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Behavioral Research

Approaches and Directions

Arthur I. Rubin

Jacqueline Elder

Environmental Design Research Division

Center for Building Technology

National Engineering Laboratory

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, DC 20234

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Philip M. Klutznick, Secretary

Luther H. Hodges, Jr., Deputy Secretary

Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary

for Productivity, Technology and Innovation

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Ernest Ambler, Director

Issued June 1980

ATIONAL BUBKAC

or STANOABDB

LIBRABT

APR 1 7 1981

J9J35G

CitlOO
Library of Congress CataloQ Card Number: 80-600065

National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 474

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Spec. Publ. 474, 315 pages (June 1980)

CODEN: XNBSAV

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1980

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1980 O—328-025

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $14

(Add 25 percent for other than U.S. mailing)
Dedication

To Paul Reece Achenbach; an

engineer who designed and created a research environment which

nurtured and fostered the growth

of a new discipline.

Acknowledgements

We owe our thanl<s to many people

who have helped us complete this

work. The following people provided

detailed critiques of the entire

manuscript: Dr. Galen Cranz, John

Christian, John Eberhard, Ben

Handler, John Holton, Dr. Gerald

Howett, Stephen Kliment, Lars

Lerup, Dr. Joseph Murdoch, George

Renaud, Roger Rensberger, Dr. Stuart Robinson, Edward Russell,

Robert Tibbott, and George Turner.

Dr. Joan Rosenblatt assisted us by

a detailed review of the statistics

chapter. NBS photographers Chucl<

Sabadezas and Richard Seek took

many of the photographs which

appear in the publication. We are

also grateful for the permission of

HUD, NASA, EPA, the AIA Journal,

and several individuals for permitting the use of their photographs.

The book's illustrations and graphs were prepared by Judy Cox. Tim

White and Stephen Kliment were

instrumental in developing architectural ideas which lent themselves

to illustration.

We are appreciative of the many

hours of work spent typing and

revising this work to make it ready

for publication by Sharon Farinholt,

Susan Johnson, and Miriam Gland.

Finally, we are grateful for the

painstaking efforts of Becky Morehouse, Reeves Tilley, Betty Burris,

Charles Messina, and Gail Minning,

who helped ease this work through

the publication process.

iii
Abstract

The primary goal of this report is to acquaint the practicing architect and

the architectural student with the

potential contributions of the social

sciences to the solution of building

design problems.

The report is divided into seven major

parts, each part containing several

chapters.

Part I explores problems connected

with today's buildings and advocates

a design approach based on a team

concept including architects,

behavioral researchers, and

engineers.

Part II takes up the scientific approach to research, stressing the

need for employing experimental

controls and systematic procedures

to collect objective data.

Parts III, IV, and V describe methods

employed by researchers to collect

Man/Environment (M/E) data. The

emphasis is on the need to develop

systematic procedures to collect in- formation, because only in this way

can significant progress be made in developing a discipline of M/E

studies.

Part VI summarizes the major points

and indicates approaches and directions for developing such a discipline.

Part VII contains reference information to broaden the perspective of the

reader with respect to M/E issues.

The final part of the work contains a

glossary, bibliographic information,

and an index.

Key words; Architecture; audition;

built environment; color; environmental psychology; illumination; perception; questionnaires; research

methodology; sensory environment;

social sciences; thermal environment.

f
Preface

This work is designed as a response

to increasing demands that buildings

meet the needs of those who occupy

them. If this Is to come about, the

architect must have easy-to-use,

practical information on how

buildings and people influence one

another. This is known as the study of

Man/Environment (M/E)

relationships. It Is not a novel idea.

Investigations to date have been

made on a piecemeal basis, however,

and have been conducted largely to respond to particular design

problems. Such an approach is costly, time-consuming, and finally, ineffective. What is needed Is an effort to improve the discipline of M/E studies so that Information is made available

to all building designers. This way, in- cremental Improvements to available

information can be used to build upon

(and verify) the work of colleagues;

and the architect can apply findings as they are disseminated.

In the past decade, behavioral

researchers and architects have

found they have much in common.

Each profession has faced the need to explain the ways in which people res- pond to their environments. The

architect must know how people res- pond to various kinds of buildings and

communities. The Interests of

behavioral researchers and architects

coincide when recommendations for

design criteria and guidelines (e.g.,

appropriate lighting and noise levels) are decided.

Architects and behavioral

researchers have worked together

before but with limited success. One

reason is that the professions are at odds as to how to develop the re- quired information. Behavioral

researchers rely on the scientific

method—controlled procedures

based largely on analytic techniques.

Architects rely heavily on intuition to synthesize available Information into a design solution. Moreover, behavioral

researchers are trained to be skeptical users of information (questioning

Its adequacy and relevance); the

architect is more likely to rely on the

advice of expert consultants.

To develop the needed information

and to make sure it Is properly applied, the social scientist and the

architect should work together. The

design process offers one framework

for joint efforts. It provides the opportunity to see where building users are

affected by design decisions, thereby

showing what, and when, information

is needed. Finally, the design process

should allow for evaluation of

buildings after completion—i.e., to determine If user-related design goals were achieved and indeed, whether

they were appropriate. Such a feedback loop will also provide information to the building community as a

whole.

Assumptions

This work is based on a number of

premises:

• The present state of M/E studies Is unsatisfactory.

• The study of user requirements in buildings will soon constitute a major

research activity.

• Architects do not understand

enough about the research process in general and social science studies In particular.

• The training of architects will stress behavioral research in the

future more than to date.

• The trend toward design by team

rather than by an individual architect

will grow.

• Professional and market forces

will demand that the design team in- clude social scientists.

Purpose

A primary goal of this work is to show

the practicing architect and the

architectural student how the social

sciences can improve solutions to building design problems. Answers

already exist to many current

problems. Of greater importance,

however, Is the need for social scientists to work with architects to develop

better building user data. The

development of a M/E discipline will result In standardized procedures to make observations and measure- ments of phenomena dealing with the

relationships of people and buildings.

One of the greatest shortcomings in M/E research today is the lack of

agreement among professionals concerning what to measure and how

measurements should be made.

This work points to the need for

carefully controlled procedures (the

scientific method) to obtain M/E Infor- mation. A broad range of research

methods is described and critiqued.

The discussion Is designed to provide an insight into the working style of a researcher in order to smooth the

path for interdisciplinary work. Since

the amount of available material Is enormous, this study can do no more

than sample the information. To en- courage a search for further information, a bibliography is included in the

appendix, as Is background Information on selected topics.

Finally, we have reviewed past joint

efforts and suggested a number of

future directions.

V
Limitations and

Potential Biases

Research should not be expected to provide clear-cut solutions to M/E

problems. The impact of the environment on man is not well known. Environmental influences may vary with

building types, activity, experience,

and other social and design factors.

Research should be performed to produce better information on all these issues, thereby providing

greater understanding.

This work does not contain design

recommendations. It is not meant to be a handbook of information for the

architect. Rather, this study is focused on the need for this information.

All of us, whether researchers or designers, bring our assumptions and

value judgments to our work. The

authors of this report are no exception. Instead of ignoring them,

however, we will try to make them as

explicit as possible.

Undoubtedly, the major influence on

our research outlook came from our

training and experience in applying

industrial and experimental psychological techniques to problems.

This background (which we consider

to be synonymous with human factors) was the primary filter through

which we viewed and evaluated the

material covered in this work.

Another major orientation is that of

psychophysics, which emphasizes the

collection of data in at least two

realms (physical and psychological;

psychological and physiological;

physiological and physical)—at least

one of which permits quantitative

observations. Without tfiis link between behavior and the physical

world of the architect, any discussion

of the relationships between behavior

and the environment is academic for

the most part.

Structure and Organization

The work is divided into seven major

parts—each containing several

chapters. Sinceoneof the major purposes is to tell architects about

research approaches that apply to M/E studies, we have not avoided

redundant presentations of research

methodologies as they apply to dif- ferent problems. Rather, we have

made a conscious effort to suggest

the versatility of particular approaches to solve different problems.

Part I (Chapters 1-3) explores

problems with today's buildings and

advocates a design approach based

on a team concept including

architects, engineers, and behavioral

researchers. Attention is on improving working relationships. A M/E

scientific discipline is advocated as a means of systematically developing

the information needed for more

responsive buildings.

Part II (Chapters 4-6) provides an over- view of the scientific approach to research, stressing the need for ex- perimental controls and systematic

procedures to collect objective data.

Experimental methodology is discussed as the means of making controlled observations and measurements. User requirements are touched upon by defining what we

mean by "users" and "requirements"

in M/E research. Finally, research approaches are used to introduce

research techniques that solve

problems dealing with building user

interactions.

Parts III, IV, and V (Chapters 7- 1 7)

provide an overview of the methods

employed by researchers to collect

M/E data. Emphasis is on the need to develop procedures to collect information. Only by developing such

standardized approaches is progress

possible in upgrading M/E information in an orderly way. Detailed

studies were selected for general applicability, novelty, and presentation

of a broad range of approaches.

Part VI (Chapter 18) summarizes the

major points covered in the work and

points to approaches and directions

for developing a M/E discipline.

Part VII (Chapters 19-21) contains

reference information to broaden the

perspective of the reader with respect

to M/E issues. Unlike the earlier

chapters, these chapters address

broad areas which cut across particular research methodology concerns.

The final part of the work contains a

glossary, bibliographic information,

and an index.

The authors hope this work will serve

to sharpen the concern of architects

and other designers to the needs of

the users who occupy the buildings

they create.
Contents

Part I. Problem Definition and Research

Directions 1 Chapter 1. Introduction 3

Chapter 2. Background 9

Chapter 3. Design/Behavioral Research Bridges 23

Part II. Research Approach and Identification

of Subject Areas 37

Chapter 4. Scientific Approach 39

Chapter 5. IVlan/Environment Research 53

Chapter 6. Scales of Observation 69

Part III. IVlan/Environment Research

Components and Characteristics 81

Chapter 7. Man 83

Chapter 8. Man/Environment Interactions 99

Chapter 9. The Man-Made Environment 113

Part IV. Weil-Known Senses—Hearing, Vision 125

Chapter 10. The Auditory Environment 127

Chapter 11. Visual Perception 143

Chapter 12. The Visual Environment—Illumination 151

Chapter 13. Color 167

Part V. Less Explored Senses 183

Chapter 14. The Thermal Environment 185

Chapter 15. The Olfactory Environment—Air Quality 197

Chapter 16. Environmental Stability— Movements 203

Chapter 17. The Cutaneous Environment—Skin Senses .. . 211

Part VI. Summary 221

Chapter 18. Summary, Conclusions, and Directions 221

Part VII. Reference Material 229

Chapter 19. Behavioral Research—Historical Factors

(Overview) 231

Chapter 20. Surveys 253

Chapter 21. Classification, Measurement, and Statistics . . 263

Glossary 275

Bibliograprhy 289

Index 303

vii

Parti

Problem Definition and Researcli

Directions

Many members of the building community are dissatisfied witli tlie quality of

buildings. While several possible reasons for the problem were suggested, the

underlying cause seems to be the poor quality of M/E information available to architects. An orderly approach to obtain such information must be

developed—one based on scientific procedures using the combined resources and know-how of the human sciences and the architectural profession. In short, a discipline of M/E studies is needed.

What is needed for a M/E discipline?

Three important attributes of any discipline are:

• A common set of research methods to develop required information.

• A defined subject area which describes the problems to be studied.

• Theoretical models.

This part of the present study will examine the state-of-the-art of M/E information and provide an overview of a process designed to overcome the problems

described.

Chapter 1 describes the status of information dealing with the relationship of

design factors and the behavior of people in buildings. It notes that better data

are needed and should be developed by cooperative efforts of architects and

behavioral researchers.

Chapter 2 provides an overview of the state-of-the-art of defining user requirements. Design by team is suggested as the approach needed to ensure that

buildings are responsive to their occupants.

Chapter 3 points to a number of systems analytic approaches available to

facilitate the development of effective cooperation between architects and

behavioral researchers.
2
I

Introduction

Where Are We Now?

What Changes Are Needed?

Strengthening Existing Links

Developing New Links

Goal of This Work—Better Understanding Between Professions

Compatibility of Science and Design

Improving Building User Information

In recent years a kind of consensus

has emerged that many buildings do

not properly serve the functions for

which they were designed.

Architects, builders, engineers, administrators of governmental and

private institutions, and the general

public are among those who question

many of the results of current building

practices. This criticism is not limited

to buildings in the United States; it is a worldwide phenomenon.

Buildings are said to be made for

people. Yet, ironically, those who actually occupy or otherwise use

buildings are seldom able to influence

the way buildings are designed.

Rather, nearly all the important decisions are based on factors that have

little to do with either the way people use buildings or the way buildings af- fect people. Those decisions are made by clients, builders, architects,

and others who in most instances do

not occupy the buildings which are ul- timately constructed. This lack of user participation has been cited as a major reason for dissatisfaction. Yet

these same users can serve as

valuable sources of information in the

design and evaluation phases of the

building cycle.

3
Where Are We Now?

Building design today is a product of

two often conflicting traditions

architecture and engineering.

Sigfried Giedion offers one insight

into the source of conflict:

We have behind us a period in which

thinl<ing and feeling were separated. .

.

Contemporary artists and scientists

have lost contact with each other, they

speak the language of their time in their own work, but they cannot even understand it as it is expressed in work of a

different character. '

Buildings therefore reflect the work

of: (1) architects who want to make a personal statement and, in so doing,

apply engineering technology which

they do not always thoroughly in- tegrate and (2) engineers who are

technically oriented and not sensitive

enough to the needs of building occupants.

The training and experience of both

the architect and the engineer have

led to the viewpoint (common also to other disciplines) that problems are

solved by applying the technical

know-how of their profession. Each

therefore sees himself as an expert

with little need to draw upon the ex- perience of others even when making

major decisions.

They do rely on others for support,

however. For example, an architect

will retain an acoustician to obtain a

satisfactory auditory environment.

But, whenever acoustical factors

S. Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture

(Cambridge, Mass., 1974).

should shape the building, architectural rather than acoustical factors

tend to predominate. Similarly, an

architect will rely on a structural

engineer to insure the safety and

structural integrity of a building, but

often will reject suggestions that

modify its overall appearance.

User requirements in the past have

for the most part been defined by the

personal experiences of architects

and their clients. There has been little incentive to spend time and resources

defining the requirements of building

occupants.

The rare studies of occupant requirements have met with mixed success.

Architects and social scientists have

been uneasy collaborators in their at- tempts to work together on design

problems. Where interdisciplinary

work has been successful, research

findings have been too specific to a

particular design problem to benefit

the design profession as a whole.

Consequently, the development and

application of user information is at best haphazard and unsystematic.

What Changes Are

Needed?

We need to upgrade the quality and

importance of user information

employed in the design process. If buildings are to serve the people who

occupy them, we must learn more

about the way in which the built en- vironment affects behavior and about

how behavioral factors should in- fluence building design.

Building evaluation criteria should in- clude long-term occupancy and

operational needs, not only visual at- tributes. Uniform procedures are necessary to monitor and assess longterm building performance, including a feedback system. The information

should then be disseminated to every

architect. The need for new information should be identified during

evaluation and, in due course,

developed.

Building design today requires a team

approach. The post-World War II in- formation explosion has made it impossible for one person to master the

many activities which comprise

building design. Architectural and

engineering firms increasingly use in- terdisciplinary teams. This trend can be expected to accelerate as the

building design process becomes

more complex in response to internal

and external influence from the

building community. More specifically, a close working relationship is needed between architects (who apply behavioral information) and social

scientists (who develop and interpret

it) if buildings are to better serve their

occupants.

Architects should become familiar

with behavioral science information

applicable to building users.

Familiarity with this information will enable them to make better use of

available design data dealing with user needs and to identify requirements for new and/or improved information. Social scientists in turn should pay greater attention to building user problems which require

better behavioral information for their

solution. Such a dialog between the

two professions could achieve agreement on informational requirements

and priorities. Together with

engineers and other related professionals, plans could then be formulated to develop the information.

This call for better user information is neither new nor likely to cause much

controversy. Many architects, critics,

researchers, and building users have

already expressed this point of view.

Walter Gropius described the design

problem as follows:

A new language of vision is slowly

replacing individualistic terms like 'taste' or 'feeling' with terms of objective

validity. Based on biological facts—

both physical and psychological—it seeks to represent the impersonal

cumulative experience of successive

generations. Here roots true tradition. We are able today to feed the creative

instinct of a designer with richer

knowledge of the relation of solids and

voids in space, of light and shade, of

color and scale, objective factors in- stead of arbitrary, subjective interpretation of formulas long since stale.

The designer must learn to see; he must

know the effects of optical illusions, the

psychological influence of shapes,

colors and textures, the effects of contrast, direction, tension and repose; and

he must learn to grasp the significance

of the human scale. Vague phrases like

'the atmosphere of a building' or the

'coziness of a room' should be defined

precisely in specific terms. ^

Richard Neutra, like Gropius, was a

strong advocate of the need for objec-

^ W. Gropius, Scope of Total Architecture

(New York, 1970).
tive behavioral information as a basis

for design. Furthermore, he saw the

need for research, and had a more

realistic view of the effort required

than did many other architects who

have expressed opinions on this matter. He wrote:

An essential task confronting tlie designer is that he familiarize himself

with regularly recurrent responses,

which can be considered basic or universally dependable. The next problem

is that of furthering or eliminating, as the case may be, conditioned reflexes that have become associated with basic

responses through habit or tradition. The designer will need to gather objective information about which responses

are wholesome in a given situation, and

he will also have to be ready to account

for his own goals in the same spirit. In order to understand the motivations he

wishes to manipulate, he must be

patient to compare their functioning in carefully arranged situations of gratification as well as of frustration. He must

call to his aid the experimental psychologist and permit him where possible

to introduce safe quantitative methods

of verification, where formerly connoisseurs referred to intangible qualities and

imponderables.

If the reliable findings of which we speak

at first come trickling in slowly and in small numbers—compared with the for- midable flood of full-page advertisements often so irresponsible as far as

true-life needs are concerned—they will nevertheless become in time a much

more trustworthy guide in helping us toward sounder decisions of design and

acceptance.^

Richard Neutra (HUD)

With the limited exception of research

at several European laboratories,

there has been little systematic effort to produce and use better information. Instead, M/E research has been

largely piecemeal, the result of efforts

by a small number of professionals,

universities, design organizations,

and clients who have become convinced of its importance.

The architect who works on M/E

research problems will have the opportunity to become familiar with the

scientific procedures employed to collect information. This will also

enable the architect to more effectively interpret user information. At present, data are often misapplied due to unfamiliarity with research

procedures and limitations.

' R. Neutra, Survival tiirougii Design (New

York, 1969).

Building Design

archif-ect.

ex-pertise

1 engineer,

expertise

Social

Scientist

expertise

1 user ueer user 1 1 needs needs needs

|

Social scientists, on the other hand,

will have the opportunity to work on

the long-neglected problems of how

people respond to the complex en- vironment of buildings. They can also

contribute in an important way to an improved work and living environment produced by better buildings.

Several key issues stand in the way of

effective cooperation between

architects and social scientists. They

include different, often conflicting

professional goals, value systems,

styles and, perhaps most important,

methods of solving problems.

One major hurdle is the rather

haphazard and intuitive approach

used to define the requirements of

building users. It is ironic that

although buildings are usually

designed to serve people, the

hardware components of a buildingsuch as its shell, heating, ventilation

and air conditioning (HVAC) and ser- vice system —are carefully planned,

whereas occupant requirements, the

main reason for building, are often

downgraded.

The two professions need to agree

upon a vocabulary, designed to ex- change information with a minimum

of confusion. Architects should be

more familiar with information con- veyed in research reports. Social

scientists should learn to read drawings.

Common Vocabulary

Needed

social Q^^u+«o+

scientist architect

5
strengthening Existing Links

In the past decade, an abundance of

| journal articles and books has stres- sed the need for better behavioral in- formation in the building design 1 process. Organizations and

periodicals have sought to bring

social scientists and architects

together, and many conferences have

been held for the same purpose. All

this has helped, but problems sur- faced at the same time.

Participants at conferences and contributors to publications have become

quite inbred. An infusion of new/

blood and new ideas is essential if M/E studies are to have any serious

effect on building design. Both the

design and research ends of the

spectrum must be broadened. For ex- ample, architects and builders on major projects should be induced to participate in the dialog as should

researchers now working at the boundaries of M/E issues—e.g., psychophysical visual research.

A major incentive for cooperation

between the two professions is the in- creasing use of the performance approach in design.

The performance approach demands a statement of performance in terms of

function. Since buildings serve people,

function as defined by the attributes is necessary to satisfy human requirements. The means of delivering an attribute is left open, ...the philosophy of

the performance approach begins and

ends with—and puts its principal

emphasis on—the satisfaction of human

needs.*

" J. R. Wright, "Performance Criteria in Buildings," Scientific American, 224(1971).

The emphasis on the building user in

the performance approach is a useful

framework for cooperative efforts—

both at the planning phase of work

and during post occupancy evaluation. The concept of activities forms a

vital link between the professions.

The primary function of a building is

to enable particular activities to be

performed within it. Discussions

Detween architects and clients are focused primarily on adequately identifying the activities of building occupants.

Social scientists are also concerned

with activities, whether or not they

take place in buildings. They often

observe behavior such as walking,

talking, manipulating objects,

responding to visual and auditory

signals. These kinds of behaviors can

for the most part be described in terms of being analytic elements of

activities—tasks. For example, the activity of driving a car in traffic consists

of many tasks—see/ng traffic signals

and other automobiles; hearing traffic sounds; steering the car in traffic, etc.

The professional schools are a good

place to start cooperative interdisciplinary efforts. Architectural

schools increasingly employ social

scientists as faculty (or in an informal

role) in their training program. An

even closer academic working

relationship between the professions

and the formulation of interdisciplinary curricula could go a long

way toward establishing a lasting

bond between architects and social

scientists.

Therefore, evaluative procedures

must first be developed, and then

standardized. Since M/E studies cover such a broad range of activities, a catalog of research methods should

be developed and used selectively as

appropriate for a given design

problem. When these approaches

are agreed upon and standardized,

then a body of accepted information can be collected and made available as the next generation of buildings is designed and built.

Building Modification by Users (EPA Documerica)

Developing New Links

One of the greatest gaps is an almost

total lack of critical evaluation of

buildings from the standpoint of how

well their occupants are able to perform their intended activities. Without

information of this kind, no

meaningful feedback to the design

process is possible and buildings will continue to be designed without

learning from the past. Intuition, opinion, and judgment rather than facts,

will continue to dictate design solutions.

6
Goal of This WorkBetter Understanding

Between Professions

This work is designed to enable the

architect to better collaborate with

researchers on joint efforts. A further objective is to acquaint the

designer with the research methods

and information available from the

many disciplines which touch upon

M/E relationships. Since the study of

building users is thought to be in a

formative stage of development, we

should better define the boundaries

of the field of study. Problems should

be explored from contexts as diverse as geographical features of the environment, man-made objects, social

factors, perceptual, and physiological

responses of people.

The methodologies included in this

work cover behavioral measurements

for the most part. Our purpose is to il- lustrate the broad range of techniques available to develop better

M/E information. The reader should

be cautious about accepting the findings or applying the particular studies

included in this volume. Our concern

is to stress the inherent flexibility of

these methods in terms of potential

application to design problems. Such

flexibility is essential if methods are to be standardized, yet not act as constraints on architects or researchers

pursuing their investigations.

User as Design

Participant

Building users will have an increasing

influence on building design. We must

devise procedures which will enable

users to influence building design

decisions. We must also develop

design/use information showing how

the attributes of a building and the

behavior of people interact. Finally,

building regulations and criteria for

the most part deal with the health,

safety, and performance of building

users. (Yet, as we note throughout

this work, much of the behavioral in- formation which serves as the basis

for regulations, criteria, guidelines,

and standard architectural practice is questionable—e.g., lighting,

acoustical criteria.)

The social scientist is trained to collect information using standardized procedures (scientific method),

and to observe people rather than

things or phenomena—as is the case

with physical scientists. Consequently, the social scientist can provide immediate help in developing better user information. The social scientist can also draw upon and interpret the

research literature already available.

Compatibility Of Science And

Design

Is the design process incompatible

with the methods employed in science?

We think not. Giedion expressed his views about

the relationships between factual data

and design in the following manner:

What our period needs is to gain an un- derstanding and a general view of the

dominant methods in different activity,

recognizing their differences and

likenesses. A general contemporary

understanding of scientific method is more important for our culture as a whole than widespread knowledge of

scientific facts. It is through their in- creasing similarity of method that the

various activities of our times are drawing together to constitute one culture.

There is this remarkable circumstance

which we can observe today: sciences

which differ widely in their objects are beginning to resemble each other in

their methods. A continued and extensive search for exact knowledge is at the

bottom of this growing resemblance. It

is being recognized in all quarters that the ideas which we have taken over from

the past are both too complex and too crude. But science is not an activity

which goes on independently of all others. Each period lives in a realm of

feeling as well as a realm of thought,

and changes in each realm affect the

changes in the other. The solution to the

problem of the separation of thought

and feeling lies in the incorporation into

science of the realm of emotion as it is expressed in art.^

^ Giedion

Improving Building User

Information

In our view, two parallel approaches

are required to improve building user

information. One would be designed

to meet short-range requirements;

the other would focus on long-term

objectives.

To meet the immediate needs of the

designer, we must make greater use

of the design-related information

already available. Experienced

researchers will know of sources of

data not familiar to architects, and

their backgrounds will enable them to interpret the findings appropriately.

An alternative is to upgrade the

designers' understanding of

behavioral research findings so they can make better use of the data

generally accessible to architects. In some instances, a design team may

have the opportunity to collect data by

means of interdisciplinary research.

The long-term research efforts should

be geared to advancing user requirement studies from a practitioner's art to a science. The present work stres- ses measurement methods for the

orderly development of information.

This should contribute toward a con- sensus among architects and M/E

researchers as to: W/?af should be

measured; how to make measurements, how to assimilate this information into the design process.

The standardization of research

methods constitutes a major step

toward assembling a body of M/E

facts—information dealing with M/E

problems and available to all architects.

7
Re6earch Development of \mpro\/ed M/E Information

In6ight about

M/£ Pro}p\em

Tran6la-f-ion

into Building

Design

Evaluation

5o/ution

('in onefxiildihp)

if £)UCC£^ful

for Building

The researcher brings to this task a systematic approach to problem solving and a desire to be objective in his

work. On the other hand, ingenuity

and innovation do not necessarily go

hand in hand with scientific

research—since a person well trained

in a subject is sometimes less likely to think about problems in novel ways.

Thus, the viewpoint of the architect is

vital and may be just what behavioral

researchers working as design team

members need to identify and tackle

problems which they have either not

yet recognized or have until now ignored.

if folution

for building

Type.

Tef>t in

Other 3\do,.-,

of 63me

if C::ienerd\

Solution It)

hN/pQ-Hnesized

Pi^^eminate

findings

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2

Background

New Factors Affecting Design

User Requirements—Wliat Do We Know Now?

Building Users

Differences Among Occupants

Requirements

Design by Team

Architects and Social Scientists

M/E Cooperative Efforts

Experimental Research and Design

Human Engineering as a Team Enterprise

Conclusion

The highly publicized experience of

the St. Louis, Missouri Housing

Authority with the Pruitt Igoe Project

provides a dramatic illustration of a

failure in the design process. (A multimillion dollar complex of relatively

new apartment buildings had to be

destroyed because it was unsuitable

for the occupants.) A major reason

for this outcome was that the

designers apparently failed to un- derstand the life style of the people

who were to occupy the housing.

Although the stated goals for the project appeared reasonableupgrading the living conditions of

slum dwellers—the design solution

was totally inappropriate.

Pruitt Igoe-Before (HUD)

Pruitt Igoe-After (IHUD)
The notion that building design in

itself could have a major impact on

life style was naive. Poverty, un- employment, and crime were everyday problems for the inhabitants of

Pruitt Igoe, but these underlying

social problems were not appropriately addressed. For example,

the prospective housing occupants were not consulted by the designers.

Had they been part of the planning

process, they may well have pointed

out that the proposed plan was made

to order for the criminal. Walkways

inside and outside the building,

alcoves and elevators, made an ideal

environment for illegal activities (robbery, assault), which would ultimately

result in the failure of the project.

Unfortunately, while Pruitt Igoe is not

a typical problem, neither is it an

aberration.

What circumstances permit buildings

to be design award winners and at the

same time fail from the standpoint of

their occupants?

Reasons may be found within the

design profession and the society in which the architect functions.

R. Sommer, Tight Spaces: Hard Architecture and How to Humanize It (Englewood

Cliffs, N.J., 1974).

R. Sommer (psychologist) writes that

awards and fine arts type of criticism

liave encouraged monumental

buildings that are often hard and oppressive. They have also neglected the

responses of occupants and nondesigners. ' He cites as an example

the award winning art/architecture

building at Yale University:

It is, perhaps for these reasons, not an

easy building to live with. Physically it is often uncomfortable. It gets hot when

the sun pours in. Security controls are

difficult. Offices are cramped. The

spaces are not perfect for twenty-foot

high paintings or intimate conversation

or classroom study. The lighting is in- adequate. There are great difficulties in manipulating one's personal environment.^

A major problem faced by the

architect sensitive to the needs of obtaining user requirement information

is the lack of time and resources to develop the necessary data. Most

clients simply have not been convinced that an expenditure of money

for this purpose is a worthwhile in- vestment. Lack of funds makes it either difficult or impossible to hire

consultants to deal with the problem.

The architect must then fall back

chiefly upon his own resources. As a

result, some architects will be successful and others less so—based upon

individual abilities and experience.

While the development of user information for design has been a problem

in the past, it is likely to pose an even

greater burden in the future.

' Sommer

10

New Factors Affecting

Design

The ability of the design profession to operate in the future as it has in the

past is being questioned. Recent

developments have worked against a "business as usual" attitude toward

design. Some factors directly impinge on design; others work indirectly.

The economic viewpoint, which has

dominated the building design and

construction process, is focused on one type of expenditure—first cost. Due to economic and other pressure,

many builders and owners are taking a fresh look at this traditional approach, recognizing long-term costs

of building operations. The cost of

energy has greatly accelerated this

development. One study has shown

that approximately 90% of the total dollars spent during the expected

lifetime of a commercial building is accounted for by salaries paid to employees. Building construction

costs are thus seen from a standpoint

seldom considered by building

client/owners.

The United States has been richly en- dowed with natural resources but has

often been wasteful. Material shortages have been few. Now the concern

for environmental quality, combined

with the energy crisis, has altered the

views of many people. The waste of

depletable resources is becoming un- acceptable to the average citizen.

Reusable Resources (EPA Documerica)
There is a growing sensitivity to the

need to conserve and recycle

materials. Current concerns about

energy reflect a major change in the

priorities of our government. The

building industry, as well as other

segments of society, will be seriously

affected by energy conservation,

which will lead to a greater concern

for energy use in new building

designs. One illustration of the

response to materials shortages,

pollution and energy waste is the

development of new technologies:

(1 ) to recover waste heat (e.g., from

lights) for building and community

use, (2) to produce additional heat by

the combustion of waste materials

produced by the occupants of

buildings and communities, and (3) to allow the use of solar heating.

Not long ago, only a few individuals

and institutions were outspoken in

their concern for environmental

quality. This is no longer true. The

exploration of the moon and the

televised view of the earth from outer

space have had an enormous impact

around the world. The space

program made the "planet earth" a meaningful concept for the layman.

This experience heightened the awareness of many people that waste

by-products from manufacturing and

other activities badly degrade our en- vironment.

The efforts to maintain and improve

our environment have taken a variety

of forms all of which have important

design implications. For example,

within the past few years highways

planned in New Orleans, New York

City, San Francisco, and Washington,

D.C. were not completed because

local citizens opposed their construction.

Uncompleted Highway (NBS)

Planet Earth (NASA)

11
The burgeoning consumer movement

is another indication that people are becoming increasingly dissatisfied

with many of the products that they

purchase. Programs at several levels

of government have been developed

in response to the call for better

products. Private organizations and

local citizens' groups seek more and

more to respond to consumer needs.

Aspects of both the consumer and en- vironmental quality issues affect the

built environment. Questions have

been raised about the adequacy of

buildings, neighborhoods, cities, and

recreational areas. Shouldn't the

architect be expected to work to create an environment which is pleasant and even enhances people's

activities?

Possibly the strongest force in today's

society is the profound skepticism of

many people toward values, traditions, beliefs, and institutions which

not long ago were taken for granted.

Fewer people are willing to accept the

judgment of experts in matters that

vitally concern the individual. For ex- ample, the construction of power

plants using atomic fuels has met

widespread opposition from in- dividuals and groups in the vicinity of

the planned sites, despite repeated assurances by experts as to their

safety. The point is further illustrated

by the skepticism exhibited by the

general public concerning the judgment of those who describe the

nature and extent of the energy crisis.

Consumer Activists (AiA Journal)

Architects, planners, behavioral

researchers, politicians, and

economists are among the professions which have been sharply

criticized by the people whom those

groups supposedly serve. Instead of

relying on the judgments of experts,

which often conflict, private citizens

have organized to deal with issues of

local interest.

12

While the feelings and attitudes of

people represent subjective in- fluences on design, the information

explosion in the design disciplines

points to a problem of an overabundance of data. Improvements in materials, technology and processes

combined with scientific advances in the physical and social sciences have

led to information overload. For the

architect who requires information on

a broad range of topics, the problem

is far greater.

How feasible is it for the architect to become appropriately informed?

The answer is that no one individual or small group can master all of these

data. Consequently, building design

must follow another course.

Design Factors

• Long Term Use of Buildings

• Resource Limitations

(Financial, Natural)

• Conflicting Priorities

• The "Information Explosion"

• Questioning of Traditional

Values

• Concern for "Quality of Life"
User Requirements—What

Do We Know Now?

A review of the work dealing witli user requirements presents a very confusing innpression. Whether reading

reports or books, attending conferences, or participating in discussions on the topic, no coherent pic- ture emerges. Above all, there appear

to be few clearly defined goals or ways to attain them. Rather,

countless individuals are working to solve particular design problems. In short, we face an almost classic case

of a field of study in its infancy,

struggling to get organized.

Where does one look for information on the subject? What are the primary

sources? In what form does the information appear?

The data may be found in countless

places—often where they are least

likely to besought. Engineering

handbooks, psychological textbooks,

design manuals, building codes, and

survey findings are all potentially major sources. In many instances the in- formation is inaccessible to those who

need it. The difficulties are due to many factors, e.g., type or form of

publication.

Many user requirements are not easy

to identify. This is especially true for

codes and regulations which, in effect, specify design characteristics of

buildings. These regulations are

often based on implicit user requirements, rather than on clear state- ments of need. Take, for example,

stairway width requirementspresumed adequate for emergency

evacuation of building occupants.

Sinqle 5ourcebooK

of Information

Minimum property standards and

building codes are major repositories

of such information, since they deal

mainly with the safety requirements of

buildings. These regulations typically

evolve over a long period, and are modified whenever building design

practices are thought to contribute to

illness, injury, or loss of life. For ex- ample, fire regulations designed to ensure a degree of safety for one

range of materials are not appropriate

when materials have a different set of

properties. The widespread use of

plastics, which have posed new

smoke hazard problems, is a recent

instance where current fire regulations often do not respond to the

current safety needs of occupants.

The architect can therefore meet code

regulations (developed to meet safety

requirements) and still fail to respond

to the everyday needs of building

users.

The avoidance of these problems

makes up a legitimate and reasonable

set of user requirements. Relating

regulatory requirements to the way

they respond to the safety and health

of occupants is often difficult,

however. Codes often stem from discussions of technical groups, standards organizations, regulatory officials, and proponents of different

viewpoints in the community. Written

records of such activities are rare; and the reasons for decisions, compromises, etc. are therefore hard to determine. This makes it difficult to evaluate such regulations from the

standpoint of the user. A major difficulty with resorting to regulations to define user needs is the

inertia of the regulatory process.

Once a problem is dealt with by a code or other means, the regulation

may remain on the books indefinitely.

In a sense, then, regulations are a response to the cumulative history of

past design failures. Major changes in building practices, health standards,

social customs, and technology,

which could make many regulations

obsolete or even counter-productive, are reflected in regulations very

slowly.

Regulations have influenced building

design in another important way. One

reason for the criticism of guidelines,

codes, and regulations designed to serve one function is that they have

been used for another. For example, even though minimum property standards and building codes were

developed to ensure minimum safety

they have been used to define user requirements. Designers who follow

these standards settle for meeting

mandatory regulations rather than

striving for higher quality.

Regulations as Past

Hisior^ of Design failures

Codes/Regulafioryb

Design Failures

13
Building USERS' 3o-Hn direct and indirect usera should be con6idered.

Direct Users Ind irect Users

/resident

Building Users

A logical starting point for an analytic

treatment of user requirements is to define common terms. Consider the

word "user." When reviewing written

and verbal material by researchers

and practicing architects, one finds no generally accepted definition of

the "user." Worse, the term is seldom

defined.

Users are typically thought of as occupants, e.g., those who visit, reside, or work in buildings. Less attention is given to those who may be termed

"indirect users" of buildings—those

who make observations because they

are nearby or have an unobstructed

view. For example, passersby,

tourists, and occupants of nearby

buildings are all exposed to the

facades of buildings which they may

never enter. They, too, are building

users.

The design literature indicating how

architects develop a design program,

employs a broader and much fuzzier

conceptof the user. The term is applied to many of those involved in the

construction, ownership, operation,

and maintenance of a building as well as to the building occupants. The

blurring of the concept "user" is an

important cause of many problems

encountered by those trying to design

buildings which are responsive to users. Let us now consider some

building users.

The builder (or the organization

financing construction) is an extremely important building user. For example, in a speculative building, the concern of the builder is to build a

safe structure (meeting local

regulations) which can be sold at a

profit commensurate with the investment and risks taken. Under these

circumstances, the builder is likely to define user requirements in a manner

similar to the architect—on the basis

of experience and judgment.

Concern for building acceptability is

likely to be limited to those factors

which influence the sales potential

and market value of the building.

Builders of speculative structures

therefore have a limited stake in satisfying occupants' needs.

The speculative builder is only one il- lustration of the builder as user. Many large private and governmental

organizations build and later occupy

buildings. The success of such

buildings is largely determined by

their responsiveness to the requirements of those who occupy them.

These buildings do not have to compete in the marketplace—they are

built to carry out the activities of the

organization that built them. Furthermore, it is likely they will house these

activities for a long time. Even if the

buildings are unsuccessful, they will continue to be used (due to factors

such as organizational policy, size of

initial investment, and location).

Organizations which build and own

their buildings, including institutions

such as schools and hospitals, have

much to gain from an upgrading of user requirement information. Unlike

the speculative builder, they have a

vested interest in the long-term suc- cess of a building, i.e., the performance of day-by-day building activities over the lifetime of the

building. Organizations with continuous building programs

(educational institutions, government)

have a special responsibility to evaluate current buildings and to use

the findings to improve the performance of future buildings. They

should undertake research because,

being service organizations, their task

is to respond to their clients—the

public.

14
Consider now the building owner who

rents space to others. The building

owner, unlike the builder, is vitally

concerned that a building works adequately for its occupants. The returns on investment depend largely on the

degree of success achieved in renting space profitably. Dissatisfaction by building occupants is therefore directly translatable into unleased space, the owner's investment.

Moreover, since the owner is con- cerned with long-term investment

(where leases are periodically

renewable) the long-range satisfaction of building occupants cannot be

ignored. On the other hand, little in- centive exists to provide services

which add to expenses without

yielding corresponding benefits.

The building manager or operator,

responsible for the smooth day-today functioning of a building, is a key

link between the owners and oc- cupiers of buildings. Since the term

"building management" covers a broad range of responsibilities, we

will only mention a number of general

problem areas to note when

operators are considered building

users. These problems may be classified thus:

• The building and its subsystemsincluding preventive and other

maintenance, repairs, replacement of

materials, components, equipment.

• The interaction of people (building

occupants, maintenance, and management personnel) with the building and its subsystems—eiiiciency of operations,

control of energy use, functioning of

safety systems, setting and modification of environmental controls (lights,

heat).

• Communications among management, ownership and occupants—

responding to needs of occupants for

information, services.

The maintenance force is the working

arm of the building operator. Unlike

other users, the maintenance force

directly experiences most features of

the building, bad and good, every

working day. This experience is tangible, immediate, and of long duration.

In this respect, the maintenance force

has much in common with the

building occupants—it is a special

kind of occupant.

Finally, there is the building occupant

The building forms a backdrop for activities during approximately half of

the waking hours. When we use the

term "user" we refer to the occupants

of buildings. The term "occupant" is not a simple one, and could easily

lead us astray. Occupants should be

seen in terms of the major activities

performed in the building. For example, in a hospital the occupants are

patients, nurses, doctors, technicians,

maintenance people, and visitors.

Each of these occupant groups perform important functions within the

building, and these must be considered by the architect.

When we review the user groups, we

note a paradox. The group with the

least interest and concern for the dayto-day operation of the building (the

builders) has the most ready access

to the architect and therefore the

greatest influence over user requirements. The occupants (and

maintenance force), who are most

immediately affected by design, have

at best limited access to the

architect—unless the architect

makes a point of consulting them.

Differences Among

Occupants

The designer is more likely to consider differences among people when

a readily visible distinction (e.g., age)

is apparent (and important). On the

other hand, many subtle psychological, cultural, and social factors

exist which may be extremely important for the designer to consider but

which cannot be readily identified.

Unlike the subjects of research in the

hard sciences, people have

memories of past events, the ability to

learn, a cultural and biological

heritage, and many other attributes

which serve to distinguish individuals

from one another.

In many situations the designer may

not be able or even find it desirable to take most of these (or other factors)

into account. He may decide that the

typical building user is the "average"

person. When the architect follows

this procedure, many sources of data

are available. Any study of behavior,

however, which assumes that people

are essentially similar in their

behavior risks ignoring the particular

needs of people. (See chap. 7.)

All People Are Norf- Alike

15
From a M/E viewpoint, these special

kinds of users are important because

environmental characteristics recom- mended for one group may be totally

unsatisfactory for others. For example, consider age. In the design of

housing for elderly people, bear in mind likely difficulties in walking, seeing, and hearing. These factors

should be considered when planning

illumination levels, passageways,

emergency signals, and exits. At the

other extreme are design requirements for children, such as the need

to ensure that classroom furniture

responds to the needs of children, not

of adults. (Naturally, the requirements for the aged and children must

likewise be considered in buildings

not specially designed for these

groups.)

Personal and Cultural

Attributes

(Differences Among People)

• Age

• Sex

• Health

• Education

• Economic Status

• Social Status

• Nature of Employment

• Ethnic Heritage

• Racial Heritage

• Religious Heritage

• Previous Experience

• Expectations

• Motivations

• Attitudes

A Subculture in the United States (Autliors)

16

Requirements

Just as there have been many definitions for "user," many viewpoints

have been expressed concerning the

nature of "requirements." Some

definitions have been rather restrictive, confined to the minimum

physiological requirements consistent with health and safety. Others

have encompassed areas of interest

now identified with improved quality

of life. Most architects and

researchers have occupied the middle ground.

A number of designers and

researchers have developed conceptual models for defining requirements

in recent years. One of the most

comprehensive and widely used

schemes was developed by A. Maslow (psychologist), who treated

human needs as an ever-changing

process, rather than as a fixed set of

requirements that apply to all people.

This model was selected for discussion for illustration only—alternative

approaches have been advocated by

others, and we have no quarrel with

any of them. Maslow's conceptual

model is termed the "need hierarchy

system." It assumes that complete

satisfaction of needs is not possible

because when one set of needs is satisfied, another set emerges.

Hierarchy of Needs

('Ma6low)

self- actualization

self esteenn

belongin9___ ^ ^Cx^^

safety .

physiological needs
The need hierarchy starts with the

basic physiological requirements to sustain life and health. Without being

able to satisfy these needs, the in- dividual cannot survive for any length

of time. When these basic requirements are met, usually associated

with food, clothing, and shelter, safety

needs emerge. The individual

becomes concerned about security,

the avoidance of harm and the need

for protection. These needs are still oriented toward survival in a hostile

environment. After some measure of

safety has been assured,a need to belong becomes apparent. The in- dividual strives to be a member of

a group. As a group member, one

strives for maximum acceptance by

peers. This need is demonstrated bya

reluctance to bea standout—either by

excelling or failing in group activities. (Group membership may be

extensive—e.g., social, work, family,

professional.)

When

a person has achieved the goal

of being accepted by

a group, egostatus needs come into play. The in- dividual tries to excel and thereby

achieve status within an organization,

and/or among professional peers.

Ego-status needs are satisfied in tangible ways, e.g., larger office,

carpeting, expensive desk, and in- tangible ways, such as being treated

with deference and respect. Finally,

Maslow says recognition by others is inherently limited and one strives to

fulfill one's own highest needs by

what he calls self-actualization—the

need ofa person to strive for the

fullest potential asa human being.

Basic Survival Needs (NIH)

Maslow pointed out the conceptual

and theoretical nature of his system,

which should be applied figuratively,

not literally. People do not move from

one level to another in any precise

fashion and many of the needs are seldom completely satisfied. For ex- ample, a professional who wants to

satisfy

a need for ego-status may, if he loses his job, find he is trying to

satisfy basic needs. Many people ig- nore the intermediate levels of

Maslow's system and work toward

self-actualization—artists and writers

exemplify this process.

Maslow's system shows that most of

the industrialized nations have advanced to the higher level needs

above the physiological and safety re- quirements.

The research literature dealing with

the subject of user requirements in buildings has a very narrow base. It

is almost uniformly produced by and

for professionals who work and live in highly industrialized societies, with

relatively high standards of living.

