Appendix B – Proposed Treatment Descriptions for the Action Alternative

Appendix B – Proposed Treatment Descriptions for 

the Action Alternative

Proposed treatments for the Lang Dam project area are thinning, gaps, skips, Dominant Tree Release

(DTR), and various post-harvest fuels reduction treatments. 

Activities Common to Thinning

Thinning would maintain/increase the health and vigor of the remaining trees not harvested. Skips and 

openings ranging between 1-3 acres (see Gaps, and DTR description below) would be placed in many of 

the stands to promote vertical and horizontal diversity (see Appendix E for a unit by unit prescription). 

The use of skips and gaps would be part of an un-even aged management approach. Un-even aged 

management, which is a stand ultimately with more than two age class, would not be applied to all 

stands; some may not contain any gaps. 

Conifer trees would be removed through commercial thinning across all size classes, but would primarily 

consist of smaller diameter trees. Sugar pine and white pine would not be removed from the stand; 

however they may be cut for operational purposes. Generally, remnant large woody debris on the forest 

floor would be maintained or increased throughout the stand. Snags would be maintained on site if not a 

hazard to logging operations.

Project generated fuels may be removed with treatments such as yarding tops attached during harvest, 

biomass utilization, piling and burning, underburning, mastication, firewood collection, or chipping. 

However, not every acre harvested would have fuels treatments prescribed. Areas which are projected 

to be below the standards and guidelines (FW-212 and 252) presented by the Forest Plan would likely 

have minimal fuels treatments prescribed. All post-harvest fuels treatments would reduce fuel loads 

within the stand.

Thinning Descriptions

Thinning: Thinning treatments would reduce canopy cover within a stand between approximately 30-60 

percent. The residual stand, post-harvest (not including gaps put in the stand), would have 

approximately 25-55 percent of the maximum Stand Density Index (SDI) (see Section 3.1 in Chapter 3 for 

discussion on SDI). The prescription aims to stay below 55 percent SDImax, which is where inner tree 

mortality likely begins to occur (Tappeiner et al. 2007). Gaps, dominant tree releases, as well as skips

(areas not harvested) would likely be placed in the stands being commercially thinned. 

Thinning would increase the health and vigor of the remaining trees and help increase the stands ability 

to adapt to environmental changes. Additional light, from reduced canopy cover, reaching the forest 

floor would help promote a second cohort of trees. Both shade-tolerant and intolerant species may be 

established; however, shade-tolerant species would thrive over time as the overstory crown closes. The 

canopy cover is estimated to increase 2 percent per year (Chan et al., 2006). This second generation of 

trees growing under the overstory canopy is expected to provide vertical, horizontal, age, and species 

diversity in the stand by primarily harvesting Douglas-fir which is over represented in the project area 

because of planting densities.

Conifer trees would be removed through commercial thinning across all size classes, but would primarily 

consist of smaller diameter trees with an emphasis on retention of sugar pine and white pine; however 

these species may be cut for operational purposes. This prescription would also maintain or increase 
Appendix B – Proposed Treatment Descriptions for the Action Alternative

vegetative diversity in the understory by opening the canopy to allow for growth of seedlings, as well as 

the development of understory shrubs and forbs which have broad ecosystem benefits.

Thinning provides growing space for new trees to increase age, size and height diversity in a stand and at 

the project area scale. Young uniform stands such as the plantations and many fire regenerated stands 

proposed for treatment in the Lang Dam project can be diversified with early thinning by allowing new 

generations of trees to establish. Early commercial thinning has been shown to be beneficial to the 

future development of understories, the promotion of natural regeneration, and in enhancing 

biodiversity (Muir et al. 2002). With early thinning, overstory trees can develop deep canopies and largediameter branches in open stands (McGuire et al. 1991). Low overstory density facilitates the 

establishment of understory trees (McGuire et al. 1991, Bailey and Tappeiner 1998, Miller and 

Emmingham 2001).

