NISI

PUBLICATIONS

A 11 ID 4 3blDT2 NISTSP 838-5

Project Summaries 199

100

.U57

NO. 838-5

1994

U.S. Department

of Commerce

Technology

Administration

National Institute

of Standards and

Technology

Project

Summaries 1994

NIST SP 838-5

NIST

Building &

Fiie

Research

Laboratory

U.S. Department

of Commerce

Ronald H. Brown, Secretary

Technology

Administration

Mary L. Good,

Under Secretary for Technology

National Institute

of Standards and

Technology

Arati Prabhakar, Director

Noel J. Raufaste

June 1994
National Institute of Standards U.S. Goverment Printing Office

and Technology Washington: 1994

Special Publication 838-5,

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol.

Spec. Publ. 838-5

158 pages (June 1994)

CODEN: NSPUE2

For sale by the Superintendent

of Documents

U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, DC 20402
FOREWORD

Construction is one of the Nation's

largest industries. In 1993, new

construction put in place amounted to

about $470 billion (7.9% of GDP) and

provided about 6 million jobs. Fires and

natural disasters destroy a significant

portion of constructed facilities every

year. Costs of fire safety and fire losses

exceed $128 billion a year. Natural

disasters cause tens of billions of dollars

annually. For example, during the 12

month period July 1993 through June

1994, the United States experienced

significant property losses from natural

disasters such as: the Mid-west Floods;

the January 1994 Northridge Earthquake;

and wind damage to the built

environment. These are only three

examples; many other natural phenomena

occur each year. The quality of

constructed facilities directly affects the

productivity of the U.S. building and fire communities and affects the safety and

quality of life of all constructed facilities.

Over 60% of the nation's wealth is invested in constructed facilities.

The National Institute of Standards and

Technology's (NIST) mission is to

promote U.S. economic growth by

working with industry to develop and

apply technology, measurements, and

standards. NIST's direct customer is U.S. industry. Its work yields direct

investments with and benefits for the

private sector -- in contrast to spinoffs

derived from other federal investments.

NIST's Building and Fire Research

Laboratory (BFRL), one of NIST's eight

Laboratories, enhances the

competitiveness of U.S. industry and

public safety through performance

prediction and measurement technologies

and technical advances that improve the

life cycle quality of constructed facilities.

BFRL's efforts are closely coordinated

with complementary activities of

industry, professional and trade

organizations, academe, and other

agencies of government. The vision for

BFRL, the structure of its technical

programs, and the determination and

timing of its technical products are based

on analyses of industry needs and BFRL's

own unique resources and capabilities.

BFRL's laboratory facilities include:

six-degree-of-freedom structural testing

facility; large-scale structural testing

facility with the 53 MN (12-million pound)

universal structural testing machine;

environmental chambers; guarded hotplate; calibrated hot-box; plumbing tower;

building materials imaging and modeling

laboratory; large burn facility for

conducting experimental fires in full-scale,

large industrial fire test facilities, fire suppression test facilities; and a fire simulation laboratory.

BFRL is a major nonproprietary source of

technical information for development of

voluntary standards by organizations such

as ASTM; American Concrete Institute;

American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning

Engineers; American Society of Civil

Engineers; Institute of Electrical and

Electronics Engineers; and the National

Fire Protection Association. The resulting

standards are widely used in building and

fire codes.

BFRL works closely with its international

peer organizations to maintain awareness

of foreign research developments, as well as assure that generic research efforts are complementary, and U.S. interests are represented in the preparation of

international standards and practices.

BFRL cooperates closely with other U.S.

and foreign laboratories in the conduct of

its research. Eighty-three research
associates from U.S. industry, guest

researchers from foreign laboratories, and

faculty members from universities worked

at BFRL during 1993 for periods

averaging about a year.

BFRL participates in over 100 national

standardization activities; provides

leadership in national and international

standardization organizations and chairs

more than 20 voluntary standardization

activities. BFRL annually publishes over 230 reports, articles for research journals,

and articles for professional and trade

journals. BFRL staff annually makes

hundreds of presentations to professional

and technical meetings of building

community organizations. For 24 years,

BFRL has hosted a monthly Building

Technology Symposia Series in cooperation with other organizations

concerned with building research and

practice and hosts weekly Fire Research

Seminars for NIST staff and colleagues

from the fire community. These are

effective means of transferring the latest

knowledge to practitioners and peer

researchers. The Fire Research

Information Service (FRIS) consisting of

national and international fire research

literature and FIREDOC, the automated

database of fire research literature, is the

only comprehensive national library resource for the fire community.

At the beginning of FY 1994, BFRL had

about 200 employees of which 125 are professional staff, 65 have Ph.D.s, and

1 7 are registered engineers. BFRL's

budget for FY 1994 is $26 million.

Funding comes from direct appropriations

($14 million), from other Federal agencies

($12 million) and from the private sector

($2 million).

This report summarizes BFRL's research

for 1994. The report is arranged by its research programs: structural engineering,

materials engineering, mechanical and

environmental systems, fire safety and

engineering, and fire science. Each

summary lists the project title, the BFRL

point of contact, sponsor, research, and

recent results.

For further information about BFRL, its facilities, opportunities for Guest

Researcher assignments, collaborative

programs, and contracted research,

contact BFRL's Office of Cooperative

Research Programs, Building 226, Room

B250, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD 20899.

Persons requesting information should

contact BFRL using facsimile number

301-975-4032 or e-mail

raufaste@micf.nist.gov.

iv
CONTENTS

hi Foreword

1 EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

2 Seismic Strengthening

Methodologies for Reinforced

Concrete (RC) Frame Buildings

3 Seismic Performance of Precast

Concrete Connections

5 Seismic Design of Non-Structural

Components and Secondary

Systems

6 Seismic Resistance of Joints in Precast Concrete Shear Walls

7 Seismic Resistance of PartiallyGrouted Masonry Shear Walls

9 Performance Requirements for

Passive Energy Dissipation

Systems for Buildings and Lifeline

Structures

10 Establishment of Lifeline Seismic

Safety Executive Board

1 1 Mitigating Liquefaction Potential

13 Management of the Interagency

Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction (ICSSC)

14 Support Implementation of

Executive Order 1 2699

14 Technical Assistance to FEMA

Project Officer (Existing Buildings)

15 Secretariat U.S. -Side Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects

16 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR

17 Noise-Induced Chaos and Chaotic

Transport

17 Automated Construction Site

Metrology

18 High Performance Concrete

19 Effects of Tendon Duct Grease

Leakage on the Integrity of

Prestressed Concrete Containment

20 Next Generation Design Standard

for Wind Loads

21 Design Wind Load Criteria for

Manufactured Housing

22 Calibration of Marshall Compaction

Hammers

23 Building and Fire Code Liaison

24 CONCRETE

25 Microstructure-Property

Relationships in Random Porous

Materials

26 Transport Properties of HighPerformance Concrete

27 Integrated Knowledge System for

High-Performance Concrete

27 Computation of the MicroMechanical Properties of CementBased Materials

28 Quantitative X-Ray Powder

Diffraction Analysis of Clinker and

Cement

29 Factors Affecting the Performance

of Beneficiated Fly Ash in Cement
30 Performance Criteria for Long

Lived Concrete for Radioactive

Waste Storage

31 Concrete Degradation Computer

Code for LLW Performance

Assessments

32 COATINGS

33 Service Life of Coating Systems

34 Organic Coatings

35 Standards for Abatement of

Hazards from Lead in Buildings

36 Method for Evaluation of

Performance of Lead-in-Paint

Measuring Devices Under

Simulated Field Conditions

38 Development of Method for

Leaching of Lead from Lead-Based

Paint Through Encapsulants

39 Performance Criteria for Selection

of Liquid-Coatings Encapsulants

for Lead-Based Paint

40 Long-Term Performance of

Polymer-Based Encapsulants for

Lead-Based Paint on Interior Walls

41 Technical Assistance on LeadBased Paint Issues

42 QUALITY ASSURANCE

43 Cement and Concrete Reference

Laboratory

44 AASHTO Materials Reference

Laboratory

45 Construction of Addition to CMRL

Proficiency Sample Building

45 Durability of Polymer/Glass Fiber

Composites for Building

Applications

47 Performance Criteria for Single-Ply

Roofing Membranes

48 Serviceability of Roofing Systems

49 Materials and Processes for

Durable Relocatable Rigid Wall

Structures

50 THERMAL MACHINERY

51 Thermodynamic Performance of

Natural Fluids as Alternative

Refrigerants

52 Thermodynamic Performance of

Alternative Refrigerants and

Refrigerant Mixtures

53 Calorimetric and Visual Study of

Boiling Enhancements with

Refrigerant 134a and Horizontal

Two-Phase Flow of R-32/134a

55 Mixtures of Fluorocarbons as

Alternatives for R1 1 , R1 2, R22,

and R502

56 Minimizing Throttling Losses in the

Refrigeration Cycle

57 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS AND

CONTROLS

58 Communication Protocols for

Building Controls

59 Real Time Fault Detection and

Diagnostics

60 Test Procedures for Furnaces,

Boilers, and Integrated Appliances
61 Test Procedures for Heat Pumps

and Air Conditioners

62 Development of Revised Test

Procedures for RefrigeratorFreezers

63 Test Procedures for Plumbing

Products

64 Development of Revised Test

Procedures for Pool and Spa

Heaters

65 INDOOR AIR QUALITY

66 Development and Application of

Multizone Indoor Air Quality

Models

67 Development of Protocols for

Ventilation System Performance

Evaluation

68 Infiltration/Ventilation - Large

Buildings

70 Radon Entry and Mitigation in Large Buildings

71 Study of IAQ Improvement

Through the Use of HVAC

Systems

72 Indoor Air Quality Commissioning

Program for TWFN

73 Indoor PAH and Particulate

Emissions from Wood Stoves

74 COMPUTER INTEGRATED

CONSTRUCTION

75 Advanced Manufacturing Systems

and Networking Testbed

(AMSANT) for the Process Plant

Industries

76 Process Plant Engineering and

Construction: Structural Systems

77 STEP for the Building Industry

78 STEP for the Process Plant

Industries

79 Computerized Maintenance

Management Information

80 Prototype Requirements

Management System

81 HEAT TRANSFER

82 Test Procedures for Advanced

Thermal Insulation Products

83 Test Methods for Evaluating the

Thermal Conductivity of Small

Insulation Samples

84 Thermal Insulation SRM for Wall or Window Test Methods

84 Thermal Resistance Measurements

on Foam Insulation and PowderPanel Insulation

85 Experimental Validation of NIST

Moisture Transfer Model

86 Controlling Moisture in Walls/Roofs of Manufactured

Housing

88 Moisture Control Guidelines for

Attics, Cathedral Ceilings, Crawl

Spaces, and Walls

90 LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY

91 Field Measurements and Modeling

of Lighting Distributions

92 Lighting and HVAC Interactions

vii
93 Evaluation of Occupant Response

to Lighting Retrofits

94 Test Procedures for Lighting

Fixtures and Systems

95 FIRE PROTECTION APPLICATIONS

96 Large Scale Smoke Movement

97 Study of Heat and Smoke

Movement and Their Influence on

Detector and Sprinkler Response in Enclosed Spaces with Complex

Ceiling Geometries

99 Balanced Design

100 Risk Assessment/Performance

Codes

100 Enhanced GSA Engineering Fire

Assessment System

101 FPEtool Advancement

101 Modification of Fire Protection

Requirements (Performance Based

Fire Protection for Nuclear Power

Plants)

102 Emergency Egress from Air Traffic

Control Towers (ATCT)

102 Fire and Thermal Characteristics of

Navy Firefighting Trainers

103 Fire Research Information Service

104 Fire Research Bulletin Board

System

104 Technology Transfer

105 Fire Research Seminars

106 FIRE MODELING

107 Ceiling Fires

108 Fire Model Verification

109 Development of the Fire Data

Management System (FDMS)

Database System for Fire Related

Data

110 HAZARD Development

1 1 1 Modeling of Detector Response

1 1 1 Furniture Flammability

1 12 Support of Fire Modeling on the ex USS SHADWELL

1 13 Computing & Network Resources

114 LARGE FIRE RESEARCH

1 1 5 Simulation of Turbulent

Combustion and Transport in Fires

1 1 6 Development of Large Eddy

Enclosure Fire Model

1 17 Analysis of Large Industrial Fires

1 18 In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills

1 19 Smoke Plume Sampling

1 20 Smoke Plume Trajectory from in

situ Burning of Crude Oil in Alaska

120 Office Building Fire Research

Program

121 Large Fire Test Facility

122 Cone/LIFT/Toxicity Support

123 Development of a Sizing Standard

for Firefighter Protective Clothing

viii
124 SMOKE DYNAMICS RESEARCH 142

125 Carbon Monoxide Production and

Prediction 143

126 Study of Smoke Agglomerates

144

126 Species Production for Turbulent

Flame Modelling

145

127 Short-Duration Autoignition

Temperatures of Liquid 146

Hydrocarbon Fuels

129 MATERIALS FIRE RESEARCH 147

130 Polymer Flammability Modeling

148

131 Burning Rate of Materials

132 Char Structure and Flammability

133 Flame Retardant Study on

Engineering Plastics 149

134 Flammability of Composite

Materials

135 Combustion of Silicone

136 Radiative Ignition and Subsequent

Flame Spread Over Cellulosic

Materials

137 Fire Resistant Aircraft Materials

138 FIRE SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT

139 Suppression of Simulated Engine

Nacelle Fires

140 Risk Analysis for the Fire Safety of

Airline Passengers

141 Advanced Fire Detection Systems

Protection of Data Processing

Equipment with Water Sprays

Agent/System Compatibility for

Halon 1301 Aviation Replacement

Agent Screening for Halon 1301

Aviation Replacement

Dynamics of Fire Suppression

Optimization of Aircraft Fire

Suppression System Discharge

Real-Time Suppressant

Concentration Measurement

Comparison of Fire Sprinkler Piping

Materials, Steel, Copper,

Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride, and

Polybutylene, in Residential and

Light Hazard Installations

Smoke Movement and Smoke

Layer Development in High Bay

Areas

ix

STRUCTURES

DIVISION

EARTHQUAKE

ENGINEERING
Seismic Strengthening Methodologies for Reinforced Concrete (RC)

Frame Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Long Phan

Structures Division

301-975-6077

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor:

Nationai Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop seismic strengthening guidelines for

lateral load resisting capacity of lightly reinforced

concrete (RC) frame buildings.

Problem

Most RC structures in the eastern United States are not designed to resist large earthquakes. Thus, in the event of a strong motion earthquake in this region, many RC buildings, which were designed

primarily for gravity loads, are vulnerable to severe damage or even to total collapse. In order to minimize such vulnerability, these structures need to be strengthened with lateral load resisting elements

which provide adequate stiffness and strength to

resist lateral loads produced by moderate earth- quakes and sufficient ductility to absorb the imparted energy of a strong earthquake without collapse.

Approach

In general, significant improvement of building

seismic performance can be realized if lateral loads

are diverted from columns to lateral load resisting

elements. To achieve this, a number of techniques,

such as infilling the openings in the frames with RC

walls, bracing the frames using steel sections, or increasing the size of the columns or the beamcolumn joints and adding reinforcement, have been

proposed and tested in laboratories worldwide.

These experiments provided valuable insight

concerning seismic performance of strengthened,

lightly RC frames. However, a systematic examination of all available test data to produce an analytical technique for quantitative assessment of seismic

performance up to failure of existing and strengthened RC frame buildings has not been conducted.

In this project, such an analytical method will be

developed for 1 . evaluating the seismic capacity of

RC frame buildings and identifying existing deficiencies; and for 2. predicting seismic performance of

the buildings after strengthening and providing

quantitative assessment of the improvement in

seismic performance. Ultimately, this project aims

to develop methodologies for designing seismic

upgrading schemes for RC frame structures using

infill shear walls.

A two-Phase approach is being followed to achieve

the stated objectives. In Phase 1 , hysteresis failure models (three-parameter models o, /?, and y) are being developed for 1 . existing frames, 2. frames

strengthened by cast-in-place infilled walls or precast concrete panels, and 3. monolithic shear

walls. This family of hysteresis models will be

incorporated into the platform program IDARC to improve its capability to analyze strengthened

buildings. Once incorporated and validated, these

models will provide an analytical tool for selecting an appropriate strengthening technique for a

particular RC frame building.

In Phase 2, empirical expressions for quick estimation of parameters critical for retrofit design, such as

ultimate seismic capacity P u , story drift ratio at ultimate load d u/h

c

, and ductility factor pu (du/d

y

), for existing RC frames and strengthened frames will be developed based on the same set of experimental data used in developing the hysteresis models.

The two approaches should reinforce each other. The hysteresis models will provide in-depth analysis

of the strengthened structures including complete

hysteresis performance of the structure at each

stage of loading or deformation. The empirical

formulas provide a simplified method for computing

the critical parameters which are needed for evaluating the improved seismic performance of the

strengthened structure. Either technique could be

used to assess the efficacy of various strengthening

schemes for a particular building. Comparing the

results of the two techniques will provide an

additional validation.

Two analytical methods have been developed and

proposed for use in estimating seismic performance

of existing and strengthened RC frames. These

techniques include hysteresis failure models and

empirical formulas for Pu, du/h

c

, and pu for four cases, including 1 . existing frames, 2. existing

monolithic frame-wall constructions, 3. frames

strengthened by infilling the opening with CIP

concrete walls, and 4. frames strengthened by

infilling the opening with precast concrete panels.

Research planned for FY 1 994 includes validation of

the hysteresis models and empirical formulas for use

with multi-story, multi-bay structures; further

refinement of empirical formulas, including formulas

for R factors; parametric study using the developed

models and formulas to confirm (or invalidate)

experimental observations with aim to develop detail design guidelines for infilled frames.

2
The results of this project are expected to produce

guidelines for providing lateral load resisting ele- ments. They will be used to evaluate the capacity

of existing buildings and identify deficiencies; and to predict seismic performance of the buildings after strengthening and provide quantitative assessment

of the improvement in seismic performance.

Recent Results

Phan, L.T., Todd, D.R., and Lew, H.S., Recommended Guidelines for Seismic Strengthening of RC

Frames by the Infilling Technique, NISTIR, November 1993.

Phan, L.T., Todd, D.R., and Lew, H.S., "Empirical

Expressions for Estimating Seismic Performance of

Existing and Strengthened RC Frames," Abstract

submitted to the 1993 SEAOC Annual Convention;

September 29 to October 2, 1 993; Scottsdale,

Arizona.

Phan, L.T., Todd, D.R., and Lew, H.S., Empirical

Expressions for Estimating Seismic Performance of

Existing and Strengthened RC Frames, WERB

reviewed and approved 9/22/1993.

Phan, L.T., Todd, D.R., and Lew, H.S., "Seismic

Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Frame

Buildings," Proceeding of 1993 National Earthquake

Conference, May 1 993; Memphis, Tennessee.

Phan, L.T., Todd, D.R., and Lew, H.S., Strengthening Methodology for Lightly Reinforced Concrete

Frames-/, NISTIR 5128, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD

20899, February, 1993.

Seismic Performance of Precast

Concrete Connections

Principal Investigator:

William Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Geraldine S. Cheok

Structures Division

301-975-6074

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

American Concrete Institute Concrete Research and Education Foundation (ACI)

Objective

To develop technical data and recommend rational and consistent seismic design provisions for mo- ment resistant precast concrete beam-column

connections.

Problem

Careful attention to connection detail is required to ensure ductility and to prevent premature yielding of connections. In order to exploit the benefits that

exist in precast construction, ATC-8, the Proceedings of the Workshop on Design of Prefabricated

Concrete Buildings for Earthquake Loads, identified research on moment resistant joints between

precast beam and column element as the top

priority item.

Strength and ductility of joints of precast beamcolumn connections can be achieved by posttensioning the precast elements, combined with the use of special reinforcing details, and fiber rein- forced grout in the joints. Technical data are needed to establish provisions for code and stan- dards, thereby promoting precast construction in seismically active regions.

Currently, there is limited guidance regarding the

design and detailing of precast concrete structures

for seismically active regions. The 1 985 Uniform

Building Code (UBC) permits the use of precast concrete elements to resist seismic forces provided

the design and detailing used satisfy the Code

requirements for cast-in-place concrete structures. The 1 985 edition of the UBC Code was in use at the time this program was initiated. It has been

presumed that precast structures tend to be less ductile and tend to have a less stable inelastic response than do cast-in-place monolithic structures. This is primarily because the inelastic strains

3
are concentrated in the connections. Thus, the

connections are often unavoidable weak links.

Approach

The American Concrete Institute (ACI) has formed a task group of experts from the academic research

community, the Precast/Prestressed Concrete

Institute, the Portland Cement Association, and the

design profession to provide technical guidance on

specific parts of this project, for example, guidance

in the design of specific joint details.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform an experimental

model study to characterize joint behavior. The

experimental program is divided into four tasks.

1 . Determine a viable connection.

2. Test several test specimens as determined in Task 1

.

3. Examine the use of partially bonded tendons.

4. Examine the use of low strength steel used in conjunction with the post-tensioning in a precast

connection.

Hazards Mitigation, Vol. 1, Proceedings of the

Structures Congress '93, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp 82-88, April 1993.

Cheok, G.S., Stone, W.C., and Lew, H.S., "Partially

Prestressed and Debonded Precast Concrete BeamColumn Joints," Third Meeting of the U.S.-Japan

Joint Technical Coordinating Committee on Precast Seismic Structural Systems, U. C. San Diego,

November 18-20, 1992.

This Task is partially funded by Pankow Builders

through the American Concrete Institute (ACI).

The results from the experimental tests will be used

to determine the parameters required for either a "smooth" or multi-linear hysterectic failure model.

The results from this test program will be used to develop design parameters such as Pw values used

in the UBC code and will provide the design community a rational means of designing moment resisting

precast frames.

Recent Results

Cheok, G.S. and Stone, W.C., Overview of NIST

Research on Seismic Performance of Moment

Resisting Precast Beam-Column Joints Containing

Post-Tensioning, NISTIR 5257, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

August 1993.

Cheok, G.S. and Stone, W.C., Performance of 1/3-

Scale Model Precast Concrete Beam-Column

Connections Subjected to Cyclic Inelastic Loading - Report No. 3, NISTIR 5246, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

August 1993.

Cheok, G.S. and Lew, H.S., "Model Precast Concrete Beam-to-Column Connections Subject to Cyclic Loading," PCI Journal, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp 80-

92, Chicago, IL, July-August 1993.

Cheok, G.S., Stone, W.C., and Lew, H.S., "Seismic

Performance Behavior of Precast Concrete BeamColumn Joints," Structural Engineering in Natural

4
Seismic Design of Non-Structural

Components and Secondary

Systems

Principal Investigator:

Andrew W. Taylor

Structures Division

301-975-6078

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop seismic design criteria for non-structural

components and secondary systems.

Problem

Damage from earthquakes to non-structural components and secondary systems can have a greater

effect on the safety of occupants and loss of

property than the effects of structural damage.

When buildings in a community are rendered nonfunctional due to non-structural damage or to inoperative secondary systems, the well-being of

the community can be severely jeopardized.

Furthermore, in economic terms, indirect losses

(damaged equipment, lost inventory, lost records,

and lost revenue) can be two to three times greater

than the cost of replacing collapsed buildings or structures, as demonstrated by the aftermath of the

1 989 Loma Prieta Earthquake.

Non-structural components and secondary systems

include cladding, ceilings, building contents, equipment, and H VAC, plumbing, and electrical systems.

Most the past National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) efforts have focused on improvements of the structural design of buildings to prevent total collapse. However, little attention has

been paid to the performance of non-structural

components and secondary systems.

Design guidelines need to be developed to ensure adequate seismic resistance of these systems,

particularly with respect to the reduction of falling

debris and the adequate anchorage of equipment in buildings and critical facilities such as schools,

hospitals, fire stations, and emergency command

centers. In studies conducted by the Nuclear

Regulatory Commission, the performance of

anchors has been identified as one of the most

important factors for assuring the functionality of

nuclear power plants during and after earthquakes.

Approach

This project was initiated in FY 1993. A broad and

comprehensive review of the critical elements of the

current state of practice, through literature searches

and interviews with experts in this field was

performed. It serves as the basis for FY 1 994 to FY

1 997 research activities.

During FY 1994, BFRL will identify specific knowledge gaps related to the seismic performance of nonstructural elements and will initiate research to help fill in these gaps. Examples of topics to be

investigated might include methods for restraining

equipment, methods for determining potential

damage to loose building contents, the design of

seismic-resistant cladding attachment systems, or the design of seismic resistant pipe support sys- tems.

In the last year of the study, FY 1 997, draft seismic

design guidelines will be developed for non-structural components and secondary systems in buildings.

These guidelines will be written in practical terms so

that they can be readily applied by engineers and

building officials.

The results of this research are expected to improve

earthquake safety and reduce economic losses from

earthquakes through the developments of guidelines

and standards for the seismic performance of nonstructural components and secondary systems.

Recent Results

A state-of-the-art report is in progress.

5
Seismic Resistance of Joints in

Precast Concrete Shear Walls

Principal Investigator: Arturo E. Schultz

Structures Division

301-975-5301

Sponsor:

University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Department of Civil Engineering

Objective

To determine the seismic performance of connections between precast shear wall panels, including

strength, stiffness and energy dissipation characteristics and to develop modelling techniques and

design guidelines for joint connection details in precast shear walls.

Problem

Worldwide experience in previous earthquakes,

including the 1 964 Alaska, the 1 976 Friuli (Italy) and the 1 988 Armenia events, have demonstrated

in a dramatic manner the weakness of precast

construction when subjected to seismic motions.

The problem stems from the current lack of knowledge regarding behavior of jointed construction, and

the inability to define adequate design requirements

for connections between precast elements. Due to

this lack of information, U.S. building codes do not address the design of precast concrete specifically,

and, as a consequence, loadbearing precast concrete systems are seldom used in seismically active

regions of the United States.

The PRESSS (Precast Seismic Structural Systems)

program was initiated by the National Science

Foundation (NSF) in 1 990, as part of the National

Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP), to develop new structural forms, to advance modelling

techniques and to propose design procedures for seismic design of precast concrete buildings in the

United States. As part of PRESSS Phase II, the NSF

funded a multi-institution research program at the

University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) to study the

seismic resistance of a six-story totally precast

office building exposed to moderate seismicity. The

building features separate vertical and lateral load

resisting systems, with shear walls and architectural

perimeter frames comprising the latter. This project

is a task of the UNL program; it seeks to study the

cyclic lateral load behavior of horizontal and vertical joints between precast panels in shear walls for improving seismic design.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform cyclic lateral load tests of a maximum of 1 2 precast wall panel

specimens during the 2 year duration of the project

(the scope of the experimental work will depend on

the funding level). The principal thrust of the

research program is development of physical data

for a wide variety of connections; the variables are connection detail and type of joint. Each of the first six wall panel specimens will feature a different

vertical joint connection detail, and the remaining six specimens will feature a different horizontal joint

connection detail. The vertical joint specimens

comprise the localized region immediately adjacent

to the vertical joint connection, while horizontal joint

specimens include the entire panel above the joint

and a stub representing the panel below. The

horizontal joint tests feature uniformly-distributed,

constant, vertical compression stresses on the joint,

while the vertical joints will be tested in the absence

of vertical stress. Tests for each horizontal joint

specimen include an elastic phase which is intended

to simulate the performance of top-story panels,

and an inelastic phase to simulate the behavior of

first-story panels. The ratio of story shear to overturning moment will be different in these two

types of tests to reflect the loading conditions

prevalent for top-story and first-story panels. For the vertical joint specimens, the loading configuration is the same in both phases, only the magnitude

of the force/displacement demand differs.

BFRL will test the three vertical joint specimens that were designed, fabricated and cast in FY 1 993.

The other vertical joint specimens and the horizontal

joint specimens, all which were designed and

detailed in FY 1 993, will be cast and tested in FY

1994.

The experimental data from this program will verify

proposed design procedures for precast concrete

panel connections and to calibrate current analytical

models for precast concrete structural systems.

Superior analysis and design models for precast concrete shear walls can provide a tremendous

boost to the precast concrete construction industry

both in the United States and abroad.

Recent Results

Schultz, A.E., Magana, R.A., Tadros, M.K., and

Huo, X., "Experimental Study of Joint Connections

in Precast Concrete Walls," Proceedings, Fifth U.S. National Conference on Earthquake Engineering,

Chicago, IL, July 10-14, 1994 (paper accepted).

Schultz, A.E., Tadros, M.K., Huo, X.-M., and

Magana, R.A., Seismic Resistance of Vertical Joints

in Precast Shear Walls, Proceedings , XII FIP Congress, Washington, DC, May 30-June 2, 1994.

6
Tadros, M.K., Einea, A., Low, S.-G., Magana, R.A.,

and Schultz, A.E., Seismic Behavior of a Six-Story Precast Office Bui/ding, Proceedings , XII FIP Congress, Washington, DC, May 30-June 2, 1994.

Tadros, M.K., Einea, A., Low, S.-G., Magana, R.A.,

and Schultz, A.E., Seismic Resistance of a Six-Story

Totally Precast Office Building, Proceedings , FIP Symposium '93, Kyoto, Japan, October 17-20,

1993.

Schultz, A.E., Tentative Connection Details for Horizontal Joints Between Precast Wall Panels in Earthquake-Resistant Precast Concrete Buildings,

Department of Civil Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 26 pp, November

1992.

Tadros, M.K., Schultz, A.E., and Magana, R.A.,

PRESSS: Progress Through Year Two, "R&D

Leading the Way to Quality Improvement," Session

2, 1992 PCI Convention, Nashville, TN, October 12,

1992.

Schultz, A.E., Seismic Resistance of Horizontal

Connections for Precast Concrete Panels, Department of Civil Engineering, North Carolina State

University, 20 pp, Raleigh, NC, July 1992.

Seismic Resistance of Partially

Grouted Masonry Shear Walls

Principal Investigator: Arturo Schultz

Structures Division

301-975-5301

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop seismic resistant design guidelines of

partially grouted and lightly reinforced masonry

shear walls for their use in regions of moderate

seismicity.

Problem

The behavior of masonry shear walls has been the

subject of increased attention during the past 1

5

years. However, this attention has addressed

primarily those fully grouted, reinforced walls. Due,

in part, to the limited amount of physical data on

the response of partially grouted masonry walls to in-plane lateral loads, no acceptable design formulas

are available for predicting shear strength of such

walls. The limited data available also suggests that

empirical formulas for shear strength of fully

grouted, reinforced walls have very limited applicability for determination of the shear strength of

partially grouted, lightly reinforced shear walls.

Recent research activities on the seismic resistance

of masonry walls at BFRL include a literature survey

that identified approximately 700 tests of masonry

walls and panels subjected to in-plane shear. Many

of these tests used diagonal compression panels

which do not simulate shear wall behavior, and only

a few featured partially grouted masonry. Subsequent masonry research at BFRL has included:

1 . Modification and calibration of an existing

empirical formula for predicting shear strength of

fully grouted, reinforced masonry shear walls.

2. Testing of wall specimens, which contain no

vertical reinforcement, to investigate the influence

of longitudinal reinforcement ratio on in-plane shear

strength.

3. Predicting shear strength of fully grouted,

reinforced masonry shear walls using the finite element method.

The current module of the ongoing, multi-year BFRL

research plan on masonry walls seeks to define the

cracking and ultimate strengths of partially grouted,

lightly reinforced masonry shear walls, as well as

the associated deformations. This module was

initiated in FY 1 993 in which 1 . the research

7
program on partially grouted masonry shear walls was developed, 2. the hardware needed for constructing, transporting, and testing the specimens was designed and fabricated, and 3. the first series

of partially grouted shear wall specimens was

designed. The data to be generated from these

tests is an essential part of this program, and it is needed to formulate the analytical methods for prediction of strength and deformation.

Approach

The first 1 year phase seeks to study replacement

of horizontal reinforcement with bed joint reinforcement; the second and third 1 year phases will evaluate the influence of horizontal reinforcement,

axial stress and aspect ratio on partially-grouted

masonry shear wall behavior. The third phase also

includes an effort to develop semi-empirical, simplified design expressions for the purpose of predicting

shear strengths and deformations of partiallygrouted masonry shear walls.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will test the first series of

specimens of highest priority, which target the

effects of type and amount of horizontal reinforcement, and height-to-length aspect ratio. This series

of experiments will be conducted on six specimens

of partially-grouted hollow masonry shear walls. The objective is to study the influence of the type of

horizontal reinforcement and aspect ratio on shear

behavior of walls in which all horizontal reinforcement is provided as bed joint reinforcement instead

of the more traditional practice of placing deformed

bars in grouted bond beams.

Analytical activities will be conducted in parallel

with the experiments, and these include development of semi-empirical simplified expressions for predicting cracking and ultimate shear strengths and

deformations. Similar efforts at BFRL led to the

improvement of a shear strength formula for fullygrouted, reinforced masonry shear walls. There also

is a pressing need to study the behavior of partiallygrouted masonry shear walls using a more systematic procedure that can give global as well as local information regarding states of stress, strain,

cracking and yielding. For this purpose, the ongoing

effort in finite element analysis will be expanded to the case of partially grouted walls. This effort will serve to calibrate existing finite element models to

establish a more detailed understanding of the

behavior of partially grouted, lightly reinforced

masonry shear walls by formulating new models.

The results of this research are expected to have a high potential for improving the productivity and

enhancing the cost-effectiveness of the U.S. masonry construction industry.

Recent Results

Schultz, A.E., "Performance of Masonry Structures under Extreme Lateral Loading Events," Chapter 6 in Masonry in the Americas, D.P. Abrams ed., ACI

Special Publication, American Concrete Institute,

Detroit, Ml, December 1993 (manuscript accepted

for publication).

Fattal, S.G., The Effect of Critical Parameters on the

Behavior of Partially-Grouted Masonry Shear Walls

Under Lateral Loads, NISTIR 5116, National Insti- tute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,

MD, June 1993.

Fattal, S.G., Research Plan for Masonry Shear

Walls, NISTIR 51 17, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, June 1993.

Fattal, S.G., Strength of Partially-Grouted Masonry

Shear Walls Under Lateral Loads, NISTIR 5147,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, June 1993.

8
Performance Requirements for

Passive Energy Dissipation

Systems for Buildings and Lifeline

Structures

Principal Investigator:

Harry Shenton

Structures Division

301-975-6067

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for pre-qualification, prototype

and quality control testing of seismic isolation systems.

Problem

Seismic isolation has been proven to be effective in reducing the level of response in structures during

strong earthquake ground shaking. In practice, the

components of the isolation system undergo an

extensive series of prototype and quality control

tests before installation: BFRL recently completed

draft guidelines for conducting these tests. The

draft guidelines were developed with the assistance

of a five member Oversight Committee of experts

from the field of isolation.

To foster support and wider adoption of the pro- posed guidelines, the isolation community at large

must be given the opportunity to review, comment

and propose changes to the guidelines. Further- more, the guidelines must be assessed and evaluated by conducting tests on typical isolation components, to expose inconsistencies, omissions of important data and other unforeseen problems with

the procedures. The industry review and experimental program will provide feedback for drafting

the final "Guidelines for Testing...," to be completed

in FY 1995.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will:

1 . Complete Draft Guidelines. Final review comments and recommendations from the Oversight

Committee have been incorporated into the draft guidelines. The draft guidelines have been published as a set of three NIST internal reports (see

Recent Results below).

2. Industry Review. Draft reports will be distributed to key individuals in industry for review and comment. This will include subcommittees of SEAOC,

AASHTO and ACI; vendors; manufacturers; structural engineers; bridge engineers; etc.

3. Review Workshop. A one-day workshop will be

convened to provide a forum for review and discussion of the draft guidelines. Twenty to thirty

experts from industry will be invited to participate.

Comments and suggested changes will be dis- cussed among participants. Results of the workshop will be summarized in minutes or notes.

4. Test Program for Assessing and Evaluating

Guidelines Planning. A detailed plan will be developed for the experimental program. The plan will include a schedule of tests, man power, equipment

and material needs that will be provided to the

laboratory coordinator and technical staff. Tests

will be initiated in FY I994, pending funding availability and continue into FY 1995.

5. Summarize feedback. BFRL will compile and

summarize feedback from the industry review,

workshop and test program and provide feedback to the Oversight Committee.

6. Report of Results. Depending on the schedule of the various tasks, results will be summarized and

reported in one or more NIST internal reports.

Results will be submitted for publication in an

appropriate technical journal.

The results of this research will produce a draft standard serving as a resource document for voluntary standard/specification writing bodies.

Recent Results

Shenton III, H.W., Draft Guidelines for Pre-Qualification and Prototype Testing of Seismic Isolation

System, NISTIR 5359, National Institute of Stan- dards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, March

1994.

