is some evidence that the ether radical is less efficient than the benzoyl

when radical concentrations are high and monomer concentrations low [28].

The storage stability of this compound tends to be inferior to some others.

b Substituted acetophenones; among these, 2, 2-dimethoxy-2-phenyl acetophenone undergoes Norrish Type I fragmentation, illustrated in Figure 8.

I The dimethoxy radical undergoes further fragmentation; Figure 9 gives an

example. In contrast, chemically similar 2,2-diethoxyacetophenone

undergoes the Norrish Type II decomposition outlined in Figure 10, in

which the intermediate bi radical can add directly to acrylate monomers.

In the absence of monomer, the bi radical isomerizes to a cyclic compound

which undergoes the further decomposition shown in Figure 11.

Type 2: Systems that form radicals by bimolecular hydrogen transfer.

An example is the photoexcited triplet state of diphenyl ketone, or

benzophenone, which then undergoes the hydrogen transfer reaction

indicated in Figure 12. Hydrogen abstraction also occurs in the primary

step for the thiol -ene system. This will be described in more detail

later but is outlined briefly below:

[aromatic carbonyl compound] — [singlet excited state]

[triplet excited state] —-

S H

>

[reduced form of aromatic carbonyl compound] + R-S*

Type 3: Systems that form radicals by electron transfer or via a

donor-acceptor complex, also known as an exciplex. The electron transfer
29

O OR

II I

FIGURE 7 Type 1 photoinitiation with a benzoin ether.

o och3

hv

O

II och3

I

FIGURE 8 Norrish Type I fragmentation of the type 1 photoinitiator

2, 2-dimethoxy- 2-phenyl acetophenone.

FIGURE 9 Further fragmentation of a product of the Norrish Type I reaction in Figure 8.
30

OCH2 CH3

i C —

H

I OCH2CH3

OCH2CH3

I —C —

H

I OCH2CH3

OH OCHCH3

1 1 C—C —H

I OCH2CH3

FIGURE 10 Norrish Type II decomposition of the type 1 photoinitiator

2,2-diethoxyacetophenone.

CH3CH —O

1 1 C - C ~ H

\ \

OH OCH2CH3

o

II CCH2OCH2CH3

+ CH3CHO

FIGURE 11 Decomposition of the coupling product formed from the

bi radical shown in Figure 10.

FIGURE 12 Type 2 photoinitiation with photoexcited diphenyl ketone.
31

is generally followed by proton transfer and the distinction from type 2

is not always clear. Figure 13 gives an example of this reaction with

a tertiary amine acceptor, again for diphenyl ketone. A number of

correlations have been made concerning the electron transfer initiation

which occurs between the carbonyl and amine reactants, mainly involving

the ionization potentials of the amines and the Taft polar and steric a

parameters used to quantitate relative reactivities of the carbonyls [25].

It is suggested that the amine radical is also especially reactive with

oxygen, usually an inhibitor, in such a way as to generate further

polymerization- initiating radicals [27] as illustrated in Figure 14.

Methyl diethanolamine, CH^NCCK^C^OH^, is an especially effective amine

component but many tertiary amines are active. Although there may be

some doubt about the validity of the mechanism above, in practice aminecontaining initiator combinations are often used in formulations for curing

in the presence of air. An unfortunate consequence is the tendency of

amine systems to generate yellow colored by-products.

Type 4: Photosensitizers that are used in combination with a

radical -generating initiator. The sensitizer absorbs light energy and

transfers it to the real initiator. An example of thioxanthone plus

quinoline sulfonyl chloride [25] is outlined in Figure 15. Thioxanthone

alone does not seem to initiate photopolymerization. Quinoline sulfonyl

chloride can initiate with 310 to 330 nm UV light exposure but does not

absorb at 370 to 380 nm. A combination of the two, however, initiates

with 370 to 380 nm light. This method can be a useful feature for

coatings containing titanium white pigments, which absorb at the lower

wavelengths needed to initiate UV cures with quinoline sulfonyl chloride

alone. In other combinations, the action of thioxanthone is much more

conventional, like that of the ketones described under type 2 initiators.
32

DA

(RCH2) 2—N—CHR

+ RCH—N-(CH2 R)2

R

I

I (RCH2) 2—N — CH — C

FIGURE 13 Type 3 photoinitiation with diphenyl ketone.

N(CH2R)3

I —c*

I
33 eCC+ • CC O X 0—01 H

00

CC

X~ oj co

OJ '1— t— j \ I z z1

•P o

<0 >, a

-Q 4- 1 I

</)C

/— o

<0 •<- CM XO

CC

CM o+

DCX

•o

CM

^CM Xo

CC

CM

OJ o

DCAXI CC+

OvJ oj oX

<J -p

•r- <0 O v-

<0 4-> 4- T-C

CO-r- c o

•r- +J

•P

O

<0 -C

•r- Q. P•I- CO c

•I- <D I Q. C >> O -P

-p

a

<0N -C •r-+JfO

5-

<VS-a

cn o>

>>•«- X u_

4- o o sou

<+— c

-P

O -P <0 * 1-0

4- P.3 o o -a C <0 o

<u£

>>o

CLco

•r- pH 9 CC

0) <U 4- C3 S- CL o X •tf" O-- O1

pHUJ

CC

CDC3

t—( z

U. -
o o

rrx)3 + foTo

S02CI

(ground state acceptor) *>

(excited acceptor) (free radical products)

FIGURE 15 Type 4 photoinitiation with sensitizer thioxanthone and

initiator quinoline sulfonyl chloride.
35

Type 5: This fundamentally different type is represented by the

cationic initiators, which photolyze to strong Lewis acids that operate

on epoxy-functional monomers [29-34]. The first commercial example,

given in Figure 16, used aryldiazonium salts of complex halide anions.

The Lewis acid (PFr- in the "above example) may initiate directly or

j

react with water or alcohols to generate strong proton acids, as indicated

in Figure 17. If the Lewis acid is the initiating species, the polymerization reaction is as shown in Figure 18. One of several disadvantages

of diazonium salts is their liberation of nitrogen, which forms bubbles

and pinholes in films over 15 pm thick; another is storage instability. .

These drawbacks were partially overcome by the use of di aryl iodoni urn

and tri aryl sulfoni urn salts:

Ar

2

I +X", Ar

3

S+X"

where X is a cation of low nucleophi 1 icity , such as PF

g

. There has

been some development of more complex aryl groups to extend the absorption

spectrum to longer wavelengths, and some use of added photosensitizers.

At least four companies, including the American Can Company and the

General Electric Company, hold patents in this area [35].

Type 6: A final individual instance of nonradical initiation

occurs with amine salts of a-ketocarboxyl ic acids [36], for example the

tri butyl ammonium salt of phenyl glyoxyl ic acid as indicated in Figure 19,

which liberates the free amine to initiate the formation of polyurethanes

from isocyanates and polyols.

Comparative tests of storage stability, cure speed, and numerous

film properties of a standard formulation have been reported [37] for a

number of commercial photoinitiators that produce free radicals in
36

Ar N2

+ PF6- Ar F -F PF5 + N2

FIGURE 16 Type 5 photoinitiation with an aryl diazoni urn salt.

PF5 + ROH H+ PF5 (OR)-

FIGURE 17 Formation of a strong proton acid from addition of water or

an alcohol to a product of the type 5 photoinitiation

reaction in Figure 16.
37

«•O

/ \

pf5 + ch2 — ch— ch2r

pf5

• • o

\— CH —CH2R

+

CHo — CH — CH2 R

I 0

1 -pf5

CH2 —CH— O— CH

I I 0 ch2

1 I -PF5 R

o

/ \

ch2 —ch— ch2 —

+ — CH

ICHo

IR

FIGURE 18 Polymerization reaction initiated by the Lewis acid product

of the type 5 photoinitiation reaction in Figure 16.
38

C6 H 5 — CO —COO- NH(C4 H9) 3

-!^*

C6H5CHO + C02 + N(C4H9) 3

FIGURE 19 Type 6 photoinitiation with the tributyl ammonium salt of

phenylglyoxyl ic acid.

CH3

i

C —OH

Ich3

o ch3

<^0)-C-C-OH

CH3

Merck Darocur 1116 Darocur1173

FIGURE 20 Two commercial dial kyl hydroxyacetophenone type photoinitiators.
acrylated resin mixtures. The chemical names, structural formulas,

trade names, and important properties of these initiators are listed in

Table 6. Among other recent disclosures are mixed alkyl (primarily

dodecyl) thioxanthones [38], which are liquid, readily soluble, and

initiate well in inks, and the two dial kylhydroxyacetophenones given in

Figure 20 [39,40], which have a low yellowing tendency and low toxicity.

At least one commercial cationic initiator, Uvcat-14, has been

employed [34].

Often, mixtures of initiators of different types are used, for

example, a benzophenone amine initiator for curing the surface and a

dial koxyacetophenone to cure the bulk of the formulation [41]. The

mechanism of action may be obscure for many of these proprietary combinations. Pappas has proposed a kind of chemical synergism for some

combinations [26]. The cooperative action of aryl ketones and amines

is sometimes also labeled as synergistic.

B Lamps and Associated Equipment

The market for radiation curing of coatings is dominated by UV

partly because of the development of high-intensity, relatively durable,

and reliable medium-pressure mercury lamps. The following description

of such lamps is based on Lacey and Keough [42], who give further

details.

Clear fused quartz tubing is used to contain the plasma (mercury

vapor of several atmospheres pressure at the operating temperature)

that produces the ultraviolet light. The tubing normally has a wall

thickness of 1 mm and an outer diameter of 20 to 25 mm. Lamp lengths

may be one meter or more. The ends are sealed around the electrode

ribbons to provide a vacuum tight enclosure. The electrodes are sophisticated electron emitters and current coupling devices, usually a rod
40

TABLE 6

Commercial Photoinitiators, Suppliers, and Selected Properties

Generic Class/ Trade Name Supplier Physical Solu- Optimum

Product Structure State bill ty Absorption, nm

1 Benzoin Ether (type 1)

Benzoin isobutyl ether Vi cure

10

O OCH2CH(CH3)2

H

Benzoin isopropyl ether Vicure

o och(ch3)2 30

H

Benzoin ethyl ether None

O OC2H5

H

Benzoin methyl ether None

O OCH3

•

H

Stauffer

Chemical

Stauffer

Chemical

Liquid

Solid

Excellent

Good

240-270

240-260

Pfaltz Solid Good

and Bauer

Pfaltz Solid Good 300-380

and Bauer

2 A lpha-Acryloxime Ester

(type 1)

" 1-Phenyl-l, 2-propane- Quantacure Aceto Solid Good 275-400

dione-2-(0-ethoxycar- PD0 Chemical

bonyl) oxime

<SVc -c-CH3

H H O N O

I II o— c— OC2H5
41

TABLE 6 (continued)

Generic Class/ Trade Name Supplier Physical Solu- Optimum

Product Structure State bility Absorption, nm

3 Benzil Ketal (type 1)

2,2-Dimethoxy-2-

phenyl -acetophenone

0 och3

och3

Irgacure

651

CibaGeigy

Solid Good 250-350

Benzil

©Tii "®

0 0

None Pfaltz

and Bauer

Solid Good 320-450

Hydroxy cyclohexyl

phenyl ketone

0 OH

©-*•0

4 Acetophenone Derivative

(type 1)

Irgacure

184

CibaGeigySolid Good 250-319

Diethoxyacetophenone

0 OC2H5

OC2H5

DEAP Upjohn Liquid Excellent

240-350

2-Hydroxy- 2-methyl -1

phenyl -propan-l-one

Darocure

1173

EM

Chemical

Liquid Excellent

200-300

O OH

<O^C-C-CH3

ch3
TABLE 6 (continued)

Generic Class/

Product Structure

5 Ketone- (Ketone -amine)

Combi nation (type 2,3)

Benzophenone

Chlorothioxanthone

O

2-Chlorothioxanthone

O

2-Methyl thioxanthone

O

Trade Name Supplier Physical SoluState bility

None Upjohn Solid Good

Ultracure Sherwin- Solid Fair

1-100 Williams

Quantacure Aceto Solid Fair

CTX Chemical

Quantacure Aceto Solid Good

ITX Chemical

Quantacure Aceto Solid Fair

MTX Chemical

Optimum

Absorption, nm

240-350

275-400

200-400

250-400

250-400
43

TABLE 6 (continued)

Generic Class/

Product Structure

Trade Name Suppl ier Physical

State

Solubility

Optimum

Absorption, nm

5 Ketone-(Ketone-amine)

Combination (type 2,3)

(continued)

-

Chlorine Functional

Substituted Benzophenone

Acetocure

X-500

Aceto

Chemical

Solid Good

Halogen Substituted

Alkyl Aryl Ketone

Sandoray

1000

Sandoz Solid Good 240-360

Source: R. A. Lieberman, Radiat. Curing 8(3), 13 (1981).
of tungsten wrapped with a coil of tungsten wire, the whole covered

with an electron emitting material such as barium oxide. Alternatively,

the wire wrapping can encapsulate rare earth metals or other electron

emitting materials. Molybdenum ribbon leads go out to the end caps.