Coming from this cultural

background, requirements reflect the

affluence of these cultures.

Consequently, the research community thinks primarily in terms of re- quirements of belonging, ego-status

and self-actualization.

17
However, there is an underdeveloped" world which

should not be neglected. The late Constantinos A. Doxiadis (Greek

architect and city planner) discusses

this problem:

, If we proceed to look not at the

facades of our buildings but inside, into

tfie heart of our arctiitecture, we shall

discover that the homeless or poorly

housed millions who constitute the majority of the people on the earth, live un- der very bad conditions indeed.

. we must recognize that we have

quantitative as well as qualitative

problems to tackle, and that the

qualitative problems should not be left to one side while we devote our attention

mainly to the quantitative ones. If this bias continues, then we are doomed to remain in the epoch of transition. We

will be unable to find any way out and,

what is worse, our efforts to serve our

real clients, that is, the population of the

whole earth, will be a complete failure. How can we believe that we create an

architecture when the solutions given

are only good or possible for a certain

very small class of people which may

exist in all countries or only in some of

them, but which nevertheless constitutes a minority in relation to the great masses of people we have to serve?^

This problem is not limited to the un- derdeveloped world. Rather, many

technologically advanced societies

have in their midst groups of people

badly in need of improved basic

shelters.

Our discussion thus far has addressed the question of who the architect

should try to satisfy when making

design decisions. If we assume that

the occupant is the user of concern,

then how should buildings be

designed to better meet his needs?

Solutions to M/E FVoblems Am Often Suitable tbr

only a ffercentaqe of the VJo>r\6's Pbpulatbn

oo o oo o o o oo oo o oo

Q o O o O 0_ O O

(a 9/\6i &

o o o

^ C. A. Doxiadis, Architecture in Transition (New York, 1968).

Underdeveloped World (NIH)

8
Design by Team

The trend toward team design continues. Tlie architect is usually a team

leader (or member) coordinating the

activities of many experts worl<ing

toward a group solution of a design

problem. The other members of the

team are selected on the basis of

needed expertise. For a school, a

basic team might be augmented by

experts on teaching, child behavior,

and perhaps lighting and acoustics.

The team concept has not subordinated the role of the architect, it has

merely changed it. The more complex the design, the greater the need

for the architect's ability to integrate

and synthesize information.

W. Caudill (architect) was a pioneer in the development of the team approach to design. He notes that:

When we consider the problems facing

this country and other nations which

must rebuild old cities and build new

ones just to keep pace with current demands; when we consider the war on

poverty and the necessity of providing

architecture for all people; the need is obvious for large interdisciplinary teams

which attack problems from all directions at once. Giant projects require

giant teams, not prima donnas.

There must be a major onslaught by

teams of many disciplines.

Isolated effort by an independent

architect working alone will not do the

job.

The so-called "great man" approach

must give way to the great team approach.

From now on the great architects will be

on great interdisciplinary teams.*

S. Kliment (architect) feels that the

architect has too often made major

decisions based on hunches. This

worked in the days of few and well-tried

options—in structural systems, heating

and ventilating, enclosure, plumbing, as

well as project management concepts; so the architect was able to pour his

energies into the creation of forms in the

role of artist-designer.

Today, the options are too many, the

turnover in techniques is too swift, and

the nature of these techniques too sophisticated and exacting for architecture by hunch to be any longer valid. The new client expects from his

architect the latest in technical and

management expertise. ^

"Architect" cannot be spread all over

the dictionary or the architect will end

up trying to be everything, doing

nothing well. The most important role

that the architect must play, and this

should never be forgotten, is his role as the professional liaison between

arts/humanities and science/

engineering. In one sense, he

is the most general of the generalists.

What other profession demands that

its members be part artist and part

scientist?

What can behavioral research contribute toward improved designs by

team in the future? The strengths of

social scientists are in malting observations and measurements of human

behavior using the scientific

approach—two major problem areas

identified earlier.

Informational Requirements

for Design

Architects and Social

Scientists

• specific facility requirements

• site development requirements

« characteristics of the occupants

• characteristics of the site

• objective of the master plan

• relative location and interrelationship of spaces

• functional requirements for the

facility

• flexibility needs for future growth

and changes

• priority of needs among requirements

• special restrictions and limitations

• budget

" W. W. Caudill, Architecture by Team (New

Yorl<, 1971).

' Caudill

If we approach design as problem

solving, we see a number of

characteristics of each profession

which can lead to conflicts. They deal

with the performance of day-to-day

activities and thereby describe basic

work styles and habits, which are not

readily modified.

The goal of the architect is to complete a building which is functional,

yet permits the expression of

creativity and individuality. The basic

procedure employed in design is the

manipulation of spaces, forms,

materials, and objects—all having

three-dimensional (tangible)

characteristics. Architecture is fre- quently described as the "l<nack of

manipulating spaces" and designers

therefore care deeply about concepts

dealing with space usage—

territoriality, crowding, privacy, distance perception, spatial mapping.

The use of space appears to be a source of conflict between architects

and building occupants: architects

often claim that building occupants

do not use spaces for the purposes

for which they were designed. On the

other hand, occupants complain that

spaces are unsuited to the required

activities.

Architects are at times accused of

considering themselves the standard

for acceptance of their own designs.

In this way they introduce their own

socio-cultural views of comfort, community and other aspects of design to social and ethnic groups which do not

share their world view.

19
Interrelations in Building Design

Environment System

Cultural Context Physical Context

Building System

Building Technology Internal Ambience

Human System

User Requirements Client Objectives

Social

Political Economic

Scientific

Technological

Historical

Aesthetic

Religious

The site as given in terms of:

Physical

characteristics:

climatic

geological

topographical

Other constraints:

land use

existing built forms

traffic patterns

legal

Modifications of external environment to provide suitable ambi- ence for specified

activities by means of:

Available resources

in terms of: cash

materials

labor/equip.

Structural systems

mass

planar

frame

Space separating

system:

mass

planar

frame

Services system:

environmental

information

transportation

Fittings system:

furnishing

equipment

Provision of physical

conditions for perform- ance of activities in terms of:

Structural mass

visible surfaces

space enclosed

Sensory environment

lighting

sound control

heating/vent

Provide for specified

activities in terms of the

following needs:

Organic:

hunger & thirst respiration

elimination

activity rest Spatial:

functional

(inc. fittings)

territorial

Locational:

static

dynamic

Sensory:

sight

hearing

heat & cold

smell

kinaesthetic

equilibrium

Social:

privacy

contact

Return for investment

in terms of:

Prestige

Utility

Provision for change

Housing of particular

activities so as to encourage user motivation

Security

(C. H. Broadbent, adapted fromT. L. Markus: Building-Environment-Activity-Objectives model)

20
Another source of difficulty is the approach used to compile user requirement information. Case studies and

face-to-face discussions are fre- quently employed as the means of

gathering data. Due to lack of time

and money, the best available information will be used, instead of waiting

for better information to be developed

or found. (The architect for obvious

reasons cannot wait for better information.) The architect therefore sees

himself as a synthesizer of information developed by others, not the

originator of new data.

In contrast to the tangible product of

the architect—the finished building—

the goal of the social scientist is a better understanding of human proces- ses or relationships. Study findings

take the form of documents, frequently dealing with the solution of one

problem and the identification of

others. Written reports often include

tables of statistical information and

are not readily understandable by

laymen, including architects.

The orderly development and improvement of information—the scientific method—describe the approach

used to solve problems. The need for

objectivity (obtaining facts) is stressed; so is a distrust of intuition, except

for providing the basis for formal

investigations—the hunches being

transformed into research

hypotheses. Training and experience

tell the researcher to be skeptical

about information without a thorough

understanding of the subject matter.

*Words In bold print are in Glossary.

The researcher as a result is usually

unwilling to act upon imperfect or in- complete data. Frequently, the

researcher sees the need for more

studies before considering a problem

solved. The common view is that

general conclusions should be drawn

cautiously and only when several

researchers verify the findings. This

gradual buildup of information by

researchers having similar interests

and using similar procedures forms

the basis of scientific research.

M/E Cooperative

Efforts

Now we come to a paradoxical situation. The intuitive architect often approaches the behavioral researcher

for objective information—and fre- quently goes away almost emptyhanded, unhappy over the experience

and vowing not to repeat it. Why hasn't the behavioral scientist

been more helpful to the architect?

The fact is that there is a misfit

between the questions architects

want answered, and the data available

in the social sciences. One stumbling

block is the problem of measuring

emotional impact, e.g., how can one

objectively measure "calmness" and

"excitability?" For example, architects

often talk about the effects of color on

behavior, i.e., how can color be used

to create a mood or a feeling? The

architect requires factual (objective)

information about the effects of an

"environmental attribute" (color) to solve a problem which by its very

nature is highly subjective (i.e., emotions). Furthermore, subjective

responses of this kind vary widely

from person to person, and change

with time for a given individual (e.g.,

adaptation). Social scientists

therefore face a formidable challenge

when trying to explain the relationship

between color and emotional

behavior.

Part of the problem is the division of

psychology into many

subdisciplines—each one dealing

with particular problems and using

specialized techniques. Emotional

responses have been examined by

researchers who have not been greatly influenced by the classical research

tradition (analytic studies where

single variables are manipulated one

at a time—see chap. 4). The major

goal of these investigators is to find

out why an individual behaves as he

does. They employ a variety of

procedures for an in-depth understanding of a person. (See chap. 7.)

Their goal is not to see how en- vironmental attributes affect behavior.

Consequently, although they have

developed information about emotions, the data cannot be readily

adapted for the architect's use. Information describing building

characteristics is scarce, making it impossible to determine the

relationship between (correlate)

behavioral and environmental data.

Experimental Research and

Design

On the other hand, the experimental

research tradition in psychology is not

only compatible with the requirements of architects but seems suited

to provide information the architect

requires. Experimental psychology

began with a psychophysical

orientation—determining the

relationship between environmental

characteristics and the way people

respond to them.

The psychophysics research tradition

dates back more than 100 years and

has resulted in a large body of data

concerning how people respond to environmental stimuli (e.g., light,

wind). Most of the studies performed

to date have only studied individual

variables, however (e.g., the

relationship of wave length to color

perception), and are therefore only in- directly applicable to building design

problems. One example is studies of

the relationships of the variables of

sound (intensity, frequency) which

correspond to the way that people ex- perience them (loudness, pitch).

Another reason for the lack of user design information is that most of the

data were collected to determine how

people respond to extreme en- vironmental conditions to meet the

needs of military and space travel

missions. The desire was to determine the effects of hostile environments on the ability of people to perform their work assignments. No

such high priority has ever been given

to the more moderate environments

of buildings.

21
The M/E researcher faces a situation

very familiar to the designer; the need

to synthesize information on a variety

of topics in order to develop a reasonable solution to a problem.

But, while the designer and

researcher pursue the same goal of

trying to synthesize information, it is

likely they will do so with different

types of payoffs in mind. For the

architect, such an activity is a means

to the end of solving a problem

related to the building being

designed. By contrast, the researcher

will often focus on the process of synthesizing information (how does one

perform the activity), to do it more ef- fectively in the future. Solving the particular design problem is often the

means toward the end of developing

improved methods of synthesizing in- formation.

Human Engineering as a Team

Enterprise

The discipline of human engineering

originated during World War II in cir- cumstances almost the same as those

which exist today in the design

professions. At that time, engineers were designing sophisticated equipment to be used by pilots, operators

of radar, weapons, communications,

and other systems. They soon

learned that more know-how about

human behavior was needed than existed in the engineering profession.

As a result, design teams including

human engineering experts were

formed. The historical development of

this discipline, now often termed

human factors or ergonomics, offers a model for an approach to problems

Astronaut at a Console (NASA)

now being addressed both by the

design and behavioral sciences

professions. The common interest

between engineers and behavioral

researchers in human factors studies

applies to many design problems.

For example, when designing the

physical environment, cooperation

with the engineer is essential. A

model for interdisciplinary work is available in noise research, where

physicists, mechanical engineers, and

computer scientists are all required to measure the physical environment.

Psychoacousticians then study the ef- fects of noise, and acousticians and

designers use this information for

design.

The readiness of the behavioral scientists to apply imperfect and in- complete data to solve immediate

design problems overcame one of the

largest barriers to acceptance by

engineers. Human factors engineers

knew they had to operate this way

since the only apparent alternative

was that others, less qualified, would

make the decisions. There was

seldom a question of whether, for ex- ample, a communications system

should be developed, but rather how

it would be designed and who would

be involved in the design process.

There is a clear parallel between

these criteria and those employed in building design.

Communication Gap

architect social

scientist

Conclusion

Poor communication between

behavioral scientists and engineers

was a major obstacle to smooth

operation of design teams. The

language barrier was very difficult to penetrate, especially among disciplines with rich bodies of theoretical

and pragmatic data to call upon. The

question of which language

(engineering/behavioral science) to use in communications or, alter- natively, the feasibility of devising a new language, became critical issues.

This problem was best resolved

whenever shared concepts and ideas

served as bridges between the disciplines. The need for such bridges in M/E studies is covered in the next

chapter.
3

Design/Behavioral Research Bridges

Systems Analytic Approaches

Human Factors/Systems Analysis

Procedures—Task Analysis and Time Budgeting

The Performance Approach

The Performance Approach and Activities

Architectural Programming

Building Evaluation

Design and Scientific Research

Conclusion

' J. p. Eberhard, The Performance

Concept: A Study of Its Application to Hous/ng (Washington, D.C, 1969).

^ C. E. Gustafson, Pocket Glossary for Per- sonnel Subsystem Development (WrightPatterson, 1960).

The most striking recent technological advances, although made "visible" by their physical machinery, owe their genesis to a non-physical "intellectual technology"—

the application of the new intellectual techniques of systems analysis, simulation,

and operations research to problem solving: the Systems Approach.

The systems approach has been applied previously in the development of military

projects and space problems. It appears to be applicable to urban problems (particuarly urban housing) since these, like large-scale space and weapons projects, are complex, require a multidisciplinary approach and involve the organization of

technological or quantitative factors.

The approach has two main features. First, objectives are stated clearly in performance terms rather than in particular technologies or pre-existing models.

The advantage of specifying objectives in systems terms is that it forces decision

makers to cast the problem in terms so that a rational comparison of alternative

solutions is possible.

The second feature of the systems approach is its emphasis upon the inter-relations

within a system. The pre-systems method was to divide a problem into more

manageable sub-problems, thereby losing those factors which were relationshipbased or dynamic. The comprehensive view of the systems approach enables us to trace out the effects of any set of choices and decisions upon all other relevant

decisions. ^

Systems Analytic

Approaches

Architects design buildings using in- adequate behavioral information. At

the same time, user studies are being

conducted to better understand how

buildings influence the activities of

their occupants. Yet, the information

developed in these studies has had

only limited influence on the way

buildings are now designed. What is lacking is an orderly framework which

links the interests and needs of

architects with those of behavioral

researchers. The systems analytic approach provides a mechanism to ac- complish this goal.

Systems analytic procedures are used by both the behavioral research

and design professions to solve

problems. This common heritage is

likely to make these procedures ac- ceptable to professionals in each

group. Four topics will be discussed

which employ the systems viewpoint

to solve problems. These topics will be treated separately, but their in- terdependence will become apparent.

Before going further with our discussion, the word "system" should be

defined.

A system is an organized arrangement

in which each component part acts, reacts, or interacts in accordance with an overall design which adheres in the

arrangement. It includes all equipment

and associated personnel integrated to perform a defined task.'^

23
The earliest extensive use of the

systems approach dates from the

planning and operations of the

military since World War II, and up

until the present time. Space

programs also have used similar

procedures since NASA was established. More recently, law enforcement, industrial engineers and

designers, fire protection agencies, as

well as architects, have made in- creasing use of the procedures

developed and refined by these other

organizations.

Perhaps the most common image that

comes to mind when thinking of a system is a command and control

center containing an abundance of

communications devices—visual and

auditory "black boxes" and

sophisticated control panels. Such

centers have been abundantly

employed by the armed forces and

have had widespread exposure on

television during the various space

missions—especially the lunar exploration program. They now serve

several functions in buildings.

One such application is described by

J. Kraegel (health care administrator)

et al. in the design of hospital

facilities. They first pointed to the

need for approaching design from a systems analytic viewpoint because of

the complexity of many necessary activities, their interdependence, and

the requirement for all of them to be

integrated into a single functional

organization.

The authors indicate that their initial assumption was that a health care system should primarily be responsive to the needs of the patient, rather

than the staff. Among the first needs

identified was for a patient centered

communication system. Their

rationale for this requirement was that

the patient is at the center of a system

(the hospital) which triggers all of the

other hospital systems in their provision

of resources. The more helpless the

patient and unstable his condition, the more essential it is to have these other

systems coordinated through accurate

and rapid communication. Ill patients

need constant availability of people who

can help them, people who can interrelate the needs of the patient with the

systems, and who can coordinate the

systems on the patient's behalf To

meet the totality of patient needs, a communication network for integrating

patient care systems must have a scope

that provides information transmission

both inside and outside of the hospital.^

24

^ J. M, Kraegel et al.. Patient Care Systems

(Philadelphia, 1974).

Patient Centered Communication System

(Kraegel)

Admini6trator6 Equipment
Human Factors/Systems

Analysis

Systems analysis, as we have seen,

was developed in response to needs

identified by the military during and

after World War II. Analytic

procedures were needed to deal with

problems, literally on a global scalemaintaining worldwide communications with armies, moving armies,

materiel, and armaments to Europe,

Africa, and Asia. Another requirement was that the analytic procedures

used to man and equip armies had to be equally applicable to the largest

and smallest military units. A common

approach was required, independent

of the scale of the activity (permitting one to examine problems as they af- fect units with different levels of

responsibility). There was the further

need to define problems to permit

analysis into major component parts,

then, to determine how (and if) the

parts related to one another. A final requirement was to determine what

role each part played in the problem

defined initially.

For example, consider again a communications center with the mission

of commanding and controlling

several army units. In order for this

system to function effectively, communications links to all units must be

maintained. The communications

lines to each unit might be as follows:

one subsystem is voice telephone,

another one, a radio transmission

subsystem and, finally, a microwave

digital information sufcisys?em. Each

subsystem in turn can be analyzed into

the hardware components required

and the tasks performed by operators

of the subsystem. The complexity of

this system becomes evident when we

consider that each unit must not only

maintain contact with the center, but

frequently must also be in direct contact with one another.

Of particular importance are the next

steps in the analytic process. The

functions (objectives) of the subsystems are defined (i.e., the reasons

that they are required) in terms of performance. For example, voice contact

Communications Center (NBS)

should be maintained between a unit

and the communications center. Note

that no decision is made yet as to how

voice communications are to be

accomplished—e.g., radio,

telephone. In analyzing how a function should be performed, among the

important options considered are those concerned with human factors.

What tasks are people best able to ac- complish to optimize system (and

subsystem) performance? Systems

and subsystems therefore take into

account man/machine (man/environment) components and interfaces as well as exclusively manual or automated designs.

A recently completed study at the

National Bureau of Standards (NBS)*

dealt with energy conservation from a systems viewpoint. The report

showed that many proposed building

energy conservation studies are based on mechanical and/or

automated procedures—for example,

devices which turn off lights when

natural illumination levels reach a

given intensity. Yet, available information indicates that the key to significant energy savings may be in the way the building is operated. In summary, buildings should be

designed to respond to users in many

ways—energy conserving activities

being one mode of use.

Procedures—Task Analysis and Time

Budgeting

Task analysis procedures have been

employed in human factors studies

since the 1940's. While the problems

dealt with by human factors engineers were typically those of proper equipment and subsystem design, the

procedures apply equally to many

M/E problems.

A. I. Rubin, Energy Conservation in Buiidings—A l-iuman Factors/Systems

Wewpo/n? (Washington, D.C., 1976).

25
Task analysis is used to determine

the psychological factors essential to adequate performance of a task, ac- cording to R. Miller (psychologist).

The goal of task analysis is to define

the important activities in an

operational (or training) situation, as a sound basis for evaluating perfor- mance. Another purpose is to modify

the way a task is performed, to avoid

error and make the job easier. Miller

developed a general technique to determine the psychological factors

essential to adequately perform a

task. This model can be used just as

readily to examine activities performed in the home, e.g., the family at dinner.

Sample Format for Describing

Household Tasks

(Miller)

Activity

Percentage of

Attention

Procedure Following

(Recipe) 20%

Continuous Perceptual

Motor Activity

(Food Preparation) 30%

Monitoring (Cooking)

Communicating 25%

Decision Making or Problem Solving (Menu) 20%

Other

Non-Task-Related

Activity 5%

Man a 6v^tem Component

(Van Colt)

lon9-term

memory

6hor+-term

memor-y

enerq,\e6

in

ph>y6i6al

environment

eyee

eare

o+her

5en6e6

pattern

reoogni-h'on

6eci^\on

making

adaptive

processes

timinaS^

snar

5^t"?2j-^.r. Information Vroce&^ing

A major attribute of a task deals with

time. The duration of a task as well as when it is performed is of importance

to the designers of both equipment

and buildings. A person preparing

food in a cramped kitchen with inaccessible cooking utensils cannot be

expected to function effectively.

Similarly, if two activities are performed simultaneously, they may well

interfere with one another.

Before examining time budget

studies, let us define the term.

A time budget is very simply a record of

what a person lias done during a

specified period of time—usually a 24-

hour day or a multiple thereof. This

record is detailed: it lists in chronological order a person's activities

po6ture

6peech

6pee6h

^ motor

re^pon^

output6

during the period and states either when

each activity began and terminated or simply the amount of time spent on each

activity.^

W. Michelson and P. Reed, "The Time

Budget," in Behavioral Research Methods

in Environmental Design, ed. W.

Michelson (Stroudsburg, 1975).

26
A primary application of data from a time budget study is tlie collection of

information about activities and the

time allocated to each. This information provides designers with details

about the use of and demand for

facilities and services.

In one time budget study,

W. Michelson (sociologist) and

P. Reed (statistician) sought to determine changes in activity patterns of

families moving to either high-rise

apartments or single family homes

from a variety of other housing types.

Let us conclude this discussion with a

look at systems analysis and design.

T. Ware (architect) examined the

design process itself. His work ex- amined the performance concept in design, as an approach which embodied systems analytic procedures.

Changes in Selected Uses of Time

by Type of Residential Mobility

(Michelson and Reed)

Activity Type of IVIobility (percentage)

Home to Apartment Apartment to Home

Less No More Less No More

Time Change Time Time Change Time

Wife

Visiting (Weekday) 21 58 21 14 64 22

Visiting (Sunday) 19 51 30 25 41 34

Active Sports (Weekday) 2 87 12 4 95 2

Active Sports (Sunday) 5 90 5 6 88 6

Watching TV (Weekday) 33 25 42 41 29 30

Watching TV (Sunday) 33 23 44 23 41 36

Husband

Active Sports (Weekday) 12 74 13 2 93 5

Active Sports (Sunday) 16 65 19 5 30 15

Watching TV (Weekday) 23 35 42 36 31 33

Watching TV (Sunday) 23 19 58 33 30 37

House Repairs (Weekday) 26 71 3 5 74 21

House Repairs (Sunday) 29 58 13 23 53 25

Systems Approach and Buildings

(Ware)

Problem Definition Quantitative and qualitative description of what exists

and what is desired

\A/hat ic nc»^^cccir\/ to r^Hii/^^ Hicnaritv/ h^t\/i/oon \A/hat V V Md I 1 o 1 IC ^vTo odi y iKJ i \^\j\J\jK^ uioiJaiiiy udwocii wiiai

exists and what is desired (as above)

Analysis Developing data on problem, goals, criteria and

modeling; indicating elements, relationships quantitatively if possible

Synthesis Developing alternative solutions

Modeling Simulating performance of alternative solutions

Criteria Specification (quantitatively and qualitatively) of

goals in detail and priority to determine solution

effectiveness

Selection The solution which best meets criteria

1 mplementation Execution of solution —construction of building

Orif^rptinn rriAintpnpnpp rpnAir plfprptinn nf hiiilHing over time

Feedback Flow of information from any step to any other step

to evaluate adequacy of decisions and improve

decision making process in follow-on building cycles

27
The Performance Approach

The performance concept has been

defined in an NBS report as an

organized procedure or framework

within whict) it is possible to state tlie desired attributes of a material component or system in order to fulfill the re- quirements of the intended user without

regard to the specific means to be

employed in achieving the results.^

The performance approach therefore

accepts the premise that the user is the starting point in design. The key

to successful design is user satisfaction with the end product. To ac- complish this, we must (1) determine

the nature of user requirements as a

prerequisite for design and (2) be

able to evaluate buildings after oc- cupancy to determine whether the re- quirements were met.

The performance approach was

developed as an answer to the

perceived failure of the building community to meet the needs for more

and better housing. The low rate of

application of building-related in- novations had resulted in a sense of

frustration among those supporting

innovative designs. Most building in- stitutions appear designed to resist

change. The traditional methods of

designing and testing newly proposed

building components and materials

employ time-consuming, trial and

error procedures. After tests have

shown innovation to work, building

codes must often be modified before

^ J. R. Wright, "Performance Criteria in Buildings," Scientific American, 224

(1971).

Building Design

User

''Successful design has

user satisfaction a5

end product and accepts

Hiis as the premise."

builders can apply new techniques.

This further extends the time between

development of an innovation and its ultimate large-scale use. As a result,

many builders, dissatisfied with the

status quo, have taken a new look at the methods currently used by

building designers. This reexamination has resulted in increased use of

the performance concept.

A pioneer of the performance approach in the United States is M. Brill (architect). He has written a number

of papers outlining a rationale for

writing performance specifications.

An examination of this work is useful,

not only to understand his system, but

also the many alternative approaches.

Performance specifications, says

Brill, provide a method of exploring in detail the uses of a building— i.e., its goals. The goals or objectives are described first. These goals

predominantly take the form of activities to be performed by building oc- cupants in an environment with

characteristics which enable the activity to be performed properly. The

environmental characteristics in turn are supplied and controlled by means

of hardware solutions.

Brill's performance approach re- quires that the information describing

phenomena at each stage of the

process be translatable to each succeeding stage. For example, if we are

dealing with a conference room: the

objective could be to conduct

meetings; the activity is conversing at a normal voice level; the environmental

characteristic is acoustic performance.

The (partial) solution would be walls

with specified transmission

characteristics (Sound Transmission

Classification (STC) ratings).

Building requirements in performance terms may be conceptualized

in many ways. Some theoretical

models are static, e.g., the matrix approach; others concentrate on the

dynamic features of the design

process.

Building Matrix

(after Brill)

28
performance Approach

rCaudill l<bwlett Scott)

FORM

-J ^

Site, qualify, 1

environment

""I

74 1 GOALS

FUNCTION ^ z

FACTS

people, activities,

reiationsnips ^ —

3

CONCEPTS

ECONOMY I^K

initial costs, lonq- ^ —

term 4 operations

NEEDS

Time

^

prp.qp.nt

and future

5

PROBLEM

The Performance Approach and

Activities

Activities are a valuable link in a systems approach. They can be

related to other activities and further

analyzed into components. Activity

descriptions enable one to identify

relationships with design

characteristics—at the scale of

buildings and even communities, as

well as at the scale of desired features

of objects (e.g., light switches).

The architect and client have

traditionally identified the activities to be performed in a building as an early

step in formulating a program.

Behavioral researchers on the other

hand have examined activities while

dealing with industrial and human factors problems. (Although terms such

as "tasl<s," "behaviors" and "work

performance" have been used in addition to "activity.")

T. Cronberg (architect) provides a

rationale for employing activities

when using the performance approach. While Cronberg's

analysis is limited to the activities of

the individual, this limitation is not in- herent in either the performance concept or the concept of activities. Rather, activities involving social

behavior lend themselves to similar

analytic procedures, as may be seen

in the work of Barker (chap. 5).

Cronberg notes that activities are a

link between the user and the physical

environment.^ For example, food

preparation (activity) is performed by

the individual in a physical environment which must have appropriate at- tributes (e.g., work space, sink, food

storage). She further points out that

activities can be considered as external

manifestations of needs.'

Attributes Concerning Activities

(Cronberg)

Activity Variable Example

Description General—speak

Specific—raise ones hand

Who Performs It? Individual —age, sex, cultural background

Group—family

Requirements to Perform Space, light, heat

Location Building type, space within building

Duration, Frequency How long, how often, e.g., dining,

watching TV

Purpose Why performed—pleasure, work

requirement

' T. Cronberg, Performance Requirements

for Buildings—A Study Based on User Activities {Sweden, 1975).

° Cronberg

29
Activities linK the *'macro"ancithe*Tnicro"

environment.

The observation of activities formed

the basis for a study by

H. Proshansky, W. Ittleson, and

L. Riviin (psychologists) of the psychiatric environment of a hospital.

They altered the furnishings of a little used solarium to determine the effects of such changes on usage.

Before modifications, the solarium

was used for solitary activities (sitting

alone) and for occasional conversations which took place on a wooden

bench. The room was refurnished by

adding attractive drapes, furniture

and other accessories. After those

changes were instituted, the authors

noted that the room was used more

intensively. Observations of activities were made by a team of trained

observers who recorded activities

every 1 5 minutes throughout the day.

Examples of the activities observed

and recorded were: sitting alone, talking, standing alone, reading, pacing.

Data were also collected indicating

where and when activities took place,

who and how many individuals participated and how long the activities

lasted. On the basis of these data,

recommended designs were made for psychiatric institutions.

30

Classifying Behavior into Categories

(Ittleson, Proshansky)

Behavior

Observational

Categories

Analytic

Category

Patient sleeps on easy chair

One patient sleeps while others are lined up for lunch sleeping

Isolated

Passive

Patient writes letter on bench

Patient takes notes from a book writing

Patient reads newspaper and paces

Patient reads a book read

Isolated

Active

Patient cleans tables with sponge

Patient makes bed housekeeping

Patient knits, sitting down

Patient paints (oils), sitting down

arts and crafts

Mixed

Active

Patients play soccer in corridor

Patient and doctor play chess games

One patient talks to another in reassuring tones

Four patients sit facing corridor, talk sporadically

Patient fails to respond to doctor's questions talk

Social

Patient introduces visitors to other patient

Patient stands near room with visitors talk (visitor) Visit

Patient comes in to flick cigarette ashes

Patients go to solarium traffic Traffic

{

!
An activity analysis approach was

used by R. Hester (architect) in several studies. In one study,

members of his design team

observed and recorded behaviors

taking place in a schoolyard. A form

was developed as a means of

recording the frequency with which

activities occurred, and the people

participating in them. The data were

then analyzed by developing a map

which indicated the intensity of use in the various schoolyard locations.

Ste Plan of Courtyard

(Hester)

ebbb a . . . .

j

ebb5 dec

da

6 a

d a

d a

a WalkiirK;

b Sitting

C working

d Di te rid I no

e read I no

r runninc^

Hester and his colleagues then combined both features of the earlier

schoolyard study in mapping the activities which occurred in a housing

project. The activities were preceded,

and this information was recorded on

a layout of the court area under

observation.

The performance approach with the use of activities to describe M/E

relationships enables us to integrate

behavioral research findings into the

design process. This may be ac- complished by means of architectural

programming.

Architectural Programming

The American Institute of Architects

(AIA) has defined architectural

programming as the process by which

criteria are developed for the design of a space, building, facility, physical environment, and for any unit of the en- vironment . . . It is the means through

which data about the needs of the ul- timate building user are determined and

expressed for the instruction of the

architect in the development of a design

solution .

.

The AIA publication goes on to state

that the program, which is usually in written form, is only a summary state- ment at a particular time. The

program is a process which continues

through planning and design and permits new ideas to be tested.

American Institute of Architects, Emerging Tecliniques 2: Architectural Programming {V^ashington, D.C., 1969).

Major Elements of Programming Process*

Parts Characteristics

Client Philosophy Establish the client's goals, attitudes, aspirations.

and Objectives characteristics

Functional Relationships between administration, departments,

Relationships services, traffic movement, personnel projections.

equipment needs, etc.

Client Background Studies to determine community characteristics.

and Research economic base, industrial potential, labor market,

population distribution, growth projections, etc.

'American Institute of Architects, Architectuial Programming.
Programming enables the owner's

needs to be defined and translated

into specific design instructions.

Conflicts must be identified and

resolved during the programming

stage. The analyses and reports

produced during programming are

the basis for design. They are the link between the owner's needs and the

architect's plans.

A systems approach is employed in developing an architectural program.

Several different factors— behavioral,

social, economic, engineering, and

architectural—are considered in the

context of the total system and with an

understanding of the activities to be

contained within the system. The

completed program should indicate

the types and amounts of spaces re- quired and how the various spaces

relate, one to the other. At this point,

the architect can proceed with his

design.

Program Describes Space Needs & Relationships

Programming Process

T. Markus (architect) describes the

decision process in terms of a series

of steps.

• Understanding the problem

(analysis)—Includes gathering relevant information—determining

relationships, constraints, objectives

and criteria. He includes in this phase

the imaginative structuring of the

problem.

• Producing a design solution

(synthesis)— Includes bringing experience, intuition and reasoning to bear on the problem to produce one

or more possible design solutions.

• Determining the adequacy of the

solution (appraisal)—This might be

accomplished by employing a modelling procedure. Another approach

would be to make measurements on

as many relevant factors of the

building as possible—costs, space

utilization, flexibility. The measure- ments are then used to make assess- ments against meaningful criteria,

e.g., standards of performance, conformity to constraints, subjective as- sessments.

Ghent

InpuiIn-Pormation

Concerning

special Need^

lnter<5cfion

between

P\roc^rdmrr]er

and Architectural Team

Final Oe6'\gn

Prepared

Proqramrmer

AdVI 666

Client

E>cpianation

of Oeeiqn

6olution

Coritinuinq

Consultation

Proaram i6

new hbue^

are. raided

Evaluation

of Completed

be\dovc\ done

but needed for

feed bade and

New Pesignt)

32
The following steps are described by

Markus in developing a typical

program:

• Initial Discussions and Contract

Definition—These meetings would in- clude the team leader or project

manager along with architectural

analysts, behavioral scientists and

special purpose consultants.

• Identification of Issues— Initial effort would be undertaken to identify

issues requiring further investigation.

This effort might involve a tour of the

organization, a study of both the formal and informal organizational structure, an identification of the major

subsystems within the organization,

and some preliminary observational

and questionnaire studies.

• Perform Research—Behavioral

research methods would be used to obtain information on functional and

proximity requirements, data on changes in size, past and future

growth. Some of this information

might be obtained through interviews

with top management, personnel

department, planning department,

operational management, unit heads,

junior staff, users, and architects.

Building Evaiuation

An integral part of programming and one which is often neglected is the

evaluation of the completed project.

According to the American Institute of

Architects, there are four possible reasons for such a post occupancy or post construction evaluation. The first would be to modify or correct an existing building. Thesecond would be

to provide guidelines for future construction of the same building type.

The third would be to evaluate

programming criteria and design ef- fectiveness. Finally, it could provide

data on how people use and respond

to the built environment.

Brill sees the two basic aspects of

building evaluation as (1) gaining in- formation about the usefulness of

buildings, and (2) using that information in the design and use of new

buildings. He says that evaluation is the first stage of a process which is over only when information is fed

back in a useful form to those making

later design decisions. He further

points out that evaluation must be an

integral part of the total design

process.

The assessment of buildings requires a coordinated effort by all of those

who participate in design—clients, users, architects, engineers, and

social scientists. The complexity of

building evaluation is illustrated by

the following description of the ex- periences of Cooper and Hackett with

this problem:

At first we intended to interview the

designers to find out about their views on user-needs and how they provided

for users in their designs. But in the course of these interviews, it became

apparent to us that many other people in addition to the designers are active in the design process of developments

such as these: it is not only the

architects' ideas about user-needs

which are expressed in the endproduct, but also those of the sponsor,

the government lending agency, and

many others. Thus, from a simple examination of 'architects' assumptions about 'user-needs, ' our

study expanded into a consideration of

the whole design process and of the

many 'actors' and constraints that entered into it. ^°

A major difficulty with past evaluations is that they concentrated on

general attitudes and preferences of

respondents to environments, without

adequately specifying the design

characteristics of the building being

evaluated. Consequently, it is difficult to determine the relationship between

how people respond to buildings and

the particular design features of the

buildings. The design implications of

the investigations cannot be readily

determined. An evaluation, if it is to be

useful, should enable changes to be

made to improve building performance, or at least to provide information which can improve the design of

and/or evaluation of other buildings.

Regardless of its use, evaluation is valuable only if the basis on which

decisions are made can be traced and

examined.

To summarize. Brill says, programming can be thought of as goal setting

with an implementation plan. Post oc- cupancy evaluation is a means of learning how well the plan worked in practice

and the extent to which the goals were

achieved.''''

'° C. Cooper and P. Hackett, Analysis of

the Design Process at Two ModerateIncome Housing Developments, Working

Paper No. 80 (Berkeley, 1968).

" M. Brill, "Evaluating Buildings on a Per- formance Basis," in Designing for Human Behavior: Architecture and the Behavioral Sciences, ed. J. Lang

(Stroudsburg, 1974).

"Tool Kit* of

Evaluation Methods

Design and Scientific

Research

Research and architecture share a number of features. Building design

has been examined from a research

viewpoint by Markus and P. Levin

(British researchers). They point to the similar procedures used by

architects engaged in design and

researchers who plan and conduct in- vestigations.

33
Markus assumes that complex

relationships exist among various

aspects of design: design and costs,

environmental factors, user activities,

behavior and performance. When

making these assumptions, the

architect acts in the same manner as

a scientist who has experimentally

demonstrated a number of

relationships. On other occasions,

the architect must make guesses

about the nature of design and other

factors. When such guesses are made, the architect can draw attention to the informational needs to test the proposed design solution. Some

of these informational gaps must be

filled by means of field studies con- ducted in actual buildings in use. This is especially true for information on occupant behavior and activities. Every building therefore can potentially be used to test a research

hypothesis.

Markus indicates that a testable conceptual scheme (model) is required if design concepts are to be tested. A

symbolic representation of the concept (diagram, drawing, scale and

mathematical models) is required.

The model enables design

(independent) variables to be altered so their effects or consequences are

evident (dependent variables). (The

completed building is the most

detailed representation of the concept

being explored.) He urges the

development of building design

models which include aspects which

are capable of measurement. Once

we can quantify, we can reduce the

scale of the model (e.g., length, area)

and make tests.

Pesign /Research Similan'-Hes

rafter ^y\arfcu5)

Environmental

Factors

•

Behavior

' *r

V

/ \

User

Activities

•

Design/

l^search

Performance

34

Levin also dealt with the relationship

of design and scientific research. His

conceptual model is like the

traditional one of scientific research,

designed to understand cause-effect

relationships. He defines building

design as being a set of "controllable

causes." A number of "controllable

effects" can be attributed to these

design features. For example, in the

design of a high-rise building, the

elevators permit people to move from

floor to floor. The elevator is a design

feature (controllable cause/ independent variable) without which people

could not travel vertically (controllable

effect/dependent variable) in the

building. However, only a limited

number of behaviors (activities) can

be explained in terms of controllable causes and effects, because of the

multitude of uncontrolled factors

(causes and effects). Returning to

our illustration, people may be unable

to use elevators at times due to power

outages caused by emergencies

(cause-related) and because of in- dividual preferences (effect-related).

Conclusion

The analogy between science and

building design by Markus and Levin

appears questionable. We are more

comfortable with the concept of

design as the creative application of

scientific, engineering, and other

principles. On the other hand, we

believe that scientific research is needed to improve the M/E information available to the architect. In the

next part of the study, we will discuss

in greater detail the relationships

between scientific research and

building design.

Design Process

(Levin)

Process Step Example

1. Identify parameters Lighting, acoustic needs

2. Identify dependent variables Seeing, hearing, privacy

3. Identify relationships Windows as sources of light, sound

4. Identify constraints Building code regulations

5. Determining parametric values Lighting level needs

6. Compare possible solutions Examining a series of tradeoffs —e.g., windows, balancing lighting, privacy

and auditory needs
A Conceptual Model

(Cronberq)

U6er Activities as Basis for Design

Building Systems and a 6ubdydtem Andl^si6

User

Clnsiracfen^iict

^

User

Activities

I User fequirements

for a &uild/ng

Performance

Requirements for

parts of a

Building

Given conditions

Resources

Development of 6^5tem over Time

(MarKus)

constructionaT

6ervice5

contents

spatial

physKsal

identifiGation

conlrol

Communication

'ntormal activi

worKflow

cost of

provision

cost of

maintenance

C05t of

activity

The Buildinoi

Indu6lr>i

Groupe

of Buildings

Individual

Building

Built

Element5

ParfbofBuilt

Elements

production

adaptibiiity

morale

>

value of

1 achieving goals
36
Part 11

Research Approach and Identification

of Subject Areas

This part of the study is concerned with the need for M/E researchers—

whether behavioral scientists or architects—to develop standardized

procedures and terminology when they define and attack problems of common

interest.

Chapter 4 provides an overview of scientific research to familiarize those with

limited information in this subject area. It explores the traditional functions of

research and describes in some detail the procedures used to plan and conduct experiments and analyze research findings. The major emphasis is the

need for experimental controls when making observations and measurements

if research findings are to be relevant, useful and reliable.

The two preceding chapters deal with research approaches used in most

scientific disciplines. Chapter 5 deals with the application of these principles in M/E settings. The emphasis is on how observations and measurements of

human behavior are made in building environments. Several of the most widely

used research methods are described and compared. In later parts of this

work, we will describe in some detail how the methods are used to solve a

variety of M/E problems.

Chapter 6 describes the range of problem areas which require attention by a M/E discipline. The subject matter of interest to architects and behavorial

scientists is suggested by illustrating the many "scales of observation" necessary to obtain M/E information. Traditional scientific disciplines are then

described from the standpoint of being potentially valuable resources in terms

of experimental approaches as well as repositories of relevant and important

M/E information.

37

4

Scientific Approacli

Research Functions

Basic

Applied

Metliodological

Experimental Research

Research as Information Development

Research Approaches

Analytic

Multivariate

Multivariate and Parametric Compared

Criteria for Evaluating Research

Objectivity and Research

Research Controls

Conclusion

' C. Bernard, An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (New York, 1957).

' Bernard

Every science has its own n^ethods of investigation. Since every science is characterized by the nature of its problems and by the variety of phenomena all progress is measured by improvements in the means of investigation. The whole

future of experimental medicine depends on creating a method of research which

may be applied fruitfully to the study of vital phenomena. Experimentation in this area is harder than in other sciences, but for that very reason, it is indispensable.

Every time that a new and reliable means of experimental analysis makes its appearance, we invariably see science make progress in the questions to which the

means of analysis are applied. In a word, the greatest scientific truths are rooted in

details of experimental investigation which forms the soil in which these truths develop. ^

If the architect is to have accurate and

useful information describing the

relationships between building design

and occupant behavior, past ex- perience in other fields points to the

need to use the scientific approach to develop the required data. M/E

problems might differ from those at- tacked by the classical disciplines of

physics and chemistry, but the need

for careful observation and measure- ment procedures to obtain objective,

reliable, quantitative information applies to all subject areas. First, let us consider what we mean by the term

scientific approach.

This chapter introduces the language

and techniques of science with a number of basic concepts.

With few exceptions researchers as- sume that the world is an orderly

place and that by carefully collecting

information in a systematic way, i.e., by experimentation—we learn about

phenomena under investigation.

Data, however, are collected in the

context of developing and refining

predictive models, which are then

tested by researchers. As C. Bernard

(French physiologist) notes: To be worthy of the name, an experimenter must at once be a theorist

and a practitioner. While he must completely master the art of establishing ex- perimental facts, he must also clearly

understand the scientific principles

which guide his reasoning through the

varied experimental study of natural

phenomena.

Of necessity we experiment with a preconceived idea, an expehmenter's

mind must be active, i.e., must question

nature, put all manner of queries to it ac- cording to the various hypotheses which

suggest themselves. ^ The researcher thinks of himself as a member of a community of scientists

who, although scattered in time and

space, consider their work as a

cumulative understanding of a phenomenon. That is, although each

scientist would like to make a unique

contribution to the growth of information in a subject area, an awareness

exists that the work of one researcher

builds on that of another who will use

that research to explore even further.

Better understanding comes from the

combined efforts of many scientists

using similar research methods to collect data designed to minimize

measurement errors and increase objectivity.

39
Research Functions

Our discussion thus far has dealt with

research rather abstractly, as a means of obtaining information in a

systematic way. Research consists of

techniques used to solve problems.

First, let us consider how research is categorized.

Basic

Fundamental (or basic) research is used to determine why materials or people behave as they do.

Theoretically the basic researcher is not concerned with the potential application of findings, or whether in fact

they have any. (In practice, problems

being researched are often defined

with applications in mind.) The pursuit

of basic research should not be

bounded by time—we always have

more to learn. The research process

is such that when one question has

been answered, more questions in- evitably are raised. This in turn leads

to more research.

With respect to M/E studies, many

problem areas are basic, e.g.. Sensory Research—How do we perceive our environment? Why do we see

(hear) as we do? How do the senses

interact with one another to produce a

unified experience? What is the effect

of past experience on perceptions?

How do our life experiences affect our judgments of the environment?

Since researchers try to understand

why people respond to environmental

characteristics as they do, they seek a fundamental explanation of

behavior—one which can be ex- plained by bodily structures or processes. The development of this

type of information has practical as

well as theoretical implications. For

example, we know that a sizable

proportion of the population is colorblind and that red-green color

blindness is more common than other

kinds. Since traffic lights employ

these colors as signals, the inability to distinguish between the colors has

handicapped many actual (or potential) drivers. Once researchers better

understood the nature of red-green

color blindness, the signal problem

was solved by modifying the colors of

these lights enough so drivers with

this problem could distinguish

between the lights, using the color

discrimination that they do have, i.e., blue-yellow.