Shenton III, H.W., Draft Guidelines for Quality

Control Testing of Sliding Seismic Isolation System,

NISTIR 5371, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, March 1994.

Shenton III, H.W., Draft Guidelines for Quality

Control Testing of Elastomeric Seismic Isolation

System, NISTIR 5345, National Institute of Stan- dards and Technology, February 1994.

Shenton III, H.W. and Lin, A.N., "Relative Perfor- mance of Fixed-Base and Base-Isolated Concrete

Frames," ASCE Journal of the Structural Division,

Vol. 119, No. 10, October 1993.

Shenton III, H.W., "Draft Guidelines for Testing and

Evaluation of Seismic Isolation Systems," ATC17-1,

Proceedings of a Seminar on Base Isolation, Passive

Energy Dissipation and Active Control, San Francisco, California, March 11-12, 1993.

Shenton III, H.W., "Design Criteria for Base Isolation of Buildings," Wind and Seismic Effects, Proceed9
ings of the 24th US-Japan Panel on Wind and

Seismic Effects, NIST SP843, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

September 1992.

Shenton III, H.W., Lin, A.N., and Lew, H.S., "Perfor- mance of Fixed and Isolated Structures," Tenth

World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vol.

7, pp 2485-2490, Madrid, Spain, July 1992.

Lin, A.N., "Design Force Levels for Base-Isolated

Structures," Proceedings 1992 CIB World Congress,

Montreal, Canada, May 19, 1992.

Lin, A.N., and Shenton III, H.W., "Seismic Perfor- mance of Fixed-Base and Base-Isolated Steel

Frames," ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics,

Vol. 118, No. 5, May 1992.

Establishment of Lifeline Seismic

Safety Executive Board

Principal Investigator:

Riley M. Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To establish a Lifeline Seismic Safety Executive

Board, LSSEB with the mission to implement the

National Plan for developing and adopting seismic

design guidelines and standards for lifelines.

Problem

Lifeline systems includes electrical power, gas and

liquid fuels, telecommunications, transportation, and

water supply and sewers. These public works and

utilities systems that support human activities are vulnerable to earthquakes. The January 17, 1994

Northridge Earthquake in California is a good

example of the impact of lifeline disruption on our

built environment. A significant portion of the

losses from the earthquake are related to lifelines.

Public Law 101-614 mandated that NIST, working

with FEMA create a Plan for developing and adopting seismic design and construction standards for

lifelines. NIST's BFRL has worked with private sector experts and developed a draft Plan, which was reviewed by the National Earthquake Hazard

Reduction Program (NEHRP) Advisory Committee in

1 992. The revised draft Plan was submitted to 0MB through the Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA) in the spring of 1 993. In September 1993, FEMA incorporated OMB comments and

is now ready for submittal to the Congress for funding to support the Plan's execution.

Approach

The Plan asks Congress to support this effort beginning in FY 1995 and its first task is to establish a Lifeline Seismic Safety Executive Board

(LSSEB). LSSEB is made of three components: its Board of Directors, the Lifeline Directorates, and the

Executive Directorate.

The Board of Directors will consist of a chair and 1

2

to 1 5 technical experts recommended by major

lifeline organizations, with balance between re- searchers and practitioners. The Board of Directors

will define and address the needs and issues of all five lifeline systems to develop a prioritized overall program plan. The activities commissioned by the

Board of Directors will be carried out by one of the

10
Lifeline Directorates. A separate Directorate will be

established for each of the five lifeline systems.

The Directorates will address the specific issues and

concerns in each lifeline category as well as conduct

specific technical studies of relevance to the various

lifelines. Each Directorate may have six to ten

experts, selected by the Board of Directors. The

Executive Directorate will include a full-time director

and staff to provide management and administrative

support to the Board of Director and Lifeline Directorates.

Subsequent to the Plan's activation, BFRL and

FEMA will convene an ad hoc working group of six to eight individuals to nominate and select the chair

and members of the Board of Directors and the

director and staff of the Executive Directorate.

Upon completion of these tasks, the working group

will be dissolved.

Establishment of LSSEB will set in place the central organizations to execute the national Lifeline plan

based on the priority developed by the Lifeline community. It will lead to early fruition, the development of design guidelines for various types of

Lifeline systems. Implementation of these guidelines will result in significant economic loss reduction of lifelines from future earthquakes.

Recent Results

New project.

Mitigating Liquefaction Potential

Principal Investigator:

Riley Chung

Structures Division

301-975-6062

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for ground improvement for assessing the effectiveness of ground improvement

and liquefaction potential using in-situ shear-wave

velocity relations and system identification esti- mates of stiffness.

Problem

Lifeline systems are vulnerable to large earthquake

induced ground displacements, such as those

associated with liquefaction, land slides, slope

failures and fault displacements. In many instances

it is feasible to locate critical structures and support

facilities on sites that are not susceptible to large

ground displacements. However, such precautions

are not always possible for long linear system

elements such as pipelines, communication and

electrical transmission lines, highways, and rail lines. Furthermore, large portions of the Nation's existing

infrastructure are vulnerable because of location or age. Even when replacing aging systems, it is not always possible to relocate these systems to less vulnerable areas.

In the case of existing or unrelocatable systems,

ground remediation is the only solution. Known

ground improvement methods include drainage,

densification, and soil modification by grouting.

Important problems to be addressed include cost

effectiveness, quantification of the soil condition,

and in-situ determination of the degree of success

obtained by ground treatment. The greatest

impediment to ground improvement is cost.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will determine and alter the

liquefaction susceptibility of a given soil profile. The

approach involves development of design guidelines

for soil improvement and development of methods

to determine pre- and post-improvement against

liquefaction propensity.

The design provisions for the remediation of liquet iable soils will be based on the current state-of-theart of ground improvement including cost consideration. Determination of the state-of-the art will involve examination of the literature, consultation

with and evaluation by leading practitioners and

academic experts through a workshop. A program

1

1
of needed future research topics will follow from the

drafting of the design guidelines.

Soil," ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,

1993, (submitted for publication).

There exists a good correlation between shear-wave

velocity and accepted methods of estimating

liquefaction potential. Bechtel Corporation, San

Francisco, will make available several sites and data,

services, and equipment. The knowledge will allow

derivation of a rational correlation between shear- wave velocity and liquefaction potential.

Current work on the use of system identification techniques to estimate soil properties from earth- quake strong motion will be extended to a wide

range of strains to allow accurate calculation of in- situ stiffness and damping. BFRL also will collaborate with the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) who will provide data from the Lontung,

Taiwan, test site.

Development of sound design guidelines and other

practices will lead to better lifeline systems to resist strong ground shaking from future earthquakes,

resulting in significant reduction of economic losses.

Recent Results

Glaser, S.D., "Application of Parametric Models for Estimation of Soil Parameters," 8th International

Conference of the Association for Computer

Methods and Advances in Geomechanics, 1994,

accepted for publication.

Glaser, S.D., "Characterizing the Behavior of

Liquefying Sand by the Use of System Identification," ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,

1 994, in preparation.

Glaser, S.D., Estimating In-Situ Liquefaction Potential and Permanent Ground Displacements Due to Liquefaction for the Siting of Lifelines, NISTIR 51 50,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, I993.

Glaser, S.D., Estimating Soil Parameters important

for Lifeline Siting Using System Identification

Techniques, NISTIR 5143, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, I993.

Glaser, S.D., "Estimation of Liquefaction Potential

by In-Situ Methods: State-of-the-Art," ASTM

Journal of Geotechnical Testing, 1 993, (submitted

for publication).

Glaser, S.D., "Estimation of Surface Displacements

due to Earthquake Excitation of Saturated Sands,"

EERI Spectra, 1993, (submitted for publication).

Glaser, S.D., "A Review of the Use of System

Identification to Characterize Earthquake-Excited

12
Management of the Interagency

Committee on Seismic Safety in

Construction (ICSSC)

Principal Investigator:

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

SponsorFederal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To facilitate and expedite the work of the Inter- agency Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction (ICSSC) by providing the Chair and Secretariat

and to provide technical assistance in development

of draft standards for assessing and enhancing the

seismic safety of existing Federal buildings suitable

for adoption by the President by December 1 , 1 994.

Problem

The National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program

(NEHRP) established the ICSSC to assist Federal

departments and agencies develop, improve, and

maintain seismic safety programs for all types of

construction. Thirty Federal departments and

agencies participate in the ICSSC. The National

Earthquake Hazard Reduction Act (amended by

Public Law 101-614) designates the director of NIST to serve as the chair of the ICSSC. NIST and

BFRL provides the Secretariat to the ICSSC, to

facilitate, document, and disseminate the work of

the Committee. The ICSSC is currently developing

seismic evaluation and rehabilitation standards for existing Federally owned and leased buildings.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will schedule, chair, and

document at least two meetings per year of the full committee and at least one meeting per year of the

steering committee. BFRL will produce agendas for and minutes of these meetings, will maintain

membership rosters, and will perform other administrative tasks as needed to maintain the smooth

functioning of this committee.

Key projects that the ICSSC will conduct in FY

1994 will include development of guidelines for implementing a proposed Executive Order on

seismic safety of existing Federal buildings and

updating their guidance for implementing Executive

Order 1 2699 on seismic safety of new Federal

buildings.

Recent Results

Todd, Diana, Standards of Seismic Safety for Existing Federally Owned or Leaded Buildings and

Commentary, NISTIR 5382, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

February 1 994.

H.J. Degenkolb Associates, Engineers and Rutherford & Chekene, Consulting Engineers, Evaluation

and Strengthening Guidelines for Federal Buildings - Identification of Current Federal Agency Problems,

NIST GCR 649, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, March 1994.

H.J. Degenkolb Associates, Engineers and Rutherford & Chekene, Consulting Engineers, Evaluation

and Strengthening Guidelines for Federal Buildings - Assessment of Current Federal Agency Evaluation

Programs and Rehabilitation Criteria and Development of Typical Costs for Seismic Rehabilitation,

NIST GCR 94-650, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, March 1994.

13
Support Implementation of

Executive Order 1 2699

Technical Assistance to FEMA

Project Officer (Existing Buildings)

Principal Investigator:

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To support implementation of Executive Order

1 2699 on seismic safety of new Federal construction by providing technical assistance when requested by affected agencies.

Problem

Affected agencies may lack knowledge within their staffs on seismic design and construction principles,

and content and use of building codes.

Approach

BFRL, upon request from a Federal agency will:

- provide a speaker knowledgeable on EO 1 2699

and implementation issues for meetings in the

Washington, DC area,

- provide multiple copies of existing literature published by BFRL supporting implementation of the

Order,

- review proposed implementation procedures or regulations for appropriateness of technical content,

and

- duplicate and disseminate materials produced by

affected agencies for purposes of informationsharing with other agencies (only at request of the

producing agency).

This work will help ensure uniform implementation

of the Order, thereby reducing the seismic risk in this country.

Recent Results

Melvyn Green and Associates, Informal report to sponsor, "Analysis of Code Change Proposal B169-

93 to the Standard Building Code Seismic Provisions," September 1993.

Principal Investigator:

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mitigation Directorate

Objective

To provide technical review of FEMA-funded

projects for the development of design and construction guidance documents for seismic rehabilita- tion of existing buildings.

Problem

In FY 1 994, FEMA has requested BFRL's assistance

to review:

- Development of Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation by BSSC/ATC/ASCE,

- An update of FEMA 1 56 and 1 57, Typical Costs

of Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings, and

- A modification of FEMA 227, A Benefit-Cost

Model for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings, to be applicable to Federal buildings.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL staff will participate in FEMA's proposal evaluation panels, advisory panel

meetings, users' workshops, and selected technical

seminars and meetings. BFRL will review draft and

final project products.

The effort provides FEMA with an independent

technical review of the work of their contractors.

Recent Results

- Reviewed draft "Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation."

- Tested computer model of "Benefit-Cost Model for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings."

14
Secretariat U.S. -Side Panel on

Wind and Seismic Effects

Principal Investigator:

Noel J. Raufaste

BFRL Headquarters

301-975-5905

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

and 1 0 Federal Agencies

Objective

To provide the U.S. Secretariat of the U.S. -Japan

Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects.

research and contributes to the revision and creation

of U.S. building codes and standards.

Recent Results

lijima, J., Wind and Seismic Effects - Proceedings

of the 25th Joint Panel Meeting, TM 321 7, Public

Works Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan, 1993.

Problem

Loss of life and property result from insufficient knowledge to adequately design and construct

building and other structures cost-effectively against

high winds and seismic loads. Improved mitigation

practices are in the early stages of development.

Technical collaborations between experts in the

United States and Japan need to continue to realize improvements in natural hazard mitigation practices.

Such improvements are possible through joint

working relations with experts from the United

States and Japan through performing joint research

projects and exchanges of research personnel,

technical data and information, and research

equipment. This Panel is part of the U.S. -Japan

Natural Resources Development Program under the

aegis of the U.S. -Japan Cooperative Science

Program of 1961

.

Approach

1. Planning U.S. -side (18 Agency membership)

through hosting two U.S. Panel's domestic meetings and managing the U.S. delegation's technical

contributions to Annual Joint Meetings.

2. Planning and coordinating technical activities of

the 10 Task Committees.

3. Maintaining liaison with U.S. and Japan Panel

Members and other experts associated with the

Panel's activities. 4. Planning Japan Panel Member visits to the U.S. under the auspices of the Panel, e.g., post disaster

investigations, special studies, data gathering.

5. Preparing and distributing annual Panel proceedings, periodic activity reports, and other materials as

appropriate to U.S. -side Panel and Task Committee

Members.

The Panel provides the vehicle to exchange technical data and information on design and construction

of civil engineering lifelines, buildings, waterfront,

and coastal structures. The data produced by the

Panel influences on-going structural engineering

15
STRUCTURES

DIVISION

STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOR
Noise-Induced Chaos and Chaotic

Transport

Automated Construction Site Metrology

Principal Investigator:

Emil Simiu

Structures Division

301-975-6076

Sponsor:

Office of Naval Research

Ocean Engineering Division

Objective

To develop measures of the probability of exit from

a safe region for multistable stochastic systems.

Problem

Multistable stochastic systems may experience

jumps from a safe to an unsafe region of phase

space. Safe design requires knowledge of probability of occurrence of jumps and conditions guaranteeing that jumps do not occur.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL staff will extend and apply to multistable stochastic systems criteria on necessary

conditions for jumps originally developed for deterministic chaotic systems.

The generalized Melnikov junction will be used to obtain lower bounds on probabilities of exit from a

preferred region of phase space.

Recent Results

New project.

Principal Investigator:

William C. Stone

Structures Division

301-975-6075

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a standardized system by which the real time position and orientation of any object on a construction job site can be ascertained.

Problem

Needed is a standardized construction site metrology system by which the real time position and

orientation of any object on the job site - including

materials, personnel, and machinery - can be

ascertained and made available to a remote man- agement office by means of telepresence and virtual reality interfaces. Current and emerging technologies for construction site metrics suffer from

substantial limitations such as line-of-sight data

acquisition requirements and severe limitations on

resolution.

For some years now, a new construction site positioning system, based on the use of two or three scanning laser broadcasters and a receiving

"wand" has been under development. This system

shows promise for initial site metrology at construction sites where line-of-site requirements between

the broadcast units and the receiver can be met. In such cases this system is positioned to replace

traditional total-station surveying systems for precision measurement. However, there are many

situations for which the line-of-sight requirement

cannot be reasonably met ... e.g., where construct- ed members and natural obstacles obscure the laser transmission path. A completely alternative means

of site positioning is afforded by the use of the GPS

(Global Positioning System) satellite network in which local coordinates may be acquired using

inexpensive hand held units. However, this system

also has limitations. In general, it circumvents line- of-site problems (since the locating mechanism is situated "overhead") but it does suffer from a lack

of resolution (10 m accuracy is the norm for a hand

held unit) and does not penetrate well through

overhead obstacles (e.g., a building roof).

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will construct an LPS (Local

Positioning System) which takes the fundamental

operational principles of GPS and applies them to

17
site positioning by switching to the use of operational frequencies in the vicinity of 50 khz. Such waves

should be able to penetrate through most building

materials and provide a high degree of accuracy

from a hand held system. The basic approach

involves the use of four local site transmitters, each

broadcasting in the 50 khz range and each synchronized by means of a portable atomic clock. Three

of these units provide wave propagation delay time

distancing needed for triangulation while the fourth

provides the time sync. Each unit is connected to the atomic clock by means of equal length digital fiber optic lines. This insures that each transmission

unit is synchronized to within one nanosecond. The

theoretical accuracy that could be achieved by such

a system is in the sub-millimeter regime, with error being generated by interference from constructed

objects. The degree of this error, and its frequency

dependence will be the primary variables in the

program.

The results of this project are expected to improve

the efficiency and international competitiveness of

the U.S. construction industry through the development of guidelines, standards, and prototype

hardware for the accurate remote sensing and

positioning of objects on construction job sites.

Recent Results

New project.

High Performance Concrete

Principal Investigator:

Nicholas Carino

Structures Division

301-975-6063

James R. Clifton Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for the formulation, evaluation, and engineering applications of high-perfor- mance concretes.

Problem

After many years of relatively slow advances in concrete technology, a worldwide awareness has

arisen that the performance of concrete in areas such as ease of placement, strength development

and durability can be significantly improved. This is evident from the program plans of the Euro-International Committee for Concrete (CEB) and the high

level of concrete research activities in Japan,

Norway, and Canada. In the United States, pro- grams such as the Concrete and Structures program

of the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP)

and the establishment of the NSF Center for Advanced Cement-Based Materials (ACBM) were in response to the need for improved concretes and

the recognition of the possibility of the development

of high-performance concrete (HPC). The recently

completed SHRP work was of a problem-solving

nature, while ACBM is of an exploratory nature. This work has not provided measurement technology and design guidelines needed for U.S. leadership

in high-performance concrete technology. U.S

leadership in high-performance concrete technology can be a major contributor to enhancement of the

competitiveness of the nation's construction

industry.

Approach

This multi-year project is aimed at advancing the

understanding of the properties and long-term

performance of high-performance concrete (HPC)

and the development of guidelines for: 1 . the

proportioning and mixing of HPC; 2. the evaluation

of the physical properties and durability of HPC; 3. structural design with HPC; and 4. field construction

with HPC. Two of the urgent needs identified are:

1 . information on the mechanical and physical

properties of HPC, and 2. information on the

durability of HPC compared to conventional concrete. In FY 1992, BFRL initiated work on develop18
ing a basis for standards for compressive strength

testing of HPC and on determining the applicability of standard frost resistance tests for conventional concrete to HPC. These studies were completed in FY 1993.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will address the applicability of standard test methods for conventional concrete

to HPC and will develop test methods for determining the potential alkali-reactivity of aggregates.

Laboratory studies will be carried out to determine if high-strength concrete has a sufficiently high tensile strength to resist the expansive stresses from alkalisilica reactions (ASR). The results will indicate the

need for testing siliceous aggregates when used in HPC. It may be that depending on the strength of HPC, the failure criteria of ASTM tests for ASR,

needs to be revised. A Cooperative Research and

Development Agreement (CRADA) will be developed with W.G. Grace for the purpose of carrying out collaborations research on the mechanisms of

ASR. Studies on structural properties will involve an analysis of applicability of present prediction

models for shear strength and development length

in high strength members. A detailed experimental

program on structural properties for FY 1995 and

beyond will be developed to address the knowledge

gaps identified in the literature review. An external

review group will be assembled to review the

research plan to determine if it will meet its objectives.

Recent Results

Carino, N., Guthrie, W.F., Langergren, E.S., and

Mullings, G.M., "Effects of Testing Variables on the

Strength of High-Strength (90MPa) Concrete

Cylinders," to be presented at the ACI Information

Conference on High Performance Concrete, Singapore, China, October 1994.

Effects of Tendon Duct Grease

Leakage on the Integrity of Prestressed Concrete Containment

Principal Investigator:

Nicholas J. Carino

Structures Division

301-975-6063

L.T. Phan

Structures Division

301-975-6077

Sponsor:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Office of Reactor Regulation

Division of Engineering

Objective

To conduct a preliminary investigation of the effect of tendon duct grease on the structural performance

of prestressed concrete containment.

Problem

Some prestressed concrete containment structures

in nuclear power plants are constructed with

unbonded tendons passing through metal ducts. To

protect the prestressing steel from corrosion, the

ducts are injected with a specially formulated

grease. In the last 10 years, it has been found that some of this grease has leaked out of the ducts and

contaminated the concrete. There is a concern as

to whether the grease has a detrimental effect on

the concrete and mild steel reinforcement.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform three tasks:

1 . Conduct a literature search on the effects of petroleum-based oils and greases on the perfor- mance of reinforced concrete.

2. In cooperation with staff from the Nuclear

Regulatory Commission (NRC), BFRL will visit two

prestressed concrete containments sites that

experience tendon duct grease leaks. In-place

testing will be performed, as feasible, to identify

differences between concrete with grease and

concrete without grease. Samples of the grease

will be obtained for chemical analysis.

3. Calculations will be performed to establish the

feasibility of developing a laboratory procedure for accelerated impregnation of grease into concrete specimens.

Findings from the preliminary assessment of the

potential effects of grease permeation on the

performance of reinforced concrete will be provided

to the sponsor. If the preliminary investigation

19
reveals the potential for detrimental effects, BFRL

will develop a research plan for an in-depth study

into the problem.

The results from this project will provide information on whether there is a potential problem to the

integrity of concrete exposed to grease filler used in post-tensioned structures.

Recent Results

New project.

Next Generation Design Standard

For Wind Loads

Principal Investigator:

Richard D. Marshall Structures Division

301-975-6071

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop key elements of an improved wind load

design standard that will make extensive use of existing databases and state-of-the-art computational methods for establishing site-specific design wind

speeds and the corresponding steady and fluctuating structural loads.

Problem

There are a number of significant deficiencies in the

wind load design provisions of current U.S. codes

and standards. They include: 1 . basic wind speeds

derived from outmoded extreme value estimation

methods; 2. exposure coefficients that cannot deal with complex wind exposures (the normal case); 3. gross simplifications of extreme pressures and loads

that ignore the directional effects of wind; and 4. no

distinction between design for safety and design for

serviceability.

In addition to the reliable estimation of design loads,

there is an urgent need for improved methods to assess wind speeds, and thus the wind forces, in complex wind exposures following extreme events

such as hurricanes. With this data, it will be

possible to evaluate, with reasonable confidence,

the performance of structures subjected to wind

loads approaching or exceeding the design limit states.

Approach

Of major interest is the tail length of distributions

that best fit a given set of annual extreme wind

speeds. The widely used Gumbel distribution has an infinite tail length while physical grounds require

that wind speeds be bounded. Recently, statistical methods for estimating those bounds have become

available. In the case of complex wind exposures,

analytical models based on fundamental principles of fluid mechanics and on certain empirical relation- ships offer a substantial improvement over current

equilibrium boundary layer models on which site- specific wind speeds are based. Since force and

pressure coefficients are direction-dependent,

directional distributions of extreme wind speeds can

be handled most conveniently in combination with

these coefficients. The approach will be to combine

20
directional extremes for a given site with wind

tunnel databases for force and pressure coefficients

that most closely match the geometry and/or

dynamic characteristics of the structure. Finally,

the development of system reliability concepts will make it possible to match safety and serviceability

criteria with given levels of risk under wind loading.

The scope of work will require a three-year effort. During FY 1994, BFRL will address estimation

methods for extreme wind speeds in tropical and

extratropical storms. During the second year, BFRL

will address wind velocity profiles over complex

terrain, wind directionality, and the incorporation of

existing force and pressure coefficient databases

obtained from wind tunnel tests. In the third year, system reliability concepts will be developed which

will be applicable to structural safety and serviceability requirements. Serviceability criteria for wind

effects are in the early stages of development by

the ASCE 7 Wind Loads Task Committee.

Results of this research effort should reduce the

uncertainties involved with the selection of appropriate design speeds at a given site and will allow more accurate determinations of design wind loads

without the need to resort to wind tunnel model

studies.

Recent Results

New project.

Design Wind Load Criteria for

Manufactured Housing

Principal Investigator:

Richard D. Marshall

Structures Division

301-975-6071

Sponsor:

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Policy Development and Research

Innovative Technology Division

Objective

To develop improved wind load criteria for the

design of manufactured housing.

Problem

The Manufactured Home Construction and Safety

Standards (CFR Pt. 3280) were implemented in 1976. Experience in south Florida during Hurricane

Andrew suggests that these wind load requirements

do not adequately describe the forces that a manufactured home is likely to experience in a hurricane. To improve the wind resistance of manufactured homes in hurricane-prone areas, the

Department of Housing and Urban Development

issued an amendment to the Manufactured Home

Construction and Safety Standards (MHCSS) which

is to become effective in July 1 994. However,

questions remain as to the wind resistance of

traditional manufactured home components and

assemblies, the adequacy of the MHCSS wind load

requirements in non-hurricane areas, and the degree

of windstorm protection provided by traditional anchoring systems.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will perform the following

tasks:

1 . Assess the resistance of selected manufactured

home structural connections and assemblies to wind

loading, and evaluate the state-of-the-art for the

design and testing of cladding for wind resistance.

2. Assess the significance of tornadoes as a wind

load design consideration, taking into account

current statistics on diameter, path length and

distribution of wind speed. The distribution of extreme speeds proposed for the 1995 revision of

ASCE 7 (Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and

Other Structures) will be considered as well.

3. Identify alternatives to the current industry

practice of supporting manufactured homes on unbonded, open-cell concrete masonry units and

relying on shallow soil anchors to provide adequate

resistance against sliding and uplift.

21
The results of this research will incorporate current information on pressure coefficients and the distri- bution of extreme winds in the United States. The

resulting design load criteria should lead to improved

safety and performance of manufactured homes in extreme wind events.

Recent Results

Marshall, Richard D., Manufactured Homes - Probability of Failure and the Need for Better Protection through Improved Anchoring Systems,

NISTIR, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD (to be published mid-1994).

Marshall, Richard D., Wind Load Provisions of the

Manufactured Home Construction and Safety

Standards - A Review and Recommendations for Improvement, NISTIR 5189, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, May

1993.

Calibration of Marshall Compaction

Hammers

Principal Investigator:

Harry Shenton

Structures Division

301-975-6067

Sponsor:

Federal Highway Administration

Office of Engineering and Highway Operations

Research and Development Pavements Division

Objective

To evaluate the effectiveness of the recently

developed NIST/BFRL Marshall hammer calibration

system using "production" equipment at state or

federal highway agency laboratories.

Problem

The Marshall test procedure is currently used by

most state and local highway agencies for hot mix

asphalt design. The results of many round-robin

mix exchange programs have shown there is a wide

variability in the mix design parameters when a given mix is compacted with different compaction

hammers. Much of the scatter in Marshall test

results is attributed to compaction hammer related

variables, such as pedestal support, hammer alignment, hammer mass, and friction. The variability of

test data implied the need for a calibration proce- dure for Marshall compaction hammers.

Approach

A calibration system was recently developed at BFRL with support from the Federal Highway

Administration. The system has been demonstrated

in a laboratory evaluation program and shown to reduce the scatter in Marshall test results by up to 60% (based on standard deviation and spread of

test results). The next phase in development is to demonstrate the calibration system using field equipment.

Twelve field sites have been invited and agreed to

participate in the study. The sites are located in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Delaware, and

Washington, DC. During FY 1994, BFRL will visit each site twice. During the first visit, two sets of four uncalibrated Marshall specimens will be

prepared using the standard compactive effort of 50

and 75 blows, respectively. Diagnostic machine

data will also be collected using the calibration

system during the first visit. During the second

visit, the site machine will be calibrated and the

number of blows needed to achieve the "standard"

50 or 75 blow cumulative impulse established. Two

sets of 4 calibrated Marshall specimens will be

22
prepared using the number of blows determined in the calibration procedure. Bulk density, percent air voids, stability and flow will be measured for all calibrated and uncalibrated specimens. Results will be compared to determine the reduction in variabili- ty of the data for the calibrated specimens. Minor

modifications or enhancements to the calibration device/system will be undertaken as part of this effort,

prior to the start of the field evaluation program.

The results of this work are expected to provide more uniform asphalt pavement designs and higher

quality pavements.

Recent Results

Shenton III, H.W., Cassidy, M.M., Spellerberg, P.A., and Savage, D.A., A System for Calibration of the

Marsha// Compaction Hammer, N I STIR 5338,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, January 1994.

Building and Fire Code Liaison

Principal Investigator:

Diana Todd

Structures Division

301-975-5296

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To monitor activities of the three major model

codes, for early alerting BFRL researchers of topics

meriting BFRL input.

Problem

The results of much of BFRL's work eventually finds

its way into common practice through building

codes. BFRL wishes to expedite this process.

Approach

The primary codes to be monitored are ICBO's

Uniform Building Code, BOCA's National Bui/ding

Code, and SBCCI's Standard Building Code. In order to identify issues of concern to BFRL and

opportunities for BFRL action. During FY 1994,

BFRL will develop personal contacts at each of these organizations, review their periodicals, monitor

proposed code changes, and attend major meetings

of each group per year.

By monitoring the concerns of the code bodies and

the trends in evolution of the codes, BFRL can become aware of opportunities to 1 . rapidly transfer

BFRL research results into common practice, 2. contribute to the improvement of codes by providing testimony pertinent to proposed changes, and 3. become aware of the needs of the user community

to plan more effective BFRL research programs.

Recent Results

New project.

23
BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

CONCRETE
Microstructure-Property Relationships in Random Porous Materials

Principal Investigator:

Edward Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6709

SponsorNational Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop new, more accurate simulations of microstructure, along with simulations of new

properties not previously addressed and to understand microstructure-property relationships in random porous materials.

Problem

The degradation of the concrete infrastructure,

worth about $6 trillion, is a national problem. The

basic physical and chemical mechanisms of degradation processes in concrete need to be understood

to make scientifically sound, non-empirical service

life predictions. Most of the degradation processes

that affect cement-based materials involve microstructure-property relationships for properties like diffusivity, permeability, and elastic moduli. Fundamental computer-based models are necessary to quantitatively relate such properties to the complex

microstructure of cement-based materials. Quantitative relationships will serve to put existing and

future standard test measurements of transport and

other properties on a firm theoretical foundation.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will use a digital-image-based

approach and Monte Carlo techniques to simulate

the formation of cement-based and ceramic materials at the fundamental level. Using finite element

and finite difference techniques, coupled with fast conjugate gradient solvers, BFRL researchers will develop software to simulate and compute physical

processes and parameters. These new microstructure and property simulation algorithms feed into other modeling projects and are focused on the

solution of specific problems. This work is expected

to advance the understanding of the mechanism of concrete degradation at the microstructural level.

Recent Results

Garboczi, E.J., "Cellular Automaton Simulations of Cement Hydration and Microstructure Development," Modeling and Simulation in Mater. Sci. and

Eng., July 1994.

Garboczi, E.J., "Microstructure and Transport

Properties of Concrete," in RILEM Technical Committee 1 1 6 State-of-the-Art Report Permeability of

Concrete as a Criterion of Its Durability, E & F.N. Spon., London, 1994.

Garboczi, E.J., "Elastic Moduli of Interfacial Zone in Concrete, as a Function of Distance from the

Aggregate Surface, Computed for the First Time,"

(in preparation).

Garboczi, E.J. and Snyder, K.A., "Three-Dimensional Percolation Studies of Cracks and Other Defects

Carried Out Successfully," (in preparation).

25
Transport Properties of HighPerformance Concrete

Principal Investigator:

Nicos Martys

Building Materials Division

301-975-5915

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop analytical and simulation models that

predict transport properties of High-Performance

concrete (HPC), perform experiments that validate

these models, and develop improved test methods

for measuring the important transport properties of

HPC.

Problem

Before reliable service life predictions can be made

for HPC, a fundamental understanding of the

mechanisms controlling degradation of HPC is needed. Many of the degradation processes will likely be controlled by the transport properties of HPC. Due to the anticipated small pore sizes in HPC, the primary transport properties should be

diffusion and capillary flow. Although diffusion in HPC has been investigated, there does not exist a comprehensive body of work that encompasses all the important factors controlling transport in HPC.

In addition, no reliable test methods exist to measure the material properties (e.g., permeability,

diffusion, and capillarity) that control invasion of

HPC. Experimental methods and standard procedures are needed to form a basis for reliable characterization of the transport properties of HPC.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL studied the ingress of liquids

and gases in HPC by computer simulation and by

experimental studies. BFRL researchers examined

basic principles of single fluid transport and hydrodynamic dispersion in porous media. Permeability of microstructural models and three-dimensional

images generated by x-ray tomography was studied.

Dispersion as a function of pellet number also was

examined including the role of capillary effects in fluid invasion of porous media.

During FY 1994, BFRL will analyze the knowledge

base on transport properties of HPC, the reliability of

models for predicting the transport properties and

the reliability of test methods for measuring the

transport properties. Also, plans for creating a transport laboratory, based on fundamental principles, for characterizing the transport properties of HPC will be developed. This phase of the research

will result in a summary of state of knowledge of transport properties of HPC including research

needed to improve prediction and measurement of

transport properties and durability of HPC.

Microstructural models, based on images of authentic microstructures, will be used in simulation

models to calculate transport properties at a microscopic (or pore size) scale as related to behavior on

the macro scale (e.g., mortar and concrete). The

models will be validated by experimental studies.

The adequacy of existing test methods for measuring the transport properties of HPC will be assessed

Recent Results

Nolle, C.S., Koiller, Belita, Martys, Nicos, and

Robbins, Mark 0., "Morphology and Dynamics of

Interfaces in Random Two-Dimensional Media,"

Physical Review Letters, v71, no. 13, pp 2074-

2077, The American Physical Society, September

27, 1993.

Schwartz, L.M., Martys, N., Bentz, D.P., Garboczi,

E.J., and Torquato, S., "Cross Property Relations

and Permeability Estimation in Model Porous

Media," Phys. Review E, v48 (6), pp 4584-91,

1993.

26
Integrated Knowledge System for

High-Performance Concrete

Principal Investigator:

James R. Clifton Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop an integrated knowledge system for high-performance concrete (HPC) which will be a model for other high-performance construction

materials (HPCMs).

Problem

A major requirement for exploiting the benefits of HPCMs is making reliable information about these

materials (composition, properties, and performance) available to producers, users and other

decision makers. Owners, designers, and contractors must have access to reliable information about

HPCMs that can be quickly and economically

retrieved. This can be accomplished by organizing

the information in an integrated computer-based

knowledge system. An integrated knowledge

system for HPCMs should consist of databases

integrated with mathematical models and expert

opinion, to assist engineers and contractors in using

the most reliable and advanced knowledge for selecting and using HCPMs.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will plan and conduct a symposium in collaboration with the private and

public sectors. The symposium will introduce

Federal agencies and the private sector to the

purpose, approach, and benefits of developing

integrated knowledge systems. Also, the symposium will initiate planning for the development of an

integrated system for HPC, including its conceptual

design and architecture.

The conceptual design will be planned in FY 1 994

and, as far as possible, the architecture for a

distributed integrated knowledge system for HPC

will be designed. In future years, a demonstration

model knowledge system model will be developed

for HPC, then a demonstration prototype system,

followed by an operational system and, finally, the

integrated knowledge system for HPC will be

implemented. The system will facilitate the making

of sound decisions concerning HPC.

Recent Results

New project.

Computation of the Micro-Mechanical Properties of Cement-Based

Materials

Principal Investigator:

Edward J. Garboczi

Building Materials Division

301-975-6708

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop and apply numerical techniques to compute and understand the micro-mechanical

properties of high-performance concrete.

Problem

The complex microstructure of concrete, from

cement particle length scales up to coarse aggre- gate length scales, results in complex mechanical

behavior of this composite material. New, high

performance concrete materials pose new problems

of possible brittleness, the effect of flaws, and the

role of the interracial zone in reducing strength.

These and other mechanical behaviors need to be

understood at the microstructural level.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will use digital-image-based

finite element models for elastic problems to first consider the elastic properties of the cement paste

matrix. One interface will then be added, and the

elastic properties of the interfacial zone cement

paste computed, for a range of parameters like wa- terxement ratio and cement particle size distribution. This data will be incorporated into higher-order

models of mortar and concrete, where the cement

paste will be treated as a continuum material, but

with properties that change through the interfacial region. Strength of the different phases and of the

interfacial zone can then be specified, and fracture

simulations performed. These computer simulation

methods will allow the mechanical interactions

between the density packed aggregates in concrete

to be theoretically studied, in a realistic way, for the

first time.

Recent Results

New project.

27
Quantitative X-Ray Powder

Diffraction Analysis of Clinker and

Cement

Principal Investigator:

Paul Stutzman

Building Materials Division

301-975-6715

method or recommended practice for phase abundance analysis of clinker and cement.

Recent Results

Stutzman, P., Quantitative X-Ray Powder Diffraction Methods for Clinker and Cement, NISTIR 5403,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, April 1994.