The quantity of mercury and amount and type of starting gas enclosed in

the tube vary with the manufacturer but are designed to attain the

desired pressure at the final operating temperature. If the environment

does not change, the lamp is a constant voltage device with an operating

current determined by the impedance in series with it. Oil filled

capacitors with a reactive transformer are commonly used for this

purpose. The plasma has an exceedingly high temperature; however, the

fused quartz body must be kept below 800 °C to prevent rapid devitrification and also above 600 °C to maintain stable operation and the

desired spectral character. The sealed ends must not be heated above

300 °C or the seal will deteriorate rapidly. Lamp cooling must therefore

be rather carefully controlled. Such lamps are often sold with a

1000 hour warranty; however, a 4500 hour life expectancy has been

reported recently [43].

Spectral output depends strongly on the operating pressure which,

in turn, is governed by the fill of mercury. At pressures of a few

thousandths of an atmosphere, most of the energy of the lamp is in the

253.7 nm line but the power is only 4 W/cm or less. At two atmospheres,

characteristic of the medium pressure lamps most used, the spectrum has

more and broader lines and an additional continuum background. An

appreciable fraction of the light output is in the visible and infrared.

Table 7 compares the energy distribution in various spectral lines for

a low and a medium-pressure UV lamp [44], while the output spectra of

four typical medium-pressure European lamps are shown in Figure 21 [45].
TABLE 7

Energy Distribution in Low- and Medium-Pressure Mercury Lamps

Relative Energy

Wavelength, nm

Low-Pressure

Mercury Lamp

a Medi um-Pressure

Mercury Lamp^

1367.3 — 15.3

1128.7 — 12.6

1014.0 — 40.6

579.0-577.0 10.14 76.5

546.1 0.88 93.0

435.8 1.00 77.5

407.8-404.5 0.39 42.2

366.3-365.0 0.54 100.0

334.1 0.03 9.3

313.2-312.6 0.60 49.9

302.8-302.2 0.06 23.9

296.7 0.20 16.6

289.4 0.04 6.0

280.4 0.02 9.3

275.3 0.03 2.7

270.0 — 4.0

265.5-265.2 0.05 15.3

257.1 — 6.0

253.7 100.00 16.

6

C

248.2 0.01 8.6

240.0 — 7.3

238.0 — 8.6

236.0 — 6.0

232.0 — 8.0

222.4 - — 14.0

?Canrad-Hanovia, Inc. Newark, NJ, SC-2537 lamp.

°Canrad-Hanovia Type A, 673A, 550 W lamp.

c Reversed radiation.

Source: J. G. Calvert, J. N. Pitts, "Photochemistry," Wiley,

New York, 1965, p. 696.
46

FIGURE 21 Output spectra of four European medium pressure mercury UV

lamps: A, Philips HOK 80 V//cm; B, Theimer 5058 200 W/cm; C,

Theimer 5050 200 W/cm; D, Theimer 5057 200 W/cm.
47

Further variation in UV output would be possible by doping with certain

metals and halides, many of which are listed by McGinniss [46].

Pulsed xenon lamps have been employed to some extent; their output

is generally richer in the visible part of the spectrum. Electrodeless

medium pressure lamps, with the power fed in by microwaves, have been

used also. The 254 nm low-pressure, so-called "germicidal," lamp has

been incorporated into some combination systems. Most of these lamps

require several minutes for start up and cannot be restarted too soon

after shutdown without damage.

When installed in a production line, the lamps are mounted in

irradiators which include lamp housings, cooling equipment, and reflectors

that are usually elliptical and focus the light at the second focal

point of the assembly. The material to be UV treated is typically

carried under the lamps on a conveyor at about the focal distance of

the reflector although the exact location is not always important [45,47].

To prevent damage in case of a conveyor stoppage, an automatically

operated shutter or rotating reflector is needed to protect the work by

blocking the intense light and heat exposure which would otherwise

occur during a conveyor shutdown.

Ideally, it would be desirable if all the light emitted by the

lamp were in a wavelength region absorbed by the photoinitiating system

and utilized to generate free radicals or other active species. In

practice, however, the most common initiators absorb in the region

around and below 360 nm, and inspection of Figure 21 and Table 7 will

show that much of the radiation of medium pressure lamps is outside

this region. For this reason, the overall utilization of energy for

initiation is less efficient in UV than for EB curing. The unusable

radiation includes visible and considerable IR. Recently, filters have
48

been developed to reject IR in cases where the temperature rise of the

curing materials or substrate must be very carefully controlled [48].

It might be possible to use mixed UV and visible initiators to increase

energy utilization. For instance, at least one initiator, camphorquinone,

absorbs in the visible [26] and some dye sensitizers also operate in

that range [24,25]. A few experiments have been reported on the visible

light curing of polyesters using xenon lamps as the light source and a

di ketone with an amine as the two-part initiator [49].

C A Few Special UV Curing Problems

1 Initiator Concentration and Depth Variation of Cure

At a given wavelength, the initiator (in the absence of

competing species) absorbs light according to the Lambert-Beer law:

1 n 100 =

1 ( 0 ) "8CX

where I(x) is the light intensity remaining at depth x, 1(0) is the

incident light intensity, e the extinction coefficient, and c the

concentration of absorber. There has been much confusion over units

and names for extinction coefficients and it is therefore advisable to

examine the conventions used in a particular paper; for example, sometimes

logarithms to the base ten are used in place of natural logarithms.

According to this equation, if the extinction coefficient and concentration are both high, the light intensity will fall off very rapidly with

increasing depth of penetration into the material. The surface layer

will effectively screen the deeper layers against the penetration of UV

light, resulting in undercure or even no cure in the lower layers. An

optimum concentration of initiator therefore exists for a given layer
49

thickness, below which the highest rate of cure cannot be attained and

above which the overall rate of cure will decline. If a reasonably

uniform cure is desired in all layers, sufficient light must reach the

lowest layer. This in turn means that not all of the light intensity

will be fully utilized. Mixtures of initiators absorbing with different

e values and/or light of a variety of wavelengths may sometimes alleviate

this difficulty [50]. Pigments aggravate the light penetration problem

by scattering or absorbing light, thus preventing it from traveling as

far into the film as even the Lambert-Beer law would predict.

2 Pigments

At first sight, UV curing would appear to be incompatible

with pigmented coatings. Nevertheless, with low enough pigment concentration or thin enough layers, UV curing has been widely successful

with thin ink layers. Fillers such as silica and baryte, often used in

lacquers, pose no great problems as they are sufficiently transparent

to UV [51]. UV-visible absorption spectra of a number of frequently

used organic pigments indicate small but definite transmission in the

UV region [52,53]. This degree of UV transmission can be correlated

with cure speed and depth.

As expected, carbon black has especially low transmission but 1 to

2 pm ink layers containing it can be cured successfully [47]. Various

grades of carbon black differ somewhat in curing speed of the resulting

ink formulation. A few experiments suggest that this is due not to

radiation transmission differences alone but to the fact that some

blacks contain surface carbonyl groups capable of terminating free

radicals [54,55]. Titanium dioxide is a particular problem because,

although transparent to visible light, it has a cut-off region at about

400 nm, below which it begins to absorb radiation with increasing
efficiency. A few initiators, especially those containing substituted

thioxanthones , are sufficiently active in the region around this cut-off

and are especially useful in titanium white coatings. A small amount

of titanium dioxide in a thin coating may actually give enhanced initiation. This phenomenon is usually attributed to the effects of refractive

and reflective scattering, which give rise to an effectively longer

lateral light path through the film [50,51] but a chemical contribution

has also been suggested as an explanation by others [56].

3 Oxygen Inhibition

Oxygen generally acts to inhibit acrylate polymerizations.

This is evident from the following mechanism. The reaction for addition

of oxygen to a free radical:

R* + 0

2

-> R0

2

-

competes successfully with the addition of monomer:

R* + M -> RM*

Once the peroxy radicals form, the addition of monomer to these radicals:

R0

2

- + M -> ROOM*

proceeds so slowly that the chain reaction is virtually stopped. The

effect is especially pronounced at surfaces and in thin layers where

the oxygen consumed is readily replaced by more diffusing in from the

surrounding atmosphere.

The unfavorable effects of oxygen inhibition have been studied in

detail [57] and are summarized as follows. When a mixture of acrylic

urethane oligomer, 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, and 2,2-dimethylpropane-l,3-
51

di acrylate (neopentyl glycol di acrylate) with 2,2-dimethoxy-2-

phenyl acetophenone initiator and a very small amount of inhibitor was

used, polymerization was immediate in pure nitrogen but in oxygen

containing atmospheres showed an induction time period. The induction

period increased in duration with decreasing ultraviolet intensity in

such a way that a plot of induction period versus reciprocal intensity

is linear. The slopes of such plots were greater with higher oxygen

concentration. The overall rates of polymerization decreased as oxygen

concentration increased, and in some cases the polymerization stopped

short of completion. This occurred because the oxygen supplied continue

ously through diffusion eventually allowed peroxy radicals to form in

preference to further polymerization, the rate of which was reduced by

partial monomer consumption as the polymerization progressed. Polymerization could subsequently be carried to completion by converting to a

nitrogen atmosphere. In oxygen, the degree of polymerization and

kinetic chain lengths were lowered, as expected. These two results

incomplete polymerization and lower relative molecular mass--account

for the tacky surface layer often found when deeper layers of a coating

have hardened satisfactorily.

Oxygen inhibition can interfere with both UV and EB curing mechanisms.

It is usually not important in EB curing of coatings since inert atmospheres

are necessary in EB in order to reduce the relatively large amounts of

ozone which would otherwise be produced in air. In UV curing, less

drastic measures than an inert atmosphere are normally adequate to

reduce ozone levels. Thus, oxygen is usually present and contributes

to the inhibition of curing. One factor unique to UV curing is the air

flow needed to cool the lamps, which tends to sweep away ozone but draw

in more oxygen [58].
52

Among early methods suggested to reduce oxygen inhibition was a

two-stage cure. A low pressure 254 nm lamp in an inert atmosphere

produces a thin surface cure because of the very high absorption coefficient of most initiators at 254 nm. This surface polymer skin then

retards further diffusion of new oxygen into the mixture and allows a

cure in depth to follow in a normal air atmosphere with medium pressure

lamps radiating mostly longer UV wavelengths. A xenon flash lamp stage

could be substituted for the 254 nm lamp. Its high intensity consumes

oxygen by converting it to peroxy radicals in the bulk film at a rate

much faster than the oxygen can be replaced by diffusion in from the

air [59]. A more sophisticated procedure has also been proposed in

which red light and a dye sensitizer convert oxygen into singlet oxygen

which, in turn, is scavenged by 1,3-diphenyl isobenzofuran. The oxidation

product can now serve as a main or auxiliary initiator when activated

by UV light [60,61].

Recently there has been a trend favoring formulations which will

cure satisfactorily in air. Those containing benzophenone plus methyl

diethanolamine or other tertiary amines will often give satisfactory

performance, especially when exposed to high ultraviolet light intensities [26,41,62]. The cationic initiators and reaction systems are

insensitive to oxygen inhibition [31].

V UV AND EB RESIN SYSTEMS

A 01 igomers

Most of the radiation curable coating systems are based on molecules

containing acrylate functional groups and are crosslinkable by both UV

and EB; however, three other systems are also commonly used: cationic,
53

thiol-ene, and unsaturated polyester plus styrene or acrylate monomer.

Representative oligomers for all of these resin systems are described

below.

1 Cationic Systems

Cationic photoinitiators were described in the previous

section on UV curing. Active cation species are difficult to produce

reliably by EB irradiation so the use of cationic systems is restricted

to UV formulations in practice. The oligomers are epoxy resins, such

as would be used in other well-known kinds of epoxy coatings, and

polymerize and crosslink by opening of the epoxide ring and not by free

radical addition. Recently, hybrid systems have been described in

which the polymerization is partly free radical and partly cationic [34].

Their formulation is more specialized, and typically includes an epoxy

oligomer, a multifunctional acrylic monomer, a cationic photoinitiator,

and benzophenone. Curing speeds and properties of the resulting coating

are said to be a useful compromise between those of acrylic and epoxy

types. Among other properties, adhesion to many metals is improved.

Benzophenone appeared to accelerate the action of one cationic initiator

by almost a factor of two even in the absence of acrylic monomer,

whereas benzoin methyl ether was ineffective. The proposed mechanism

of the accelerating effect involves the steps outlined in Figure 22.