Scientific Approach

(After B. F. Skinner)

Scientific Attribute

Cumulative understanding

Set of Attitudes

Search for order, uniformity, lawful

relationships

Prediction of events

Description

Work of one researcher builds on

others

Deals with facts, not opinions about

facts

Willingness to accept facts, even when opposed to wishes

Begins with examination of single

events, moves to general rule.

Experience leads to clearer, more

precise relationships between events

Awareness of arrangements of

conditions based upon a system of cause—effect relationships

Comnr>unit^ cjf Scien+ists

r' '-I 5rd researcher L Znd researcher

l5t researcher

The work ofeach re5ear<::her

forme a tpa6i6 -for the woric

of the nex-t researcher

Willingness to remain without answer Avoidance of making premature

judgments

40
Applied

Unlike basic studies, applied research

is not open-ended with respect to the

questions being asked, or the time

available. In many instances, instead

of the researcher defining the

problem to be studied (as in basic

research), the problem is partially

defined for him. That is, research is conducted because a person (other

than a researcher) has identified an

actual (or potential) problem which

requires information to solve. Most

M/E studies fall into this research

category. Such experimentation is designed to answer a highly specific

question concerning a particular en- vironmental characteristic, e.g., the

acceptability of a given color scheme

by office occupants.

Methodological

Researchers, whether engaged in basic or applied investigations, rely on

standardized procedures (methods)

to make observations. The type and

quality of the findings (as well as the

ability to quantify them) depend on

the characteristics (particularly

limitations) of the measurement in- struments and procedures used.

A major research activity is therefore

the improvement of experimental

methods. In M/E studies, this is especially important because many

techniques now used by researchers were designed for other purposes.

Research serves several functions

all important if we are to progress in the development of a M/E discipline.

Experimental Research

The researcher's goal is to solve a problem by conducting an experiment. An experiment is no more than

the arrangement (or recording) of a

set of conditions which permits the

collection of information in a

systematic way.

Data constitute the records of observations and measurements as well as

a description of the circumstances

surrounding the collection of information. The essence of research is to know which are the appropriate

observations (and how to make them).

Options with Consequences

for Research

(Michelson)

The Option of Seeing:

1 . Behavior as actions or as acts.

2. Man in terms of aggregates or as an individual.

3. Man as a whole or as an abstract

part of a social system.

4. Man as the prime client or as an

object of investigation.

5. Environment at an aggregate or at a nonaggregate level.

6. Environment as an objective or as an experienced structure.

The Option Between:

7. Direct or indirect measurement of

environment.

8. Man or environment as the primary

sampling unit.

Research as Information

Development

Research is also a means of developing required information using standardized procedures. This process

ranges from a straightforward compilation and evaluation of existing in- formation to the need to develop new

techniques. In either event, the

starting point of research is the identification of a problem (even if it cannot yet be readily defined).

The following illustration shows how a research problem might be attacked.

Assume the problem is to determine

how to direct the visitors of a high-rise

building from the building entrance to their destination with minimum confusion.

First, we may want to pose the question in different terms. For example:

• How much information is required

to minimize potential problems?—i.e., level of detail.

• What is the nature of the information required to enable visitors to reach their destinations?

• In what form(s) should the information appear?

• Should information be repeated,

or be provided in several forms?

i.e., redundancy.

The researcher often would like to obtain first-hand information concerning

the problem. One approach is to

identify a horrible example. That is, to find a building where people have difficulty getting to their destination.

This approach would provide the opportunity to observe the types of

problems, and to question visitors

with problems, thereby gaining

greater insight for follow-on activities.

Main Forms of Data Collection Responses

(From Galtung)

Non-Verbal

Acts

Oral, Verbal

Acts

Written

Verbal Acts

Informal Settings Participant

Observation

Conversations

Informants

Letters,

Articles

Formal-Unstructured

Settings

Systematic

Observation

Interviews,

Open Ended

Ouestionnaire,

Open Ended

Formal-Structured

Settings

Experimental

Techniques

Interviews,

Preceded

Ouestionnaire,

Structured

41
**Literature"5earch- Informational Sources

OLDv- NEW

6e.neral ''5econ(iar\) t)o\jrce5" 'Pnmar-^ 6ource6'(wi-\feD) Current Material

•Magazines

• Newspaper

• IVtedia pre5entation6

(teievbion, movies)

• TextbooK6

• AcademiG+rainin9

• gxpenence

• gook.6 and ^Magaz-ines

on topic tor related

fopic5)

•Tecnn/63l Journal

articlee

• Papers preeenfed at

meetings

• Rex/iew of Government

and Private Pot'\icai\or]5

• 5ummane6 of ongoing

reaearch

• Subject bibliographies

ih print-, developed

• Persona] contect wittn

re5>edrcherf)

• Laboratorv /Field \/\f>\if>

to ongoing studies

•l^ound table di6cu^ion5

• Review of studies

being planned

Assume that a literature review and

site visit provided sufficient information to pinpoint the nature of the

problem. We have found that the

signs in buildings are the major

source of confusion; if they could be

improved the problem would be

solved. Our goal therefore is to determine how to provide better directional

information.

Once the problem has been identified

in general terms, a literature review is conducted to determine the

availability of possibly relevant information. In its most accessible form,

the necessary information would be

included in a single source document—if such a publication were

available. In the present case, we

would be looking for recommended

signs to be used in buildings for

directing people from place to place.

The behavioral researcher, however

familiar with similar problem areas

(e.g., human factors), might find that

the information had already been

developed in a different context. For

example, similar problems are en- countered aboard ships, and

research findings developed for the

Navy might apply to our problem. The

task then is to determine the

relevance of existing data to a particular design situation. (Training and

familiarity with measurement

procedures would help the

researcher decide whether the shipboard information applied to the highrise building.)

We have said that a key factor is the

characteristics of those who will oc- cupy the building being designed. If it

is to be for the elderly, the information

must be used as a basis for design

applicable to them. We should consider that elderly people do not see as

well as others. Therefore, lighting

levels may have to be increased

and/or the lettering on signs may re- quire enlargement. Frequently, ex- perimental data does not apply to the

aged because most of it has been obtained from measurements of healthy

young adults—college students,

young researchers and members of

the military.

In sum, the search for information of

direct or indirect relevance to a problem may lead to a dead end. If this were the case, we would conduct

an experiment to develop the re- quired data. Our first task would be to formulate a research hypothesis—i.e., to pose a question in a way that it could be answered by means of an

experiment.

To minimize the time and expense re- quired to collect new information, and

ensure the quality of information, it is best to use proven research methods.

When research must be performed,

the most direct approach uses a stan- dardized technique for making observations. By standardized, we mean

that other researchers have identified

and solved many of the potential

procedural problems. We can

therefore have confidence in our

findings. For example, we could

develop a questionnaire asking people to judge which of several possible

messages should appear on a directional sign. The development of such

a questionnaire can be straightforward, based on the considerable

information already available. (See

chap. 20 for details.)

We may determine that a questionnaire would not suit our purpose

because the results would only in- dicate a preference. Maybe people

cannot judge in advance whether one message is actually nnore effective

than another one unless faced with

the actual situation (or a simulation of

it). In this event, an alternative might

be preferable, for example, to modify

a standard technique developed for

another purpose. One such approach

would be to ask experimental subjects to participate in a game, based

on the mapping procedures

employed by Lynch and others (see

chap. 6). We would instruct subjects

to chart a path (on a predrawn form)

from one location to another. Information could be supplied to the subjects

using different written instructions,

color and other coding devices, or combinations of written and coded in- formation. We would then estimate

how long it would take to arrive at the

destination; how many errors were made, etc.—based on performance in the game.

42
Acquisition of User Information (Availability of Data).

Level of Accessibility and

Difficulty Status of Information

Accessibility and

Status of Methodology

Data Collection

Approach

Required

Know-How

1 All data available in usable form

(Not applicable) Apply existing data Ability to specify data

rpniiirempnt*=;

2 Some data available,

modification or additions needed

Methods available, not requiredStart with existing data

and modify by inter- pretation, extrapolation.

Recognize similarities

between available data

and needs; ability to

JLItJVJC? iiiHnp whfif VVIICH ic: 1 o nopH^H 1 1 Cv_/ V_i ~

U

and how to obtain it

3 Little relevant data

available

Methods available to generate required additional data requirementsCollect data using

standard methods

Specify informational

requirements, plan and

conduct research

meeting these needs

4 No relevant information availableNo methodology

directly applicable

Modify existing methods if possible, or in- novate completelySophisticated research

background, insight into

design problem

Thus far we have considered efforts to locate available information, or to use

or modify standardized methods to obtain information. In both instances,

one can take advantage of information or techniques developed by disciplinary experts. This brings us to the

worst case situation where neither the

information nor appropriate standardized measurement techniques are

available. Measurement methods

would therefore have to be

developed.

In our illustration, we would then have

to use our instincts and judgment on a

trial and error basis. One approach

might be to give a time-stamped

ticket (including entrance location) to people who enter the building. Then, on arrival at their destination, the

ticket would again be time stamped,

the visitor would be asked to indicate

the path used, and any problems en- countered en route. The data could

be compiled by means of a map and a

questionnaire. This approach would

be termed a pilot study. This would be

evaluated and the procedure

modified as needed, if it seemed

promising.

The development of innovative

research approaches is a major

challenge to any researcher. The

techniques devised must be appropriate to the problem and defensible to the scientific community in terms of scientific controls,

procedures and relevance. It is fre- quently difficult to meet these objectives because a new methodology

does not have the advocacy of

researchers who have already used it, are aware of safeguards, and are

satisfied with the result. Instead, it may encounter a high degree of

scientific skepticism because of

potential problems and biases in- herent in all research procedures.

I^odification of a

Standard Research

Approach

4C
^Aatri>c of Po55iblc Independent and l>ependen+\/anabIe$

Relevant ix> Human Factors A5pect5 of Living environment

Independent Variables

Phy6i63l Ambierrt' Services,

^uildin9 Environment environment Community related

Pcpendcnt Variables OnaradBri^\cs Characterit^66 Variables Onaraderi^iic^ facilities

(criteria) 1 2, etc. 1 2 etc. 1 2 etc. 1 2 etc 1 2 etc.

rCi ToriTianoe or ociivii les

r n^bicQi CDnvsmence

ronv/p/^if^nt mohjilitv

Health and Securit^y

Ph;;^5ical comfort

Physical 6p3ce

Social interactions

Aesthetic values

Personal values

Financial consideration6

Research Approaches

M/E researchers have a number of

techniques available for their in- vestigations. Approaches range from

traditional analytic investigations,

often conducted in laboratory settings, to multivariate field studies using questionnaire surveys and observational techniques. Finally, various

simulation methods have been

developed as an additional means of

collecting M/E data. These methods

will be described in detail in the

following chapters of this work.

Scientific Procedures

Raw Data

—L—fl- ic fnet^dvV

Useable Information

Analytic

Scientists using traditional research

methods rely on analytic procedures

in their work. Phenomena are ex- amined in a way that permits the

researcher to identify and measure

the component parts (elements) of

whatever is under investigation.

Research is not performed in a vacuum; it occurs in the context of a

scientist speculating about what is

likely to be found—e.g., a theoretical

model. For example, visual scientists, on the basis of known findings,

believed that the eye had two different

classes of visual receptors, one for

normal viewing, the other for reduced

visibility. Physiological researchers

then sought (and found) two different

types of cells (rods and cones), which

accounted for the known results.

44
Once rods were identified as the cells

used for reduced visibility, further

analyses revealed that chemical actions occurred in the presence of

light, and, more specifically, that the

chemical rhodopsin was thought to influence dark adaptation. A refined

conceptual model was then

developed, based on the hypothesis

that dark adaptation can be explained

in terms of the amount of rhodopsin

available to the rods in the eye. That

is, the level of dark adaptation of an

experimental subject can be

predicted by determining the

rhodopsin level (and vice versa). Experimental findings then verified the

cause/effect relationship between the

presence (in appropriate quantities)

of a bodily chemical (rhodopsin) and

dark adaptation. This process il- lustrates the classical (traditional)

research approach.

Analytic research in a laboratory is typically performed in a way which

permits the scientist to examine one

variable (parameter) at a time while

maintaining control of all other ex- traneous variables. This is frequently

termed parametric research.

Parametric research consists of the

systematic manipulation of one

variable (Independent), and making

measurements on another variable

(dependent) thought to be directly in- fluenced by the independent variable,

while keeping all other conditions

constant by means of control

variables.

For example, a researcher may want

to determine the effects of lighting

levels on reading ability. One way is to keep all conditions within a room

constant (control variables, such as

noise, temperature, characteristics of

subjects) except for illumination

levels. By using three different levels

of illumination (values of the independent variable), one might evaluate the

ability of subjects to read. The in- dependent (or response) variable

could be the ability to answer questions correctly about a passage which

was read for a given time, e.g., 10

minutes. The reading test scores as- sociated with the three levels of il- lumination make up the "raw data" of

the study. If the test is an adequate

measure of reading ability, the data,

when analyzed, will indicate whether

the different illumination levels used

in the study had any effects on the

reading (and comprehension) ability

of the students.

Raramelric Studv

Thus, parametric research enables

scientists to examine the effects of one variable on another while maintaining control of all other factors. (In

fact, it is virtually impossible to be aware of, much less control, all factors, but those not controlled are

theoretically not expected to influence

the research findings.)

For research areas which have been

investigated for many years, the

parametric approach is feasible

because, for the most part, the pertinent variables are to some extent

known. That is, the researcher knows

which variables should be

manipulated, controlled and

measured.

This is not always true, however, especially in M/E studies.

Multivariate

In many situations, identifying one or even a restricted set of variables is difficult—especially in the case of

behavioral studies of building en- vironments where many physical and

personal factors are present. The activities occurring and the complexity

of the situation make it more difficult even to formulate hypotheses for

study. Such investigations are known

as multivariate. The first task of the

researcher under these circumstances is to develop insights into the

situation under study. Consider a school design.

MuHivariaieShjdv

Take info sccounf all

possible, independenf

var/abiee in ineasurinQ

the dependent variable

.

natural direct overhead peripheral

6\itiemaf'\cal\)) manipulate one (independent'^

\/anable-6U6h a6 lightina— and maKe measuremente- on anotner ^dependent) variable —auch

36 reading, epced — while Keepin9 all other

cond i tiGn6 " 6on5ta nt

45
Many new schools contain a multi-use

space as a meeting room, gymnasium, auditorium and exhibition

hall. The classrooms also are designed to accommodate several

activities simultaneously—one group

of children may be reading by

themselves while another group is reading aloud to the teacher. Activities in a room also change from

time to time. Participants may vary

considerably—children use the room

during daytime while adult activities

go on in the evenings. A researcher

encountering this degree of complexity may be overwhelmed by the multiplicity of variables.

The first task is to define the problem.

In this case, it is to design the multi- use space to best perform the desired

activities. Then, it would be useful to narrow the scope of the problem. One

way to do this is to determine what

features of a complex situation can

reasonably be ignored. Once this is accomplished, we can more readily

focus on important variables.

In the example of the multiple-use

school gymnasium, three variables

may be identified and explored by

researchers.

• Thetimeof day when the activity

was performed.

• The age of the participants.

• The nature of the activities.

Field researchers often use two

techniques to better define

problems—one based on questionnaires and the other on observation.

Although these approaches are dif- ferent from those used in the

laboratory, they share common

goals—development of standardized

techniques of measurement and

progressive refinement of measure- ment procedures.

Let us illustrate one procedure. This is the survey questionnaire approach

used to better define the problem.

Since we cannot readily define the

problem, we cannot ask specific

questions about it. Instead, questions

are asked in a way which permits the

people being questioned

(respondents) to "volunteer"

information— i.e., provide information

in a natural way, using their own

words. Furthermore, we must be sure

to ask the questions in a way that

does not provide biased results.

A questionnaire would be administered during daytime and evening hours to all who use the school

building. The questions could be as

follows:

What do you think about the room as a place to perform your activity?

Are there advantages or disadvantages of this room as compared with

rooms specifically designed to perform this activity?

If there are, could you tell me what

they are?

A compilation of responses to such

questions often leads to some

reasonable guesses as to the major

variables which can then be explored

in more detail in follow-on surveys.

For example, if many respondents

said they were disturbed by other activities, later versions of the questionnaire might address this problem

more directly. Questions would be

asked about the activity being disturbed, the cause of the disturbance,

the nature of the disturbance—e.g., difficulty paying attention to the

teacher. Survey research is not simple; it calls for skills comparable to those needed for other M/E study

areas. (Chap. 20 includes a detailed

discussion of this topic.)

Open Space Design in Scliool (AIA Journal)

46
Multivariate and Parametric

Compared

Those who do M/E research may be

divided into those who advocate

traditional research methodology

(single variables, parametric) and

those who deplore this approach

because the subject matter is so complex.

Social scientists have been at the

forefront of those who favor multivariate research. They claim that the

number and complexity of the

variables (parameters) and their

interactions—whether dealing with

people, institutions, social programs,

or environmental issues—do not permit us to examine things one at a time,

i.e., parametrically. The world is complex, and must be understood on

those terms. Once we try to simplify our observations by employing in- herently artificial simulation

procedures (controlled research), we

change the situation (person, en- vironment) in an important way, and

any findings obtained may be misleading.

For example, if high temperature is a

disturbing factor in a classroom situation, field researchers argue that it must be studied in the context of that

situation— not brought to a laboratory

for an in-depth study. Temperature

levels should be considered as one

environmental factor which, together

with lighting, noise and social factors,

operate in terms of the particular activities in the classroom, e.g., a multivariate approach.

On the other hand many parametric

researchers are skeptical of multidimensional procedures. They point

to the many factors in a situation

which researchers may not understand or take into account. The lack of

understanding of important M/E

variables places the researcher in a

position similar to that of the architect,

where every design problem tends to be treated as unique. This is a key obstacle to an effective M/E discipline,

now bogged down because the

findings of studies can seldom be

generalized. As a result, researchers

attack similar problems again and

again, resulting in enormous waste of

time and resources, and little improvement in the overall quality of in- formation available to designers.

Advocates of parametric research

share the belief of traditional disciplines that natural phenomena are

essentially simple and understandable, and therefore a systematic,

single variable approach is an appropriate one. They argue that once

basic M/E variables are defined, one

can make statements about

relationships that hold true for all buildings, not only those being

studied. For example, all people

share a biological inheritance which

enables them to perceive the world as

they do. As more is learned about the

way the eye responds to light and

dark situations, we are better able to predict with confidence what lighting

is necessary when people must move

from a light to a dark situation (entering a theatre). This lighting problem

arises in many building types—but

the solution is universal because of

the way people see.

Criteria for Evaluating

Research

Research may be performed well or

poorly. From the standpoint of a

scientist, the willingness to accept

data as being a true measurement of a phenomenon depends on two

overall criteria—validity and

reliability.

The validity of a measurement is con- cerned with whether the property being measured is what should be

measured—i.e., are we measuring the

right thing? For example, before the

advent of jet aircraft, noise measure- ments were generally made by obtaining a dBA reading on a sound

level meter. (The "A" scale was

designed to approximate the sensitivity of the ear to sound by means of a weighting network.) The dBA scale

was found to be inadequate when

judging jet aircraft noise, because it did not account for one of its most

disturbing characteristics—a highpitched pure tone annoying to

listeners. The dBA scale was

therefore found not to be valid for as- sessing annoyance due to aircraft

noise. (For detailed discussion of

noise see chap. 10.)

Here now is a number of specific approaches used to assess the validity

and reliability of research.

Valditv-Tberrnometers

Do Not Measure. Ught

Even i-f a-teef me+hod

b reliable^

nece66arily valid.

A research investigation is rarely the

first to be performed in a subject area. Consequently, most findings can be

tested to determine whether they are

plausible (consistent with earlier

data). If the research findings of a

given study are unprecedented, it does not mean that they should not be

believed. Instead, the experimental

procedures and analysis of data

warrant closer study to ensure that errors did not account for them. In any event, the researcher can expect

others to scrutinize such findings, and

it would be therefore prudent to make

this check.

47
K. Craik (psychologist) looked at the

correlation between the actual en- vironment and photographic

representations of it. He compared

ratings made on the attractiveness of

natural landscapes with photographs

of the same landscapes. Two sur- veyors rated the natural landscape at 92 locations. Later, nine judges rated

the same landscape on the basis of

photographs taken at each of the 92

locations. Craik found a high correlation ( + 0.64) indicating that

photographs seemed a good means

for simulating the natural landscape.

Using another technique, ex- perimenters hoped to validate

questionnaires as a means of determining television viewing behavior. In the study R. Bechtel (psychologist)

et al. placed cameras in homes to monitor television viewing behavior.

Two cameras were set up to switch on when the family television set was

turned on. One camera was

positioned over the television set and

gave a wide angle view of the room

and the viewers. The second camera

was directed at the set and recorded

the programs being watched. Three

microphones were positioned in the room. The recording was monitored

by an equipment operator in a rented

truck parked either in the driveway or behind the house. Tapes were coded

for each viewer every 2 1/2 minutes

for 6 categories of involvement in television viewing and 1 1 categories

of program type.

As expected there were obstacles in getting people to agree to have

cameras placed in their homes. As an

inducement, $75 for 6 days' participation was offered to the families. Three

questionnaires (including one in diary

form) were completed by those

families whose viewing behavior was

monitored. The questionnaires

allowed a comparison of subjects'

reports of programs viewed and at- tention paid to them with actual

behavior. The results showed subjects often exaggerated their television viewing time on the questionnaires and diary when compared with

viewing time as recorded by the cameras. We have discussed several factors

used to evaluate the "validity" of

research. We will now touch upon the

subject of "reliability."

Reliability refers to whether other

researchers performing similar

studies obtain equivalent results. This

emphasis on reliability (repeatability)

is inherent in the research process,

which depends on observations and

measurements, development of a

predictive model to explain a phenomenon and then finally (and

most importantly) the collection of

empirical data to verify the prediction.

This process cannot take place in the

presence of events which occur only once. As a consequence, the assumption is made that there is no such

thing as a unique event. For example,

the biblical flood has been explained

in terms of a series of natural events,

each one unlikely, and in combination even more so.

48

Categories of Involvement in Television Viewing

(Bechtel)

Code Behavior

Attending screen

1 Participating, actively responding to the TV set or to others regarding content from the set 2 Passively watching (doing nothing else)

3 Simultaneous activity (eating, knitting, etc.) while

looking at the screen

Not attending screen

4 Positioned to watch TV but reading, talking or at- tending to something other than television

5 In the viewing area of the TV but positioned away

from the set in a way that would require turning to see it 6 Not in the room and unable to see the set or degree

of impact of TV content

Reliabjli1>^ -UQht Measurement Study

Ie6t method reliable if a change in other variable)

(time, reeearct^er, environment, eic.) doe^ not effecf

the te€)-P reeult.
Objectivity and Research

Before continuing our discussion, let us again exannine the observations

typically made in M/E studies.

Some observations (and

measurements) are straightforward

and readily obtained, while others re- quire the researcher to make in- ferences about what is being

observed. The key to performing

research based on objective data is to ask questions in a form which

minimizes the need for making in- ferences. For example, we may want

to determine how many people use a

particular entrance to a building. This

could be done by counting the people

entering a doorway, requiring no particular research skill.

Now, assume that people had to open

a door in high wind to enter the

building. We want to determine

whether people "had difficulty" using

that door under these circumstances.

In the latter case, we would have to define the term "having difficulty" in a manner which enables us to make

meaningful observations of the activity. The behaviors observed might

be to determine whether:

• Two hands were required to open

the door.

* Opening the door took more time

than during other weather conditions.

The researcher then uses observations of these (or other) behaviors to determine whether people "had difficulty" while opening the door. An in- ference must be made by the

researcher because the problem being explored was not defined in a way

that was self-evident and directly

observable—as previously where

people were counted. When such in- ferences are necessary, it is frequently difficult to get other researchers to agree that the behavior being

observed is an appropriate measure

of the activity being examined. For ex- ample, individual strength when

opening a door is an important determinant of the observed behavior, yet

it is not readily measured without

proper apparatus. Similarly, motivation to open the door quickly to flee

the wind would lead many people to exert themselves more than usual, in- troducing errors into the time

measurements. Both attributes are

not readily observable and could

therefore lead to biased results.

Consider another example where in- ferences play an important role.

Questionnaires are often developed

to obtain information concerning the

responses of people to their environment. An example of this technique is to ask experimental subjects: Do you

prefer incandescent or fluorescent

ligfiting for reading, if the levels of il- lumination are equal?

People respond by saying what they

prefer /Y faced with such a situation.

The trouble is that people frequently

do not act as they say they would and

therefore the results of survey

findings must be tested to relate what

people say to what they do.

A more objective approach to the

same problem would be to design two

spaces for reading having the

characteristics noted, and then make

observations of how many people actually use each space and for how

long. In the latter instance we are not

asking subjects to predict flow thiey

would behave—observations are made directly. Moreover, these

observations can be recorded by

closed circuit television and by motion pictures, and hence be verified by

other investigators.

Unfortunately, many subject areas of

M/E studies are even more complex

than these requiring a chain of in- ferences before specifying what

observations should be made, e.g.,

territoriality, privacy, security, comfort. Thus there are almost as many

definitions of these concepts as there are researchers.

To eliminate inferences in research,

the concept of an operational definition was developed. P. Bridgman

(physicist) described it as follows:

We may illustrate by considering the

concept of length: what do we mean by

the length of an object? We evidently

know what we mean by length if we can

tell what the length of any and every object is, and for the physicist nothing more is required. To find the length of an object, we have to perform certain

physical operations. The concept of

length is therefore fixed when the operations by which length is measured are

fixed: that is, the concept of length in- volves as much as and nothing more

than the set of operations by which

length is determined. In general, we mean by any concept nothing more

than a set of operations; the concept is synonymous with the corresponding set

of operations.^

P. W. Bridgman, The Logic of Modern

Physics (New York, 1960).

49
In M/E studies the development of

operational definitions for

phenomena might be especially

worthwhile. Phenomena are open to many definitions, thereby leading to confusion among architects as well as

researchers. The ambiguity poses

special problems for the researcher

who wants to make observations and

measurements. What does he look

for? How can quantitative findings be

produced?

When operational definitions are to be

used, we are compelled to identify

what is to be observed and how to make measurements. This exercise

might lead to restrictive (incomplete)

definitions at first, but these can later be expanded to include other aspects

of the phenomena after we have identified them sufficiently.

Let us consider the concept of

privacy. One aspect of privacy is the

ability to speak without being

overheard by others. Wis possible to determine the extent to which conversations in one space are understood

in other spaces. Visual privacy can be

examined the same way by determining what can be seen from a variety of

vantage points surrounding a space.

Two aspects of privacy can then be

observed and measured. As we identify other components of privacy, they can be examined in the same

manner—if they are capable of being

defined in terms of observable operations. If not, they may not be capable

of being researched at all.

Visual Privacy in Open Space Design (NBS)

Difficult to Evaluate "Real World" Noises (NBS)

Research Controls

It is one thing to point out the need for

collecting objective data, but it is quite

another to accomplish this goal in M/E research. One primary focus is the behavior of people, which is at best determined only partially by en- vironmental characteristics. For ex- ample, experience and motivation are known to influence many kinds of

behavior; yet we often have no means

of measuring them objectively. In animal studies experience has been

defined as the number of "trials,"

while motivation is frequently defined as the time elapsed since the most re- cent feeding. While these approaches

have sometimes been used in studies

of human subjects, their use has been

limited for ethical and research

reasons.

The standardization of procedures to observe and measure is important in

all research. This emphasis does not

eliminate errors. Instead, errors in- troduced into research are dealt with

by statistical and other procedures.

As an illustration, the dBA scale has

been used to measure noise. The

levels obtained were employed to as- sess the effects of noise sources on

building occupants. Yet, dBA

measurements do not adequately ac- count for other characteristics of

noise known to affect listeners, e.g., pure tone components, impulsive

sounds. The dBA scale should

therefore be used cautiously when

noises have important impulsive and

pure tone characteristics.

50
Observations and measurements

cannot be error free. Errors are

therefore inherent in the research

process. The researcher's goal is not

to eliminate errors, but to reduce

them to a level consistent with the demands of a particular study.

The standardized procedures for

making observations and measure- ments (collecting data) are designed

to reduce the type and magnitude of errors in an experiment. The

procedures differ according to the

study. Let us examine several typical

approaches.

E. Wilson (chemist) notes that: The

ideal experiment is sometimes

described as one in whicli ali relevant

variables are held constant except the one understudy, the effects of which

are then observed.*

In M/E research, studies dealing with

environmental characteristics such as

temperature, light, and sound levels are frequently performed under

controlled conditions, approaching

those described by Wilson.

For example, if we wanted to examine the effect of sound intensity on the acceptability of the environment, we would ensure that

other characteristics of sound would

be the same for all experimental conditions. Such an experiment might

consist of having people listen to a

series of sounds of fixed duration (30

" E. B. Wilson, An Introduction to Scientific Research (New York, 1952).

seconds), made up of identical fre- quency components (between 50-

1 000 Hz), and which are varied in ac- cordance with their intensity (40 dB,

50 dB, 60 dB, 70 dB, 80 dB). The in- dependent \/auab\e would be the dif- ferent sound levels while the duration

and frequency of the sounds would be

confro/ variables, and judgments of

acceptability would be the dependent

variables. Since many other ex- traneous factors—environmental and

personal— might also affect judgments, these would be controlled to the extent possible, not only in laboratory studies but in field in- vestigations as well.

Typical Laboratory

Research Controls

• Selection of the subjects—e.g., age group

• Instructions for responding (dependent variable)

• Characteristics of the sound (independent variable)

• Levels of sound (independent

variable)

• Freedom from extraneous stimulation—auditory, visual (laboratory

environment)

• When and where observations are made

• Number of observations made (at

discretion of researcher)

• Form of data

The questionnaire survey enables the

researcher to maintain considerable

control over observations. Control is exercised in several ways. First, the

questionnaire items (questions) are standardized. All experimental subjects are asked the same questions, in the same sequence. Furthermore,

control may be obtained by designing

the questions in a way which limits ac- ceptable answers; for example, re- quiring subjects to answer (1)1 agree,

(2) I disagree to a series of state- ments. Finally, we can require subjects to answer all questions, even difficult ones (by guessing if necessary).

Another control is to train the people

who administer the surveys, to ensure

consistency. Thus, we may ask that

instructions be read by (or to) subjects and that no additional information be provided. If someone wants a question clarified, the instructions

may be read again. Other controls can include: the uniformity of the

background and education of those

who administer the survey and the

way (e.g., tone of voice) that the questions are asked. (A more detailed

treatment of this subject appears in chap. 20.)

The survey questionnaire approach

requires respondents to take an active role in an investigation. Normal

activities are thereby disrupted in order for them to participate. Many

M/E researchers prefer observations

of activities to be made in their natural

settings. Consider, for example, the

requirements of elderly residents of a nursing home.

One characteristic noted in studies of

the elderly is their desire to control access to their space—a need for a

defined territory.

If we wanted to examine these activities in a realistic setting, we should

define the types of observations

needed to determine territorial and

visual access needs. Researchers,

serving as expert observers, could

then be trained to look for (and

record) the same events. For in- stance, a group of people might be

observed to see if any behaviors are

attributable to the presence or approach of a stranger, e.g., moving

closer together, starting conversations. Further control is sometimes

possible by developing checklists or other forms to collect datareminding observers what to look for.

Conclusion

In the present chapter, we have discussed several factors associated

with performing research. We

described the use of experimental approaches to collect information.

Ultimately, however, the development

of a scientific discipline requires not

only orderly means of making observations, but the ability to make quantitative statements about them. In research two types of quantitative approaches are used, one related to measurement per se, and the other

related to statistical and sampling

concerns. Both of these issues will be

discussed in the following chapter.

51
FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM—MODE TRIM

CABIIN AIR ALPHA/MACH INDICATOR

LEFT POWER DISPLAY, DATA BUS SELECT AND AIR LANDING GEAR AND AIR SPEED INDICATOR

ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR AHITUDE VERTICAL VELOCITY HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR BAROMETRIC ALTIMETER

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM—MAIN TRIM CRT DISPLAY UNIT AHITUDE INDICATOR—FLIGHT TEST CAUTION/WARING ANNUNCIATOR

SURFACE POSITION INDICATOR ROTATIONAL HAND CONTROLLER

FIRE PROTECTION

HYDRAULIC APU DISPLAY CLOCK

SPEED BRAKE TAKEOVER POWER DISTRIBUTION PANEL

AUXILIARY POWER UNIT OPERATIONAL INSTRUMENTATION BODY FLAP—BODY MANEUVERING

FUEL CELL PANEL COMPUTER STATUS ANNUNCIATORS AND COMPUTERS

CAUTION/WARNING. IMU POWER, DEU LOAD AND MASS

COMPUTER CALL-UP

FUEL CELL CONTROLS—COMPUTER STATUS

ORBITER/CARRIER

Human Factors Study of Aircraft Display/Control Design (NASA)

52
5

Man/Environment Research

Improved M/E Information

Theoretical Issues

Parametric Models

The Stimulus (Environment)

Correlational Model

Other M/E Models

Observational Approaches

Simulation Approaches

Scale Models

Photographs

Games

Other Data Collection Methods

Semantic Differential

Adjective Checklist

Diary

Unobtrusive Measures

Conclusion

U'ery few architects stand any real chance of becoming successful free-lance practitioners. . . it means that the employed architect in the big office will become in- creasingly specialized, seeing less and less of the entire field of practice and of the

clients themselves. Second, it implies that more and more of his clients are themselves corporate entities—big business, big institutions, big government.

The implications here are disturbing, in that the architect's legal client is less and

less his real client. The white collar worker in the big skyscraper, the blue collar worker in the big plant, the housewife in the big housing project, the child in the big

consolidated school—these are the people for whom the architect works and to whom he is ultimately responsible. His buildings should be accurately and sensitively designed for them. Yet these are the people whom the architect today

seldom sees. He deals instead with their agents—those corporate or institutional entities who are the legal owners of the projects.

It cannot be assumed that these corporate or institutional clients, acting though they

may be as legal agents for the consuming public, are always to be relied upon to represent its best interests or optimal requirements. In a profit-motivated society,

criteria for architectural projects are all too apt to approach the minimal permitted

by building codes or the law of supply and demand. Of course, this tendency will vary from field to field.

The building consumer is unable effectively to express his demands, requirements,

expectations: and the architect's isolation from them leads inevitably to the abstract,

the formal and the platitudinous in architectural and urban design. It is also expressed in changes in his cultural orientation. By the very nature of his work, the

architect has always stood closer to the rich than to the common man, for whom his

services were always less imperatively required than those of the doctor or lawyer.

Nevertheless, the tradition of the socially conscious, intellectually committed

architect has had a long history in the United States. The social client gave the

architect an exhilarating sense of identity with society. It served to shift his attention,

if not his allegiance, toward social architecture. ^

^ J. M. Fitch, The Architectural Manipulation

of Space, Time, and Gravity (New York,

1969).

53
The architect should have information on M/E issues comparable in quality

with that required for making decisions about the structural integrity of a building. In both instances, erroneous information can lead to building failures. When making

engineering decisions, the architect can draw upon a broad base of information carefully collected and tested

by standardized procedures which

can be traced to scientific studies. No

comparable foundation exists in the

M/E realm.

Instead, M/E information is very un- even with respect to quality and accessibility. Studies have often been

performed to answer quite specific

problems, and consequently have little general applicability. Furthermore,

in too many instances, the information

developed in M/E studies is difficult to evaluate because the research

procedures and controls used have

not been adequately documented.

Since these very procedures distinguish scientific research from

casual observation, the questionable

quality of much M/E data is not surprising.

If we can assume general agreement

exists among architects and con- cerned researchers for the need for

better information, how should we

proceed to get it? Two of the most important such needs

are: (1) a well-defined subject area of

study, and (2) standardized

procedures (methodologies) for making observations and measurements.

In short, a scientific discipline needs

to be established.

The most striking feature about M/E

research is the breadth of interest. It would be difficult to find another discipline with a comparable range of in- terest. Relevant information includes

characteristics of people

(physiological, psychological,

cultural, social), attributes of the

natural and built environments, and,

most importantly, interactions of people and their surroundings. These

form the basis for defining the re- quirements of building users. Many disciplines can contribute

toward a better understanding of M/E

relationships. The design problem

being investigated will dictate the

proper approach. The one major at- tribute that the disciplines share is the

employment of scientific methods in collecting data.

Anyone familiar with one or more of

the M/E disciplines knows that a comprehensive treatment of

measurement procedures for any one

discipline would be a vast undertaking. Instead, in Parts III, IV, and V of

the report, measurement methods

have been selected from many disciplines to point out the diversity of

approaches available.

This chapter presents an overview of

the general approaches employed in M/E research studies, and a short

discussion of the theoretical bases

for them.

Improved M/E

Information

An architect employs engineering and

other design data to ensure the adequacy of a building from the standpoint of safety and health. The

availability of such data may be traced

to the ability of researchers to identify

and measure the important

parameters of materials, built elements, building subsystems and the

like and relate them to the performance of a building.

The quality of scientific information

depends on the consistency and

relevance of the observations made

by researchers in the same study

area. Researchers who employ standard methods, observing similar

phenomena, will obtain equivalent

data. "Hard" sciences can be dif- ferentiated from "soft" sciences in terms of their ability to obtain such

reproducible findings. Moreover,

hard sciences, because of the objectivity inherent in most observations, can make quantitative statements

about their observations, i.e., they use

sophisticated measurement techniques. Measurements, in turn,

enable scientists to employ

mathematical techniques to develop

conceptual models of the

phenomena. These models are an in- tegral part of the research process of

formulating hypotheses, which are then tested by collecting experimental

data.

Development of Improved User Information

Evaluate current

cn-teria , standards,

practices

No

problem

perceived

Identify

problems

Conduct fa/e

research

Determine

design

implications

Develop ^test

new design

solutions

54
Theoretical Issues

We will not develop or advocate

someone else's conceptual scheme

(model) to explain how people in- teract with the built environment. On

the other hand, researchers do not

conduct their studies in a theoretical vacuum. Even researchers who conduct studies for the most pragmatic

purposes (solving a particular design

problem) make assumptions about

the likely effect of design features on

the way people act. These assumptions, when taken together, constitute a conceptual (theoretical) model.

Parametric Models

The search for objectivity in behavioral studies has led some

researchers to develop S-R models,

which eliminate the need to be con- cerned about differences among people. Behavior (Response-R) is ex- plained solely in terms of en- vironmental (Stimulus-S) conditions.

This model if successful would have

been ideal for the architect because it infers that the behavior of people

could be determined by the nature of

their surroundings. (If the architect

wants people to act in a particular

way, all that he has to do is design a

building appropriately.) The S-R

model has proven to be far too

simplistic to deal with the behavior of

people because it fails to account for

the characteristics which make people different from one another.

Furthermore, it implies that behavior

is deterministic, i.e., that individuals

have no control over their destinies.

A classical behavioral research model

which accounts for differences among

individuals is termed the Stimulus (S),

Organism (O) and Response (R) (S-0-

R) approach. Briefly, the behavior of

organisms (people and animals) is ex- plained in terms of characteristics of

the outside world and attributes of the

individuals who interact with the out- side world. Behavior (R) is explained

in terms of an environmental feature

(S) which affects a person (O) in a

particular way. Although the model

was developed to explore individual

behavior, it readily lends itself to categorizing many of the variables in M/E studies.

The S-R and S-O-R models of

behavior are basically analytic in that

the research goal is to determine

cause/effect relationships between

independent (S) and dependent (R)

variables, while controlling dif- ferences among individuals (O) by

means of the design of the experiment.

The Stimulus (Environment)

S. Stevens (psychophysicist) ex- amined the M/E problem in another

way. He indicated that, in a sense,

only one problem must be solved in psychology—defining the stimulus.

His reasons are expressed as follows:

Ttie complete definition of the stimulus

to a given response involves the

specification of all the transformations of

the environment, both internal and external, that leave the response invahant.

This specification of the condition ofinvariance would entail, of course, a complete understanding of the factors that produce and alter responses. It is easy

enough, of course, to decide upon ar- bitrary definitions of "stimulus objects"

(e.g., a given pattern of lines, a quantity

of luminous flux, an acoustic waveform,

etc.), but the question is: what properties of these objects do the stimulating?

Viewed in this fashion, it is evident that

for no response have we yet given a complete definition of the stimulus. At

best we have only partially determined

the conditions and limits of invahance.'^

He illustrates this point by examining

a well-researched area—hearing.

Under what conditions do people

perceive a particular pitch? Can the

frequency of a sound be changed

without any change in pitch perception? (Yes, within limits.) Can the

phase be changed with similar

results? (Yes, also within limits.) He

then goes on to state that the effects on pitch perception of many other

parameters having potential importance are simply not known, e.g., waveform, power spectrum, duration.

We therefore know very little about

the "stimulus" which produces pitch

sensations. Moreover, when we ex- amine complex responses such as at- titudes and preferences or a sense of

privacy and territoriality, even less is known about the conditions which

produce these responses.

^ S. S. Stevens, Psychophysics (New York,

1975).

Stevens then notes that in one way or another, we are constantly guessing

the physical values or relations of

stimuli. That is, we have a subjective

impression which is used to predict

the result expected if an objective

measurement were made. For example, we may try to judge the size of objects within a room or the length of a

corridor, then actually measure them.

Stevens correctly states that if we had

sufficient information about the en- vironment (S) and its relationships to the person, then the work of psychologists (and M/E researchers

generally) would be completed. Unfortunately, the "if" is prodigious.

Correlational Model

Many M/E researchers have con- cluded the complex problems which concern them cannot be solved using

the traditional analytic approach.

Instead, an alternative one has been

advanced—namely to find the degree

of relationship between the variables

being examined—without making

cause/effects statements.

For example, we might want to see if students prefer any location in a

library. More specifically—are the

tables near the windows used more

than the others? (We would be testing

the hypothesis that library design

should maximize window area.)

55
By observing existing library usage,

we can determine the relationship

between proximity to windows and

usage. If we assume that usage and

nearness to windows are highly correlated (the closer to the window, the

more likely the table was to be occupied), we might conclude that

library seating arrangements should

take this factor into account. This

recommendation might be plausible even though we had no idea as to w/iy

people were seated as they were. The

reason might be due to one or more

window characteristics but other explanations are possible—territoriality,

privacy, lighting levels, or other factors. Explaining why these results oc- curred may or may not be important,

depending on the reason for conducting the study. For the designer

the fact that it did occur (assuming

that the study was well conducted) is sufficient. The researcher will want a more complete explanation however.

The correlational model therefore

stresses applications of findings,

while parametric (e.g., S-O-R) models

are directed toward a more fundamental understanding of

relationships between environmental

and behavioral factors.

R. Barker (psychologist) developed a

theoretical model which provides a

valuable framework for considering

M/E problems. His concern is with the

psychological environment (the world

as it is perceived by a person) and

with the ecological environment (the

real life setting within which people

behave). He has been the major

proponent of ecological psychology

which emphasizes the need to study

human behavior in a realistic setting

with all of its complexities. By describing the environment in which behavior

takes place, Barker hopes to better

understand the relationship between

a specific environment or setting and

the behavior occurring in it.

In defining the subject matter of

ecological psychology, he indicates

that it is necessary to identify the

natural units of the phenomenon

studied. The essential nature of the units

with which ecology deals is the same

whether they are physical, social,

biological, or behavior units: (a) they oc- cur without feedback from the in- vestigator, they are self generated; (b)

each unit has a time-space locus; (c) an unbroken boundary separates an inter- nal pattern from a diffenng external pattern.^ Examples of such units are towns, schools, class meetings,

baseball games. The author uses the

term behavior setting to describe

these units.

Behavior settings have provided a basis

for describing and measuring the extent,

the variety and the behavior output of

the environment and of relations

between its extent and Its output. In this,

behavior settings have entered as entities with a variety of properties that can be directly observed and measured.*

Behavior Setting Attributes

(Barker)

Attribute/Example

1. Geographicallocus

(Location in space)

2. Occurrence

(Number of days a year)

3. Duration

(Number of hours a year)

4. Population

(Total number of different persons in- volved in a year)

5. Functional position of inhabitants

(Level of involvement by participants)

6. Action patterns

(Arbitrary; such as, aesthetic, governmental, education, social, religious,

etc.)

7. Behavior mechanisms

(Affective, gross motor, manipulation,

verbal thinking)

8. Pressure

(Degree to which population subgroups encouraged to enter and

participate)

9. Autonomy

(Degree to which behavior setting

subject to external influence)

10. Welfare

(Degree to which needs of various

groups met)

^ R. G. Barker, Ecological Psychology:

Concepts and Methods for Studying the Environment of Human Behavior (Stanford, 1968).

" Barker

Proximii^ "to Windows-^ Increased Use

56
Barker conducted a field study to validate and further explore his

theoretical concepts. The researchers

documented behavior settings and

their characteristics for an agricultural

town in Kansas. The town had a population of about 1 1 ,000 and was

studied for one year. Ten attributes were defined and used to describe

each behavior setting. Fronri

these descriptions the researchers were able to: ( 1 ) identify and

describe the behavior settings in the town, (2) categorize the behavior

settings into major groups so that set- tings with similar characteristics could

be studied as one major setting and,

(3) describe the behavior settings on

the basis of the activities (or

behaviors) which occurred within

them. For example. High School Latin

Class was identified as a behavior setting. There were two Latin Classes

during the year, with a total duration

of 341 hours. Latin Class falls under

the more comprehensive category of

school and is part of the action pat- tern of education. Thinking represents the major action pattern and

"attendance encouraged" describes

the pressure profile. The welfare of

adolescents is benefitted. Finally, the

activities which take place in the Latin

Class behavior setting (thinking, etc.) were compared with the activities taking place in other behavior settings.