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop application and testing methods of

quantitative x-ray powder diffraction routines for determining phase abundance of clinker and cement

and develop a standard test method for sample

preparation and analysis.

Problem

Improved methods of characterization of clinker and

cement are necessary for advances in cement and

concrete technology and to aid in the prediction of

the performance of concrete-making materials and

concrete. X-ray powder diffraction is commonly

used for phase analysis and is the only method for quantitative phase abundance analysis of fine- grained materials. Currently a standard method for quantitative analysis by x-ray powder diffraction does not exist, and no guide is available for powder

diffraction analysis of clinker and cement.

Approach

Clinker and cement diffraction patterns are difficult to analyze quantitatively because of differences in mass absorption coefficients of the constituent

phases and severe overlapping of most of the

intense diffraction peaks. The remaining very low

intensity peaks are subject to counting and measurement errors. Current techniques require the use

of an internal standard to correct for absorption

effects, decomposition of peak overlaps, measure- ment of peak area, and use of calibration curves

relating peak area ratios to concentration. An

alternative procedure currently being tested is a whole-pattern fitting in which the entire diffraction pattern is used instead of individual peaks. The

main advantage of this method is that individual peaks do not need to be resolved. The CMRL

Reference Cements and ICMA round robin clinkers

will be analyzed in this study. From these analyses

a guide will be developed providing details on

sample preparation, extraction methods, qualitative

and quantitative analytical methods.

The results of this research will be provided to ASTM Task Group C01 .23.01 on quantitative x-ray powder diffraction methods as a potential test

28
Factors Affecting the Performance

of Beneficiated Fly Ash in Concrete

Principal Investigator:

Paul E. Stutzman

Building Materials Division

301-975-6715

James R. Clifton Building Materials Division

301-975-6706

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To investigate relationships between compositional

and microstructural features of fly ash and investi- gate the performance of fly ash in concrete.

Problem

Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion of coal in power plants. A small portion of the large amount

of fly ash generated each year is used in concrete in which it serves a useful function as a partial replacement for portland cement. The rest has to be

disposed of at a significant cost to the power plant

companies and to the detriment to the environment.

Liskowitz and collaborators at the New Jersey

Institute of Technology (NJIT) have recently shown

that the performance of fly ash in concrete, as

indicated by strength development and resistance to

sulfuric acid, can be significantly improved by either or both of optimal control of the combustion

conditions in the boiler and beneficiation of the ash

in an air separator which removes the largest

particles. If these findings can be shown to be of general validity, they should be of national impor- tance because of new options made available for the production of high-performance concrete and

the advancement of "green" concrete technology by

facilitating: 1 . a reduction in the energy embodied in concrete, 2. reduction in the amount of portland

cement needed in concrete with an associated

reduction in the amount of carbon dioxide emitted in cement manufacture, and 3. reduction in the

volume of fly ash for disposal. This requires

understanding of the relationships among chemical

and physical properties of ash and its performance

in concrete so that the technical basis for predicting

the performance of concrete containing beneficiated

fly ash can be established.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will develop an improved

understanding of the mechanisms and kinetics of reactions between portland cement and fly ash;

identify the composition of the reaction products;

and develop relationships between proportions of Portland cement and fly ash, water-to-cement ratio, degree of reaction, and the resulting microstructural

features such as pore structure and phase compositions. This research will involve the use of scanning

electron microscopy, quantitative x-ray powder

diffraction, and chemical analyses by x-ray microanalysis. Simulation modeling will be performed to develop an understanding of the resulting microstructures which will be important in predicting the

long-term performance of portland cement-fly ash

concretes.

Portland cement-fly ash mortars prepared by NJIT

will be characterized in terms of their microstructures, phase, and chemical compositions.

Also, the portland cements and fly ashes will be

characterized. Plans for experimental studies

including the development of accelerated durability tests needed to predict the durability of the portland

cement-fly ash concretes will be performed.

Recent Results

New project.

29
Performance Criteria for Long Lived

Concrete for Radioactive Waste

Storage

Principal Investigator:

James R. Clifton

Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor:

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Waste Management Branch

Objective

To develop performance criteria for selecting

concretes to be used in constructing structures with

500 year safe lives for storing low-level radioactive

wastes (LLW).

Problem

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is responsible for developing a strategy for storing

low-level radioactive wastes. According to one

approach, the radioactive wastes would be disposed

of in concrete vaults which are either buried in the

earth or constructed above ground and covered

with earth. A safe service life of 500 years is required for the vaults which may be left unattended for most of their life. Based on consideration of

the past durabilities of concrete, it appears possible

that concrete can be designed to give a service life of at least 500 years in favorable environments.

The present basis for selecting concretes and their constituents needs to be further advanced to increase the likelihood that concretes could achieve

safe lives of 500 years.

Approach

In this multi-year project, the development of perfor- mance criteria involves many of the steps included

in ASTM E 632, "Standard Practice for Developing

Accelerated Tests to Aid Predictions of the Service

Life of Building Components and Materials."

Accelerated testing along with mathematical modeling of the rate of deterioration of concrete is being

used in developing a basis for making service life predictions.

The work carried out from FY 1 988 through FY

1993 included:

1 . Identification of likely degradation processes and

analyses of their mechanisms and potential rates.

2. Development of mathematical models of trans- port processes in concrete involving moisture,

chloride ions, sulfate ions, and acids.

3. Modeling of chloride and sulfate ion diffusion in concrete.

4. Evaluation of test methods for determining the

potential alkali-reactivity of aggregates.

5. Evaluation of the reliability of tests for predicting

the sulfate resistance of concrete exposed to ground water.

6. Performing evaluations to understand the mechanism of sulfate attack on buried concrete. During FY 1 994, BFRL will complete studies on the

mechanism and kinetics of sulfate attack on buried concrete. Also, BFRL will complete its research on

the effects of cracks on the hydraulic conductivity

of concrete. The research will lead to recommended performance criteria for use in selecting concrete

for constructing LLW disposed vaults with a service

life of 500 years.

Recenl Results

Pommersheim, J.M. and Clifton, J.R., "Expansion of

Cementitious Materials Exposed to Sulfate Solutions," Scientific Basis for Nuclear Waste Management Materials Research Society, in press.

Clifton, J.R., Bentz, D.P., and Pommersheim, J.M.,

Sulfate Diffusion in Concrete, NISTIR 5361, National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1994.

Pommersheim, J.M. and Clifton, J.R., Sulfate

Attack of Cementitious Materials: Volumetric

Relations and Expansions, NISTIR 5390, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1994.

30
Concrete Degradation Computer

Code for LLW Performance

Assessments

Principal Investigator:

James R. Clifton Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Waste Management Branch

Objective

To develop computer models of concrete degradation for use by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission

in the assessment of the performance of underground reinforced concrete structures designed to contain low-level radioactive wastes (LLW).

Problem

Reinforced concrete has been proposed by many

states and compacts of states to construct engineered barriers for disposing LLW.

To meet the requirements of the Federal regulations

for LLW disposal, 10 CFR 61, the concrete struc- tures must demonstrate specific durability and

performance attributes for periods of 300 to 500

years. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is responsible for determining if proposed disposal

facilities meet the requirements set forth in 1 0 CFR

61 . To provide guidance to state and compact LLW

personnel in designing LLW disposal concrete

structures, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission is developing a Branch Technical Position/Regulatory

Guide for LLW performance assessments. The

assessment will include the use of models for predicting the effect of degradation processes on

the properties of the concrete used in constructing

LLW disposal vaults, The models need to be able to

predict changes in the hydraulic properties of the concrete during 300 to 500 years of service.

Approach

BFRL is developing computer models to predict the

service life of concrete used in the construction of underground concrete vaults for LLW disposal. The

degradation processes being addressed include

corrosion of reinforcement, sulfate attack, leaching,

and acid attack. Existing models are being analyzed

to determine if they are reliable or can be satisfactorily modified. If necessary, new models will be

developed. A peer review committee has been

established to critique the development of the

computer code. The interactive computer code

under development will be capable of being run on a micro-computer by the NRC staff.

A manual will be prepared and training exercises will be conducted to assist NRC staff and the planners

and designers of LLW disposal sites in using the

computer models. The final report will give recom- mendations on further model developments and

their validations.

Recent Results

Clifton, J.R., Pommersheim, J.M., Snyder, K.A.,

and Martys, N., Concrete Degradation Computer

Code for LLW Performance Assessment, NISTIR,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD (to be published).

31
BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

COATINGS
Service Life of Coating Systems

Principal Investigator:

Jonathan W. Martin

Building Materials Division

301-975-6717

Tinh Nguyen

Building Materials Division

301-975-6718

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop an experimental protocol and theoretical

model for quantitatively predicting the service life of

coating systems exposed in typical exposure

environments in the field and the laboratory; identify

methods for quantitatively characterizing exposure

conditions and; demonstrate how field and laboratory exposures are related.

Problem

The inability to control or adequately characterize

temporal changes in the factors comprising the

weather is one of the major challenges which will have to be overcome in establishing a connection in the degradation response of polymeric materials

exposed in the laboratory and the field. Although

the number of weathering factors is large, only

three factors, UV-irradiation, wetness, and temperature, are considered to be of prime importance in most nonindustrial environments.

Solar UV-radiation causes large economic losses in materials, humans, and other biological systems.

For building materials, these losses are particularly

high for materials having large surface areas and

large infrastructural inventories, like organic coatings, asphalt, vinyl and aluminum siding, wood, and

roofing membranes. At present, no national or

international standards exist for monitoring or modeling the degradation of materials resulting from

UV-irradiation. Such standards are necessary for predicting the service lives of polymeric systems

and producing consistent results from one laboratory to another.

Approach

In FY 1993, mathematical models were developed

for modeling changes in the spectral UV-irradiance

in the field over time. These models were verified using spectral UV-irradiance data collected by the

Smithsonian Institution at their Rockville, MD site. BFRL's research revealed that temporal changes in spectral UV-irradiance data can be modeled using

time series analysis. The irradiance between 295

and 320 nm (the limits of the Smithsonian

Institution's data) may be predicted from measure- ments at two wavelengths, and errors in monitoring

spectral UV-irradiance data are small if the half- width of the narrow bandwidth filters used in detecting spectral UV-irradiance is 2 nm or less.

During FY 1994, BFRL will develop mathematical

models to determine materials degradation effects

of spectral UV-irradiance. The absorption and

quantum yields will be determined for two coating

systems as a function of wavelength and temperature. Attention will be focused on determining the

range of wavelengths over which the quantum yield

response is positive, the number of wavelengths

required to fully specify the absorption and quantum

yield spectra, and the effect on the experimental

error of filters having different half-widths. Also,

attention will be given to modeling the degradation

of high-performance coatings exposed in corrosive

environments.

Leadership will be provided in subcommittee ASTM

G03.08 on Service Life Prediction and the Task

Group on Environmental Characterization in the

RILEM/CIB Committee on Service Life Prediction.

BFRL will encourage creating an industry/government consortium to expedite research on

service life of coating. The results of this research

are expected to improve the technical basis for selecting organic coatings in terms of their likely life under the expected service conditions.

Recent Results

Pommersheim, J., Nguyen, T., Zhang, Z, and Lin,

C, Diffusion of Cations Beneath Organic Coatings on Steel Substrate, NISTIR 5102, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

1993.

Nguyen, T. and Pommersheim, J., "Diffusion of Cations Along the Polymer/metal Interface under an Applied Potential," Materials Research Society

Proceedings, 304:15 (CC 1020 MS 1), 1993.

Nguyen, T., Hubbard, J., and Pommersheim, J., "Models for the Degradation of Organic Protective

33
Coatings," Proceedings of the Durability of Building

Materials and Components, S. Nagataki et al, Eds.,

E. and R.N. Spon publisher, Vol 1, p. 1070 (CC

1020 MS 1), 1993.

Nguyen, T., Bentz, D., and Byrd, E., "Measuring

Water at the Polymer Coating/Hydroxylated Inter- face," Proc. Adhesion Society Meeting (CC 1020

MS 2), 1993.

Nguyen, T., Bentz, D., and Byrd, E., "Measuring

Transport of Liquid Water Through Organic Coatings

Adhered to a Substrate," ACS Proceedings, Polymeric Materials Science and Engineering 68:1 03

(CC 1020 MS 2), 1993.

Lechner, J. A. and Martin, J.W., "Modeling and

Measuring Ultraviolet Irradiance to Predict Damage

to Macromolecular Materials," Proceedings of the

American Chemical Society Division of Polymeric

Materials: Science and Engineering, Vol. 69 (CC

1023 MS 4), 1993.

Martin, J.W., Lechner, J. A., and Varner, R.N.,

"Quantitative Characterization of Exterior Weathering Environments: UV-Radiation," Accelerated and

Outdoor Durability Testing of Organic Materials,

ASTM STP 1 202, Warren D. Ketola and Douglas

Grossman, [Eds.], American Society for Testing and

Materials, Philadelphia, PA. (CC 1023 MS 4), 1993.

Martin, J.W., "Quantitative Characterization of

Spectral Ultraviolet Radiation-induced

Photodegradation in Coating Systems Exposed in the Laboratory and the Field," Progress in Organic

Coatings 23(1): 49 (CC 1023 MS 5), 1993.

Organic Coatings

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

Department of the Navy

North Navy Facility Engineering Command

Objective

To develop improved procedures for selecting,

using, and specifying coating systems and for transferring the technology to Department of the

Navy personnel responsible for maintaining coatings on structures.

Problem

Military facilities have an estimated real property

value of $300 billion and the annual cost of coating

maintenance is about $400 million. Improved and

updated criteria for the selection, specification, and

use of protective coatings is needed to take advantage of new technologies and meet environmental

regulations, e.g., those relating to volatile organic

compound (VOC) content and heavy metal content.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will provide technical

assistance to the Navy and DoD through the Tri- Services Committee about low VOC coatings,

prepare a chapter on the selection and use of VOC

compliant coatings for a new Military Handbook on

maintenance painting, assist in the implementation

of these new technologies, and organize Tri-Service

Protective Coatings Committee meetings. To help

meet the need for new coating specifications for low VOC coatings, BFRL will continue to chair the

SSPC committee on coatings and assist in the

development of low VOC coating specifications.

Military Handbook provides current information on

coating of facilities which is expected to result in improved coating lifetimes, thus reducing total maximum cost, and to aid in solution of environmentally compliant systems.

Recent Results

McKnight, M.E., Chapter on Environmental Concerns for Tri-Service Paint and Protective Coatings

Handbook, DoD Manual, MIL-HDBC-1 110 (submitted for publication).

34
McKnight, M.E. and Roberts, W.E., Coatings for Application to Moist Steel: Test Procedures to Evaluate Initial Adhesion and Cure Properties,

NISTIR 6228, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, July 1993.

Standards for Abatement of

Hazards from Lead in Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Poison

Prevention

Objective

To develop technical data for use in standards for abatement of hazards from lead in buildings and

structures.

Problem

An estimated 57 million homes in the United States contain some lead-based paint. Although there is general guidance for characterizing the lead concentrations in paint, dust, soil, and air particulates and

carrying out abatements, there are very few stan- dard procedures that address these issues. Thus,

there is a need for an overall standard practice for abating hazards from lead in buildings and related structures that would include assessment and

analysis of the problem, design of abatement strate- gy, abatement procedures and post-abatement man- agement procedures. An ASTM Subcommittee,

E06.23, was organized to meet this need.

Approach

The approach that E06.23 is using to develop the

overall practice for abatement of hazards from lead

in buildings and structures is to develop the basic

standards that will serve as the framework of the

overall guide. These include standards for characterizing the concentration of lead in paint, dust, soil and air particulates and for carrying about abatements and hazard reduction. Once most of these

basic standards are completed, they will be combined into the overall practice. An added advantage

of developing individual standards for each step of

the hazard-abatement process is that as soon as any standard is approved, it can be referenced in contracts and other documents. To maintain the

subcommittee's viability, the approach is to contin- ue to recruit additional knowledgeable members, to provide results of research to the appropriate task

35
groups, and to form improved liaisons with other

ASTM committees including D-22, D-1, E-50, E-1 and D-1 8.

Recent Results

Results contributed to development of E06.23

Subcommittee on Abatement of Hazards from Lead

in Building Standards:

• E1605 Terminology Relating to Abatement

of Hazards from Lead-Based Paint in Buildings and Related Structures.

• E1553 Standard Practice for Collection of

Airborne Particulate Lead During

Abatement and Construction Activities.

• E1583 Practice for Evaluating Laboratories

Engaged in the Determination of Lead in Paint, Dust, Airborne

Particulates, and Soil in and Around

Buildings and Related Structures.

• ES035 Standard Method for the Analysis of

Digested Samples for Lead by In- ductively Coupled Plasma Atomic

Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AS),

Flame Atomic Absorption (FAAS) or Graphite Furnace.

• ES036 Practice for Hot Plate Digestion of Dust Wipe Samples for the Determination of Lead by Atomic Spectrometry.

• ES037 Practice for the Preparation of Dried

Paint Samples for Subsequent Lead

Analysis by Atomic Spectrometry.

Method for Evaluation of Performance of Lead-in-Paint Measuring

Devices Under Simulated Field

Conditions

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Poison

Prevention

Objective

To identify and quantify factors affecting the field performance of portable x-ray fluorescence (XRF)

measurements of lead in paint using a range of simulated field conditions, develop a laboratory test method suitable for standardization for evaluating

portable XRF devices, and write a draft standard

test method for the laboratory-based evaluation of portable XRF devices and present it to ASTM

E06.23 for standardization.

Problem

Recent legislation (Housing and Community Development Act of 1 992, PL1 02-550) will phase in requirements for lead-based paint testing for all housing built before 1978. These requirements are expected to result in several new x-ray fluorescence

(XRF) devices.

Because of both health and financial liabilities associated with these measurements, it is essential to have reliable estimates of the field performance

parameters of the measurements (e.g., detection

limit, precision, bias). For some XRF devices,

research results have shown that estimates of these

performance parameters obtained using existing

laboratory evaluation procedures do not agree with

estimates obtained using field-acquired data. Currently, field studies are being used to characterize additional devices. However, field studies are

limited in several ways ~ sites having parameters in the necessary ranges are difficult to find; systematic

variation of the parameters is usually not possible;

implementation of new technologies may be impeded; and advances in the fundamental understanding

36
of a measurement procedure are limited. Thus,

there is a need for a laboratory-based field-simulation test protocol for the reliable evaluation of

portable XRF devices which will overcome these

limitations.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform three tasks:

Task 1 . Develop a mathematical model that embodies the fundamental understanding of the measure- ment process and the effects of the composition

and configuration of a test specimen upon the measurement response. A conceptual model of the

measurement process will be constructed to portray

the scientific principles involved, factors likely to

affect instrument response, and characterization of

typical field situations in terms of these factors. A

mathematical model based upon the conceptual

model will be developed. The mathematical model

will be used throughout the study to explore the

implications of various material configurations and

field conditions on instrument response and to aid interpretation of experimental results.

Task 2. Design a simulated field study and an actual

field study using information obtained from the

literature and other sources and from the model in Task 1 . The design for the laboratory-based field simulation study will include use of model wall sections each about one meter square containing

materials in configurations typical of those found in residential buildings. The laboratory experiment will be carried out in a room with temperature and

humidity controls that allow the conditions to be

changed as needed. The model sections will be

constructed in such a way that the materials and

configurations within them can be systematically

changed to represent ranges of field conditions to study their effects upon instrument response. The

field experiment will be conducted to determine

whether the estimates of measurement variability

obtained in the laboratory and field are consistent

with each other.

Task 3. Upon completion of the experimental

study, BFRL will develop a draft standard test method for evaluating the performance of portable

XRF equipment will be written and presented to ASTM E06.23.

The results of this research are expected to aid in selecting XRF devices for field measurements of lead in paint.

Recent Results

New project.

37
Development of Method for LeachLead Prom Lead-Based Paint

Through Encapsulants

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Tinh Nguyen

Building Materials Division

301-975-6718

Sponsor:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Poisoning Prevention

Objective

To develop test method for determining the rate of transport of lead from lead-based paint through an

encapsulant coating by leaching and prepare draft standard method and present to ASTM E06.23

Subcommittee on Abatement of Hazards from Lead

in Buildings for standardization.

Problem

According to a recent U.S. Department of Housing

and Urban Development (HUD) report to Congress, an estimated 57 million homes in the United States contain some lead-based paint. Several abatement

procedures are available for controlling the hazards

associated with lead-based paint, including the use

of encapsulant coatings. Encapsulants appear to have promise for providing a cost-effective abatement technique for many situations. Before these

benefits can be realized, it must be established that

encapsulants can provide a long-lived intact film and

prevent leaching of lead from the underlying lead- based paint layer through the encapsulant to its surface. Leaching could conceivably occur when

films are wetted, whether by rain, condensed

water, cleaning solutions, or other liquids. Since

failure to contain the lead would be unacceptable, a

test method and a criterion are urgently needed to prevent coatings having poor leaching resistance

from being used as encapsulants. This need has

also been identified by ASTM E06.23 which is preparing a standard on encapsulant coatings.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will develop a procedure for determining the rate of transport of lead through

encapsulant coatings. Paint having a lead content

of approximately 20 percent by mass of nonvolatile

components will be applied to a suitable substrate.

Upon cure of the lead-based paint, a test encapsulant will be applied and allowed to cure according to the manufacturer's directions. A vessel will be

attached to the surface of the encapsulant film and

an aqueous leaching solution will be placed in the

vessel. Aliquots of the solution will be withdrawn

at predetermined time intervals and analyzed for lead content by atomic absorption spectrometry.

The following test parameters will be investigated:

type of lead pigment, substrate type, curing and

aging procedure for lead-based paint, encapsulants

and paints, aqueous leaching solutions (weakly

acidic, neutral, and weakly basic), test temperature

of test. Leaching solutions will be analyzed using

atomic absorption spectrometry. The cross sections

of a subset of the specimens will be examined using

scanning electron microscopy and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy for evidence of lead transport

through the encapsulant. The results of this research are expected to provide a basis for establishing a performance criteria for selecting

encapsulants.

Recent Results

New project.

38
Performance Criteria for Selection

of Liquid-Coatings Encapsulants for

Lead-Based Paint

Principal Investigator:

Walter Rossiter

Building Materials Division

301-975-6719

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Poisoning Prevention

Objective

To develop preliminary performance criteria for liquid-coating encapsulants for lead-based paint in housing based on short-term laboratory testing and

limited field testing and to extend the development

of the preliminary performance criteria for liquidcoating encapsulants for lead-based paint to include

results from long-term tests.

Problem

In a survey of the nation's housing, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

(HUD) found that about 57 million homes in the

United States have lead-based paint (LBP) on at least one painted surface. One way of helping to ensure that the hazards of LBP in housing are kept

low is to protect the paint by a liquid-coating

encapsulant. A major deterrent to the use of these

encapsulants is the lack of performance standards

and field performance data. Under proposed

legislation, HUD will sponsor an encapsulant

demonstration project in public and Indian housing.

To prepare for the purchase of encapsulants for this project, HUD has an urgent need for performance

criteria. Such criteria are being prepared by ASTM

Subcommittee E06.23 on Abatement of Hazards

from Lead in Buildings, but are unlikely to be

completed soon enough to satisfy this immediate

need.

Approach

This research will be performed in two phases.

Phase 1 . Develop preliminary performance criteria based primarily on early age or short-term laboratory

and field tests.

Phase 2. Refine the criteria and extend them to include preliminary criteria that address long-term

performance.

In Phase 1 , performance requirements and test procedures will be identified. On the most general

performance level, encapsulants must, with an

acceptable probability, ensure that the encapsulant

keeps the lead in place and prevents it from contaminating the environment for the desired time.

Therefore, the performance criteria must address

encapsulant material characteristics that prevent

release of lead such as abrasion resistance, impact

resistance, leaching resistance and ability to prevent

failure (e.g., peeling, flaking and chipping) of the

underlying LBP layer.

The approach to be followed in developing specific

requirements and procedures is:

1 . Visit several field sites where encapsulants have

been installed or are being considered for use to aid

in the identification of specific requirements and

selection of test materials.

2. Select substrate test materials and develop

procedures for preparing them in a uniform and

consistent manner to simulate conditions expected

in the field. 3. Select encapsulants and control paints to use in testing.

4. Select appropriate test procedures using ASTM

tests where appropriate and prepare test specimens.

5. Subject specimens to laboratory performance

tests under conditions in which the applied stresses

are at the high ends of the ranges expected under

service conditions.

6. Based on the results of the laboratory tests, perform limited field testing.

Using both data sets, preliminary performance

criteria will be developed. Results of the research

will be provided to ASTM E06.23 to use in improving the technical bases for standards for encapsulants.

In Phase 2, the research will focus on performing

long-term laboratory aging and weathering tests and

39
additional field tests to provide data for verifying

and improving the preliminary performance criteria.

Recent Results

New project.

Long-Term Performance of

Polymer-Based Encapsulants for

Lead-Based Paint on Interior Walls

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

Department of the Army

Engineering Housing and Service Center

Objective

To determine changes in physical, chemical, and

mechanical properties of coatings, as a function of

accelerated weathering exposure.

Problem

The Department of Defense (DoD) has approximately 500,000 family housing units built prior to

1 978 many are likely to have some surfaces coated

with lead-based paint. Based on a recent U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

report, the DoD should obtain significant cost savings if encapsulants can be used to abate

surfaces with lead-based paint as compared with

removal. However, before encapsulants are widely

used on DoD Facilities, it is essential that information regarding their long-term performance be

available, since premature failure would be very

costly. A generally applicable methodology is needed to predict the long-term performance of an

encapsulant, rather than evaluating a few products.

Such a methodology is required by DoD as many

materials are currently being marketed as encapsulants, and these products are expected to expand in number in the future. The methodology

would serve as the basis for performance-based

selection criteria and life-cycle cost analyses.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will develop the methodology for predicting long-term performance of lead- based paint encapsulants. This work will determine

relationships between changes in physical, chemical

and mechanical properties of encapsulant coatings

and time of exposure in controlled environments.

The results of these experiments will be used to develop methodologies for service-life prediction.

The information also will be useful in developing

40
selection criteria. In BFRL's experimental study,

three generic types of commercial, polymer-based

encapsulants, and a latex paint, will be subjected to

five environmental conditions, selected from a combination of three temperatures, 10°C, 25 °C,

and 50°C, and three relative humidities. Perfor- mance data on properties, which are important to performance as an encapsulant, such as resistances

to cracking, peeling (adhesion), damage upon

impact, and abrasion; glass transition temperature;

weight stability (thermogravimetric analysis),

modulus, and chemical stability (spectroscopy) and

will be obtained. The results of this work are expected to provide a methodology for predicting

service life of encapsulants that can be used in performing cost-benefit analysis prior to selection of an encapsulative abatement strategy.

Recent Results

New project.

Technical Assistance on LeadBased Paint Issues

Principal Investigator:

Mary McKnight

Building Materials Division

301-975-6714

Sponsor:

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development

Office of Lead-Based Paint Abatement and Poisoning Prevention

Objective

To provide technical assistance on lead-based paint

material-related issues and measurement procedures.

Problem

The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) receives many requests for technical

assistance on issues about abating hazards from

lead-based paint in housing. Some of these re- quests address material properties and performance

of paints and coatings and material-related measure- ment procedures.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will provide, as needed,

technical assistance on topics such as the perfor- mance of paints and coatings, the abatement of

hazards from lead-based paint, measurement of lead concentrations in paint films, and other materialrelated issues.

Recent Results

As requested by HUD, observed and commented on

demonstration of new portable XRF devices for lead

in paint measurements at New York City Housing,

Preservation and Development Office.

41
BUILDING MATERIALS

DIVISION

QUALITY ASSURANCE
Cement and Concrete Reference

Laboratory

Principal Investigator:

James H. Pielert Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor:

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

Department of the Army

Corps of Engineers

Objective

To inspect cement and concrete testing laboratories,

distribute proficiency test samples, and support the

voluntary standards development process.

Problem

The infrastructure represents a substantial portion of

the nation's wealth and the cost of construction of

facilities amounts to about 10 percent of the U.S. Gross Domestic Product. Over $4 billion of hydraulic cement is produced in the United States each

year with the value of the concrete construction

estimated to be in the order of $20 billion. Standardization of testing to enhance the reliability of

quality assurance measurements is of paramount

concern. The productivity of the testing community

in the cement and concrete fields can be increased

by the use of correct procedures and apparatus

which reduce testing errors and provide a sound

basis for the acceptance of cement on mill certifi- cate. Efficient use of long-established construction

materials is facilitated by dependable quality assur- ance programs.

Approach

With the support of ASTM Research Associates

working under BFRL supervision, services are provided to public and private cement and concrete

testing laboratories on a voluntary basis. These

services include the laboratory inspection program

(LIP) and the distribution of proficiency test samples. Equipment and procedures used in performing

conventional quality assurance tests are evaluated

for conformance to applicable national standards.

Related test apparatus is checked with inspection

equipment calibrated by NIST personnel. Proficiency test samples of Portland cement, pozzolan,

concrete, blended cement and masonry cement are

distributed at regular intervals to obtain information on laboratory performance. Additionally, technical

studies are conducted, often in conjunction with

other NIST Laboratories, in subject areas related to these programs.

Specific products of this work include: 1 . detailed

inspection reports; 2. report on each round of proficiency sample testing; 3. input to the work of standards committees such as draft standards and

precision data; and 4. reports on results of technical

studies. Findings from BFRL technical reports,

papers in outside journals, and oral presentations are used by the cement and concrete community in product improvement.

Recent Results

Kolos, R.M., "Conformity Data from the CCRL

Laboratory Inspection Program," ASTM Cement,

Concrete, and Aggregates (pending).

During FY 1 993, over 250 cement and concrete

laboratories were inspected, over 3000 proficiency

samples were distributed, and corresponding test reports were issued.

43
AASHTO Materials Reference

Laboratory

Principal Investigator:

James H. Pielert Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor:

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Objective

To inspect soil and bituminous testing laboratories,

distribute proficiency test samples, and support the

voluntary standards development process.

Problem

The quality of testing in construction materials

laboratories is an important concern when considering the overall question of quality of construction.

The importance of the testing function is demonstrated by The Strategic Highway Research Program

(SHRP) which was initiated in 1 987 as a 5 year, $150-million highway and bridge research program.

Standardization of testing to enhance the reliability of quality assurance measurements is of paramount

concern. The productivity of the testing community

can be increased by the use of correct procedures

and apparatus which reduce testing errors and

provide a sound basis for the acceptance of materials on certificate. More efficient use of longestablished construction materials and broader use

of new materials are facilitated by dependable

quality assurance programs.

Approach

With the support of AASHTO Research Associates

working under NIST supervision, services are provided to both public and private laboratories on a voluntary basis. These services include the on-site

inspection of the laboratory and the distribution of

proficiency test samples. The current scope of the

laboratory inspection program (LIP) includes the

testing of soils, bituminous materials, and plastic

pipe, and the measurement of roughness and

frictional properties of highways. Equipment and

procedures used in performing conventional quality assurance tests are evaluated for conformance to applicable national standards. Proficiency test samples of asphalt, soils, paint, aggregates and

bituminous concrete are distributed at regular

intervals. Additionally, technical studies are con- ducted in areas related to these programs, often in conjunction with other NIST units.

Specific products of this work include: 1 . detailed

inspection reports; 2. report on each round of proficiency sample testing; 3. input to the work of standards committees such as draft standards and

precision data; and 4. reports on the results of

technical studies. The AMRL programs provide the

following benefits to construction materials testing

laboratories and others involved with the nation's

transportation systems: 1 . improves the quality of laboratory testing; 2. provides data to quantify

standard measurement techniques; and 3. provides

direct communications between testing laboratories

and standards-writing committees.

Recent Results

During FY 1993, over 180 bituminous and soil laboratories were inspected, over 4000 proficiency

samples were distributed, and corresponding test reports were issued.

Spellerberg, P., Trimm, W., and Pielert, J., "Development and Application of a Quality System

Standard for Construction Materials Testing Laboratory," Proceedings of ASTM E36 Symposium on

Operation and Accreditation of Laboratories (submit

ted).

44
Construction of Addition to CMRL

Proficiency Sample Building

Principal Investigator:

James H. Pielert Building Materials Division

301-975-6704

Sponsor:

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials

Objective

To expand BFRL's Construction Materials Research

Laboratory (CMRL) Proficiency Sample Facility

(Building 206) to accommodate the increasing

laboratory participation in the Proficiency Sample

Programs of CCRL and AMRL.

Problem

Laboratory participation in the CCRL and AMRL

Proficiency Sample Programs has increased significantly in recent years to a current level of almost

800 laboratories who receive 7000 samples annually. This increase is a reflection of the importance of the programs in promoting the quality of testing of

construction materials in the United States. Building

206 where the proficiency samples are prepared is fully utilized in meeting current commitments

leaving little room for growth in existing programs or the addition of new programs.

Approach

Construct a 175 m

2 addition to NIST's Building

206. The BFRL Proficiency Sample Facility Construction began early in FY 1 993 and was completed in May 1994.

Recent Results

Facility dedication, May 1 994.

Durability of Polymer/Glass Fiber

Composites for Building Applications

Principal Investigator:

Tinh Nguyen

Building Materials Division

301-975-6718

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a technique for assessing the durability of polymer/glass fiber composites.

Problem

There is a growing interest in the use of composites

for building and construction. For these applications, the effects of the environment on the mechanical properties of the materials is a prime

concern. The loss of bond strength between the

fiber and the matrix in the presence of liquid water

or high relative humidities has been recognized as

the most important factor reducing the service life of a polymer/glass fiber composite. Also, extensive

data in the literature on durability of adhesives and

coatings on metals show that water at the polymer/substrate interface is the main cause of the loss of adhesion of these materials when exposed to water or high relative humidities.

Although polymer/glass fiber composites have been

in use for many years in aerospace applications,

there is still no simple method available for evaluating their bond strength in the presence of water or high relative humidities. In the past year, we have,

for the first time, developed a method, based on the

theory of FTIR-multiple internal reflection (FTIR-MIR)

spectroscopy, to measure the thickness of the

water layer at the interface between a polymer film and a silica substrate. We observed that, as water

accumulates at the polymer/substrate interface, the

system loses bond strength. Based on the literature data and our own observations, we believe that

there should be a strong correlation between the

thickness (or amount) of the water layer at the polymer/substrate interface and the loss of bond

strength in a glass/fiber composite. If such a correlation exists, FTIR-MIR spectroscopy (combined

with the equations we have developed) would be a

45
powerful technique for nondestructively assessing

the durability and the service life of glass/fiber

composites. This technique should be particularly

useful for screening new composites. The unique- ness of this technique is based on the facts that FTIR spectroscopy is very sensitive (nanogram) to water, its dissociated groups, and its state of

bonding; it can be used at ambient conditions and,

when combined with internal reflection, it detects

water in the polymer/substrate interfacial region

without interference from water vapor in the

environment.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will develop data that relate the thickness of the water layer at the interface

with the bond strength level of a polymer/glass

composite. Epoxy resin will be applied to silane- treated and untreated Si0 2 -covered Si, and silane

treated flat E glass substrates are used for the

study. The thickness of the water at the ep- oxy/glass interface is determined using Fourier

transform infrared-multiple reflection (FTIR-MIR)

spectroscopy and the bond strengths of the ep- oxy/glass systems (flat plates and fiber composites)

in the presence of water are measured by peel and

shear tests. Experimentally, a clear epoxy resin is applied to silane-treated and untreated Si0 2-covered

Si internal reflection elements, which serve as the

"glass" substrates. A water chamber is attached to the epoxy coated substrate. After adding water to the chamber, FTIR-MIR spectra are taken automatically at specified time intervals. Using BFRL's

models, the thickness and amount of the water

layer at the epoxy/substrate (silane treated and

untreated) interface will be determined. The peel

strengths, as a function of water exposure, of

epoxy on silane-treated and untreated Si0 2 -covered

Si wafers and silane-treated flat E glass plates are measured using a wet adhesion peel test apparatus

developed by BFRL. The shear strength of ep- oxy/silane treated E glass fiber composites as a function of time exposed to water is determined

using interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) composite

specimens. The thickness of the water layer at the

epoxy/substrate interface, the bond strengths of flat panels and of the composites as a function of

exposure, and the rate of water transport through

the epoxy on the substrate, are analyzed and

correlated.

The results of this study are expected to provide the

data to assess the applicability of a spectroscopic

technique of nondestructively testing the durability of glass/polymer composites used in humid environments.

Recent Results

New project.

46
Performance Criteria for Single-Ply

Roofing Membranes

Principal Investigator:

Walter J. Rossiter, Jr. Building Materials Division

301-975-6719

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop performance criteria for single-ply

roofing membranes that assist in the selection,

evaluation, and maintenance of single-ply membrane

materials.