At most UV wavelengths, the benzophenone is a much better absorber than

the primary cationic initiator. A disadvantage of cationic systems is

the possible corrosion of metallic substrates by the Lewis acid liberated

on initiation. This disadvantage is shared by the more conventional

nonradiation cured epoxy coatings as well. An outstanding advantage of

cationic systems is the ability of the initiator, once liberated, to
54

Xo mX

<o O

o*

in X

co OXX

in X

co oom

co O

XX+

CO

og

i_ <+«<+mX

CO O 0^0

in X

co Ol X+

CO

co

i_ <+

in X

_X

O o— o

in X

co o

FIGURE

22

Mechanism

for

benzophenone

acceleration

of

cationic

initiation
continue its activity a relatively long time after being removed from

the UV source and, in pigmented coatings, to diffuse into deeper layers

where irradiation might be ineffective and cause initiation there.

Electron beams and other ionizing radiation can bring about cationic

polymerization, but the specialized requirements, extreme dryness for

example, are unlikely to be satisfied in coating formulations.

2. Thiol -ene Systems

The model reaction of the thiol -ene system [63] is the free

radical addition of a thiol to an olefin, as illustrated in Figure 23.

This reaction can occur upon irradiation by either an EB or UV source.

If brought about by a photoexcited ketone, the alternative mechanism

shown in Figure 24 is likely [64]. A linear chain polymer results if

both the olefin and the thiol are bifunctional. A crosslinked network

can be produced if one reactant is more than bi functional , as is usually

the case. For example, the reaction of a bi functional polyene and a

tetrafunctional polythiol is drawn schematically in Figure 25. The

polyenes and polythiols are usually short polymer chains, below about

1000 g/mol , but some are "prepolymers" of relative molecular mass 1000

to 10,000 g/mol. Examples of commonly used thiols are: pentaerythritol

tetrakis(thioglycolate) , shown in Figure 26, and trimethyl ol ethane

tris(p-mercaptopropionate), Figure 27. The polyene component can be a

complicated polymer type end-capped by double bond-containing moieties;

see Figure 28 for an example. Changing the molecular structure of the

diene "interior" can afford the great range of cured resin properties

indicated in Table 8.

Thiol -ene systems were originally developed by W. R. Grace and

Company for the preparation of photopolymer relief printing plates
56

RSH + CH2 =CHR' -^-^RSCH2CH2 R'

FIGURE 23 Free radical addition of a thiol to an olefin in thiol-ene

systems.

r2C — O 3(n,7i*) + R'SH R2COH + R'S»

2R2COH - R2C(OH)C(OH)R2

R'S* + CH2

= CHCH2 R” 5=2: R'SCH2CHCH2R"

R'SCH2CHCH2R'' + R'SH -R'SCH2CH2CH2R'' + R'S*

FIGURE 24 Mechanism for the free radical addition of a thiol to an olefin

in the presence of a photoexcited ketone.
57

Polyene

SH

+ HSOpSH

SH

X» Polythiol

v

FIGURE 25 Formation of a crossl inked network from the thiol -ene reaction of a bi functional polyene and a tetrafunctional

polythiol.
58

O

II HS —CH2 — COCH2

O

II CH2OC — CH2 — SH

O

II c — ch2 oc — ch2sh

CH2OC — CHo — SH

II o

FIGURE 26 The tetrathiol pentaerythri to! tetrakis(thioglycolate).

O

II ch2oc— ch2ch2 ~sh

I o

CH3 —C “* CH2OC CH2 CH2

“ SH

CH2 OC “CHoCHo—- SH

II o

FIGURE 27 The trithiol trimethylolethane tris(p-inercaptopropionate).
59

Xo

II X01CM oo

CH z <1> *—

1 | 0 X

CM

C0 z X > 1 01 O 1 o 0 = 01 HO > * “

II < o

CM 1 X CM o X

CM oCM + X X o i r—i ^ Oi 0 = 01 1CM 1 X CM o X

CM o X01 0

.0 = 0 , '—

o H03 o 0 = 01

Q. •a

CM X 1 0 o 'f 0r*

CM

"""cm

X

X 0 o o >s o 0 = 0 » 1 1 .c

•4~» 0,> 1 1 0 II -c oCM o

Q. 1 X

X z oCM X CM o X 1 o o 1 X Xo

IICM Xo

<Dc0

•Q0C0

JZ

•¥-> 0s_Z3

i_0*->

<S) 0

>%O

CL

0)c

at *>> x:

-p

<uo

Q.

cnc

•/—CLCL

rtJ Uac

a>> <u JQ -P

P3

a c

at nj>>uo

to

i-CJ <— E >i O i—

cn r-

•r— C3 O -C

-p

QJ •*- c 5

a»

•*

a at r— nj o a.

Q.-r--a <c at

oo<M

UJas

CO

CO
TABLE 8

Effect of Polyene Structure on Mechanical Properties

of Thiol-ene Resins

Polyene Structure

3

Mechanical

Modulus, Tensile,

kPa kPa

Properties

Elongation,

%

Hardness

Shore A

1 Melamine/3 TDI/3 AA 1,340,000 55,000 5 91

1 TDI/2 AA 841,000 18,100 90 89

1 EPON 828/2 DAA 152,000 15,900 78 76

1 TDI/2 DAA 133,000 6,620 70 90

1,2,4-Trivi nyl cyclohexane 15,400 2,070 15 70

Dial ly 1 phthalate 5,240 965 30 70

1,5-Hexadiene 965 69 10 60

Tetraallyl orthosilicate 550 28 6 60

a EP0N 828 = liquid epoxy resin product of Shell Chemical Co.

TDI = toluene diisocyanate (80/20 mixed isomers of 2,4- and 2,6-)

AA = allyl alcohol

DAA = dial 1 y 1 amine

All UV cured with a tetrathiol and benzophenone.

Source: R. W. Bush, "Thiol-ene Radiation Curable Polymers and Practical

Applications," Talk at Coatings Symposium, North Dakota State

University, June 4, 1974; Text from W. R. Grace and Co.
61

used, for example, in the printing of newspapers [65], but are also

suited for printing inks, wire coatings [66], and solder resists for

the electronics industry [67]. Cheaper hybrid systems have been developed

and might typically contain ten percent polythiol and forty percent

diethyl ene glycol diacrylate with the balance of the resin an acrylated

urethane oligomer. Suggested uses are overprint varnishes for cartons

and book jackets and floor tile surface coatings [65]. One potential

objection to the thiol -ene systems has been their odor during application,

although it later disappears upon curing [68,69]. Air has hardly any

effect on the curing speed of these systems.

3 Unsaturated Polyesters with Styrene or Acrylates

The unsaturated polyester-styrene combinations were among the

earliest used in the radiation curing field. The polymer is a glycol

phthalic anhydride copolymer which contains maleic moieties in place of

some of the phthalic groups to act as reactive sites for crosslinking.

These compositions have been used in Europe, especially as finishes for

wood products, where slower production speeds are tolerated [70].

These relatively slow curing systems contain highly volatile styrene or

acrylate monomers. Evaporation of monomer is effectively retarded by

incorporating a waxy hydrocarbon of critically-chosen molecular length

into the formulation [71]. This strategy is unsuccessful for producing

more useful resins with higher curing speeds, since there is no time

for the wax to migrate to the surface layer where it exerts its influence.

4 Acrylate Systems

The much greater curing speed of systems containing acrylic

monomers and acrylate-bearing oligomers has given these formulations

the major share of the radiation cured coatings market. An early but

detailed description of acrylate components is given by Vrancken [72].
He lists these fivt alternative ways of classifying the formulations:

a By the chemical class of the polymer backbone of the acrylated

resin:

• polyester

• acrylic

• epoxy

• polyurethane

• polyether

• silicone

b By the nature of the unsaturated bond fixed on the polymer:

• acrylic, methacrylic, acrylamide

• "vinyl ester" (really linear polyethers esterified at

the ends with acrylic acid)

• maleic, fumaric, itaconic, crotonic, etc.

• allylic

• styrenic

• vinyl ether

• olefinic

• acetylenic

c By the nature of the unsaturation in the monomer/solvent (as

above)

d By the position of the unsaturation in the polymer:

• main chain

• pendant

• end group

e By the length of the polymer chain, relative molecular mass,

or functionality, for example:

• polymers

0 oligomers

0 monomers

or:

0 monounsaturated

0 di unsaturated

0 polyunsaturated

Not all the classes have received much interest in later years and only

those selected for development will be mentioned here.
63

A typical acrylated resin is derived by endcapping bisphenol A

diglycidyl ether with acrylic acid. This structure, ethoxylated bisphenol

A dimethacrylate, is commonly called acrylated epoxy or sometimes,

illogically, vinyl ester. Other chemical structures which could also

be considered as acrylated epoxies are acrylic esters and fatty acid

modified esters derived from epoxidized novolacs [73]. Recent summaries

of important types [74] include these acrylated epoxies, illustrated in

Figure 29, and also the acrylated urethanes and polyesters of Figure 30,

and acrylated acrylics, commonly prepared as indicated in Figure 31.

The acrylated epoxies can be hard and chemically resistant if derived

from bisphenol A or soft and rubbery if derived from a long chain

aliphatic diglycidyl ether. Acrylated urethanes give an optimum in

flexibility and mar resistance but are expensive. Acrylated polyesters

typically have film properties intermediate between those of the epoxy

and urethane types. The acrylated acrylics perform well in exterior

appl i cations.

A special line of urethane acrylic oligomers with several different

degrees of polymerization (Uvimer) are offered by the Polychrome Corporation. They are insensitive to oxygen and have good shelf life [62].

The oxygen insensitivity is believed to be due to the particular placement

and type of unsaturation. Their structural formulas are given in

Figure 32. The N-vinyl urethanes, which are not acrylated, seem to

offer an unusual combination of reactivity with flexibility of the

final product [75].

To the classes discussed above can be added the unsaturated aminoplasts [75], made by reacting urea-formaldehyde or melamine-formaldehyde

prepolymers with 3-hydroxypropyl acrylate or other acrylates containing

terminal hydroxy groups.
Acrylated

Epoxy

64

xoI

>> -Ou

>.

cn

"O<oc

CJ xrCL

LO -QEO

s- O

CU>

t-0) O

to

i-

<uEo

CDo

>>Xo

CL

a> •a

O)

4-> ro>>

i-u<

CTI <XI UJ

cc

ZDoI—I

u_

ether

and

epoxidized

novolac.
Acrylated

Urethane

65

X01 %irI .2 O Q x+X0

cc1 01 0=0I Xo

II

Csl Xo

££

as>> 0) x - o 03 u V, o cr

>> o X <

<i> wof r

CL2O<o

‘o. T3<

•a

<uc

COX

0) X

CO

OCM X+

CM Xo

II X01 0 = 0I o c1

to "?m XoT01 0=0I X01 0 = 0I o L

JO

"cm + Xo

t—

X 1 <u O o </> 1 CD>N 1 0 = 0

jO"o II -0 0 o

CL 1 < 1 TO X o X <D

CO o

II o o

II >>

v_ CM < CM o X X < o o

FIGURE

30

Acrylated

urethane

and

polyester

oligomers.
Acrylated

Acrylic

66

CM X

o CO

o CM

II Xo\ 0

O-O-QC 0\

£

>*

X o

o Cl

o

II

1 0H CM X 04-< c 1 0 1 o cd>*

o

cd>

o _c

II 0

0 1 0 I QC ">> O

o

>v O

o =

X

0

1 0

1 X

o

IICM X

o

^ r

CO X

o«

i z no

X II 0 — 0—0— DC

1CM X

o

X

o

I oICM X0

1 X

oICM X

o

t

o

II o

CM X

o

II X0

1 0

1 0

1CM X0

1 X

0

1CM

X 0—0

o

II 0 — 0 a:

FIGURE

31

An

acrylated

acrylic

oligomer.
NHCO — R— C=

CHR

67 01oXo01I oooCN mo

+-*

13

XX

O Q““O 0

13

u. o Q.

-4—» CO ! E

CO 0 X c 1 0 o

JQ oo

V-o

s— 1 1 O

CO

JQ

V.0 o

CM Xo

CM

•s 1CM X 1co Xo 8in X

co o E X o o o o o X

\uS

O) • wmmm o z I I oH 1

II 1 X

11

X

11

cn

II cc fc

H

•%DC

CD

CD

-C£

FIGURE

32

Chemical

formulas

of

Uvimer

acrylic

urethane

oligomers.
68

B Monomers or Reactive Diluents

A large number of mono-, di-, and polyfunctional acrylic monomers

are now offered commercially. They are needed as diluents to reduce

the viscosity of the formulated mixtures and to promote rapid curing.

The polyfunctional acrylates produce the most rapid curing but have

several drawbacks if used alone: poorer solvent power for oligomers,

inferior viscosity lowering ability, a tendency to leave high residual

unsaturation in the final product, with its associated instability, and

a tendency toward excessive crosslink density in the product, with

resultant brittleness. Monofunctional monomers have a beneficial

effect on the viscosity, flexibility, and adhesion, but react more

slowly. Often the best compromise is secured by blends containing

several monomer types [75,76]. A few typical acrylate monomers and

their important properties are given in Table 9. Other examples include

1,6-hexanediol di acrylate, tetraethyl ene glycol diacrylate, and pentaerythritol triacrylate. A current catalog of the Sartomer Company (a

subsidiary of the Atlantic Richfield Company) lists approximately

forty monomers of varying functionality, nearly all acrylates and

methacrylates [77]. Other companies, e.g. the Celanese Corporation,

sell fewer kinds but in higher volume [78].