Barker originally carried out his work

for the purpose of developing a

theory. D. Aas (Norwegian

researcher) looks beyond the theory

and discusses the practical applications of Barker's work. The insight

provided by the theory mal<es it possible

to better grasp the meaning of activity.

The theory stresses that the environment

is part of the activities and that activity is a vital part of the environment. Furthermore, stress is put on the dimension of

time: behavior and activity are segments

of time and can be seen as sequences

and strings of related actions.^

Aas reports on a behavior setting

study in a Norwegian town which

looked at social-cultural activities and

ultimately attempted to identify the

types of facilities needed for these activities. Initially a behavior-setting sur- vey was carried out to determine the

range of activities that should be in- cluded in the study. Simultaneously, an interview study of people's leisuretime activities was conducted. Eight

hundred organizations were identified as supporting, arranging, and

directing the activities of interest. Daily, detailed information on the events

Action Patterns

(Barker)

Aesthetic Business

Attribute

Artistic activity of behavior directed

toward beautificatlon

Exchange of goods, services or

privileges for money

Participation

Doing artistic work of any kind

(scaled from 0-5)

Transporting or exchanging goods for a fee

Supply

Providing materials and equipment

which are directed toward aesthetic

enjoyment—musical, artistic material

(scaled from 0-5)

Supplying objects or material nec- essary for business purposes

Evaluation and Appreciation

Assessing the products of art or the

ability of artists

Appreciation of achievements or val- ues of other businesses

Learning

Formal teaching or learning of an

aesthetic activity

Instruction In the conduct of business

transactions

sponsored was obtained from 400-

500 such organizations. From these

data it was possible to determine: (1)

The number of organizations sponsoring activities; (2) The number of

general types of activities throughout

the year; (3) The total number of

events taking place; and (4) The

average duration of the events.

Aas then calculated the average time

per person spent on sociocultural activities. With all of this information it was possible to draw several conclusions concerning the activity studied.

Recommendations could be made on

the adequacy of existing facilities, on

the scheduling of events and on the

population's interest in these events.

In Barker's terms, Aas looked at the

occurrence, duration, population, and

occupancy time associated with a behavior setting (sociocultural event)

within a particular milieu (the

Norwegian town studied).

^ D. Aas, "Observing Environmental

Behavior: The Behavior Setting," In Behavioral Research Methods in Environmental Design, ed. W. Michelson

(Stroudsburg, 1975).

57
The Fxdelifj and Flewbiliiv of Varying

TCd+Tfechniqucs (Van6o"tt)

-me Real World

Ob5er\ation6A

' Measurements on ->

nne (?eal World ^ Field Studies

< Simulations, Models^ Games >

< Laboratory! Experiments

^Ma-Hiematicalv ^

NAodels

+

High^ FideliiN^ of Test Conditions ^Low

Low< Ease and Flexibiliivof Makin9'lests-^Hi9h

other M/E Models

Another set of models is applicable to M/E research. These are defined in terms of their function:

Descriptive modeis. Ttie prime function

of tfiese is to portray tiie relationships

tfiat are seen to exist in a situation. For

instance models of circulation move- ment showing the relationship of corridor and lift dimensions to flow

capacities, structural equations showing

the relationship of shape and dimension

of members to stress and deflection.

Most research findings produce

deschptive models of this kind.

Predictive models. Given a set of

relationships (descriptive models), if one vahable can be predicted and the

relationship holds, then the other

vahable(s) can be predicted. For in- stance for a given size and speed of lift the waiting time (under a specified

arrival pattern) can be predicted. For a

given shape of building the air- conditioning load can be predicted.

Decision models. From a set of predictive models (alternative solutions) one

must be chosen. This requires the use

of a criterion. When this is done

analytically, to derive an optimum, by

such tendencies as linear programming

for instance, the optimisation procedure

involves building this decision model.

With this brief treatment of conceptual models and their relationship to the development of needed M/E in- formation, we will return to our major

concern of making observations and

measurements of building users.

Observational

Approaches

What do we mean by observations in M/E studies? The word covers

characteristics and measurements of

the environment, activities and the in- dividual, whether recorded by an ex- perimenter, a subject or by instruments. "Observation" is used in the

broadest sense—whatever is being

examined in any form.

M/E observations include en- vironmental attributes as well as responses of people. The environment under study must be

meaningfully described and/or

measured, if we are to make progress

in determining its effects on the

behavior of building occupants.

However, since this work is written by

psychologists, not physical scientists or engineers, its emphasis is on people. We assume that members of the

design team with these skills will make the needed observations. Since

our main concern is the person, we

feel that physical scientists should not

be the only ones to decide which

physical attributes of the environment

are to be observed and measured.

That has often happened, e.g., in noise research, acoustic measure- ments are often made because the

state-of-the-art makes such measure- ments possible and not because people respond to the attributes being

measured.

^ T. A. Markus, "The Role of Building Per- formance Measurement and Appraisal

in Design Method," The Arcfiitects'. Journal Information Library (December 1967).

Methods of making observations can

be considered from the viewpoint of

the level of disturbance of the natural

behaviors being examined, i.e., the

extent to which an activity in an en- vironment is disrupted by the

presence of recording and measuring

instruments and/or a researcher.

Observational approaches share one

characteristic—the need for a highly

trained and sensitized experimenter,

who can make relatively unbiased

observations and measurements as inconspicuously as possible.

At the start of a study, while still defining the problem, the researcher may

want to play the role of a passive

observer, not altering any part of the

environment, or intruding into the

situation.

Passive Observation

one-way mirror

observer classroom

58
Consider a classroom. The ex- perimenter is concerned with identifying critical environmental

characteristics which might affect the

performance of the teachers and/or

the students. As a passive observer,

the researcher would record data on

natural behaviors with minimal in- terference (e.g., from behind a one- way mirror in a wall of a room). These

behaviors are likely to be complex

and hard to define. For example, the

teacher could be observed "speaking

to the class," "moving about the

room" and the students could be "at- tentive" or "restless." In most in- stances, a limited number of subjects

or activities is watched for relatively

long periods of time. Since many

events occur during such a situation,

it is often difficult to obtain agreement

among researchers as to what should

be observed, or what records should

be made of observations. Standardized procedures are developed to overcome this, together with careful

selection and training of observers.

Observations are generally made of

public, natural and therefore highly

visible events rather than private ones. After making a number of

observations, particular activities and

environmental characteristics might

be examined, e.g., the effects of glare

produced by sunlight on reading activities.

Modification of the passive observer

technique is advocated by some

researchers who employ observational methods. One such approach is to select a natural setting for

observation and then introduce a

logical and natural modification into

the environment. Observations are then made under both conditions.

One example is to substitute a round

table in a conference room for a rec- tangular one and then determine the

number of times people speak with

one another. A refinement could be to replace the rectangular table to see if people then behaved as they did

before the first change.

An extension of the systematic observation approach is for a researcher

actually to serve as part of the en- vironment being examined. This in- troduces a dynamic element into an

experiment. The experimenter can move, or talk to subjects in a predetermined way, thereby studying

behaviors in controlled social situations. For example, when designing

public benches, researchers have

seated themselves next to subjects to determine the separation distance

typically desired by people (personal

space). The researchers moved

closer and closer to the person until the subject moved away. Information

gained in this way can be used to determine the appropriate length of

public benches designed to accommodate a given number of people.

(See chap. 7.)

Furniture Arrangement

-Use RErtterns

Independent VariableThe arrangemefif cff- benchee in a parK.

Arrangement A - 1 peraon

Nranqemenfb- 4 people

Dep>endent Variable - The numlper of- people

uamq fhe park benches

Finally, researchers have extended

observational methods of collecting

data to include information on what

the subject's themselves observe as

they participate in experiments.

Devices recording eye movements;

unobtrusive techniques such as

television and film cameras are used;

maps are drawn by subjects traveling

along a prescribed route (see Parts II and III).

Observing people can raise ethical

questions. E. Shils separates such

ethical concerns into two parts: First, the wrongfulness of any manipulation of

subjects, and, second, tfie intrusion

witfiout a person's consent, or his knowing cooperation, into the reserved

sphere of his individuality.'' In addition

to the individual's right of privacy, one

must also be aware of intrusion into

the privacy of groups, communities,

and organizations. The degree of

privacy required will vary with the

situation. No guidelines exist and

each researcher must assess the

ethics of particular research.

Concern for this issue in the United

States has led, however, to the review

of behavioral research by formal panels in many organizations.

K. A. Shils, "Social Inquiry and the

Autonomy of the Individual," in The

Human Meaning of the Social Sciences,

ed. D. Lerner (Cleveland, 1959).

59
Simulation Approaches

If we want to determine how people

respond to a building, there is no

satisfactory substitute for studying the

building and how people use it. Often,

this is not feasible. The most obvious

instance is when a new building is being designed—you cannot observe a

building that exists only on the drawing board. On other occasions, one

research option is to examine an existing building which has many of the

features of the one being designed,

e.g., a school. Making observations of a "working" building has several

drawbacks.

Problems with M/E Field

Studies-Observations of a "Working Building"

Difficulty making observations:

The presence of observers may result in changes of activities

Expense:

It is costly in terms of money and

time - people and equipment must be

on site; away from support staff and

other research resources - e.g., data

analysis equipment

To overcome the objections cited in the accompanying table, researchers

now have developed approaches

which simulate the important

characteristics of the environment

they want to assess. Architects have

used similar and often identical

techniques for centuries, e.g., drawings, scale models, photographs.

These and other more innovative

procedures such as television and

movie cameras are also used by

researchers. While these procedures

are designed to be relatively realistic

(closely resembling the physical appearance of the environment being

simulated) other simulations are

highly abstract, such as mathematical

models.

Limited number of observations:

The expense involved makes if difficult to observe more than a limited

number of buildings, people and/or

activities for abbreviated time periods

Presence of uncontrolled variables:

Many things, other than building

attributes are likely to affect the behavior of building occupants. For

example, institutional and management factors may account for what

people do, and these "variables" are

likely to be unknown by M/E

researchers.

The philosophy underlying simulation

is simple. If some part of the actual

environment is simulated well (for ex- ample, a scale model may be used to represent an actual building), the

researcher has the ability to control,

to manipulate, to study and measure

the conceptual model in a way that is not possible under actual conditions.

Furthermore, under ideal conditions,

the experimental findings obtained

would be applicable to building

design problems.

Scale Models

Scale models are a very common

means for simulating various aspects

of the environment and may be fullsize or at a reduced scale. Designers

often use them to represent a proposed building or a space within a

building. The critical concern with

models, as with other types of simulations, is the extent to which reaction to the model correlates with reaction to the actual environment. Scale models

have been used in M/E research, as

the following studies show.

In a study performed by the John

Pierce Foundation, M. Blum

(psychologist) and B. Candee (social

psychologist) used scale model fur- niture to determine user requirements

in the home. Furniture was cut from

blocks of wood and arranged in a box

divided into small compartments.

Scale Model of High-Rise Buildings (EPA Documerica)

60
These items, together with pieces of

white cardboard of various sizes to represent floor spaces, were

presented to housewives, who were

asked to arrange a bedroom exactly as they would like to have it, without

considering expense. The subjects were then given the chance to add

any furniture (and to identify it), and

finally to indicate which furniture

items would be excluded if they had to make a choice.

J. Lau (architect) studied full-size

rooms representing single studybedrooms and furnished them accordingly. Two rooms were then constructed at 1 /6 the scale of these

bedrooms. Subjects judged each of

the rooms on the basis of "gloom"

and "pleasantness," while varying the

mounting position of lights, the type of

light fitting and the luminous flux,

each at two levels. Lau had this to say

about the validity of scale model

studies:

. . . it may be hypothesized that miniaturization does have an enhancement effect but it is not manifested

when relatively simple assessments are

called for. In such instances, observers

appear to be able to "funnel" their

critical ability to the task at hand. When

the assessment required is of the "affective response" type and the observers'

attentions are not directed to any

specific point, then the validity of the use

of scale models is questionable.^

" J. Lau, "Use of Scale Models as a Stimulus Mode," in EDRA 2. Proceedings

oftlie 2nd Annual Environmental Design

Research Association Conference, ed. J. Archea and C. Eastman (Pittsburgh,

1970).

Photographs

Perhaps the most widely used simulation method relies on photographic

procedures—slides, photographs and

motion pictures. Studies using these

procedures (and others) will be discussed in the latter parts of this work.

For now, we will focus our attention on

another question, the one raised by

Lau, the validity of simulation

methods. How well reaction to the real

environment can be predicted by

simulation is a question of quite re- cent vintage.

R. Abelson defines simulation as the

exercise of a flexible imitation of proces- ses and outcomes for the purposes of

clarifying or explaining the underlying

mechanisms involved. Imitation perse

is not the important feature of simulations, but rather that successful imitations may partially reveal the essence of

the object being simulated.^

Slides were used to determine

response to the same environment

with some of the major features

altered by G. Winkel (psychologist),

R. Maiek, and P. Thiel (architects).

Eighty observers—40 males and 40

females—were presented with black

and white slides of roadside development along an urban highway. The

slides were modified, through

retouching, to eliminate certain undesirable elements such as

billboards, utility poles, and other

signs. After each set of slides was

^ R. P. Abelson, "Simulation of Social

Behavior," in The Handbook of Social

Psychology, ed. G. Lindzey and E. Aronson (Reading, Mass., 1968), 2, 2.

Example off Modified Slides

CWinKeletal.)

Figurel-Nio modificationt)

figure Z- Deleted overhead wire6,pole6,^6iQn6

61
shown the observer was asked to rate the route on a semantic differential

scale.

R. Seaton and J. Collins (architects)

used several simulation techniques in a study of the facades of four

buildings. Judgments were made on

the basis of full-scale model, color

photograph and black and white

photograph presentations. Ratings were made on five different 7-point

scales and space was allowed for the

subject to write in his own descriptions. In general, the findings were

similar for all simulation techniques.

All buildings scored relatively high on

tidiness and low on excitingness,

irrespective of the simulations used. On

the other hand, the relative pleasingness

of the building clearly improved in its black and white rendehng, and the

same kind of observation can be made

about other buildings' rankings on other

dimensions in other renderings.''°

Games

Games are a simulation method that

is attracting the attention of M/E

researchers. They are especially ef- fective in promoting the interest of

those who serve as experimental subjects because games are more enjoyable than most other methods

used to collect information, such as completing a questionnaire.

F. Chapin (urban planner) devised a

trade stamp game to be included in

'° R. Seaton and J. B. Collins, "Validity

and Reliability of Ratings of Simulated

Buildings," In Environmental Design:

Research and Practice, Proceedings of the EDRA 3/AR 8 Conference, ed. W. J. Mitchell (Los Angeles, 1972).

surveys concerned with respondents'

activities. The respondent is given a

limited number of stamps to paste

onto a game sheet. The game sheet

indicates the choices available to the

respondent for spending his leisure

time. The game has an element of

forced choice in that the player must

accept the following preconditions:

(1) he must use only a specified

number of daylight and evening hours

and (2) the rules specify the amount of

time that may be spent for each activity.

The player first budgets leisure time

for his present income and family

situation; he is asked then to state how he would spend his leisure time

under an assumed shorter workweek.

Results can indicate the need for

facilities both at the time of the survey

and in the future.

Games are especially effective when

complex problems with several competing points of view must be taken

into account by the architect. This

type of situation is exemplified by the

following study. S. Cohn (urban planner) developed a game to analyze the

process of adopting and applying

architectural control devices (used to regulate the external appearance of

communities and the urban environment). The process of establishing architectural controls in- volves five different groups—building

applicants, review bodies, a

legislative body, the general public,

and a judiciary. These groups interact

to evaluate proposed building projects.

Cohn chose his players from each of

the groups listed above. Props in- cluded a mock architectural control

ordinance (which varied from game to game) in the areas of community

goals and values, standards of acceptance and judgment, decision making

criteria, and quality of the application

presented. A proposed building was

simulated by means of architectural

drawings, the quality of which varied

greatly from game to game, and applicant information sheets. Designs

ranged from very unattractive to award winning projects. Each project

was placed on a site in a specific

neighborhood by means of maps

showing existing buildings and

streets, photographs and written

descriptions. Public interest was

simulated through mock editorials,

letters to the editor and other "open"

information. The five groups then

handled each application as indicated

by a community's proposed architectural control ordinance.

Cohn anticipated that the variations

provided would stimulate conflict and

provide the researchers with an un- derstanding of the most effective form

of administration to employ.

Activities are observed in environments that are either natural or simulated. They are sometimes

recorded permanently by television or film cameras; in other instances

they are observed "live" and written

records are maintained by

researchers. The method used to make observations depends on the

response being examined, which in turn is largely a function of the extent

to which we know what to observe.

For example, in thermal comfort

research, physiological measures

(e.g., sweat rate, skin temperature)

are frequently taken as response

measures, since they have been

shown to correlate with environmental

factors defining the thermal environment. On the other hand, for many

years researchers have been trying

(with limited success) to find an adequate measure of "work productivity"

to evaluate environmental conditions.

Other Data Collection

Methods

A researcher must often work closely

with experimental subjects to obtain

observations and measurements.

One of the most widely used methods

is the interview. This consists of a

give-and-take between participants,

which may vary considerably in terms

of the degree of flexibility permitted.

At times the researcher must closely

follow a predetermined method and

sequence of asking questions, while on other occasions, considerable

freedom is possible in following up

responses to particular questions as new information develops. Similarly,

laboratory studies are sometimes

designed so that the particular

stimulus presented (e.g., light) depends on the response to a preceding

one. For example, if we wanted to obtain an absolute threshold measure of a given light source (when the person

reports seeing the light 50% of the

time), we could employ an up-anddown procedure. This involves making the light brighter when the subject

62
reports that it cannot be seen, and

dimmer when the response is that it can be seen. Some research approaches make ex- perimental subjects responsible for

providing data, with little or no in- terference from a researcher. Many

questionnaires are largely self- administered, diaries of activities are kept by household members, subjects are asked to respond to checklists and other verbal (or equivalent)

evaluative procedures. Several of the

methods in common usage will now

be discussed.

Semantic differential procedures, adjective checklists, diaries, mapping

and other paper and pencil tests are among the other methods employed

in M/E research.

One way to measure objective

responses is to ask people to rate en- vironments using adjectives which

describe feelings. This appears to be

a very direct procedure, and the

semantic differential and adjective

checklist approaches have been

employed with increasing frequency

by M/E researchers in recent years.

In fact, R. Bechtel (psychologist) cites

the semantic differential as the most

widely used instrument in the study of

subjective responses to architectural

stimuli.

Semantic Differential

The semantic differential measures

the reaction of people to stimulus

words and concepts in terms of

ratings on scales defined with contrasting adjectives at each end.

This approach has the advantage of

being very versatile. It has been used

under a variety of conditions of in- terest to environmental researchers

(outdoor scenes, rooms, lighting ef- fectiveness, auditory environment,

etc.). Bipolar adjective scales provide

a simple, economical means for obtaining data on the reactions of people to their surroundings. The scales are flexible enough to be used by

adults, children, and people from dif- fering backgrounds and cultures

provided that the words are familiar.

The semantic differential is used

mainly to obtain affective (emotionally

related) responses to complex situations, i.e., where many variables

operate. Measurements of three

dimensions are referred to as the

profile of a concept (evaluative: goodbad; potency: powerful-powerless;

activity: fast-slow).

The semantic differential was used by

R. Howard (psychologist) et al. who

compared subjects' ratings of actual

buildings with their ratings of color

slides and of black and white slides.

Using a 28-item semantic differential,

subjects rated four buildings and six

rooms within those buildings. To

provide experiences comparable to the real environment, three to five

slides were shown representing an expanse of about 1 50 degrees of

visual angle. The rating was always

made from the slide comparable to the major view seen by subjects in the

real condition. The authors concluded

that it is best to use real environments

whenever possible. Slides produced

less extreme and more negative

responses than did the real environments. They also found little dif- ference between the results obtained

using black and white and color

slides. Finally, they determined that

the characteristics of the slides were

important. The responses were more

like those for the real environment

when they were bright and sunny.

The semantic differential approach

has its inherent limitations. The end

product of such research seldom

provides information in a form which can be readily applied to a design

situation. Adjective data must still be

interpreted for the architect to use in design. This approach has been

seized upon as a fad by many

researchers and employed in studies

which are at best of academic interest. If used properly, the semantic

differential can provide insight into

how complex environments might be

studied to identify major variables.

Hypotheses may then be generated

and tested using measurement

methods linked to design attributes.

Semantic Differential Analysis

Evaluation Dimension

beautiful ugly

pleasant unpleasant

harmonius dissonant

meaningful meaningless

cheerful sad

refined vulgar

Potency Dimension

rugged delicate

hard soft

tenacious yielding

strong weak

tough tender

masculine feminine

Activity Dimension

energetic inert

tense relaxed

dynamic static

interesting boring

warm cold

fast slow

63
Adjective Checklist

The adjective checklist consists of a

list of descriptive words which the

respondent can check off as being

either appropriate or inappropriate to the environment being considered.

The adjectives are often listed with

scaled space between each

dichotomy in the same manner as the

semantic differential. The adjective

checklist has many of the same uses and limitations as the semantic dif- ferential. A more detailed examination of activities is possible using a

diary.

Diary

Using a diary technique each respondent is given a form on which to record designated activities. Records

may be kept in one of two ways: (1)

when a change in a designated activity occurs and/or (2) when breakpoints in the day occur such as coffee

or meal breaks and prior to going to bed at night. An increasingly popular

variation of the diary technique is the

time budget study which involves the

collection of information not only

about activities undertaken but also

detailed information about the time

allocated for these activities. (Chap. 3

contains a discussion of the time

budget study along with an example.)

M. Blum (psychologist) provides an example of the diary technique. He

gave families logs on which to record

activities performed in a 24-hour

period. Every member of the family

was asked to keep a step-by-step

record of all dressing and undressing

activities and also the location in the

house where these activities occurred. The results were extremely

difficult to analyze and therefore were

not used.

When diaries are used, special attention should be paid to their design.

Differences between weekdays and

weekends should be considered

when examining activities. Another

problem involves "placement" of the

diary. For example, who is responsible for maintaining the diary within a

family or other group. As far as completion is concerned, the researcher

must be aware of the fact that the

respondent may modify his behavior

during the time he is keeping the

diary. Also, since diaries often extend

over long periods, some action usually must be taken to sustain the

respondent's motivation. Finally, the

illustrative material contained in diaries is often difficult to tabulate and

process and the data provided by the

diary may be hard to integrate with

other research results. As with other

forms of questionnaires, careful pilot

work will help to locate many of these

problems before the actual data

collection begins.

The advantages of using a diary to collect data include the accuracy and

reliability obtained due to the short

time span between the activity and

recording it. It is also possibly the only

way to obtain accurate time-use data

for periods of more than 1 day.

Unobtrusive iVIeasures

E. Webb (psychologist) et al. make

the point that complex social research

requires multiple study procedures.

They note that since any one method

is at best an approximation of the

truth, problems should be attacked

simultaneously in several different

ways. Each single set of data can

thereby serve as a means of

evaluating the others. The authors

describe approaches ranging from an

examination of public records to the use of sophisticated apparatus to develop information. Their intent is not to endorse one or more of them,

but rather to indicate their potential

usefulness, when used appropriately

with other measures.

Example of Wear— Carpet (NBS)

As an illustration of one source of in- formation, they suggest examining

noseprints on the glass of exhibits.

The popularity of the exhibit could be

measured by dusting the glass for

noseprints at fixed intervals. An es- timate of the age of viewers could be

obtained by determining the height of

the noseprint. Such estimates require

verification by other more direct

procedures, such as observation.

Another indirect means of determining usage is to examine the wear rate

of materials. Many people have

observed the fact that stairways, even

those of stone, display signs of wear

after many years of use. This is especially evident in historical struc- tures which have been visited for

centuries, e.g., the Parthenon.

Example of Wear-Stone Steps (NBS)

64
Maintenance schedules contain

information concerning usage.

Webb et al. noted that vinyl tiles in front of a display of live, hatching

chicks at the Chicago Museum of

Science and Industry had to be

replaced every 6 weeks while other

tiles at the same museum lasted for

years. That this was not a good in- dicator of the number of people who

visited the display is suggested by the

further observation that visitors

stayed longer at the "chick" exhibit

than at others.

Tile replacement schedules are likely to be recorded by those responsible

for operating and maintaining public

buildings. These and similar records

are a potentially valuable source of

information to solve M/E problems.

For example, an examination of user complaints might offer valuable in- sights concerning the satisfaction of

building users, although the potential

presence of chronic complainers

should be taken into account.

Records of accidents occurring in and

around buildings can be valuable in- dicators of design deficiencies. Unfortunately, records contain very little information concerning the cause of

accidents. The problem is documented in a report by B. Bloomfield and D. Hay. It has been found that, first, accident data is focused largely on the ef- fects (cost and degree of impairment)

(economic or legal/medical) rather than on the cause. The variables may be

quite unrelated. The state-of-the-art of

estimating injuries from consumer

products or in the performance of

specific tasks leaves much to be

desired.''''

Accident records have been compiled

by the Consumer Product Safety

Commission (CPSC) which has broad

regulatory authority over products

and hazardous substances. As a means of developing and organizing

accident information, CPSC uses a complete system which is remotely

linked to emergency rooms of 119

hospitals throughout the country. A

Consumer Product Hazard Index has

been produced by the system

(National Electronic Surveillance

System—NEISS; pronounced "Nice").

The index ranks many products in terms of the frequency and severity of

accidents associated with them.

Building features and materials are prominently mentioned among the

364 product categories listed.

B. C. Bloomfield and D. C. Hay, The

Auditory Environment In the Home

(Milwaukee, 1971).

Consumer Product

Hazard Index

(Consumer Product

Safety Commission)

Rank Structural Feature

2 Stairs, ramps, landing

3 Doors, other than glass

10 Architectural glass

14 Bathtub and shower struc- tures 16 Swimming pools and in- ground equipment

26 Floors and flooring materials

33 Non-electric outdoor fences

40 Porches, balconies, floor openings and open-sided rooms

48 Outdoor structures, including

patios, terraces, and retaining walls

Robberies and

Building Height

(NJewman)

^}phene6 per ipoo fhpulation

5 70 15 2JD B'Uildirig Height (floortO

In his book Defensible Space, O.

Newman (architect) examined

records to explore the relationships

between physical design and security in residential environments.

He used recorded data on crime, vandalism, and maintenance costs and

interviewed inhabitants, project

managers, and police. From these

data he determined those

characteristics which he felt contributed to criminal behavior.

Newman suggests the use of defensible space to combat these problems.

He listed four architectural features

which he feels contribute to secure

residential environments:

• The residential environment

should be divided so that residents

adjacent to certain areas will adopt

proprietary attitudes towards those

areas.

• Residents should be able to sur- vey both interior and exterior public areas from apartment windows.

• The building form should not be

such that it portrays to outsiders a

feeling of peculiarity and isolation.

• The development should be

located in an urban area that contains

similar types of construction as opposed to an area that contains activities which might provide a threat

to residents.

65
Characteristics of

"High Crime" Architecture

(Newman)

Size: Large Project; 1000 families or More

High Rise: More Than 7 Stories

Separation: Superblock, Closed to City Traffic

Style: Slab or Cruciform Towers

Lobby Design: Mailbox Area with 2 to 4 Elevators

Corridor Design: Long Double Loaded

Corridor

Stairways: 2-4 Sets of Stairways,

Running Full Length of Building With

Separate Exits

Grounds: No Relationship to Particular Building

Newman concludes with a more

detailed elaboration of these features.

He indicates that a complex should be

designed so that as few units as possible share a common street entry.

Windows and entries should provide

residents with a view of the project

grounds and the street. Surveillance

is then assumed by the residents in the natural flow of their everyday activities. This is what Newman has

labelled defensible space design.

Many of Newman's concepts remain

at the theoretical level. As more

research is conducted, the validity of

the concepts will be determined.

Conclusion

Of the shortcomings evident in M/E

studies, the most common one is the

seeming absence of thorough

preparation before conducting a

study. This shows up particularly during the analytic phase of research,

which often is wrongly treated as though it were independent of the

data collection activity. Observations

frequently are made with limited at- tention devoted to later requirements

for analysis, interpretation, and application. For example, the most common M/E study is a questionnaire survey. Yet, survey data too frequently

take the form of evaluating

characteristics such as lighting and

acoustics without specifying these

features in physical terms, e.g., actual

levels of light and noise. As a conse- quence, the results of these investigations cannot readily be translated into

design decisions.

Sophisticated equipment such as video and film cameras to collect data

and computers to process data fre- quently have a detrimental research

effect. They enable researchers to collect tremendous amounts of information hoping that the relevant data

have been thereby captured.

Somehow, the only remaining task is to make some sense out of the data.

The point that is frequently not stated

(or overlooked) is that regardless of

how data are collected they must later be analyzed and interpreted.

The technique of making extensive

records of complex situations places a considerable burden on the

researcher when the data are to be

analyzed. For example, when

hundreds of hours of videotaped data

are collected, the analysis of these

data will likely occupy several times

that duration, if only because the

researcher must learn what to look

for. The ready access to enormous

amounts of data can therefore be a mixed blessing to a researcher

because it can mislead the researcher

into thinking that data collection per se can be used as a substitute for

thought.

After making the necessary observations, the researcher must determine

how to analyze them—the computer

will not do this for him. This analytic

phase of research often proves far

more costly than the actual collection

of data, especially when a computer is involved. Researchers unfamiliar with

computers often underestimate the

cost and time required.

A more pragmatic research approach

is to spend more time and effort in planning which data to collect, before

embarking on full-scale data

collection.

Community Separated from Surrounding Area (HUD)

66
Collection and Analysis of M/E Data

(After Michelson)

Types of Data Collected Sources and Nature of the Information Input Media

Activity data Coordinates for places actually used by single users and

information of the frequency, intensity, length of use, etc. The data may be obtained from surveys or from direct

observations.

Punch cards

User data Information about the user (age, occupation, number of

children, income, etc.). Coordinates referring to the dwelling of the user. The data are usually obtained from surveys.

Punch cards

Demographic data Social and demographic compositions of geographical

areas. In Sweden, such data can be obtained from official archives.

Magnetic tape

Object data Physical elements represented by coordinates and numerical codes for their attributes. Data sources are aerial

photos, maps, and blueprints; also data from registers and

inventories.

Punch cards

Road-selection data Information of how road nodes are linked to each other.

Traffic regulations on different road links. Data sources are

aerial photos or maps and inventories.

Punch cards

6

Scales of Observation

The City—Macro Scale

Intermediate Scale—The Community, Neighborhood

Access to Community Services

Neighborhood Perception

Typical Scale—Buildings

Close Scale—Within the Home and at Work

Conclusion

The range and amount of potentially

relevant M/E information useful to the

architect is enormous. If we are to avoid being overwhelmed by the

abundance and diversity of potentially

useful data, we must devise a way to appropriately arrange this information. One way of organizing the diversity of material dealt with by an

architect is in terms of the scale of

observation. At times the breadth of

view is extensive, looking outside of

the building to the neighborhood and

beyond. For work at this scale, the

designer could examine the community where a building is to be

situated and the relationships of the

immediate neighborhood to nearby

centers of activity such as schools,

hospitals, shopping facilities, parks,

and playgrounds. Another factor is the access of public transportation to nearby metropolitan areas. A different perspective is from the in- terior of the building, determining the

general relationships of rooms to one

another, and the size and

characteristics of common spaces

such as corridors and building

entrances. Emergency exit routes and

spatial needs to accommodate furnishings and activities are typical of

the problems examined at this in- termediate scale.

Finally, many areas require a still closer look for reasons of safety, importance to the occupant, or the fre- quency of use. The activities performed in kitchens, workshop areas and bathrooms are typical of areas which merit such close scrutiny.

Consider a more specific example—

the auditory environment of a

residential multi-family building. Our

initial interest might be the identification of site-related noise sources. Pertinent information might include data

concerning nearby (and planned) airfields, roadways, and industrial

plants. These data would consist of

population density, movement patterns of ground and air traffic, as well as daytime and nighttime operations

of all vehicles, of industrial plants and

other facilities.

The environment being created by the

building itself could then be

scrutinized to determine whether substantial noises experienced in dwellings are due to the preliminary

building plan. For example, if a courtyard is to serve as a recreational area, the designer may want to examine the

types of activities that are to be ac- commodated, since many of them are

likely to be noisy. Musical events

could disturb some, and entertain

others. Outdoor swimming pools en- courage social and recreational activities that can be enjoyable or disruptive, depending on the viewpoint

of the observer.

The next concern could be the

residence of a single family. From a

noise standpoint, there would be two

major concerns for the family unitfreedom from noises outside the

dwelling, and privacy within.

69
M/E Disciplines and Observations—Macro and Micro

Scale Discipline

What Observations

Made

Typical Methods of

Observation

How Results

Organized

Expressed Purpose of Studies

Molar Geography

Urban Planning

Sociology

Industrial Design

Human Factors

Engineering

Anthropometry

Psychology

Natural, manmade

environmental features

Travelling over terrain,

photographing at a distance

Map development Description of environment for designers

Existing geographic and

manmade features,

human activities

Natural observation Mapping of features,

human activities—current

and planned

Design of communities,

consistent v\/ith natural

environment and needs

of population

Groups of people, behavior settings

"Naked eye," questionnaires, motion pictures,

photos

Tabulation of data, break- Describe characteristics

dow/ns by groups of popu- of population

lation

Correlating characteristics of people and

group behaviors with built and natural environment

Operations of machines "Naked eye," complex

instrumentation

Design drawings, product

design

Improve performance of

products from standpoint

of users

Man/machine interactions

"Naked eye," photographs, movies, TV,

complex instrumentation

Tabulations of data

design drawings,

sequences of behavior

Optimize human component of man/machine

systems related to building design

Dimensions of people Physical dimensions,

measurements

Tabulations of data

drawings of human

dimensions

Provide information to designers concerning

sizes of people

Individual performance

visual, auditory, etc.

Judgments by subjects

of differences, equalities

(psychophysics), complex instrumentation,

questionnaires, "naked

eye"

Tables and graphs of

human capabilities to see, hear—environmental

stimuli

Determine psychological

and sensory needs of

individuals and relate

them to design implications

Micro Physiology Neural impulses,

sensory receptors

Microscope, complex

instrumentation

Tables of data, structural

drawings of eye, ear

Understand biological

capabilities and limitations of humans and relate to design

70
Finally, we can focus on the family unit

and the activities performed within the

home. We could explore the in- dividual needs of the members of the

family for privacy and the pursuit of

individual interests; and each activity

might be affected by conflicting noiseproducing activities such as watching

television and listening to music. We

would want to ensure that conversation could be conducted at normal

speech levels. Another desirable goal

would be to find out how to avoid

sleep interruption by activities within

and outside the residence.

A parallel can be drawn between the

various perspectives of the designer

and the subject areas investigated in several disciplines. Just as the

designer employs several points of

view, each appropriate to the ex- amination of a particular aspect of the

environment, disciplines can often be

described on the basis of the scales of

observation typically used. For example, geographers and urban planners

(concerned with communities, cities

and regions) operate with large

(macro) scales of data. On the other

hand, physiologists and psychophysicists who examine sensory and

neural responses of people, work with

data at the fine (micro) detail level.

Of particular Interest to our present

discussion is the number and variety

of existing disciplines which have addressed problems linl<ed to M/E

studies. These disciplines have

methodologies and measurements

with the potential of being used (or

modified) for M/E studies. They will be

discussed in more detail in later chapters.

The City—Macro Scale

A major concern of urban planners is that their efforts be translatable at the

human scale—that the broad vision of

the architect be understandable by

the users of buildings. Mapping

techniques have been developed to obtain insights concerning how

natural and man-made environments

are perceived.

K. Lynch (urban planner) was in- terested in the geographical and

spatial orientation of individuals in a

city and studied this by means of

mental images depicted by citizens.

His early interest was on city legibility,

which he defined as the ease with

which its parts can be recognized and

organized into a coherent pattern.^ He

notes that although environmental images result from interactions between

the user and the environment, he has

restricted his initial concern to public

images which ignore differences

among observers. The environmental

image has three components: identity

(an individuality all its own), structure

(a relationship of the object to the

observer and to other objects) and

meaning (some practical and/or

emotional consequences for the

observer).

K. Lynch, The Image of the City

(Cambridge, Mass., 1960).

Lynch sought to identify physical

qualities which relate to the identity

and structure of the mental images.

He used the term imageability in defining that quality in an object which can be related to the evocation of a strong

image in any given observer (shape,

color or arrangement). In analyzing

several cities he used a two-step

procedure. A field reconnaissance of

the area was made by a trained

observer, who made detailed maps

and evaluated environmental features

using methods prescribed by the in- vestigators. Lengthy interviews were

then conducted using a sample of city

residents. They were asked to describe their environment, identify

locations and make sketches. The

procedure included the planning of

imaginary trips using all available in- formation.

Subjects were asked to:

• Provide a set of complete directions between home and place of

work.

• Make a sketch of the city and local areas within.

• Describe emotional feelings as- sociated with certain landmarks or areas.

• Indicate the most distinctive elements in the city.

As a follow-up to the interview,

photographs of their own and other

cities were presented to several subjects. They categorized photographs

in any way that appeared meaningful

and were then asked to identify them,

indicating the cues used for identification. Finally, the subjects were asked

to place the photographs in a map of

the city in appropriate locations.

Macro Scale (HUD)

71
F. Ladd (urban planner) employed a

similar technique in studying the way

that black youths view their environment. She had subjects verbally

describe their environment and then

asked them to draw a map. The maps

were analyzed and placed into one of

the following four categories based

upon content, format and degree of

sophistication:

• Pictorial representations of

houses, buildings, and other street elements with little context provided.

• A schematic representation of

several independent places; no clear

interconnections between sub-areas

within the map.

• Many features of a map without

identifiable landmarks.

• Resembling a map, containing

identifiable landmarks.

A game which simulates some of the

conflicts and frustrations experienced

in city planning was devised by

D. Godschalk. A low income housing

project was to be developed near two

middle income subdivisions. The

game consisted of the interaction of

representatives of the low and middle

income groups, with the city planner

present as technical expert and social

arbiter. The group's goal was to arrive

at a recommendation for the City

Council.

Direction Finding - Different

72

The game equipment consisted of a three-dimensional scale model of the

project site and surrounding area showing roads, buildings, and

topographic contours at a horizontal

scale of 1 in. -100 ft. (2.5 cm-30 m) and

a contour interval of 10 ft. (3 m). A

zoning ordinance and map and a set

of drawings showing the project site plan, building plans, and elevations were also provided to subjects.

Representatives from the low income

group made up one team; the middle

income group formed the other team.

The two teams were asked to discuss

their differences about the project;

they were also asked to agree upon a recommendation for the City Council as to whether or not it should be built,

and if so, whether or not any changes

should be made in the plan or conditions attached to its approval. No

other explicit directions were

provided. The planner (experimenter)

used a prepared list of technical

rebuttals to the most common objections to the project (land use arrangement; traffic congestion; property

value decline; school overcrowding;

separation of low income residents

from their friends and community

facilities). The game was thought to be an effective means of involving users in the planning process.
While a city or neigliborhood is usually thought of in visual terms, we also

experience our surroundings by

means of the sounds heard. The next

study to be examined dealt with both

visual and auditory perceptions of a

city. We will limit our discussion to the

noise environment.

M. Southworth (urban planner) un- dertook a study which explored

perception of Boston's "soundscape."

The study explored two questions: (1

)

What is the perceived variety and

character of city sounds? (2) How do

sounds influence perception of the

visible city? Southworth hoped to

identify areas which should receive

further attention from researchers

and urban planners.

To investigate changes in the soundscape over time and under varied

weather, the researchers took five

subjects on wheelchair trips through

various parts of the city. The subjects were blindfolded and the trips took

place at different times on different

days of the week. From this phase of

the study the researchers were able to determine (1) the uniqueness of certain sounds in the urban environment

and (2) how well a sound conveyed

the spatial form and activity of a particular location.

In the second phase of the study,

Southworth studied the interactions

between the auditory and visual en- vironments. Three groups of subjects

made the trip through the city on a

ihmporal Change in 5ound5 (6outh\A/orth)

Sunday liiiii ll

Tuesday lilli ll llll II ill

beacon

Hill

Oov't.

Center

Water-

-front

do^n

Common

III infbrmahMe 5ouncit> background ^oundt

Saturday. The groups were (1)

auc//fory sub/ecfs—could hear but not see (2) wsua/sub/ecfs—could see but

not hear and (3) visual auditory

subjects—had normal vision and

hearing. A 2 3/4 mile (4.4 km) trip

was mapped out which included set- tings with a variety of sonic

characteristics, visual activity, and

spatial form. The subjects were given

tape recorders so they could record

impressions. At the conclusion of the

trip the participants were asked to draw a map indicating the sequence

of places visited and to describe the

most and least liked settings.

Vcir/et^and frequency ofMentione of5ounci

An analysis of the interactions

between the visual and auditory en- vironments indicated that without

sound visual perception has less

attention-demanding qualities and

conveys less information. Southworth

suggests two steps toward improving

the city soundscape. The first would

be to reduce and control noise and

the second would be to increase the

amount of information provided by

city sounds.

mentions

40 50 100 750 2D0

traffic^

people

edhoes

^

horn5

machinee ^

Wind

6iren5

dogs

mentionaby vieual auditory 5ubjectf>

mentidn6 by auditory 5ubject5

73
Intermediate Scale—The

Community, Neighborhood

While a region or city provides a bacl<drop for many things that we do,

most activities are performed closer

to our homes—in communities and

neighborhoods. It is therefore not surprising that many M/E researchers

have studied how people relate to

their nearby surroundings.

One area studied is the access to community services by residents.

Access to Community

Services

One approach has been to discover

how people judge apparent distances

in an urban setting. R. Lowrey

(geographer) first found out how

familiar people were with a set of

facilities in a community (shopping

centers, bus stops, libraries,

hospitals, etc.). He then obtained es- timates of distance from subjects and

finally compared these subjective distances against actual distance measures. He used two techniques in obtaining measures of subjective distance. The subject was asked to rate the convenience of the facility (from

his home) on a 5-point scale ranging

from very convenient to very in- convenient. A paired comparison test was administered for distances to all

facilities, based on a scaling of length

of line.

Game Board

(\A/il6on)

POLICE

police within

3 minufes

3 $100

sheriff on call

within 30 min.

4 -Free

ELECTRlCITVl-N

wires

underground

7 $450

wires on

poles

6 $350

^

STREET5 j—

paved

17

gravel

dirf

19

$400

$300

$50

TT^EES

shade

frees

7S $150

along

streef-

$100

Sample of items used to estimate \xx\poK\Qf\c^ of ufi'littes and services.

R. Wilson (sociologist) included two

games in his survey of user requirements dealing with services and

utilities by residents of the Durham

and Greensboro, North Carolina

areas. In each game, players were

told that they had won a house on a

television program and that they liked

the house and it served their needs

well. The house had not yet been built.

Pained ComparisonTest for Distance Bstimarion

(Lowrey)

1.

If this 15 how far it is from

your home to a hospital'-

MarK with a straight line

and appropriate letters

how far it would beto a • SL School

6A ParKing Garage

PK ParK

PO Post Office

home

hospital

however, and the sponsor wished to obtain information about preferences

for utilities and services before choosing an appropriate neighborhood. In the first game the player was

presented with 34 items, each of

which had a dollar value attached.

Markers were used to represent an amount of money (markers totalling

$2,000 were given to players in Greensboro and $1 ,800 in Durham)

with which the player purchased

those items he wished to have. A

purchase was made by placing a marker of the appropriate value in the

correct space on the game board.

74
The second game dealt with

preferences for neighborhood density

and travel distances and times to certain neighborhood and community

facilities. Each player was given a

specified number of markers (36-40).

The markers had no monetary value

but served simply to limit the number

of choices available. The player first had to choose one of the density

categories at the top of the board thus

using from 6 to 30 of his markers. He

then used his remaining markers to indicate the number of facilities desired and at what distance.

Facilities further from his home re- quired fewer markers. Thus, he would

have a few facilities quite close or a

large number of facilities some distance away.

Another game by R. Worrall et al. is based on the theory that an individual

evaluates neighborhood facilities around his home—shops, parks, fire stations, transit-stops, etc.— in terms

of two competing objectives. The in- dividual wants such services convenient and close at hand. At the

same time, he may wish to avoid the

noise or traffic delays which accompany the activities performed in the

facilities.

The authors of the study indicate that:

The result, in terms of his locational

preference, is a tradeoff between a

desire for easy accessibility and a complementary desire for insulation. ^

R. Worrall, G. Peterson and M. J, Redding, "Toward a Theory of Accessibility

Acceptance," in EDRA I: Proceedings of

tlie 1st Annual Environmental Design

Research Association Conference, ed. H. Sanoff and S. Cohn (Raleigh, 1970).

Examples of the

Results of Locational

Preference Game

(Worrall e-t ai.)

Shcppinc^

15 30 45 60

minutes travel time

C\o6e fricndt

15 \ 30 45 60

iT))nL/te6 travel bnie

75 30 45 60

minutes tra^^l time

This tradeoff was measured by having

240 families indicate desired locations for eight neighborhood services

with respect to their homes. Each

respondent was asked how far in terms of travel time (assuming use of

the most convenient travel mode) he

would like each service from his

home. Respondents were then asked

whether successive increases in the

distance of each service from their

homes were sufficient to cause their

home environment to become unacceptable. The minimum and max- imum travel times were recorded.

Neighborhood Services

(Worrall, et al.)

Number/Service

1. local shopping centers

2. church or place of worship

3. children's park

4. fire station

5. emergency hospital

6. entrance ramp to metropolitan

freeway system

7. stop or station on metropolitan

transit system

8. close friends' homes

Neighborhood Perception

While Lynch and others have studied

the city and other large-scale environments by asking experimental subjects to draw maps, similar approaches have been used to determine how people perceive their

neighborhoods.