Problem

Single-ply roofing membrane materials account for about two-thirds of the low-sloped membrane

systems installed annually in the United States. Ease of installation, performance, cost, and architectural considerations have influenced the rapid acceptance of the materials. Nevertheless, survey infor- mation from the National Roofing Contractors

Association (NRCA) indicates more performance

problems with single-ply systems than with built-up

systems. Of the problems reported, defective laps

and seams have been the most frequent, accounting for about 24 percent of those reported. The

1987 NIST/NRCA Round Table on Roofing Research

stated that the roofing industry "lacks a significant

data base of field performance on which service life may be predicted," and that "the factors affecting

roofing performance must be more fully understood

to assure success with new materials and systems."

In 1989, BFRL published Building Science Series

1 67, Interim Criteria for Polymer-Modified Bitumi- nous Roofing Membrane Materials. While being a

significant step towards the development of criteria for modified bituminous membranes, the report did not suggest criteria and test methods for some of the identified performance requirements. Two

notable examples are seam performance and

weathering resistance. Data from the field and

laboratory are needed to support development of

the needed criteria.

Approach

During FY 94, BFRL will continue to provide technical assistance to ASTM Committee D08 on Roofing,

Waterproofing, and Bituminous Materials, and to the

RILEM/CIB Committee on Membrane Roofing

Systems. Both committees are developing stan- dards or prestandards for single-ply and polymermodified bitumen roofing membranes. BFRL will collaborate with the National Roofing Contractors

Association in organizing their 1995 NISTBFRL/NRCA Roofing Conference. The NISTBFRL/NRCA roofing conferences are the nation's

main forum for disseminating results of roofing

research. BFRL's leadership role in standards

committees helps assure the development of sound

standards for the U.S. roofing industry.

Recent Results

Rossiter, W.J. and Denchfield, R.D., "A Field Study

of the Performance of Polymer-Modified Bitumen

Roofing," 10th NIST/NRCA Conference on Roofing

Technology, National Roofing Contractors Association, Rosemont, IL, pp 48-58, April 1993.

Gaddy, G.D., Cullen, W.C., Barbari, T.A., and

Rossiter, W.J., "Impact of Exposure Conditions on

the Mechanical Properties of Polyisocyanurate Foam

Insulations," 1 0th NIST/NRCA Conference on

Roofing Technology, National Roofing Contractors

Association, Rosemont, IL, pp 64-71, April 1993.

Rossiter, W.J., Martin, J.W., Embree, E., Seiler, J.F., and Byrd, W.E., "The Effect of Ozone on the

Creep-Rupture of Butyl-Adhered EPDM Seam

Specimens," 10th NIST/NRCA Conference on

Roofing Technology, Roofing Contractors Association, Rosemont, IL, pp 85-92, April 1993.

47
Serviceability of Roofing Systems

Principal Investigator:

Walter J. Rossiter, Jr. Building Materials Division

301-975-6719

Sponsor:

Department of the Army

Construction Engineering Research Laboratory

Objective

To assist the U.S. Army develop their technical

basis for selecting and installing serviceable lowsloped roofing systems.

Problem

For over a decade, the U.S. Army has investigated

the field performance of single-ply roofing systems

as alternatives to bituminous built-up roofing (BUR)

systems. Army Guide Specifications were developed for the single-ply systems on the basis of the

information obtained from the field investigations.

However, these Guide Specifications are limited to the laboratory evaluation of the serviceability of the

new membrane materials. In particular, the test methods used are not performance oriented, but

differ depending on the type of membrane material.

This is a restrictive approach that makes compari- son of test results from different materials difficult, and hampers decisions on selecting appropriate

systems for particular installations. Consequently,

the Construction Engineering Research Laboratory

(CERL) has initiated a study to develop evaluative

laboratory procedures that are equally applicable to the different types of single-ply membrane materials. A leading candidate is the use of change in a material's strain energy during exposure.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform this work in two

phases. In Phase 1 , a study will be conducted to investigate the use of instrumental methods of

analysis for determining changes that may occur in roof membrane materials due to heat aging. The

analytical methods will include: Fourier Transform

Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, Secondary Ion Mass

Spectroscopy (SIMS), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Thermogravimetry (TG) Analysis, and

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). Samples of new (unaged) and heat-aged roof membrane

materials will be supplied by CERL, and be representative of the newer products available on the

U.S. market over the last decade (i.e., EPDM, PVC,

APP-modified bitumen, and SBS-modified bitumen).

For purposes of comparison, conventional built-up

bituminous samples will be included as a control. A

key aspect of the study will be to determine whether any of the analytical methods are applicable to the characterization of all the generic types of

membrane materials. In Phase 2, laboratory testing

and data analysis will be conducted by CERL and

BFRL. The details will be decided upon in discussions with CERL.

This work will advance test methods that are

suitable for use in performance criteria for single-ply

membrane materials.

Recent Results

New project.

48
Materials and Processes for

Durable Relocatable Rigid Wall

Structures

Principal Investigator:

James R. Clifton Building Materials Division

301-975-6707

Sponsor:

Department of the Army

NATICK Research, Development, and Engineering

Center

Objective

To provide scientific and technical support to the

DoD Joint Committee on Tactical Shelters in the

development of new material and processing

standards and the updating and revision of existing

standards.

Problem

DoD requires standards for materials and processes

for durable rigid wall relocatable structures to ensure

that they give the desired performance. In addition

to strength, durability, and environmental requirements, new requirements are being imposed by

changes in military threat scenarios. DoD encourages the use of consensus standards and with changing military requirements, many existing standards

need to be revised and new standards developed.

• E866 "Standard Specification for CorrosionInhibiting Adhesive Primer for Aluminum

Alloys to be Adhesively Bonded in Honeycomb Shelter Panels."

• E874 "Standard Practice for Adhesive

Bonding of Aluminum Facings to Nonmetallic Honeycomb Core for Shelter Panels."

• New Draft Standard, "Standard Specification for Rigid Foam for Use in Shelter Sandwich Panel Cores."

• New Draft Standard, "Standard Specification for Epoxy Resin System for Composite

Skin, Honeycomb Sandwich Panel Repair."

• New Draft Standard, "Standard Specification for Structural Paste Adhesive for Sandwich Panel Repair."

Documentation of accomplishments provide a benchmark for evaluating the effectiveness of the

Committee.

Recent Results

Three meetings of ASTM Subcommittee E06.53 were organized and conducted. Two standards were revised (E866 and E874) and approved by

ASTM and three new standards were submitted to Main Committee E06 ballot. Quarterly progress

reports were submitted to DoD.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will continue providing

scientific, technical, and administrative leadership in the generation of new standards and the revision of

existing standards through ASTM Subcommittee

E06.53, "Materials and Processes for Durable Rigid

Wall Relocatable Structures." Subcommittee

meetings will be organized and conducted and

coordination provided between the subcommittee

and ASTM Committee E06. The requests of the

DOD Joint Committee on Tactical Shelters will also

be addressed in the development and revision of

standards.

BFRL has chaired the Committee for two decades.

The Committee's accomplishments under BFRL

leadership include:

49
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

THERMAL MACHINERY
Thermodynamic Performance of

Natural Fluids as Alternative

Refrigerants

Principal Investigator:

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To evaluate the thermodynamic and heat transfer

performance of natural fluids as a working medium

for refrigeration systems.

Problem

The refrigerant industry is rapidly using

hydrofluorocarbon compounds as a method to eliminate chlorine in the manufacture of refrigerants.

This conversion has and continues to be a dramatic

change to this industry. However, on the horizon

looms the global warming crisis and the carbonfluorine bond of the alternative refrigerants. Since

the atmospheric chemical kinetics of man-made

materials are complex and difficult to predict it seems that such fluid offers the potential for trouble

for future generations and solutions may lie in the

using "natural" fluids as refrigerants. Such fluids are found in nature or are in abundance in the

atmosphere already that the marginal difference the

refrigerant supply would make would be insignifi- cant (e.g., carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, ammonia,

water vapor). Although these fluids have been used

as refrigerants in the past, they (except for ammonia in industrial applications) were disregarded for various safety, efficiency, or economic reasons. These fluids need to be reanalyzed to determine if the above problems can be alleviated through

modern technology and alternative cycle design.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will determine the optimum

vapor compression/absorption cycle for several of

fluids and their mixtures. This research will be

performed with NIST's Chemical Science and

Technology Laboratory. Work will require modifying

BFRL's basic CYCLE-1 1 family of models. Optimization will focus on efficiency. Criteria for acceptance

to the laboratory evaluation stage will be the same

as traditional refrigerants; i.e., safety, oil compatibility, specific capacity, pressure ratio, maximum

temperature, etc.

The difficulties and economics associated with

development of a high pressure positive displacement compressor and a low pressure centrifugal

compressor will be explored. BFRL's heat pump

simulation model, HPSIM, will be upgraded to use REFPROP 4 property routines for thermodynamic

and transport property evaluation. A property look- up table will be employed to address most computational-intensive property ranges, while the REFPROP

routines will be called directly for properties which

are outside the table range. This look-up-table

approach is needed to mitigate significant CPU

requirements, which result from complexity of the

model itself and the REFPROP routines. The model

will be able to evaluate performance of an air-to-air heat pump charge with a mixture comprising up to

five components. Several modifications will be

made to better represent newer heat transfer surfaces introduced to the market place in the

recent years.

A thermodynamic model study, using NIST's Cycle

1 1 , is being conducted for zerotropic mixtures of the vapor pressure range that is currently used by

refrigeration machinery. This effort will include

flammable fluids and must necessarily incorporate

within the hardware system the ability to isolate the

flammable fluid from the building interior. It is intended to design such a system and evaluate the

relative performance (i.e., compare to existing

system efficiencies) to determine if such a concept

is acceptable.

Recent Results

Didion, David A., "A Simulation Model and Study of Hydrocarbon Mixtures for Residential Heat Pump

Systems, " IIR Conference on Natural Working

Fluids, Hannover, Germany, May 1 994 (to be

published).

51
Thermodynamic Performance of

Alternative Refrigerants and

Refrigerant Mixtures

Principal Investigator:

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Peter Rothfleish

Building Environment Division

301-975-5868

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technology

Building Equipment Division

Objective

To quantify the practical limitations and perfor- mance benefits of using a zeotropic refrigerant

mixture in a residential air-to-air heat pump.

Problem

The use of zeotropic mixtures as working fluids for

refrigeration machines offers two basic advantages:

1 . a gliding saturation temperature during the phase

change of the working fluid (i.e., evaporation and

condensation) and 2. an opportunity to vary the

circulating working fluid's composition and, thus,

the system's volumetric capacity. The indoor heat

exchanger's temperature glide offers the opportunity to improve the system's coefficient of perfor- mance (COP) if counterflow between the air and

refrigerant can be established. The degree to which

this ideal temperature profile matching can be

achieved depends very much on the design of the

heat exchanger, and the ideality of the mixture.

Thus, practical trade-offs with other criteria demands on the hardware and fluid selection result in a certain degree of subjective judgement, based on

experience, to be exercised in the design of an

optimized system. The problem is to acquire

sufficient data on the components to establish their

ideal performance potential. This data will be used

to develop the "optimum" performance design of a zeotropic heat pump, which will be modeled,

designed, constructed, and evaluated in the laboratory.

Work on the counter-flow and cross-counter flow

heat exchangers was conducted in BFRL laboratories during the recent past. A composition-shifting

study was conducted prior to FY 1 993 using a passive system (i.e., the accumulator) which yielded

limited results. During FY 1 993 an active distillation column was designed and constructed. This design

has sufficient uniqueness that a patent application is being considered. Major modifications were made

to the compressor system enabling the input power

to be measured directly at the compressor (rather

than at the motor).

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will evaluate the composition

shifting capabilities of its designed and constructed

active distillation column and evaluate its impact on

the heating performance of the heat pump. The

inequities of alternative refrigerants proposed by

industry are zeotropic mixtures. These mixtures

have the capability of shifting their composition if the machinery is designed to allow for it. This study

will provide measure of the potential for increasing

these mixture's refrigeration capacity and thus

minimize the resistance heat requirement for

residential heat pumps.

The need to predict, a priori, the composition shift under uncontrolled conditions (e.g., slow leak) has

stimulated the development of a computer simulation based on REFPROP. This new program, known

as LEAK, is being developed and verified by experiment for the purposes of determining if a flammable

condition may occur. Current ASHRAE requirements require these predictions for all mixtures

applying for an official rating. The intent of this development is to provide the industry with this prediction capability to minimize their testing

requirements.

Recent Results

Rothfleish, P. and Didion, D., A Study of Heat Pump

Performance Using Mixtures of R32/R1 34a and

R32/R125/R134a as 'Drop-In' Working Fluids for R22 With and Without a Liquid-Suction Heat

Exchanger, NISTIR 5321, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

December 1 993.

Domanski, P. and Didion, D., "Thermodynamic

Evaluation of R-22 Alternative Refrigerants and

Refrigerant Mixtures," ASHRAE Transactions, v99,

2, pp 636-648, June 1993.

52
Kim, M., Mulroy, W., and Didion, D., "An Experimental Evaluation of the Flammability and Perfor- mance Potentials of Two Azeotropic Refrigerant

Mixtures," 6th Int'l. Symposium on Transport

Phenomena in Thermal Eng. (ISTP-6), May 1993.

Domanski, P., Mulroy, W., and Didion, D., "Glide

Matching with Binary and Ternary Zeotropic Refrig- erant Mixtures," Part 1: An Experimental Study;

Part 2: A Computer Simulation, International

Conference in Energy Efficiency in Refrigerant and

Global Warming Impact, Univ. of Ghent, Belgium,

May 12-14, 1993.

Domanski, P. and Didion, "Theoretical Evaluation of

R22 and R502 Alternatives," Final Report to ARTI,

ARTI MCLR Project Number 650-

50900(DOE/CE/23810-7), January 1993.

Calorimetric and Visual Study of

Boiling Enhancements with Refrigerant 1 34a and Horizontal TwoPhase Flow of R-32/134a

Principal Investigator:

Mark A. Kedzierski

Building Environment Division

301-975-5282

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Equipment Division

Electric Power Research Institute Customer Systems Division

Objective

To generate heat-transfer data and visual observations for a thorough description of the boiling

behavior of the refrigerant R-134a with various

lubricants and heat transfer additives and to measure the flow boiling heat transfer coefficient for a new R-22 replacement: a 30% mass R-32/70%

mass R-134a/ mixture.

Problem

The introduction of alternative refrigerants has

solved one problem (ozone destruction in the

stratosphere by chlorine) and created another (lack

of thermal design information for the new refrigerants). Within the next few years, most new

refrigeration equipment will be required by law to operate with ozone-safe refrigerants. Industry does

not have an ozone-safe, drop-in refrigerant for their equipment so they must redesign equipment. This

is an industry concern since they have little experi- ence designing chillers for alternative refrigerants.

The refrigeration industry requires accurate twophase heat transfer correlations to redesigned

evaporators and condensers to ensure the efficient and reliable operation of centrifugal water chillers and direct expansion evaporators.

53
Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will advance alternative heat

transfer research for the direct-expansion and

flooded evaporator industries. The tube-side flow

boiling study of the R-32/1 34a/lubricant mixture will be conducted in an existing test apparatus and will aid the direct-expansion heat exchanger industry.

The R-134a/additive/lubricant study will be conducted in a pool boiling calorimetric/visualization rig and

will assist the flooded evaporator industry.

Heat-transfer data and visual observations will be

generated for a thorough description of the boiling

behavior of three commercial enhanced surfaces

with several combinations of alternative refrigerant,

lubricant, and additive. Two refrigerants will be

examined: R-134a and R-12 (as a baseline for comparison to R-134a). R-134a will be tested with

two lubricants and one additive having a potential to enhance the pool-boiling performance. The additives have not been previously tested. Finally,

mixtures of the alternative refrigerants with the

lubricants and additives will be tested. In total, 21

tests will be performed for one particular lubricant

and additive concentration. Each additional lubri- cant and additive concentration involve 30 tests. Each test includes many individual data points for various conditions. Consequently, the work will produce a substantial, encompassing data source

for use by the refrigeration industry.

The R-32/1 34a mixture study will investigate

horizontal flow boiling of a 30% mass R-32/70%

mass R-134a mixture, a R-32/1 25/1 34a mixture,

and R-22 with lubricants. The mixtures have been

chosen for study by the R-22 Alternative Refriger- ants Evaluation Program (AREP). This program was

organized by the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration

Institute "to investigate and evaluate alternative

refrigerants to replace HCFC-22 in major air-condi- tioning and refrigeration applications." This investi- gation is expected to generate valuable heat transfer

information for the design of new R-32/1 34a

evaporators and condensers.

The results of this research are expected to establish a database to serve as a technical resource to design efficient refrigeration equipment. Efficiency

improvements can potentially result from special

lubricants or heat transfer additives.

Recent Results

Kedzierski, M. A. and Kaul, M. P., "Horizontal

Nucleate Flow Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficient

Measurements and Visual Observations for R-12, R- 134a, and R-134a/Ester Lubricant Mixtures," 6th

International Symposium on Transport Phenomena,

Seoul, May 9-13, 1993.

Kedzierski, M. A., Simultaneous Visual and Calori- metric Measurements of R- 1 1, R- 123, and R1 23/Alkylbenzene Nucleate Flow Boiling, NISTIR 92-

4948, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Kedzierski, M. A., Kim, J. H., and Didion, D. A.,

"Causes of the Apparent Heat Transfer Degradation

for Refrigerant Mixtures," HTD-Vol. 197, TwoPhase Flow and Heat Transfer, ASME, pp 149-1 58,

1992.

54
Mixtures of Fluorocarbons as

Alternatives for R11, R12, R22,

and R502

favorable. The expected benefit of this research will be increased confidence that the best alternative

refrigerants to those to be phased out under the

Montreal Protocol have been identified.

Principal Investigator:

William J. Mulroy

Recent Results

New project.

Building Environment Division

301-975-5878

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

Electric Power Research Institute Customer Services Division

Objective

To determine whether there exist environmentally

acceptable binary and ternary mixtures of partially

halogenated fluorocarbons that act as an azeotrope

or near-azeotrope alternative for R1 1 , R1 2, R22,

and R502.

Problem

Research performed during the past four years has

nearly exhausted pure fluid candidates as potential

alternatives for new systems. These efforts have

not produced drop-in candidates for existing sys- tems. The search for alternatives among pure

materials has limited the search for alternative

possessing the desired attributes. The number of

possible alternatives is significantly expanded when

mixtures are considered. With mixing different

fluids, there is the option of tailoring a material by

modifying composition, an option not available with

a pure material. Already, some mixtures have been

identified as drop-in candidates for existing systems.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will use its recently developed method to predict azeotropes and the degree

of near azeotropy, that a given set of components

may demonstrate. Once candidate mixtures are

identified, based on relevant thermodynamic properties, their thermodynamic performance will be

predicted using different versions of NIST cycle

model, CYCLE-1 1 . Ideal and nonideal cycle analysis

will be used. In addition, the benefit of liquidsuction line heat exchange will be quantified for those candidates whose heat capacity appears

55
Minimizing Throttling Losses in the

Refrigeration Cycle

Principal Investigator:

Piotr A. Domanski

Building Environment Division

301-975-5877

David A. Didion

Building Environment Division

301-975-5881

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Advanced Technology Program (ATP)

Objective

To identify the best application for the ejector cycle

and rate it against the economizer cycle and the

cycle with liquid-line/suction-line heat exchange.

refrigerants used. The study will identify the most

promising applications for the ejector cycle application meaning both operating regimes used working

fluids. Useful information is expected to be derived

from theoretical netting of the ejector cycle, economizer cycle, and the cycle with liquid-line/suctionline heat exchange since they provide difficult efficiency improvement, but are also vastly different

in design and cost.

Recent Results

New project.

Problem

Due to large molecular structure and heat capacity,

alternative non-CFC refrigerants have substantial

throttling losses when used in a basic reversed

Rankine cycle. These losses degrade their cycle

efficiency below that of the original CFC fluids. An

ejector, economizer, and liquid-line/suction-line heat

exchanger minimize throttling loses and improve

cycle efficiency. The theoretical merits of these

three addenda to the refrigeration cycle will be

evaluated and the best application for the ejector

cycle will be indicated. This study will be performed

in support to the ATP effort on Ejector Expansion

Refrigeration Cycle by Calmac Manufacturing

Company.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will identify the thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant that are essential

for improving the performance of the ejectorexpansion cycle. This task will require a theoretical

analysis reduced to the basic refrigerant properties.

In the modeling part of the study, BFRL researchers

will simulate the performance of the ejector cycle,

economizer cycle, and llsl-hx cycle. Theoretical

models will be developed for these cycles based on

the CYCLE- 1 1 model developed at BFRL. Simulations will be performed for different applications and

different fluids. Work will be performed jointly with

NIST's Chemical Science and Engineering Laboratory to obtain the thermophysical properties of the

56
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

AND CONTROLS

57
Communication Protocols for

Building Controls

Principal Investigator:

Steven T. Bushby

Building Environment Division

301-975-5873

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology and

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Federal Energy Management Program

Objective

To assist the building industry in the development,

evaluation, and conformance testing of Communication Protocol Standards for the open exchange of

information between equipment from different

control vendors and between different levels of

control in both hierarchal and distributed building

management systems (BMS).

Problem

Today's direct digital control (DDC) systems employ

proprietary communication protocols which prevent

systems supplied by different manufacturers from

communicating with each other. This has resulted

in "captive customers" who, upon buying a control

system, are unable to upgrade or expand it without

going back to the same manufacturer. This lack of communication capability between control systems

made by different manufacturers also prevents the

building owner from obtaining the most capable

building service by not allowing him to choose,

regardless of the manufacturer, the best energy

management system, the best digital controllers, the

best security system, the best fire detection system,

or the best telecommunications system.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will:

a. assist control system manufacturers verify the correctness and interoperability of their proprietary

BACnet implementations;

b. verify the technical soundness of the BACnet

protocol;

c. identify errors or omissions in the BACnet

protocol specification before it becomes a final standard;

d. identify ambiguities in the BACnet protocol which

might lead to implementations which cannot

interoperate and;

e. develop insight into testing requirements which

should be included in a future ASHRAE standard for testing conformance to BACnet.

4. Develop Conformance Test System - a combination of hardware and software that can execute

tests on vendor's products and evaluate the results of each test (pass, fail, inconclusive) automatically

or semiautomatically.

5. Begin to create a Conformance and

Interoperability Testing Program in conjunction with

industry, ASHRAE, and other government agencies.

6. Begin to expand BACnet to include integrated

building services, including life safety, security, and

transportation.

The expected benefits of this work are competitive

procurement of building control system products, more efficient and lower cost operation of commercial buildings, expanded markets for DDC technology, and safer, more comfortable working environments for building occupants.

Recent Results

Developed a draft ASHRAE Standard 135P working

with ASHRAE's Standards Project Committee 135P.

Bushby, ST., "BACnet Promises a New Age in Building Control Systems," Construction Business

Review, vol. 4, no. 2, pp 62-67, March/April 1994.

Bushby, ST. and Newman, H.M., "BACnet: A

Technical Update," ASHRAE Journal, vol. 36, no. 1, pp S72-S84, January 1994.

1 . Revise/Refine BACnet standard as a result of public review process.

2. Refine BACnet Reference Implementation to

reflect changes in the draft standard.

3. Administer and participate with industry partners

in a BACnet Interoperability Testing consortium.

The consortium will:

58
Real Time Fault Detection and

Diagnostics

Principal Investigator:

George E. Kelly

Building Environment Division

301-975-5870

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Systems Division

Objective

To develop methods for performing fault detection

and diagnostics on mechanical equipment and

systems in real time and participate in the International Energy Agency (IEA) Annex 25 Committee on

Real Time Simulation of HVAC - Systems For

Building Optimization, Fault Detection and Diagnostics (BOFD).

Problem

The operation of buildings and building systems is a complex procedure. With more and more emphasis

on a combination of different and often conflicting

performance measures, the processes, systems, and

equipment used in commercial and residential buildings are becoming more complex. New control

and on-line analysis methods are needed to detect

problems (faults) as they occur, determine which

component or system is failing or has failed, and

recommend maintenance or repair procedures.

These methods then can be used by the building

controls industry into building energy management

system (BEMS), "smart" building equipment, and

into stand alone systems dedicated to fault detection and diagnostics.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL and Johnson Controls, Inc. through a Cooperative Research and Development

Agreement (CRADA) will use BFRL's Fault Detection

and Diagnostics (FDD) Laboratory containing a

variable air volume (VAV) air handling system to study problem associated with control strategies

and algorithm commonly used today on VAV air handling systems. Experimental data will be

gathered on the performance of various components

and control algorithms under normal operating

conditions and without/with the presence of typical

faults. A detailed HVACSIM + based model of the

VAV air handling system will be developed and

validated, and simulation studies will be performed

to evaluate the performance of alternative control

techniques and strategies and various fault detection/diagnostic methods.

These technologies will be implemented and tested on an actual VAV air handling system in the laboratory. Various methods for on-line system identification, fault detection, and diagnosis will be explored

in conjunction with the new control methods and

used to support BFRL and DOE participation in the

International Energy Agency Annex 25.

This work is expected to improve the operation and

performance of complex building systems, promote

energy conservation, and help create a market for

intelligent building management systems that should

have a significant positive impact on both domestic

and international sale of "smart" controls.

Recent Results

Kelly, G.E. et.al., "Using Emulators to Evaluate the

Performance of Building Energy Management

Systems", ASHRAE Transaction, New Orleans,

January 1994.

Peitzman, H., Park, C. et.al., "The Reproducibility of Tests on Energy Management and Control Systems

Using Building Emulators," ASHRAE Transaction

,

New Orleans, January 1994.

Kelly, G.E. et.al., Guidelines for Using Emulators to Evaluate the Performance of Energy Management

and Control Systems, NISTIR 4991, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

59
Test Procedures for Furnaces,

Boilers and Integrated Appliances

Principal Investigator:

Stanley T. Liu Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating procedures

for determining energy performance of furnaces,

boilers, and integrated appliances.

Problem

The ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 124-1991, Method of

Testing for Rating Combination Space HeatingA/Vater Heating Appliances, has been approved

by the American National Standard Institute and

ASHRAE. The Standard requires the testing of the

space heating function of the appliance as a boiler in accordance with the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 103-

1 988, and testing the water heating function as a water heater in accordance with a procedure similar to the DoE test procedure for water heaters. Rating

descriptors for an appliance are derived from the

two separate tests. In FY 1 993, BFRL conducted a computer simulation study on a family series of five boilers with an identical tankless coil for domestic

hot water in accordance with the ASHRAE Standard

1 24 test procedure for developing an interpolation

scheme that would reduce the number of tests required for a family of boilers of similar construction. The result revealed that a linear interpolating

and/or extrapolating scheme of the rating

descriptors based on test data from two boilers in a family series can be used to determine the perfor- mance of the other boilers. BFRL also contracted

with the ETL testing laboratory to conduct laboratory tests on a family of oil-fired boilers with tankless

coil for domestic hot water production and conducted laboratory tests at BFRL on a family of gas-fired

boilers with a storage tank for domestic hot water.

In FY 1991, BFRL developed and delivered to DoE a recommended draft test procedure for furnaces and

boilers that references ANSI/ASHRAE Standard

103-1988, and revisions to the test procedures for

vented home heaters and pool heaters. The draft procedures also establish a new annual energy

efficiency rating descriptor which included the

energy consumption of the auxiliary electrical components of the appliances in determine their overall energy efficiency. The new procedures were

evaluated by DOE during FY 1992-1993, and were

approved for publication in the Federal Register by

DoE as a Proposed Rule Making in August 23, 1 993

for public hearing and comments. A detailed

evaluation of the comments on the new procedures

received from industries and other interested organizations during the comment period will need to be

carried out and revisions made. BFRL will evaluate

the comments and suggestions, make the appropriate revisions, and assist DOE complete the test procedures before it is published by DOE as a Final Rule.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform the following

tasks:

1 . Review all comments received on the Proposed

Rule Making for furnaces/boilers and vented home

heaters and assist DOE publish the Final Rule for these products.

2. Revise the computer program AFUEBF by

incorporating the procedures that are in the final rule for distribution to industry.

3. Complete laboratory tests on the performance of

a family of boilers in combination with tankless coils and storage tanks to validate the linear interpolating

methodology.

4. Evaluate and modify, if necessary, the first hour

draw test for Type I combination appliance (as a water heater) as specified in ASHRAE 1 24 for boiler with tankless coils. 5. Develop a recommended test procedure for evaluating the annual performance and cost of operation of Type I and Type II combined

space/water heating appliances and assist DoE in preparing a Proposed Rule Making on this product.

6. Assist DOE prepare responses to Requests for Waivers and draft Federal Register Notices of proposed Rule Making.

The development of the test procedures is expected

to provide a uniform method of test on the energy

performance of furnaces, boilers, and integrated

appliances so that similar appliances can be rated

equally and fairly and their compliance with the

minimum energy standards determined. The

60
development of a linear interpolating method will reduce the number of rating tests and the burden

that the manufacturers of integrated appliances

have to conduct for a family series of models of a

similar construction.

Recent Results

Liu, ST. and Kelly, G.E., Predicting the Energy

Performance Ratings of a Family of Type I Combination Appliances, NISTIR 5250, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

August 1993.

Test Procedures for Heat Pumps

and Air Conditioners

Principal Investigator:

Brian Dougherty

Building Environment Division

301-975-6396

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Office of Codes and Standards

Appliance Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating procedures

for determining energy performance of heat pumps

and air conditioners.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL 94-

163) (EPCA), as amended, requires the Department

of Energy (DOE) to prescribe test and rating proce- dures and minimum performance standards for various residential and commercial appliances. DoE

has, since 1 975, relied on BFRL to develop and then

update the test and rating procedures.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will:

1 . Edit the DoE test procedure for residential heat

pumps and air conditioners. Much of the document

will be reorganized. The nomenclature will be

revised to be consistent with the nomenclature

within the forthcoming DoE proposed test procedure

for combined heat pump - water heating appliances.

A few new issues may also be addressed, including

how to test units having variable-speed, constant air flow rate indoor fans.

2. Assist with finalizing the DoE test procedure and

the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (ARI)

rating procedure for combined heat pump - water

heating appliances. BFRL will also participate in resolving comments from the first public review of

the proposed combined appliance test method

standard 137P of the American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE).

3. Initiate work to substantially revise the DoE test procedure for heat pumps and air conditioners.

BFRL will convert the test procedure to a metric

61
format while making it as compatible as possible

with a nearly completed heat pump standard of the

International Standards Organization (ISO). Methods for addressing operating features of newer heat

pumps, like history-dependent defrost schemes, will also be pursued. Finally, a few parts of the present

test procedure, such as default values used in the

calculations, will be re-evaluated.

4. Evaluate if an indoor fan delay appreciably and

consistently affects SEER and HSPF.

5. Provide DoE recommendations for future work on

developing a generic test procedure for heat pumps

that incorporate thermal storage and domestic

water heating.

Appliance performance ratings are used by consumers when buying, by electric utilities in devising

rebate programs, and by governments for promoting

or mandating the installation of high efficiency

appliances.

Recent Results

ASHRAE Standard 137P to be released for public

review in April 1 994.

Development of Revised Test Procedures for Refrigerator-Freezers

Principal Investigator:

James Kao, (301)975-5871

Building Environment Division

301-975-5871

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To develop revised test procedures on residential refrigerator-freezers and use this data to assess

feasibility of future revisions to the Department of

Energy (DoE) test procedures for refrigerator- freezers.

Problem

The current DOE test procedure was developed

nearly 10 years ago. This test procedure includes

certain test conditions and assumptions which may

not be realistic operating conditions (e.g., 32.2

_+1 °C ambient temperature is presently required

during the test and the door-opening is required only

for the variable defrost control optional test) result- ing in higher energy consumption rates than field test results. More advanced manufacturing techniques (lower anti-sweat heater energy, better cabinet insulation, better door gaskets, etc.), and

operational features (e.g., electronic defrost operation, through-the-door ice service, etc.) are now

used extensively. A thorough review of the full test procedure is needed.

Approach

BFRL conducted tests on two refrigerator-freezers (a top-freezer unit and a side-by-side door unit) in FY

1 993 to determine the sensitivity of room temperature, room humidity, anti-sweat heater, and door

openings on energy consumption. During FY 1994,

BFRL will expand work to test room temperature

and door openings at multi-levels to determine

refrigerator-freezer energy use. BFRL also will conduct tests on automatic ice making and defrost

characteristics. BFRL will advise DoE on test procedure revisions, if required. An updated and

improved energy test procedure which reflects refrigerator-freezer using conditions more realistical62
ly will benefit consumers in their purchasing decisions.

Preliminary analysis of sensitivity tests indicates that room temperature and door openings have signifi- cant effect on refrigerator-freezer energy consumption. Room humidity and anti-sweat heater have

minor effect than the other two parameters. Future

tests should be concentrated on varying room

temperature and door openings.

Recent Results

Completed development and performed check out

tests of the test facility.

Test Procedures for Plumbing

Products

Principal Investigator:

Stephen J. Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

SponsorDepartment of Energy

Office of Building Technology

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To provide testing and rating procedures for deter- mining performance of plumbing products.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (PL 94-

163) (EPCA), as amended, required the Department

of Energy (DOE) to prescribe test and rating proce- dures and minimum performance standards for various residential appliances. In addition, the 1 987

amendments to EPCA requires analysis of any test procedure amendments to determine their effect on minimum efficiency standards. DOE has, since

1 975, relied on BFRL to assist in the development

of the test and rating procedures.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will continued providing DOE

with technical assistance in support of proposed

Rule Making. This work includes providing technical

support on standards and test procedures and

attending industry meetings and standards testing

plumbing products to demonstrate conformance to the standards. This work will promote the use of more water conserving plumbing products.

Recent Results

Developed proposed rule for testing and certifying

covered plumbing products.

63
Development of Revised Test Procedures for Pool and Spa Heaters

Principal Investigator:

Stanley T. Liu Building Environment Division

301-975-5880

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To develop testing and rating procedure for deter- mining energy performance of pool and spa heaters.

Problem

In FY 1 993, DOE modified the test procedure for pool and spa heaters to include a calculation of

energy factor and published the procedure in the

Federal Register as a Proposed Rule Making on August 23, 1 993 for public hearing and comments.

Comments will be received from industry and other

interested organizations during the formal comment

period. BFRL will evaluate the comments, make the

appropriate revisions, and assist DOE in finalizing

the test procedure so it can be published as a Final Rule.

pated in the development of this draft standard and

provided comments and suggestions over several

versions of the standard. The draft standard was

recently been approved by ASHRAE SPC 146P for public review and comment.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will continue to provide comments and suggestions during the review process so

that the final standard can be referenced in a new,

revised DOE test procedure for pool and spa

heaters.

The development of this test procedure is expected

to provide a uniform method of test on the energy

performance of all pool heaters so that similar appliances can be rated equally and fairly and their compliance to the minimum energy standards

determined.

Recent Results

Participated in the development of the draft stan- dard by the ASHRAE SPC 146P for pool and spa

heaters.

The published DOE test procedure for pool heaters covers only gas- and oil-fired pool heaters. The test procedure references ANSI Standard Z21 .56 for gas-fired pool heaters and specifies certain modifications for the procedure to be applicable to oil-fired pool heaters. It does not cover electric resistance

type heaters or the heat pump pool heaters which

are recently introduced into the market place. A

revision to the published test procedure is needed to include the installation, measurements, test methods, and calculation procedures for both the electric resistance type and the heat pump heaters.

Approach

Over the last 2 years, the ASHRAE SPC 146P

committee has developed the ASHRAE Standard

1 46P for testing and rating pool and spa heaters

that include fossil fueled and electrical operated

heaters. The standard includes the installation,

instrumentation, test methods and procedures, and

calculation procedures for all types of heaters in a

single document. In FY 1 993, BFRL actively partici64
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

INDOOR AIR QUALITY

65
Development and Application of

Multizone Indoor Air Quality

Models

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

George Walton

Building Environment Division

301-975-6421

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop an advanced airflow and contaminant

dispersal model in the CONTAM series (BFRL's

multizone airflow and contaminate dispersal model)

specifically CONTAM94, investigate options for integrating multizone airflow and contaminant

analysis into a comprehensive indoor air quality

model, apply CONTAM94 to indoor air quality

analysis in support of revising ASHRAE Standard

62-1989.

Problem

Multizone airflow and contaminant models have

been developed at BFRL, including AIRNET and

CONTAM86 through CONTAM93. These models were unique at the time of their development and were useful for the study of airflow and indoor air quality in multizone building systems. As the indoor

air quality field continues to improve, there lacks a comprehensive building air quality model that

considers component model development, system

development, and integrated system development.