Treating mature stands in the Lang Dam project is expected to increase availability of resources such as 

sunlight to the forest floor for increased diversity of shrubs, herbs, and understory tree establishment 

and growth with the effects lasting up to about 15-20 years as the overstory crown closes in (Chan et al., 

2006). In addition to the understory response, increased growth in the overstory is expected to last up to 

about 25 year (Latham and Tappeiner, 2002). Williamson (1982) found that 19 years after heavy 

thinning, a 100 year old thinned stand, had a 30 percent higher response to volume growth than did the 

control units. Thinning across all crown classes in a stand provides the longest term benefits to both 

large and small trees because of the time it takes to fill in the overstory canopy (Williamson and Price 

1966). 

More intensive thinning would likely promote rapid growth of trees with characteristics normally 

associated with old trees in old-growth stands. The large older trees in a stand often showed signs of 

rapid growth in lower densities when they were young (30-100 years), producing large stems and 

crowns. Evidence (Franklin et al 1981, Tappeiner et al. 1997) suggests that growth rates of some older 

forests indicate slow regeneration and at low densities over a long period with little tree-to-tree 

competition. Old-growth stands typically have multiple canopy layers, and thinning promotes a second 

cohort, or canopy layer, by allowing for natural regeneration to occur (Tappeiner et al. 1997). 

Some old-growth forests appear to have developed from relatively even-aged cohorts that have 

undergone long-term suppression mortality, little understory regeneration of Douglas-fir, and episodic 

release of established tolerant conifers (Winter et al. 2002a, 200b). Therefore, stand management can 

follow multiple routes that emulate natural processes to move dense young stands towards structure 

similar to old-growth forest.

A short-term (less than one year) impact to understory vegetation and below ground fungi could occur 

from logging. These short-term adverse effects would be expected to recover within two years postharvest as regrowth of herbs and shrubs occur. The removal of host trees and soil disturbance from the 

yarding operation impacts below ground fungi (Courtney et al. 2004). This adverse effect is reduced by 

minimizing additional soil impacts with the use of designated skid trails with ground–based yarding 

systems and log-suspension capabilities of skyline and helicopter yarding systems.

Gaps (GS): Gaps would be randomly placed unless it was necessary to strategically place the openings 

within a stand for other resource benefits such as minimizing conflict for current and/or expected future 

logging operations or avoiding weed infections. Gaps may also be placed to provide higher quality early 

seral habitat for wildlife species like big game, or to provide scenic vistas. The gaps would be randomly 

shaped following features of the landscape when available, and would range in size from approximately 

1-3 acres. When a root rot pocket is identified, a gap would be placed with a 50-foot buffer established 

around the outside of the root rot pocket which could result in a gap larger than three acres. 
Appendix B – Proposed Treatment Descriptions for the Action Alternative

Gaps would be placed in stands to provide for horizontal and vertical diversity, or in stands that have 

been identified as potentially higher quality early seral habitat areas by our district wildlife biologist. A 

thinning prescription would be applied to the area outside the gaps. 

Gaps would not be a conventional clear-cut treatment. Although not always, to provide diversity, 1-4 

green trees in either scattered pockets and/or scattered would be retained throughout the opening postharvest. These retention trees would be released to grow to encourage large tree development, future 

snag development, diversity in future stand structure, and development of future large down woody 

debris. In 30 to 60 years the stand structure would be more complex with at least a two cohort stand 

making up the overstory. This would better mimic some late successional characteristics than what the 

current stand is projected to produce in the same time frame if no treatment occurred (Andrews et al. 

2005). 

Retention trees would be left in openings to function as legacy trees that would benefit a variety of 

resources. Live retained trees would be released for several reasons including aesthetics, to encourage 

large tree development, future snag creation, diversity in future stand structure, and development of 

future large down woody debris. 

Retention trees may be spaced both sparsely throughout the opening and also in clumps, increasing the 

diversity across the landscape. Emphasis would be placed on retaining multiple desired retention tree 

species where feasible. Live trees with ‘elements of wood decay’ may be selected as retention trees, 

which could include trees with features like dead tops, broken tops and heart rot. This would increase 

the diversity of the prescriptions across the landscape. 

Live retention trees may or may not be used as snag (wildlife) enhancement projects; however, retention 

trees meeting criteria for wildlife trees (i.e. having Phellinus pini conks or other elements of wood decay) 

would serve as a wildlife tree and offset the need for further enhancement. In stands where snags or 

down woody material would be created after harvest, additional trees may be left that can be utilized. 

Snags would be maintained on site, if not a hazard to logging operations.