Photographs may also be used to determine the perception of residential neighborhoods. G. Peterson (civil engineer) asked 140 subjects to rate 23 photographs on a scale for each of

1 0 variables. The photographs

represented a variety of residential

neighborhoods and included both

spatial and other variations. The

photographs were projected in a darkened room on a 50 in. by 50 in. (127 cm by 127 cm) screen. Research

subjects were asked to rate each

photograph in terms of such factors

as: preference, greenery, age, open

space, safety, and privacy. The

findings were interpreted by Peterson

to mean that the "general physical

quality" of the neighborhood was of

greatest importance.

Typical Scale—Buildings

Many M/E studies deal with building

features. An often cited study is the

work of W. Ittleson, L. Rivlin, and H. Proshansky (psychologists) describing behaviors in a psychiatric ward. A

mapping technique was employed to collect information, but the maps

were constructed by the researchers,

based on systematic observation of

behavior. In this study the

researchers made observations on

three different hospital psychiatric

wards. The first stage of the study

consisted of observations of behavior,

which were then grouped into a set of

categories. The second stage in- volved counting the number of times

that each categorized behavior appeared during an observation period.

75
In the Ittelson study, trained

observers recorded the behavior of

male and female patients, staff and

visitors. Observations w^ere made

every 15 minutes and were scheduled

to last no more than 3 to 4 minutes.

Recordings were made at predetermined physical locations and involved

the number, description and location

of participants engaging in the

specified categories of behavior.

A. Esser (psychiatrist) et al. also

developed a method for mapping the

behavior of patients in a hospital psychiatric ward. Observations were made from a booth with one-way

glass centrally located on the ward.

The floor of the ward was divided into

3 ft. by 3 ft. (0.9 m by 0.9 m) grids.

Observers in the booth had plans cor- responding to the actual grid system.

Every 1/2 hour a recording was made

of each individual's location and the

direction in which he was facing. In addition, the following information

was coded on the map: postural position, activity or work in which

engaged, whether or not interaction

was taking place, and if so, with

whom. Patients were observed continuously for entire days and their

behavior was recorded. Only half the

patients were observed to use the

space available to them; the others

occupied very specific territories. The

authors felt that these results were

useful in the design of hospital wards

and in the study of various theories of

personal space.

Close Scale—Within the

Home and at Work

Since people spend most of their time

at work or at home, many M/E

researchers feel that the development

of a better understanding of these en- vironments is their first task.

While for the most part, the collection

of information is the responsibility of

researchers, several M/E techniques

ask those being studied to help

collect information. There are advantages and disadvantages to this approach. A major advantage is to in- crease the subjects' interest and

motivation. A problem is the need for

the participant to collect information

at appropriate intervals and the

willingness to make the effort to follow

instructions and reduce errors.

Photography has been a favored

means of collecting all types of M/E

information. C. Perin (anthropologist,

urban planner) used this approach to provide information for a questionnaire. She gave cameras to four

families and asked them to take pictures of activities within their homes.

In the first steps of the study, the

families were instructed as follows:

The only "direction" to follow in taking

the first 50 pictures is that they should

be of ways in which you live in your

house. That means the bed will be un- made sometimes, dirty dishes in the

sink, children's toys spread around, the

newspapers all over the floor, people

barefoot, hair uncombed, and so on.

You are not being asked to take a picture of anything you consider to be

private, and you will have the right to remove from the study any picture you

choose.^ JY\e families were allowed to keep the instamatic cameras and were also paid for their participation.

In the second half of the study specific

photographs were requested. /A. The

first type of picture is the place where

something goes on. Please take pictures

of these places: where the family meals

are eaten; where meals with company or

extra guests are eaten; bathroom; sleeping place of each family member; place

where guests are put up; playing space

for children of each age, alone and with

others; studying place of children;

reading place of adults; telephone

place; writing place; laundry drying

places for big and small washes;

storage places; kitchen trash and gar- bage; any other places in the house you

want to include. B. The second type of

picture is of the steps you take in doing

things. The pictures should show at least three things: The beginning of the

activity (for example, getting ready to do

it by taking things out of storage), doing

it (bending over and scrubbing, or

typing), and finishing (putting things

away).*

Perin then discussed the photographs

with the families. This allowed her to view and discuss activities within the

home without actually being present

and risk disrupting activities.

^ C. Perin, "Concepts and Methods for Studying Environments in Use," in Environmental Design: Research and Practice. Proceedings of the EDRA 3/AR 8

Conference, ed. W. J. Mitchell (Los

Angeles, 1972).

Perin

Pi5tribution of "Territories on -the Ward

faffer E65er) Pate'-.

Time--

Number76
E. Grandjean (Swiss ergonomic

researcher) has specialized in ergonomic studies of the home and

has synthesized a large body of work

indicating preferred dimensions for

work and other areas. Most of the

work deals with observations made at the close scale.

One problem attacked by Grandjean

and his colleagues was to determine

the appropriate characteristics of a

drawing board. Three subjects were

photographed while working at dif- ferent sections of the drawing board.

The subjects were all males; one

short, another tall and the last of

medium height. The photographs were later analyzed to determine the

bodily attitudes assumed when performing their tasks. Of particular in- terest to the researchers were (1) the

angle between the axes of the head

and back and (2) the slope of the back

away from the vertical plane.

Prawing-Boarde and the Fb&ture^ Adopted

for their Use

^Grandjean)

Grandjean discusses his own work

and that of I. Astrand while describing

the relationship of physiological

measurements to the performance of

activities in the home. Astrand had

subjects perform several household

tasks, while measuring pulse rates as an indicator of the physiological difficulty of performing these activities.

Before the household tasks were undertaken, a standard task was performed (riding a bicycle) and measures of pulse rates, oxygen in- take, and lung ventilation rates were

taken. The pulse rates for the

household tasks could then be correlated with the other physiological measures.

Pulse Rate as a Measure of Houeelodd Activity

(in Grandjean)

Pul6c/min.

Ti'me/Activrtv pul6e^ 8© 9© 1©®

9*-oo Cieaninc^ children'^)

room

bedmakin9

Pi'^urbance

9- 30 3orf\rq laundry

filling washing

machine

Cleaning ba+h

10- 00 Vd^mg Kii-chen

Coffee break

Vacuuming hall

lot 30 Vacuuming and

tidying living room

Hanging out"

warning

77
In a sense, physiological data constitute the closest scale of observation

in M/E research. They frequently

provide information not available by

other research procedures. They offer

the added apparent advantage of being "objective," and not subject to many of the errors typically as- sociated with behavioral research.

(The objectivity of the data, however,

depends on the relevance and adequacy of the measures, which are

often difficult to establish for M/E

problems.)

Research Apparatus

Physiological Measures of Eye Movements (R. Harquail)

Conclusion

This review of the several scales of

observation needed to solve M/E

problems concludes the present part

of the study. We first stressed the

need to use the observational and

measurement methods developed in the classical science disciplines for

improving the information available to building designers. These approaches were then discussed in the

context of building user studies. Our

intent in this part of the work was to provide an overview of the subject

matter of M/E research, a suggested

approach to solving problems and a sampling of the methods available for

collecting information concerned with

building users. Next, we will explore in greater depth the variables which

should be dealt with by M/E

researchers and discuss more

research methods typically used to collect information.

Data Printout Data Printout

78

80
Part Hi

Man/Environment ResearchComponents and Characteristics

Now, having provided a general overview of research procedures, and those

used in the M/E study area in particular, we are ready for a more detailed ex- amination of M/E research. Our intention is to familiarize the reader with the

ways available to obtain better M/E information. Studies have been selected

from many sources to suggest the broad range of approaches available to the

researcher. While research findings are included in this and later parts of the

work, they are not emphasized since our intention is not to compile a source book of findings. Rather, we want to point the way toward collecting appropriate and reliable data. Another reason for not stressing research results is that a major shortcoming evident in M/E studies is the lack of adequate

documentation describing the procedures used to collect research data.

Without this information, it is virtually impossible to know whether the studies

conducted were performed with adequate scientific rigor, i.e., minimizing ex- perimental error. Consequently, those who read such reports cannot judge

whether the findings should or should not be accepted as good information.

In Chapter 7, our concern is to explore the issue of differences among in- dividuals as an important M/E consideration. The differences examined in- clude physical, personal, social and cultural factors which point to the need for

the architect to go beyond the consideration of the "average" person as the user of buildings.

Just as we recognize that people display an enormous range of differences,

many building types also exist. They frequently demand separate examination

in terms of M/E implications. While some activities are common to all buildings,

building types often support unique activities (e.g., hospitals).

Chapter 8 consists of an examination of M/E factors which cannot be readily

separated. The primary emphasis here is on activities conducted during nor- mal use situations and those which are carried out under special circumstances, such as during emergencies. Two classes of activities are considered.

First, those which require people to interact with permanent features of a

building (e.g., stairs). The other activities discussed are those where a person

interacts with objects within a building (e.g., furniture).

Chapter 9 discusses research focusing on building features such as windows

and ceilings. The investigations were performed to clarify the influence of

design features on the behavior and/or attitudes of occupants.

Classes and Types of M/E Data

Classification Types of data required

Individuals Capabilities-limitations

Similarities-differences

Likes-dislikes

Interactions Space (movements)

Man Machines, objects

(appliances,

furniture)

Environmental stimuli

(light, heat, sound)

Complex systems

(communication)

Activities Dining

(Behavior Shopping

settings) Working

Enjoying recreation

Environmental Building elements

Features (windows, railings)

Building systems

(elevators)

Spatial configurations

(rooms)

Materials (texture)

81

7

Man

Cultural, Social, and Personal Factors

Territoriality

Personal Space

Social Distance

Crowding

Physical Attributes of People—Anthropometry

Special Groups—The Aged and Handicapped

Effects of Past Experience

Conclusion

Recent attempts to develop user requirements as a basis for physical design in building reflect the desire for a more rational approach in the light of the increasing

complexity of the problems involved in design and the increasing separation

between designer and user. In seeking for hard data it is understandable that physical determinants such as anthropometrics and ergonomics, as well as comfort

needs with regard to light, heat and sound should until recently have received more

attention than topics within the more complex socio-cultural and psychological

realms. Even physical standards which might be regarded as "hard" and quantifiable data are themselves affected by cultural attitudes and social forces prevailing

at the time and place of their inception. Such standards, in common with most

human activities and institutions, are the result of a combination of constant and

variable factors. In the area which we are discussing, the constant aspects which set

certain possible ranges and limits are man's physiological and anatomical

characteristics, while the variables are culturally defined choices. It is not, of course, our intention to deny the need for the existence of standards and ranges of acceptability and non-acceptability but rather to suggest that the physical determinants of

built form are a more complex and subtle matter than is commonly accepted.''

Differences Among People (HUD)

' A. Rapoport and N. Watson, "Cultural

Variability in Physical Standards," In People and Buildings, ed. R. Gutman

(New York, 1972).

83
It has become commonplace to say

that buildings are built for people.

What is meant by this statement?

We may consider people from the

viewpoint of the average person or from the differences apparent among

them. Architects and researchers,

depending on the particular situation, are called upon to use both perspectives in their work. The viewpoint

selected is a major determinant of the

kind of information needed, thereby

influencing the way that research is performed.

Typically, behavioral researchers

working on sensory problems, such

as auditory and visual research, have

focused on the common biological

heritage of man, much of which is shared by other animal species. (This

study area will be discussed in Part IV.) Researchers concerned with understanding why people behave as they

do, start with the premise that people

are motivated by similar psychological influences. The work of

Sigmund Freud is representative of

the approach which seeks to understand the subconscious experiences

of people by employing a variety of

research methods.

On the other hand, M/E theorists and

researchers have investigated the ef- fects of social influences on the in- dividual's use of space. K. Lewin

(psychologist) provided the

theoretical framework for many such

studies (e.g., territoriality, crowding).

His conception was that all psychological events such as thinking

and engaging in behaviors are part of a life space which consists of the

person and the environment, viewed

as a constellation of interdependent

factors. Individual psychological

processes are always to be derived

from the relation of the "concrete in- dividual" to the "concrete situation."

He further noted that an understanding of behavior requires not only

a knowledge of the person (past experience, present attitudes and

capabilities) but a knowledge of his

immediate situation. Research should

therefore be designed to study psychological events from the standpoint

of the many factors which influence a person—physical, social, and personal.

Naturally, the physical requirements

of building users are of critical importance in design. A considerable body

of information has been developed

which results from measurements of

large numbers of people while at rest, and when participating in activities. These data vividly demonstrate the

need for architects to consider dif- ferences among individuals in the

design process. As we shall indicate,

differences are not merely physical in nature, but also attributable to cultural and psychological influences.

Cultural, Social, and

Personal Factors

Earlier we indicated that although

buildings are often designed with the

average person in mind as the user, M/E researchers agree that buildings

84

should accommodate cultural, social,

and personal differences found in the user population. Different

backgrounds and experiences can

exercise important influences on how

people respond to their environments. It is only by means of a thorough examination of these dif- ferences that user requirements

responsive to building designs can be

specified. Knowing something about

individual differences enables state- ments to be made about the distribution of the population of responses to

design features; determining what

proportion of a large group of people

are likely to respond in particular

ways to attributes of a building. As an

illustration of this point, A. Rapoport

(architect) and N. Watson conducted

a review of physical standards used

for building designs in a number of

nations. They particularly noted the

that national standards governing the

same aspects of the built environment

(e.g., space, lighting, noise, etc.) often

Population Sizes and Weights

(Selected Samples By Authors)

(Roberts)

Group Number in Sample Weight (kg) Stature (cm)

African

Kikuyu 436 51.9 164.6

Efe 386 39.8 143.8

Baya 412 53.9 163.0

Bahutu 216 56.7 165.9

American

Zuni 348 56.3 161.4

Hopi 276 60.8 161.1

Eskimo 121 62.1 159.3

Maya 70 53.7 156.4

European

England 3000 64.5 166.3

Iceland 652 68.1 173.6

France 2619 67.0 172.5

Bulgaria 121 67.1 167.2

Asian

China 351 54.0 165.0

Korea 594 59.2 163.2

Indian 1193 52.7 165.8

Sudanese 200 51.4 159.9
Recommended Lighting Levels (in LUX*) —Cultural Differences

(Rapoport and Watson)

U.S.A.

123456789

Gr. Britain France Germany Sweden Finland Belgium Switz. Australia

Most Difficult Seeing Tasks

Finest precision work. Involving: finest detail; poor

contrasts; long periods of time. Such as: extra-fine

assembly; precision grading; extra-fine finishing.

10000-

20000

1500-

3000

1500-

3000

4000 1000-

2000

1000-

2000

over 1000over 2000

Very Difficult Seeing Testes Precision work. Involving: fine detail; fair contrasts; long periods of time. Such as: fine assembly; highspeed work; fine finishing.

5000-

10000

700-

1500

700-

1500

600-

1000

300-

500

500 500-

1000

300-

1000

700-

1500

Difficult and Critical Seeing Tasks

Prolonged work. Involving: fine detail; moderate

contrasts; long periods of time. Such as; ordinary

benchwork and assembly; machine shop work;

finishing of medium-to-fine parts; office work.

1000

5000

300-

700

300-

700

250-

500

300 300 250-

500

150-

300

300-

700

Ordinary Seeing Tasks

Involving: moderately fine detail; normal contrasts;

intermittent periods of time. Such as: automatic

machine operation; rough grading; garage work

areas; switch-boards; continuous processes; con- ference 'rooms; packing and shipping.

500-

1000

150-

300

150-

300

120 - 250

150 150 100-

250

150-

300

Casual Seeing Tasks

Such as: stairways; reception rooms; washrooms;

and other service areas; inactive storage.

200-

300

70-

150

70-

150

60 40-

80

80 SOSO

40-

80

70-

150

Rough Seeing Tasks

Such as: hallways; corridors-passageways; inactive

storage.

100-

200

30-

70

30-

70

30 20 40 20-

30

50-

70

* LUX = Lumens per square meter

85
differ from country to country. They il- lustrate their point with the following

example:

American standards recommend a minimum width of 5 ft. 4 in. for two people facing each other in a dining booth.

This dining pattern is not shown at all in Indian data, but for two people facing

each other across a dining table the

American dimension is 6 ft. 2 in., while

in India it is 5 ft. 6 in. (i.e., 8 in. less). The

Indian data show additional requirements for eating in a squatting position

(6 ft. 6 in.) and also distinguish between

informal and formal situations with dif- ferent dimensions, both for dining at a

table and in a squatting position.'

Rapoport deals extensively with

cultural influences on house design in another work in which he

hypothesizes that house form is the

result of choice among existing possibilities, the greater the number of possibilities, the greater the choice, but

there is never any inevitability, because

man can live in many kinds of structures.^ For example, the degree of

choice open to a builder in the United

States is considerably greater than

that available to someone building in the polar region. In this investigation

Rapoport attempted to find house

features which seemed to be universal, to identify critical differences in house forms, and to try to relate both

sets of characteristics to personal and

cultural factors among populations.

Although we are dealing with M/E is- sues, we should not ignore the fact

that man exists in a psychological en- vironment as well as a physical one. Determining the relationships of these

two environments has been of major

interest to both theoreticians and

researchers. One area where this concern has been displayed is the

study of how people use space, with

respect to social interactions and the

performance of solitary activities.

E. Hall (anthropologist), like Lev/in,

makes the point that individually

determined space factors play an important role in any study of distance

relationships among people and for

animals as well. Hall was an early

proponent of the need to consider

cultural variability in the use of space,

privacy, overcrowding, and other important M/E concepts. Hall studied

the problem of distance relationships

by observing activities and developing a classification scheme to describe them.

In common with Lewin, his starting

point was the individual, who may be

considered from the standpoint of being encased in an invisible bubble

which defines his boundaries. The

boundaries of the bubble go beyond

one's body, and its dimensions depend on the many factors already

noted. The bubble then serves as a reference point for the individual (or

group), and distances may be

described as they relate to the bubble.

^ Rapoport and Watson

^ A. Rapoport, House Form and Culture (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1969).

86

The^Spatial bubble3"of Hall

public domain (l2 + -r+.)

social- consultative (4-i2f+)

ca6ual -personal (i}i-4ft) / y

intimate (>2-1/^ff) /

Life space and the invisible bubble

may be considered as theoretical

models developed to describe re- quirements for individual privacy,

and/or the need for freedom of the

person (or group) from unwanted in- trusions from others. Studies of

territoriality have addressed this is- sue.

Territoriality

In chapter 6, when we discussed the

scales of observation employed in M/E studies, we provided a number of

examples of territorial studies. We will therefore limit our present treatment

of the subject.

The work of J. Crook (animal

researcher) illustrates a research approach to better define the distance

classifications developed by Hall. Crook recorded three types of

spacing—amVa/ distance or how far from several birds a newcomer will land, settled distance or the resultant

distance after adjustments and distance after departure or how far apart

birds remain after intermediate birds

have left. Similarly, N. Russo
(psychologist) noted that a number of

flight reactions occurred when she

maintained an arrival distance of about

6 inches (15 cm) (moved her chair

when the subject did) and did not

allow subjects to establish a comfortable settled distance.

J. Anderson (geographer) and

M. Tindall studied territoriality in young adults. The participants were

given the following instructions:

From memory draw a sketch map of

your childhood (ages 6-12 yrs) turf. By

turf we mean that area or set of areas which you traversed, occupied, or used

with sufficient regularity and assurance

that you considered it for all practical

purposes to be the proper domain of

you and your friends and/or siblings.

The sketch should show major and

minor paths, activity models, and landmarks as well as "verboten" or danger

areas, important barriers and boundaries, and include a legend. Scale and

orientation shown may be relative and

need not be precise. Then, write a two

to four page analysis, exploring the nature of the patterns of movement and

activity revealed by your sketch maps

and their determinants.*

The researchers view this approach

as a tool for helping them to understand how people perceive and relate

to their environments. Anderson and

Tindall hope that an understanding of

these concepts will lead to better

planning and design of community

facilities.

" J. Anderson and M. Tindall, "The

Concept of Home Range: New Data for the Study of Territorial Behavior," in Environmental Design: Research and Practice, Proceedings of the EDRA3/AR 8

Conference, ed. W. J. Mitchell (Los

Angeles, 1972).

Personal Space

R. Sommer (psychologist) developed

the concept of personal space which

defined distance relationships

between people. Sommer's approach

is similar in several ways to the concepts of Hall, but his approach is more systematic, i.e., research

oriented. His technique was to employ

people and environmental features to collect objective data in social situations. The author was a participant

observer in a mental hospital study.

He identified a park bench that was

used by the patients and employed

the bench as a research tool to test dominance behavior. When he

noticed a person seated alone on the

bench, Sommer seated himself nearby, on the same bench, and determined how closely he could approach

the other person before the patient

left. He then made measurements of

the distance between himself and the

other person at their closest approach. He also instructed subjects to become friendly with a person seated on a bench and recorded the distances between the two participants.

When hospital administrators complained that the patients on a psychiatric ward did not interact with one

another very frequently, Sommer

rearranged the chairs, which had

been placed in a straight row, so that

they faced one another. The number

of verbal interactions that occurred

using each of the seating arrangements was then recorded.

Russo employed a participant

observer approach in a study con- ducted in a library, in which she

seated herself at various locations in the proximity of students. She

recorded behavior in order to determine when subjects acted as though

their space had been invaded, by

moving away from her when she

encroached upon their territory.

Parfictpanf Ob6ervation

(5orr\mer)

Observer bench

87
J. Dabbs (psychologist) et al. con- ducted an experiment designed to measure comfortable distances for

conversation at different locations

within a room. An office with sparse

furnishings and about 12 ft. by 15 ft.

(3.6 m by 3.9 m) was used as the setting. College students served as subjects and participated in team pairs.

The subject approached his partner

until he felt the distance between

them was comfortable for conversation. The partner stood either in the

center of the room or in the corner

with his shoulders touching both

walls. Then the subject stood in the

center of the room or in the corner and was approached by his partner

until the partner was told to stop. The

results indicated that greater distances were maintained when one

subject was in the corner of the room

than when both subjects were in the

center. These findings emphasize that measures of personal space may be

affected by differences in setting as

well as by interactions between setting and other variables.

An experiment to determine the ef- fects of sex and race norms on personal space was conducted by M.

Liebman (psychologist). She used

distance measures as described

previously but employed a more

sophisticated experimental design

than her predecessors. The ex- perimental area was furnished as a

waiting room which was occupied.

There were three experimental conditions. One was free seating where

subjects could sit on a 6-ft. (1.8 m)

bench which was already occupied.

The second condition consisted of a choice of two 3-ft. (0.9 m) benches

each containing one person. Finally,

the subject could select one of the two

3-ft. (0.9 m) benches with only one of

the benches being occupied. The in- vestigators systematically selected

the characteristics of the occupants

on the bench(es), e.g., in some in- stances the race and/or sex was the

same as that of the subject and in other instances, they were different.

Distances between the subject and

the "confederate" were measured

and provided the basic experimental

data. The author found that race and

sex were often important factors in determining space usage.

Personal Space Stud^

(Holahan)

Sociofugal 5ociopetal

€ g>

El la

0 0)

0^

n

^

n

^

Mixed Free

Other experimenters have also used

furniture arrangements as a means of

determining personal space

preferences. C. Holahan

(psychologist) conducted a study in- vestigating the effects of seating

arrangements on the social behavior

of psychiatric patients. There were

four experimental conditions: chairs were arranged shoulder-to-shoulder

along the walls of the room

(sociofugal); chairs were arranged

around two small tables in the middle

of the room (sociopetal); chairs were

arranged both along the walls and

around a small table in the middle of

the room (mixed); patients were told to arrange the chairs themselves in any manner they wished (free). Subjects were told not to rearrange the

chairs in all but the free condition. An

observer was present in the room and

recorded each subject's behavior

every 75 seconds during the 45-

minute session. At the completion of

the experimental session each participant was given a map of the room and

asked to draw eight chairs in what he

felt would be the best arrangement.

Results indicated significantly less

social interaction in the arrangement

with the chairs placed shoulder-toshoulder along the walls of the room

(sociofugal). The free situation also

precipitated a surprisingly low level of

interaction. Both the experiment and

the maps indicated that the patients

preferred the chairs arranged around

the small tables (sociopetal).

Another approach dependent on furniture arrangements is the open

space concept used in many schools.

Teachers and students are en- couraged to move furniture. Observations and measurements are then

made, which consist of records of

physical arrangements and

behavioral descriptions.

P. Williamson (psychologist) reported on an observational study of the use

of space and furniture by both

teachers and children in an open

space classroom. She was particularly interested in looking at the

behavioral differences between

problem and nonproblem children.

Two techniques of observation were

used. In the first, an observer concentrated on one child and at 30-

second intervals recorded the following information: the child's location,

the size of the group he was with, his

posture, his activity (based on 24

predetermined categories) and the

names of those with whom the child

was interacting. In the second type of

observation, the observer mapped

the location of furniture and located

all individuals in the room. This was

done every 5 minutes. The results in- dicated general spatial and

behavioral patterns which existed across classrooms of similar design.

The nonproblem children used space

in a manner similar to the teachers,

that is they tended to use the front and

central portions of the room. The

problem children, on the other hand,

spent a large amount of time on the

edges of the room.

88
Social factors may influence a person

in subtle ways. As a result, it is sometimes useful to employ

measures such as physiological

changes when social factors are

believed to be important. One study

demonstrating this approach was

performed by G. Evans and R. Howard (psychologists) who wanted

to determine whether the proximity of a researcher to a research subject

would affect physiological and psychological behavior. Tapes of

randomly-selected numbers between

1 and 64 were prepared. The subject

was instructed to classify each

number as either high and odd (odd

numbers greater than 32) or low and

even (even numbers less than or equal to 32). An experimenter sat

directly in front of the subject at varying distances. Error rates were

recorded along with the subject's

galvanic skin response (GSR)

(measure of electrical conductance of

skin). At the conclusion of each group

of numbers, the subject completed a semantic differential (see chap. 5 for

description of semantic differential)

for the following adjective pairs—

"secure-scared," "calm-nervous,"

"relaxed-stressed," "involveddetached," and "steady-jumpy." The

results indicated a general increase in errors when subjects were closer to the experimenter and the GSR rates showed generally lower resistance as

the subject moved closer to the ex- perimenter.

Social Distance

Our discussion of distance

relationships has been largely confined to individuals. However, the

architect must also be concerned with

how groups relate to one another. A

method initially developed to study in- dustrial and management problems is also useful for M/E research. It is called soclometry and provides one means for obtaining information dealing with the links between social in- teractions and environmental

features.

Soclometry is a method of determining the structure of social relations

among members of a given group. A

sociometric test measures the

preferences or rejections expressed

toward members in a group.

Most sociometric tests are administered as questionnaires

designating choice situations. These

questions have two characteristics:

• A specific criterion for the

preferential choice is used, based on

the functional activity of the group and

the hypotheses being tested (such as. With wtiom do you lil<e to eat, sociaiize,

etc.).

• The number of choices allowed

varies according to the size of the

group.

The original method described by J. Moreno (sociologist) involves drawing

a soclogram, a diagram which represents the choices made by the

members of a group. The more fre- quently chosen individuals are

located near the center and the

isolates are placed on the periphery.

Preferences or rejections are represented by lines between the in- dividuals. Sociograms are used mainly with small groups for diagnostic

purposes. Matrix analysis makes it possible to analyze more complex in- terrelationships.

B. Wells examined the relationship of

office design to interactions among

employees in order to determine the

cohesiveness of work groups in a

large British insurance company. He

compared friendship choices among

workers in a large open area and

among workers in smaller enclosed

areas.

Wells administered a sociometric test to 285 general clerks by means of

tape recorded instructions and slide

projections, the responses to which were written in a booklet. Comparisons were made between the

open areas and the small partitioned

offices in (1) the number of choices

directed outside of each section, (2)

the number of reciprocated choices

within each office and, (3) the number

of people who seldom interacted with

others, i.e., isolates. The findings in- dicated that choices were directly

related to the distances between

employees and that group cohesion

was greater in the smaller offices than

in the open plan sections.

6ociogram

(N/loreno)

6innple 3oc]orr\efhcDiagram

7 Subjects

21 Preference Choic^es

6 Mufual Treferences

2 5far5

1 leolafe

89
With the average life expectancy in- creases notable in recent years, and

considering the already sizable group

of elderly people, the question of the

relationships between the aged and

the population at large has been

raised by many social scientists and

planners. Two opposing viewpoints

are apparent. One contends that old

people prefer to be among those with

similar interests and concerns and

therefore should be housed in buildings suitable to their special re- quirements. The opposite viewpoint is that the aged should not be isolated,

rather, they should be integrated into

the community. Major design implications are associated with these or

alternative approaches.

E. Steinfeld (architect) used threedimensional scale models in conjunction with interviews to assess attitudes

of older people toward increased contact with young children. Models were

used which represented three dif- ferent activity settings—a park

(recreation), a community center

(social meeting) and a neighborhood

(housing).

The park was used to measure

desirable proximity in terms of the

physical distance to children. Three

benches were positioned with identical surroundings (tree, walk) at three

different distances from a playground

for children. It was explained that

each of the benches was exactly the

same walking distance from the point

at which the walk diverged. Respondents were then asked to indicate at which bench they would want to sit if they were walking into the park alone

or with a friend.

The community center was used to measure desirable proximity in terms

of accessible distance to children. It was explained that the three models

represented three different ways in which a community center could be

built to house a nursery school and a

senior citizens' activity center. The dif- ferences in accessibility were also explained. In one model one group

would have to go outside to visit the

other. In another model they would

both share a reception room and

could visit without leaving. In the final model the groups had separate

entrances but could choose to be

together in the middle room if they so

desired. Respondents made two

choices and the pattern of their

preferences was recorded. The pattern of choice as a whole was used as an indication of preference.

The neighborhood models were used

to measure desirable proximity in terms of the degree of agesegregation of older people in the set- tlement pattern. Four cards were

prepared with six plastic model

houses on each, arranged on both

sides of the street on individual lots. Each neighborhood or block had a

different mix of senior adults and

families with young children. Respondents were asked to choose the block on which they would like most to live and the block they would like least.

The findings indicated that on the

whole the respondents preferred

close physical distance to children in the recreation setting and

neighborhoods with a high density of

older people.

L. Pastalan (psychologist) reports

a study that indicates the

importance of keeping established

relationships when individuals are relocated. He used two

facilities in his study on the effects of

relocation on nursing home patients.

The control setting was a county

medical facility which remained essentially unchanged for the duration

of the study. One experimental setting was a county medical facility

which was being closed down.

Patients were moved to an existing

facility. The existing building was

totally different, the staff did not

move, and the patients were in- tegrated with the existing patient population. The second experimental setting was a facility which was moving

from an old building to a new building on the same site. Patients staff structures remained essentially the same.

An additional study was carried out in the second experimental facility. One

group of patients was taken on five

advance visits to the new building and

in addition given problem solving

tasks and spatial orientation sessions.

A matched group of patients visited

the new building once and were

presented with slides of the new

facility. They also had staff visits and

group review sessions. In all cases the

effects of relocation were measured

by the patient mortality rate. Results

indicated a significantly higher mortality rate for patients in the first ex- perimental setting.

Crowding

The focus of attention on the decay of

many large cities has led to speculation by urban planners and social

scientists on the relationship of

crowding and human behavior. While,

not long ago, population density was

thought by many to be synonymous

with crowding, studies by Rapoport

and D. Stokols have differentiated

between these concepts. The major

distinction is that while density is often

defined objectively—i.e., "number of

people per unit area," crowding is largely a subjective concept, which

resists such a simple definition. These

authors point to major cultural dif- ferences among people which affect

their perception of being crowded.

For example, although Japan is one of

the most densely populated areas in the world, traditions and life styles

have intensified the feelings of being

crowded.

Most of the experimental work pertaining to crowding has been done in animal laboratories using small mammals. J. Calhoun's (biologist) work

with rats is the most prominent

research in this area.

In his original experiment, Calhoun

confined a population of rats in a 1/4- acre (1/10 hectare) enclosure. Within

this enclosure there was an abundance of food and of places to live,

predation was eliminated and disease

minimized. The only factor remaining

which could significantly influence the

size of the population was the

behavior of the animals toward one

another. The population stabilized at 150 adults although the observed

90
reproductive rate led researchers to postulate that the environment could

support a population of 5,000. The

researchers discovered an extremely

high rate of infant mortality caused by

a lack of appropriate maternal

behavior. Apparently the population

of 150 adults was so high that social

interactions became very stressful.

Calhoun conducted other studies in which populations of rats were

allowed to increase to twice the size

that would normally occupy a given

space. Through careful observations,

the researchers were able to determine those changes in behavior which

resulted from the increased population density. Many of the behavioral

changes were observed among the

females—litters were not carried to

full term and proper maternal care was not given to those babies who did

survive. Males displayed sexual abnormalities and behavioral disturbances ranging from overactivity to almost total withdrawal.

The work of Calhoun is thought by

some planners and researchers to be

applicable to human populations,

while others are dubious about its relevance to urban problems. The opponents of this viewpoint stress that

there are many other factors (e.g.,

economic, social) which affect

behavior, while the supporters of the

research point to the biological

similarities between man and

animals. In our view it is premature to either accept or reject the conclusions

drawn from this work.

A limited number of research studies

using human subjects has dealt with

crowding behavior. A. Baum and G.

Davis (psychologists) employed a

simulation approach to study the

phenomenon of crowding. They

employed model figures made from

clothespins, which were placed in scale model rooms to arrive at a

definition for crowding. The

researchers systematically varied the

color and complexity of the rooms, as

well as the activity being simulated.

Four scale model rooms were used in the study. Two rooms contained pictures to add to their visual complexity,

while the other two rooms had walls

which were covered only with paint.

Two rooms were painted with dark

colors, the other two with light pigments.

The research subjects were in- structed in one of two social orientations. (1) Imagine that this room is a lounge where people are standing and

talking at a cocktail party, and that you

are there (2) imagine that you are in a lounge area of an airport where people

are standing and waiting between

flights, and that you are there.^

One clothespin figure was then

designated to represent the participant, who was asked to place himself

in the room, and then add additional

figures until you begin to feel crowded.

The research findings were recorded

by indicating the location of all figures on a scale drawing of the room. The

most pronounced finding was that the

lighter rooms contained more figures

than the darker rooms—i.e., the

lighter rooms appeared larger.

The concept of crowding is one which

illustrates the interrelationship of psychological and physical factors. On

the one hand, a person may have a

feeling of being crowded, but is it the

presence of "too many" people in a

restricted space which promotes this

feeling? As we noted earlier, this feeling might be attributed to the invasion

of one's life space. However, another

way of looking at the problem could

be from the standpoint of purely

physical factors, the requirement for a

given volume of space to accommodate man and his activities. The

following section of the chapter deals

with this issue.

^ A. Baum and G. E. Davis, "Spatial and

Social Aspects of Crowding Perception,"

Environment and Behavior, 8 (December

Crowd (Kalett, J., People and Crowds. New York: Dover Publications, 1976).

Inc., 1978.)

91
Physical Attributes of

People—Antiiropometry

The primary task of architects is often

said to be the design of spaces to ac- commodate people and their activities. In this context, building design

is the manipulation and arrangement

of spaces. Determining the dimensions of these spaces is, therefore, of

central importance if buildings are to function as intended.

How does one decide what dimensions are proper?

Le Corbusier made the point that the

ultimate measure for buildings must

be man. The dimensions of man

should, therefore, be the criterion

used to specify the appropriate sizes

for buildings and their interior spaces.

This judgment appears to be a logical one in theory, but Le Corbusier made

the assumption that buildings can be

successful when designed for the

average person. Designs developed

from this standpoint assume that man

and his activities can be represented

by a single set of dimensions.

Is this a tenable assumption?

Rapoport, Watson, and many other

researchers make the point that substantial differences are apparent not

only among many national and subcultural groups but within each of

these subdivisions of the world's population. Furthermore, major size

variations exist between men and

women; adults and children. Finally,

the space requirements for handicapped individuals performing

activities in buildings are frequently

quite different for those for other

groups of the population.

Rapoport and Watson'also indicate

that all these variations in body size

suggest the fallacy of the 'average man'

concept. But the influence of

anthropometrics on design is made

even more complex by the effects of the

way man moves and uses equipment.^

Anthropometry has been defined as

the science of measuring the human

body, its parts and functional

capacities. Anthropometric studies

therefore encompass measurements

of the body at rest, as well as the

space and other attributes (e.g.,

shape) necessary for a person to carry out a required task. As was the case for other areas of M/E research,

the greatest demand for information

was by the military, e.g., for the design

"hJlan" as a Measure (NBS)

of clothing and equipment. The

design of jobs, machines, and equipment to be used in manufacturing and

commercial settings also requires

anthropometric information. More

recently, M/E problems have

provided an important impetus to the

collection of anthropometric data for

building design purposes.

The discipline of anthropometry is traceable to the 1 9th century work of

Sir Francis Galton (British

anthropologist), who was the first in- vestigator to conduct extensive

studies to determine how physical,

sensory, and other characteristics were distributed among the general

population (see chap. 19). Galton

developed many measurement

techniques to acquire the necessary

data, and statistical procedures to analyze them, once collected. In all anthropometric studies, statistical

considerations are of primary importance. To be accurate,

anthropometric measures must be

taken on a group of people representative of the population being studied.

For example, studies have been made

to determine the range of sizes of

people who are pilots of military air- craft to ensure that the dimensions of

the equipment and the aircraft itself are compatible with the user population. Investigations of this type are conducted using actual pilots and

those training to fly airplanes. Much of

the research in anthropometrics is conducted by means of surveys of the user population. Since it is often impractical to survey the entire population, statistical procedures are used

^ Rapoport and Watson

to derive from sample studies judgments which may then be extended to the entire user population.

H. Stroud (anthropologist) provides a general survey of anthropometric

measurements. These measurement

data range from findings about

"whole body" characteristics (e.g.,

size and weight) to data concerning

the dimensions of body parts (e.g.,

face). Both standing and seated positions are employed when structural measures are taken. Other positions are also used when functional data

are collected (e.g., prone, kneeling).

As we noted earlier, two types of basic

anthropometric measures are employed, static and dynamic. Static

measurements are those which are taken with the body at rest. They

define the minimum requirements

necessary to accommodate the

person; for example, while engaging

in a sedentary activity such as

reading. Static measurements are a major source of data for industrial

designers who must specify dimensions of furniture (e.g., chairs) and

other furnishings and products used

in buildings (e.g., household appliances).

Most activities performed in buildings

require movement by people. It is therefore important to know how

much room is required to perform a

given activity. In developing this information, researchers have identified

major causes of movement which are

basic to accomplishing a large

number of activities. Measurements

are then made of people performing

these basic movements, and distributions of data compiled accordingly.

92
While the study of basic movements

required to perform activities is termed anthropometry, the investigation of the actual performance of activities is typically considered to be

another discipline; human factors or ergonomics (discussed in the next

chapter).

The procedures used to collect

anthropometric data range from

those employed more than 1 00 years

ago to sophisticated systems

designed to simplify the measure- ment and recording operations re- quired. The tape measure and caliper were and possibly still are the most

widely used working tools to collect

information. They can be employed to make virtually every required bodily

measurement. Reliance on these

tools alone makes the task of making

many measurements of large groups

of people very time-consuming and

expensive.

In recent years, alternative approaches have been developed to simplify and quicken the data collection process. One increasingly popular procedure employs a two-way

grid system as a means for making

rapid measurements. A photographic

system is frequently used in conjunction with the grids, as a means of obtaining a record of the dimensions

and for determining the dimensions

required.

Pressure Tape

Photometric System

(bodv measurements)

Anthropometer

(shoulder- elbow \eng\b)

Sliding Compass

(hand breadfh)

Grid Measurement System as a Part of NASA Program (NASA)
Outline of Applications of Engineering Anthropometry

(Meister)

Another procedure employed to determine the dimensions of a reaching task is illustrated in a study

by C. Dempsey, who wanted to determine space requirements for Air

Force pilots—maximum, minimum,

and optimum. In order to obtain this

General Uses and Examples

Design criteria development

and selection

Determine general and specific

population characteristics of users. Measurementof sample subjects,

statistical description of sizes, design

population selection.

Design requirements

Workspace design and development —aircraft cockpits, seats, consoles,

tables, etc. Includes any gross volume

designed for human occupancy, for work, pleasure, hygiene, rest, treat- ment, or education.

Clothing and personal equipment

design and development—Emphasis

on "engineered" clothing, not on home or business dress.

Components and devices—electrical

switches: knobs, levers, buttons, etc.,

handholds, latches, wheels, cranks,

stick controls, small appliances,

instruments.

information, he designed a device

consisting of 10 horizontal and 5 vertical arms. When the subject adjusts

the sliding arms, the actual vertical

and horizontal distance from that

point can be measured directly by

means of a scale on the side of each

arm.

Anthropometric Data Required

Major body dimensions (height,

weight), age, sex, job, color, nation/

extraction, geographic areas.

Reach limits, body clearances, and

clothing allowances, forces, torques,

centers of mass, moments of inertia,

mobility, volume, eye locations.

Circumferences, surface lengths,

along body, contours, areas, volumes,

diameters, limb movements and

restrictions.

Emphasis on the details of body parts

in contact with product—fingertips,

face contours, foot and shoe shape.

Purpose for Activity

Realistic design and evaluation of

dimensional specifications. Customer

acceptance, maximize sales, minimize legal liabilities.

Assure operator/occupant has adequate volume, proper location of

controls, displays, devices, tools. Maximize work efficiency, sales and

profits, safety.

Proper fit to the wearer, minimize

restriction of movement, define range

of sizes and number of each required

to prevent overstock. Assure proper

workspace interface.

Assure proper interface with hand,

foot, head, etc. to enhance operability, safety, convenience, comfort.

Maximize sale, reduce rework costs.

Arm R^ach

Measurement Device

94
Henry Dreyfuss Associates (industrial

design firm) has been one of the

leaders in the compilation and application of anthropometric data.

Their approach is summarized in The

Measure of Man: Human Factors in Design which comprises 32

anthropometric charts and 2 life-sized

charts, one of the average adult male,

"Joe," the other of the average adult

female, "Josephine," with

anthropometric measurements in- dicated. A later publication, IHumanscale 1/2/3 includes a series of selector charts which operate something

like slide rules and deal with

measurements of the body in various

positions; measurements for seats

and tables; and measurements for the

elderly and handicapped.

The first charts were published in 1955. Since then they have been

redone several times, with new data

added. The charts cover 95% of the

adult population. Each chart has three

figures—one representing the mean

(percentile 50), one representing the

small extreme (percentile 2.5) and one representing the large extreme

(percentile 97.5).

Anthropometr/c Dala- Standing Adult Male

50%

25'/o

7^

(0|

97.5%

%

s/

Dreyfuss explains the development of

the charts:

When World War II came, ...the armed

forces and their suppliers undertook

some very ambitious human engineering and published their findings. But still no one assembled these data into a

single package that a designer could

refer to.

Shortly after the war, our office was

working on the interior of a heavy tank

for the Army. We had tacked a huge,

life-size drawing of the tank driver's compartment on the wall. The driver's

figure had been indicated with a thick

black pencil line and we had been jotting odds and ends of dimensional data on him as we dug the data out of our

files. Surrounded by arcs and rectangles, he looked something like one of

the famous dimensional studies of

Leonardo. Suddenly, it dawned on us

that the drawing on the wall was more

than a study of the tank driver's compartment; without being aware of it, we

had been putting together a dimensional

chart of the average adult American

male.

We called our average man Joe. We

drew Joe standing, sitting, crawling,

pedaling a bike. Our charts showed him

head-on, in profile, and from above. We

drew his wife Josephine and his

children just as carefully.''

' H. Dreyfuss, Tlie Measure of Man: Human

Factors in Design (New York, 1967).

95
Special Groups—The Aged and

Handicapped

Many people in the general population have disabilities which make it

difficult, and sometimes impossible,

for them to use buildings designed for

those without handicaps. The special

requirements of this user group have

received increased attention lately by

all levels of government as well as by

the design profession. Possibly the

most apparent design response to these needs is the presence of ramps

in government buildings to facilitate

the movement of people confined to wheelchairs. Many existing restroom

facilities are being modified (and new

ones designed). These actions taken

to accommodate handicapped people in their use of public and private

buildings (in contrast to specialized

facilities) have addressed problems of one such group. A danger exists

Working Dimensions

(Gra ndjean)

however, that "handicapped" will be

defined as those people confined to wheelchairs. Even the symbol used

most frequently to depict handicapped people reinforces this idea.

People with visual, hearing and other

disabilities should also be considered

among those having building user re- quirements which should receive at- tention from architects. Some

research efforts have been directed

toward a better understanding of how

well people with impaired abilities

(aged and handicapped) are able to carry out their desired activities in buildings. Other studies have focused on overcoming handicaps by substituting alternative means of adjusting to the environment—e.g., substituting one sense for another. We

will now briefly describe a number of

the research approaches which have

been developed to achieve both of the

goals just mentioned.

Negotiating Stairs (E. Steinfeld)

high 2/ low

""])''; e>heif

worKin9

aurface
Pastalan sought to duplicate en- vironmental experiences of the elderly by simulating normal sensory loss

of a person in his late seventies.

Based on age-related sensory loss

data, mechanical devices were

developed to reproduce the effects of

sensory loss. The devices allowed for

such simulation in the following sensory areas:

• Visual: The increased opaqueness

and decreased elasticity of the eye were simulated by specially coated

lenses.

• Auditory: A material in the form of

ear-plugs simulated auditory loss

above the 2,000 Hz range and decibel

loss of around 30.

• Olfactory: Diminished sensitivity to odors was approximated by placing

cotton wadding in the nasal passages.