Component model development refers to the

development of models to describe specific airflow

and contaminant dispersal processes for incorporation into a general model as CONTAM93. Examples

include aerosol transport and nonlinear chemical

reaction. System development refers to efforts to improve the approaches used to form and solve the

systems of equations within a general model like CONTAM93. Integrated system development refers to the integration of airflow, contaminant dispersal,

thermal and other types of models into a comprehensive indoor air quality model. A comprehensive

model is needed to assess indoor air quality problems by risk assessors, building designers, producers of building materials and furnishings, HVAC

equipment manufacturers, and indoor air quality

researchers. In the near term, the impending

revision of ASHRAE Standard 62 will present

immediate needs for building air quality modeling

capabilities.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform three tasks:

1 . Improve CONTAM93 through the development of CONTAM94. CONTAM93 will be evaluated for its existing component models, the user interface and

its potential for integration with other types of

analysis. Based on this evaluation, the highest

priority areas for further development will be identi- fied and pursued in the development of CONTAM94. It is expected that improvements will be made

in the ventilation system and the source and sink

models.

2. Preliminary implementation of approaches to link airflow and contaminant dispersal analysis with

thermal building analysis. This work includes the

integration of airflow and contaminant dispersal

analysis with building thermal analysis. The various

possibilities for integration will be investigated

including: the further development of CONTAM94

to include thermal analysis and other types of

analysis; the implementation of CONTAM94 by

linking its input and output with other programs

within another program such as TRNSYS; and using

simulation environments to develop a fully integrated indoor air quality analysis tool. Preliminary at- tempts to develop integrated tools will be pursued

to evaluate the appropriateness of these different

approaches.

3. The application of these models to indoor air quality and building energy use issues of immediate

interest. CONTAM94 and some of the preliminary

integrated models will be used to study indoor air quality problems of interest. These problems will be

selected based on the activities of the ASHRAE

committee responsible for the revision of ASHRAE

Standard 62-1989, Ventilation for Acceptable

Indoor Air Quality.

Recent Results

Developed CONTAM93, an improved version with a graphic interface for input and output and uses advanced airflow analysis algorithms.

66
Hon, George W., CONTAM93 User's Manual,

NISTIR 5385, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, April 1994.

Development of Protocols for

Ventilation System Performance

Evaluation

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

W. Stuart Dols

Building Environment Division

301-975-5860

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To identify needs for standardized protocols for evaluating ventilation system performance for use in building air quality studies and to develop evaluation

protocols to meet these needs.

Problem

Currently, inadequate attention is focussed on

ventilation system performance in research projects

and diagnostic investigations of building air quality

problems. Need all standardized protocols to assess

ventilation in buildings at a level of effort appropriate to indoor air quality studies. While ventilation assessment procedures have been developed by the

HVAC and the testing, adjusting, and balancing

(TAB) industries, these procedures are too complex

for use in indoor air quality studies. Research level procedures using tracer gases also are available, but

these are still too complex and expensive for wide

application.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will assess the needs of the

HVAC, testing, adjusting, and balancing industry

customers for ventilation evaluation protocols. The

assessment involves obtaining and analyzing

response from these practitioners to BFRL's developed checklists and manual developed in FY 1993.

Based on this effort, a list of needs for ventilation evaluation protocols will be developed in the areas

of diagnostics, preventive maintenance, and

research. In addition, manufacturer's of instrumentation to evaluate ventilation system performance

will be contacted to discuss their products, existing

protocols, user needs and future products to meet

67
these needs. A workshop will be held at NIST to

bring together these manufacturers, the users of

ventilation assessment protocols, representatives of

relevant industry associations, and researchers. At

this workshop, the participants will discuss the need

for different ventilation evaluation protocols and the

instrumentation needed to implement these protocols. Based on the results of this workshop, BFRL

will identify and define ventilation evaluation

protocols that need to be developed. Draft protocols will be prepared and submitted to ASTM or ASHRAE committees as appropriate for development into standards.

Recent Results

Persily, Andrew K., Manual for Ventilation Assessment in Mechanically Ventilated Commercial

Buildings, NISTIR 5329, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

January 1994.

Infiltration/Ventilation - Large

Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technology

Objective

To develop and demonstrate equipment and proce- dures for assessing ventilation in public and commercial buildings in conjunction with indoor air quality investigations and understand the relation- ship between envelope airtightness and commercial

building design and construction.

Problem

Indoor air quality investigations often associate poor

ventilation system performance with indoor air quality complaints. However, air change rates and

other ventilation system performance parameters

have not been well characterized in commercial

buildings, either as part of these indoor air quality

investigations or in general. Many indoor air quality

investigations have not included adequate assess- ments of ventilation, making connections between

ventilation performance and indoor air quality even more difficult to establish. There is a lack of a

reliable procedures for assessing ventilation system

performance at a practical level of effort and

expertise. Most of the research into ventilation

system performance has involved sophisticated

tracer gas techniques that are not consistent with

the resources and technical skills of most indoor air quality investigators. Excessive envelope air leakage impacts indoor air quality, envelope material

durability, and occupant comfort. However, current thermal loads analysis programs are not capable of integrating multi-zone airflow analysis. Hence, the

energy impacts of envelope air leakage and poor

ventilation system control are not known.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform three tasks:

1 . Develop and field test an automated system for monitoring ventilation system performance parameters. This work involves field deployment of an

68
automated ventilation monitoring system, to advance knowledge of the performance of ventila- tion systems in commercial buildings and to evaluate the applicability of this system to the evaluation

of ventilation system performance. This monitoring

system, developed by BFRL during FY 1 992, is based on the real-time monitoring of key ventilation

system performance parameters. The system will be deployed in the field and the measurement

results compared to other, more accurate, measurement systems. The field deployment will provide an opportunity to evaluate the monitoring

system's design and performance so it can be

modified. In addition, the real-time data on ventila- tion systems operation and performance will further our understanding of how mechanical ventilation

systems perform and thereby assist in the development of evaluation protocols that capture the key

aspects of ventilation performance.

2. Participate in industry consensus standards activities, primarily the revision of ASHRAE Standard 62

"Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality" and

the development of the new ASHRAE Standard

129P "Test Method for Ventilation Effectiveness."

In addition, BFRL will participate in ASTM as cochair of subcommittee E6.41 on Infiltration Perfor- mance and task group chair of D22.05.01 on

Related Factors in Indoor Air Quality.

3. Investigate the relationship between commercial

building design and construction and the resultant envelope airtightness. The effort involves planning

a multi-phase, multi-year project to investigate the

energy impacts of air leakage and ventilation system

performance in modern office buildings. The first phase will characterize the interactions between

building airflow dynamics and thermal loads. The

effort also will include reviewing available analytical tools for analyzing coupled building airflow and

energy use to determine the most appropriate

approach to achieve the project objective. Also,

BFRL will calculate the energy impacts of building

leakage and poor ventilation system control using

the simplified approach of available analytical tools.

The results of this work will support the activities of

the EPA BASE Program by developing new ap- proaches to large building monitoring and by

improving the usefulness of existing ventilation

evaluation procedures.

Recent Results

Persily, A.K., Building and HVAC Characterization

for Commercial Building Indoor Air Quality Investigations, NISTIR 4979, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Persily, A.K., "Assessing Ventilation Effectiveness in Mechanically Ventilated Office Buildings," Proceedings of International Symposium on Room Air

Convection and Ventilation Effectiveness, University

of Tokyo, July 1992.

69
Radon Entry and Mitigation in

Large Buildings

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Recent Results

Investigated radon source models for use in the

large building modeling effort and developed pres- sure-dependent and pressure-independent models

and incorporated them into the CONTAM88 input

files for the four buildings.

Sponsor:

Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Radiation Programs

Objective

To evaluate radon entry and air movement in a

large, nonindustrial building.

Problem

There has been much research conducted on the

subject of radon in buildings. This research has

focused primarily on problem identification, mitigation, and source modeling in single-family residential buildings. Recently, attention has turned towards

large buildings such as schools, commercial build- ings, and multi-family residential buildings. While

the fundamental issues regarding the relationship

between radon, ventilation, and building features in small buildings has not been resolved, radon in large

buildings is a more complex problem due to the

multi-zone nature of airflow and contaminant

dispersal in large, mechanically ventilated buildings.

The technical issues that must be studied to understand radon transport in large buildings include the

impacts of mechanical ventilation system operation,

air movement via vertical shafts within tall buildings,

and pressure differences at ground contact zones.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will study radon transport in large buildings through multi-zone airflow and

contaminant dispersal modeling. BFRL's

CONTAM88, multizone airflow and contaminant

dispersal model, will be applied to four large build- ings: a twelve-story multi-family residential building, a mechanically ventilated office building with a decentralized ventilation system, a mechanically

ventilated office building with a centralized system,

and a single-story school building. A large number

of simulations will be run in each building to study

the effects of envelope airtightness, the airtightness

of interior partitions, ventilation system operation,

and the form of the radon source model.

70
Study of IAQ Improvement

Through the Use of HVAC

Systems

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Steven J. Emmerich

Building Environment Division

301-975-6459

Sponsor:

Consumer Product Safety Commission

Directorate of Engineering Sciences

Division of Mechanical Engineering

Objective

To assess the impact of existing HVAC technology on residential indoor air quality and assess the

potential for using HVAC systems to reduce indoor

pollutant levels.

Problem

Despite the increasing interest in residential indoor

air quality problems, little research has been con- ducted to analyze the impact of pollutant sources,

residential HVAC system operation and building

envelope leakage on indoor pollutant levels. Most

of the research to date has employed simple models

of the building and its systems, ignoring the multi- zone nature of the airflows involved. The use of

such simple analytical procedures has limited our understanding of the impact of HVAC systems and

other systems on residential indoor air quality and

the possibility of using these and other systems to

mitigate some indoor air quality problems.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will focus attention to completing the second phase of a two-phase

project. In Phase I of this project, BFRL completed

three tasks: conducted a literature review, developed a plan for computer analysis, and held a peer

review meeting to discuss this plan. During FY

1994, BFRL will implement the computer simulations developed last year.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform three tasks of

this second year of a two year effort:

1 . Calculate concentrations of selected indoor

contaminants given the baseline houses and

pollutant sources. This data will provide baseline

pollutants for comparing the effectiveness of the

IAQ control retrofits. 2. Design the IAQ control retrofits and their incorporation into the model houses.

3. Perform preliminary computer simulations to determine the effectiveness of the retrofits. At the

discretion of CPSC, this effort will be followed by a Phase B effort where the computer simulations are completed and analyzed.

Recent Results

Emmerich, Steven J. and Persily, Andrew K., Indoor

Air Quality Impacts of Residential HVAC Systems

Phase I Report: Computer Simulation Plan, N I STIR

5367, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, February 1994.

71
Indoor Air Quality Commissioning

Program for TWFN

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Office of Consolidation

Objective

To develop and apply an indoor air quality commissioning program to the new Nuclear Regulatory

Commission office building to ensure an acceptable

workplace to the building occupants.

Problem

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission is in the

process of constructing a new office building in the

greater Washington, DC area. Based on experi- ences in other buildings, NRC is concerned about

the possibility of experiencing indoor air quality

problems in the new building associated with movein. These concerns center on the "staged" occu- pancy approach that will be employed in the

building, in which a portion of the building will be

occupied while other areas in the building are still be

finished. In addition, the activity of moving in the

occupants and their belongings can be associated

with unusual contaminant sources. The occupancy

of new office buildings has the potential for indoor

environmental problems associated with new

building materials. While many strategies have been

proposed to reduce the potential for such problems,

the technical bases for these approaches are limited. There has been insufficient sufficient research on air quality in new, or existing, buildings to develop

properly documented procedures for preparing new

office buildings for occupancy.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will develop and implement

indoor air quality commissioning procedures. This

work will consist of several stages including an

evaluation of the ventilation system design, initial indoor air quality monitoring during construction, the

development of criteria for the acceptability of the

space prior to and immediately after occupancy, and

acceptance of spaces within the building for occupancy based on these criteria. During the initial

monitoring effort, BFRL will evaluate the ventilation system design and performance and measure

selected indoor pollutants during the interior finishing. The design will be compared with current

practice and relevant standards for its adequacy to address indoor air quality concerns. The pollutant

level measurements will be used to anticipate the

existence of unusual pollutant sources associated

with building materials or interior furnishings. While

there are currently few standards for such sources, the measurements will be compared with the results of measurements in other buildings.

Following this work, BFRL will develop criteria for the acceptability of a portion of the building for occupancy. These criteria will be based on the

results of on-site inspections, tests of the ventilation system performance and indoor pollutant concentration measurements. Criteria will include outdoor air delivery rates, pressure relationships between

spaces, and indoor concentrations of particulates,

formaldehyde, radon and volatile organic compounds. The post-occupancy criteria will include

indoor carbon dioxide levels.

When the BFRL criteria has been accepted by NRC,

they will be applied in the building to spaces as they

become ready for occupancy. BFRL will inspect the

space and the HVAC system and conduct indoor

contaminant measurements. The results of the

inspection and measurement efforts will be compared to the agreed upon criteria to determine the

acceptability of the space. Roughly one month after the space is occupied, BFRL will return to the

building to reinspect the space and HVAC system

and to conduct follow-up measurements. The

results will then be compared to the post-occupancy

environmental criteria to determine if the space is

still acceptable. This procedure for determining

acceptability will be applied to the building until it is fully occupied.

Recent Results

New project.

72
Indoor PAH and Particulate

Emissions from Wood Stoves

Principal Investigator:

Andrew K. Persily

Building Environment Division

301-975-6418

Sponsor:

Consumer Product Safety Commission

Directorate of Health Sciences

Objective

To measure indoor levels of selected polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and particulates

associated with wood stoves in order to determine

the emission rates of these substances under typical

residential use.

BFRL staff will instrument the test house, conduct

the tests, collect the PAH samples and perform the

particulate, air change rate and environmental

measurements. The analysis of the PAH samples

will be performed by NIST's Chemical Science and

Engineering Laboratory. The measured data will be

analyzed to enable the reporting of average concentrations, air change rates, and environmental

conditions over periods of several hours during the

tests.

Recent Results

New project.

Problem

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and other PAHs associated

with wood stove emissions have previously been

investigated for the cancer risk associated with

these substances. Based on these risks, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set requirements to reduce particulate emissions into outdoor

air from wood stoves. While CPSC has performed a cancer risk assessment from exposure to PAH in the

indoor air from the previous generation of nonairtight stoves, they need to determine indoor PAH

levels associated with the new generation of wood

stoves complying the EPA's Phase II (final) emission

requirements.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will measure the levels of PAH and particulate emissions from wood stoves

complying with EPA's Phase II requirements for

particulate emissions. These tests will be performed

in a test house, and the stoves will be operated

consistent with typical residential use. During the

tests, BFRL will measure: 1 . BaP, including particulate and vapor phases combined; 2. up to 10 other

individual PAHs, including particulate and vapor

phases combined; 3. total particulate-phase PAHs

with a "real time" PAH monitor provided by CPSC;

4. particulate matter below 1 0 micrometers in diameter (PM10); 5. continuous particulate counts; and 6. building air change rates measured with

automated tracer gas decay. In addition to these

quantities, indoor and outdoor environmental

conditions will be monitored during the tests.

73
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

COMPUTER INTEGRATED

CONSTRUCTION
Advanced Manufacturing Systems

and Networking Testbed

(AMSANT) for the Process Plant

Industries

Principal Investigator:

Kent A. Reed

Building Environment Division

301-975-5852

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To create an experimental computing and communication facility for establishing a baseline of

industrial practice in process plant engineering and

construction, for serving as a open testbed for integration activities of industrial partners, and for serving as a communications hub for U.S. participants.

Problem

The process plant industries comprise highly

competitive vendors and users of computerized

systems for the design, construction, and mainte- nance of process plants. An open facility is needed

in which these players can test proposals for integrating their computerized systems without bias

or unnecessary disclosure of proprietary developments. This research supports a companion project,

STEP for the Process Plant Industries, for testing the

information models proposed for Standard for the

Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP) application

protocols.

Approach

This is a multi-year project. During FY 1 994, BFRL

will perform four tasks:

1 . Create the laboratory space, procure equipment,

and install a communications network.

2. Develop a plan for linking the distributed components into a NIST-wide AMSANT facility in collaboration with other NIST laboratories.

3. Establish electronic mail list and file servers to

link participants in the STEP Process Plant Application Protocol projects.

4. Install at least two major software packages that

address process plant design and construction

activities; develop a data dictionary for the two

systems; and build representations of a publicdomain model of a process plant piping system in the software packages.

The experimental computing and communication

facility will be a distributed component of the NISTwide Advanced Manufacturing Systems and

Networking Testbed (AMSANT).

This work will provide process plant owners,

contractors, and software vendors with the open

testbed needed for testing and verifying technical

approaches being taken in the development of STEP. The emerging U.S. industry consortium

known as PLANT/STEP is expected to be an early user of this testbed.

Recent Results

New project.

75
Process Plant Engineering and

Construction: Structural Systems

Principal Investigator:

Long Phan

Structures Division

301-975-6077

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop the technical basis for a virtual construction environment, based on the Standard for the

Exchange of Product model data (STEP) technologies, that supports the design and construction of

structural systems for process plants.

Problem

The U.S. process plant industries seek to improve

their use of computerized systems through integration, e.g., automation of the exchange and sharing

of information among systems. Effective integration

will enable the introduction of virtual construction

environments by allowing engineers and constructors to visualize and manipulate a common process

plant model from widely disparate viewpoints. In this environment, the plant design can be optimized

for constructability and maintainability. The evolving

international standard ISO 1 0303—Product Data

Representation and Exchange, known as STEP, is providing the base technology needed for integration. STEP application protocols must be developed

that meet the needs of the process plant industries,

notably in the creation of virtual environments.

Approach

This is a multi-year project.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will:

1 . Develop a test case of structural steelwork,

piping and equipment, sufficiently complex to be

representative of process plants and sufficiently

detailed to support structural analysis and detailed

structural design.

2. Select and review existing application reference

models for structural systems that have been

brought to the STEP project, including the ship

structural systems model from the Navy/Industry

Digital Data Exchange Standards Committee

(NIDDESC), and the structural steelwork for buildings model from the European Strategic Program for Research and Development in Information Technologies (ESPRIT) CIMSTEEL project.

3. Critique the models using the test case and

propose refinements and extensions needed to support the creation of a virtual construction

environment.

4. Work with the companion project—AMSANT for the Process Plant Industries—to plan a prototype

implementation of the test case.

This research will establish a technical baseline and

verify test case data for the STEP application

protocols that are being developed nationally. The

emerging U.S. industry consortium known as PLANT/STEP is expected to be an early partner in this research.

Recent Results

New project.

76
STEP for the Building Industry

Principal Investigator:

William F. Danner

Building Environment Division

301-975-5855

Mark E. Palmer

Building Environment Division

301-975-5858

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To demonstrate automated information exchange

using STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product

model data) in the building industry.

Problem

National and International standards bodies have

adopted the application protocol (AP) methodology

for developing information exchange standards.

The USA IGES/PDES Organization and the ISO TC

1 84/SC4, which is developing the Standard for the

Exchange of Product Model Data (STEP), are proponents of this new method.

BFRL initially developed the AP methodology as a solution for ensuring reliable information exchange

using the Initial Graphics Exchange Specification

(IGES). With Industry and other government agencies, BFRL developed the 3D Piping IGES Application Protocol, both to prove the methodology and to meet a high-priority data exchange requirement of

industry and government.

There is now world-wide activity to develop industry-specific application protocols in the ISO STEP

project. Recently, ISO TC 1 84/SC4 approved the

creation of the Process Plant Application Protocol

Planning Project. A framework is needed for deter- mining what application protocols should be developed for chemical process plants. U.S. Industry

input is needed to ensure that the application

protocols will be useful when completed. An

experimental software environment is needed for

testing the ideas and information requirements that

are advanced in the project.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will establish a U.S. industry

advisory panel. Working with this panel and with

the Process Plant Application Protocol Planning

project in the ISO STEP project, BFRL will develop

prototype information requirements for a functional/schematic description of a chemical process

plant, comparable to a process and instrumentation

diagram (P&ID), and for a physical description,

comparable t the traditional plastic model. BFRL will apply the planning framework developed last year to determine the suite of application protocols to be

developed in the project. BFRL will develop an

experimental database implementation of an

application reference model (ARM) for a prototype

application protocol relating to chemical process

plants.

The results of this research are expected to provide owners and contractors with the information

needed to select appropriate approaches for describing process plants consistently and completely using

STEP application protocols.

Recent Results

Palmer, Mark E. and Gilbert, Mitch, Guidelines for the Development and Approval of STEP Application

Protocols, NISTIR 5110, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

November 1993.

77
STEP for the Process Plant

Industries

Principal Investigator:

Mark E. Palmer

Building Environment Division

301-975-5858

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To assist the U.S. process plant industries develop

the Standard for the Exchange of Product model

data (STEP) application protocols needed for sharing

and exchanging information during the design and

construction, and maintenance of plant piping and

equipment systems.

Problem

The U.S. process plant industries seek to improve

their use of computerized systems through integration, e.g., automation of the exchange and sharing

of information among systems. The many computerized systems in use can be integrated only at great cost because of their incompatible proprietary

representations of information; information ex- change today is accomplished largely through

manual methods. Standard, neutral information

representations and exchange methods are needed

that allow system vendors to be innovative and yet

allow system users to exchange and share information about process plants automatically. The

evolving international standard ISO 1 0303—Product

Data Representation and Exchange, known as STEP, is providing the base technology. STEP

application protocols must be developed that meet

the needs of the process plant industries.

Approach

In a BFRL workshop conducted in FY 1 992, owners, engineers and constructors, information technology providers, and parts suppliers identified plant

piping systems as the key focus of application

protocol development. They also recommended

establishment of a preliminary technical work plan

to address the development of a product data model

to support 1 . the selection and use of commodity

items, 2. the development of piping and instrumentation (P&l) diagrams from process stream information, 3. the development of piping system geometry

from P&l information, 4. the capture of project

management data, 5. demonstrating compliance

with EPA, OSHA, and ISO 9000-series standards,

and 6. the exchange of piping system data from

designer to fabricator.

BFRL will address these issues in priority order as

established in further workshops, through interac- tions with industry consortia and individual companies, and through the STEP Process Plant Application Protocol Planning Project (PPAPPP). This is a multi-year project. BFRL will assess the state of

information technology practice in the process plant

industries; refine the existing process plant activity

model that has been submitted to the STEP PPAPPP

by the U.S. Process Data Exchange Institute (PDXI);

and work with industry to generalize the application

reference model for ship piping systems developed

by the Navy/Industry Digital Data Exchange Stan- dards Committee (NIDDESC). BFRL will work with

researchers at the University of Missouri-Rolla to assess P&l information requirements. BFRL, in collaboration with the industry consortium

PlantSTEP, will develop the Group I documentation

for a STEP application protocol for process plant

piping systems information. BFRL will continue to co-lead the STEP Process Plant Application Planning

Project in ISO TC1 84/SC4/WG3.

Recent Results

Palmer, Mark E. and Gilbert, Mitch, Guidelines for the Development and Approval of STEP Application

Protocols, NISTIR 51 10, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

November 1993.

NIST workshop on automated information exchange

in Construction: Process/Petrochemical Industries

and Piping Systems, held in October 1992.

Palmer, Mark E. and Reed, Kent A., 3D Piping IGES

Application Protocol Version 1. 1, NISTIR 4797,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, March 1992.

78
Computerized Maintenance

Management Information

Principal Investigator:

Kent A. Reed

Building Environment Division

301-975-5852

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop digital data standards that facilitate the

exchange of information with computerized mainte- nance management systems.

Problem

A major impediment to the implementation of

computerized maintenance management systems is the high cost of manually gathering, formatting, and

inputting the required information about the building

and its systems. Typically, this information is available only in the paper forms such as "as-built" drawings, specifications, and manufacturer's data

sheets and manuals. Furthermore, current computerized maintenance management systems typically

have different and often proprietary data formats

that prevent automatic exchange of information

from one to another, as from a work order scheduling system to a spare parts inventory system.

Frequently, these exchanges are performed manually and at another high cost.

In FY 1993, an ASTM Task Force, E06.25.1 1, was

created to consider standardization of computerized

maintenance management information. This task

force took as its first priority the development of a standard that facilitates the entry of manufacturer's

operation and maintenance information about

building equipment such as chillers, boilers, and

elevators. Recognizing that complete capture of all possible information is still an unsolved technical

problem, the task force agreed first to standardize on the structure of such information and to develop

a document tagging scheme that enforces this structure. The Standard Generalized Markup

Language, SGML (ISO 8879), is under consideration

as the implementation mechanism.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will develop and demonstrate

trial SGML Document Type Definitions (DTD's) that

capture the document structures developed by the

ASTM task force. Successful completion of this work will validate the technical approach taken by

ASTM E06.25.1 1, enabling manufacturers to deliver equipment, maintenance information electronically

from the same databases used to generate traditional printed documentation and enabling building

operators to read electronic information directly into maintenance management systems.

Recent Results

New project.

79
Prototype Requirements

Management System

Principal Investigator:

Mark E. Palmer

Building Environment Division

301-975-5858

Sponsor:

Department of Defense

Office of the Defense CALS Executive

Objective

To develop a prototype Requirements Management

System for use by DoD and industry to define and

prioritize its requirements for STEP (Standard for the

Exchange of Product Model Data).

Problem

DoD, other government agencies, and industry need

a comprehensive process for documenting requirements and for ensuring that these requirements are incorporated into the standards development pro- cess.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will develop a functional

specification and technical evaluation criteria for a prototype RMS based on its investigation of soft- ware tools for requirements management and the

successful demonstration of a trial requirements

management system (RMS) performed last year. The prototype RMS will be developed and tested in conjunction with the NIST National PDES Testbed

APs for DoD and Industry Project. The results of

this test will be used to improve the RMS. Based on the success of this test, this project will assess

the utility of applying the RMS to the CIC work on

information systems for the Process Plant Industries.

The results of this research are expected to provide

industry and government agencies with costeffective methods and tools for collecting, synthesizing, and establishing consensus on requirements

for information systems.

Recent Results

Developed trial Requirements Management System

(RMS) and electronic questionnaires, tested trial RMS in conjunction with the CALS project to develop a Technical Data Package Application

Protocols Suite, and delivered electronic questionnaires to DoD program managers and technical

experts.

Palmer, Mark, Judd, Jon, Hodges, John, and

Crusey, Jesse, Requirements for a Digital Technical

Data Package Application Protocol Suite (TDPAS),

NISTIR, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD (in preparation).

Palmer, Mark, Hodges, John, Judd, Jon, and

Crusey, Jesse, Project Plan for a Digital Technical

Data Package Application Protocol Suite for DoD

and Industry, NISTIR, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD (in preparation).

80
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

HEAT TRANSFER
Test Procedures for Advanced

Thermal Insulation Products

Principal Investigator: A. Hunter Fanney

Building Environment Division

301-975-5864

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To evaluate thermal measurement techniques

applicable to advanced insulation systems

Problem

Advanced insulation products are being developed

and introduced into the U.S. market. Examples of

these products are aerogels, powder filled panels,

and evacuated panels. These products offer ex- tremely high insulating capabilities. For example,

theoretical calculations reveal that an R-value

approaching 100 may be achieved in a 25.4 mm

thick evacuated panel.

Unfortunately, current test procedures for measuring thermal conductivity are only applicable to materials which are homogenous, have planar

surfaces, and have, compared to advanced insula- tion products, relatively poor insulating capabilities.

Appropriate measurement techniques are needed

which will allow an accurate determination of the

overall thermal conductance of advanced insulation

systems.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will conduct parametric

analyses using ANSYS (software package used to conduct finite element difference computations) to assess the effect of convective film coefficients and

test panel aspect ratios. The convective coeffi- cients on the inside and outside of the panel under

evaluation will be determined using test panels of known thermal conductivities and temperature

measurements of surface and bulk air temperatures.

Software will be developed to permit the acquisition

of pixel by pixel temperature data of IR images

which can subsequently be used to compute the

total convective heat loss from an advanced

insulation panel.

BFRL's calorimetric facility will be completed. This

includes adding power supply and measurement

equipment capable of measuring DC power levels on the order of 1 5 watts. Instrumentation will be

added to measure the bulk air, panel surface, and

mask surface temperatures at numerous locations.

User-friendly software will be developed to control

the experiments and acquire the experimental data.

Homogenous test panels will be constructed. The

thermal conductivity of these panels will be measured using BFRL's Guarded Hot Plate Facility. The

panels will subsequently be used in the calorimetric

facility to assess measurement error and to deter- mine the convective coefficients present on both

sides of the test panel. Actual advanced insulation

panels will be measured using both the calorimetric

technique and using the IR system. The use of thermochromatic crystals and a color imaging

system also will be explored.

The expected benefit of this research will be a method of test which will permit an accurate

determination of the performance of various types

of advanced insulation systems.

Recent Results

Entered into a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with Aladdin Industries,

a compact vacuum insulation manufacturer. The

CRADA will provide a means by which BFRL can

secure compact vacuum insulation systems of

various sizes and construction. BFRL will provide

Aladdin Industries with insight on how to design

insulation systems with greater thermal resistance

based on the finite element modeling results.

82
Test Methods for Evaluating the

Thermal Conductivity of Small

Insulation Samples

Recent Results

New project.

Principal Investigator:

Robert R. Zarr

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Advanced Technology Program

Objective

To assess and develop a measurement method for determining the thermal conductivity of small-size

insulation specimens.

Problem

Economic factors dictate that the initial development of the next generation of thermal insulation

materials require small-size specimens for evaluation. For example, specimen sizes may be on the

order of a 6 mm diameter disk. Current steadystate test methods require relatively large, planar

specimens for determining thermal conductivity and

may not be suitable for small specimens. Other more recent methods, such as the transient needleprobe or the laster-flash method may be more

suitable methods for determining the thermal

conductivity of small-size specimens.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will conduct a survey of the

literature, industry, and academia to identify

methods to determine the thermal conductivity of

small samples. The suitability of each method will be evaluated by an assessment of the accuracy and

practical utility of each measurement method.

Measurement methods, to be considered, include

the transient needle-probe, the line or strip heat- source, the laser-flash technique, and infrared

analysis. Based on the assessment, a small-scale

apparatus will be designed and developed using the

most promising technique. In addition, measure- ments of small specimens will be conducted during

this year. The results of this work will be used by

manufacturers and designers to evaluate the

thermal conductivity of the next-generation of thermal insulations.

83
Thermal Insulation SRM for Wall or

Window Test Methods

Principal Investigator:

Robert R. Zarr

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Office of Standards Reference Materials

Objective

To develop a thermal insulation Standard Reference

Material (SRM) for use in a wall or window test apparatus.

Problem

Recent interlaboratory studies conducted under the

auspices of the National Voluntary Laboratory

Accreditation Program (NVLAP) and ASTM have

demonstrated a need for a thermal insulation SRM

suitable for use in calorimetric hot-box wall tests. Such an SRM is also desired by the National

Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) for test methods

for windows.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will consult with members

from industry to identify sources for the candidate

SRM. A small quantity of candidate material (one to

five specimens) will be selected. A set of preliminary thermal conductivity measurements at 297 K

will be conducted to evaluate the candidate material

using BFRL's 1 m guarded-hot-plate. Based upon a survey of industry's test apparatus, BFRL will acquire about 250 to 500 specimens of the candidate SRM. The experimental design for characterizing the material is a full factorial of 1 5 thermal

conductivity measurements; 5 temperatures and 3

densities. BFRL will consult with NIST's Computing

and Applied Mathematics Laboratory for the

experimental design.

This project will provide a new standard reference

material that will assist two industries. These

include the window manufacturers as well as the

thermal testing laboratories of many insulation

manufacturers.

Recent Results

New project.

Thermal Resistance Measurements

on Foam Insulation and PowderPanel Insulation

Principal Investigator:

Robert R. Zarr

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Office of Building Technology

Building Systems Division

Objective

To determine the thermal resistance of cellular foam

insulation and powder-filled evacuated panel (PEP)

insulation using the guarded hot plate (ASTM C

177) and heat-flow-meter apparatus (ASTM C 518).

Problem

Manufacturers of refrigerator appliances are examining alternative insulations to cellular plastics for insulating the walls of their refrigerators. One

alternative under consideration is evacuated panels

of micro-porous powder that can obtain a resistivity

of 70 to 1 40 (m • K per W). While providing a high

resistance, these panels pose a difficult measure- ment problem because of increased potential of

lateral heat flow from the meter area. Assessing

the accuracy of the measurement for these evacuat- ed panels is important in designing the future

generation of refrigerator appliances.

Foam insulations are cellular plastics that entrap a gaseous blowing agent having a low thermal

conductivity. Over time, ambient gases will permeate the foam while conversely, the blowing agent can escape. The net effect is a reduction in the

performance of the foam insulation. ORNL and

others have developed a thin slicing accelerated

aging test for foam insulation. NIST has been

requested by ORNL to participate in an

interlaboratory comparison on determining the longterm thermal performance of a rigid DIR foam.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform measurements

on foams and powder-filled evacuated (PEP)

insulation. These measurements will be made after

84
consultations with ORNL staff and may require

ORNL to supply additional specimens to BFRL. An

interlaboratory comparison will provide data for verifying the accuracy of the thin slicing technique.

The data can also be included in the precision and

bias statements for ASTM standards.

Recent Results

Performed four measurements of thermal resistance

at ambient conditions as part of an inter-laboratory

"round-robin" with ORNL, Certain-Teed Corporation,

and Owens-Corning Fiberglas, Inc.

Experimental Validation of NIST

Moisture Transfer Model

Principal Investigator:

Robert R. Zarr

Building Environment Division

301-975-6436

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To experimentally verify BFRL's Moisture Transfer

Model for a wide range of different wall constructions and quantify the effect of accumulated

moisture on the heat transmission under both

steady and dynamic conditions.

Problem

BFRL has developed a distributed-moisture-capacity,

one-dimensional, transient finite-difference model,

called MOIST, that predicts the coupled transfer of heat and moisture within multilayer construction

under nonisothermai conditions. The model predicts

moisture transfer in both the diffusion and capillary

flow regimes. It has a provision to account for convective moisture transfer by including embedded

cavities which may be coupled to indoor and

outdoor air. This model uses hourly WYEC weather

data, and predicts the average moisture content of the layers of a wall as a function of time of year. There is a need to experimentally verify this model.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will install representative 1 X

1 m wall specimens and instrument it in its calibrat- ed hot box. The exterior surfaces of the wall speci- mens will be exposed subsequently to four conditioning periods: 1 -month steady 7°C winter condition, 1-week dynamic winter condition, and 2-week

steady 32.2°C summer drying condition. The

dynamic condition will consist of a 16.7°C peak-topeak sine wave having an average value of 7°C.

During the three conditioning periods, the interior surfaces of the wall specimens will be exposed to ambient air at 24°C and 50% rh.

During the three conditioning periods, the moisture

accumulation within the exterior layers of the wall specimens and the rate of heat transfer at the

interior surfaces will be measured as a function of

85
time and compared to corresponding values predicted by the MOIST model.

In designing the experiment, wall specimens will be

selected that verify BFRL's MOIST model (heat and

moisture transfer computer model) as a function of

the following parameters: the thermal resistance

and moisture storage capacity of the insulation, the

permeance of the vapor retarder, the permeance of

interior and exterior paint layers, and the permeance

of the sheathing. In addition, walls representative

of current construction practice will be included in the study. Each of these walls will be instrumented

with moisture content sensors for measuring the

moisture content of the exterior layers,

thermocouples for measuring the temperature

distribution, and a heat-flux transducer for measuring the rate of heat transfer at the interior surface.

This research will assist the building community

develop recommended practices for controlling

moisture in buildings. The model may be used with

confidence by building designers and engineers to conduct moisture sensitivity analysis to develop

recommended practices for controlling moisture

accumulation in building construction.

Recent Results

Burch, D.M., Thomas, W.C., and Fanney, A.H.,

"Water Vapor Permeability Measurement of Common Building Materials," ASHRAE Transactions,

Vol. 98, Part 2, 1992.

Richards, R.F., Burch, D.M., and Thomas, W.C.,

"Water Vapor Sorption Measurements of Common

Building Materials," ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 98,

Part 2, 1992.

Burch, D.M. and Thomas, W.C., "An Analysis of

Moisture Accumulation in a Wood Frame Wall

Subjected to Winter Climate," Proceedings of the

Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of

Buildings V, Clearwater, Florida, December 1992.

Controlling Moisture in Walls/Roofs

of Manufactured Housing

Principal Investigator:

Douglas M. Burch

Building Environment Division

301-975-6433

Sponsor:

Department of Housing and Urban Development

Policy Development and Research

Affordable Housing Research & Technology Division

Objective

To enhance BFRL's heat and moisture transfer

model (MOIST) and use the enhanced model to investigate the effectiveness of practices for controlling moisture in the walls and roof cavities of

manufactured housing.