A difficulty associated with acrylate monomers is that many are

skin and eye irritants. The corresponding methacrylates, in contrast,

tend to cause less irritation. The most volatile monomers tend to be

especially troublesome and it has been suggested that 2-hydroxyethyl

acrylate, despite other good properties, is too toxic to be used [41].

A few nonacrylic monomers have been recommended, partly to alleviate

toxicity problems. The most prominent are vinyl acetate and N- vinyl pyrrol i done, both of which have fair reactivity [41].
69

TABLE 9

Important Properties of Some Acrylate Monomers

Monomer Molecular

Mass, g/mol

FunctionalityBoiling Viscosity at

Point, °C 23 °C, mPa*s

Trimethy 1 ol propane

tri acrylate

296 3 138

at 0.1 kPa

89

1,4-Butanediol di acrylate 198 2 120

at 1.3 kPa

4.6

2-Ethyl hexyl acrylate 184 1 229

at 101.3 kPa

1.5

Hydroxypropyl acrylate3 130 1 60-65

at 0.13 kPa

10.7

Commercial grades of this material usually contain a mixture of

2- and 3-hydroxypropyl acrylate.

Source: G. M. Jacobi, Verfkroniek 50, 75 (1977).
70

C Coating Formulations

The number of coating formulations given in the literature is too

large to review adequately. Many are given in papers dealing with

other aspects of curing, such as initiation. There are undoubtedly

many more formulations that are proprietary and even in many published

recipes the composition of oligomer(s) is incompletely known or not

revealed. A few coating formulations are available [62] for Uvimer

acrylated polyurethane compositions. One base composition, Uvimer 530,

contains sixty percent oligomer and forty percent pentaerythritol

tetraacrylate, has a viscosity of 375 to 600 poise, and yields a hard,

glossy, brittle, chemically resistant resin. A clear resin included

100 parts of this mixture and 4 parts of benzoin butyl ether. A pigmented

composition for electron curing on particle board consisted of the

above 60/40 mix 51.5 parts, 2-ethyl hexyl acrylate 5.0 parts, styrene

5.0 parts, titanium dioxide 15.4 parts, calcium sulfate 23.0 parts, and

stabilizer 0.1 part. Other examples of compositions with high flexibility

are Uvimer 765 and 775, which contain another urethane oligomer and the

different diluents indicated in Table 10. These films are suggested

for strapping tape, fabric coating, and paper coating. A few other

acrylate-containing formulations are detailed in Table 11 [41,74,79].

Some ink formulations will be given later in the report.

One rather general difficulty has occurred in trying to duplicate

coatings with very low viscosity, much solvent, and a high pigment-tovehicle ratio [41]. A low-viscosity formulation can be made using the

appropriate reactive diluent in large proportions, but when the diluent

reacts it becomes part of the resin, therefore, the final film does not

have the desired high pigment concentration. On the other hand, sufficient
71

TABLE 10

Two Uvimers: Their Composition and Properties

Formulation number 765 775

Composition3

Urethane oligomer 52 67

2- Ethyl hexyl acrylate 34 -- 2-Hydroxyethyl acrylate 14 -- 2-Ethoxyethyl acrylate 33

Properties

Viscosity, Pa*s 2. 2-2.

1.8-2.

Hardness, Shore A 68 90

Cure speedb

, cm/s/lamp 7.6 19

j^In parts.

D

0n a 0.1 mm film using two 80 W/cm lamps and 3% 2,2-diethoxyacetophenone

sensitizer.

Source: D. D. Perry, W. Rowe, A. Cirignano, D. S. Davis in

"Ultraviolet Light Induced Reactions in Polymers,"

S. S. Labana, Ed. , ACS Symp. Ser. 25, Am. Chem. Soc.

,

Washington, DC, 1976, p. 150.
72

TABLE 11

Composition and Properties of Several

Acrylate-Containing Coating Formulations 3

Clear UV Curable Coating for Wood [1]

Acrylated urethane 35

2 , 2-Di methyl propane-1 , 3-di acryl ate 20

2-Hydroxyethyl acrylate 20

2-Ethyl hexyl acrylate 13

2 , 2-Di ethoxyacetophenone 2

Silica (flatting agent) 10

Paper Overprint Varnishes [2]

Acrylated oil (Synocure 3110) 47.2 0

Epoxy acrylate (Synocure 3100) 0 47.2

2, 2-D i methy 1 propane- 1, 3-di aerylate 47.2 0

Monofunctional monomer (Synocure 3165) 0 37.8

Vinyl acetate 0 9.4

Benzophenone 2.8 2.8

N-Methyl diethanolamine 2.8 2.8

Viscosity, Pa*s 0.12 0.16

Cure rate, m/min/80 W/cm lamp 7 4

White UV Curing Enamel [2]

Epoxy acrylate (Synocure 3100) 51.00

1,6-Hexanediol diacrylate 19.00

N-Vinyl pyrrol idone 2.02

Ethyl p-di methyl ami nobenzoate 2.02

2-Chl orothi oxanthone 0.20

Titanium dioxide 25.63

Texafor FP 43 0.13

Pigment volume concentration, % 8.6

Cure rate, m/min/80 W/cm lamp 3

Bisphenol A Epoxy Di acryl ate [3]

Acrylated epoxy 66.6

1,6-Hexanediol di acryl ate 28.6

Benzophenone 2.9

N-Methyl di ethanol ami ne 1.9

Pencil hardness 3H-4H

Reverse impact, N*m < 1.1

Conical bend failure, mm 31.8

MEK rubs > 200
TABLE 11 (continued)

Aliphatic Epoxy Di acrylate [3]

Acrylated epoxy

c 66.6

1,6-Hexanediol di acrylate 28.6

Benzophenone 2.9

N-Methyl diethanolamine 1.9

Pencil hardness HB-F

Reverse impact, N*m 1.1-2.

3

Conical bend failure, mm 19

MEK rubs 10

Aromatic Urethane Di acrylate [3]

j

Acrylated urethane

0

66.6

1,6-Hexanediol di acrylate 28.6

Benzophenone 2.9

N-Methyl diethanolamine 1.9

Pencil hardness F-H

Reverse impact, N*m 3. 4-4.

5

Conical bend failure, mm 13

MEK rubs 200

Aliphatic Urethane Di acrylate [3]

Acrylated urethanee 66.6

1,6-Hexanediol di acrylate 28.6

Benzophenone 2.9

N-Methyl diethanolamine 1.9

Pencil hardness F-H

Reverse impact, N*m 7.9

Conical bend failure, mm 9.5

MEK rubs 200

uFormulations in percent by weight.

°Di acrylate of bisphenol A diglycidyl ether.

^Di acrylate of a long-chain aliphatic diglycidyl ether.

Reaction product of two moles of hydroxyalkyl acrylate, two moles of

toluene di isocyanate, and one mole of diol.

e Reaction product of two moles of hydroxyalkyl acrylate, two moles of

Hylene W (E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co.), and one mole of diol.

Sources: [1] J. W. Prane, Polym. News 5(1), 36 (1978).

[2] K. O'Hara, FATIPEC Congr. 14, 485 (1978).

[3] W. G. Bayer, "A Review of Ultraviolet Curing Technology,"

Pap. Synth. Conf. (Proc. ) of TAPPI, 1978, p. 167.
74

pigment to give the desired final ratio would result in a highly viscous

material during application.

VI INFRARED, MICROWAVE, AND HIGH FREQUENCY CURING

These three methods of curing all rely on heating by electromagnetic

radiation of varying frequencies. They require that the coating or

substrate have a reasonable absorption of the radiation but also permit

some degree of penetration at the frequency used. Unlike the situation

in oven heating, energy can be absorbed directly in depth rather than

by conduction into the interior from the surface of the material. The

advantage of these methods over convective heating is that the intervening

air need not be heated. It is estimated that of all the "radiation"

methods, IR has the broadest potential base of use [43].

A Infrared Curing

Some industrial use of infrared radiation for the drying of paints

has existed since at least 1942 [80]. Natural gas as well as electric

units can be used, and laser beams have been employed experimentally on

enamels [81]. The cost of IR sources is low relative to UV lamps. The

energy consumption is twenty to fifty fold greater than EB and reported

cure times are 15 to 30 s with substrate temperatures of 200 °F. More

sparing use of IR can be made where rapid cure need only be sufficient

to permit stacking followed by continued cure in the stack. Recent

developments in the use of IR ink curing are reviewed by Vernardakis

[82].

The IR sources all supply a mixture of wavelengths whose general

range depends on filament temperature. Long wave IR (4 to 1000 pm) is

readily absorbed by air and difficult to focus. It lacks penetration

in ink films and only surface drying is achieved, even this requiring
75

far longer times than medium wave IR (2 to 4 pm). In possible conflict

with these well accepted assertions, two Japanese reviews [83,84]

concentrate on the use of far infrared for curing and a Russian report

[85] mentions optimum curing conditions over the range from 600 to

680 pm; however, the latter study was limited to the region of 600 to

1000 pm. Medium wave IR is important in the drying of inks and coatings

because many of the organic materials used in formulations absorb in

this range, although for thin films the radiation may penetrate into

the substrate. Short wave IR (0.7 to 2.0 pm) is only slightly scattered

by air and can penetrate thick films and substrates. Matching the

output spectrum of the lamp used to the absorption frequencies of the

ink or coating can sometimes promote efficiency in curing.

Short wave sources have tungsten filaments at 2200 °C in a quartz

tube and have a rated life of 5000 hours. Gold or aluminum reflectors

are used to direct the radiation onto the work [86]. Medium and long

wave sources can have a filament design similar to this [86], but

usually consist of panels of quartz [87,88], pyrex [89], or ceramic

[90,91], or sometimes of grids rather than panels [87,88]. They are

heated to temperatures of, for example, 1150 °F (620 °C) for a peak

wavelength of 3.2 pm, 1380 °F (750 °C) to achieve a peak wavelength of

2.8 pm, or 1800 °F (980 °C) for a peak wavelength of 2.3 pm. The

complete emission spectra of three different medium wave IR sources are

shown in Figure 33 [92]. Several suppliers of short wave and medium or

long wave sources are listed by Vernardakis in his review. Combinations

of a short and a medium wave source are also marketed by the Thermogenics

Corporation (Stamford, CT) under the name Multi-Wave [93].
76

0 2 4 6

Wavelength,

FIGURE 33 Infrared radiant energy distribution for several source temperatures.
The mechanism of action for IR curing depends on the type of

coating or ink. Evaporation and lowering of viscosity or breaking of a

gel to facilitate penetration into the substrate are both possible as

is acceleration of crosslinking, however the latter is less likely.

Tables have been prepared showing the IR absorption at major peak

wavelengths for several polymeric materials that could occur in inks or

coatings [93], and IR absorption traces for a resin and a solvent have

been shown and compared with typical emission spectra of a short wave

and a medium wave IR source [90]. The opinion has been expressed that

short or medium wave IR is best for inks that dry by absorption into

the substrate, and medium or long wave for inks used in color printing

on webs, which dry largely by evaporation. Although conventional inks

can respond to infrared radiation, special IR inks are also marketed,

costing perhaps fifteen percent more than conventional [82,94]. This

cost premium is, of course, very moderate compared to the approximately

two hundred percent greater cost over conventional inks for UV and EB

inks. Hashimoto suggests that future IR inks may contain "blocked"

catalysts that become reactive only when subjected to intense IR [94].

B Microwave and High Frequency Curing

Microwaves, electromagnetic radiation over the range from 1 to

90 GHz, have been used experimentally to set coatings and inks but

apparently not commercially to any great extent. One source indicates

that "there has been little interest shown in recent years for microwave

drying" [95]. This technique was used in Denmark for printing securities,

on a web offset press in California, and for silkscreen printing in

Germany [96]. Microwaves are also reported to assist UV curing [97],

as will be mentioned in the following section on industrial methods of

applying coatings.
78

One study of the microwave drying of inks [98] found that the

dielectric loss characteristics of the ink solvent were of minor importance,

in contradiction to reasonable expectations and occasional assertions

[86,96]. Instead, in gravure and flexo film work, the substrate plays

an important role. Microwaves were found to be a good way to dry and

key, or promote adhesion of, heat resistant inks on an aqueous dispersion

copolymer coated film substrate, otherwise difficult to print without

embrittling the film. In another study, good results were obtained in

the microwave drying of various films and papers coated with polyvinyl i dene

chloride. This method was especially suitable for drying polyethylene

film coated with an aqueous dispersion of polyvinylidene chloride

without causing heat distortion of the film. The microwave drying was

supplemented with air drying in this instance. Some attention has been

given to the economics and energy consumption of printing with microwave

technology [99].

Early work on high frequency curing of water-based inks employed

radio frequencies in the VHF range, 100 MHz, where seventy-five percent

of the energy was efficiently utilized to evaporate the water [100].