• Tactile: The fingertips were coated

with a liquid fixative which simulated a

certain degree of touch desensitivity.

A research team of four architectural

students under Pastalan at the

University of Michigan experienced

three specified settings an hour each

day for 6 months, in this artifically

"aged" condition. The settings were a

dwelling unit, a senior center, and a shopping center. Each person kept a

daily record of his experiences and

from time to time met with the other

researchers to compare notes.

In the visual area, glare from uncontrolled natural light and from un- balanced artificial light sources was

the greatest problem. A single intense

artificial light source increased the

likelihood of uncomfortable glare.

Also, colors tended to fade fast, and it was difficult to distinguish the boundary between two contrasting surfaces.

With sufficiently similar surfaces,

boundaries tended to disappear

altogether. Depth perception was af- fected and adaptation between dark

and light areas was difficult as was the

ability to discriminate fine visual

detail.

In the auditory area, background

noise interfered with conversation.

Parts of words were often unintelligible, it was difficult to locate and identify sounds, and some combinations

of carpeting, acoustical tile and

draperies absorbed too much sound

and made comprehension difficult.

The simulation of odor loss caused a

lessening of appetite. The tactile los- ses led to difficulty with fine muscle

control in eye-hand coordination

tasks, and with temperature discrimination.

This work should help architects and

designers "see," "hear," and generally experience the world in a way

similar to that of an elderly individual.

They will then be better able to design

to fit the abilities and limitations of the

aged.

Space age technology has made it possible for blind people to obtain in- formation in new ways. One development is the conversion of optical images into vibrations. The optacon (for

optical-to-tactile converter) is one

such device, developed at the Stanford University Electronics

Laboratories. It consists of an optical

camera connected to a vibrating tactile stimulator. An array of 144

phototransistors controls the activation of 144 corresponding vibrating

pins which reproduces the visual images. The pins can be sensed by one

fingertip. The optacon has been

employed in reading tasks, with

moderate success. Although reading

speed is considerably below that

achieved with braille, it has enabled

blind people to read conventional

printing.

Another system relying on tactile

stimulation was developed by Collins

and Bach Y Rita. It is termed the

Tactile Vision Substitution System

(TVSS). The TVSS enables blind

observers to "see" objects in the

environment using a pair of "seeing

eyeglasses" which transmits images

to a lightweight camera by way of a flexible fiber-optic bundle.

The camera then converts the image

into corresponding electronic

pulses by an array of small electrodes which are in contact with

the skin.

Handicapped Housewife (HUD)

97
Wheelchair Operated by Microphone (NASA)

98

Effects of Past Experience

One characteristic of people fre- quently important in M/E studies is past experience.

Individual, social, and cultural factors

result from experiences which the in- dividual brings to any new setting.

These are likely to be used as

a framework (set of criteria) for judgments that are made about current

environments because they lead to expectations based on past experience. For example, assume that

three families are to move into public

housing. Each family differs considerably from one another with

respect to the quality of their previous

homes (the home of one family was

far better than the public housing, the

home of another was equivalent, and

the third home was of lower quality).

Under these circumstances, if the

homes were being evaluated by the

occupants, the ratings might well

reflect the differences between the

previous home and the present one

rather than merely an absolute rating

of the present one. Data limited to present living conditions therefore

could be confusing and misleading.

Naturally, the main interest of the

designer should be the future success

of

a building, not the past history of

building occupants. Yet, the present

acceptance of

a building might be

closely related to the past history and

expectations of occupants. The same

type of reasoning leads us to conclude that future building users should not be ignored in the design

process. Changes in values,

technology, life styles, and conditions

in society are all likely to affect

building usage. Moreover, these

changes are likely to have an impact even when the same people occupy

the same buildings. These factors all should lead us to expect a greater

degree of success for buildings which

enable occupants to modify their en- vironments to meet changing needs.

Conclusion

We have discussed several aspects of

special user populations and

highlighted the many differences

which exist among potential user groups. Our concern was to emphasize the need to consider the

requirements of special populations

in the development ofa design

program. In the next chapter we will consider research approaches

employed to observe and measure

how activities are performed in buildings. The research methods to be examined are primarily derived

from human factors (ergonomic)

studies dealing with how people in- teract with objects, machines, and

complex systems.
8

Man/Environment Interactions

Origins— Industrial Studies

Body Position and Performance

Displays and Controls

An Integrated Approach

Occupant Fire Safety

Accidents in Buildings

Movement of People in Buildings

Conclusion

Catherine Beecher ... published a series of house designs in her bool< of 1869 . .

.

her floor plans reflect quite accurately the new relationship of family to society,

house to urban environment. Two qualities stamp them as essentially modern: the

way in which all her enclosed volumes are designed to facilitate specific

housekeeping tasks; and the masterly way in which she exploits the new urban ser- vices and absorbs them into the very fabric other plans.

Her houses are firmly visualized as machines for family life. No longer are there

generalized or anonymous spaces: from top to bottom, each area has been carefully organized to serve a specific function.

Here, in short, is the prototype of that urbanized house. For all its graceless and in- ept details, it is the direct progenitor of the modern American house.

' J. M. Fitch, The Architectural Manipulation

of Space, Time and Gravity (New York,

1969).

99
We said earlier that M/E problems

should be examined from a systems

viewpoint, and that activities are a major focal point of our interest. The

performance of activities is in- fluenced by the interaction of many

behavorial and design factors. While

a start has been made by human factors researchers who have dealt with

some M/E problems, M/E

researchers face a formidable

challenge in their attempts to better

understand the nature of these

relationships.

Human factors, like architecture, in- cludes problem areas ranging from

the "macro" to the "micro" scale. At

the macro scale, the concern is how

human performance relates to an

overall system. For example, a problem faced by both equipment

and building designers is the need to integrate manually operated controls

for best system performance. For ex- ample, effective lighting depends

upon the ability to control the quantity

and quality of light where it is needed—e.g., to perform a task. A

further desirable characteristic, in view of the concern for energy conservation, is to have lighting in areas

only where it is required. Consequently, area control of lighting is more

desirable than a single control for a

partially occupied large area. The

architect must then determine where

to place light switches (or other controls) for maximum effectiveness.

At the micro scale, a major concern is the proper design of products (e.g.,

machines, furniture). This interest is synonymous with that of the industrial

designer. Between the macro and

micro scales, researchers have addressed problems of permanent and

temporary features of buildings, such

as determining the proper dimensions for shelves and kitchen work

surfaces. The common feature in such investigations is the focus on

performing a given activity.

C. Dempsey's study (chap. 7) il- lustrates one approach to collecting

basic anthropometric information for

the design of a work place. The

research addressed the need to make

controls readily accessible to operators. The problem was attacked

by determining the maximum feasible

reaching distance (and direction) for

controls used by an operator seated

at a work station. The design of tasks

(or activities) involving people and

machines, objects and environmental

features such as stairs, makes up the

discipline of human factors, also

known as ergonomics. It may be

defined as the adaptation of human

tasks and working environments to the

sensory, perceptual, mental, physical,

and other attributes of human beings.

Origins—Industrial Studies

F. Taylor (machinist and plant supervisor) is often termed the father of

scientific management. He formulated the idea of conducting

analytic studies which were designed

to increase the productivity of

workers. His approach was to standardize work procedures, based on the

way that the best workers performed

their jobs. The work activities and rest pauses were specified completely,

with the worker treated virtually as a machine.

100

Time and motion studies were used in the 1920's by F. Gilbreth and his wife,

L. Gilbreth (engineers) to break down

jobs into their elementary operations.

The basic concept was that work

productivity differed greatly from

person to person because of in- dividual differences in skills. Dif- ferences in work methods may be

best analyzed by slow motion

photography, both for finding the

errors of less skilled workers and for

teaching to new employees the

superior methods of the most highly

skilled workers. There are general

principles and procedures that may

be applied to all jobs. At first, they

employed a stopwatch and described

the nature of the motions used. Later,

they recorded minute movement using photographic procedures. Movements were charted into 1 6 elements

of motion, said to be the basic elements of industrial processes.

7a6k Coding Scheme

(Gilbreitis)

5vmbol/Ta6K

7/- Di6ae)5emble

0 Inspect

Pre- position

Release Load

\^ Transport Empty

Unavoidable Dela^

I o Avoidable Delay

^

Plan

5earch

CS> Find —> Select

n eraep

Vcy Transport Loaded

9 Fbsition

¥f^ Assemble

U Use

lime and Motion 6tudy

(Tax; lor)
The general approach developed by

the Gilbreths was later used by

human factors researchers to analyze

activities. The procedure is called

task analysis. It is used to identify the

factors necessary to adequately complete a task. The goal is to define the

critical activities occurring in a work

situation in such a way as to provide a sound basis for performance evaluation. Another purpose is to aid in modifying job operations in order to

facilitate performance and avoid

error.

During the planning phase of task

research, an analysis of the problem

is usually undertaken to identify the

critical elements which are to be

studied and measured. R. Miller

(psychologist) developed a general

technique used to determine the psychological factors essential to the

adequate performance of a task. This

model can be just as readily used to examine the activities performed by a

family at dinner. The goal set out

by Miller is to define the critical activities in a situation to provide a

basis for evaluating performance.

Task Analysis Procedure

(Food Preparation)

(Miller)

Activity

1 . Enumerate tasks

3. Identify rate or time needs

4. Chart tasks on time base; show

time sharing

Factor

Perceptions and

discriminations

Decision making and

problem solving

Recall of stored

information

Motor responses

Monitoring

Communicating

Requirement (example)

Prepare food, set table, serve food,

clean up after meal

Cooking times, temperatures used

Sequence of activities, overlaps,

cooking, washing dishes, serving

Requirement

Determining when food is ready to be

served

Determining the dinner menu, seating

arrangements

Purchasing needed supplies, proper

preparation of food

Grating, cutting, stirring, basting,

serving

Watching food while cooking

Requesting advice, information

Body Position and

Performance

A major concern for those responsible for designing a work area is the

typical position of the body when an

activity is being performed (e.g.,

seated, standing). Methods have

been employed to investigate the

relationship of body position and task

performance. We will first consider

studies where people are required to stand when using shelves and work

surfaces in the kitchen.

A Swedish report (Anatomy for Planners) discusses various experimental

procedures used to correlate body

measurements and height of reach,

working heights, and space measurements.

Four techniques were used to measure reach height. The first in- volved the use of a pedometer, which

involved the placement of contact

plates on the hands of the experimental subject. These plates recorded the

change in the distribution of body

weight. The subject's task was to place both hands with the palms

down on a shelf of adjustable height.

The second technique involved the use of electromyography (EMG)

which measured the degree of activity

in a muscle, and this in turn indicated

the extent of the load on that muscle.

In the case of reach height, EMG was

used to measure the distribution of

load on the subject's leg muscles.

"Psychological" Factors in Food Preparation

(Miller)

2. Identify critical information in tasks "Hardware" needs —stove, oven,

table —special difficulties —analysis of functions (psychological factors)

101
In the third test, researchers asked

subjects to indicate what they felt would be the most comfortable reach

height. Finally, the experimenters

employed stereophotography. This

enabled them to photograph movement simultaneously from side, front

and rear. From these photographs it was possible to determine which

joints a person used when stretching

to reach high shelves and also in- dicated the sequence in which the

joints were active.

The results from these four measure- ment techniques were used to develop the following criteria set up

by the experimenters:

When the person tested lays the entire

palm of a hand on the shelf, his or her

weight should be borne equally by both

feet, as it is when one stands upright in a symmetrical and relaxed posture; the

person tested must not lean against the

worktop: distribution of weight on the leg

muscles must be the same as when a person stands in a symmetrical and

relaxed posture; the person tested

should feel that he or she reaches the

shelf height being tested. The shelf

height at which all these conditions are

fulfilled was designated "vertical reach.

Now that the height of the shelf had

been determined, the researchers

developed a task to determine the

maximum size for practical shelf

design. The following objects were

placed 1 cm from the edge of the

shelf: a cube and a cylinder each

weighing 1 kg, a book, a plate, a

drinking glass, and a teapot. The ob-

' Anatomy for Planners (Sweden, 1970).

jects were gradually moved inward

until the subject could no longer

reach them. The experimenters

recorded the distance from the edge

of the shelf to the depth of the subject's maximum reach.

Working heights (such as height of

sink or kitchen work surface) were measured by having the test subject

indicate the height that was the most

comfortable for him and by having the

experimenters observe the subject's

posture at various heights.

For all dimensions required to make

space measurements (such as using a built-in oven or low cupboard), a screen technique was used. An easily

movable screen was placed behind

the subject. The subject moved the screen the necessary amount when

he bent down to use the oven or low

cupboard. For space measurements

which also required movement in front of the subject, two screens were

used.

Screen Technique

(Swedish Reeearcher^)

102

Recommended Table Heights -for 5tandin9 WorK

(Ward and KirK)

Pelicate WorK Light Manual

100-110 cm ('men) 90-95 cm. (men)

95-105 cm (wm.) 2)5-90 cm. (wm.)

Heavv Manual

75- 9o cm. fnnen)

7o-86an.rwnn.)

Other researchers have been in- terested in the relationship between

anthropometric findings and data obtained from subjects who were permitted to regulate the heights of the

working surfaces on which they performed their tasks.

J. Ward and M. Kirk (psychologists)

permitted subjects to work on a given

task at a working surface height

judged to be most comfortable.

Each task was performed in two ways,

seated and standing. Correlations were then calculated between the

anthropometric and preference data

findings.
Chair design has received considerable research attention.

E. Grandjean (Swiss researcher) and

U. Burandt developed a sitting machine to study seating comfort. The

machine allowed a great deal of variation in the shape of the seat and back

rest, the height of the seat, and of the

armrests. Instruments in the chair

recorded body movements and the

variations these movements

produced in the pressures of the body

on the seat and back rest. A questionnaire asked for an assessment of seven body postures as "uncomfortable," "indifferent," or "comfortable."

Then questions asked for an assess- ment of individual components such

as seat depth. The results indicated

that the latter questioning provided a

better assessment of seat comfort.

Design for

Experimental Chair

("Grandjean)

N. Diffrient (industrial designer) applied the techniques used to develop

the Measures of Man (see chap. 7) to the design of aircraft seats. Physiological data on seating posture were collected by x-rays. An extremely flexible sitting-machine was

developed allowing research subjects

to change seat bottom and back

cushions and also allowing for adjustment of recline angles, armrest positions and seat heights. A system was

devised in which small probes were

placed in the seat cushions and when

the cushion was depressed the

probes protruded a distance comparable to the depression. A grid

diagram of the body's interaction with

the cushion was obtained.

In another study, R. Wachsler

(psychologist) and D. Learner used

the following criteria to assess the

comfort of different chairs:

• The length of time a person oc- cupied a particular chair.

• A questionnaire asking the in- dividual to rate the chair on a scale

running from -4 to +4 after sitting for

three different durations.

« The time at which a sensation of

discomfort occurred.

• The location of discomfort in the

neck, shoulders, back, buttocks, or legs.

The researchers found that the most

reliable measure was the occurrence

of discomfort in the back and buttocks and how soon after occupying

the seat the discomfort occurred.

The methods employed to develop

user information for designing objects, as with M/E research generally,

depend on varying levels of involvement by potential or simulated users. At times designers have relied on

statistical data (e.g., anthropometric

measures) for determining the dimensions of objects. In other instances,

formal investigations were conducted,

in which the design information

collected was largely based upon the

behavior of research subjects. The

latter type of study was performed by

Le Carpentier (French ergonomic

researcher).

The determination of desirable chair

characteristics for leisure activities

was the object of Le Carpentier's

study. Twenty subjects, 10 male and

10 female, participated in a study

which required them to read or watch

television for several 3-hour sessions.

Each subject could adjust the

characteristics of the chair as desired

(in terms of angles and dimensions)

by means of manual controls. The

results indicated that while male subjects preferred chair settings which

permitted their legs to be out- stretched, female subjects were more

apt to keep their legs in a vertical

position.

Preferred Armchair Dimensions and Adjustments

Based on Activities of Reading, Television Viewing

(Le Carpentier)

Recommendation

for two positions

only one position

Standard Deviation

Average

Construction detail n (Subjects)

Front height of seat, unloaded (cm) 20 40 ±3.8 38 38 42

Depth of seat (cm) 20 48 ±3.2 47 47 47

Angle of seat (°) 20 10.3 ±3.4 10.5 9 12

Angle between seat and backrest (°) 20 109.1 ±5.5 110 113 105

Armrests, height above seat when 12 16 ±1.6 16.5 16.5 16.5

occupied (cm)

Head rest in front of back surface 12 3.8 ±5.7 6.4 6.4 6.4

Angle between headrest and 12 7.9 ±3.3 8 8 8

backrest (°)

103
Displays and Controls

Many work and other activities re- quire people to obtain information

from their environment. Depending

on the nature of the information obtained, they select a course of action

from several alternatives. In human

factors research, the device used to convey information is termed a dis- play. The most commonly used displays depend on visual and/or

auditory signals. Such displays are commonly employed in cooking

tasks: a light which identifies the stove

burner which is on; a buzzer which is preset on an oven to indicate that the

required baking time has elapsed.

While a display indicates that an action should be taken, controls serve

the purpose of enabling the person to take action. Control design has been

of major human factors interest

because of the variety of movements

and forces that can be applied by

users. Speed and accuracy data have

been collected on tracking tasks

(gunnery, radar) where the motion of

the operator is continuous.

Anthropometric measures of arm, leg,

and back strength have been compiled in the design of levers, and

automobile emergency brakes, as

well as foot brakes. Other measures

which have been made include grip,

elbow, and shoulder strength.

Relationships between direction of

motion and strength, while seated,

standing and lying down, have also

been systematically compiled.

A systems approach is employed in the design of a configuration of controls and displays. There are several

possible principles of arrangement. In a functional arrangement, the grouping is in accordance with the activity

being performed. (In an aircraft, all of

the flight instruments can be placed

together.) Another grouping might be

on the basis of importance, where

critical displays and controls would be

placed in the most easily accessible

positions. The best location is another

possibility with "best" depending on

convenience, accuracy, speed, or

strength. A sequence-of-use method

is based on patterns of normal operation (items physically positioned in ac- cordance with sequence of use).

Finally, a frequency-of-use principle can be used.

The determination of the proper

relationship between manual controls

and displays has received considerable attention. The activity is one

of simultaneous monitoring and control. An operator is typically required

to monitor several displays and make

control adjustments as the circumstances demand. Jobs of this type,

which were formerly associated with

military, space, and aircraft operations, are now often found in high-rise

buildings with centralized communications, fire and surveillance

systems. Moreover, the problem is one which is constantly addressed by

those designing appliances and other

apparatus used in buildings.

An illustration of a procedure often

employed is presented by A. Chapanis (human factors researcher)

and L. Lindenbaum who examined

four different control/burner configurations for a four-burner stove.

Fifteen subjects took part in a study

where they were instructed as to which burner should be turned on. Each subject performed this task for

80 trials, using each control/burner

configuration. The results of the study were evaluated in terms of the total errors which occurred for each

design, and the time taken to respond

(the time measure was only for the

last 40 trials for each condition). The

two measures were consistent with

one another in that they both pointed

to the same control/burner arrangement as being the preferred one. Thus, an appropriate design was

found.

Control-Burner Arrangements of Simulafed 5tDve> Errors in IZOO Trials

CGnapanit) and Lindenbaum)

BADC BADC BADC BADC

104
In a different type of human factors

study, J. Sheridan (psychologist) and

other researchers at the Bell Telephone System were faced with

the problem of integrating women into

some of the jobs requiring basic

construction-type work. The

researchers felt that the women might

have difficulty handling the heavy

equipment since:

For example, women aren't as tall as men, women have shorter legs and

arms with longer torsos, women have a

larger proportion of flesh mass that is not muscle and, consequently, are not

able to do work as men do, there is a dif- ference in vital capacity that results in endurance differences between the sexes and so on.^

The researchers took one piece of

equipment, the ladder, and observed

women trainees as they performed or attempted to perform the four basic

functions involved in handling ladders: (1 ) Getting a ladder on and off a

truck, (2) Carrying the ladder to the

work site, (3) Raising the ladder, that

is, standing it against a building in the

unextended position, and (4) Extending the top or fly section of the

ladder.

All of these tasks require specific

physical skills involving strength and

balance, many of which are difficult for women. However, by the application

of some simple mechanical concepts

such as fulcrums, levers and pulleys,

many of the difficulties were over- come. Aircraft Panel Ki+chcn 6fo^e

fesearch dealing with one problem h often helpful in ^\\j\nq ^milar prob\ern^{eq.,c^\^p\aylcon\ro\

relationships)

J. A. Sheridan, "Designing the Work Environment," in Proceedings of the Symposium on Environmental Effects on

Behavior, ed. W. D. Bliss (Bozeman,

Montana, 1975).

Modifications of Equipmenf

eShen'dan)

Li-fting -force required ladder pivctt) about

Pivct point moved to midpoint of roof racKL-i-fting -Force \5 now as Ladder pivote close to

low as 10 Ib5. midpomf
An Integrated Approach

A. Kira (architect) integrated research

from physiology, human factors, and

anthropometry. He studied

bathrooms so he could make design

recommendations for the more

logical and functional design of these

facilities.

Kira's study included a literature

search, a field survey, and a

laboratory investigation. The

literature search concentrated on

material in the areas of anatomy,

physiology, sociology and

anthropometry. A survey was con- ducted with 1,000 middle-class

households on personal hygiene at- titudes and practices. The laboratory

research concentrated on the functional, physiological, and dimensional

aspects of hygiene activities. Films were taken of individuals engaged in a variety of activities and crude working models were made.

Kira's investigations covered the areas of physiology, anatomy,

anthropometry, comfort, safety,

acoustics, lighting, ventilation, odor,

thermal environment, aesthetics,

materials, sociology, and psychology.

Kira stresses that although it is necessary to design each element carefully,

the important point is that a total facility

is conceived of, and provided in the

form of, a fully integrated packaged

" A. Kira, The Bathroom: Criteria for Design

I (Ithaca, N.Y., 1966).

Kira also emphasizes the fact that

anthropometric and other objective measures cannot be applied outside

their context. He expressed this

limitation as follows:

Although this study has attempted to be

scrupulously objective, on the one

hand, in its explorations of physiological

processes, anatomy, anthropometry,

etc., it has on the other, been deliberately conceived within the framework of

contemporary Western culture. Consequently, the discussion which follows

represents, to a certain extent, a compromise between realities as they exist

and as they are defined with our time

place setting. Some of the personal

hygiene practices of other places or times could seriously be recommended

as being more desirable from the standpoint of either health or physiology—if our values, ideals, and way of life reflected the same cultural attitudes as

those under which the practices

evolved. As the discussion will show,

however, there are almost as many psychological and cultural problems to be

solved in developing design criteria as

there are purely physiological or functional ones, and in some instances, it may also be said that the problems to be

solved are the psychological and

cultural ones.^

' Kira

Occupant Fire Safety

A. Rubin (psychologist) and A. Cohen

(operations researcher) were con- cerned with occupant fire safety. They

employed a human factors approach

to better understand occupant

behavior in building fires. A look at the informational requirements of oc- cupants in fire emergencies (as opposed to ensuring a degree of structural integrity for the building) found

present information to be inadequate.

The increasing number of high-rise

buildings with many occupants intensifies the need for better information

about the behavior of occupants during fire emergencies. Fire

researchers say it is often not feasible

to evacuate buildings due to lack of

time. Instead, designers use techniques such as employing safe areas

within buildings. This approach

emphasizes the importance of communications and warning systems to transmit messages. These systems,

such as loud noises or blinking lights,

should be designed to "take advantage" of the usual responses made by

people.

106
The design concern is to identify

building design features (e.g., clearly

marked safety routes) which can be

used to help people reach safety.

Before proposing design solutions,

questions must be posed in a manner

which can provide answers in a

useful form. For example:

• What features of the environment

either help or hinder the ability to leave the building?

• How much illumination is required

to safely descend the stairs during a

fire?

• What information is needed

before a fire alarm is regarded as real

rather than a test?

• What is likely to catch the attention

of most people and therefore might

be used for an alarm signal?

• What exit markings are appropriate?

• How does the presence of smoke

affect the ability to respond to visual

and/or auditory alarm signals?

• How do individuals' needs differ in

fire emergency situations—aged,

handicapped, children?

An inspection of the subject matter

covered by these questions gives a

hint of the range of informational re- quirements needed. To obtain the

answers, research must span both

fundamental and applied problems.

The basic data requirements will in- clude information concerning the

functioning of the sensory processes

of vision and audition during

emergencies.

Another misunderstood area is what

constitutes "normal" behavior in an emergency. If we knew how an in- dividual typically responds in an emergency and whaf is responded to, the design of safety systems could be

much easier. (This statement as- sumes that most people would res- pond in a common way, and even for

those who are not typical, the newly

designed safety systems would be no worse than those now in use.) The applied research calls for a better un- derstanding of the situation requirements typical in fire emergencies, in- cluding the social forces that operate on an occupant. It is extremely important to identify the tasks that an occupant can perform and to determine

how he can best function as an in- tegral component in the design of a complex fire safety system.

A method for graphically depicting

activities which occur during building

fires has been developed by L. Lerup

(architect). He employed a map to in- dicate the locations and activities of

building occupants during a fire. The

map indicates the location and

progression of the fire, and along with

this, shows the behavior of the occupants by means of decision points (DP)

and behavioral episodes (E). Several

categories of occupants are mapped:

e.g., patients, staff, fire fighters, and

affected outsiders such as neighbors.

Letters are used to locate each in- dividual: "a" indicates the individual's

location in the immediate past, "b" in- dicates his location in the future and

"c" indicates the route he has taken to get from a to b. Further clarification

may be given by "d," a cartoon which

may be accompanied by a written

caption and serves to clarify the occupants' behavior in greater detail. The

cartoons give a clear image of the oc- cupants' interaction with the setting.

The Case Study Format fo Describe Fire Emergency Behavior

(Lerup^

t-15 vzo vzb

107
Prior to the development of graphic

mapping, researchers had studied

fires almost exclusively by looking at the physical characteristics of a

building. Lerup hopes that his technique will allow the study of the interaction between occupant behavior and

the physical setting during a fire emergency.

The Division of Building Research

(DBR) in Ottawa, Canada has

pioneered the documenting of actual

movements of large numbers of people in high-rise buildings and other

structures containing large populations. J. Pauls (Canadian architect)

has been a leader in these activities

since 1968, developing an impressive

set of empirical findings based on

evacuation drills.

His first study was in the 22-story

Hydro building in Vancouver, British

Columbia. In describing the

background for this study, Pauls

noted the intensified interest in emergency evacuation as a result of

fire incidents in tall buildings. As part

of a total approach to life safety in buildings a need existed, he said, for

information describing the context,

procedure, and efficacy of building

evacuation. He continues:

During the first two minutes of the drill, a prearranged procedure was followed to checl< the source of the alarm and

organize key evacuation personnel.

When total evacuation was ordered over

the building's public address system,

floor wardens supervised the clearing

and checking of each floor before

reporting to a central control center, using an emergency telephone system. It

took twelve minutes to clear the building once the evacuation was announced. Of

a total of 945 people from floors above

the mezzanine level, 910 left by two 47-

in. exit stairways and 35 used a supervised elevator.

They (the exit stairways) have a width of

47 in. at shoulder height, and each

stairway has an area of 155 sq. ft. per

story, of which about 140 sq. ft. is the effective area taken up by a 47-in. -wide

stream of people. The length of the

travel path per floor is 40 ft. measured

along the centerline of a 47-in. path

down the stairs and landings.

Evacuation procedures for the B. C. Hydro Head Office building are designed to be simple to follow while

permitting flexible control by key

evacuation personnel. Total evacuation,

for example, is initiated by means of a

siren signal and an announcement, both

transmitted over the building's public

address system. (The building is not

equipped with a general fire gong

system.) Evacuation of each floor occurs under the direction of a floor warden or his alternate; people line up in the corridor area at the

designated exit and proceed down

the exit stairway as the warden

directs.'^

People Exiting High-Rise Building (NBS)

As for communications, Pauls quotes

evacuation personnel and observers

after the drill as saying that with a few

exceptions, the siren and the initial announcement, both transmitted over

the public address system, were

clearly heard everywhere on the floor areas. With no speakers in the exit

stairways, however, there was

reportedly some confusion when

some of the wardens stationed at the

emergency telephones failed to hear

subsequent announcements. In terms of their initial interpretation of

the public address announcements,

Pauls said that all the evacuation personnel, and presumably most of the

other occupants, were sure it was an

exercise not a real emergency.

Between 1970 and 1972, nearly 40

test evacuations involving about

20,000 evacuees were observed by

Pauls and his associates in office

buildings ranging from 8 to 29

stories. The chief goal of these observations was to collect data describing

the nature of evacuation movement,

any influences on such movement,

and other relevant behavior of in- dividuals and groups, including

supervisors. Large-scale data collection was often necessary because of

numerous variables that could not be

controlled experimentally.

J. L. Pauls, "Movement of People in Building Evacuations," in Human

Response to Tall Buildings, ed. D. J. Conway (Stroudsburg, 1977).

108
Observation techniques included

equipping 2 to 15 observers witli portable cassette recorders to register all observations and background

sounds. These observations, tape

recordings of any communications

used in the evacuations, and visual

records provided by slide

photography and video tape

recording, could all be played back

realistically. In effect, the evacuation

could be re-run for purposes of

detailed analysis. For example, in one

21 -story office building nearly 20

channels of audio recordings were made at both fixed and moving observation positions throughout the 30-

minute period of a phased total evacuation exercise involving over

2,000 people. Observers moving with evacuees from floor areas to the out- side of the building were able to record data for a wide range of

behavioral variables, often without the

knowledge of evacuees only a few feet

away.

In terms of method and quantity of

data, these observations appear to have no research precedent.

Factors Contributing

to Accidents

(Suchman)

Accidents in Buiidlngs

While fire emergencies are a threat to people in buildings, they are rare and not experienced by most people.

On the other hand, most people suffer

accidents in buildings during their

lives.

Berns et al. studied causes of home

accidents involving children. Two

studies were conducted. In the first, families were asked to keep a record

for 23 days noting all occasions on

which accidents or near accidents occurred. Follow-up interviews were

conducted with the families concerning reported accidents. The

researchers discovered some

problems with this method as it was

hard to get individuals with young

children to take the necessary time to complete a diary. The second study

used a detailed questionnaire to determine important risks; it also in- cluded studies at the accident scene. The following items were found to be

the most frequent cause of accidents:

playground equipment, doors, fur- niture, bicycles, stairs, and cookers.

Predisposing Characteristics

Susceptible host

Hazardous environment

Injury producing agent

Accident Conditions

Unexpected

Unavoidable

Unintentional

Situational Characteristics

Risk-taking

Appraisal of hazard

Margin of error

Accident Effects

Injury

Damage

One procedure developed to better

understand why accidents occur is the concept of critical incidents, formulated by J. Flanagan (psychologist). The procedure identifies job

requirements which are judged to be

critical by participants or supervisors.

A critical requirement is one which

"makes the difference" between the

successful performance of an activity

and the failure to complete it. Flanagan used the study of "near ac- cidents" as a means of reducing accidents. He conducted a study for the

Air Force based on official accident

reports. Accidents were categorized

in terms of mechanical failures and

human errors. His findings indicated

that most of the cases cited were due

to human error, e.g., incorrect

altimeter readings, leading to aircraft

crashes.

Reading Altitude from

Different Inslruments

(Flanagan)

pmilAAF pilot

college students

nterpretaton

h'me

three-pointer

two -pointer

0.7 0.7

n

1.7 1.8

single pointer <Si counter

109
Movement of People In

Buildings

A major activity performed in buildings is the movement of people

from place to place. Researchers

have studied movement under both

realistic and simulated conditions.

First, what do we mean by

movements? Two types of movement

are distinguished by R. Bechtel

(psychologist)—exp/orafory and

habitual. In an exploratory situation

(where a person is in an unfamiliar

place), the environment plays a prominent role, by providing cues to those seeking a destination. These

cues are not as important for those

familiar with a building. This problem

has been examined by G. Best

(architect) who studied how people

find their way in complex buildings

and why they become lost. For this

study Best chose two buildings in Manchester, England. One building

was an old six-story structure, the se- cond a newer eight-story extension.

The buildings were connected at the

street level and by a third-floor corridor. The circulation patterns were

quite complex encompassing a number of dead-end corridors. The

buildings were used by as many as

9,000 people a day seeking one or more of 120 locations and using 1 of

10 entrances.

Best identified one room as a destination for the study. He chose a room

that was visited quite often both by

newcomers and by individuals who

had been in the buildings several

times. The route required to reach the

room was typical of routes taken by

most visitors.

"Lostness" was defined as follows:

Any person entering either building at any entrance and intending to go directly to M27 (the experimental destination)

will get there most efficiently if he follows one of the experimental routes: a person

that unintentionally deviates from one of

those routes is direction-finding inefficiently and for the purpose of this study

will be considered losf

Interviews were conducted with 135

individuals seeking the chosen

destination. When they reached their

destination the individuals were

asked: (1 ) which entrance they had

used; (2) what route they had taken,

whether they had been lost, whether

they had deviated from the ex- perimental route; (3) how much information they had gained from signs

and other individuals (doorman, etc.);

and (4) what previous experience they

had had in the building.

The results indicated that 56% of the users became lost due to choosing

the incorrect floor level. Over one-half

of the errors was due to wrong directions given by other people. In general. Best considered that more

people became lost with an increase

in route length, an increase in changes in route direction, and an in- crease in route choices.

' G. A. Best, "Direction-Finding in Large

Buildings," in Architectural Psychology:

Proceedings of the Conference at Dalandhvi, ed. D. V. Canter (University of Strathclyde, 1969).

A. Melton (psychologist) observed the

way that museum visitors behaved.

For example, he noticed that visitors

favored right turns—a finding supported by other studies as well, and

usually attributed to the fact that most

people are right-handed. Melton also

indicated that the closer an exhibit

was to an exit, the less time that it was

viewed. He termed this phenomenon

"exit gradient." Another observation

made in the same investigation was

the surprising relationship between

museum size and the time spent at

each work of art. The larger the

museum collection of paintings, the

more time devoted to examining each

painting. (This finding should be

verified before being generalized

beyond the study discussed.)

Melton then wanted to determine

whether he could alter these

behaviors. He modified the number of

exits in a museum and installed a number of directional arrows. He was

able to change the amount of time an

individual spent at various exhibits

and in the museum as a whole.

Museum Visitors (NBS)

110
The hodometer, an instrument which measures foot movement activity, was

used by Bechtel to study the

relationship between expressed

preferences and actual movements,

i.e., what people say and what they

do. The hodometer consists of

electrical counters attached to pres- sure sensitive foot mats which cover a

floor space (similar in concept to counters used to monitor vehicle traffic). Carpet is laid over the mats so

that the hodometer becomes a completely unobtrusive method of data

collection. Both locomotion and

periods of standing still may be

recorded.

The hodometer was used to measure

exploratory locomotion in a museum

of art. Movement patterns of the

visitors were recorded. A prediction

of the order of preference for each exhibit was made based on the movement patterns. Then subjects were

asked to view the exhibits and write

down their preferences. The average

preferences of the subjects cor- responded to those predicted by the

movement patterns.

The popularity of various museum

displays has been noted by less

sophisticated means than the

hodometer. It was observed that vinyl

tiles in front of a display of live,

hatching chicl<s at Chicago's Museum

of Science and Industry were completely worn in about 6 weel<s. Tiles

elsewhere in the Museum lasted for

several years. It would be possible to rate the popularity of the exhibits by

noting tile wear and replacement

rates.

Lil<e Pauls, who studied the movements of large numbers of people,

I. Stilitz (British researcher) observed

the location and direction of movement of people at automatic ticket

machines in underground London

subway stations. Each ticket hall was

laid out to scale on graph paper.

Observations were made during a 40-

minute peak period at evening rushhour. Lines of appropriate length were drawn on the plan to represent

the waiting lines. Groups of people were represented by a line enclosing

the appropiate area on the plan.

Arrows were used to show the direction of traffic flow. Flow routes were

noted every 10 minutes for the 40-

minute peak period. At the end of

every 5 minutes during the peak

period, waiting lines and groups of

people were recorded. The results in- dicated some possible design solutions for improving the flow of in- dividuals in the underground ticket

stations.

The movements of people in the

Museum of History and Industry in Seattle, Washington were studied by

G. Winkel (environmental psychologist) and R. Sasanoff (architect).

They prepared a series of slides in- dicating the exhibits. The slides were

presented to subjects on three dif- ferent screens, one in front of the subject, one to his right, and one to his

left. The subject viewed the

photographs and told the ex- perimenters which way he wished to go: straight, to the right, or to the left. The "trip" continued until the subject

indicated that he wished to leave the

museum. Each subject's route was

mapped and the time he spent in each

location recorded. The results obtained during the slide presentation were then compared with measure- ments actually taken in the museum.

The results indicated a somewhat

limited correspondence between the

simulation and the real world. The

most noticeable difference between

the two was the fact that the simulation tended to overestimate the

amount of movement actually exhibited when touring the museum.

This study points to the need for caution in simulation research.

Closed circuit television and scale

models of exhibits were used in lieu of

photographs by Bonsteel. The

televised simulation permitted

smoother transitions in space, greater

flexibility of movement, and yielded

real time measurements. Disadvantages resulted from the fact that the

televised images were black and

white, the viewing area was 45° as opposed to the 1 35° viewing area used

with the photographic technique, and

the equipment was expensive and

complex.

Movement Simulatbn &Doth

(Winkel k 5a£6noff

)

\ —_

=_

111
Two Swedish researchers, C. AxelAcking (architect) and R. Kuller

(psychologist), developed a method

for allowing individuals to simulate

moving through a space using a

televised presentation of a scale

model.

The design allows the subject to feel he is moving through a large area. A

mobile television camera equipped

with a relatoscope (a long pencil

shaped tube with a lens) gives an eye

level view of a naturalistic model. The

subject views the scene on a television monitor. In front of him is a foot

pedal which allows the subject to move the camera over the model; the

harder the pedal is depressed, the

faster the camera moves. A steering

wheel allows the subject to move the

camera in a new direction. These

changes register immediately on the

television screen. By employing dif- ferent speeds the design can be used

to simulate walking, biking or driving.

The subject also has a lever with seven distinct steps by which he can

register his perception of the environment he is moving through. This lever

acts as a seven-point rating scale.

Finally, the subject's "spot of fixation," or the point at which he is looking at a

given time, can be recorded. This is done by lighting one of his eyes with a narrow light beam which is reflected

by the cornea and moves along with

the eye. An additional television

camera records this light beam. This

is similar to the eye movement

camera approach (see chap. 1 1

).

The information, the view from the

model, the semantic rating, and the

fixation spot can be recorded on tape.

This method was developed as an ex- perimental model to assess various

architectural models. The ex- perimenters have also used recorded

background noise to enhance the

reality of the visual simulation.

Conclusion

We have reviewed several problems

and approaches dealing with human

factors issues. Occupant activities are

evidently influenced by many factors,

architectural, social, and situational.

While the building type is a major

determinant of the functions during

emergency conditions such as a fire, specialized functions are always an

overriding concern. This fact points to the potential conflicts among design

goals, e.g., appearance-functional

utility; fire safety-security; energy

conservation-livability; individualsocial needs.

Above all, the user should be considered as an active participant by the

architect. For example, in the case of

energy conservation, before making

firm "hardware" design recommendations, alternative options ought to be carefully explored. A systems

analytic approach can be employed to

identify these options—which should

take into account the capabilities of

building users to play a major role in energy conservation programs.

Furthermore, the need to perform

research on this topic should receive

far greater attention than has been

the case in the past where its importance has been noted and then ignored. The systems/human factors

approach is likely to greatly increase

the number and type of design possibilities that merit consideration and

increase the design alternatives

available to modify built environments

during the lifetimes of buildings. This

flexibility would provide the opportunity to respond to new information,

technology, and other developments.

Televised Presentation of Scale Model

(AcKinQ and Kuller)

TV/camera

Speed regulator

112
9

The Man-Made Environment

Design and Social Interaction

Site Factors

Architectural Features

High-Rlse Buildings

Institutional Settings

Environmental Features

Open Space Planning

Classroom Design

Fixed Features—Interior Spaces

Stairs

Windows

Movable Features

Fixed and Movable Space Features

Conclusion

I We have discussed several

characteristics of people believed to influence the way they respond to building environments. Now, we are ready to explore a limited number of

building and site features and indicate

their possible effects on behavior.

L. Festinger (psychologist) suggests

that:

The architect who builds a house or designs a site plan, who decides where

the roads will and will not go, and who

decides which directions the houses will face and how close together they will be,

also, is, to a large extent, deciding the

pattern of social life among the people

who will live in those houses. ^

Design and Social

Interaction

Considerable evidence exists that

design characteristics and

relationships have an important effect on social behavior. For example,

laymen, architects, and researchers

note that people tend to socialize with

those who are physically nearby; distance is an important determinant of

the likelihood of individuals and

groups interacting with one another.

We will now examine studies con- cerned with design features of the

environment—starting at the macro

level and progressing toward a closer

look at the links between design and

behavior.

' L. Festinger, "Architecture and Group

Membership," in People and Buildings, ed. R. Gutman (New York, 1972).

Site Factors

Festinger studied the relationship

between physical design and the

emergence of social groupings in a housing project. Interviews containing

questions such as. What three people

in Westgate do you see most socially?, were carried out in the 13 households

in each court. It was found that functional distance between courts, and

the direction in which the houses

faced were the two major factors af- fecting the pattern of friendship formation. However, the housing project

was unusual in that a great deal of

homogeneity existed among the residents, who were all married veteran

students at MIT.

Social ties in decaying neighborhoods were the subject of another investigation. Studies of slum dwellers of

Boston's West End found that

regardless of the physical state of the

housing, residents liked the West End

and did not want to move. A large

component of the favorable attitudes

involved social relationships and in- terpersonal ties. Emotional closeness

to neighbors was quite important.

(See following page.)

Information about the use of

neighborhood space can provide the

architect with valuable design

guidelines. If the space is used as a

play area, the architect will need to know by what age children and for

what activities.

G. Coates and H. Sanoff (architect)

observed children's activities on

the site of a multi-family housing

113
Closeness to Neighbors by Feelings about West End

(Festinger)

Closeness Feelings about West End (%)

Number of Respondents Totals

Strongly

Positive Positive

Mixed

Negative

Very positive 78 100 63 28 9

Positive 265 100 37 42 21

Negative 117 100 20 39 41

backgrounds and others with nondesign backgrounds, were shown the

photographs for exposure times

beginning with 50 milliseconds and

ranging up to 200 milliseconds.

Following each exposure, the student

verbally reported what he had seen. The information provided by the study

allowed Vigier to plot the pattern in which elements were seen and to

identify the dominant elements.

project. They recorded the type of

activity, the duration of the activity, the number of children involved,

and their ages. The results showed

which physical environments were

preferred by which ages and for

which activities. The authors stress

that the study was primarily

methodological and that other studies are needed to determine if different

physical designs result in different

behaviors.

Following the example of K. Lynch

(chap. 6), many studies have been

conducted to determine the overall

impression made by the city. In some

instances, sophisticated devices were

used to collect the data.

F. Vigier (urban planner) was in- terested in determining how elements

of a city are perceived. He used a tachistoscope (an instrument which

allows stimulus material to be ex- posed for very short periods of time—

a sensitive indicator of visual perception) to present wide-angle

photographs of Boston streets and

squares. Students, some with design

Children'6 Activities on Hoosinq Site

CCoare6 and 5anoff

)

Group Size 5haded Area

13 or more

Architectural Features

In a recent book R. Sommer

(psychologist) discusses architectural

features which he feels hinder in- teraction and lead to feelings of isolation. Sommer lists the following as the

characteristics of hard architecture:

Lack of permeability. A minimum of

contact between inside and out. Tlie building has no connection with the sur- rounding neighborhood. Expensive to construct, alter, or raze, few possibilities

for change or expansion without a gross

misfit between building and activities. Clear differentiation of status levels. Every activity and person has a

specified location. Minimal contact across status levels or departments.

Passive adjustment and psychological

withdrawal are encouraged. Little possibility for experimentation or change.

Rather than relying mainly on the occupants themselves to provide security

with outside assistance when needed,

security is assigned to a specialized

agency. Eventual replacement of

security through people by security

through machines. Materials and fur- nishings selected for ease of purchasing

and maintenance, producing uniformity

in design and layout.'^

High-rise buildings often have many

of the characteristics of hard architecture.

^ R. Sommer, Tight Spaces: Hard Architecture and How to Humanize It (Englewood

Cliffs, N.J., 1974).

114
High-Rise Buildings

Although some cities have stopped

building high-rise structures, others are just beginning to do so and

research is needed to determine the

effects of these structures both on the

communities in which they exist and

on the people who occupy them.

The relative livability of residential

blocks with and without high-rise

buildings was studied by P. Gelb.

Gelb observed outdoor activities on

six blocks, three with proportionately

greater high-rise floor space contrasting to surrounding low-rise units

and three with predominately twoand three-story buildings. Each highrise block was matched with a lowrise block in terms of city area, physical amenities, terrain, orientation, type of dwelling units, and socioeconomic characteristics of residents.

Observers were restricted to public

walkways and noted the following activities which were chosen as in- dicative of block livability: conversation groups, relaxation activities, people watching repairs and

maintenance tasks, children's play.

Results indicated that the presence of a high-rise building on a residential

block appears to have a negative effect on the livability of the block.^

' P. M. Gelb, "High-Rise Impact on City

and Neighborhood Livability," in Human

Response to Tall Buildings, ed. D. J. Conway (Stroudsburg, 1977).

" B. Egolf and R. C. Herrenkohl, "The

Influence of Familiarity and Age Factors on Responses to Residential Structures," in Human Response to Tall Buildings, ed. D. J. Conway (Stroudsburg, 1977).