Problem

During FY 1 993, BFRL used its sophisticated

computer program, called MOIST, to develop

recommended practices for controlling moisture in walls and roofs of manufactured housing. HUD

staff felt that certain limiting assumptions of MOIST

may have affected BFRL's previous analysis. HUD

requested that these limiting assumptions be

removed from MOIST and the enhanced model be

used to investigate the viability of the previously

developed recommended practices.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will incorporate the following

models into Program MOIST: 1 . a detailed air flow

model that predicts the exfiltration air flow through

the ceiling and roof construction of a manufacture

home, 2. a moisture balance model that predicts

indoor relative humidity as a function of outdoor

climate; and 3. a model that predicts the ventilation

rate of a roof cavity as a function of wind speed.

With the above enhancements, MOIST will predict

the storage of moisture in the construction materials

of roof and wall constructions as a function of time

of year. The computer model will show how

different variables effect the moisture level in a roof

cavity. For example, air flow from the indoor space

into the roof cavity will be modeled for various

ceiling air tightnesses ranging from a tight to a leaky

ceiling. The computer model will include the

following two effects of attic ventilation 1 . remov86
ing moisture from moist materials of an attic and 2.

its potential to increase air leakage from the indoor

space into a roof cavity. This model will be able to resolve the contentious issue as to whether attic ventilation provides a "net" reduction in moisture

accumulation of construction materials in a roof

cavity. In addition, the modei will include the effect

of indoor ventilation on moisture accumulation in the building envelope.

Using the enhanced model, BFRL will perform a

series of cold-climate and hot-and-humid climate

computer runs to investigate the effectiveness of

recommended practices for controlling moisture in the walls and roof cavities of a current-practice

manufactured home (i.e., without supplemental

ventilation to comply with the ASHRAE Ventilation

Standard 62). This analysis should resolve the issue as to whether natural ventilation of a roof cavity is an effective moisture-control practice and whether

other proposed practices for controlling moisture are

effective.

A separate series of computer runs will be carried out to investigate whether new-practice homes (i.e., with supplemental indoor ventilation to comply with

ASHRAE Standard 62) can be operated without

attic ventilation. Here a constant indoor ventilation

rate of 0.35 ACH would be maintained. An interior vapor retarder would be installed in the ceiling

construction with the air leakage sites sealed.

BFRL also will use MOIST to investigate the possibility of developing an innovative wall and roof cavity

construction that performs satisfactorily in both cold

climates and hot and humid climates.

This research will lead to improvements and revi- sions to the HUD Manufactured Home Construction

and Safety Standards for better controlling moisture

in the building envelopes of manufactured housing.

Recent Results

Developed proposed practices for controlling moisture in the walls and roof cavities of manufactured

housing for cold climates and hot and humid

climates.

Burch, D.M. and TenWolde, A., Controlling Moisture

in the Walls of Manufactured Housing, NISTIR

4981, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, December 1992.

Burch, D.M., Controlling Moisture in the Roof

Cavities of Manufactured Housing, NISTIR 4916,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, November 1992.

87
Moisture Control Guidelines for

Attics, Cathedral Ceilings, Crawl

Spaces, and Walls

Principal Investigator:

Douglas M. Burch

Building Environment Division

301-975-6433

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Systems Division

Objective

The objectives of this project are to conduct a comprehensive one-dimensional analysis of the

combined heat and mass transfer in attics and

cathedral ceilings, develop guidelines and practices

for preventing moisture problems in attics and

cathedral ceilings, enhance MOIST to include a twodimensional algorithm for predicting the heat and mass transfer in the earth beneath a crawlspace,

and develop a user's manual for MOIST to permit

building engineers and architects to evaluate

strategies for controlling moisture in hotel/motel

building envelopes.

Problem

Appropriate moisture control guidelines for attics,

cathedral ceilings, and crawlspaces are still debated

by experts in the building community. For example,

DOE recently issued a Moisture Control Handbook.

The Technical Oversight Committee for this Handbook sometimes could not reach a consensus on

certain guidelines and practices. A factor contributing to this situation is that climate has a profound

influence on effectiveness of a particular practice. For example, a ceiling vapor retarder and attic ventilation are recommended in cold climates to minimize moisture accumulation in roof sheathing.

However, these same practices are counter productive in attics of air conditioned houses exposed to hot and humid climates. In this situation, attic ventilation increases the amount of moisture

introduced from the outdoor environment into an

attic, and a ceiling vapor retarder prevents moisture

from passing through the construction and thereby causes moisture to accumulate at that location.

Similar considerations apply to cathedral ceilings

and crawlspaces.

Field studies are useful because they document a specific moisture problem as it relates to a particular

building construction. Moreover, they often provide an understanding of the underlying physics.

However, it is difficult to generalize individual field experiments to different constructions, outdoor

climates, and indoor conditions. This is because

complex inter-actions exist between the construction materials and the indoor and outdoor climates.

It is impractical to carry out an adequate number of

field experiments to cover all possible constructions

and indoor and outdoor climates.

Approach

BFRL's personal computer program, MOIST,

predicts the combined transfer of heat and moisture

in multi-layered building construction under nonsteady-state conditions. MOIST predicts the

moisture content and temperature of construction

layers as a function of time of year. It includes

moisture transfer by vapor diffusion and capillarity.

The program inputs a user-defined construction and

hourly WYEC ASHRAE weather data which is available for 51 different cities of the United States and Canada.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform four tasks:

1 . Attics and Cathedral Ceilings. BFRL will use MOIST to investigate the viability for all attic and

cathedral ceiling constructions given in the DOE

Moisture Control Handbook. The moisture content

of the construction materials will be predicted and

plotted as a function of time of year. Hourly

weather data for the following climates will be used

in the analysis: a cold winter climate (Madison, Wl),

a mixed climate (Washington, DC), and a hot and

humid climate (Lake Charles, LA). Based on the

results of this analysis, guidelines and practices will be developed to control moisture problems in attics and cathedral ceilings. These computer simulations

will resolve the contentious issue as to whether

attic ventilation provides a "net" reduction in moisture accumulation of attic construction materials. Attic ventilation, unquestionably, removes and

transports moisture from moist attic materials to the

outdoor environment. However, attic ventilation

also may increase air leakage from the indoor space

into an attic, thereby increasing the moisture load

into the attic.

2. Crawlspaces. BFRL will enhance MOIST to include 2-dimensional algorithms to predict the

88
combined transfer of heat and moisture in the earth

beneath a crawlspace. The modes of moisture

transfer will include diffusion and capillarity. This

enhanced model will be tested using one crawlspace detail of the Moisture Control Handbook for a mixed climate and one for a cooling climate. A

study will be designed to develop guidelines and

practices for controlling moisture problems in crawl

spaces as a function of climate. This study will be

conducted during the following year. A literature review will be conducted to find moisture properties

for soils. 3. Measurement of Moisture Properties of Ten

Roofing Materials. Newly developed BFRL measure- ment methods will be used to measure spot permeability curves (permeability versus relative humidity)

and sorption isotherms (moisture content versus

relative humidity) for seven roofing materials. These

measurements will support ongoing research at the

Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL).

4. Envelope Moisture Control Strategies. Develop a Recommended Procedure for Evaluating Envelope

Moisture Control Strategies during Hotel/Motel

Guest Room Design and Construction. MOIST can

be used to simulate typical constructions used in hotels/motels. BFRL will prepare a user's manual

describing how to use MOIST. This manual will be

targeted at an architectural/engineering firm in- volved in the design and construction of building

envelopes.

This research will lead to improved guidelines and

practices for controlling moisture in various parts of

building envelopes. This, in turn, will reduce

moisture-related material degradation, thereby

increasing the long-term durability of building

envelopes.

Recent Results

Verified MOIST by comparing it to a series of

laboratory experiments using a calibrated hot box.

Burch, D.M., "An Analysis of Moisture Accumulation in Walls Subjected to Hot and Humid Climates,"

ASHRAE Transactions, v99, part 2, 1993.

Burch, D.M. and TenWolde, A., "A Computer

Analysis of Moisture Accumulation in the Walls of

Manufactured Housing," ASHRAE Transactions,

v99, part 2, 1993.
BUILDING ENVIRONMENT

DIVISION

mmmmmmmmmmmmnmmm^mmm

LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY

90
Field Measurements and Modeling

of Lighting Distributions

Principal Investigator:

Belinda L. Collins

Building Environment Division

301-975-6455

Stephen J. Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a procedure for evaluating lighting

quality based on luminance distribution, including

the measurement system, the technical basis for the

lighting quality metric, and the requirements for computer modeling.

Problem

Evaluating and predicting the performance of

lighting systems in actual office spaces is a complicated measurement and modeling problem requiring

both physical and user reaction assessments.

Accurate measurement and prediction procedures

for determining lighting system performance in real spaces are urgently needed, along with metrics for evaluating and predicting lighting quality as related to luminance distributions. Recent research has

suggested that the perception of lighting quality is determined in part by the balance between horizontal and vertical illumination.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will develop measurement

procedures and metric to assess lighting quality.

This work involves three tasks:

1 . Developing the measurement system and proce- dure for collecting and processing the luminance

distribution information in typical building spaces.

This work includes determining measurement

requirements such as spatial resolution and greyscale resolution, and methods for assembling

hemispherical luminance distributions from limited field-of-view images.

2. Developing the technical basis for an index or metric of lighting quality, based on luminance

distribution. This work involves correlating subjective assessments of lighting conditions to associated

physical measurements of luminous conditions for a range of lighting designs and configurations.

3. Determining the requirements for computer

simulation of luminance distributions to enable

prediction of lighting quality. This work involves

determining the level of modeling detail needed to provide the luminance distribution resolution necessary for determining the lighting quality metric.

It is expected that the results of this work will expand the analysis of lighting system performance

and lighting quality metrics to real rooms with

different lighting systems, surface reflectances, and

interior obstructions using a luminance mapping

device. Data obtained with the mapper will be used

to develop and verify the accuracy of computer

algorithms for computing both surface luminances

and reflectances in real rooms, including those with

obstructions.

Recent Results

Conducted concurrent evaluations of luminance

distributions, occupant subjective responses and

visual performance for a range of lighting system

configurations.

91
Lighting and HVAC Interactions

Principal Investigator:

Stephen J. Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Building Systems Division

Objective

To develop improved evaluation methods and

design tools for the design and operation of efficient

lighting and HVAC systems in commercial buildings

to control peak cooling loads.

Problem

Lighting constitutes a substantial portion of commercial building electrical energy usage, typically

ranging from 25 to 50%. Most of the energy

dissipated to the building space eventually contrib- utes to building cooling load. Due to the temperature dependence of fluorescent lighting power

consumption and light output, there are significant

interactions between the lighting and HVAC sys- tems. As a result, lighting system light levels and

efficiency, and cooling loads due to lighting, can

vary substantially due to lighting and HVAC system

design and operation. Previous results have indicat- ed performance variations of up to 20% are possible. These effects influence the number of

luminaires required to provide the design illumination

levels and the size of HVAC equipment to meet the

cooling loads contributed by the lighting system.

This, in turn, influences the first cost of the lighting

and HVAC systems, and the operating costs for energy, including demand charges for electrical power usage during peak periods. Such peak period

power usage puts added pressure on electrical

utilities to meet system-wide power demand by

increasing generating capacity.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will investigate the interac- tions between lighting and HVAC systems in commercial buildings through a combination of full- scale measurements and computer simulations. The

results are being analyzed to provide the technical

basis for design procedures and methods. Full-scale measurements are being conducted at the BFRL

Lighting Interaction Test Facility for various lighting

system, HVAC system and room configurations,

and operating conditions. Lighting system performance, thermal loads, and energy transfers are monitored to enable determination of optimum

operating conditions and strategies. A detailed

computer model is being developed and verified using the measurement results. The model will be

used to extend che results to a wide range of

configurations so that the design guidelines will be more general and comprehensive. The computer

model will serve as a stand-alone design tool, but

also will be the basis of a sub-routine of larger

building energy analysis computer programs such as BLAST and DoE-2. This will provide such programs

with the capability of evaluating the interactions

between the lighting and HVAC systems, a capability which they currently lack. This work will provide

design data and procedures to enable the selection

and implementation of energy efficient lighting

systems, and to provide methods for controlling

peak cooling loads.

Recent Results

Morris, F., Braun, J., and Treado, S., "Experimental

and Simulated Performance of Optical Control of

Building Thermal Storage," ASHRAE Technical

Paper, New Orleans, January 1 994.

92
Evaluation of Occupant Response

to Lighting Retrofits

Principal Investigator:

Belinda L. Collins

Building Environment Division

301-975-6455

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To evaluate occupant response to the lighting in offices at DOE Headquarters in Washington, DC.

Problem

The Department of Energy is renovating the lighting

system in its Headquarters as part of the Federal

Relighting Initiative. This initiative is intended to reduce power consumption dramatically without

compromising existing lighting quality. Determining

the impact of the relighting on the occupants and

on the lighting in their offices is a major part of the

evaluation of the effectiveness of the relighting

initiative. Recent reports by Collins, Fisher, Gillette,

and Marans (1990), Collins and Rubin (1988),

Collins, Gillette, Dahir and Goodin (1989) present

data from post-occupancy evaluations of about 1

5

facilities in both government and private industry.

These assessments provided information on physical

conditions, especially lighting, and the occupant

reaction to it in the various buildings studied. Data

from post-occupancy evaluations of several U.S. Army facilities suggested that lighting levels were

below IES minimum recommendations for the types

of tasks done in the facilities. Occupant satisfaction was also below that obtained in other areas in the same facility. These data were used to suggest

areas where lighting retrofits could be effective and

the types of situations that could be improved.

Similar information is needed for the retrofits planned for the Forrestal Building to determine their overall effectiveness.

including measures of task illuminance, surround

luminances, and typical task contrasts; and occupant reaction is determined using questionnaire

techniques developed in previous BFRL post-occupancy assessments. The number of measures

required to characterize and describe the space will be determined using a conventional photometer and

a luminance mapping device in conjunction with a

statistical analysis procedure. After the photometric measures have been obtained, the spaces will be

evaluated by human subjects using post-occupancy

procedures similar to those described in Collins et al (1989). This will provide baseline information on

the conditions existing before the renovation and

data on the effectiveness of the renovation in improving lighting conditions in the offices. It will allow the occupant response to be associated with

relevant physical conditions to provide information on which changes were particularly effective and

suggest areas where further renovation might be

needed. During the course of the project, a comprehensive procedure for measuring luminances in an

office space will be implemented, along with a protocol for assessing occupant response. These

procedures will be documented and validated during

the assessment of the Forrestal Building for future use in other Federal Relighting Projects. Development of repeatable, valid procedures for measuring

the effectiveness of relamped facilities will enable

DOE to provide critical feedback information to

building managers. This work will provide objective

and subjective assessments of the effectiveness of

a significant retrofit of a commercial office lighting

system, providing lighting designers with much

needed useful information on lighting retrofit performance.

Recent Results

Identified 250 typical spaces, administered questionnaires, and physical measurements were made

in the spaces both prior to relamping and postretrofit. Results are being evaluated to identify

correlations between occupant response and

lighting conditions.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will determine representative

samples of offices to assess any daylight contribution and conventional and open-plan offices. A

two-part procedure is planned in which physical measures of the lighting in the offices are assessed,

93
Test Procedures for Lighting

Fixtures and Systems

Principal Investigator:

Steve Treado

Building Environment Division

301-975-6444

Sponsor:

Department of Energy

Office of Building Technologies

Codes and Standards Division

Objective

To provide equitable testing and rating procedures

for determining energy performance of lighting

fixtures and systems.

Problem

The Energy Policy and Conservation Act (P 94-163)

(EPCA), as amended, required the Department of

Energy (DOE) to prescribe test and rating procedures and minimum performance standards for various residential appliances. In addition, the 1 987

amendments to EPCA requires analysis of any test procedure amendments to determine their effect on minimum efficiency standards. DOE has, since

1 975, relied on BFRL to assist in the development

of the test and rating procedures.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform three tasks:

1 . Support DOE in Rule Making on the Interim Final Rule specifying test procedures for incandescent

reflector lamps. BFRL will evaluate the comments,

make the appropriate revisions, and assist DOE in finalizing the test procedure so it can be published as a Final Rule.

2. Assist DOE clarify which lamps are exempt from

standards in the Energy Policy Act of 1 992 by

specifying definitions of color temperature, rough

service, etc. BFRL also will recommend a sampling

plan for testing lamps to demonstrate conformance

to the standards. No sampling plan is specified in the 1 992 law.

3. Continue work on developing luminaire perfor- mance testing and labeling, and testing procedures

for HID lamps. BFRL will assess the adequacy of the luminaire test procedures suggested by the

voluntary luminaire labeling program, and work with

NEMA, IES, and NVLAP on the selection of

luminaire categories for testing. Luminaire perfor- mance will be investigated by making detailed

laboratory measurements. For HID lamps, existing

test procedures will be evaluated for their adequacy

and comprehensiveness, with any gaps or inconsistencies identified. Laboratory measurement capability will be established for HID lamps. This work will provide the technical basis for evaluating and

characterizing the performance of lamps and

luminaires as a means of promoting energy efficien- cy.

Recent Results

Treado, S., Testing Procedures for Multilamp

Luminaires, NISTIR 5262, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, April

1994.

94
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DIVISION!

FIRE PROTECTION

APPLICATIONS

95
Large Scale Smoke Movement

Principal Investigator:

John H. Klote

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6890

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop and verify algorithms for modeling large

scale smoke movement in buildings.

Problem

The simulation of smoke movement in HAZARD

(BFRL's model that predicts the hazard to a building

and occupant anywhere within a building) has

limited applicability to large spaces such as corri- dors, atria, and shafts. The algorithms developed

by this project will allow realistic simulation of

smoke transport in these spaces. The applicability

of the HAZARD methodology will be extended to

large scale smoke flow including office buildings,

apartment buildings, homes for the elderly, and

Navy and merchant ships.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will be addressing the

following four topics:

Shaft. FLOW3D (a commercial package computer

model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat

transfer using a finite element difference approach)

will be used to gain an understanding of the mechanisms, i.e., wall attachment, smoke mixing, plug

flow, etc., involved with smoke transport through

open shafts with concurrent and counter flows

expected to occur in buildings due to the natural forces of building flow. Based on this mechanism

study, a shaft smoke flow strategy will be developed including user needs of a shaft model, flow

phenomena, and model concept. Work will start on

a first order model for open shafts, and flow in stairwells will be addressed later in this project.

Atrium. This topic involves the development of a method to predict smoke movement in a stratified environment and an atrium/top-shaft venting

algorithm in modular form for adaption into CFAST

(BFRL's building fire model), and compare simulations with existing data from venting experiments.

Later, the model will be verified against FLOW3D.

Corridor. BFRL will conduct FLOW3D simulations

including heat transfer to study smoke flow in corridors. The results of these simulations will be

compared to the hybrid model to validate the model.

Wall Heat Transfer. The wall heat transfer model,

developed in FY 1 993, for FLOW3D will be compared against the standard heat transfer routines of

FLOW3D and RAD3D (three dimensional radiation) to study the efficiency and accuracy of BFRL's new

model. The final report of this heat transfer model

will include this comparison.

The information gained from the study smoke

movement in shafts, atrium, and corridors will form

a foundation to develop smoke movement modeling

techniques to evaluate hazards in large buildings.

Recent Results

Cooper, L.Y., VENTCF2: An Algorithm and Associated Computer Software for Calculating Flow

Through a Horizontal Ceiling/Floor Vent in a ZoneType Compartment Fire Model, N I STIR, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD; (under development and to be

submitted for publication in the Journal of Fire Protection Engineering, 1994).

Cooper, L.Y., Simulating Smoke Movement Through

Long Vertical Shafts in Zone-Type Fire Models,

NISTIR, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD; (under development and to be submitted for publication in Fire Safety Journal,

1994).

Cooper, L.Y., Combined Buoyancy- and PressureDrive Flow Through a Horizontal Circular Vent,

NISTIR, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, (under development to be

submitted for publication in the Journal of Heat

Transfer)

.

Cooper, L.Y., "Calculating Combined Buoyancy- and

Pressure-Driven Flow Through a Horizontal, Circular Vent; Application to a Problem of Steady Burning in a Ceiling- Vented Enclosure," to be submitted to Fire Safety Journal, 1994.

96
Klote, J.H. and Forney, G.P., Zone Fire Modeling

with Natural Building Flows and a Zero Order Shaft

Model, NISTIR 5251, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1993.

Klote, J.H., A Method for Calculation of Elevator

Evacuation Time, Journal of Fire Protection Engineering, 5, 3, pp 83-96, 1993.

Klote, J.H., Design of Smoke Control Systems for Areas of Refuge, ASHRAE Transactions, American

Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, 99, 2, pp 793-807, 1993.

Yamada, T. and Cooper, L.Y., Experimental Study

of the Exchange Flow Through a Horizontal Ceiling

Vent in Atrium Fires, Abstracts; Annual Conference on Fire Research, October 13-15, 1992, NISTIR

4924, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1993.

Cooper, L.Y., Combined Buoyancy- and Pressure- Driven Flow Through a Horizontal Vent: Theoretical

Considerations, NISTIR 5252, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

September 1993.

Klote, J.H., Deal, S.P., Levin, B.M., Groner, N.E.,

and Donoghue, E.A., Workshop on Elevator Use

During Fires, NISTIR 4993, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

1992.

Matsushita, T. and Klote, J.H., Smoke Movement in a Corridor - Hybrid Model, Simple Model and

Comparison with Experiments, NISTIR 4982,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Grants

"Movement of Smoke and Hot Gases in Open

Shafts," Jaluria, Yogesh, Rutgers, State University

of New Jersey.

Study of Heat and Smoke

Movement and Their Influence on

Detector and Sprinkler Response in

Enclosed Spaces with Complex

Ceiling Geometries

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Fire Protection Research Foundation

General Services Administration

Public Building Services

Office of Real Property Management and Safety

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To examine the effect of complex ceiling geometry

and obstructions on the distribution of heat and

smoke to optimize requirements for automatic fire detector location found in NFPA 72E and for automatic sprinklers as covered by NFPA 13, 13D,

and 13R.

Problem

At present, recommendations for the placement of automatic fire detectors cited in the NFPA Standard on Detection Devices (72E) are based on engineering judgement or on experiments performed by

Heskestad and Delichatsios on flat, unobstructed

ceilings. In the implementation of these data, tables and curves were developed from calculations with a zone model which are also only applicable for flat, unobstructed ceilings. Since 72E includes recom- mendations for placement of fire detectors in spaces

with sloping or peaked ceilings, or with open beams

and joists, some validation of these recommendations is necessary. Further, detector citing problems

associated with stratification and high air movement

from HVAC systems are mentioned in the stan- dards, but only limited installation guidance is provided which are based only on judgment.

97
Approach Detector and Sprinkler Response, National Fire During FY 1993 and 1994, the first 2 years of the Protection Research Foundation, Quincy, MA,

study, work centers on examining the effects of fire 1 993.

size, fire location, ceiling height, ceiling slope,

typical ceiling beam or joist configurations, and the

effect of stratification on the distribution of heat and

smoke from the fire. In the second 2 years, FY

1 995 and FY 1 996, research will address the

effects of HVAC systems on fire detectors and

sprinkler activation.

Specific geometries to be examined have been

selected to coincide with experimental studies

identified in the literature review conducted during

FY 1 993; providing validation for the calculations.

Additional geometries will be added in consultation

with the Technical Advisory Committee of the

project sponsors. ASHRAE will contribute their technical assistance in those tasks relating to HVAC

effects and to identify specific HVAC system

configurations to maximize the applicability of

results.

The work is designed to be applicable over a wide

range of detector types and installation characteristics. Detector types will include those that

respond to heat, smoke, and gas. The work will address numerical modeling using a field model, the

Harwell Flow3D (commercial computer model that

simulates fluid dynamics and heat transfer using a

finite difference approach) to simulate the room

geometries and fire growth; selected experimental

verification will be included when needed.

The model will be used to produce contour plots of temperature, velocity, and smoke concentration near the ceiling at the level of the sensing components of typical detectors and sprinklers. These

detailed distributions will then be used to develop

engineering guidelines for detector/sprinkler placement, resulting in recommendations for changes to the appropriate NFPA standards. Validation of the

numerical results for the project will be performed

using a combination of existing fire experiments

and, as necessary, by conducting additional experiments. The work is directly translated into changes

to codes for the installation of fire detectors and

sprinklers. Improved fire codes mean better per- forming and more cost effective protection system.

Recent Results

Forney, G.P., Bukowski, R.W., and Davis, W.D.,

Field Modeling Effects of Flat Beamed Ceilings on

98
Balanced Design

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

General Services Administration

Public Building Services

Office of Real Property Management and Safety

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To quantify the performance and reliability of fire detection systems, sprinklers, and compartmentation as directed by the U.S. Fire Administration Act

of 1992, PL 102-522.

Problem

Trade-offs between active and passive fire protection strategies are often made without technical

foundation. As Federal legislation mandates use of

sprinklers and detectors in specified occupancies,

the term, compartmentation, must be understood

so overall safety is not compromised. PL 102-522

required BFRL to conduct this study as a joint effort of the pubiic and private sectors.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform this work as

four tasks:

1 . Collect data on the field performance and

reliability of fire protection systems for office and

hotel occupancies, BFRL will work with insurance

interests, e.g., Factory Mutual, IRI, Cigna, and

American Insurance Services Group to collect similar data on other occupancies as background information to enrich the database. BFRL will work with

industry representatives to identify other major

systems users who might represent sources of field data. Besides the basic difference in fire resistance

ratings, analyzed field data will identify other

characteristics of these construction types which

impact on their mitigation of risk. 2. Develop analytical framework to evaluate the risk mitigation contribution of life safety, property

protection, and business continuity systems. This

effort will use the parameter lists from related Fire Safety Evaluation Systems (FSES), incorporating

quantitative calculation methods wherever possible,

and converting the output measures to risk mitigation objectives. As the framework evolves, data

needs which are identified will be incorporated in work performed in task 1

.

3. In task 1, types of system impairments which

reduce the ability of the system to perform will be

identified. To the extent that these reduce but not prevent performance, special studies may be

needed to quantify this reduction. Modeling and

testing of impaired assemblies will be performed.

4. One of the study's goals is to determine the

conditions under which one or more of the systems

can be reduced or eliminated without unacceptable

risk of loss. This is likely to be a highly subjective measure which needs a public policy type of decision. A panel consisting of building owners,

insurance officials, and regulators will be convened

to help achieve a consensus view of types and

levels of losses considered acceptable to society.

This work is expected to produce a sound basis for making trade-off decisions in codes and for deter- mining performance equivalencies for alternative

designs.

Recent Results

Bukowski, R., Balanced Design Concepts Workshop,

NISTIR 5264, National Institute of Standards and

Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1993.

99
Risk Assessment/Performance

Codes

Enhanced GSA Engineering Fire

Assessment System

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a risk-based method for establishing the

degree to which fire safety features and systems

contribute toward the goals of a performance-based

code.

Problem

Parallel efforts are underway in several countries to develop risk-based methods to assess compliance

with performance codes. These methods incorporate identical frameworks and cite the same set of

calculational procedures for the major portions of the calculations. Differences occur primarily in data

or assumptions and stem from local experience.

There is great interest among the participants to collaborate and harmonize the approaches into a

single, standardized method.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will chair a committee under

the auspices of the International Council for Building

Research, Studies, and Documentation's (CIB)

Working Commission W14 on Fires. A working

committee of 20 persons representing 1 4 countries

will contribute to this project. A series of task

groups will be organized to develop approaches to

specific issues. BFRL will lead the task group

working on the development of design safety

factors which relate to total computational uncertainty. Differences among the proposed methods

will be discussed and consensus reached on

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

General Services Administration

Public Building Services

Office of Real Property Management and Safety

Objective

To develop and deliver a computer software

system, operating under MS-Windows, on Fire Assessment System (FSES) for offices.

Problem

Current fire safety practice within GSA is rooted in the Life Safety Code prescriptions and the FSES for equivalency determinations. GSA's goal is to move

this predictive practice to a risk management basis. GSA is planning a long range program to develop

and implement a fire risk management system for

their properties by the turn of the century. It will be

based on the evolution of the current FSES for offices to a risk basis, underpinned by an advanced

FPEtool package and a life-cycle cost evaluation

tool.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will automate the existing

FSES for office occupancies in a windows environment and develop plans for the migration of the

FSES from a code equivalency to a risk management basis. This program is expected to provide an enhanced tool for GSA to manage fire risk on their properties.

Recent Results

New project.

compatible approaches.

Recent Results

Bukowski, R., A Review of International Fire Risk

Prediction Methods, fnterf/am '93, Fire Safety 6th

International Fire Conference, Oxford England,

Interscience Communications, Ltd., London, England, C.A. Franks, ed., pp 437-466, 1993.

100
FPEtool Advancement

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

General Services Administration

Public Building Services

Office of Real Property Management and Safety

Objective

To develop advance state-of-the-art of analytical tools for the practicing fire protection engineer and

to enhance cross compatibility with other analytical

techniques and the applicability to hazard and risk analyses.

Problem

FPEtool (BFRL software used to evaluate hazards

and fire protection strategies in GSA Office Buildings) is a highly popular software product among

practicing Fire Protection Engineers (FPE's); it is used worldwide. However, FPEtool can not be

enhanced further while written in QUICKBASIC. It must be re-written in a structured language (C) and

moved into a computer windowing environment.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will rewrite the current code

in C (or C + + ) and moved to Windows or WINDEX.

CASE tools will be employed to provide the needed

documentation on development for the future. The

product development must be coordinated with the

development of the GSA Enhanced Fire Safety

Evaluation System, which will be risk based.

FPEtool is the most widely used fire modeling

package in the world. The improved code and

manual will aliow the continuation of this position.

Recent Results

Developed and released FPEtool v3.2 which includ- ed several new routines such as flow down a long

corridor, tenabilities areas of refuge, and reducing

burning data under sprinkler spray.

Modification of Fire Protection

Requirements (Performance Based

Fire Protection for Nuclear Power

Plants)

Principal Investigator:

Robert S. Levine

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6671

Sponsor:

Nuclear Regulatory Commission

Objective

To provide technical assistance to NRC develop

performance based fire safety regulations for nuclear power plants which allow more cost

effective operations without sacrificing safety.

Problem

There is a need to replace prescriptive requirements

with alternate means of achieving fire safety that

has little impact on safety and that follows a performance based approach.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will assist NRC prepare a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking to alert the industry

to develop and submit proposed performance based

fire safety requirements. BFRL will assist NRC in evaluating and refining the industry's proposals.

The draft rule is targeted for publication by September 1995.

Recent Results

New Project.

101
Emergency Egress from Air Traffic

Control Towers (ATCT)

Fire and Thermal Characteristics of

Navy Firefighting Trainers

Principal Investigator;

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Principal Investigator:

Robert S. Levine

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6671

Sponsor:

Department of Transportation

Federal Aviation Administration

Aviation Safety Division

Objective

To address current deficiencies in code compliance

of Air Traffic Control Towers (ATCT) for emergency

egress and to develop an approach to longer term

issues through the use of protected elevators.

Problem

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) is enforcing the provisions of the Life Safety

Code for ATCT which requires two methods of

egress where the occupant load exceeds 25

persons. Currently, FAA's larger towers are in violation. They proposed a code change to permit an increase in load with compensating fire safety

features. The FAA requested BFRL technical

assistance in its adoption. Simultaneously, the FAA

has been requested by the Department of Justice

(DOJ) to permit handicapped access to towers

under ADA (spell out the Act). This will require a protected elevator which also will serve as a second means of egress for able-bodied persons.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will recommend a change to the LSC to recognize a higher occupant load. In a

parallel effort BFRL will document the design,

performance, and code specifications for protected

elevators which could be recognized by the LSC as

a second means of egress. The code change will allow the upgrade of existing ATCT's to enhance

fire safety for FAA employees. The new code

provisions for protected elevators will be more

generally applicable and will improve the evacuation

capability of both disabled and nondisabled building

occupants.

Sponsor:

U.S. Navy

Naval Air Warfare Center

Training Systems Division

Objective

To support the development and implementation of prototype firefighting trainers at Norfolk, VA; Orlando, FL; Mayport, FL; and Bangor, Washington.

Problem

There is need to develop technical solutions to predict fire damage, toxicity levels, environmental

effects, and other developmental problems that

affect the safety and operability of prototype

trainers. These problems are usually unforeseen,

but occur as Navy personnel use the equipment to represent fire problems that were not anticipated in the original design.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will make the necessary

measurements in the prototype trainers such as combustion species concentration, radiant fluxes,

unburned fuel gas, duct velocities, etc. BFRL will

install experimental monitoring equipment and

calculate pollutant dispersion patterns and other

factors as required to solve this technical problem.

Recent Results

Results from this six year level of effort project are

routinely presented to the Naval Training Systems

Center and to the Naval Project Team meeting on

the various trainers.

Recent Results

New project.

102
Fire Research Information Service

Principal Investigator:

Nora H. Jason

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6862

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To maintain BFRL's Fire Research Information

System (FRIS) as the world's preeminent fire research library and to expand its role to provide access to resources needed to apply fire science

findings -- serve as a model for information resource management for the next century.

Problem

Growth in INTERNET accessibility offers new

opportunities to expand FRIS into worldwide data

dissemination driven by the use of calculational

methods. Offering the user community additional

types of databases will be a challenge in hardware,

software, and user ability. InFIRE (International

network of Fire Information and Reference Ex- change) can be central to such expansion as the

members represent many fire institutions worldwide.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will incorporate the new

INTERNET capabilities to expand FRIS data dissemination. This expansion will permit the demonstration of electronic access to BFRL documents

through electronic linking using software as ACROBAT and its PDF (Portable Document Format). BFRL

will establish a prototype FDMS (Fire Data Management System) installation on INTERNET when the

software becomes available. During this year, BFRL

will near completion of the first phase of FIREDOC

(BFRL's bibliographic fire database) collection. FIREDOC contains all BFRL current publications. A

separate project is underway to incorporate older

publications by the building staff. During the

second phase of FIREDOC, BFRL will evaluate the

potential for digital storage of collected documents

which would provide for reduced storage needs and

eventually to remote access pending resolution of

copyright issues. Online access would allow the user to identify reports, journal articles, conference

proceedings, etc., of interest and be able to view

the actual document without leaving the computer.

Storage technology which allows full text searching

also will be continued.

Recent Results

Upgraded BFRL's FIREDOC computer system which was implemented on INTERNET. This upgrading

enhances access from U.S. Universities, government agencies, the private sector, and foreign

users.

103
Fire Research Bulletin Board

System

Principal Investigator:

Scot Deal

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6891

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To manage and operate BFRL's Bibliographical Fire Research Bulletin Board System (BFRBBS) for disseminating BFRL information, data, and software

Problem

BFRBBS has been successful as an outreach mechanism, particularly to the fire service. Many users download BFRL's software using the BFRBBS and

others use BFRBBS to remain current in their knowledge of BFRL's activities such as its seminar series

and annual conference. In order to continuously

meet user needs, new information features and

capabilities need to be incorporated into BFRBBS.

Approach

During FY 1 993, BFRL upgraded its hardware and

software to improve response. During FY 1 994,

BFRL will establish special user forums as a means

to attract new users and obtain new insights into the use of this software. For example, one forum

will address persons performing fire reconstructions;

the software will permit them to post questions on

availability of data or whether someone tried to model a particular fire condition. Replies also may

be anonymous. Other forums will be established for

fire service groups (fire department applications) and

for code officials who need guidance in evaluating

requests for equivalency or variance.

Recent Results

Upgraded BFRL's hardware and software to facili- tate new features and provide more efficient service

to users.

Technology Transfer

Principal Investigator:

Richard W. Bukowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6853

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To participate in exhibits at appropriate conferences

and provide assistance to agencies requesting to demonstrate BFRL technology applications.

Problem

BFRL continuously needs to seek methods that

reach out to customers and prospective customers

to broaden their awareness of BFRL capabilities and

breath of BFRL's services.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will continue to exhibit its laboratory services to appropriate conferences and

shows. During this time BFRL will provide assis- tance to Federal Agencies as opportunities. This

year, BFRL will revamp its exhibit with new pro- grammatic displays for each of the five divisions

which can be selected for display as a function of

audience interest.

Recent Results

Participated in the National Fire Protection Administration and Fire Department Instructor's Conference

(FDIC), A/E/C Systems Trade Show and Earthquake

Engineering Research Institute Conference.

104
Fire Research Seminars

Principal Investigator:

Scot Deal

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6891

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To manage the Fire Research Seminar series for presenting a balanced and informative program of presentations on fire technology needs and research

that address some of these fire technology needs.

Problem

BFRL staff need to keep informed of a broad range

of technical topics which impact BFRL customer

needs and that impact their work. Beyond its own

ability to know the current literature, this seminar

series needs to disseminate such current information

and, at the same time, encourage interactions with

researchers and practitioners.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will continue scheduling its successful Seminar Series and solicit recommendations from experts on appropriate speakers. Work

includes scheduling biweekly presentations on

timely and relevant topics.