The loss tangent of the coating was found to decrease by a factor of

about one-half as the fully cured state was reached in can coating

applications [101]. One review mentions in passing the possibility of

using ultrasonic curing in conjunction with other drying methods [102].

Polyethylene, a non-polar material, has been crosslinked by incorporating five percent t-butyl perbenzoate into the polymer at a temperature of perhaps 80 °C without appreciable decomposition of the highly

polar additive, then applying 2.45 GHz microwave energy to cause thermal

decomposition of the perbenzoate and subsequent crosslinking [103].
The decomposition products are less polar and less absorptive than the

perbenzoate, therefore, the process is to some degree sel f-1 imiting and

less likely to scorch the product. The possibility of molecular activation processes as the mechanism of perbenzoate decomposition is raised

in this study. In other noncoating applications, microwaves and VHF

have been used to vulcanize bulky rubber objects, principally because

of their deep penetration and generation of heat in depth without the

need for inefficient and slow conduction through the surface of the

object [104-107].

VII INDUSTRIAL METHODS FOR APPLYING COATINGS

Radiation curable coatings have been applied by a number of the

customary large-scale industrial processes [108,109]. Each process

requires a coating material with unique characteristics and produces

different finishes on the product, therefore, not all are adaptable for

use with radiation curable materials. Some which have been employed

successfully are described below.

Direct roller coating is fast and efficient, uniform if on a

uniform substrate, and has no waste except material left at time of

clean-up. Precision roller coating uses a knurled or engraved roll

which meters a precise amount of material onto the application roll.

This method improves flow of the base coat and eliminates "roping," or

failure to level uniformly, which is sometimes seen in direct roll

coating. Epoxy UV-curable coatings respond well to this type of application.

In curtain coating, the coating material is steadily pumped into

an applicator head which produces a continuous vertical coating curtain

that flows into a reservoir below. The part to be coated is passed
through the curtain on a conveyor belt at speeds of up to 300 cm/s.

The amount of coating applied is controlled by regulating the volume of

material pumped into the applicator head and the speed at which the

panel is fed through the curtain. Viscosity and temperature are two

important parameters influencing the curtain coating process. A very

uniform coating is applied independently of any variation in panel

thickness. Acrylated urethane formulations are among those that can be

applied [110]. Films thinner than 25 pm cannot be applied at all, and

heating may have to be used to achieve the requisite low viscosity

needed to produce any thin film. Also, a high conveyor speed is needed,

which may be troublesome for light pieces.

Spray coating has been difficult to employ because of the loss of

volatile monomers or reactive diluents that occurs during the process

and the rather low formulation viscosity required. A few low-viscosity

acrylated urethane formulations are said to have become available

rather recently [110].

Problems can arise during or following application of radiation

curable coatings. Difficulties with adhesion are fairly frequent and

are often associated with coating shrinkage [41]. Many plastic surfaces

require pretreatment by oxidation or electric plasma etching to insure

proper adhesion of the coating. Some metal surfaces, especially tin

and chromium, can also give improved adhesion with pretreatments. In

pigmented coatings cured by UV, surface wrinkling can be caused by

excessive cure on the surface and insufficient cure at the metal -coating

interface due to light absorption and a strong cure gradient [50,56].

Any elastomeric machine parts, e.g. rollers, are much more likely to

swell or react with acrylic monomers than with conventional vehicles

and solvents. In many instances, some rubbers and polyurethanes are
81

attacked while nitrile rubber, ethylene propylene rubber, and a polyvinyl

chloride-rubber blend provide satisfactory service [95,111,112].

Companies furnishing the coating compositions can often recommend

usable materials. One study has emphasized that UV curing may proceed

very rapidly until the glass transition temperature of the coating, T , which increases with the degree of curing, reaches the cure temperature.

At this point the coating vitrifies and curing ceases [113]. Further

curing can be achieved by heating above the existing T . This suggests

Q

that, in general, hard brittle coatings cure better if some heat is

applied. Several patents have been issued which describe processes in

which microwave irradiation is employed as a method of providing this

additional heating [97]. Infrared heating is another obvious possibility.

VIII UV AND EB CURING PRINTING INKS

A full and clear account of UV curable inks is given by Bean and

Bassemir [114]; nothing important can be added to it on UV curing. It

does not address itself to electron beam curing, however. In addition,

long review articles [115-117] and several informative short reviews

[58,69,86,94-96,111,118-120] are available on UV curing. Most of the

considerations related to materials and radiation curing chemistry are

the same for both printing inks and coatings.

A Printing Methods

The major conventional printing methods differ widely and the

range of ink properties needed varies enormously. These methods, given

below, are also illustrated schematically in Figure 34 [114].

1 Typography (letterpress, flexography): A raised surface is inked

and impressed against a substrate.
Planographic Printing

Squeegee

Ink Ink

I i Screen Screen Sere

Direction of Squeegee

-Ink

tttT/ttj T7 Trm Screen

77777

Substrate During Printing Process

ierT

1

77

jmrlnk vi§ir|nk 7Htclnk

7 / 777777777777 / / / / / /TT77TA

Substrate After Printing With Screen Removed

Screen Printing

FIGURE 34 Schematic illustration of several common printing methods.
83

2 Planography (direct and offset lithography): The printing plate

surface is flat. The image surface is hydrophobic and the blank

surface hydrophilic. The plate is dampened with an aqueous "fountain solution" and then an inked roller is passed over the wetted

plate. Ink transfers only to the hydrophobic image areas for

printing.

3 Intaglio (gravure, steel plate engraving): The image areas are

recessed below the plate surface. The plate is flooded with ink

and then wiped, leaving ink only in depressed areas. After this

procedure the plate is contacted with the printing substrate.

4 Silkscreen: The image areas are open areas in a fine screen while

nonimage areas are blocked. Ink is pressed or squeezed through

the open areas onto the substrate.

In all of these printing methods, except engraving and screen, the

thickness of the dry film is much less than is achieved by ordinary

surface coating, as indicated by the comparison in Table 12.

Some typical values of important ink properties, viscosity and

pigment content (usually expressed as pigment volume concentration or

PVC), are given in Table 13 [115] for various printing methods. In

addition, more complex time- and shear-dependent rheological properties

can be important, e.g. thixotropy and tack. Tack or cohesion must be

sufficient for transfer to the substrate. On the other hand, excessive

tack can interfere with the wiping of intaglio plates [121]. Lithographic

inks in particular have peculiar problems associated with wetting

properties. The ability to emulsify a small amount of water seems to

be necessary but the ink must be basically hydrophobic, and a delicate

balance of polar character is required. Too much surface active character
TABLE 12

Dry Ink Film Thicknesses for

Various Printing Processes

Process Film Thickness, pm

Letterpress 3- 5

Flexography 2- 4

Offset Lithography 2- 3

Rotogravure 5- 12

Engraving 12- 75

Si 1 kscreen 12- 25

Most Surface Coatings 12-150

Source: A. J. Bean, R. W. Bassemir in "UV

Curing: Science and Technology,"

S. P. Pappas, Ed., Technology

Marketing Corp. , Stamford, CT,

1978, p. 190.
TABLE 13

Typical Pigment Content and Ink Viscosity

for Various Printing Processes

Process Pigment Content, % Viscosity, Pa*s

Letterpress 20-80 1 -50

News Ink 8-12 0.2 - 1

Flexography 10-40 0.1 -10

Lithography 20-80 10 -80

Gravure 10-30 0.05- 1

Intagl io — up to 200

Sources: J. W. Vanderhoff in "Ultraviolet Light Induced Reactions

in Polymers," S. S. Labana, Ed., ACS Symp. Ser. 25,

Am. Chem. Soc. , Washington, DC, 1976, p. 162; A. J. Bean,

R. W. Bassemir in "UV Curing: Science and Technology,"

S. P. Pappas, Ed., Technology Marketing Corp. , Stamford,

CT, 1978, p. 191.
86

promotes "scumming," or the undesirable adhesion of ink to nonprinting

areas. Many of the reactive monomers and amine initiator components

used in radiation curing are more polar than their conventional counterparts, and careful formulation is necessary for their successful use in

lithography. Tolerance for the usually either acidic (pH 4 to 5) or

basic (pH 9 to 10) fountain solution is also necessary in these inks.

B Advantages and Disadvantages of Radiation Curing

The advantages of radiation curing depend upon the kind of printing

process anticipated for use. Some conventional gravure inks contain

thirty to sixty percent volatile solvent, which may dry rapidly by

evaporation in an oven but requires solvent vapor disposal and may

constitute a fire hazard. On the other hand, sheetfed offset inks dry

by oxidation and emit very little solvent but often require several

hours for complete drying in a stack after printing. In the first case,

radiation curing eliminates the need for ovens and solvent vapor handling;

in the second, it curtails the otherwise long curing time and obviates

the need for anti -offset powder spray on the sheets before stacking.

There is no energy savings for UV cured compared to sheetfed offset

since the UV lamps require energy and the oxidative drying in stacks

does not [122]. Besides production- line speed, an outstanding advantage

of EB would be its utility for curing thick, heavily pigmented layers,

such as might be encountered with intaglio or silkscreen work, where

the UV cure rate would fall off intolerably with increasing depth of

the ink layer. Stability on the printing machinery can be better than

for conventional inks, as no drying need begin until radiation exposure,

and cleaning requirements will also be reduced.
Some disadvantages of radiation curing should also be considered.

Excessive UV light in the pressroom, except in the curing section, can

cause premature curing on the equipment. Even bright daylight or

fluorescent lamps may be a source of trouble. Rubber or elastomeric

machine parts must be of compositions that resist swelling by the

reactive diluents, as mentioned previously, or absorption and swelling

of rollers or blankets may occur. This is especially detrimental

because the resulting dimensional changes may alter the press settings.

Desorption from rubber components into the ink is also possible, and

ink contaminated by material from new rollers may be very slow to cure.

The absence of a solvent to evaporate from radiation cured inks gives

wet ink film weights and thicknesses that are smaller than usual. This

can make application a delicate matter and result in a compressed tonal

range for gravure printing. Rapid curing allows the ink films no time

to smooth out before curing so gloss can be reduced. Because of the

cross! inked character of the irradiated ink film, deinking and reclamation of waste stock are more difficult or impractical. Toxicity of

initiators, catalysts, and reactive monomers and oligomers must also be

taken into account.

C Ink Components and Formulations

The oligomers, monomers, and initiators (for UV applications) used

are identical or similar to those found in coatings formulations. Bean

and Bassemir [114] give compilations of these components as used in UV

inks, with comments on some discontinued kinds. Among the monomers,

hydroxypropyl and 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate are considered to be too great

an irritant for use in printing ink. Other components are as in conventional inks: pigments (with precautions as to compatibility with UV
88

curing monomers and oligomers) anti-mist agents, slip agents, antioxidants,

wetting and dispersion aids, and sometimes small amounts of conventional

modifying agents. Overall compatibility involves avoidance of dark

polymerization in storage as well as noninterference with UV curing.

Bean and Bassemir also list a number of generic formulations for

different ink types. Some may not be completely specified, and others

may have been prepared from their personal experiences with the various

print processes [114]. Some of these formulations are given in Table 14.

Mixing and preparation steps during formulation ought to avoid high

temperatures, bright light, and contaminants, and should be done in

good contact with air, which acts as an inhibitor for most acrylate

compositions.

D Equipment Requirements for Printing

Bean and Bassemir show several photographs of typical commercial

UV curing attachments for printing equipment [123]. Retrofitting of

existing printing machinery is said to be possible and not overly

difficult except for sheet-fed offset printing apparatus [124]. Safety

precautions principally involve protection from excess UV light, easily

achieved but sometimes overlooked, and protection from irritant monomers

and oligomers. Lacey and Keough have devoted a chapter to UV and EB

safety considerations [125]. Some electron beam machines have been

integrated into printing installations, at least experimentally [16,126,

127]. A schematic drawing of such a linear filament type unit is shown

in Figure 35.