In another study, B. Egolf and R. Herrenkohl showed observers slides

depicting different residential settings. The settings included high-rise

buildings, low-rise buildings, rowtype buildings, twin or semi-detached

houses, garden apartments, single

family dwellings, mobile homes, and

temporary shelters (tents, trailers).

Each slide was rated on degree of

crowding, degree of familiarity with

type of structure, and desirability as a

place to live. Results indicated that the

familiarity rank of a type of residential

setting is essentially the same as the

desirability rank of that type.*

Institutions are also cited as encompassing many of the characteristics of

hard architecture.

Institutional Settings

The behavior of nurses on two dif- ferent hospital wards was observed

by K. Keleman (psychologist). The

first ward was a single corridor design

in an old hospital. The behavior of six nurses was observed and recorded in

five major categories: interaction with

people; interaction with objects; communication; posture; activity being

performed. The same six nurses were

then observed after they had moved

to a new hospital with triangularshaped wards. The differences

between the two settings were

fewer and smaller in magnitude

than Keleman had expected. One in- teresting finding was that walking in- creased on the triangular ward; the

triangular ward had been designed to reduce the amount of walking re- quired.

Single Corridor Wands

(Keleman)

mil ^

Triangularly Shaped Wards

(Keleman)

Another study noted changes in behavior after physical changes were made on a custodial care ward. B. Hartford and W. Kleeman (interior

designer) first observed and coded

the behavior of individuals on the

ward and found very little interaction.

Several physical changes were then

initiated such as curved continuous

seating in conjunction with activity areas; tables used with the seating; a

small kitchen and laundry area; and

finally, a personal area where in- dividuals could keep possessions.

Observations after these changes

showed that interaction more than

doubled.

College dormitories or residence halls

may also be considered institutional

environments. The satisfaction of

college students with their residences

was explored by G. Davis and R. Roizen. The researchers designed a

questionnaire which looked at overall

satisfaction as well as satisfaction with

25 specific environmental variables.

The questionnaire was given to stu- dents on eight campuses, occupying

a variety of housing types. The housing types included conventional long

corridor dorms, suites, apartments,

and housing complexes. Particular

environmental features had very little effect on overall student satisfaction.

Instead, satisfaction was related to the

general type of residence hall. Conventional long corridor dorms

were the least liked while apartments were rated as very satisfactory.

115
Environmental Features

Another basic concern for the

architect is to determine how particular environmental features affect

building occupants. Although considerable M/E research has

addressed this issue, definitive

findings are few.

Open Space Planning

The concept of open space or open

office planning began in Germany in the 1 960's. At that time, open office

planning or office landscaping meant

the absence of partitions, a scrambled furniture arrangement and

large plants located throughout the

space. The purpose of this design was

to facilitate communication among

staff members. This concept, with

variations, is now being used in offices throughout the world.

Most of the studies done to assess open office planning have employed

questionnaires and more specifically

the semantic differential. Few studies

have used control or comparison

groups so that the responses obtained in the open offices could be

compared with responses obtained in traditional offices.

One study which did have a control

group is reported by P. Boyce. In 1971, in Bristol, England, the South

Western Electricity Board centralized

its operations and moved staff from

several buildings to a large new

building in which almost all the office

space was open-plan. Researchers were aware that past studies had in- dicated some disadvantages as- sociated with open-plan offices such

as distractions, loss of privacy and

status, and loss of individual control.

Questionnaires were designed to as- sess response to the new building.

The questionnaires were administered to the staff both prior to and after the move to the new

building. Briefly, results indicated improved communications in the new

building and satisfaction with lighting

and windows. There was dissatisfaction with the heating and ventilating

systems and complaints about noise

although noise complaints were also

evident in the older buildings. A

literature survey indicated that

responses to the new open-plan

building were similar to responses to open-plan buildings in other parts of

the world.

^ C. W. Porteous and J. D. Porteous, "The

Leaning Environment: Enrichment or Im- poverishment?," in Proceedings of the Symposium on Environmental Effects on

Behavior, ed. W. D. Bliss (Bozeman,

Montana, 1975).

Another study of employee attitudes

to old traditional office space and to a new open-plan space was conducted

by M. Brookes. A semantic scale was

given to each employee before the

announcement of plans to move to a new space and nine months after the

move to the redesigned space. Each

employee was asked to respond to the semantic scale in three different

ways. First, to describe the present office workspace; then, to describe an

ideal office workspace; and, finally, to describe the way co-workers would

want the office workspace. The openplan office rated higher in aesthetic

value and lower in the areas of noise,

visual distractions, and privacy.

Open space planning is also being

applied in classrooms.

Classroom Design

As two researchers, C. Porteous

(psychologist) and J. Porteous

(geographer), note:

Disillusionment with the traditional class- room has grown with the realization that during the lengthy learning day the child

may require varying environmental conditions, whether of humidity,

temperature, decor, or furniture

arrangements. This recognition of learning as a dynamic process has led to at- tempts to manipulate the physical learning environment so that the child's

learning advances with optimum speed

and minimum stress. Since the 1950's

there has been a concerted move

toward open-plan classrooms, where

the walls as well as the furniture are removable or capable of rearrangement

in a variety of desired patterns.^

Open Office Layout (NBS)

116
In a study concerned with open-plan

classrooms, J. Durlak et al. observed

students in traditional plan schools

and open-plan schools. Four

traditional plan schools and four

open-plan schools were matched on

the basis of geographical proximity,

size of student body and general

demographic status of the

neighborhood. The researchers made

systematic observations and

recorded information about the

general structure of the area, the

teacher's style, the activities of the

students, and the dispersion of people

in the spaces. The results

demonstrated that there were dif- ferent general activity patterns in each

type of school. It is now necessary to determine if these different patterns

have different effects on learning.

The effect of environmental complexity on learning behavior was explored

by Porteous and Porteous. The study

took place in three different classrooms of high, medium and low complexity levels; and at two grade levels,

third and fifth. The children were re- quired to learn a paired-associate

task with both a time limitation and a number of trials limitation. There was

a one-way mirror so that the

childrens' attention or "looking

behavior" could be observed. The

dependent variables were, therefore,

number of correct items on the learning

task, and attention to the environments

Children at both grade levels performed better in the less complex en- vironment.

Fixed Features—Interior

Spaces

E. Hall (anthropologist) makes an important distinction between two dif- ferent types of environmental

characteristics. He describes en- vironmental characteristics in terms

of being fixed-feature space and

semifixed-feature. A fixed-feature

space is typified by specialized

rooms, buildings and towns which

tend to shape behavior. The user has

only a limited ability to modify its primary features (for example, a bathroom). In contrast, a semifixedfeature space is one where limited en- vironmental modification is acceptable and possible (for example, the

furniture arrangement in a living

room). Hall emphasizes that in part

the fixedness of features is culturally

determined. (For example, in China,

chairs are considered fixed features

despite the fact that they are movable.)

^ Porteous and Porteous

The Swedish Institute for Building

Research has pioneered many M/E

areas dealing with interior building

spatial requirements. One such in- vestigation, performed by M. Englund

and G. Hallberg was concerned with

determining the size of the free space

needed on each side of a door, in order to freely open and close the

door.

The study was conducted by having

research subjects open a door, 90 cm

wide (height not indicated), while the

activity was recorded by a television camera. The floor was marked with a 20 cm grid, and the wall area near the

door was marked off in 10 cm increments. Experimental subjects wore numbers to ensure identification during later analysis. (This procedure

was required because the faces of the

subjects were not always visible.) The

research approach enabled the ex- perimenters to specify the space re- quirements for door clearance—for

the conditions studied.

Space Requirements

for Doors

(^qiund and Hallber9)

117
R. Blake (psychologist) et al. con- ducted a study in an Air Force

barracks to determine the effect of

room arrangement on the interactions

of the occupants. Open and closed

cubicle barracks were used in the

study, and in both types of barracks,

bunks were segregated into units of

six each. The only difference between

the two types was that the closed

cubicle barracks had walls which

enclosed each unit of six bunks, with

entrances from which doors were

removed. The subjects were asked to indicate the degree (on a 4-point

scale) to which they interacted with

others and to identify the three men

with whom each man preferred to "buddy." The open design fostered

closer relationships in the barracks

than the closed one.

The ceiling height of an experimental

room was altered by J. Savinar in a study of personal space needs. The

room was 16 ft. by 12 ft. (4.8 m by

3.6 m)on one wall. The ceiling was

made of white translucent fiber glass

and was adjusted to heights between

6 ft. (1.8 m) and 9 ft. (2.7 m) by means

of a pulley system. Savinar asked

subjects to determine their "comfort

threshold"—the point below which the

ceiling space became inadequate.

The ceiling was alternately lowered

from 9 ft. (2.7 m) and raised from a

point below the preceding trial. The

standing heights for all subjects (male

and female) were recorded

beforehand. The results indicated

considerable variability from subject

to subject (81 in. to 102 in.) (205 cm to 259 cm) not attributable to height or

sex.

In a follow-up study, the same

researcher examined the effects of

two ceiling heights (6 ft, 9 ft.) (1.8 m,

2.7 m) on personal space needs. She

positioned each subject in the room,

and then approached the subject,

who was instructed to say "stop"

when personal space was perceived

to be invaded. The floor was then

marked to indicate how closely she

had approached the subject. Ceiling

height did not affect the invasion distance.

Other building features receiving at- tention from M/E researchers are

stairs and windows.

Stairs

Vertical movements by means of

stairs pose a special challenge to the

architect. Stairs, while essential to buildings, also are a threat to their users. They are a hazard because

many accidents occur when people

ascend and descend them; many

severe accidents occur during descent.

118
A series of studies to verify the adequacy of current stair design practices was performed by J. Fitch

(architect) et al. Current stair designs can be traced to the worl< of Francois

Blondel, Director of the Royal

Academy of Architecture in Paris

(1672). Fitch and his colleagues in- dicate that Blondel:

Concluded from personal observation

that the normal pace in level walking (24

inches, he said) must be decreased by

a regular and fixed amount to allow the

foot to be raised in climbing stairs. Blondel derived a formula stating that the pace must be decreased by two in- ches for every inch of riser. Expressed

mathematically, the formula specified

that the depth of the tread should be 24

inches minus two times the height of the

riser, or that the total of the tread and two

times the height of the riser should be

24 inches.^

The authors of the study note that

Blondel's formula often leads to stair

designs which are too wide or too narrow. They also indicate that,

despite the fact the average person

today is taller than his 17th century

counterpart, many building and fire codes specify the stair dimensions

recommended by Blondel. The

research performed by Fitch and his

colleagues was designed to improve

the basis for recommended stair

design.

Approach To Temple of 1000 Steps. Seoul, Korea (Authors)

One study consisted of building

replicas of four different stairways

each one consisting of four steps. The

angle of ascent ranged from 7.7

degrees to 36.8 degrees (New York

City code). Men and women wearing

ordinary clothing walked up and down

the stairs and were photographed

while doing so. Their next investigation employed a mechanical stairway,

which permitted an increased number

of variables to be studied. They ex- amined three angles of pitch (25, 35,

45 degrees), three different risertread combinations and three speeds

of movement (controlled by the

mechanical treadmill). Subjects wore

special overshoes, equipped with

pressure sensitive stitches which permitted measurements to be made of

the length of time that the toes and

heels were in contact with the stair

treads. They found that: (1) more missteps occurred during descent and

(2) the safest stair configuration for

descent was not the same as that for

ascent. The stair design problem

obviously needs further work.

J. Archea (psychologist) studied the

relationship of stairs and accidents. A

television camera was positioned at stairway locations to enable video

recordings to be made of people as

they ascended and descended. Data were collected at several sites, which

differed primarily with respect to stairway design. In this way, many ac- cidents and near-accidents (critical

incidents) were recorded and later analyzed.

' J. M. Fitch, J. Templer, and P. Corcoran,

"The Dimensions of Stairs," Scientific American, 231 (1974).

119
windows

As energy conservation considerations have become more critical,

designers and engineers have begun

to pay more attention to the size,

shape, and type of windows which are

put into buildings. Investigators have

attempted to define a range of acceptable window sizes and shapes

through the use of scale models. A

scale model allows a person to change the size, shape, and location

of a window to suit his own particular

preference. The model can even be

equipped with miniature furniture to simulate either a home or an office

environment. In addition, the ex- perimenter can vary a large number

of parameters including view, building

orientation, and type of glazing.

In an investigation of minimum acceptable window size, E. Ne'eman (Israeli

engineer) and R. Hopkinson (British

researcher) employed a full-scale

model and a 1/10-scale model. Three

hundred and nineteen subjects determined minimum acceptable window

size as a function of the dimensions of

the room, the number of apertures,

the outside view, the weather, external illumination levels, and two window heights. The results indicated

that the subjects could identify a minimum acceptable window size

both with the full-scale and with the

1/10-scale model. Type of view

proved to be an important determinant of acceptable window size.

Small Windows (NBS)

E. Keighley (British researcher)

developed a scale model technique to investigate the visual requirements

associated with windows. A 1/12-

scale model was constructed and fur- nished to give a realistic impression of a landscaped office. The model was

furnished with a window which could

be controlled with respect to configuration by means of a pushbutton

control panel—the total window area

being fixed at 30% of the window wall. Beyond the window was a large

translucent screen upon which a view

was projected by means of eight color

transparencies simulating different

views as seen from different floors of a building.

120

Keighley had 30 subjects view the

model as if it were their office. They

were then asked to adjust the shape

and location of the window to the

most desirable dimensions. The subjects preferred a wide lateral scan and

selected settings which produced

wide rather than tall windows.

In another investigation employing

the same general approach, Keighley

used a series of templates to define

window configuration. Subjects were

asked to judge the acceptability of

each arrangement on a 5-point scale

(from "entirely satisfactory" to "very

dissatisfactory"). Keighley found that,

when total window area was restricted

and the number of apertures varied,

subjects were dissatisfied with a large

number of apertures and with very narrow apertures. Satisfaction with

window height was dependent upon

the view.

Layout of Model

(Keighley)

Screen with external

light 6ourc&af top

window

a55embi5/ ob6erver

A 6ampleof templates uted by Keiohlevno 1 —

n

1 1
Window research studies have also

examined the concept of

spaciousness. M. Inui and T. Miyata

(Japanese researchers) defined

spaciousness as the feeling of openness or enclosure produced by an interior.^ Inui and Miyata used several

models (1/20, 1/10, and 1/5-scale)

and evaluated the impact of such

variables as daylight, sunlight, window size, and room volume upon

perceived spaciousness. Results in- dicated that window size had the

greatest effect upon perceived

spaciousness. The results did not

vary with the size of the model used.

Perceived spaciousness was also

studied by V. Imamoglu (Turkish

architect) and T. Markus (Scottish

architect). They used both a full-scale

and 1/10-scale model. Unlike Inui and

Miyata, who had their subjects rate the spaciousness of different rooms,

Imamoglu and Markus asked subjects to adjust each of two rectangular

models to be equal to a fixed square

model in spaciousness. The effects of

window size, room proportion, and

length of window wall upon

spaciousness were assessed in this manner. Unlike the findings of Inui and Miyata, window size and

perceived spaciousness were not

found to be highly correlated.

Scale Model of Room (Keighley)

M. Inui and T. Miyata, "Spaciousness in Interiors," Lighting Researcli and

Teclinology, 5(1973).

The results of these two studies in- dicate that subjects can define and

use a concept termed "spaciousness"

fairly consistently. This concept is related to but not entirely .dependent

upon, the presence of windows within

a room. Thus, a large windowless

room, with a high ceiling, large

volume, and bright lighting could be

judged as spacious, although it probably would be judged as more

spacious if a window were present.

Windowless Space (NBS)

121
Movable Features

R. Sommer (psychologist) conducted

several studies to determine how furniture arrangements in a classroom

influenced participation by students.

In the first study, student observers

recorded classroom interaction in 51

different classes. Results indicated

that class size influenced student participation, but at the same time the actual number of students participating

was similar for small, medium and

large classes. The observers then

rearranged the chairs from straight rows to a circular pattern. This

change was made before anyone

arrived in the classroom. Results in- dicated that 20 of the 25 classes

rearranged the chairs in straight rows

prior to the start of class. Sommer in- terprets these rather discouraging

results as an indication of how easily

and unconsciously people adapt to traditional ways of doing things.

In a second study, observers

recorded participation in laboratory

settings—a more open arrangement

than that found in the classroom settings. Both the total time of participation and the proportion of students

participating were high (24% of class

time compared with 1 2% found in the

study of regular classrooms).

Study of Classroom Size and Participation

(Sommer)

Class Size

Small

(6-20)

Medium

(21-50)

Large

(50 + )

Number of Classes 12 12 27

Above Median Participation 75% 50% 37%

Below Median Participation 25% 50% 63%

Average Total Time of Participation 5.8 Min. 2.4 Min. 2.6 Min.

Average Number of Different Students

Participating Per Session 6.9 6.7 6.9

122
Fixed and Movable Space

Features

A. Maslow and N. Mintz

(psychologists) conducted a study to determine the effects of room

features on the task of evaluating

facial photographs.

Three rooms were used by subjects

who evaluated facial photographs on

the amount of fatigue-energy and

displeasure-well-being displayed by

the individual in the photograph. The

experimental rooms differed in terms

of characteristics and furnishings.

The rooms were evaluated as being

"ugly," "average," and "beautiful."

The "ugly" room was described by

people as being horrible, disgusting,

ugly, and repulsive. It was 7 ft. x 1 2 ft. X 10 ft. (2.1 m X 3.6 m 3.0 m) with two

half-windows, battleship-gray walls,

and one overhead bulb with a dirty, torn lampshade. The room contained

two straight-backed chairs, a small

table, and tin cans for ashtrays. The

window shades were torn, the walls were bare, and refuse and cleaning

implements were scattered around.

The room had not been swept or dusted and the ashtrays were full.

The "average" room was a professor's office with three windows, battleship gray walls and an indirect

overhead light. The room was 15 ft. x 17 ft. X 10 ft. (4.5 mx 5.1 mx3.0m)

and furnished with two mahogany

desk and chair combinations, two

straight-backed chairs, a metal filing

cabinet, a metal bookcase, window

shades, and a cot with a green

bedspread. The general appearance

was that of a clean, neat and workedin office.

People responded to the "beautiful"

room as being attractive, pretty, comfortable and pleasant. The room was

1 1 ft. x 14 ft. X 10 ft. (3.3 m X 4.2 m X

3.0 m) with beige walls, an indirect

overhead light and two large windows. The furnishings gave the appearance of a comfortable and attractive study and included a soft

armchair, a mahogany desk and chair

combination, a wooden bookcase, a

small table, two straight-backed

chairs, drapes for the windows, a

large Navajo rug, paintings, and some

art objects and sculpture on the desk

and table. The beautiful room

resulted in higher ratings in wellbeing and energy than did the others.

Mintz continued this study and

demonstrated that these effects are not

limited eitlier to "laboratory" situations or to initial adjustments, but can be

found under naturalistic circumstances

of considerable duration.^ Mintz in- structed examiners to spend two

hours per week for three weeks

testing subjects on their reactions to

facial photographs. The examiners were unaware of the purposes of the

study and switched rooms on alter- nate weeks. The subjects in the

beautiful room had ratings which were higher on the energy and wellbeing dimensions throughout the

study. The examiners in the "ugly"

room consistently finished testing in less time than the examiners in the

"beautiful" room. These results in- dicate that the appearance of an in- dividual's surroundings can have an

effect on the individual and on the activities being performed.

Room Evaluation 5+udv

(after Maslow and Mintz)

''UglV Room"

'Average Rborn"

"Beautitul Room"

Conclusion

As indicated in previous chapters, the

primary interest of the behavioral

scientist concerns how characteristics

of people influence the way they res- pond to building environments. This

chapter has looked at how building

and site features can affect behavior.

This area deals with environmental ef- fects and, while of primary importance to architects and in some cases

the regulatory community, it is of

secondary concern to behavioral

scientists. We will now consider an

area of major concern to behavioral

scientists—the sensory environment.

N. L. Mintz, "Effects of Esthetic

Surroundings: II. Prolonged and

Repeated Experience in a 'Beautiful' and an 'Ugly' Room," in People and

Buildings, ed. R. Gutman (1972).

123
124
Part IV

Well-known Senses—Hearing, Vision

Buildings are sometimes described in terms of forming a specialized environment suitable for conducting the activities of those who occupy them. The

users of buildings experience these environments by means of their senses. The ability to see, hear, touch, etc., has a physiological basis among man and

animals, which has been studied since the time of the earliest physiological,

medical, and psychological researchers. This subject area is therefore a voluminous and broad-ranging one. Due to the wealth of potentially relevant in- formation, however, we can only suggest the variety of approaches and

findings available—particularly in the instances of visual and auditory

research, which have received considerable attention. Unfortunately, while the

amount of information available on sensory stimulation is substantial, the

findings directly applicable to buildings are limited.

The fact that people rely primarily on sight and hearing in their day-to-day activities provides sufficient reasons for researchers to pay more attention to these senses than the others. There is another reason to concentrate on visual

and auditory research; these areas can be readily studied in the laboratory using research procedures following classical psychophysical methods. Most

laboratory studies are performed by collecting data on one experimental subject at a time, using psychophysical procedures. Since these procedures are

very time-consuming and costly, the number of subjects participating in a study is usually limited to no more than 20. The relatively small number of subjects is offset by the large number of measurements obtained from each ex- perimental subject. Subjects are carefully screened to ensure that they have

normal sensory abilities (e.g., normal vision) before participating in a study.

Environmental research is by no means limited to laboratory investigations. In recent years, there has been an emphasis on obtaining findings in realistic set- tings by conducting community studies. These investigations have used observational techniques and questionnaire surveys. Among M/E researchers, there

is a strong trend toward more field research in the actual environments being

studied.

Building users depend upon their eyes and ears for most of their information

about the environment. Studies of how we see and hear also constitute the

preponderance of traditional experimental research in psychology, dating from

the nineteenth century. Visual research in particular encompasses so many

problem areas of direct interest to M/E issues that the subject is subdivided

into three chapters in this part.

Chapter 10 describes noise as a major problem for building users. It reviews

acoustical criteria for spaces and materials and describes the development of

rating schemes used to evaluate the effects of noise on people.

Chapter 1 1 presents an overview of studies dealing with visual perception.

Gestalt and traditional research approaches and findings are discussed.

Chapter 12 focuses on illumination requirement measurement procedures.

Quantitative and qualitative factors are described and research methods discussed. Threshold and suprathreshold measurement methods are indicated.

Chapter 1 3 deals with color as an aspect of the visual environment. The effects

of lights on color perception are mentioned as are color harmony factors. The

development of color classification schemes is also described.

125
A Schematic Diagram of How the Human Ear Functions

. The v;brafioni) of f-h& eardrurn

cause fbe bonei) m the midcl le ear move bacK and forf h I iKe

•finvj lever-a. Thib leve-f acf/on con- vei-b fhe larger rvio-l-ion^' of fhe, ear- drum in+o +het?f>orter; rvore. -forcef

u

3 The -foofplafe-a-f fhe /finer end of

+he ;5-tepe6 naoveti in and ouf of ^-he oval windouj af-fhe 5an\e iraf-e -fhar

+he eardrum is v'/bra-fing.

When \|ou hear:

1. 6ound wavei) en+er your ear; frovel

through ("he aud/fory canal, and -set up vibra+ion-5 in f he eardrum^

1: TKe mo\^ment +he footplate ^ts

up mDtion6 in the fluid that fI'lb the cochlea6 In 4fie bra'in4he impub^- (6

+ran5lat-ed in+o the c^ensaHon

you /cnoi/o 35 6>our\d-

.Tbe fYioverrterd cf the -fluid causes

the hair^ ;nimer$c<i m the Fluid -to

ryiove. The movement st/Knulates the

attached eel I lo ^>end a +it^H

,

,

impube along

^

riber^ of the

audibrvj nerve to the. brain.
jO

The Auditory Environment

The Noise Problem

The Auditory Evaluation of Buildings

Noise Criterion (NC) Curves

Sound Transmission Class (STC) Ratings

Auditory Privacy

Speech

HUD Guideline Procedure

Loudness Level

Perceived Noisiness

Source Noises—Aircraft, Traffic

Hearing Impairment

Conclusion

Decibel Scale

for Sounds

Phsjsical damage

(jet -faKeoff)

Painful

(sirenl

Deafening

(power mower)

Ver^ Loud

(Cocktail part^)

Loud

(fraffic)

l\Aoderafe

(conversation)

Faint

(ru5tlin9 leaves")

120-

o J

127
Noise is an increasingly disturbing

part of our environment. The advent

of liglitweight construction techniques

and open-space planning designs

have contributed toward this trend.

Unfortunately, research studies to determine the effects of noise on people have not been directly applicable

to design requirements. Building oc- cupants are exposed to many dif- ferent noise sources which have immediate (e.g., speech interference)

and cumulative effects on people.

However, individual noise rating

schemes, developed to assess particular noises (e.g., aircraft,

automobile) are difficult to relate to one another and their combined ef- fects are difficult to determine.

Consequently, existing acoustical

design guidelines are sometimes

based on tenuous judgments.

In common with other environmental

research areas, few formal studies

have been designed to investigate the

positive attributes of sound. Expert

judgment has typically been the basis

for design decisions for those spaces

where the characteristics of sound

are especially important (e.g., concert halls and theaters). To the extent

that it has been possible to specify

desirable characteristics such as volume and warmth in terms of

reverberation time and diffusion, the

acoustician has usually served as the

expert. In other instances, judgments

are made by artists, managers, or owners of the building, largely based

on aesthetic preferences or past experience.

Of course, a concert hall is not the

most common space designed by an

architect. Almost every building has

requirements for enhancing, or at least permitting, activities to be performed which are largely auditory. For

example, a living room can be ex- pected to be used for conversations,

listening to music and watching/hearing television. Acoustical criteria and

rating schemes have been developed

to indicate the background levels of

sound compatible with activities performed in the home: living rooms,

bedrooms, kitchens, etc. Criteria are

also available for other building types

such as offices, hospitals, and

libraries.

What is critical to the architect is the

relationship of these rating schemes

to design. There are reasons to believe that their usefulness is limited

under present-day design practices in the United States.

Another aspect of the acoustical en- vironment of concern to the architect

is the disruption of desired activities

by noise—defined as unwanted

sound.

To prescribe design goals for the

auditory environment in the

household, for example, one must

first determine the nature of the activities to be performed, and the possible impact of the auditory environment. Activities are likely to include

reading, watching TV, listening to music, performing household tasks

(cleaning, food preparation), engaging in hobbies, eating, sleeping, convalescing from illness, and many

others. One would then tentatively

plan where these activities are likely

to be performed in order to minimize

conflicts among incompatible ones

(woodworking in a home workshop

and conversing).

One of the simplest ways to reduce

noise is to separate noise-producing

equipment and activities from spaces

which require quiet.

The Noise Problem

People living in the inner cities often

think of noise as a necessary price to pay for the convenience of living

either near their places of work or close to public transportation routes

which can be used for commuting.

However, in recent years the number

of people affected by urban noises

has been greatly increased as a result

of urban sprawl.

The most dramatic change in the

scope of the noise problem has been

a systematic invasion of noises out- ward from the city into the quietest areas of the nation. Suburban areas have been converted to urban, farm

to suburban, residential to industrial.

For example, construction of an in- dustrial plant results in a considerable

change in outdoor noise levels

because of the many factors as- sociated with new industry. Road, rail

lines, and/or airport facilities are needed, parking and housing for new

workers may have to be provided and

community services increased.

128
Two design approaches have in- creased the exposure of building oc- cupants to noise. First, the lightweight

construction methods used in recent

years have reduced the barriers

between noise producers and those

affected by noise. Second, the in- creasing use of open-space planning

has eliminated many barriers, thereby

marl<edly altering the noise climate.

Ironically, the design of open offices

frequently includes the deliberate in- troduction of noise sources as an aid

to privacy and to mask other sounds!

Noise therefore has a very

widespread influence on the adequacy of many building environments

and poses a major challenge to the

architect. Before noise can be dealt

with effectively, however, the ways in which it is manifested must be understood.

Noise has a number of characteristics

in common with other environmental

pollutants such as solid and liquid

waste and particulate matter in the

air. Its effects are biological, psychological, and sociological. Another

shared feature is the difficulty in establishing simple cause-and-effect

relationships between the pollutant

and its consequences. (For example,

just as we do not know the effects of

long-term exposure to minute quantities of toxic chemicals found in our

drinking water supply, the long-range

consequences of low level (below 85

dBA) noises are unknown.) Finally, a broad range of effects has been at- tributed to noise. At one extreme, a

loud explosion can destroy the sensory perception of the ears and cause

total deafness. At the other extreme,

temporary physiological changes

often accompany exposure to moderate levels of noise; for example,

changes in heart rate and blood

chemistry. Most available findings fall between these extremes.

To complicate the situation, the

quality of information concerning

noise effects is not uniform—it differs

from discipline to discipline.

Physiological consequences, such as causes of permanent hearing damage

are better understood than psychological ones, and both of these

disciplines are further advanced than

sociological research in their studies

of noise effects.

Let us first consider a number of the severe effects sometimes caused by

noise. Noise can cause permanent

hearing impairment under some cir- cumstances. The industrial setting is the most likely locale for this to occur though in few environments are people completely protected from levels

of noise which can cause deafness.

This hazard is very real, yet in most

design situations noise poses a psychological rather than a medical

problem. The most typical reaction of

the layman is that noise is a nuisance;

it interferes with many activities. This

latter problem is perhaps best il- lustrated by the detrimental effects of

noise on the understanding of

speech.

Perhaps the most prevalent, most

researched and still least understood

behavioral effect of noise is its disturbing and annoying quality. Since even these descriptive terms are

highly subjective, the development of a general methodology which adequately relates, in quantitative terms,

the physical characteristics of sounds

with the pyschological responses to them has been very difficult.

Open Office Noise Exposure (NBS)

129
The Auditory Evaluation of

Buildings

In designing an auditory environment,

tlie architect has a number of guides,

developed primarily by acousticians.

For the most part these criteria

describe the acoustic environment of

spaces, on the one hand, and the

noise transmission characteristics of

building components (e.g., walls,

floor/ceiling assemblies) in the other

instance. The adequacy of these

working tools depends on their

relatedness to the behavior and activities performed in a building. For

example, a given noise criterion (NC)

curve is associated with a noise level appropriate for an activity such as

sleeping. The curve is therefore an

appropriate design tool if adequate

data exist demonstrating that, at the

selected level, people can sleep,

whereas sleeping is difficult at the

next highest NC level. In a similar

fashion, sound transmission class

(STC) ratings have been developed to enable the architect to design a space

using built elements having predetermined sound transmission loss

characteristics. For example, if a room housing quiet activities (e.g.,

reading) is to adjoin one which is likely to be noisy (e.g., kitchen), then the

wall between these rooms should

have good sound insulation properties.

In both instances (NC curves, STC

ratings), the adequacy of criteria depend on the quality of the research

data used to formulate them. We will now briefly review their development,

using a recent study by S. Yaniv

(bioacoustician) and D. Flynn

(physicist) as the source document.

Noise Criterion (NC) Curves

The original purpose of the NC curves was to lower the number of complaints by those being disturbed by

noise. They were intended to specify

the maximum noise levels which can

be present in an environment without

eliciting complaints. The levels were

analyzed in terms of octave bands

and the noise was assumed to have a continuous noise spectrum. The NC

curves were developed by L. Beranek

(acoustician) on the basis of

opinion/attitude surveys of office

workers. The researchers questioned

the workers regarding the effects of

noise on their ability to perform their

work assignments and to communicate by speech. The responses

to the questionnaire items were correlated with physical measurements

of the noise. The currently used NC

curves were a refinement of earlier

speech communication (SC) criteria curves, and are now being modified to preferred noise criteria (PNC) curves.

130

Noise Criteria (NO Curves

Old Octave- Band Umitin9 Frcq_.(Hz)
Speech-Interference Levels that

Barely Permit Reliable Conversation

Beranek later had a questionnaire administered to 190 people near an Air

Force base. The rating scales were

produced in the following way. He had

the subjects evaluate the noisiness of

their environment and the degree of

interference with speech communication. Physical measures of the noise were also made, as were speech In- terference levels (SIL). (SIL is the

arithmetic average of the sound pres- sure levels of noise in the three octave

bands centered on the frequencies of

500, 1000, and 2000 Hz, respectively.)

The study indicated that speech communications were an essential part of

their activities and that intense office

noises interfered with these communications. As a result of these

findings, criteria for maximum permissible noise levels were established

in terms of SIL and loudness levels. The study data indicated that when

loudness levels were 22 dB greater

than SIL, there were no objections but

when they reached a level of 30 dB

above SIL, complaints occurred.

Distance between

noriTiai

71

1.0 65

2.0 59

3.0 55

4.0 53

5.0 51

6.0 49

12.0 43

Sound Transmission Class

(STC) Ratings

STC ratings, like the NC curves, were

developed in response to a criterion

of "minimal complaints," rather than

optimal acoustical performance. As

noted by Yaniv and Flynn: Historically, tenant complaints came about at a time

when the building industry was

departing from traditional masonry construction practices and moving toward

the use of lightweight, prefabricated

structures. In older construction, where

the rate of tenant complaints was low,

dwelling units were often separated by a 25-cm plastered brick wall whose massiveness was intended phmarily to serve as a fire wall. The smoothed transmission loss curve for this brick wall was

Speech-Interference level (dB)

Raised Very Loud Shouting

77 83 89

71 77 83

65 71 77

61 67 73

59 65 71 57 63 69

55 61 67

49 55 61

taken as the criterion against which

other structures should be judged. If the

transmission losses of a given partition are found to exceed those of the grading

curve at all frequencies, the partition is clearly acceptable. If the transmission

losses at all frequencies are found to be

poorer than those specified in the

grading curve, the partition is clearly unacceptable. Most partitions, however,

are neither all "good" nor all "bad. '"'

The rules employed to make evaluations which are not clearly good or bad differ from country to country but

the approach has been generally acceptable, as demonstrated by its use

by the International Standards

Organization (ISO).

' S. Yaniv and D. Flynn, Noise Criteria for Buildings: A Critical fleweiv (Washington,

D.C., 1968).

Speech Interference Levels (SIL) and Noise Criteria (NC)

Recommended for Rooms

Maximum permissible level

(measured in vacant rooms)

Type of room SIL NC

Secretarial offices, typing 60 50--55

Coliseum for sports only (amplification) 55 50

Small private office 45 30 -35

Conference room for 20 35 30

Movie theater 35 30

Conference room for 50 30 20 -30

Theaters for drama, 500 seats (no amplification) 30 20 -25

Homes, sleeping areas 30 20 -25

Assembly halls (no amplification) 30

Schoolrooms 30 25

Concert halls (no amplification) 25 15 -20

Source: SIL data from Beranek and Newman as modified by Peterson and

Gross to reflect current practice of using octave bands with centers at 500,

1000, and 2000 Hz; NC data from Beranek.

131
Although STC curves are routinely

used by architects and manufacturers

to rate the acoustical properties of

partitions used in buildings, the adequacy of these curves from the standpoint of occupant acceptance has

seldom been examined. One study

designed to serve this function was

recently completed.

The insulation curves of walls were

simulated by Rademacher

(acoustician) and Venze by means of

electrical filters. Experiments were

performed in a room similar to a nor- mal dwelling room in volume and

acoustics. Subjects listened to insulation simulation sounds attenuated by

the network and adjusted noise levels

F^HA Recommended Sound /nsulation Or'ttena

10

4K

Airborne

eradeierC-55

eradel[5rc=5Z

6radaiir5TC=48

5T6 '• 6ound '^rar]'Dmh^\on

Impact Sound Ptes^ure Level to)

75

Frequency, ^2

Impact

QnEdeHL UCLA'S

eradelL IIC^62.

eradel 116=55

lie • Impact Insulation

0335

1/3-octave band wide centered at 1000 Hz until the two sounds were

equally "loud." The "source" sounds

were male and female speech, music,

and random noise. The results of the

subjective assessments were then

compared with physical measure- ments of the sounds.

In a study of the acoustical rating

schemes now in widespread use, D. Clark (acoustician) used a paired

comparison technique in measuring

noise. (He used an anechoic chamber

as a test environment and introduced

sounds by means of a loudspeaker

system.) Two sounds prerecorded on

tape were presented repeatedly to ex- perimental subjects who were given

instructions to adjust one sound until

it was equally as annoying as the

other one. The sounds adjusted by

the subjects were 1/3- or one-octave

band of noise, while the standard

sounds were produced at a preselected STC level. Subjects also

adjusted sounds judged to be

equivalent in annoyance to a family of

transmission loss (TL) values. The

results indicated that the present STC

rating system is: A good choice in rating tine acoustical performance of

walls, but is ouerconse/'v^af/Ve in rating

changes in a TL curve.'^

Anechoic Chamber (NBS)

D. M. Clark, "Subjective Study of the

Sound-Transmission Class System for Rating Building Partitions," Jouma/ of fhe Acoustical Society of America, 47 (1 970).

132
Auditory Privacy

Another auditory problem in buildings

(especially homes) concerns privacy

rather than noise. In multi-family

buildings, lack of acoustical privacy is a major source of irritation. Acoustical

privacy can be defined as the expectation that sounds generated within

the household will not be broadcast to other households in the building. This

problem deserves special attention

because of the widespread use of

lightweight construction techniques in buildings. If this trend continues

(without modification of the sound in- sulating properties), future homes will have far less acoustical privacy than

in the past.

W. Cavanaugh et al. (acousticians and

psychologists) conducted a study to explore the need for privacy in offices.

The experiments took place in a test room which simulated a private office.

The test subjects were provided with a desk, a chair and reading material.

Noise, approximating a spectrum of an NC-35 contour, served as background while speech signals were transmitted over another sound

system. The speech signals were

gradually increased in intensity. The

subjects were asked to judge the

privacy that was required when sensitive or confidential work was being

performed. The subject responded by

pressing a button, after which the

speech level was lowered until it could no longer be heard. In the study, the

authors caution that, The use of

average TL values as the sole parameter

in designing for speech privacy can

lead to grossly inaccurate results,^

despite the general findings that a

close relationship exists between

judgments of speech privacy and intelligibility of intruding speech

sounds. (Occasional intruding speech

sounds were judged to be quite an- noying by subjects.)

A field study of the effects of noise on

people at home was performed by S.

Fidell et al. (psychoacousticians). The

investigators equipped experimental

subjects with a signaling device to be worn on their wrists at home. The

device was used to indicate when a

noise bothered them, and also the

degree to which it was annoying. In conjunction with the rating, tape

recordings were made of the sounds

creating the noise, and the subjects were asked to state what they were

doing when the disturbance occurred.

Acoustical measurements were made

in parallel with the other data collection activities. The authors concluded

that the procedure described was

feasible for use in community noise

surveys. People participated willingly,

although their normal activities were somewhat disrupted.

^ W. Cavanaugli et al., "Speech Privacy in Buildings," Journal of the Acoustical

Society of America, 36(1962).

Speech

A major factor which influences the

acceptability of the auditory environment is the ease (or difficulty) with

which speech can be understood.

When we consider how many activities performed in buildings are completely or partially based on the

spoken word, it is not surprising that

auditory criteria are influenced by

speech communication attributes.

The close relationship between

auditory criteria and speech factors is evidenced by the work of Beranek,

(mentioned earlier) in the development of NC criteria, where the ability to conduct conversations was an important determinant of the auditory

quality of a space. In fact, the NC

curves evolved from an early study by

the same author which was focused on the problem of speech communication. This work led to the

development of a set of curves, speech criterion (SC) curves, to in- dicate different levels of speech in- terference produced by noise. (The

SC curves, like the NC curves, were

based on attitude surveys of military

and civilian office workers.)

The evaluation of an environment

regarding its acceptability for speech

communication has primarily been

based on one or more of three factors: (1) A commonly accepted definition of an acceptable speech environment by speaker and listener. (2) The

vocal sound level exerted by speakers

as a function of frequency and time.

(3) The degree of speech recognition

measured in the presence of noise,

i.e., speech intelligibility tests.

The remainder of our discussion will be devoted to a brief explanation of

the methods noted above.

A commonly accepted definition of an

acceptable speech environment. Obviously, this approach is a highly subjective one, which is not amenable to research. We will therefore not pursue

it any further.

Vocal sound level exerted by speakers.

Considerable work has been performed to estimate the extent to which

noise will interfere with speech communication. The articulation Index

(Al) is such a procedure. It is an es- timate of the proportion of the normal

speech signal available to a listener

for conveying speech intelligibility in the presence of noise.

Articulation IndeK

Three T^pe5 of Material

7oo\—]—

j

\ r

Articulation Index ^Al)

sentencee i^no\^jnto

Ii6tener6

rhyme testes

nonsense syllables

133
The Al is based on the fact that

speech can be analyzed into a finite number of sounds which differ from

one another in terms of their total sound level, duration of build-up and

decay, and the distribution of sound

level with respect to frequency. For

example, the vowels as a group carry

relatively large amounts of energy,

distributed into harmonics of the fundamental frequency of the voice.

These harmonics have distinguishable frequency regions which

differ for each vowel. The consonants, on the other hand, carry much less

energy, but the little energy that they

do carry is found in higher frequency

regions than the vowels and over

shorter durations.

The frequency range of speech ex- tends from 100 to 6000 Hz. However,

most of the information contained in speech is carried by the consonants,

which, because they carry little energy, are easily masked.

As one speaks, the various basic

sounds are combined into orderly se- quences of phonemes to form

syllables, which themselves are arranged into words and sentences.

The result is an acoustical signal

which undergoes rapid fluctuations

with respect to sound level and fre- quency. In order for a listener to un- derstand speech he must be able not

only to detect the various sounds, but

also to integrate and recognize the

constantly shifting patterns.

Typical R. M.S.* Pressure Levels

of the Fundamental Speech

Sounds

(Van Cott)

ivey PrGssure wuru oounu level (uD^

O OR 0

lup a 97 ft

lUi 1 U 07 n

t3p a OR Q

tons 0

tr^o it lUKJ f\ ud

t©n 6 01^ A

fr\r\\ lOOl U

ot; n

tin 1

1 OA 1 too m {-\ O'X A

orr t?i 1 r1 O'X 0

lot Icl 1

1 o(\ n

ol 1 1 Q n nnng

lilt; II! 17 9

chat cn \Xi.tL

JOI j

1 O.D

3zur6 zn-7h

zip z 1 9 n

ciit ol I s 1 9 n

tsp *

t II./

get g 11.7

kit k 11.1

vat V 10.8

that th 10.4

bat b 8.0

dot d 8.0

pat P 7.7

for f 7.0

thin th 0

*Root Mean Square

**Spoken by a male adult

at a normal level of effort.

When noise is present, some of the

sounds and their shifting patterns are

lost, and the speech becomes more

difficult to interpret. As a result,

speech intelligibility deteriorates in proportion to the sound level and

bandwidth of the noise relative to those of the speech signal.

Speech intelligibility tests. While the

research basis for relating the

physical power of speech components to intelligibility (the Al) is rather

tenuous, and that associated with a commonly accepted definition of acceptability is non-existent, evaluation

based on speech recognition has

resulted in a comprehensive body of

research-based information.

Speech intelligibility research is designed to provide information con- cerned with the effect of noise on the

understanding of speech. The general

approach employed is to transmit

various types of verbal material (e.g.,

words, sentences) in the presence of

noise, and determine how many, or what proportion, of the "messages"

transmitted, are accurately received

by a listener. This information is then

used to predict the speech intelligibility of an environment or a communication system. The

procedure was first developed to evaluate radio systems for military use, e.g., air to ground. One of the

goals in the early research was to eliminate high and low frequencies in radio transmission to enable a max- imum number of messages to be sent over a given bandwidth, without a

serious loss in intelligibility. For example, the telephone uses a rather

narrow frequency range which results

in some loss of quality without compromising the amount of speech in- formation transmitted.

Language and intelligibility tests. Obviously, the function of speech is to convey information. Therefore, the

evaluation of an environment from the

standpoint of speech intelligibility

must take into account the fact the in- formation being transmitted may vary

considerably in terms of difficulty.

Defining the informational content of

language has been pursued by many

researchers, engineers, mathematicians, linguists, psychologists, and

others. While a treatment of this rich

research topic is beyond the scope of

the present work, it is necessary to mention a few factors related to the

subject in order to gain an understanding of how speech intelligibility tests are designed and used.

The speech intelligibility or articulation test is a standardized procedure

for determining the probability that a message will be understood during

adverse conditions of communication. In such tests, speech communication is simply represented as a

series of message units (test items)

selected according to certain rules

from a set of such units, e.g., words of

one syllable such as go, to, car, etc.

134
These message units are spoken in a

well-defined sequence by a speaker

to a listener, and the listener records

responses after the presentation of

each test item (in laboratory tests,

tape recordings often are used). The

message unit is usually preceded by a statement such as you will write. A test score is computed by determining the

proportion of correct answers to the

total items on a test. Tests are often

comprised of 50 items, with each correct one being worth 2 points.

Word tests have been constructed at many levels of difficulty, in accor- dance with specific requirements.

Typically, early tests were comprised

of phonetically balanced (PB) single

syllable words. The words were

selected from a compilation of such

words most often used in publications. The final test (20 lists of 50

words each) was constructed so the

phonetic sounds in the test appeared

with a frequency equal to their fre- quency of occurrence in the English

language. For example, the sound "S"

appeared much more frequently than

the sound "Z." While PB tests of common words serve many functions,

they are not sufficiently sensitive for

evaluating spaces or communications

systems requiring superior performance, e.g., an auditorium or lecture room. Consequently, other lists were

developed to make more refined measures. One such approach

employs "nonsense" syllables. They

are constructed by randomly combining consonant-vowel-consonant combinations which do not include words

of the English language (e.g., MEEP,

NAM, NOOTH, etc.). Test scores using nonsense syllables as expected

are far below those based on the intelligibility of common words. PB

word tests and nonsense syllables are

but two approaches to evaluate

speech intelligibility. Other tests used

for this purpose employ sentences,

rhymes and, phrases.