Recent Results

Hosted successful biweekly Symposia during FY

1993.
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DIVISION

FIRE MODELING
Ceiling Fires

Principal Investigator:

Henri E. Mitler

Fire Science and Engineering Division

301-975-6886

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop an understanding of the effects of the

presence of a ceiling on the evolution of a wall fire and develop a validated, documented computer

program for CFAST (BFRL's building fire model) and

other fire models.

Problem

The effects of the ceiling on room fires is one of the

most notable lacunae in our ability to predict the

development of room fires. BFRL's wall-fire project,

and other studies, have yielded reasonably successful models which predict wall fires. Most of these

models, however, implicitly assume that there is no

ceiling, so that the flame can be arbitrarily high.

This is true, in particular, for BFRL's computer

model SPREAD (which predicts the upward fire spread on walls). In fact, the presence of a ceiling

has several important effects. Studying and

modeling these effects is necessary to correctly

simulate burning in a room.

Approach

The work is being done as three tasks.

Task 1 was conducted during FY 1993. Here a

literature survey was performed of fires impinging on ceilings, including axisymmetric fires, wall fires, and corner fires. Flame extensions, fluxes and their position dependence, entrainment rates, effect on

combustion rates, and ignition of flammable ceilings were reviewed. As a result of the survey, it was

determined what areas need to be studied further,

and it was established how much time and other

resources, are needed. A detailed work plan was

developed. The theoretical understanding of flows

and combustion under ceilings was tied together

with empirical observations, and a preliminary

algorithm put together. This includes a preliminary

plan for writing a stand-alone ceiling fire computer

program, to be tied together with the wall-fire computer program SPREAD.

During FY 1994, the second task of this work, BFRL

will obtain experimental data to improve the algorithm and incorporate it into BFRL's building fire model, CFAST. BFRL will plan and carry out new

experiments. Based on the new data, an improved

algorithm will be devised, and a report will document this work.

In task 3, BFRL will calculate the effects of ceiling

ignition when the ceiling is flammable, program the

algorithm, merge it with SPREAD, and harmonize it with CFAST. Finally, the new program will be

validated, publish a report on its research findings,

and incorporate the program into C^AST.

The location and construction of the ceiling is one of the determinants of how rapidly an enclosure will flashover, and sometimes whether it flashes over at

all. Moreover, understanding this fire behavior will impact on properly predicting the rate of fire spread

to adjoining rooms. This work is expected to result

in useful stand-alone programs primarily for use in HAZARD (BFRL's model that predicts the hazard to

a building and occupant anywhere within a building). Embedding a wall-fire algorithm into a roomfire model such as CFAST (in HAZARD), will give

realistic answers when the effects of the ceiling are taken into account.

Recent Results

Mitler, H.E., An Algorithm to Describe the Spread of a Wall Fire Under a Ceiling, NISTIR in review,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1994 (manuscript in review).

Mitler, H.E. and Steckler, K.D., Comparison of WallFire Behavior With and Without a Ceiling, NISTIR

5380, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1994.

Grants

"Prediction of Fire Dynamics," Alpert, R. and deRis,

J., Factory Mutual Research Corporation.

"Upward Flame Spread on a Vertical Wall,"

Kulkarni, A., Pennsylvania State University.

"A Study of Fire-Induced Flow Along the Vertical Corner Wall," K. Saito, University of Kentucky.

107
Fire Model Verification

Principal Investigator:

Richard D. Peacock

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6664

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a system to quantify the level of accura- cy of computer-based predictive fire models and the

experimental, statistical, and analytical techniques

to support this method.

Problem

Fire models have progressed to the point of providing good predictions for some parameters of fire behavior. However, users and authorities are often

asked to accept building fire safety design based on

fire models without accepted statements of their predictive accuracy. It is important to be able to

state, with confidence, how close are the actual

conditions to those predicted by the model. There

is no domestic or international agreement on a procedure for quantifying fire model accuracy and

demonstrating suitability for a particular application.

P pproach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will organize and coordinate

domestic and international meetings to discuss and

decide the suitability of computer-based predictive

fire models as design tools. BFRL will try to reach

agreement on a procedure for quantifying the

accuracy and acceptability of these models. To

facilitate this, BFRL researchers will develop appropriate procedures for ASTM consideration as an improvement over the current guide (ASTM E1355-

90). Once developed, it is envisioned that numerous calculational tools and experimental techniques

will be required to support the process. BFRL will work to develop such tools and techniques using its fire models to provide sample data for development

of the tools. Two areas are identified for application

during FY 1 994: 1 . development of experimental

measurement techniques; and 2. examination of

their variability to better understand the quality of

future real-scale experiments designed to be used

for model evaluation and examination of techniques

for sensitivity analysis of complex fire models.

Recent Results

Peacock, R.D., Jones, W.W., and Bukowski, R.W.,

"Verification of a Model of Fire and Smoke Transport," Fire Safety Journal, 21, pp 89-129, 1993.

Matsushita, T. and Klote, J.H., Smoke Movement in a Corridor - Hybrid Model, Simple Model, and

Comparison with Experiments, NISTIR 4982,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Davis, W.D., Forney, G.P., and Klote, J.H., Field

Modeling of Room Fires, NISTIR 4673, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1991

.

108
Development of the Fire Data Management System (FDMS) Database

System for Fire Related Data

Principal Investigator:

Rebecca W. Portier

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6757

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a second generation database which

accommodates all fire related data for users who

collect or use building fire data.

Problem

A unified method of accessing data is crucial to experimental and modeling efforts to develop the

science of fire. The FDMS concept is well founded,

and very important to experimentalists acquiring

data, to modelers and others using data related to

fires and material properties. A stand-alone, PC

version of the database exists which supports a

limited number of fire test results. This version

lacks some functionality, is not portable across computer platforms, and is dependent upon third- party software libraries which are no longer supported. These problems will be remedied by the second

generation database.

Approach

This is the second year of a three year project.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will implement the file formats proposed in the NIST Technical Note 1407

(see below under Recent Results), importing existing

data into the FDMS 2.0 database, and providing

limited access to a test version of the database.

This work will require reformatting numerous test data files from a variety of existing formats into a standard import format. The existing test data files include cone and furniture calorimeter, LIFT (Lateral

Ignition and Flame Spread Test Apparatus), Eurific Corner tests, and some full-scale test data. A

simple text-oriented user interface will be provided

as a front-end for the test version of the database.

During FY 1 995, BFRL will develop a graphical user

interface which can be ported from multi-user to

single-user platforms. This work will include

import/export functionality, querying, and report

writing capabilities. The results of this research are a centralized database of fire test values which will be accessible to modelers, experimentalists, practicing engineers, and others within the fire community.

Recent Results

Portier, Rebecca W., Fire Data Management System, FDMS 2.0, Technical Documentation, NIST TN

1 407, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1994.

Portier, Rebecca W., A Programmer's Reference

Guide to FDMS File Formats, NISTIR 5162, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, April 1993.

Grants

"The Development of the Fire Data Management

System," F. Mowrer, University of Maryland.

109
HAZARD Development

Principal Investigator:

Walter W. Jones

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6879

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To plan and implement the next generation hazard

methodology.

Problem

Traditional approaches to product design, product

evaluation, and codes and standards development

address fire safety in a piecemeal fashion - for example, evaluating heat release without considering product use, toxicity, or ignition propensity.

Quantitative hazard analysis techniques have the

potential of providing significant cost savings. In addition, measures are evaluated as an interacting

system, including the impact of both structure and

contents. Alternative protection strategies can be

studied within the hazard analysis framework to give the benefit-cost relation for each. Providing

these alternatives promotes the design flexibility

which reduces redundancies and cost without

sacrificing safety.

Approach

The project is being performed as three tasks:

1 . advancing the physics in the model,

2. improving the structure, interface and interaction

of the individual components of the models of HAZARD 1, and

3. publishing the methodology.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will test the single-surface

pyrolysis, detection and suppression algorithms.

The unification of the user interface with newgeneration input editor and hazard shell including a new unified input data file will continue. New

physics of fire will be incorporated into the model

such as compartment-to-compartment heat transfer

through walls.

This methodology and associated software will enable architecture and engineering firms to demonstrate effectiveness of novel building design to code

compliance authorities. It will also enable product

manufacturers to test building components early in the design phase, prior to the costly steps of

engineering and product development.

Recent Results

Continue maintained close cooperation with

Worcester Polytechnic Institute to further their teaching this methodology of fire hazard analysis for

fire protection engineers.

Initiate a CRADA with the Portland Cement Association to develop models for structural integrity and

barrier penetration.

Portier, R.W., Reneke, P.A., Jones, W.W., and

Peacock, R.D., A User's Guide for CFAST Version

1.6, NISTIR 4985, National Institute of Standards

and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1992.

Peacock, R.D., Jones, W.W., Bukowski, R.W., and

Forney, C.L., The Fire Hazard Assessment Method,

NIST Handbook 146, Volumes I and II, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, 1991

.

Grants

"Expansion of the Applicability of EXIT89," Fahy,

R.F., National Fire Protection Association.

"Development of a Graphical Interface for Post- Processing the Results of a CFAST Simulation,"

Barnett, J., Worcester Polytechnic Institute.

"Computational Heat Transfer for Zone Fire Modeling," Moss, W.F., Clemson University.

"A Survival (Egress and Tenability) Model for Hazard

Modeling," Mowrer, F. and Weissman, B., University of Maryland.

"Mathematical Modeling of Human Egress from

Fires in Residential Buildings," Kostreva, M.,

Clemson University.

110
Modeling of Detector Response Furniture Flammability

Principal Investigator:

Walter Jones

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6887

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To assist Rolf Jensen & Associates, Inc. (RJA)

evaluate the Harwell Flow3D code for the analysis

of detector response in a specific building fire.

Problem

RJA needs to evaluate the expected performance of

fire detectors under specific and highly complex

conditions. The only means to perform the analysis

is Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models in combination with analysis techniques recently

developed by BFRL in a project sponsored through

the National Fire Protection (NFP) Research Foundation.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL with staff from RJA will analyze the Flow3D model (a commercial package

computer model that simulates fluid dynamics and

heat transfer using a finite element difference

approach). BFRL will provide orientation, technical

advice, and aid in model set-up and analysis. RJA

will provide the data and information needed to perform the analysis including a detailed description

of the fire, its growth, and time line, and drawings

showing spatial information and other details. The

results of this project are expected to demonstrated

the full range of modeling tools, simple hand

calculations, zone models such as CFAST (BFRL's

building fire model) and sophisticated CFD models

can be used in concert to address problems in understanding the course of a fire in complex

buildings.

Recent Results

New project.

Principal Investigator:

Walter Jones

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6887

SponsorNational Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop guidelines for furniture manufacturers to design residential upholstered furniture with low rate of heat release.

Problem

Upholstered furniture remains the leading "first item

ignited" in fatal residential fires. Furniture with low

peak rate of heat release will, on its own, not result

in flashover of most rooms and therefore not lead to

fatalities. A number of states limit the rate of heat

release of public occupancy furniture measured in the California TB 1 33 test to 80 kW, a figure that would eliminate a large proportion of current

residential furniture. The National Fire Protection

Association committee on furnishings and contents

is discussing a possible limitation in the region of 250 kW for residential furniture. Most manufacturers of residential furniture offer thousands of

different fabrics and many furniture styles. New

products are introduced every 6 months. Further- more, most manufacturers do not have burn

facilities or the experience in designing furniture to meet heat release limitations. Therefore it is important to provide guidance on cost effective

steps that can be taken to meet specific limitations and minimize any full scale testing that might be

required. Although many items of furniture have

been tested by commercial laboratories, bench scale

tests on the upholstery materials have not been per- formed in most cases. Prediction of heat release of various designs, especially low heat release designs,

from bench scale data on materials is not good

because of the unqualified influence of shape and

factors that cause transition from smoldering or sudden delayed flaming flareup are not understood.

Guidance on changes that may be made to improve

full scale performance to meet the public occupancy

requirement or other potential requirements is needed.

111
Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will complete work on

interliner performance for predicting the heat release

of residential furniture. Using mockups, BFRL will systematically examine the effect on heat release

rate of design factors such as heat release and

flame spread rate of the fabric, seat width, seat back height and angle, and arm height. Using

information from these mockup burns and from the

videotapes of full-scale tests a predictive model of

the burn process will be developed. The model will address initial ignition pattern of various ignition sources including the TB133 burner, flame spread

across the surfaces, burning rate of the furniture,

and possible ignition of other items. The predictive

model combined with a room fire model will calculate the impact of various sized ignition sources and

various levels of flammability on residential furniture

fires. Rules for designing low heat release furniture

and calculation procedures for predicting mockup

and full size item performance from Cone calorimeter and LIFT (Lateral Ignition and Flame Spread Test Apparatus) data will be developed. These rules and

calculation procedures will be tested against

commercially available furniture items. Because

California TB133 has proved to be a useful test and

an incentive for reducing total heat release, BFRL

will participate in a round robin of an ASTM version

of the California TB 1 33 test to address repeatability.

Recent Results

Ohlemiller, T.J. and Villa, K.M., "Characterization of

the California Technical Bulletin 133 Ignition Source

and a Comparable Gas Burner," Fire Safety Journal,

18, pp 325-354, 1992.

Cleary, T.G., Ohlemiller, T.J., and Villa, K.M., The

Influence of Ignition Source on the Flaming Fire Hazard of Upholstered Furniture, NISTIR 4867,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, June 1992.

Support of Fire Modeling on the

ex-USS SHADWELL

Principal Investigator:

Walter W. Jones

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6879

Sponsor:

Naval Research Laboratory

Chemistry Division

Objective

To develop algorithms to enhance the predictive

capabilities of CFAST (BFRL's building fire model) in handling semi-confined fire development applicable

to Navy ships.

Problem

Fire growth models for ships are similar to but

sufficiently different that building models. Additional phenomena must be incorporated in these models

to solve problems specific to ship design. An

example is the process of fire spread by conduction

through decks.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will begin development of an

algorithm that calculates conductive heat transfer

through walls to adjacent compartments with

arbitrary connectivity and thermophysical properties.

The ceiling/floor heat transfer development will be

performed this year and the data structures for including heat transfer through adjacent walls will be planned. The Navy is particularly interested in the ceiling/floor aspect in solving the problems

encountered in the STARK fire in the Persian Gulf. BFRL researchers will begin planning to incorporate

horizontal flow into CFAST. This is the hybrid

extension which is important for detector citing and

for testing smoke mitigation efforts with pressurization. This work is expected to provide a tool to assess ship configuration which can be used in place of full scale testing, particularly for considering

insulation on bulkheads and ceilings.

Recent Results

Developed an algorithm that calculates the conductive heat transfer through walls to adjacent compartments with arbitrary connectivity and

thermophysical properties.

112
Computing & Network Resources

Principal Investigator:

James W. Raines

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6855

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To provide improvements, day to day support, and

long range planning for scientific and administrative

computing.

Problem

Efficient computing requires a uniform and consistent environment for scientific and administrative

services.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will configure, purchase, and

install new hardware and operating software for the

local area networks to provide a uniform and

consistent system. Provide system backup for management and support staff. Add new users to the LANs and upgrade software as necessary.

Complete plans for a separate LAN for scientific use and install.

Recent Results

Increased the use of LAN and shared resources, computer downtime was kept to a minimum, and

provided computer upgrades for staff members who

need new equipment.
FIRE SAFETY ENGINEERING

DIVISION

LARGE FIRE RESEARCH

114
Simulation of Turbulent Combustion and Transport in Fires

Principal Investigator:

Howard R. Baum

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6668

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a fundamental understanding of the

mechanisms which control the gas phase combustion and transport processes in fires and a predictive

capability which will allow the computer simulation

of these processes to be based on the mathematical

expression of underlying physical principles.

Problem

Information is lacking about the interaction of a fire with its environment, whether that environment is an individual room in a building fire or the atmosphere in the vicinity of a large outdoor fire. The

transport and deposition of smoke generated in crude oil fires is of interest to the Mineral Management Services, the State of Alaska, the U.S. Coast

Guard, and the American Petroleum Institute. The

interaction of fires with the building environment

has been a major research topic for BFRL and its international counterparts. Small scale combustion

processes are the study of diffusion flames in a turbulent flow environment and as such are of

interest to the general combustion community.

Approach

Theoretical and computational techniques applied to the study of transport, mixing, diffusion, radiation,

and reaction processes occurring at widely different

length and time scales. Detailed studies of individual phenomena are carried out in a manner that

permits them to be assessed individually and later combined into overall simulations of problems of

interest.

Recent Results

Enclosure fire simulation code compared with salt water and reduced scale enclosure fire experiments

at U.C. Berkeley and California Institute of Technology demonstrated excellent agreement for large scale convective transport in two dimensional

scenarios.

Three-dimensional smoke plume model compared

with experiments at Mobile, AL and used for environmental burning assessment for several

organizations in the United States and abroad.

Grants

"Soot, Carbon Monoxide, and Radiant Emissions of Luminous Turbulent Flames," Faeth, G.M., University of Maryland.

"Development of a Computational Model for Large

Fire Plumes," Ghoniem, A.F., Massachusetts

Institute of Technology.

115
Development of Large Eddy

Enclosure Fire Model

Principal Investigator:

Howard R. Baum

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6668

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a three dimensional large eddy simulation capability for heat and smoke movement in mechanically ventilated enclosed commercial and

industrial spaces.

Problem

There is an internationally expressed need for an advanced heat and smoke transport simulation

capability for fire scenarios in large mechanically

controlled environments. Commercial Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) codes cannot offer the

required spatial and temporal resolution due to their generality of purpose and turbulence models, while

their proprietary nature prevents generally available

modification. The present commercial codes

depend upon empirical turbulence models for their output, inherently limiting their predictive capability.

This restriction leads to an ongoing burden of

detailed experimental verification of the computations for each new fire scenario or building geometry.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will initiate the development

of a code combining methodologies developed

separately at Tokyo University for mechanical

ventilation flows and at BFRL for fire induced smoke

transport to produce code specialized for enclosure

fire scenarios based on large eddy simulation

techniques. BFRL will meet with Japanese col- leagues to plan appropriate division of tasks and

strategy for delivery of finished product. Initial validation experiments conducted using large

mechanically ventilated test facility at the Fire Research Institute, Japan with BFRL field instrumentation capability and personnel. Additional valida- tion experiments to be performed at enhanced BFRL

large scale test facility.

The resulting code will offer an alternative to general purpose commercial computational fluid dynamics codes. The alternative code will be a high

resolution product with a minimum of empiricism

that is directly focused on fire problems in large

enclosures.

Recent Results

New project.

Grants

"An Investigation of Oil and Gas Well Fires and

Flares," Gore, J. P., Purdue University.

"Large Fire Analysis," Pagni, P.J., University of

California (Berkeley).

"Fire Protection in Large Industrial Fires," DiMarzo,

M., University of Maryland.

116
Analysis of Large Industrial Fires

Principal Investigator:

David Evans

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6897

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop engineering methods for analysis of

large fire events in industrial facilities.

Problem

The present generation of BFRL fire models are best

suited to analyze fire hazards in light industrial office occupancies or dwellings where only ordinary

furnishing and building finish materials may be

involved. In many cases these models cannot

accurately address fire situations in industrial

facilities. Many of the constructed facilities in use by U.S. industry are different than office occupancies and dwellings from the standpoint of design,

fire spread, fire protection, fire fighting, and types of

fuels. Analytical tools must be developed for U.S. industry so that fire events in industrial facilities can

be analyzed to the same level of accuracy as that

provided by fire models for office and residential buildings. It is necessary to determine from industry, the fire safety concerns for their facilities and to

prioritize those needs. Problems that are likely to concern industry are potential ignition sources

including arson, combustion product emissions, safe

spacing for facilities, fire fighting, ground water and

air pollution, and the failure of industrial structures exposed to fire. Industrial facilities include most

engineered facilities used by the petro-chemical

manufacturing, refining and storage industries,

associated with the distribution system for industrial products, and unique industrial research and demonstration ventures.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will seek input from practicing fire protection engineers to collect information

about the needs of industry to increase the knowledge base of fire phenomena and analytical methods to assess fire hazards. The input will be

organized to determine future research tasks and

their priority. Concurrent with the information

gathering and analysis, a study of urban fires

resulting from earthquakes will be initiated to determine a role for BFRL in mitigating fire damage

from natural disasters and in promoting rapid

recovery of normal operation. Information from this study will be used as the basis for future projects

that will contribute to specific industrial fire and

disaster mitigation needs.

Recent Results

New project.

117
In Situ Burning of Oil Spills

Principal Investigator:

David Evans

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6897

Sponsor:

Department of Interior Minerals Management Service

Technology Assessment and Research Branch

Objective

To conduct laboratory and mesoscale experiments

to investigate the burning of weathered and emulsified crude oils on water.

Problem

BFRL has established leadership in characterizing the

combustion of large pool fires. In support of other

agency objectives to implement burning as a re- sponse method to oil spills, the burning characteristics of fresh, weathered and emulsified oils must be

known. In addition, predictions are needed to assess the impact of the burning on downwind

locations. BFRL is providing this information

through its measurement and analysis effort.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will organize data from

previous laboratory and mesoscale experiments to support applications for permits to perform

mesoscale tests in a wave tank. A conference/workshop will be conducted, similar to the

1 988 conference to assess user needs. Measurements on the ignition and burning characteristics of

weathered and emulsified crude oils will be made in controlled laboratory experiments. Eventually,

results of these studies will be organized into a

practical guide for responders to know under what

conditions burning can be successfully applied to

spills. The Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model for smoke plume flow in the atmosphere will be

modified to account for non-steady burning conditions. This research supports the establishment of

in-situ burning as an oil spill response method and

the development of state and local requirements for

its use in an actual oil spill emergency.

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, September 1993.

Walton, W.D., Evans, D.D., McGrattan, K.B., Baum,

H.R., Twilley, W.H., Madrzykowski, D., Putorti,

A.D., Rehm, R.G., Koseki, H., Tennyson, E.J., "In Situ Burning of Oil Spills: Mesoscale Experiments

and Analysis," Proceedings of the Sixteenth Arctic

and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, v2,

pp 679-734, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, June 7-9, 1993.

Notarianni, K.A., Evans, D.D., Walton, W.D.,

"Smoke Production from Large Oil Pool Fires,"

Proceedings Interflam '93, Fire Safety, Sixth

International Fire Conference, March 30-April 1

,

1 993, Oxford, England, Interscience Communications, Ltd., London, England, Franks, C.A., ed., pp

111-119, 1993.

Recent Results

Walton, William D., In Situ Burning of Oil Spills:

Mesoscale Experiments and Analysis, NISTIR 5192,

118
Smoke Plume Sampling

Principal Investigator:

William D. Walton

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6872

Sponsor:

U.S. Coast Guard

Research and Development Center

Objective

To design and test two smoke plume sampling

packages, one that can be suspended from a helicopter and another that can be suspended from

a miniblimp to monitor in situ crude oil burns.

Problem

Although laboratory and mesoscale test burns have

demonstrated the effectiveness of in situ burning as an oil spill mitigation technique, questions remain

about the composition of the smoke in the plume

downwind of the fire. Measurements of the smoke

composition are necessary to provide information

for decision makers. To measure the composition

of the smoke in the plume it is necessary to take

samples over an extended period of time. The only means for maintaining a sampling package in the

plume for an extended period of time appear to be

helium filled miniblimps and helicopters. The blimps

provide a good measurement platform near the fire but may not be capable of obtaining the altitude required to make downwind measurements.

Helicopters can fill this need although at present a sampling package does not exist which can be

suspended from a helicopter and held in the smoke

plume.

Approach

BFRL has used smoke sampling packages suspended from miniblimps for several years during

mesoscale burns in Norfolk, Virginia and Mobile,

Alabama. The design of these packages has been

improved several times to reduce the weight and

increase the reliability. Improvements to the

package design have been developed after the most

recent mesoscale burns and a new package will be

constructed for use in burns of opportunity. The

miniblimp transported smoke sampling package

would contain air sampling pumps, collection media,

and sample bags to provide time averaged measure- ments of smoke yield, smoke particle size distribution, PAH concentration, and volatile organic

compounds.

During FY 1 994, BFRL will purchase a new

miniblimp and a new portable winch for the blimp

line will be constructed which can be transported as luggage on commercial airline flights. Also, BFRL

will develop a helicopter transported instrumentation

package. The helicopter transported instrumentation

package, about the size of a suit case, would

contain air sampling pumps, collection media, and

sample bags to provide time averaged measure- ments of smoke yield, smoke particle size distribution, PAH concentration, and volatile organic

compounds. In addition, the package would contain

basic metrology measurement of temperature,

relative humidity, wind speed and direction, and

barometric pressure. The package would include

the capability to turn all of the sampling pumps on

and off by remote control and would contain a strobe light to indicate that the pumps were operating. The package would be designed to be sus- pended from the winch on a Coast Guard HH-65A

helicopter that has a cable with a working length of 75 m. The package would be held in a specific

relative location in the plume for approximately 1

5

minutes in order to obtain an adequate quantity of sample for analysis. The prototype package will be

tested for flight characteristics on a Coast Guard

helicopter in Mobile, Alabama.

The helicopter and miniblimp transported packages

will be evaluated during three mesoscale fuel oil burns at the Fire and Safety Test Detachment in Mobile, Alabama. BFRL will provide analysis of the

smoke yield and particle size distribution and

analysis of the PAH compounds.

Recent Results

The development and testing of the smoke sampling

packages has been successfully computed. A final report is in preparation.

119
Smoke Plume Trajectory from in

situ Burning of Crude Oil in Alaska

Office Building Fire Research

Program

Principal Investigator:

Kevin B. McGrattan

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-2712

Sponsor:

Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation

Division of Spill Prevention and Response

Objective

To determine the expected trajectory of smoke

plumes from in situ burning as a response method

for oil spills in Alaska.

Problem

There is a need to determine the downwind concentration of particulate matter from the in situ burning

of crude oil in Alaska.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will determine the downwind

concentrations of smoke particulate from the in situ burning of oil on water. This work involves using

the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) model of a smoke

plume trajectory to address problems of interest to the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation. This work has provided the State of Alaska

with guidelines on how far downwind one might

expect to find high levels of particulate matter from

an in-situ burn of oil. These estimates will be used

in the decision making process of whether to use in- situ burning as a spill response method.

Recent Results

McGrattan, K.B., Putorti, A.D., Twilley, W.H., and

Evans, D.D., Smoke Plume Trajectory from In Situ

Burning of Crude Oil in Alaska, NISTIR 5273,

National Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD, October 1993.

Principal Investigator:

Daniel Madrzykowski

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6677

Sponsor:

General Services Administration

Public Building Services

Office of Real Property Management and Safety

Objective

To quantify the impact of large fires on buildings

and their occupants and investigate the use of current technology/resources for mitigating the

hazards.

Problem

Systems furniture or "work stations" have been

identified as a source of large Heat Release Rate (HRR) fires in office buildings. Because of the wide

spread use of systems furniture the potential fire hazard in an open plan office environment needs to be quantified. The conditions in a long corridor

(means of egress) adjoining the fire compartment

need to be determined. If the fire can not be sup- pressed in the room of origin, the impact of sprinklers on the smoke flow in the corridor is needed.

While the impact of sprinklers has been demonstrated in experiments at BFRL, this has not been

included in the corridor flow model, because the

existing data base and zone modeling techniques

are not sufficient to continue development of the

corridor flow model including sprinkler effects.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will investigate the extent

that materials or geometry effect the fire perfor- mance of systems furniture. A combination of

laboratory scale and full scale tests will be used to quantify the fire development and address means of

mitigating the potential fire hazard. Multiple work

station fire tests will be conducted in a large

compartment. The compartment will have one wall open to simulate the effects of a typical open plan

office space.

The USCG's corridor fire test facility will be used to measure smoke flows down a corridor with and

without sprinkler intervention. Results from these

120
tests will be compared with predictions from the

existing corridor model and the Harwell FLOW 3D (a commercial computer model that simulates fluid dynamics and heat transfer using finite difference

approach) field model.

The results of this work will provide a technical

basis for assessing the hazards associated with

work stations in an open plan office environment

and smoke flow in corridors.

Recent Results

New project.

Large Fire Test Facility

Principal Investigator:

Emil Braun

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6665

SponsorNational Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To perform large scale fire tests and provide data to support other fire research projects and to apply,

refine, and develop methods and equipment that

contribute to the successful conduct of large scale

fire tests.

Problem

Use of BFRL's Large Scale Test Facility (Building

205) must be scheduled for timely performance of

tests. The size of the facility and capacity of its afterburner system has placed severe limits on type,

number, and scope of tests that can be performed.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will continue to provide daily

management of the Large Fire Test Facility, which

includes scheduling tests and timely execution,

along with gradual modernization of test equipment.

Additional short term improvements will be developed and executed during the fiscal year, pending

funding availability. These plans will be developed

in conjunction with researchers to assure that new

and updated instruments fit the needs of the fire program.

Work includes ensuring that BFRL's technicians,

assigned to this test facility, are trained in the

operation of all aspects of the building's facilities. The Cone Calorimeter will be brought online. New

data acquisition software for the Cone Calorimeter,

that is compatible with BFRL's other Cone Calorimeter, will be developed. Develop an upgraded plan of current facility that will allow for an expanded fire research program to include industrial commercial

fire concerns as well as continue our efforts in the

residential area.

Recent Results

Numerous tests have been performed including the

2/5 model, pool burns, large scale calorimeter tests

(furniture calorimeter and main hood).

121
Cone/LIFT/Toxicity Support

Principal Investigator:

Andrew J. Fowell

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6865

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To provide technical support for standards activities associated with the Cone Calorimeter, Lateral

Ignition and Flame Spread Test Apparatus (LIFT),

and BFRL's development of the NIBS Toxicity Test.

Problem

As developer of the Cone Calorimeter, LIFT, and

NIBS toxicity protocol, and promoter of bench-scale

measurements as methods to provide input to

predictive fire models, BFRL will continue to provide answers to technical enquiries by new users of the

tests. Technical questions often arise at ASTM and

ISO standards meetings, and at technical meetings

addressing material flammability measurement. A

program is underway in the furniture industry to obtain correlation between the Cone and the

California TB 1 33 test. A key to improving the

correlation is an improvement in the consistency of

construction of the Cone test sample. A major

furniture flammability program is underway in Europe in which the Cone Calorimeter is considered

as a potential bench scale test as a screen for large

scale tests. Recent in-house experiments using the

Cone have revealed problems with calibration at high rates of heat release. These problems need to be resolved. A round robin performed on the LIFT

test revealed some shortcomings especially in the

preheat conditions used for flame spread measurements.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will attend ASTM E.5

committee meetings to propose necessary changes

to the protocols and ensure that changes made are

technically correct. BFRL will work with other users

of the LIFT apparatus to develop necessary changes

to the ASTM procedure. Problems with the Cone

calibration will be investigated and any needed

modifications to the protocol will be proposed to ASTM.

Recent Results

ASTM and ISO have published standards for the

BFRL Cone and the LIFT apparatus: ASTM E1354-

92 Standard Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release for Materials and Products Using the

Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter and ASTM

E1321-90 Standard Test Method for Determining

Material Ignition and Flame Spread Properties

respectively.

The BFRL developed NIST toxicity test is progressing through the ASTM and National Fire Protection

Association (NFPA) standards process.

An international symposium on Flammability of Contents and Furnishings of Buildings was organized and the papers published as ASTM STP 1233,

American Society of Testing and Materials, 1994.

Fowell, A.J., Interlaboratory Test Program of ASTM

Standard El 32 1, Test Method for Determining

Material Ignition and Flame Spread Properties,

ISR07, PCN: 33-000007-31, American Institute for Standards Research, 1993.

Fowell, A.J., Developments Needed to Expand the

Role of Fire Modeling in Material Fire Hazard Assessment, International Conference for the Promotion of

Advanced Fire Resistant Aircraft Interior Materials,"

Federal Aviation Administration, DoT, February

1993.

122
Development of a Sizing Standard

for Firefighter Protective Clothing

to ASTM Committee F-23 on Protective

Clothing, June 1993.

Principal Investigator:

James R. Lawson

o ASTM Committee F-23 has authorized

development of the new Sizing Standard for Station/Work Uniforms, June 1993.

Fire Safety Engineering Division

301-975-6676

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Firefighter Health and Safety

Objective

To determine the critical factors of station/work

garment size which affect the thermal protection

and work dynamics of fire fighters during fire suppression operations.

Problem

As a result of recent changes in employment regulations in the fire service the range of firefighter body

sizes has increased. The fit of firefighter

station/work uniforms has become more critical as it relates to function with and without protective

garments in fire suppression operations. Therefore,

a need exists for standardizing the size of

station/work uniforms to enhance safety and

efficiency in fire fighting activities.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will perform a literature survey to identify and obtain publications on the

function of firefighter station/work uniforms. BFRL

will obtain information from the fire services and

apparel manufacturers to identify special needs of

firefighters and the ability of industry to support the

firefighter's needs. Working with ASTM and NFPA

committees which produce standards related to

firefighter protective garments, BFRL to develop

and establish standards for firefighter station/work

uniforms. These standards are expected to improve

firefighters' safety by providing standard methods

for determining proper sizing of station/work

uniforms which should lead to better mobility and

reduced fatigue.

Recent Results

• Lawson, James R. and McCarthy, Robert

T. ( Statement of Need for a Standard

Practice for Sizing of Fire and Rescue

Services Station/Work Uniforms, submitted

123
FIRE SCIENCE

DIVISION

SMOKE DYNAMICS

RESEARCH
Carbon Monoxide Production and

Prediction

Principal Investigator:

William M. Pitts

Fire Science Division

301-975-6486

and Applications, pp 102-105, New Orleans, LA,

March 13-17, 1993.

Grants

"Compartment Fire Combustion Dynamics," U. Vandsburger, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and

State University and R.J. Roby, Hughes Associates.

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop a fundamental understanding of the

mechanisms of carbon monoxide (CO) formation in flames sufficient to produce an estimation and a

detailed predictive model.

Problem

CO generated by fires in enclosures is responsible

for roughly two-thirds of fire deaths. The conditions

necessary and the mechanisms responsible for the

generation of high concentrations of CO are poorly

characterized. As a result, at present it is not

possible to predict the generation of CO by fires. Such a predictive capability is required by Laboratory fire models such as Hazard 1 (BFRL's software

that predicts the hazard to a building and occupants

anywhere within a building).

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will continue to develop

methods that predict CO in fires. In this work, BFRL

is developing methods that correlate CO formation

for fires in enclosures and providing knowledge to incorporate these findings into existing BFRL fire models. The fundamental investigations are focusing on identifying the principal chemical and

physical mechanisms responsible for the formation

of high CO concentrations in fires and to theoretically justify the use of the engineering correlations.

Ultimately, the findings will be incorporated into a simple physical model for CO production in enclo- sure fires.

Recent Results

Archival manuscript on air flow into enclosure

completed.

Pitts, W.M., Bryner, N.P., and Johnsson, E.L., "Production Mechanisms for Carbon Monoxide in Enclosure Fires," Combustion Institute Central and

Eastern States Section, Combustion Fundamentals

125
Study of Smoke Agglomerates

Principal Investigator:

George W. Mulholland

Fire Science Division

301-975-6695

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Exobiology Flight Experiments Program

Objective

To test the validity and utility of fractal concepts in describing the growth and properties of large smoke

agglomerates.

Problem

Used is a general hardware design and data analysis

methodology to study smoke agglomerates in an

orbiter facility.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will make use of Transmission Cell-Reciprocal Nephelometer recently developed at BFRL to monitor the extinction cross section

and total scattering cross section as the agglomerates grow. The angle dependent scattering will be

used to monitor the fractal dimension and average

radius of gyration as the agglomerates grow. The

results will be compared with light scattering

calculations for a computer simulation of smoke

agglomeration.

The results of this work will be used to develop

design guidelines for optical diagnostics to monitor

the structure and optical properties of soot during a microgravity experiment.

Recent Results

Mulholland, G.W., Bohren, C.F., and Fuller, K.A.,

"Light Scattering by Agglomerates: Coupled Electric and Magnetic Dipole Method," Langmuir (submitted

for publication).

Species Production for Turbulent

Flame Modelling

Principal Investigator:

Kermit C. Smyth

Fire Science Division

301-975-6490

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop an accurate data base and

phenomenological descriptions to establish models

for in-flame species concentrations and post-flame

species yields as a function of residence time,

equivalence ratio, temperature, and strain and scalar dissipation rates.