Dominant Tree Release (DTR): DTR is a method that replicates small disturbances and increases 

structural variability. This prescription would provide for growth of a dominant tree or group of five to 

ten trees to promote larger trees scattered throughout the stands. The area around the dominant tree 

would be cut to a radius of 66 feet from the bole of an individual tree, or each tree in a group. Around an 

individual tree, the 66 feet equates to approximately 1⁄4 acre (accounting for drip-line of trees) when one 

tree is identified. When five to ten trees in a clump are identified, the opening size would vary 

depending on the number and spacing of trees retained but would likely range from an estimated 1/3 to 

1⁄2 acre. Sugar pine, and white pine would not be cut in the DTR. DTR trees would be randomly placed 

throughout stands, including riparian areas when the objective within the riparian area includes 

treatment.

Trees selected for DTR would be the largest trees that best represent site potential in a given area. When 

under represented species are identified in a stand, the DTR may target these species such as sugar pine, 

white pine, and western red cedar as the dominate tree to be released. Although the underrepresented 

species may not be a dominant tree, they would represent the dominant trees of their particular species 

and help increase diversity. Occasionally a group of two trees would be selected in one DTR. The canopy 

cover of the stand would be adjusted based on the 1⁄4 acre DTR having a canopy cover of 4 percent. 

Within all units, a sugar pine, when identified, would be used as the dominant tree in an effort to help 

promote sugar pine’s health and vigor as well as regeneration. Sugar pine that are 24” dbh and larger 

with a maximum of 5 trees selected per 10 acres would be used as Dominant Tree Release. All trees 
Appendix B – Proposed Treatment Descriptions for the Action Alternative

within a radius of one chain from the bole of the sugar pine would be cut and removed regardless of 

species with the exception of another sugar pine located within the cut area or a tree greater than the 

DBH of the sugar pine selected. 

No Harvest Skips (NH): No harvest skips are areas within units that would not have trees removed 

however some trees within a skip may have trees cut and left on site such as in skyline corridors. There 

may also be wildlife trees or down wood created within these areas. These areas are include no harvest 

buffer around Riparian Reserves, sensitive botanical species, or are areas that are randomly selected to 

allow for natural succession to take place. 

Post-Harvest Tree Planting

Reforestation would be expected to occur within five years of harvest, and occur from both tree planting 

and natural regeneration. Post-harvest densities would be sufficiently low to allow shade-intolerant 

species such as Douglas-fir to regenerate in addition to increasing diversity with the ingrowth of species 

such as western white pine and western red cedar. Skid roads in planting areas are expected to be 

subsoiled to a depth of 18-22 inches to reduce the effects of compaction with the exception of soils 

under a retention tree canopy because the roots of the given tree would be less disturbed. Compaction

from skid roads has not shown a reduction in residual tree growth (Miller et al. 2007). Slash and other 

debris would be utilized as shade and as a deterrent to browse by ungulates. Planting in identified root 

rot pockets would be species that are less susceptible to root rot like western red cedar, sugar pine, 

white pine or red alder. No additional effects would be realized by completion of this project because 

planting has been accounted for in the Forest and Stand Structure analysis.

Natural regeneration is unpredictable based on timing of cone crops and occupation of the site by 

competing vegetation, therefore surveys would occur around three years after treatment to verify 

minimum stocking levels in the natural regeneration. If surveys show less than 200 trees per acre are 

present, planting with western red cedar, white pine, sugar pine, and/or Douglas-fir would occur to 

augment the natural regeneration. 

Fuels Treatments Description

Post-harvest fuels treatments are intended to reduce fuels following harvest. Treatments are guided by 

the Forest Plan standards and guidelines for Maximum Acceptable Fuel Loadings of downed woody 

material. These guidelines are as follows (FW-212 and FW-252): 

Within the proposed harvest units it is estimated (from field surveys and photo series) that current 

surface fuel loading on average is below the Forest Plan standards and guidelines. However, in many 

stands post-harvest fuel loadings are projected to be above standards and guidelines.

Proposed post-harvest fuels treatments would consist of 

yarding tops, hand piling, mechanical treatments and/or 

underburning. The implementation of fuels treatment 

may vary in method from what is the proposed in the 

alternatives to meet standards and guidelines (i.e. 

grapple piling instead of underburning). However, the 

implemented fuels treatments would remain within the 

range of effects analyzed in the Environmental Analysis. 