E Influence of Curing Parameters on the Printing Process

The theoretically derived dependence of cure speed on radiation

intensity, initiator concentration, and coating thickness has been
89

TABLE 14

Generic Formulations for Several Ink Types

3

Flexographic White

Epoxy acrylate oligomer 10.00

Diacrylate monomer 25.00

Monoacrylate monomers 25.00

Mixed photoinitiators 4.00

Amine accelerator 1.95

Inhibitor 0.05

White pigment 27.00

Adhesion modifying resin 6.00

Polyethylene wax 1.00

Letterset/Litho Sheetfed for Paper and Board

Epoxy acrylate u 40.0

Polyol acrylate 025.0

Trimethylolpropane triacrylate 3.4

Mixed photoinitiators 6.5

Inhibitor 0.1

Colored pigment 25.0

Tack at 6.67 Hz, 32 °C, 1 min 12-18

Letterset/Litho Web for Paper and Board

Epoxidized soybean oil acrylate 30.0

Epoxy acrylate 20.0

Polyol acrylate 015.0

Trimethylolpropane triacrylate 2.9

Mixed photoinitiators 12.0

Inhibitor 0.1

Colored pigment 20.0

Tack at 20 Hz, 32 °C, 1 min 14-20

Letterset/Litho Overprint for Paper

Epoxy acrylate*

3 Trimethylolpropane tri acrylate

1,6-Hexanediol diacrylate

Benzophenone

Amine accelerator

Inhibitor

Anti-mist additive

Slip additive

Tack at 20 Hz, 32 °C, 1 min

and Board

54.0-50.0

30.0

7.9

5.0

1.5

0.1

1-5 as required

0.5

8-12
TABLE 14 (continued)

Letterset/Li tho Metal Decorating for Flatsheet 3-Piece Can

Polyol acrylatg 0 30.4

Epoxy acrylate

0

28.0

Resin modifier 14.0

Mixed photoinitiators 10.0

Inhibitor 0.1

Colored pigmgnt 16.0

Tack reducer01.5

Tack at 6.67 Hz, 32 °C, 1 min 25-30

Letterset Metal Decorating for 2-Piece Can

Polyol acrylatg034.0

Epoxy acrylate0

25.0

Resin modifier 11.5

Mixed photoinitiators 9.0

Colored pigment 15.0

Wax

^ 4.0

Tack reducer0

1.5

Tack at 20 Hz, 32 °C, 1 min 22-27

Packaging Gravure Red

Epoxy acrylate oligomer*3 10.0

Di acrylate monomer 35.0

Monoacrylate monomer 34.2

Mixed photoinitiators 4.0

Amine accelerator 1.7

Inhibitor 0.1

Red pigment 10.0

Adhesion modifying resin 4.0

Polyethylene wax 1.0

Si 1 kscreen

Epoxy acrylate*

3 20.0

Polyol acrylate0 10.0

1,6-Hexanediol diacrylate 20.0

Polyester resin 29.0

Benzoin isobutyl ether 5.0

Inorganic filler 10.0

Colored pigment 3.0

Flow agent 3.0

^Formulations in percent by weight.

A variety of epoxy acrylates are commercially available. The most

popular types are based on bisphenol A. The viscosity of these vary

and this will regulate the ratios of oligomer/monomer/reducer required.
91

TABLE 14 (continued)

cThere are many possible polyacrylates of this type. Perhaps the best

known is pentaerythritol tri- or tetraacrylate or a modified version

.thereof. aMany tack reducers have been recommended. These have been, typically,

various plasticizers, high boiling alcohols, esters, ethers, and, in some cases, mono and di acrylates of low volatility.

Source: A. J. Bean, R. W. Bassemir in "UV Curing: Science and Technology,"

S. P. Pappas, Ed., Technology Marketing Corp. , Stamford, CT, 1978,

p. 200.
Linear

Filament

Electron

Source

92

FIGURE

35A

linear

filament

electron

beam

printing

installation.
considered earlier in this report. However, such ideal behavior is not

easily achieved during the printing process. Lamp intensity has been

found to change with distance in a complicated way; several maxima

usually occur as the work approaches the lamp. In addition, the variation

of cure rate as a function of intensity usually observed in practice is

completely contrary to expectations from the simple theory of steady-state

free radical chain reactions. In place of the expected simple relationship

i- t

R a I

2C2

,

where, as previously defined, R is the rate of polymerization, I the

light intensity, and C the initiator or sensitizer concentration (see

earlier discussion in Chapter II for derivation), one finds the very

complicated empirical dependences of cure speed on intensity illustrated

l in Figure 36 [114]. In many instances, the intensity exponent is

nearer to two than the theoretical value of one-half and is not always

constant over the range of intensities. The UV screening effect of

pigments involves obvious effects on the cure rate for different ink

colors; this is also evident in the figure.

The variation of cure speed with initiator or sensitizer concentration also violates the simple equation just discussed. Empirically, the

logarithm of photosensitizer concentration is often found to be inversely

proportional to the time for cure as shown in Figure 37 for both clear and

pigmented films [114]. The theoretical equation predicts that such semi log

plots should not, in fact, be linear. Part of this contradiction is implicit in the tendency of high concentrations of sensitizer to screen light

from deeper layers, as discussed earlier for coatings; part is perhaps

also related to the distribution of wavelengths occurring in actual UV

lamps, as opposed to the ideal monochromatic radiation source assumed
Cure

Speed,

ft/min

254

203

152

102

50.8

40.6

35.6

30.5

25.4

20.3

15.2

10.2

5.1

FIGURE 36 Cure speed per lamp versus light intensity for variously

pigmented inks: A, magenta; B, yellow; C, cyan; D, black.

Cure

Speed,

cm/s
considered earlier in this report. However, such ideal behavior is not

easily achieved during the printing process. Lamp intensity has been

found to change with distance in a complicated way; several maxima

usually occur as the work approaches the lamp. In addition, the variation

of cure rate as a function of intensity usually observed in practice is

completely contrary to expectations from the simple theory of steady- state

free radical chain reactions. In place of the expected simple relationship

J- R a i

2c

2

,

where, as previously defined, R is the rate of polymerization, I the

light intensity, and C the initiator or sensitizer concentration (see

earlier discussion in Chapter II for derivation), one finds the very

complicated empirical dependences of cure speed on intensity illustrated

in Figure 36 [114]. In many instances, the intensity exponent is

nearer to two than the theoretical value of one-half and is not always

constant over the range of intensities. The UV screening effect of

pigments involves obvious effects on the cure rate for different ink

colors; this is also evident in the figure.

The variation of cure speed with initiator or sensitizer concentration also violates the simple equation just discussed. Empirically, the

logarithm of photosensitizer concentration is often found to be inversely

proportional to the time for cure as shown in Figure 37 for both clear and

pigmented films [114]. The theoretical equation predicts that such semilog

plots should not, in fact, be linear. Part of this contradiction is implicit in the tendency of high concentrations of sensitizer to screen light

from deeper layers, as discussed earlier for coatings; part is perhaps

also related to the distribution of wavelengths occurring in actual UV

lamps, as opposed to the ideal monochromatic radiation source assumed
Cure

Speed,

ft/min

94

254

203

152

102

50.8

40.6

35.6

30.5

25.4

20.3

15.2

10.2

5.1

FIGURE 36 Cure speed per lamp versus light intensity for variously

pigmented inks: A, magenta; B, yellow; C, cyan; D, black.

Cure

Speed,

cm/s
%

Sensitizer

10% Black Pigment

FIGURE 37 Relationship between cure time and sensitizer content for three

unspecified sensitizers A, B, and C in clear and pigmented films.
for deriving the theory. The UV curing problems attributed solely to the

presence of pigments in formulations have been previously considered in

Chapter IV.

The decline of cure speed with increasing film thickness, which is

rapid and occurs such that a plot of log cure rate against film thickness

is linear, is in accord with the Lambert-Beer law as expected.

Increasing the temperature aids the completion of curing for paste

inks. We speculate that this observation is compatible with the glass

transition temperature effect discussed previously under the heading of

industrial coating application methods.

Interactions of UV inks with printing plates are usually not serious

if the plates are of metal. Copper may react with amine sensitizers and

become less receptive to ink, but can be rejuvenated by acid treatment or

protected with special pretreating solutions. Photopolymer plates are

generally usable because of their extreme degree of cross-linking and

consequent resistance to inks. However, their life may be shortened due

to softening caused by sorption of some ink formulation components.

Cures on metal or plastic substrates tend to be slow, since the

achievement of a practical degree of cure on these surfaces cannot be

assisted by absorption of liquid ink into the substrate. Adhesion to

such surfaces is likely to be poorer; this is correlated somewhat with

the large degree of shrinkage that occurs during polymerization.

Adhesion can be promoted by slower curing formulations, the use of

specifically better adhering compositions (e.g. epoxy and urethane),

and by appropriate surface preparation. Liquid inks are slower to cure

than paste inks, in general, and may be of some utility in applications

where adhesion needs to be improved. Some experience with ink adhesion

to plastic containers and metal can stock has been reported [47,128].
97

IX OTHER RELATED APPLICATIONS OF RADIATION AND RADIATION CURING

Noncoating applications of radiation curing are equally significant,

commercially. A process of major importance is the crosslinking of

wire insulation by electron beam radiation [129-149]. The largest

production volume is in crossl inked thin wire insulation made of polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Polyethylene can be used at a

higher service temperature and PVC is given fair fire resistance by

this process. A critical application for the latter is distributing

frame wire for telephone company use [129]. The formulation for this

application includes PVC, tetraethyl ene glycol di methacrylate, and a

stabilizer. Some early hardening occurs at a dose of 0.1 Mrad; other

properties (hot modulus, etc.) improve at later stages of the process.

In some of these uses, it is important that the insulation fail by

charring when over-heated, like rubber, and not by melting, like nylon.

Even a moderate degree of crosslinking improves performance under such

conditions as soldering at close quarters. EB machines of the scanning

type irradiate the wire, which is often passed through the beam several

times in a figure eight pattern or with twisting to give good access of

electrons to all sides of the wire. In some machines, the same purpose

is achieved by a magnet which gives a reverse curve to the path of the

electrons. Polyethylene will crosslink in this manner without additives,

but crosslinking monomers of the acrylate type are often added to

reduce the dose needed for crosslinking. Some foamed cable insulation

is also crossl inked. Thick cable insulation can be crossl inked with

higher energy electrons but a limit is apparently imposed by the tendency

of the accumulated charge of trapped electrons to break through the

insulation in discharges that create pinholes and other flaws. Other
98

polymers capable of EB crosslinking include polyvinyl fluoride, ethylenechlorotrifluoroethylene, chi orosul fonated polyethylene, and ethylenepropylene-diene copolymer [130]. It is common for the usual polymer

stabilizers to inhibit crosslinking and themselves be destroyed in the

process. Special stabilizer systems, undisclosed in the open

literature, must therefore be used in these EB applications. Without

them, aging at high temperatures can lead to rapid deterioration [130,131].

Despite the importance of radiation crosslinking, it does not account

for as much as one-half of the crosslinked insulation market.

Other important forms of radiation crosslinked polyolefins and

their copolymers include foam sheet [150,151] and shrink packaging film

and insulation [152]. Crosslinking is not the only possibility even

for shrink film, as carefully controlled orientation and temperature

treatment followed by rapid chilling can be used to give acceptable

final performance [153]. With EPM copolymers (ethylene and propylene,

but no diene), the radiation efficiency of crosslinking is small but

becomes practical if "activators" such as ethylene glycol dimethacrylate

or trial lyl cyanurate are added. Much more suitable is EPDM, EPM which

contains diene termonomer units, and again using "activators," but

except in low voltage electric cables it has not become a significant

part of industrial practice [154]. Blends of polypropylene and EPDM

require addition of a monomer such as trimethyl olpropane trimethacrylate

to avoid degradation during crosslinking [132].

It is technically feasible to vulcanize rubber tires by radiation,

and the product is not inferior, but the economics are unfavorable. An

exception may be the partial precuring of tire components with 1 to

3 Mrads of EB radiation before assembly and main cure. This improves
99

the "green strength" enough to prevent damage during assembly. Tires

made in this manner can use more of the less costly synthetic rubbers

while giving performance equal to high natural rubber blends [155].

A permanent press process for fabrics used for many years involved

not crosslinking but graft polymerization by radiation [156]. This has

apparently been abandoned in favor of strictly chemical methods [157].

Many other textile processes employing radiation have been under development but have not achieved commercialization [158-160].

The coating of leather with UV or EB curable formulations has been

investigated in the laboratory [161] but it is not clear whether such

processes have found commercial acceptance.

UV and visible light curing are used advantageously in several dental

applications: composite fillings and liquid bonding agents for anterior

teeth, pit and fissure sealants, and orthodontic bracket adhesives. The

overwhelming advantage is the unlimited working time, followed by rapid

cure when the desired shape is reached. The light source, which can be of

several types, is brought to the proper location in the mouth via fiber

optic rods [162].

An important and profitable field for UV and other radiation processes

is the preparation of plates for printing and "resists" for microelectronic

device fabrication [163-169]. The word "lithography," given a special

meaning here, is often applied to these operations. Visible light usually

gives adequate resolution for printing plate production. Although UV is

most often used in microcircuit fabrication, other kinds of radiation--

electron beams, x-rays, and ion beams--could in principle allow a greater

degree of miniaturization and are being investigated. The starting

materials for lithography include some that crosslink by molecular stepwise

reactions. An example of such a system is given in Figure 38. The
100

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101

substrate of the device is first coated with a radiation crossl inkable

polymer. A "negative" resist is made by photocrosslinking, with an

electron beam for example, the area to be protected from treatment then

dissolving away the uncrossl inked material with an appropriate solvent.

A fabrication step follows and involves etching or doping the now unprotected areas of the substrate while leaving the protected areas unaffected.

Alternatively, a "positive" resist is made by degrading the polymer in the

EB exposed area, removing it with a solvent, and etching or doping the

area thus uncovered. Many of the lithography references cited are merely

introductory or pertain to electronics manufacturing processes; Delzenne

[163] and Tsunoda [164] offer the most comprehensive information on

printing plate lithography.