Problem

The data base, new metrology, phenomenology,

and models for well controlled flame environments

will provide the foundation for predicting flame

radiation and the production of toxic gases and

smoke for buoyant, turbulent diffusion flames for a wide range of combustion conditions.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will experimentally examine

laminar flame environments with temperature, resi- dence time, equivalence ratio, and strain and scalar dissipation rates characteristic of buoyant, turbulent

flames. Emphasis will be placed on planar imaging

approaches using laser-induced fluorescence and

scattering signatures. Initial studies will focus on

time-varying and underventilated laminar diffusion

flames. Research will center on:

1 . Characterizing the in-flame and post-flame

chemical species, flow velocity, and temperature

fields. 2. Applying GC-MS and laser ionization-mass

spectroscopy (previously used for graphitic smoke)

to the analysis of the mostly organic smoke pro- duced during underventilated combustion.

3. Developing accurate diagnostic capability for soot volume fraction using a combination of optical and

gravimetric techniques.

4. Testing and developing models that incorporate

the wide range of combustion conditions using the

new database.

126
The results of this work will critically test the

applicability of models for soot and species production to complex flowfields, i.e., practical fires.

Recent Results

Shaddix, C.R., Harrington, J.E., and Smyth, K.C.,

"Quantitative Measurements of Enhanced Soot

Production in Flickering Methane/Air Diffusion

Flame," Twenty-Fifth Symposium (International) on Combustion (submitted for publication).

Puri, R., Santoro, R.J., and Smyth, K.C., "The

Oxidation of Soot and Carbon Monoxide in Hydrocarbon Diffusion Flames, " Combustion and Flame,

97, 125, 1994.

Smyth, K.C., Harrington, J.E., Johnsson, E.L., and

Pitts, W.M., "Greatly Enhanced Soot Scattering in Flickering CH4

/Air Diffusion Flames," Combustion

and Flame, 95, 229, 1993.

Harrington, J.E. and Smyth, K.C., "Laser-Induced

Fluorescence Measurements of Formaldehyde in a Methane/Air Diffusion Flame," Chemical Physics

Letters, 202, 196, 1993.

Norton, T.S., Smyth, K.C., Miller, J.H., and

Smooke, M.D., "Comparison of Experimental and

Computed Species Concentration and Temperature

Profiles in a Laminar, Methane/Air Diffusion Flame,"

Combustion Science and Technology, 90, 1, 1993.

Short-Duration Autoignition Temperatures of Liquid Hydrocarbon

Fuels

Principal Investigator:

Nelson Bryner

Fire Science Division

301-975-6868

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force

Engineering and Services Laboratory

Objective

To investigate short-duration autoignition temperatures of liquid hydrocarbon fuels by extending

previous autoignition experiments.

Problem

Fuels ignite on hot exterior surfaces of engines and

turbines. Improved understanding of autoignition

process is needed to formulate appropriate strate- gies for reducing autoignition tendencies, especially

where fuel selection is concerned. The autoignition

of hydrocarbon fuels on hot surfaces is a process of

practical significance which occurs when self- sustained combustion of a gas mixture is initiated. Possible prevention can be accomplished by choosing fuels of the proper molecular structure, by

specifying the composition, coatings, or treatment

of the hot surface, or by other intervention strategies.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will investigate the perfor- mance of different hydrocarbon fuel mixtures. Five

pairs of differently structured fuels with the same

number of carbon atoms will be compared. Experiments will use single ignition surface type and

uniform mixtures of fuel to air. Most of the experiments will be conducted at ESL Tyndall Air Force Base using their Short-Duration Autoignition Apparatus.

The results of this research will assist the USAF

Engineering and Services Laboratory increase their

ability to formulate strategies to reduce autoignition

tendencies where fuel selection is concerned.

127
Recent Results

Developed procedure to evaluate short-duration

autoignition temperatures for different hydrocarbon

fuel mixtures.

128
FIRE SCIENCE

DIVISION

MATERIALS FIRE

RESEARCH
Polymer Flammability Modeling

Principal Investigator:

Marc R. Nyden

Fire Science Division

301-975-6692

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To develop the technical basis for the design of a new generation of fire retardants and fire resistant

materials.

Recent Results

Nyden, Marc R., Forney, Glenn P., and Brown,

James E., "Molecular Modeling of Polymer Flamma

bility: Application to the Design of Flame Resistant

Polyethylene," Macromolecules, 25, 1658, 1992.

Nyden, Marc R., Brown, J.G., and Lomakin, S.M.,

"Molecular Dynamics Modeling of Polymer Flamma

bility," Materials Research Soc. Symp. Proc, 278,

47, 1992.

Nyden, Marc R. and Noid, Donald, W., "Molecular

Dynamics of Initial Events in the Thermal Degradation of Polymers," J. Phys. Chem., 95, 940, 1991

.

Problem

Flammability is a major concern when polymeric

materials are used in buildings, aircraft, ships, and

clothing. Today's standards for acceptable cost,

performance, and environmental safety have made

the traditional "trial and error" approach to materials

flammability obsolete. There is a strong correlation

between char residue and fire resistance since char

is always formed at the expense of volatile fuel. Furthermore, the presence of a surface char insulates unburnt material from the heat generated in gas phase combustion reactions and obstructs the

outward flow of combustible gases generated in the

degradation of the interior. The thermal degradation

chemistry of some polymers can be altered to favor

char formation with chemical additives and/or by

direct modification of the structure of the polymer.

The challenge is to achieve significant levels of fire resistance without adversely affecting intended-use

properties, cost, and the toxicity of these materials.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will continue developing its molecular dynamics model of the thermal degradation of polymers. The dynamic trajectories of the

polymers are calculated from Hamilton's equations

of motion. Macromolecular systems, which are too

costly or too complex to synthesize on a routine

basis, can be modeled and systematically varied, all the while examining their tendency to form high

molecular weight crosslinked structures.

The manufacturers and the end users of polymer

products will benefit from use of this new technology. They will have enhanced computer model

applicable to a wider range of materials.

130
Burning Rate of Materials

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To improve the understanding of the physical and

chemical gasification processes of thermoplastics

and char forming polymers and to develop theoretical models to predict the gasification rates of

polymers exposed to fire conditions; to improve

understanding of energy feedback mechanisms of pool fires and to develop theoretical models to predict energy feedback rates from a pool flame to the fuel surface; and to improve mathematical

models to predict the burning rate of thermoplastics

and to develop models for char forming polymers by

combining the gasification models with the energy

feedback rate models.

Problem

At present, mathematical models have not been

developed that can calculate the burning rate (heat release rate) of building contents. Therefore, a fire source is prescribed or estimated from bench scale

tests for HAZARD I (BFRL's software that predicts

the hazard to a building and occupants anywhere

within a building). To improve the prediction of fire hazard, accurate description of fire source is urgently needed.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will develop burning rate models (global and field equation) of polymeric

materials (including char formers) for simple horizontal configurations. This work is being performed as two parts:

1 . Determining energy feedback rates from a pool

flame for various fuels and sizes.

2. Determining the gasification rate of various

polymers.

Gas phase combustion characteristics are measured

for a variety of fuels with pool diameters up to 1 00

cm. Global and field equation energy feedback

models are developed as a function of fuel type and

size. In the condensed phase, a well-defined

thermal radiation source is used to simulate energy

feedback from a flame to a polymer surface; the

gasification rate, temperature and density distribu- tions in the polymer are measured under nonflaming condition for various radiant fluxes. Gasification models for thermoplastics and char

forming polymers are developed.

Recent Results

Choi, M., Hamins, A., Mulholland, G., and

Kashiwagi, T., "Simultaneous Optical Measurement

of Soot Volume Fraction and Temperature," Combustion and Flame (submitted for publication).

Hamins, A., Klassen, M., Gore, J., Fischer, S., and

Kashiwagi, T., "Heat Feedback to the Fuel Surface

in Pool Fires," Combustion Science and Technology

(submitted for publication).

Yang, J., Hamins, A., and Kashiwagi, T., "Estimate

of the Effect of Scale on Radiative Heat Loss

Fraction and Combustion Efficiency," Combustion

Science and Technology, 96, 1 83, 1 994.

Grants

"Modeling of Combustion, Fluid Mechanics, and

Radiation in Buoyant Turbulent Fires," 0. Ezekoye,

University of Texas.

"Fire Growth Models for Materials," J. Quintiere,

University of Maryland.

"A Study of Entrainment and Flow Patterns in Pool

Fires Using Particle Imaging Velocimetry," J. Gore,

Purdue University.

131
Char Structure and Flammability

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To characterize the chemical structure of polymer

residues which are generated at well-defined fire simulated conditions.

Problem

Two recent trends which have started to affect the

U.S. plastics industry are polymer recycling and a demand for nonhalogenated flame retardant treat- ments. The degradation products of polymers with

such treatments are corrosive and some may be

toxic. One alternative flame retardant approach is to form char during polymer burning. This approach

is ideal because carbon atoms retained in the

condensed phase as char lessen the available fuel for flaming combustion even as they help insulate

the polymer from the heat of the flame. However,

there is little quantitative information about the

relation between polymer structure, char properties,

and realistic flammability properties.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will generate char samples

from selected polymer samples in a heated flow

tube at a variety of temperatures in an inert atmosphere. Char yield, C/H ratio, aromatic/aliphatic

ratio (NMR and FTIR), crosslinkage site density will be measured for the collected char for the selected

samples. Gaseous degradation products for the

selected polymer samples will be measured using a mass spectrometer. For higher heating rate conditions, thick 10 x 10 cm block polymer samples will be exposed to external thermal radiant fluxes

comparable to those in fire. These samples are heated in nitrogen, degraded, and partially charred

without flaming in nitrogen. The exposed samples

are sectioned into layers from the top of the ex- posed surface down to the unaltered polymer,

yielding a series of snapshots of the thermal behavior of the polymer in fire-like conditions. The same

measurements will be conducted for each layer of

the samples. Heat transfer characteristics of the

char residue are inferred by measuring the transient

temperature of the backside of the sample. Flammability properties of the polymer materials are measured by bench-scale techniques.

The results of this work will serve as a guideline for development of new char forming flame retardants.

Recent Results

New project.

132
Flame Retardant Study on

Engineering Plastics

and its paper was published in the Proceedings,

DOT/FAA/93/3, FAA Technical Center, p1 75-1 87,

1993.

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

General Electric Company

Chemical Research Center

Corporate Research and Development

Objective

To establish and understand the effects of polymer

structure and certain flame retardant treatments on

flammability characteristics of specific engineering

thermoplastics.

Problem

GE is interested in nonhalogenated flame retardant

treatment to improve fire resistance performance of

its engineering thermoplastics. Better flame

retardant treatments are needed by understanding

the chemical and physical nature of char and also

with measurements of more meaningful flammability

properties.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will be measuring flammability properties of systematically varied polycarbonate

and other engineering plastic samples including

composite samples based on glass fibers. The

effects of the structure of polycarbonate/siloxane

copolymer samples on flammability properties will be determined. The effects of fiber variations and

resins on flammability properties will be determined.

The results of this collaboration are expected to produce better flame retardant treatments by

understanding the chemical and physical nature of char and flammability properties.

Recent Results

Kashiwagi, T. and Geary, T., "Effects of Sample

Mounting on Flammability Properties of Intumescent

Polymers," Fire Safety J. , 20, 203, 1993.

Kashiwagi, T., Cleary, T., Davis, G., and Lupinski,

J., International Conference for the Promotion of

Advanced Fire Resistant Aircraft Interior Materials

133
Flammability of Composite

Materials

Principal Investigator:

Thomas J. Ohlemiller

Fire Science Division

301-975-6481

James E. Brown

Fire Science Division

301-975-6483

Sponsor:

Department of the Navy

Naval Surface Weapons Center

Objective

To develop and validate a procedure, for using

bench scale test results, that predicts full scale fire performance of composite materials.

Problem

Extensive Cone Calorimeter data on a variety of

composite materials have been obtained in the past.

The task remains to demonstrate that these data

and parameters inferred from both these and from

LIFT (Lateral Ignition and Flame Spread Test Apparatus) tests can be used to predict fire growth in compartments comprised of composite materials.

The first challenge is to demonstrate an ability to

predict upward flame spread performance on such

materials. During the past 2 years, BFRL characterized this spread process in its radiant panel

facility. An effort was started to test models

developed by Cleary/Quintiere, Mitler, and Kulkarni

against these data.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will adapt the Cone Calorimeter, LIFT and other tests as needed to obtain input

parameters for spread models and will compare

these model predictions against spread data from

radiant panel facility. In particular, attention will be

given to pursuing the spread behavior of composites more typical of those likely to be used by the Navy.

Experimental and modeling studies of flame retarded

composites will be addressed during this year.

Recent Results

Measured flame spread behavior of two unretarded

composites as a function of incident radiant flux and

igniter size.

134
Combustion of Silicone Recent Results

New project.

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

Dow Corning Company

Objective

To understand why the heat release rate (as measured in the cone calorimeter) of burning siloxane is nearly independent of the external thermal radiant

flux.

Problem

The heat release rate (HRR) of burning materials

increases significantly with an increase in external

thermal radiant flux applied to the burning surface.

This is true for non-charring materials and also for charring materials. However, the burning behavior

of siloxanes differs markedly from carbon-based

materials. Perhaps most significant, the HRR for siloxanes (chain length > 1 5 Sj-02 units) does not

increase significantly with an increase in external

thermal radiant flux. Whereas carbon based materials may form products of incomplete combustion

such as soot and carbonaceous chars, siloxanes

form very minimal char but produce substantial

amounts of solid amorphous silica (Sj02

) as a major

product of combustion. Previous studies suggest

that amorphous silica plays a significant role in mediating the burning behavior of siloxanes.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will determine the flame

radiative characteristics, energy feedback rate from

flame to the sample surface, and general behavior

of the sample in the condensed phase. One or more

short chain length siloxanes and a much larger chain

length siloxane will be used. The project consists of

three parts:

1 . characterization of the thermal radiation of

siloxane pool flame vs. hydrocarbon pool flame (IR emission spectra and/Q), 2. measurement of the total energy feedback rates from flame at different external radiant fluxes, and

3. measurement of weight loss rate and the temperature distribution (depth profile) in the sample under

different external fluxes.
Radiative Ignition and Subsequent

Flame Spread Over Cellulosic

Materials

Principal Investigator:

Takashi Kashiwagi

Fire Science Division

301-975-6699

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Lewis Research Center

Microgravity Science Program

Objective

To develop theoretical models of ignition and subsequent flame spread over a cellulosic material in a microgravity environment and calculate ignition and

flame spread behavior using material characteristics

determined in normal gravity.

Problem

This project is one of NASA Microgravity Science

projects to enhance the understanding of combustion science by taking unique advantage of a microgravity environment.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will be developing multi- dimensional (2D, axisymmetric and 3D) timedependent theoretical models of ignition and the

subsequent transition to flame spread in a microgravity environment are developed and solved

numerically. Two environmental conditions will continue to be studied; 1 . in a quiescent environment and 2. in slow forced flows. Validation

experiments are planned for USML-2 flight in 1995.

The conceptional experimental design, fabrication,

experimental parameters and procedures are being

developed working jointly with the NASA Lewis Re- search Center. Exploratory experiments with a

similar hardware are being conducted using drop

towers and KC-130 flight.

The results of this research are expected to enhance

fire safety in spacecrafts.

Recent Results

Yamashita, H., Baum, H., Kushida, G., Nakabe, K., and Kashiwagi, T., "Heat Transfer from Radiatively

Heated Thick Material in a Low Reynolds Number

Microgravity Environment," J. Heat Transfer, 1 15,

418, 1993.

Kashiwagi, T. and Nambu, N., "Global Kinetic

Constants for Thermal Oxidative Degradation of a

Cellulosic Paper," Combustion and Flame, 88, 345,

1992.

Kushida, G., Bajm, H., Kashiwagi, T., and diBlasi,

C, "Heat and Mass Transport from Thermally

Degrading Thin Cellulosic Materials in a Microgravity

Environment," J. Heat Transfer, 1 14, 494, 1992.

136
Fire Resistant Aircraft Materials

Principal Investigator:

Marc R. Nyden

Fire Science Division

301-975-6692

Sponsor:

Federal Aviation Administration

Aviation Safety Division

Cross-linked Poly(methyl methacrylate)," Polym.

Deg. and Stab.

,

41, 229, 1993.

Nyden, Marc R. and Brown, James E., "ComputerAided Molecular Design of Fire Resistant Aircraft

Materials," Proceedings of the International Confer- ence for the Promotion of Advanced Fire Resistant

Aircraft Interior Materials, DoT/FA/93/3, 147, 1993

Objective

To assess the viability of using high energy irradia- tion to reduce the flammability of materials suitable

for use in the interiors of commercial aircraft.

Problem

Synthetic polymers comprise a significant fraction of the fire load borne by commercial aircraft interiors. The flammability, smoke and toxicity characteristics

of these materials may impact passenger survivabili- ty in the event of an in-flight fire or a post-crash fire. There is a strong correlation between char residue

and fire resistance since char is always formed at the expense of volatile fuel. Surface char also

insulates unburnt material from the heat generated

in gas phase combustion reactions and obstructs

the outward flow of combustible gases generated in the degradation of the interior. The thermal degradation chemistry of some polymers can be altered

to favor the formation of a char with chemical

additives and/or by direct modification of the

structure of the polymer. The challenge is to achieve significant levels of fire resistance without

adversely affecting intended-use properties, cost,

and the toxicity of these materials.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will use its molecular

dynamics model of the thermal degradation of

polymers to calculate the dynamic trajectories of the

polymers from Hamilton's equations of motion.

Macromolecular systems, which are too costly or too complex to synthesize on a routine basis, can

be modeled and systematically varied while examining their tendency to form high molecular weight

crosslinked structures.

Recent Results

Lomakin, S.M., Brown, James E., Breese, Robin S., and Nyden, Marc R., "An Investigation of the

Thermal Stability and Char Forming Tendency of

137
FIRE SCIENCE

DIVISION

FIRE SENSING AND

EXTINGUISHMENT
Suppression of Simulated Engine

Nacelle Fires

Principal Investigator:

Anthony Hamins

Fire Science Division

301-975-6598

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force Wright Laboratory

Survivability Enhancement Branch

Department of the Navy

Naval Air Systems Command

Department of the Army

Tank Automotive Command

Federal Avaiation Administration

FAA Technical Center

Objective

To document guidelines for fire suppression system

performance based on improved understanding of the influence of various parameters on fire suppression in the engine nacelle.

Problem

An engine nacelle encases the jet engine compressor, combustor, and turbine. A nacelle fire is typically a turbulent diffusion flame stabilized behind an obstruction in a moderately high speed air flow.

The most likely source for a fire in the nacelle are

fuel lines carrying jet fuel or hydraulic fluid, that can

feed the fire either as a spray or as a pre-vaporized

gas. Temperatures as high as 150 °C are common

in normal operating engine nacelles.

Extinguishment occurs when a critical amount of

agent is transported to the flame, where it is entrained into the primary reaction zone. The

extinction process is affected by a number of

parameters, including the velocity of the air flow,

the type and quantity of fuel, the system temperature, agent properties and concentration, and the

flow field geometry (e.g., the location of obstacles

in the flow field).

Halon 1301 (CF3Br) has been used as the fire extinguishing agent for protecting aircraft engine

nacelles because of its many positive attributes.

However, its production will cease at the end of this year, leaving many aircraft needing an alternative. The Air Force soon will begin testing three candidate alternatives to halon 1301 in its full scale

Engine Nacelle Test Facility. There are, however, a number of different aircraft and operating conditions

for which a new suppressant is needed. Because

testing cannot be performed for all possible aircraft and conditions, knowledge is needed which will provide guidance in the extension of the full-scale data to untested systems and conditions.

Recently, the Air Force funded an experimental

study which involved simulating an idealized engine

nacelle fire. A coaxial turbulent spray burner was

used, with jet fuel and hydraulic fluid as the fuels with the air at ambient and elevated temperatures.

This project will extend that study to a broader

range of suppression and re-ignition conditions,

typical of in-flight engine nacelles.

Approach

The project is grouped into six tasks; two will be

completed in FY 1994 and the rest in FY 1995.

Task 1 is a review of engine nacelle geometries to understand better possible fire scenarios and to develop a test program.

Tasks 2 and 3 consist of flame suppression measurements which will be conducted in a modified

turbulent spray burner. Task 2 will test the impact

of increased agent (CF 3I, HFC-125, HFC-227, and

N2

) temperature on flame stability. Task 3 will test the effect of flow parameters on the amount of

agent (CF3

I, HFC-125, HFC-227) needed to sup- press a fuel-spray fire. The parameters to be tested

in FY 1 994 are the fuel flow, air flow, air temperature, and system pressure. The parameters to be

tested in FY 1995 are the pre-burn time, the rate of

application, and the flow field geometry (e.g., effect of an obstacle in the flow field).

Task 4 is a computational fluid dynamic model using

FLOW3D (a commercial package computer model

that simulates fluid dynamics and heat fransfer using a finite difference approach) of conditions in the engine nacelle. Information about criticality of the number, placement, and orientation of agent

injection nozzles and the rate of gaseous agent

injection will be determined. Task 5 will experimentally validate the flow field model developed in Task

4 and thereby demonstrate the capability of compu139
tational fluid dynamics to model gaseous agent

concentration in a generic engine nacelle.

Task 6 will compile the knowledge and data gained

through Tasks 1 -5 into guidance tools to assist

suppression system designers. Information about

concentration/duration requirements as a function of

fire zone conditions will be included. Results will be

used to give guidance for adjusting the needed

concentration of candidate fire suppressants over a range of engine nacelle fire conditions.

Recent Results

New project.

Risk Analysis for the Fire Safety of

Airline Passengers

Principal Investigator:

Richard L. Smith

Fire Science Division

301-975-6870

Sponsor:

Federal Aviation Administration

Technical Center

Objective

To develop a generic method and computer program

that will compute the fire risk for airline passengers.

Problem

Airline fire safety is important for the airline passengers and for the potential flying public that needs to be assured of the air safety. The public has demonstrated a willingness to pay for flight safety when it

is cost effective.

Injuries or deaths due to an airplane fire are a rare event. Therefore, there is not a large body of

relevant statistical data that can be used to deter- mine the impact of various fire safety strategies. In this respect, airplane fire safety is similar to the

problem faced by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for the safety of nuclear power plants or NASA

for the safety of its space shuttle program.

Approach

In the last decade considerable progress has been

made in developing and/or improving risk analysis.

The major motivators were the Three Mile Island disaster and the Challenger space shuttle disaster. There have been major advances in Artificial Intelli- gence in dealing with reasoning based upon uncertainty or vague knowledge. Some advances have

used such approaches as Bayesian Probability

theory, belief networks, influence diagrams and new

applications of the Maximum Entropy theory.

During FY 1994, BFRL will apply these advances to the risk analysis for the fire safety of airline passengers. BFRL will develop the generic methodology

and a computer program that will enable the

decision maker to calculate fire risk for airline passengers. The program will use the state-of-theart safety analysis technology, the historical data on

fire losses in airplanes, the results of experiments

140
and tests, the predictions of physical science

models, and experts opinions. The decision maker

will control what knowledge is used and what

assumptions are made. The program will be

capable of recording an individual analysis so that it can be reviewed by others.

Recent Results

Smith, Richard, Final Report for Risk Analysis for the

Fire Safety of Airline Passengers, NISTIR, National

Institute of Standards and Technology,

Gaithersburg, MD (in review).

Advanced Fire Detection Systems

Principal Investigator:

Richard Smith

Fire Science Division

301-975-6870

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Objective

To demonstrate to U.S. industry innovative techniques for sensing products of and precursors to a

fire, to suggest standard fires for evaluating the

performance of detectors for residential applications, and to demonstrate an approach to the

intelligent processing of background non-fire signals.

Problem

A properly designed detection system must be able

to identify in a matter of seconds a fire event which

may occur only once in one hundred years, and the

identification must lead to an action which is appropriate to the space being protected. This disparity

in time scale and the variability in geometry, content and occupancy of the space impose great demands

on the system. False alarms, maintenance problems, incomplete or inaccurate information, and

inappropriate suppression responses are problems

which can plague current fire detection systems,

especially when cost is an overriding constraint.

The phase out of halons and the increased capital

investment in modern industrial processes make

early sensing and suppression even more imperative.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will work with representatives from the fire detector systems industry to better understand their needs and to transfer BFRL's

results directly to its customers. Current fire detector test procedures will be reviewed to evalu- ate detectors and a methodology will be developed

to characterize fires for use in evaluating detectors.

The feasibility of describing the detectable parameters of fire ignition, as a function of time, will be

investigated using multiple temperature readings on

an occupancy for various time intervals. A computer program will be developed that will take this data

in real time and determine the limit of fire detectability of this system.

141
Recent Results

Grosshandler, W. and Braun, E. ( "Early Detection of

Room Fires Through Acoustic Emission," 4th

International Symposium on Fire Safety Science,

Ottawa, Canada, June 1994.

Grosshandler, W. and Jackson, M., "Acoustic

Emission of Structural Materials Exposed to Open

Flames," Fire Safety Journal, 22, pp 209-228,

1994.

Grosshandler, W., RADCAL: A Narrow-band Model

for Radiation Calculations in a Combustion Environment, NIST Technical Note 1402, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD,

April 1993.

Grants

"Development of an Economical Video Based Fire Detection and Location System," O.A. Plumb and

R.F. Richards, Washington State University.

"Smart Fire Detection Using Neural Networks," J. Milke and T. McAvoy, University of Maryland.

Protection of Data Processing

Equipment with Water Sprays

Principal Investigator:

William L. Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To determine the ability of a water spray to protect

data processing equipment from the threat of a fire.

Problem

A total ban on halon production was implemented in January, 1 994. There is a need to find suitable

replacement fire suppressants. A water spray

system is an attractive candidate for replacing halon

1301 in the protection of data processing equipment because water is an effective fire suppressant

and is non-toxic, environmentally friendly, and

competitively priced. The dynamics controlling the

transport of the liquid water droplets are different from the dynamics of prevaporized halon 1301;

hence, the problem is to determine the applicability of a liquid spray system in an environment currently

protected with a gaseous agent.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will contact the data pro- cessing industry, spray systems manufacturers,

Underwriters Laboratory, and Factory Mutual to determine the environments in which mist systems

are most likely to be considered. A representative

data processing cabinet and room geometry will be

defined and a likely ignition source and fuel load will be identified. A test facility will be modified to emulate the physical parameters thought to control

the actual fire suppression process and baseline

studies will be performed to determine the amount

of a gaseous agent required to extinguish the test

fire. The influence on extinguishing efficiency of the nozzle geometry, location relative to the fire, water application rate, and the depth to which the

fire is buried within the simulated cabinet are parameters which will be examined. An experimental facility in which the droplet size distribution,

velocity and obstructions to the flow can be

independently controlled will be developed.

142
Details of the fire test facility, hardware layout, and

nozzle design will be provided to enable others to

establish guidelines for the construction of a full- height facility to test specific computer modules and

spray hardware.

Agent/System Compatibility for

Halon 1301 Aviation Replacement

Principal Investigator:

Richard G. Gann

Fire Science Division

301-975-6866

The results of this research will benefit those who

are considering fine water sprays as an alternative to a gaseous replacement for halon 13011 in fire suppression systems. Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force Wright-Patterson AFB

Survivability Enhancement Branch

Recent Results

New project.

Department of the Army

Tank Automotive Command

Department of the Navy

Naval Air Systems Command

Federal Aviation Administration

FAA Technical Center

Objective

To provide data for appraising twelve USAF-specified candidate halon 1301 replacements for compatibility with flight systems, people, and the environment; recommend three candidates for further examination; and perform longer-term testing to increase confidence in the preliminary results.

Problem

The current suppressant for in-flight fires, halon

1 301 , is rapidly being phased out. The Air Force has committed to begin implementing an alternative

at the end of FY 1 995. Screening of potential

alternatives is needed to narrow the number of chemicals for full-scale testing.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL is working with researchers

from NIST's Material Science and Engineering

Laboratory in performing three tasks:

1 . evaluating stability during long-term storage;

2. determining compatibility with three metals, six elastomers, and three lubricants;

3. developing prediction method for HF formation

during suppression;

The results of this work will establish methods to evaluate future candidate suppressants while

providing the best assessment of current conditions.

143
Recent Results

Grosshandler, W.L., Gann, R.G., and Pitts, W.M.,

Evaluation of Alternative In-Flight Suppressants for Full-Scale Testing in Simulated Aircraft Engine

Nacelles and Dry Bays, NIST Special Publication

861, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, April 1 994.

Agent Screening for Halon 1301

Aviation Replacement

Principal Investigator:

William L. Grosshandler

Fire Science Division

301-975-2310

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force Wright Laboratory

Objective

To publish the findings on BFRL's experimental

program developed during FY 1 992 and 1 993 for screening 1 1 gaseous agents, sodium bicarbonate

powder, and other promising chemicals as a means

to identify the best candidates for a subsequent full- scale aircraft fire extinguishment evaluation pro- gram.

Problem

An increased understanding of the key issues which

control extinguishment in aircraft engine nacelle and

dry bay fires has been gained through a multi-year

experimental program. BFRL identified four agents

for the Air Force to test in its full-scale facility

during FY 1994.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will document the various

aspects of this research. This data will be published as a NIST Special Publication.

Recent Results

Developed a list of agents recommended for full- scale testing and a description of the rationale used

to arrive at the recommendation.

144
Dynamics of Fire Suppression

Principal Investigator:

Gregory T. Linteris

Fire Science Division

301-975-2283

Sponsor:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Department of the Air Force Wright Laboratory

Survivability Enhancement Branch

Department of the Army

Tank Automotive Command

Objective

To develop a fundamental understanding of the

mechanisms of flame extinction by existing fire suppressants and to enable the development of the next generation of suppression agents and technologies for the fire suppression industry.

Problem

Fire suppressants and their application methods

need be effective, fast-acting, economical, have low

toxicity, permit a habitable environment during

suppression, leave no residue, and cause no damage to the protected space. Existing suppressants,

however, are non-ideal because water can cause

excessive damage, metal-based suppressants leave

a residue, and the currently favored suppressants,

the halons, may leave a corrosive residue after passing through a flame. Also, because of their suspected destruction of stratospheric ozone, the

most effective halons are being phased out. There

exists a continuing need for better suppressants and

suppression methods.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL is developing an understanding of the mechanisms of existing fire suppressants

by designing laboratory-scale experiments, per- formed in conjunction with chemical kinetic calcula- tions of the temperature and species concentration

profiles in inhibited flames. The measurements

include global properties of inhibited flames such as burned gas temperature, burning velocity, stable

product species concentrations and flames thick- ness and detailed flame structure measurements.

Both these approaches yield information important

to understand the chemistry of inhibition, and to

validate or develop kinetic models. The early stages

of this project measure global properties of inhibited flames and later detailed flame structure measure- ments will be performed.

The results of this research are expected to increase an understanding of the mechanisms of existing fire suppressants which will aid U.S. industry develop

effective and environmentally benign agents.

Recent Results

Notarianni, K.A. and Jason, N., editors, Water Mist

Fire Suppression Workshop, March 1-2, 1993

Proceedings, NISTIR 5207, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, June

1993.

Grants

"Chemical Inhibition of Methane-Air Diffusion

Flames," K. Seshadri, University of California, San

Diego.

"Basic Research on Fire Suppression," A. Atreya,

University of Michigan.

145
Optimization of Aircraft Fire

Suppression System Discharge

Principal Investigator:

Jiann C. Yang

Fire Science Division

301-975-6662

agents into dry bays, and provide engineering

correlations for the transient two-phase pipe flow of

the agents.

Recent Results

New project.

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force Wright Laboratory

Objective

To ensure that the four recommended agents for

full-scale testing by the Air Force are delivered to the fire in an efficient manner so that an unbiased

evaluation of system effectiveness can be made and

to provide generic scientific data to fire suppression

system suppliers and airframe manufacturers in support of their efforts to design protective systems

for existing and future aircraft.

Problem

None of the gaseous agents being screened for the

Air Force has exhibited the chemical activity of

halon 1301 . The mass concentrations of many of

the agents needed to suppress the laboratory flames

are closely clustered. The thermodynamics properties of these agents, however, vary significantly.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will determine the practical

limits to the design of system hardware which

constrain what the Air Force can do in the full-scale evaluation. Temperature-pressure data will be

collected on the recommended fluids, pure and in mixtures with nitrogen, to enable the development

of appropriate equations of state from -60 to 1 50

°C, and for pressures up to 40 MPa. It will be

determined how the initial conditions in the storage

bottle and the design of the release mechanism and

exit orifice can be modified to enhance the dis- charge rate of the recommended fluid agents

directly into an unconfined space. The performance

of the recommended fluid agents flowing through

various piping geometries and components in transient operation will be determined.

The expected benefits of this work will provide

design information for in-flight fire suppression

bottles for recommended agents, provide guidelines

to optimize the discharge rates of recommended

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Real-Time Suppressant

Concentration Measurement

Principal Investigator:

William M. Pitts

Fire Science Division

301-975-6486

Sponsor:

Department of the Air Force Wright Laboratory

Survivability Enhancement Branch

Department of the Navy

Naval Air Systems Command

Department of the Army

Tank Automotive Command

Federal Aviation Administration

FAA Technical Center

Objective

To evaluate possible methods for real-time measure- ment of concentrations of alternative fire fighting

agents for dry bay and nacelle applications.

Problem

The U.S. Air Force is coordinating the search for alternative fire fighting agents for dry bay and

nacelle fires on aircraft. They have narrowed their search to four candidates-HFC-227, HFC-125, FC218, and CF3

I. A method is required for measuring

real-time concentrations of these agents during full- scale nacelle and dry bay tests. Existing measure- ments techniques do not have the required temporal

resolution.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will perform a 2 part ap- proach:

1 . Perform a literature search of possible methods

for concentration measurement and those that

should be tested as part of this research, that have

applicability to meeting the needs of the Air Force.

2. Test and characterize two instruments~a differ- ential infrared broad band absorption device developed under an Air Force SBIR and an aspirated hotfilm concentration probe used for qualitative flow

characterization during last year's effort on agent

screening. Provision is included for testing one of

the instruments in Wright Patterson's full-scale test

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facilities if one of the techniques appears to be

viable.

Recent Results

New project.
Comparison of Fire Sprinkler Piping Recent Results

Materials, Steel, Copper, Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride, and

Polybutylene, in Residential and

Light Hazard Installations

Principal Investigator:

Kathy A. Notarianni

Fire Science Division

301-975-6883

Sponsor:

Federal Emergency Management Agency

U.S. Fire Administration

Objective

To develop information to help decision makers

select sprinkler pipe for residential and light hazard

installations.

Problem

Materials available for use in piping systems for

residential sprinklers are grouped into two categories - metals and plastics. The metals include

standard-weight steel, lightweight steel, and copper

tubing. The plastics include chlorinated

polyvinylchloride (CPVC) and polybutylene (PB).

While these materials are capable of transporting

water to the sprinklers, each has advantages and

disadvantages when used in a fire sprinkler system

depending on the particular application. The enduser requires information to select piping material.

Approach

During FY 1994, BFRL will compare and evaluate

the following key variables:

o corrosive conditions o materials degradation during a fire o maintenance

Q economics

< occupancy classification limitations system modification limitations o materials limitations with types of systems

o system design (hydraulic calculations) o hanger and bracing considerations

A matrix of key variables affecting sprinkler pipe

selection will be produced.

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Smoke Movement and Smoke

Layer Development in High Bay

Areas

Principal Investigator:

Kathy A. Notarianni

Fire Science Division

301-975-6883

Sponsor:

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Goddard Space Flight Center

Objective

To develop data on smoke movement and layer

development in high bay areas to permit NASA to make decisions about fire detection and suppression

in their high bay spaces.

Problem

There is a special need to address fire protection

issues for high ceiling height large spaces. NASA

has numerous high bay spaces that are used to perform a variety of functions. Examples include

those used for clean rooms, shuttle simulators,

assembly/storage, vacuum and vibration chambers,

vehicle assembly, and/or testing facilities with

payloads. These spaces represent some of the

most difficult fire protection challenges in that

detection of a fire in a large space may be delayed

due to the distance smoke and products of combustion must travel to reach the detector, the large

amount of ambient air for smoke dilution, the high

dollar value of these spaces and the low damage

threshold of a clean room. Some of these spaces

also involve forced airflow.

Recent Results

Notarianni, K.A. and Davis, W.D., The Use of

Computer Models to Predict Temperature and

Smoke Movement in High Bay Spaces, N I STIR

5304, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1993.

Approach

During FY 1 994, BFRL will conduct a survey of

NASA high bay spaces to quantify materials and fire sizes. Existing detection and suppression systems

will be documented as well as forced air flows. A

matrix of NASA spaces will be produced. 3D

Modeling will be used to determine the appropriate- ness of available detection and suppression systems

to each type of NASA space. A final applications

matrix will be produced so that NASA can make

decisions on type and location of fire detection and

suppression equipment for its high bay spaces.

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