Hand Treatment and Mechanical Treatments: Hand treatment require manually hand piling created 

slash that is ≥1 inch in diameter and ≥3 feet in length. Mechanical treatments use machines to pile or 

chip/mulch fuels. Slash piles may occur within the unit or at landing(s). Piles would generally be placed in 

locations to minimize the damage of residual standing snags or live trees; however some piles could be 

Guidelines for Downed Woody Material

Diameter Tons/Acre

0-3” 7-11

3”-9” 8-12

9”-16” 18-20

>16” 8-15 pieces/acre >20ft.
Appendix B – Proposed Treatment Descriptions for the Action Alternative

located to cause tree mortality to create snags for wildlife habitat. Hand, grapple, and landing piles are 

covered with approved plastic following construction and burned at a later date after the slash has 

sufficiently dried (1-2 years post-harvest). This creates a drier pocket of fuel in the middle of the pile and 

enables them to be burned in the late fall or early winter when there is very low risk of the piles 

spreading into other fuels surrounding the piles.

Yarding Tops: Yarding tops occurs during harvest operations. Tree tops are removed from the harvest 

unit to the landing areas. The tops are then separated where they can either be utilized (i.e. firewood or 

biomass) or piled for burning within a few years post-harvest. This treatment aids in reducing the postharvest fuel loading within the harvest unit. 

Post-Harvest Underburn: Post-harvest underburns are intended to reduce fuels created by harvest 

activities and help promote structural and biological diversity in stands. Underburning would comply 

with Forest Plan standards and guidelines in regards to consumption of fuels and maintaining downwoody material, duff cover, and snags. Underburns would be conducted during optimal weather and 

fuels conditions, most likely in the spring or fall. The weather and fuels conditions would be specific to 

the unit’s location and fuel loading and tempered speeds of ignition to reduce mortality of residual 

canopy. An objective for the post-harvest underburning would be to minimize overstory tree mortality; 

however, some mortality of 0 to 10 percent would be acceptable and would also aid in wildlife snag 

enhancement. Mortality trees that occur adjacent to roads may be removed for safety reasons.

Underburns may require the construction of firelines around the unit perimeter. These are created prior 

to the burn and aid in containing the prescribed fire within the unit boundaries. Firelines are created 

with the use of hand tools, or equipment, by scraping fuel back to an approximate 18” mineral soil line 

and scattering fuels that lie within about 10 feet of the proposed line. If units are located on a steep 

slope waterbars are created within the fireline to reduce erosion potential.

Roads Treatments

Road Maintenance: For all action alternatives, existing forest roads needed for harvest activity would be 

maintained to allow safe access to harvest areas and to reduce adverse impacts to resources. Road 

maintenance associated with haul routes would result in decreased maintenance cost, improved safety, 

and reduced potential for resource damage related to degraded roads that would be needed for current 

and future resource management. Road maintenance activities may include felling danger trees, clearing 

and grubbing, replacing drainage structures, asphalt pavement patching, repairing holes in the roadbed, 

reconstructing ditches, application of dust abatement material, and placement of aggregate surfacing. 

Temporary Road Construction and Decommissioning: Temporary roads would be created in both action 

alternatives. These roads would be placed in areas to minimize impacts to resources and would be 

decommissioned after use. Previously disturbed sites would be utilized where possible. The initial effects 

of the construction would be compacted soils; however those effects would be offset by 

decommissioning. The effects of decommissioning would be the same as subsoiling, and is generally 

beneficial to the residual stand because of reduced compaction and root growth, so increased growth is 

possible along skid trails and landings that have treatment.

System Road Storage and Decommissioning: Roads would be closed with a physical barrier and nondrivable water bars installed as needed. Culverts would be removed from stream channels with fills of 

shallow to moderate depth. Fill depth would be reduced for culverts in deep fill locations, and side cast 

material would be pulled back. Roads identified for decommissioning may include any of the following 

treatments described with road storage but may also include removal of culverts from stream channels 

in deep fills, slope recontouring, and sub-soiling. These roads are no longer needed and will be removed 

from the transportation system.
Appendix B – Proposed Treatment Descriptions for the Action Alternative