As mentioned in the introduction to the report, some uses of radiation require the deep penetration that can best be accomplished with

cobalt 60 gamma rays, despite the considerable inconveniences associated

with their use. These processes include wood impregnation [170] and

sterilization of prepackaged medical supplies [171]. A potential substitute for cobalt 60, having an advantage in that it could be turned off

when not in use, might be developed in the future from the bremsstrahl ung

radiation from scanned electron beams of 4 to 5 MeV striking a suitable

target [172].

X INDUSTRIAL RADIATION CURING APPLICATIONS: COSTS, EXAMPLES,

AND STATISTICS

A General Radiation Curing

The most thorough market analysis of radiation curing, that of

Barbier and associates [70], is based on data up to 1976, and only very

fragmentary updating can be attempted. Cost estimates for different
102

years are difficult to compare because of the effects of inflation and

also because the share taken by capital costs is strongly influenced by

interest rates, which have undergone large changes during the period of

development.

The different radiation curing methods have widely varying capital

equipment costs. The usual mercury-argon bulbs of 200 W/inch cost $250

each, and lamp and associated UV curing equipment costs are typically

only several thousand dollars per production line. UV lamp life has

apparently increased over the years, perhaps to on the order of 4500 hours

for a 120 W/cm lamp [43], giving additional savings over earlier estimates.

These figures can be compared to the cost of infrared bulbs which are

usually only $100 each. Electron beam equipment costs were much higher,

however, two hundred thousand to one million dollars per production

line. The cost of UV and EB curable ink and coating materials was and

is likely to remain roughly fifty to one hundred percent higher that

conventional heat-set ink formulations [117].

It is well known that the energy cost per unit mass for conventional

oven drying drops rapidly with increasing volume fraction solids in a

coating formulation while, on the other hand, the quantity of oven heat

required rises proportionally with substrate thickness. Energy consumption for UV coatings, per unit mass coating solids, drops rapidly as

film thickness increases. Plots of the above relationships show that

radiation curable coatings are competitive with solvent based coatings

when the volume of solids in the latter is below thirty percent [173].

In UV curing, important cost savings are made by shifting from nitrogen

to air for the blanketing atmosphere. The hourly utility costs in 1978

fell from $12.30 to $4.80 by eliminating nitrogen consumption for a

122 cm wide line with ten lamps operating at speeds of 50 cm/s.
103

As of 1976, the largest markets for materials cured by radiation

were coatings and inks. The total consumption of radiation cured

coatings in the U.S. was thought to be 4100 metric tons (t) for 1975;

UV cured ink consumption amounted to 725 t during the same period.

Table 15 gives a summary of their various uses and markets. Large

scale commercial use of these materials began much earlier than

1976, however. The Continental Can Company, as early as 1972 for

example, had eleven UV lines in nine plants for coating three-piece

beer and soft drink cans [47]; the Adolph Coors Company had converted

to UV from gas-fired lines by 1975 [174].

In 1979, the number of industrial electron beam machines was

estimated at 230 and gamma radiation sources at 80, for a total of

10 MW power production and an estimated total product gross sales of

more than $1 billion per year [157]. In 1981, the estimate had increased

to 14 MW in EB machines and 1 MW in cobalt 60 sources [175]. The

tendency is toward larger machines, capacity per device growing faster

than the number of installations. The crosslinking of wire and cable

insulation used a significant fraction of all EB capacity installed,

one-quarter to one-third of the 7.9 MW EB capacity in 1977. The Western

Electric Company alone in that year processed an estimated 1.8 billion

meters of PVC wire so that it would resist satisfactorily the heat from

soldering [176], but this amounted to only two percent of its total

wire production. Japanese wire and cable processing by EB as of 1978

included twelve suppliers with twenty machines at 800 kW total power

production [177].

Some of the earliest users of ionizing radiation, however, had

dropped out of the field by 1979. They included Deeri ng-Mi 1 1 i ken

,

Incorporated, manufacturer of permanent press cotton by radiation graft
TABLE 15

Market Size for Actual Applications of

Radiation Curing in 1975

Market or Submarket

Estimated Actual

Market Size

Coatings (UV and radiation ) Wood coatings

Containers, closures,

4100 t

6.8 t

320 t

metal decorating

Motor vehicles 3

545 t

Inks (UV)

Packagi ng

Other printing

725 t

567 t

240 t

Sensitized printing plates $20,000,000b

Printed circuit boards $4,000 ,000

c

Calculated from volume usage statistics assuming a ^density of 1.44 kg/L.

°2% of estimated total market size of $1 billion.

L 10% of estimated total market size of $40 million.

Source: M. Barbier, J. Vlahakis, R. Ouellette, R. Pikul,

R. Rice, Electrotechnology (Ann Arbor, MI) 2,

29 (1978).
105

polymerization, and the Ford Motor Company, with operations in coating

automobile parts. Reasons for the Ford decision to exit the radiation

curing field included the relatively poor performance of the low solids

EB curable coatings they used and the frequency of accidents related to

the inert gas atmosphere employed [157].

Estimates are given by Barbier and colleagues [70] of the number

of coating production lines for different radiation types and of possible

future markets for these processes. They also give a market analysis

for the Japanese radiation-cured coating and ink industry. Broad,

qualitative summaries of various industrial radiation curing applications

are given by Lacey [178]. These include: electric insulation, overprint

coatings, bags and film, printed circuits, screen printing, wood finishing,

and shrink tubing and shrink covers for fittings, flooring, and coating.

B Printing Inks

U.S. sales of UV inks and press varnishes over a recent three year

period have been given by Bean and Bassemir and are listed in Table 16 [114].

These figures can be compared with the 1976 total of $0.7 billion for

sales of all kinds of printing inks in the $37 billion per year graphic

arts and communications industry, where printing ink usage could be

subdivided as follows: 22 percent letterpress, 14 percent flexography,

31 percent lithography, 17 percent gravure, and 16 percent miscellaneous

[116]. More recently, the volume of printing by various processes is

given in 1982 as: 18 percent letterpress, 14 percent flexography,

45 percent lithography, 18 percent gravure, and 5 percent miscellaneous

[179]. The fraction of letterpress printing is declining steadily

while usage of lithography has increased considerably. In 1976, the

share of the web offset printing market captured by UV inks climbed

into the range of $4 to 5 million, mainly because of increased demand
TABLE 16

Estimated Sales of UV Inks and Press Varnishes

Yearly Sales, mi 1 1 ions

Market 1975 1976 1977

Web offset $3.0 $4.0 $3.0

Sheetfed offset 2.5 4.0 5.0

Metal decorating 1.5 3.7 5.0

Plastic decorating — 0.3 1.0

Mi seel 1 aneous 0.5 0.8 1.0

Total $7.5 $12.8 $15.0

Source: A. J. Bean, R. W. Bassemir in "UV Curing: Science and

Technology," S. P. Pappas, Ed., Technology Marketing Corp.

,

Stamford, CT, 1978, p. 188.
by magazine printers during a natural gas shortage. Much of this new

usage ceased when the gas supply situation returned to normal as the

costs for UV were too great to compete in the unperturbed marketplace.

Since then, UV curing inks have been considered as specialty inks. In

1978, UV curable printing inks sales were estimated at $17 million in

the U.S. and Canada [111]. Sales totaled from $5 to 6 million in the

same year for UV lithographic inks and varnishes at the three dozen

large sheet-fed installations, with perhaps a dozen major sheet-fed

installations producing such items as record jackets and book covers.

The metal decorating field amounted to $6 million in UV ink sales over

the same period. One expert in the field has expressed the opinion

that is is safe to project a healthy future for lithographic printing

on foil, metal, plastic, and similar sheet-fed products [111]. Some

very familiar consumer items printed by UV curing include: Kentucky

Fried Chicken, Slurpee, Bufferin, and aspirin containers, Thermos ware,

and most cottage cheese and yogurt containers.

The use of IR drying for sheetfed offset printing in the United

States has been growing in the five years preceding 1980 [95], the most

recent period for which figures are available.

XI ALTERNATIVE NEWER METHODS FOR NONRADIATION CURING

Methods other than radiation induced processes could also be used

to avoid some of the curing problems of conventional inks and coatings.

Among these alternative materials and methods are: modified heatset

inks, nonradiation cured high solids coatings and inks, surface coated

inks, water-based coatings and inks, catalytic two-part coatings,

electrodeposition of coatings (mainly for metals), and exotic printing

methods such as jet printing. These frequently offer appreciable
108

advantages in r lucing po lution or energy consumption. They are

discussed in more detail in several references [86,95,115,119,180-182].

One type of high solids ink is a modified heatset ink using less

solvent, perhaps only twenty percent as opposed to the normal forty percent, and containing no aromatics and a lower amount of paraffinic

hydrocarbons in the solvent in order to diminish the air pollution

burden. Such inks are called low-smoke, low-odor heatset inks. Their

boiling point is often lower than the conventional inks, typically

104 °C (220 °F) rather than 135 °C (275 °F). Unfortunately for gravure

and flexographic inks, reduction of the solvent content can hardly be

done to any useful extent because of the low viscosity required for

appl ication.

Catalyzed high solids inks contain an acid-crossl i nkabl e prepolymer

(polyester-al kyd, urea-formaldehyde, or melamine-formaldehyde) plus a

"blocked" acid catalyst. The activity of the acid, typically

p-tol uenesul fonic acid, is blocked during printing by either salt

formation with ammonia, with amino groups of a prepolymer or additive,

or by an ester moiety, but is later released by dissociation on the

drying equipment at temperatures of 135 to 177 °C (275 to 350 °F)

[183-187]. Some prepolymers, such as styrenated alkyds, can become

reactive at drier temperatures without an added catalyst.

In a totally different kind of system, an oil-based ink may be

covered while still wet with an oxygen permeable coating, such as

alcohol soluble propionate resin or water soluble polyethylene oxide,

and allowed to dry slowly beneath the protective coating. The covering

eliminates setoff while still permitting a normal air cure.

Water-based paints and other coatings are well known, and experimental

use has been made of water-based inks. The polymer is often of the
109

acrylic type, and contains perhaps five percent carboxylic acid groups

as comonomer units. These are generally neutralized with an amine to

bring about varying degrees of affinity for water, or, in extreme

cases, water solubility. The polymer may be present as a latex, a

water solution, or a colloidal water-solubilized polymer that is

sometimes supplied in alcohol solution but reducible with water. The

latexes have rather low viscosity even at high molecular weight and may

require an added water-soluble polymer to give the desired tack for

many applications. These inks can be used in gravure and flexographic

printing on absorbent substrates, but a disadvantage is their tendency

to swell such substrates. Foaming and mold growth are two other possible

di fficul ties.

Two-part systems have been used in Australia under the name Vapocure.

The ink contains one reactant of the isocyanate type and, after application,

the substrate is passed through a vapor bath containing an amine as the

other reactant. A crossl inked resin is thus formed which presumably

contains urea linkages. In some cases, a reactant such as ammonia

vapor is sprayed onto the other component already applied on the substrate.

Two electrical methods have been used to apply coatings: electrophoresis from colloidal aqueous suspension and electrostatic powder

spraying. Electrophoresis can be either anodic or cathodic. In anodic

electrophoresis, polymer particles containing carboxyl ate ions migrate

to the anodic substrate and are deposited on the metal by electrode

reactions which form the uncharged carboxylic acid or its metal salt.

Typically, an electromotive force of 150 to 250 V is applied for 60 to

90 s. Electrostatic powder spraying uses much higher voltages to apply

a dry powder which is subsequently fused onto the metal substrate. In

an example described, a wet oil -based varnish is first laid down in the
printing pattei . , tne pondered ink is applied and the excess removed by

electrostatic methods, and the remaining powder is then fused by heating

The radically different method of jetset printing employs an array

of nozzles a few micrometers in diameter, arranged in the pattern to be

printed, to squirt a 1 ow-vi scosi ty ink onto the substrate. Drying is

commonly achieved by evaporating the aqueous solvent [ 188 ].

XII CONCLUDING REMARKS

The literature on radiation curing of printing inks and coatings

has been reviewed. Radiation sources considered include electron beam,

ultraviolet, infrared, and microwave. Other uses of radiation are also

discussed briefly. Technical feasibility has been proven in a wide

variety of applications, but early expectations of the near-complete

replacement of conventional curing by radiation methods have not been

realized, principally because of economic factors such as the less than

anticipated severity of the fuel shortage, the probably irreducible

higher cost of radiation curing materials, the high capital cost of

electron beam equipment, progress in some alternative techniques, and

occasional marginal difficulties with a few key properties such as

adhesion. In special applications where decisive advantages exist,

growth has been rapid and continues.

XIII RECOMMENDED READING

The references cited below should be especially useful for general

background information and for a more comprehensive or alternative

treatment of the field indicated:
Ill

A Basic Radiation Chemistry and Physics

A. Chari esby, "Atomic Radiation and Polymers," Pergamon, New York,

1960.

B Basic Photochemistry

J. G. Calvert, J. N. Pitts, "Photochemistry," Wiley, New York,

1966.

C Conventional Coatings

D. H. Parker, "Principles of Surface Coating Technology," Wiley,

New York, 1965.

D Conventional Printing

L. M. Larsen, "Industrial Printing Inks," Reinhold, New York,

1962.

H. J. Wolfe, "Printing and Litho Inks," MacNair-Dorland, New York,

1967.

E. A. Apps, "Printing Ink Technology," Chemical Publishing Co.,

New York, 1959.

E Radiation Curing, General and Safety Considerations

J. Lacey, A. H. Keough, "Radiation Curing, A Discussion of

Advantages, Features, and Applications," Assoc. Finishing

Processes Soc. Manuf. Engrs. , Dearborn, MI, 1980.

F Ultraviolet Curing

C. G. Roffey, "Photopolymerization of Surface Coatings," Wiley,

Chichester, 1982.

S. P. Pappas, Ed., "Ultraviolet Curing: Science and Technology,"

Technology Marketing Corp. , Stamford, CT, 1978. (Chapters on all

aspects, notably Bean and Bassemir on inks, cited separately.)

G Ultraviolet Cured Inks

A. J. Bean, R. W. Bassemir, "UV Curing of Printing Inks," Chapter

8 in "Ultraviolet Curing: Science and Technology," cited above,

pp. 185-228.

J. W. Vanderhoff, "Ultraviolet Light Cured Inks--A Review," in

"Ultraviolet Light Induced Reactions in Polymers," S. S. Labana, Ed.,

ACS Symp. Ser. 25, Am. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC, 1976, pp. 162-187.

(Several other versions exist, not quite alike.)

J. F. Fields, "The Chemistry of Ultraviolet Cured Printing Inks,"

Soc. Manuf. Engrs. Tech. Pap. FC 78-504, 1978, 12 pp. (Not long,

but contains recent hard to get references and information.)
H Radiation uurcQ Coat ngs

1

1

S. H. Schroeter, "The Ultraviolet Curing of Coatings," in

"Nonpolluting Coatings and Coating Processes," J. L. Gardon,

J. W. Prane, Eds. , Plenum, New York, 1973.

S. H. Schroeter, "Radiation Curing of Coatings," Ann. Rev. Matls.

Sci. 5, 115-129 (1979).

R. W. Bassemir, "Ultraviolet Curing Coatings," in "Corrosion Control

by Coatings," H. Ledheiser, Jr., Ed., Science Press, Princeton,

NJ, 1979, pp. 373-389.

I Economics, Evaluations, and Statistics

M. Barbier, J. Vlahakis, R. Ouellette, R. Pikul, R. Rice,

"Radiation Curing," Electrotechnology (Ann Arbor, MI) 2,

29-61 (1978).

W. J. Ramler, "An Overview of IR, UV, and EB Curing," Tech. Pap.

,

2nd Chem. Coat. Conf. (Radiation Cured Coatings Session),

Natl. Paint Coatings Assoc., Washington, DC, 1978, pp. 1-22.

Anon., "Radiation's Bright New Future," Business Week, July 11, 1977,

7 pp.
113

XIV REFERENCES CITED IN TEXT

[1] J. Lacey, A. H. Keough, "Radiation Curing, A Discussion of Advantages, Features, and Applications," Assoc. Finishing Processes

Soc. Manuf. Engrs. , Dearborn, MI, 1980, p. 13.

[2] A. Charlesby, "Atomic Radiation and Polymers," Pergamon,

New York, 1960, p. 19.

[3] I. Mita, in "Aspects of Degradation and Stabilization of Polymers,"

H. H. G. Jellinek, Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1978, p. 247.

[4] E. Pollard, W. L. Davidson, Jr., "Applied Nuclear Physics,"

Wiley, New York, 1942, p. 127.

[5] S. V. Nablo, J. R. Uglum, B. S. Quintal, in "Nonpolluting

Coatings and Coating Processes," J. L. Gardon, J. W. Prane, Eds.,

Plenum, 1973, p. 179.

[6] R. C. Becker, J. H. Bly, M. R. Cleland, J. P. Farrell, Radiat.

Phys. Chem. 14, 353 (1975).

[7] S. V. Nablo, Am. Ink Maker 60(3), 20 (1982).

[8] Ref. 1, p. 12.

[9] Ref. 2, pp. 186-190, 295, 343, 362, 388.

[10] W. H. T. Davison, J. Oil Col. Chem. Assoc. 52, 946 (1969).

[11] S. H. Schroeter, in "Nonpolluting Coatings and Coating Processes,"

J. L. Gardon, J. W. Prane, Eds. , Plenum, New York, 1973, p. 109.

[12] Ref. 1, p. 39.

[13] R. M. Emanuelson, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 14, 343 (1979).

[14] M. R. Cleland, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 18, 301 (1981).

[15] D. Schl ichenmaier, G. Moel lenstedt, P. Woll , H. Drawe, Chem.-Ztg.

105(4), 105 (1981).

[16] S. V. Nablo, E. P. Tripp, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 9, 325 (1977).

[17] Energy Sciences, Inc., "Electrocurtain," Brochure No. 791, ca. 1980.

[18] S. V. Nablo, J. Radiat. Curing 8(2), 10 (1981).

[19] S. Young, S. Taylor, K. W. G. Butcher, Product Finishing 23(6), 36

(1970).

[20] H. Drawe, Chem.-Ztg. 104(6), 189 (1980).
1

1

[21] T. F. Huemmer, L. A. Wasowski , R. J. Plooy, J. Paint Technol. 44

(572), 61 (Sept. 1972).

[22] E. Haering, K. Ahlers, G. Holtmann, Ind. Lackierbetrieb. 1981(5),

167.

[23] R. A. Hickner, "Electron Beam Curing of Coatings and Adhesives,"

Soc. Manuf. Engrs. Tech. Pap. FC 75-305, 1975.

[24] G. Oster, N. L. Yang, Chem. Rev. 68, 125 (1968). (Esp. pp. 145 ff .

)

[25] V. D. McGinniss, Photogr. Sci. Engr. 23, 124 (1979).

[26] S. P. Pappas, Radiat. Curing 8(3), 28 (1981).

[27] C. L. Osborn, J. Radiat. Curing 3(3), 2 (1976).

[28] FI. J. Flageman, quoted in ref. 26.

[29] S. P. Pappas, J. FI. Jilek, Photogr. Sci. Engr. 23, 140 (1979).

[30] W. R. Watt, Am. Chem. Soc. , Div. Org. Coat. Plast. Chem. Prepr.

39, 36 (1978).

[31] J. V. Crivello, J. M. W. Lam, Am. Chem. Soc., Div. Org. Coat.

Plast. Chem. Prepr. 39, 31 (1978).

[32] J. V. Crivello, J. W. Lam, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Ltrs. 17, 759

(1979).

[33] J. V. Crivello, J. M. W. Lam, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Chem. 17, 977

(1979).

[34] W. C. Perkins, J. Radiat. Curing 8(1), 16 (1981).

[35] R. W. Bassemir, in "Corrosion Control by Coatings," H. Ledheiser, Jr.,

Ed. , Science Press, Princeton, NJ, 1979, p. 373.

[36] W. Mayer, FI. Rudolph, E. de Cleur, Angew. Makromol. Chem. 93, 83

(1981).

[37] R. A. Lieberman, Radiat. Curing 8(3), 13 (1981).

[38] C. T. Niessner, Radiat. Curing 8(3), 25 (1981).

[39] C. P. Herz , J. Eichler, Farbe Lack 85, 933 (1979).

[40] J. Ohngemach, K. FI. Neisius, J. Eichler, C. P. Herz, Kontakte

(Darmstadt) 1980 (3) , 15.

[41] K. O'Hara, FATIPEC Congr. 14, 485 (1978).

[42] Ref. 1, p. 25.
115

[43] W. J. Rainier, "An Overview of IR, UV, and EB Curing," Tech. Pap. , 2nd Chem. Coat. Conf. (Radiation Cured Coatings Session),

Natl. Paint Coatings Assoc., Washington, DC, 1978, pp. 1-22.

[44] J. G. Calvert, J. N. Pitts, "Photochemistry," Wiley, New York,

1966, p. 696.

[45] A. J. C. van Oosterhout, Dr. Schwindt, Double Liai son--Chim.

Peint. 1980 (295), 135/29.

[46] V. D. McGinniss, in "Ultraviolet Curing: Science and Technology,"

S. P. Pappas, Ed., Technology Marketing Corp. , Stamford, CT, 1978,

p. 125.

[47] R. B. Mesrobian, Radiat. Phys. Chem. 9, 307 (1977).

[48] Union Carbide Corp., Linde Photocure Systems, Advertisement,

J. Radiat. Curing 8(2), 1 (1981).

[49] R. L. Kolek, J. L. Hammill, Radiat. Curing 7(2), 3 (1980).

[50] B. E. Hulme , J. Oil Col. Chem. Assoc. 59, 245 (1976).

[51] V. D. McGinniss, in "Ultraviolet Light Induced Reactions in

Polymers," S. S. Labana, Ed., ACS Symp. Ser. 25, Am. Chem. Soc.

,

Washington, DC, 1976, p. 135.

[52] G. Hencken, Farbe Lack 81, 916 (1975); Defazet 29, 751 (1975).

[53] P. Hauser, R. Osterloh, M. Jacobi, FATIPEC Congr. 14, 241 (1978).

[54] M. D. Garret, Am. Ink Maker 52(11), 20 (1974).

[55] Y. C. Chang, Photogr. Sci. Engr. 21, 348 (1977); Photogr. Sci.

Engr. 23, 301 (1979).

[56] Z. W. Wicks, in "Ultraviolet Curing: Science and Technology,"

S. P. Pappas, Ed., Technology Marketing Corp., Stamford, CT, 1978,

p. 79.

[57] F. R. Wight, J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Ltrs. 16, 1121 (1978).

[58] A. Gamble, J. Oil Col. Chem. Assoc. 59, 240 (1976); J. Radiat.

Curing 6(1), 18 (1979).

[59] V. D. McGinniss, "Photoinitiation of Acrylate Systems for UV

Curing," Soc. Manuf. Engrs. Tech. Pap. FC 76-486, 1976.

[60] C. Decker, J. Faure, M. Fizet, L. Rychla, Photogr. Sci. Engr.

23, 137 (1979).

[61] C. Decker, Makromol. Chem. 180 , 2027 (1979).
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123

XV OTHER REFERENCES

Literature coverage for such a wide-ranging survey is necessarily

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NBS-114A (REV. 2-80

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET (See instructions)

1. PUBLICATION OR

REPORT NO. NBSIR83-2722

2. Performing Organ. Report No 3. Publication Date

June 1983

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Radiation Curing of Inks and Coatings

5. AUTHOR(S)

George A. Senich and Roland E. Florin

6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION (If joint or other than N BS, see instructions) 7. Contract/Grant No. national bureau of standards R-0101-02

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 8. Type of Report & Period Covered

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234 Annual Report

10/1/81 to 9/30/82

9. SPONSORING ORGANIZATION NAME AND COMPLETE ADDRESS (Street. City. State, ZIP)

Bureau of Engraving and Printing

Department of the Treasury

14th and C Streets, S.W.

Washington, DC 20228

10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Document describes a computer program; SF-185, FIPS Software Summary, is attached.

11. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a si gnifi cant

bi bliography or literature survey, mention it here) The science and technology of curing organic materials with radiation is reviewed.

Electron beam, ultraviolet, infrared, microwave, and high frequency radiation sources

and the resin systems suitable for use with these sources are considered. Equipment

necessary to affect a radiation cure is discussed and some practical problems unique

to each radiation method are indicated. The application of radiation curing to

industrial processes which employ inks and coatings is covered, with particular

emphasis given to printing with radiation curable formulations. Included are discussions of the advantages and disadvantages of radiation curing inks, some typical ink components and formulations, the specialized machinery required, and the

influence of parameters unique to radiation curing methods on the printing process.

Other nonprinting but related industrial operations utilizing radiation for treating

thin films and coatings are also considered. Some costs, examples, and market

statistics are given for these commercial procedures. New nonconventional , but

also nonradiation, alternative curing methods are discussed briefly. A bibliography

of recommended further reading and a list of over two hundred fifty references are included.

12.„ KEY WORDS (Six to twelye , entries; alphabetical order; capitoliz.e only proper names; arud separate key. wards, by. semicolons)

Acrylates; cross linking; electron oeahis; infrared; photocliring; pnotoimtiators;

photopolymerization; polymerization by radiation; printing; reactive diluents;

thermosetting resins; ultraviolet.

13. AVAILABILITY

Unl imited

| | For Official Distribution. Do Not Release to NTIS

1 Order From Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

20402.

Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA. 22161

14. NO. OF

PRINTED PAGES

131

15. Price

$14.50

USCOMM-DC 6043-P80
.