Phonetically Balanced (PB)

Word List

1. gill 18. ways 35. hock

2. suck 19. wish 36. niece

3. perk 20. pit 37. tan

4. fate 21. cloud 38. vast

5. five 22. scythe 39. our

6. need 23. blush 40. start

7. pick 24. shoe 41. bounce

8. log 25. snuff 42. bud

9. nab 26. moose 43. frog

0. else 27. mute 44. quart

1. gloss 28. rib 45. rap

2. hire 29. awe 46. charge

3. bought 30. trash 47. sludge

4. dab 31. corpse 48. tang

5. earl 32. bait 49. them

6. bean 33. job 50. vamp

7. nut 34. hit

Modified Rhyme Test (MRT)

1. 2. sing Sit took shoo!

sin £. ti II SIlll cook took

sip sick hook book

6. 7.

fin Tin fin Tig TOM DOII

fit 1 1 L fih 1 lU lull i 1 bUl 1

fill Till fi-77 TIZZ coil r\i 1 oil

11. 12.

hit DIT hit nil came cape

oit Sll wit cane cake

fit TIT U-it KIT cave case

16. 17. raw saw rent went

pBW thaw dent sent

JaW law font LCI 1

1

hont

21. 22.

rake rave Dill hill mil

1 ay fill 1 1 1

1

Will rate race Kill fill Till

26. 27.

heath heat sag sack

heave hear sat sass

heal heap sap sad

Message Sets. The listener is at a disadvantage when trying to understand nonsense syllables because of unfamiliarity with the sounds (words)

transmitted. The possible sounds

which might appear are indefinitely

large and no context for listening is possible. This type of test is an ex- treme case of an open set of words.

Under most listening conditions,

however, a person is likely to have

some idea of the kind of message being transmitted. The degree of

preparation or background which a person brings to a listening activity

substantially influences the ability to understand what is being said. The

"possible" messages have thereby

been narrowed considerably. This

brings us to the closed message set,

where the listener knows the message

so well that the responses are

restricted to the limited set defined as being appropriate. It is used when

critical messages are transmitted. An

example is a verbal message conveying safety instructions in an industrial

environment. If such a message cannot be heard, then noise control

procedures might be necessary to avoid accidents and ensure that people respond to emergencies appropriately. For example, if hazards

are likely to take the form of (1 ) moving vehicles and (2) falling objects,

then the safety instructions might be

clear the aisles in the former instance,

and take cover, in the latter situation.

The last speech assessment

procedure described combines elements of the intelligibility test and a

subjective evaluation by speaker and

listener.

135
The Walk-Away Test requires two men who exchange roles as speaker and listener;

thus, each person should have normal hearing and an average voice. To perform

the test, you will need a 100-ft. tape measure and some reading material with which

both persons are unfamiliar.

The speaker should stand at a fixed location, while the listener, starting at a distance

of 2 or 3 ft, backs slowly away. The speaker should hold the reading material at chest height in such a way as not to block the direct path from himself to the listener. He should not raise his voice in an attempt to maintain communication.

At some point the listener will find that he can understand only a scattered word or two over a period of 10 seconds or more. At this point, measure the distance

between the listener and the speaker.

For consistent and accurate results, this procedure should be repeated several

times during each visit and the distances should be averaged. Also, the roles of

speaker and listener should be reversed to average out variations of normal speaking levels and hearing acuity. After each visit, evaluate the site's overall noise levels by using a table.

Example: The site's exposure to both roadway and railway noise has been

evaluated as Normal!]' Acceptable. Therefore, we assess the overall noise levels duhng three separate weekday visits to the site. During Visit 1, made between 8:00

and 9:00 a.m.. the distances where understanding just became difficult were 50 ft., 55 ft., and 54 ft. for an average of 53 ft. The average of distances for Visit 2, made

between 4:00 and 5:00 p.m., was 47 ft. and for Visit 3, made between 10:00 and

11:00 p.m., was 68 ft."

HUD Guideline Procedure

The Department of Housing and

Urban Development (HUD) in its "Noise Assessment Guideline"

suggests a procedure which may be

employed to assess the overall noise

level of a site. The technique

proposed, known as the Walk-Away

Test, is a simplified version of a speech intelligibility test. (The

procedure is useful for rough estimation only and is one of several approaches described in the

publication.)

The Walk-Away Test is an optional

evaluation that may be performed

during any visit to the site. However,

when the site's exposure to more than one source of noise is found "Normally" rather than "Clearly Acceptable,"

the Walk-Away Test is strongly

recommended as a means of assessing the cumulative effects of noise

from various sources.

The Walk-Away Test has been

designed to evaluate without reference

to specific sources the overall noise

condition at a site. Since noise may

vary during a 24-hour period, this test should be performed at those hours

when noise is apt to be most severe

(during the peak morning and after- noon traffic periods) and at those

hours when noise is apt to be most

annoying (i.e., between 10:00 p.m.

and midnight when people are trying to go to sleep).

•me "Walk-Awav" Noise

Test (HUD)

HUD "Walkaway "Test

Site Exposure to Overall Noise Levels

Distance where speech

understanding Acceptability

is judged category

More than 70 ft . . Clearly Acceptable

26-70 ft Normally Acceptable

7-25 ft Normally Unacceptable

Less than 7 ft. . . Clearly Unacceptable

" T. J. Schultz and N. M. McMahon, HUD

Noise Assessment Guidelines

(Washington, D.C., 1971).

Now that we have discussed the en- vironment from the standpoint of

speech communication, we will turn to the problem of annoyance and disturbance caused by noise. The section

that follows traces the procedures

used to measure the basic

characteristics of sound

(psychophysical procedures) and

their evolution to methods used to as- sess the noises produced by major

sources such as aircraft and motor

vehicles.

136
Loudness Level

The earliest attempts to quantify tlie subjective magnitude of sounds were made at the Bell Laboratories by H. Fletcher (psychoacoustician) and W.

Munson. These studies were

designed to define and measure

loudness.

The loudness level of a tone was

defined by Fletcher and Munson as

the intensity level in dB of a tone when

compared with a reference tone having the single frequency of 1 000 Hz. The procedure employed in their data

collection is known in psychophysics

as the method of average error. The

experimental subjects adjust the in- tensity level of the reference tone until

it is judged as being equally as loud as the test tone. A compilation of

many judgments, by a sample of subjects making these judgments with a

variety of tones varying in intensity

level, results in data that can be

presented in the form of equal

loudness contours.

These Fletcher-Munson curves are of

special Interest to both designers and

acousticians, because the 30-phon

level forms the basis for the dBA scale

of sound level meters, the most commonly used measure of sound. (This curve measures the sensitivity of the

average ear to broadband sound.)

Because of its importance as a noise

source, a number of techniques has

been developed especially to measure and evaluate aircraft noise.

The man usually associated with the

refinement of these measurement

methods is K. Kryter (psychologist),

who states that people's attitudes

toward the unwantedness of sounds are

in part determined by their masking,

loudness, startle, distractive and

auditory fatigue effects.^ Kryter in- dicates that these effects are also

determined by the spectral

characteristics.

Equal-ioudness

Corrtours for Pum Tones

(Fletcher and Munson, 1933)

Loudne^ level (phon^)-^

20 50 200 2)00 5000 -Sqcoo

* K. Kryter, The Effects of Noise on Man

(New York, 1970).

A major advance in methodology was

introduced by S. Stevens

(psychophysicist) who, while retaining

the concept of equal loudness contours, developed a new methodology

in defining them. Instead of confining

judgments to those of equality, he had

subjects also estimate magnitude.

His basic procedure was as follows: a standard tone of 1 000 Hz at 40 dB is given the arbitrary value of 1 sone. Subjects make adjustments of a comparison sound until, for example, it is twice as loud as the standard; this

level is defined as 2 sones. Judgments are then made as to 1/2 the

loudness of the standard; these are defined as 1/2 sone. Further comparisons can then be made in a

similar manner for 1/4 sone and 4

sones, etc. Intermediate points are then computed on the basis of bisection between the empirically based

data.

Phon-Sone Relationship

(Stevens)

40 so bo TO 80 <3o loo 110

Loudnefif) level ('phoyi6)

Perceived Noisiness

A scale was developed to express

perceived noisiness (PN) based on

occurrences of sounds of equal dura

tion. The unit of perceived noisiness is the noy. A sound judged to be subjectively equal in noisiness to an octave

band of random noise centered at

1 000 Hz and a sound pressure level of

40 dB is given a value of 1 noy; a sound judged as twice as noisy is 2

noy, etc.

The perceived noise level (PNL) was

developed because loudness based

judgments on complex stimuli such

as aircraft noise were inadequate.

PNL measures were found to be

deficient too, especially for jet aircraft

noise. Investigators determined that

certain tonal components within the

broadband noise (i.e., pure tones

which could be distinguished above

the general noise) and flyover duration both had to be taken into account

in any evaluation procedure. PNdB

was the name of the unit given to the

PNL calculated for a sound. The

PNdB unit is the translation of the

subjective noy scale to a dB-like

scale; an increase of 10 PNdB in a sound is equivalent to a doubling of

its noy value.

The judged PNL of a given sound is equal numerically to the maximum

overall sound pressure level of a

reference sound. Complex sounds

designed to simulate jet aircraft noise

(with pure tone high-frequency components) have been used in studies

employing similar procedures. Kryter

and K. Pearson (psychoacoustician)

used a method of paired comparisons

to determine the subjective noisiness

137
of sounds consisting of a steady-state

pure tone immersed in noise, and the

same sound minus the pure tone. Stimuli of various frequencies, but at the same PNL, were used as standards. The comparison stimuli,

similar to the standard in center fre- quency and bandwidth, were

presented at a preselected number of

levels above and below the standard.

Aircraft Flight Plan

The sounds were recorded in pairs on

magnetic tape. The subjects were

then asked to indicate which of the

two stimuli sounded noisier, or less

acceptable to them. The researchers

found that pure tone components in noise contributed significantly to judgments of annoyance.

Source Noises—Aircraft,

Traffic

Aircraft noise studies have also been

conducted under semirealistic conditions. One of the most painstaking in- vestigations of this type was performed for the National Aeronautic

and Space Administration (NASA). In this experiment Kryter used sounds

actually produced by aircraft as they

passed directly overhead after

takeoff. He measured the sounds by

using an octave band analysis and

then had subjects make "annoyance"

judgments of them. Subjects were

also asked to compare the two

members of a pair of recorded

sounds of aircraft. The subjects adjusted the level of the "comparison"

sound until it was as equally acceptable as the sound which served as

the standard. The investigation

verified the complexity of evaluating

aircraft sounds. The findings did not

indicate that simplified noise rating

procedures could be readily

developed.

Kryter also conducted a study using

the same aircraft sounds, by the

method of paired comparison. Subjects were presented with preselected

pairs of sounds and were asked to judge which of the two sounds would

be more disturbing if heard in the home.

The Kryter study is a good example of

adapting traditional laboratory controls for use in an investigation con- ducted in a relatively realistic field setting (e.g., scheduled and controlled

flyovers of houses, with judgments

made live as well as by employing two

different psychophysical methods).

This approach permitted comparisons of findings using several dif- ferent procedures. On the other hand,

the study of Fidell et al. was designed

to maximize the realism of a setting by

recording and having people respond

to sounds in their own environments.

Unfortunately, the use of a tape

recorder in such studies, while

valuable from the viewpoint of a

researcher, presents problems in terms of subject privacy: recording in- struments, being nonselective,

provide records not only of noises,

but of private conversations as well. Along with aircraft noise, automotive

and truck traffic noise, and to a lesser

extent railroad noise, have been

determined by surveys to be major

sources of disturbance in buildings.

Comparison

Aircraff

Cbmpen5on

^

Reference

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l^dar Tracking &^ Conirol Oufdoor subjects

138
I. Griffiths (physicist) and J. Langdon

(psychologist) of the British Research

Establishment developed a measure

of the dissatisfaction caused by

roadway noise. The technique, called

the traffic noise Index (TNI), is based

on weighted physical measurements

of noise for a 24-hour period and sur- vey data which was correlated with

the roadway noise data. Computations were made of the peak noise

levels (defined as being levels ex- ceeded 10% of the time) and the

background noise (defined as the

level exceeded 90% of the time). The

TNI is based on a weighted combination of these values. The survey part

of the study included 708 respondents from 1 2 sites around London,

England. The locations were selected as representative of traffic flow

throughout the country. The questionnaire dealt with the effect of noise on

household practices such as putting

children to bed and keeping windows

open. Respondents were also asked

to rate their dissatisfaction with noise on a7-pointscale.

The authors found that while average

dissatisfaction scores from many

people could be correlated with

physical measures of sound levels, in- dividual reactions could not be

predicted. The TNI is proposed as a

viable approach to dealing with traffic noise.

The final topic on the subject of noise

to be considered is that of permanent

hearing damage. Many people,

primarily at places of work, are ex- posed to sound levels which can cause a loss of hearing. Moreover, the

advent of rock and roll music, often

experienced at intense sound levels,

also poses a potential threat to hearing, as do some activities performed

at home in workshops and outdoors—

e.g., cutting wood with a chain saw.

Hearing Impairment

Hearing impairment has been studied

from the standpoint of anatomical

structure as well as function.

Researchers, both in and outside the

medical profession, have built up a

substantial body of information based

on detailed physiological measures in animals as well as humans. A great

deal is now understood about the permanent damage caused by intense

noise that has specified

characteristics.

Excessive noise exposure causes a

loss of hearing acuity. A temporary

hearing loss in the form of a temporary threshold shift (TTS) can

result from short-term exposure to high-level noise. A permanent

threshold shift (PTS) can result from

either continued exposure to highlevel noise or short exposure to very

high-level noise. The permanent

hearing damage risk associated with

noise depends upon (1 ) the intensity

and frequency distribution of the

noise, (2) the duration of each in- dividual exposure, (3) the number of

individual exposures per day, (4) the

number of years over which the daily

exposure is repeated, and (5) the in- dividual susceptibility to this type of

damage. Noise levels of this

magnitude usually occur in industrial

plants and airports where employees

are constantly exposed to loud

noises. The temporary threshold shift

is used to estimate the possible permanent damage to the ear, termed

permanent threshold shift. (The

relationship between TTS and PTS is a source of controversy, as are many

criteria and procedures developed to

clarify and quantify the effects of

noise on people.)

Temporarv

rT6 m DB

40

30

zo

70

liiiiiiiiYijjj

0

Z 5\ 10\ Zd\ 501 100

^po^ureVme in Mi'DMedian Pi6»e>ati6>factbn Percentile- Traffic

Nbise Index (T.N.I.)

(C)nffith6 and Langdon)

5 70 zo

^

(^70 80 700 zoo

Distance from road (m)
The first step in the procedure of

measuring the TTS is to determine the

hearing acuity of subjects before ex- posure to noise. An audiogram is taken which consists of presenting a

series of tones to subjects (from 100

to 8000 Hz, usually) and determining

the intensity levels required for the

subjects to barely hear each tone. The

subject is then exposed to noise (e.g., a 1000 Hz tone at 90 dB for 3

minutes). Following this exposure, at preselected time intervals, a series of

audiograms is taken. The objective of

these measures is to determine the

extent to which the audiograms taken

after noise exposure differ from the ones taken before. The differences in the intensities (before and after)

define the temporary threshold shift. Frequently, measures are continued

until the "after" audiogram attains the

same shape as the "before" data.

Under these circumstances the

researcher wants to know how long it takes for hearing to return to "normal."

Hearing loss of a person is measured

according to the lowest (weakest)

sound pressure level, called the

threshold, that the individual can

hear. This is done with an audiometer,

an electroacoustical instrument consisting of an electronic oscillator, at- tenuator, and earphone for producing

sound pressure levels in the ear of the

subject at various frequencies. Hearing measurements made with

audiometers are thus expressed as

hearing threshold levels (in dB) at various pure-tone frequencies (in Hz).

A person is recognized as having a

slight hearing impairment for speech

sounds whenever the average of his

hearing threshold levels at 500, 1000,

and 2000 Hz lies between 25 and 40

dB.

A Typical Audiogram

CD

10 15 20 25 ^

Tone {;^oooHz^c|6'^e

O OOCfZ. dyn^crrr

Although permanent hearing impairment is the most straightforward

method of demonstrating the permanent effects of noise on man, other

physiologically based measures show

changes even when there is no demonstrated permanent hearing

loss, e.g., changes in heart rate or blood pressure. The significance of

such changes is also a source of controversy among experts^

Pamage Risk Contours

100 zoo 300 lOOO ZpOO 5,000 1Q000

6and (Center Frequency (H^)

Permissible Noise Exposures

(OS HA)

Duration per

day (hours)

Sound Level dBA

Slow Response

8 90

6 92

4 95

3 97

2 100

IV2 102

1 105

1/2 110

Va or less 115

When the daily noise exposure is composed of two or more periods of

noise exposure of different levels, their

combined effect should be considered.

140
Conclusion

One aim of the architect is to create an acoustic environment that helps

occupants carry out tasks such as conducting a conversation, performing required work, etc. The design of an appropriate auditory environment

depends on a number of assumptions

which, though reasonable, do not appear to reflect the state-of-the-art in building acoustic research. This is because: (1 ) no general agreement

exists on a definition of a "desirable"

acoustic environment; (2) the

relationship of the auditory environment to task performance is not well

known (e.g., the effect of music on work production); (3) existing

acoustical criteria (TL, STC and NC

curves) are not based upon a solid

foundation of human response data.

Research efforts have been directed

toward refining physical measure- ment techniques. Many refinements

have been made and documented in terms of instrumentation, techniques,

and theory.

When we turn to the study of psychoacoustics (the response of people

to sounds), however, an entirely dif- ferent picture emerges. Few in- vestigations have been directed

toward evaluating existing rating

schemes such as STC, TL, or NC

curves which were derived from a

limited number of studies employing

a few people as experimental subjects. It appears as though initial studies, i.e., those "opening up" a

subject area, have been regarded as

definitive requiring little additional in- formation. We question whether existing rating schemes appropriately

account for the way people respond

to building noises.

The design of acoustic environments

which enhance or support activities

has not received much research at- tention. The information available

dealing with the disruption of activities

in buildings by noise is not much better. Although many problems in- directly related to noise in buildings

have been investigated (e.g., speech

intelligibility), comparatively few

studies have been made on how people respond to noises heard in buildings except for special cases such as surveys of aircraft and traffic noise. In the latter case, little has been

learned about acceptable noise levels

for activities typically performed in buildings.

A communications gap exists among

the many disciplines engaged in noise

research. Just as a considerable

language (and concept) barrier is evident between human science

researchers and architects, so the

acoustician and psychoacoustician

have widely divergent viewpoints. The

acoustician measures sound and

refines his measurement techniques

so as to best provide a physical and

quantitative characterization of the

sound. The effect on the person is irrelevant, once the focus of concern

is sound.

The psychoacoustician, on the

other hand, may never for a moment

forget that the central research

concern is on the person. There is no noise unless and until the in- dividual defines a sound as being unwanted. This generally accepted

definition of noise (unwanted sound)

forms the basis of noise research in psychoacoustics. Once the question

is asked (and answered) as to wtiy the

sound is unwanted, the psychoacoustician finds himself with the

same concern as the architect

namely the disruption of activities.

The architect who poses a question as

to whether a dBA level of 75 from traffic noise is equivalent to the same

level of noise from an air conditioner

cannot find an answer from published

sources. One reason for the development of so many acoustical measurement

schemes is the failure of carefully

developed laboratory methods of

measurement to meet the needs of

those concerned with day-to-day

noise problems. These measurement

approaches, in both acoustics and

psychoacoustics, were primarily

based upon analytical procedures.

Experimental sounds were simple

rather than complex, smooth rather

than rough, the onset (and ter- mination) of sounds was gradual as compared with sudden. In short, the

sounds typically used were designed

to meet experimental, theoretical, and

instrumental requirements at the ex- pense of realism. Pure tones and

white noise (an equal distribution of

energy throughout a wide range of

frequencies) were used as ex- perimental material for psychologists

and acousticians, although they are

rarely if ever found in the real world.

The architect must deal with the

noises that exist in the environment,

not those produced for laboratory

studies. Noise sources which have

been the cause of occupant complaints are not simple and smooth at

all. The most common community

noises which are disturbing are due to transportation (air, motor, railroad)

and construction activities. Dishwashers, plumbing fixtures,

footsteps, radio, television,

doorslams, and voices are often cited as being the most disturbing sounds

heard inside homes. Typewriters,

telephones, and automated processing equipment often elicit complaints

in offices. None of these sounds can

readily and inexpensively be

measured and analyzed.

Another reason why psychoacousticians have difficulties with sounds ex- perienced in buildings is that many

noises have a meaning component

associated with them. For example,

when we hear a toilet flush, considerable information is transmitted

by the sound. In addition, we have

certain values and associations that are brought to mind when we hear the

distinctive sound of water flushing; a measure of privacy has also been

sacrificed.

In summary, although considerable

information is available to help the

architect describe a suitable auditory

environment, many auditory

problems are not well understood and

must be attacked by M/E

researchers.

141
A Schematic Oiaqram of How the Human Eye func\\or\^

Color Vi6>on

?^]nO) ar\o Close WorK)

Cornea

(Major Focu6inc)

Elernerit)

Optica Nerve

ferain)

(Grive^ Blue or Brckxi

Adjusfe ?upi1 to Li^ht Level

Ganglicn Cell5

Code- i>/3nab^or

the Brain.

AmacrineCelb

Allow Fzvjt"Te.»T^por^

-"Keceptora

(po46 Cones)

Convert Light to ElectricalS/^nab

A/bi^ -Spatial . TDifferentistion

C<pnKiec+ Adjacent

Ketina/'Aeceptoo.

"Brain

Terrtporal T^dria;

Natjal Ketina

Lateral

Geniculate

OptiC ^'

(Nasal Optic Nerve Fibers Croai)

142
u

Visual Perception

Visual Perception—Texture Gradients

Visual Distortions

The Gestalt Approach

Conclusion

Man's predominant responses to the

environment—whether natural or man-made—largely depend upon the

ability to see. The architect has been

especially sensitive to the visual

aspects of building design, as evidenced by the emphasis on the

manipulation of volumes, forms and

spaces—all primarily visual ex- periences. The focus of attention on man as a visual being is by no means

limited to the design professions.

Instead, there are many disciplines

within both the physical and

behavioral sciences which have dealt

extensively with visual phenomena.

As a result, it is likely that more information is available on this subject

than for all of the other sense

modalities (hearing, thermal comfort,

odor, vibration) combined.

Man's experience with buildings is mainly visual. This view is generally

supported by both architects and

behavioral researchers, although for

different reasons. The tradition of

architecture supports the importance

of visual qualities, while research

findings in psychology indicate that

man typically obtains more information by visual means than by all other senses. Yet, the world is not

perceived accurately; what we see is not the same as that recorded by a camera.

Architects and painters for centuries

have been aware and made effective use of differences between physical

dimensions of the environment and

the way they are perceived by

' J. E. Hochberg, Perception (Englewood

Cliffs, N.J., 1964).

onlookers. A case in point is the "apparent" cylindrical shape of the

columns of the Parthenon, despite

their actual physical measurements.

As J. Hochberg (psychologist) in- dicates:

What we observe is never in exact cor- respondence witli ttie physical situation. Some aspects are omitted, some added, some distorted. An illusion exists

when observations made with the aid of

physical instruments yield different

results from those made without such

instruments. In fact, most of the qualities

of the world we do perceive (size, color,

etc.) are only very loosely related to the

physical measurements to which we

have given the same names. ^

HBr(n9'6 Illusion

of Direction

143
M. Luckiesh (illuminating engineer)

more than a half-century ago summarized most of the characteristics of

visual illusions, which have been ex- amined by researchers since that

time. In order to illustrate the self- evident relationship of such illusions

to design problems, we will mention

three of the examples cited by

Luckiesh.

• A vertical dimension, equal to a

horizontal one, appears greater.

• A space that is divided or filled generally appears to be greater than

empty or undivided space.

• Characteristics of surrounds can

strongly influence the perception of

shapes.

Of central importance to the architect

is an understanding of space perception, because of the very nature of

building design. The study of space

perception had two early origins: (1)

the practical, technical problem of

depicting three-dimensional objects

in two dimensions (e.g., paintings)

and (2) philosophical questions con- cerned with how man gains

knowledge of the physical world.

Many of the cues employed to depict

solid objects in two dimensions were known to Leonardo da Vinci and discussed in a treatise prepared by him

in the sixteenth century. Perceptual

phenomena have also been examined

by researchers. Several such in- vestigations will now be discussed.

^ J. J. Gibson, The Perception of the Visual

1/l/or/d (Cambridge, Mass., 1950).

^ Gibson

An effect of bngh+nesscontrast. Note -Hne darkening of -Hne intersections

of the white strips.

Visual Perception—Texture

Gradients

A comprehensive theory of space

perception was developed by J. Gibson (psychologist) who described

his approach in the following way:

The elementary impressions of a visual

world are those of surface and edge ... the impression of a continuous surface

may account for visual space conceived

as a background. The impressions of an edge may account for an outline or

figure against the background—the

"figure-ground phenomenon"—and

together with the surface enclosed may

account for the perception of an objecf

Gibson's work was designed to il- lustrate the importance of texture

gradients in visual and space perception. In his words, gradient means

nothing more complex than an increase

or decrease of something along a given

axis or dimension . . . the gradient of

texture is a function of the slant of a

bisection Illusion

Vertical Line and Horizontal

Une are Equal in Length

physical surface away from an observer

and the density of texture varies with

physical distance.^

Gibson traces his interest in visual

perception to problems encountered

at the start of World War II. At that

time there were no instruments which

could assist pilots in estimating distances from their aircraft to the

ground. Research was undertaken to

identify distance perception cues using a stereoscope. The procedure

employed was to show points, lines or objects against a homogenous

background, with the task of the subject being to estimate distances.

These studies failed to provide information which was useful for training

pilots. Toward the end of the war, psychologists working on this problem

learned that their research

methodology was inappropriate. They

decided that studies of depth perception to develop landing information

should be performed outdoors—in a

natural environment. Gibson then formulated a field study technique where

observers were asked to judge the

heights and distances of a number of

wooden stakes which were planted in a level field. The stakes varied in height from 15 to 59 inches (38 to 150

cm) and were placed at a number of

previously measured distances from

the observers. The subjects were able

to correctly judge size and distance

for distances up to 1 /2 mile (0.8 km).

Among the major visual

characteristics indicated by Gibson as determinants of depth and distance

perception are:

• Texture Perspective. A gradual in- crease in the density of the fine structure, the spots and gaps, or the ex- tended pattern of either a part or the

whole of the visual field.

Texture Perspective (NBS)

144
• Size Perspective. A decrease in the

size of the shapes or figures in the visual

field.

• Linear Perspective. This is size

perspective when contours are rectilinear. It is a gradual decrease in the

spacing (the size or dimension) between

outlines or inlines in the visual field (man-made objects primanly).

• l\/lotion Perspective. A gradual

change in the rate of displacement of

texture elements or contours in the

visual field. The change is from motion

in one direction through zero to motion

in the other direction.*

Among the other perspectives mentioned by Gibson are binocular,

aerial, blur, and transitions between

light and shade. The last issue, con- cerned with the modeling of objects

caused by lighting conditions, will be

discussed in the next chapter which

deals with the general topic of il- lumination.

Texture Gradients (Gibson)

" Gibson

Linear Perspective (EPA Documerica)

T. Garling (Swedish psychologist) ex- plored the ability of observers to judge the depth and size of a space

under varying viewing conditions. In the first study, observers judged the

depth and size of architectural spaces

out-of-doors. The observers were

given the following instructions:

This is an experiment on architectural

space perception. Your task is to judge

how deep spaces along this street appear, i.e., to judge the distance to the far end of each space. You will be shown

spots on which you are to stand when

judging the spaces. You are to assign to the first space an appropriate number to begin with. If another space appears

twice as deep, use a number twice as

large; if it appears half as deep, use a number half as large, and so on. In other

words, assign to the spaces numbers

proportional to how deep they appear to you. Try to be naive and remember it is your impression you are to report.^

Drawings (Garling)

Detailedmfn it

Undetailed •

V

ft

^ T. Garling, "The Relation of Judged

Depth to Judged Size of Space under

Different Viewing Conditions," in Ex- perimental Studies on Architectural Perception, 8. Hesselgren (Sweden,

1971).

145
Garling then had 12 different

observers judge color photographs of

the same spaces. Observers followed

the same instructions, but made the

judgments monocularly, using only

their preferred eye. Observers then

viewed detailed perspective drawings

made from the photographs. And

finally, observers judged depth and

size of space from undetailed or outline drawings. The last two viewings were also made monocularly. Garling's major concern was to determine

the level of detail required to make

accurate estimates of depth. The

results indicated that the judgments

were similar under all conditions.

The complexity of objects, forms, and

spaces of concern in M/E studies

poses a major problem for

researchers. The challenge and the

opportunity to provide needed information are illustrated by a relatively

new research approach, eyemovement recordings.

An eye-movement camera is a system

which provides a photographic record

of where people look as they make

observations. A series of dots and

lines indicate the scanning pattern

used by subjects. By this means one

can follow eye movements and fixations. The places where the eye rests

(fixations) are especially important

because most visual information is obtained at that time. A. Yarbus

(Soviet biophysicist) has made extensive studies of the eye movements

made by people looking at line drawings, paintings, and sculpture.

S. Carr (urban designer) and D. Schlisser (psychologist) examined the

impressions of an individual entering a city on an elevated expressway by

means of eye-movement recordings.

They hypothesized that (1) subjects

would agree on those elements having the highest visual interest; (2) subjects would display similar orientation

to the elements of visual interest; and

(3) passengers would spend half their

time looking away from the road.

In their study, subjects, both passengers and drivers, took an automobile trip from the suburbs to the center of the city on an elevated

expressway. An eye-movement

recorder, which indicated where a

subject was looking and for how long,

was mounted on the subject's head.

From the recorded data the

researchers evaluated a subject's in- terest in specific elements. In addition

to the visual preference data obtained, the researchers also wanted to determine how well subjects

remembered particular elements

along the highway. Memory testing

was conducted in the four following

stages: (1 ) a pretest to determine any

preconceptions the subjects might

have; (2) a long interview immediately

following the trip; (3) a test the day

following the trip; and (4) a test 1 week

after the trip.

The results indicated that subjects were likely to remember those items

which were easy to name, although

these usually were not the same items

which attracted their visual attention.

Subjects did, however, show high

agreement on those items of visual in- terest and did tend to orient their at- tention in similar directions.

146

Movement Camera

Head- Mounted Eye-Movement Recorder

(Carr^^Schlia^er)

(o rrim.

movie - CQmera

parallel -beam light

eource below e\/e.

^d' field

scene

len6

eubjectlens^'^prism
While the eye-movement camera

promises to provide opportunities to assess complex environments,

Yarbus cautions that many problems

must be solved before the films can be interpreted properly. He indicates

that eye-movement records

demonstrate that people see in highly

individual ways; the way that they see shows how they think. Perception is thought to be a means of gathering

"essential" information from the en- vironment, judging what is essential is largely based on experience. Simple

perceptual rules are not easily found.

He notes for example:

• The brightest or darkest elements of a picture are not necessarily those

which attract the eye.

• Color has no appreciable influence on the distribution of points of fixation.

• Outlines themselves have no effect on the character of eye movements.

• The number of details contained in an element of the picture does not

determine the degree of attention at- tracted to this element.^

Further, his studies were based on

two-dimensional stimulus material for

the most part (drawings, paintings).

The building environment is much

more complex.

' A. L. Yarbus, Eye Movements and Vision (New York, 1967).

Visual Distortions

How do people come to perceive the

world as they do? I. Kohler

(psychologist) investigated the

problem by having subjects fitted with

special viewing devices which

prevented them from seeing the world

normally. By means of mirrors and

prisms fitted to the eyes, subjects

viewed the world backwards or upside down for weeks at a time to determine how their behavior was af- fected. Subjects adapted to the

perceptions after a time, and had no

conscious impression of distortion.

After the lenses were removed, they

underwent a further period of adaptation, e.g., normal viewing appeared

distorted for a time.

Kohler employed one method of

visually distorting the normal environment to gain a better understanding

of how people perceive their environment. Another approach favored by

researchers studying the same

problem area is to provide conflicting

environmental cues to subjects, to determine which are the most influential ones.

Pi^tortion 6las5e6

CKohler)

Another perceptual phenomenon,

perceived size, was examined by

W. Ittleson and F. Kilpatrick (perceptual

psychologists). They used a distorted

room to find out how people perceive

their surroundings and to understand

the relative importance of en- vironmental cues. Objects and people were placed in the room and subjects

judged their relative and absolute

sizes. The authors indicate that

relative size of the people appeared

distorted because people make judgments based on past experience

which tells them that rooms have ex- pected configurations, e.g., parallel

walls. Context is therefore an important determining factor in perception.

In another study, the same

researchers examined the effect of

size and brightness on perceived distance. They used balloons which were

lighted from hidden sources in an

otherwise darkened room. When the

size of one balloon was larger than the

other one, the larger balloon appeared to be nearer (although they were equally distant from the

observer). A similar effect occurred

when the relative brightnesses of the

balloons were changed—the brighter

balloon appeared to be nearer, although it was at a greater distance

than the other one.

Perceptual SizcContocts

attle6on«^Kilpatr^c^c)

147
Ittleson and Kilpatrick also looked

into the problem of distance perception using playing cards. Subjects were asked to estimate the distance

from their position to three different

playing cards. One card was of nor- mal size, one was twice normal size

and the final one was half normal size.

When no other cues were present in the background, the distances were

judged in accordance with size alone,

although the actual viewing distances were identical.

The perception of objects in space is a major activity performed by all building users, and therefore of particular interest to us. One notable

aspect of perception is that objects

retain their identity despite how they are viewed. For example, when we

see an object in a room such as a

chair, it does not appear to increase in size when we approach it; rather, the

size remains constant. Similarly, when

a person wearing a black shirt moves

from a shady area to the sunlight, the

shirt still appears to be black (assuming no direct reflections). Features of

objects therefore remain approximately constant, despite en- vironmental and orientation changes

which might be expected to alter their

appearance.

Constancy phenomena were explored

by researchers aware that the

traditional methods of psychophysics were relatively unsuccessful when applied to many visual perception

problems. The Gestalt psychology

movement was thereby started.

Con6+anc;y of Shapes

148

The Gestalt Approach

/ stand at the window and see a house, trees, sky. Now on theoretical grounds I could try to count and say: "here there are ...327 brightnesses and hues. " Do I have

"327"? No, I see sky, house, trees; and no one can really have these "327" as

such. Furthermore, if in this strange calculation the house should have, say, 120

and the trees 90 and the sky 1 17, 1 have in any event this combination, this segregation, and not, say, 127 and 100 and 100; or 150 and 1 77. 1 see it in this particular combination, this particular segregation; and the sort of combination or segregation in which I see it is not simply up to my choice: it is almost impossible for me to see it in any desired combination that I may happen to choose. When I suc- ceed in seeing some unusual combination, what a strange process it is. What sur- phse results, when, after looking at it a long time, after many attempts, I discover

under the influence of a very unrealistic set that over there parts of the window

frame make an N with a smooth branch ....

In general, if a number of stimuli is presented together, a correspondingly large

number of separate "givens" does not generally occur for the human; rather there are more comprehensive givens, in a particular segregation, combination, separation.

Are there phnciples for this resulting organization? What are they? One can try to determine and isolate the factors operating here expehmentally, but a simpler

procedure can be used in the presentation of the most critical factors: demonstration with a few simple, characteristic cases.

^

Gestalt advocates argued that the

proper subject of study is the unified

whole (Gestalt) not capable of further

analysis. These wholes are said to be

inherently experienced by people (innate), and not the result of learning.

For example, a table is perceived as a

table and not something which has a

top and a number of legs. What they

looked for were phenomena

unbiased, free experiences which

emerge instantaneously. In contrast,

traditional psychophysicists used

carefully trained observers to ensure

that they properly respond to stimuli.

The contrasting viewpoints of the two

groups are further illustrated by the

studies undertaken. In the case of

psychophysics, the goal of a particular study is to collect data covering

a limited aspect of a general problem.

The findings are then analyzed and

compared with those obtained in related studies. Knowledge about a

particular problem area is thereby

built in slow increments.

Gestalt Perception

Thie>^ r Mot this

H L_:n> < > 0

D. C. Beardslee and M. Wertheimer,

Readings in Perception (Princeton, 1958).
Gestalt studies on the other hand, were designed to find critical phenomena selected to discover and

demonstrate general principles. The

Gestalt and traditional approaches

differ in terms of what subjects are asked to do, i.e., their observations.

Judgments by subjects in a Gestalt

study, instead of being in the form of

comparing two stimuli (e.g., to determine which of two sounds appeared

louder), were in the form of ex- periencing (or not experiencing) a phenomenon.

The stimuli mentioned by Wertheimer

are not limited in terms of scale. The

groupings might be buildings, objects

in a room, people, or abstract symbols. For example, he often used configurations of dots and line drawings

to illustrate his points. Groupings into

configurations depended on factors

such as nearness, similarity, and

closure.

One of the first questions addressed

by Gestalt psychologists is of particular interest to M/E issues. How

can we account for the perceptual ex- perience of looking at a complex

visual field (e.g., objects, situations,

etc.) in which one part of it is seen as

being dominant while the remainder

appears as a background?

This aspect of the organization of the

visual field, figure-ground

relationships, is what concerned the

early Gestalt researcher E. Rubin

(Danish psychologist) who described

this concept as follows:

destalt Principles

(Wer-Hneimer)

Groupi ng on ba6i6 of

NearnessGrouping on tasisoP

Similarity*

• o«o «o •o*o*o mom

Closure*

To characterize the fundamental dif- ference between figure and ground it is useful to consider the contour which is defined as the common boundary of

the two fields. One can then state as a fundamental principle: when two fields have a common border, and one is seen

as figure and the other as ground, the

immediate perceptual experience is characterized by a shaping effect which

emerges from the common border of

the fields and which operates only on one field, or operates more strongly on one than on the other. ^

Rubin was quite inventive and

developed techniques to demonstrate

figure-ground relationships in compelling ways. For example, he used

cardboard cutouts of shapes

meaningful and nonsense.

Grouping of Building Features by Similar Features (NBS)

^ Beardslee and Wertheimer

Figure-Ground (NBS)

Reversible

Images

(Rubin)

Can be seen as either

14!
These shapes were then held in front

of a wall, thereby blocking part of the

wall from view. The cardboard

emerges as figure, while the wall

appears as ground. When an observer attempts to see the wall as figure, he usually fails. Rubin also invented reversible

images, which compellingly

demonstrate the reversal of figureground relationships when viewed for an extended time period.

Another Reversible

boring's claasic

amb/'guous figure, which

can t5e seen either as

a ^young girl or an old

woman, demons-frates

multiple- stable states

in perceptual organization .

Wertheimer and other Gestaltists

relied heavily on the concept of

"good figure" as being an important

criterion for determining whether

phenomena, objects, etc., are readily

perceived. But, how can "good" be

defined in a way that is meaningful to researchers and designers?

Gestalt researchers thought that good

form or quality depended upon

several features. Among the most important of them are symmetry,

closure, and simplicity. M. Mowatt

(psychologist) conducted a study to determine how subjects judged a

variety of material varied in terms of

these parameters. Like Wertheimer,

he used geometrical figures composed of lines, dots, and a combination of the two. Each subject was

presented with each figure in random

order with the instruction that it might

be changed in any way to make it a "good" one, if it were not judged to be

good as presented. The subjects were

also instructed to give reasons for

their judgments as a whole, i.e., general principles which were used.

The study results indicated that

closure and symmetry were considered to be good properties of a

figure.

Proper\\e<i> Considered

"Good''bv Waive f>ubject*s

(\Afertheimer)

We indicated earlier that one of the in- terests of the Gestaltists was to explain constancy phenomena, i.e., why

objects and their characteristics appear unchanged despite how they are viewed. Brightness and color constancy were studied by D. Katz

(psychologist). His classic experiment

in brightness constancy consisted of a paper disc initially half white and half black, constructed so that the proportion of white to black could be varied

(target A). When the disc was spun, a uniform gray surface appeared.

Another target (B) was similarly constructed but was illuminated by direct

sunlight, while target A was in the

shadow of the dividing partition. The

task of the subject was to adjust the

gray of the right disc to match the

gray on the left. Subjects were able to do this, despite the difference in il- lumination provided by the sunlight.

The proportion of white to black in the

subject's matches closely resembled

the actual proportions on the test disc.

This study by Katz brings us to the

subject of illumination, which will be

discussed in the next chapter.

Conclusion

We have discussed perceptual

phenomena and briefly described

theoretical models and research approaches developed to better understand how we perceive our environment. While Gestalt researchers and

Gibson have provided insights into

the general problem area, we still need to develop an orderly body of in- formation describing the relationship

of these principles to the solution of

design problems. Research methods

such as the eye-movement camera,

while relatively new, are likely to be

improved as a means to obtain more

and better building user information.

The work of Garling is especially

significant in pointing to future

research directions.

150
12

The Visual Environment— Illumination

Illumination Requirements—Functional and Aesthetic

Illumination in Buildings—General

Quantity and Quality of Lighting

Quantity

Quality

Glare

Flicker Perception

Lighting Measurement Methods

Visual Acuity Approaches

Suprathreshold Studies

Subjective Appraisals

Conclusion

Luminance Levels

Appro)cimate bn'ghtness

in ff. lamberts

100,000

l-upper limit of visual tolerance

10,000 --Freeh anew on a clear d3\)

1,000 - -Average Earth on clear daN/

100 - - Average Bartfi on c\oud\j day

10- White paper in good reading light

1 -

01 -

001 -

0001'

000001 -

o o

6'

:3

White paper Ift -Frorn 6td. csndle. ^

_5now in full moon

Average Eartf) in full moon

if

0>

00001 --5now in ^farlight

Gra66 m starlight

0000001 -LAb60lute threshold of seeing

GO.

o3

151
Illumination

Requirements—Functional

and Aesthetic

High energy costs led architects and

others to carefully examine current il- lumination practices to determine

whether recommended lighting levels are appropriate. Recent research

studies suggest that "more light"

doesn't necessarily result in "better

sight," but rather too much light can be detrimental to task performance.

These investigations point to the need

for using different approaches in collecting information, e.g., suprathreshold, and field studies.

Lighting quality studies are receiving

increased attention, primarily by

researchers using semantic differential techniques.

J. Holmes (lighting engineer) summarizes the functions of lighting in buildings as follows:

Lighting is the application of light to an

object to enable us to see; it is the

process of illumination, the design and

control of the visual effects created by it. The sole object of lighting is to enable

us to see. Full account must therefore

be taken of the personal, subjective

reactions of the people for whom the

light is provided.''

This definition of lighting encompasses the two major functions performed by illumination —one essentially pragmatic, and the other one

concerned with aesthetics. The

lighting engineer and the architect can sometimes be distinguished by

their differing emphases on these two

functions. For example, W. Lam

(lighting consultant) and C. Crouch

(research director) both

addressed the topic of lighting in re- cent publications. An inspection of

the accompanying tables indicates

that each expert has a list containing

several items. However, these items

deal primarily with either aesthetic or functional considerations, with the

emphasis being opposite in each

listing.

Items 6, 7 and 8 of the lERI

(Illuminating Engineering Research

Institute) program illustrate

problem areas which, al- though important, have frequently

been overlooked. Biological in- vestigation of the non-visible

spectrum of radiant energy is a

relatively new topic of interest for

lighting designers. Researchers dealing with this subject have already

identified important beneficial and

harmful effects of radiant energy,

although this disciplinary area of in- vestigation is in its infancy.

J. G. Holmes, Essays on Lighting (New

York, 1974).

152

Lighting for Architecture

(Lam)

1 . Light to see by:

Enough light for the purpose

2. The light you see:

• Lighting for mood or atmosphere

• Lighting for emphasis or to direct

movement

• Lighting to express intended use

• Lighting to complement structure

• Lighting to modify the appearance

of space

3. The lighting system:

How to achieve the lighting objectives

lERI Research Program

Categories

(Crouch)

Research Priorities

1. The visual task to be illuminated

2. The veiling reflections from over- head lighting

3. Differences of brightness between

task and surroundings

4. Glare: Both disability and discomfort

5. Pleasantness of total environment

6. Age of worker

7. Light and heat

8. Biological effects of wavelength of

light

The interactions between light and

heat have focused on determining

the appropriate combination of

natural and artificial illumination for

optimal lighting in buildings. Deep

rooms and large open spaces have

for years been designed in a way

where the goal was to supplement

natural lighting with artificial illumination for largely aesthetic purposes,

e.g., to provide the illusion in interior

spaces that daylight penetrates

within. A considerable amount of

work has been devoted to developing

appropriate mixes of daylight and

Permanent Supplementary Artificial Lighting (PSALI) for designers.

Another factor noted in the lERI

research listing is the age of the

worker, which highlights the need to consider the problem of "individual

differences" among people when

designing lighting systems. For ex- ample, people with visual impairments (such as the aged) have dif- ferent lighting requirements than

those without such disorders. Such

impairments are often manifested by an inability to see fine details (low

visual acuity) which, like color

blindness, can be traced to a

physiological process. However,

many features of the visual environment are judged by building occupants on the basis of likes and dislikes, i.e., preferences. These

aesthetically based judgments (such as in color research) have typically

demonstrated that people often disagree with one another in terms of

preference.
To quote again from Holmes:

We usually think of light as diffused and multidirectional, whether from the sun and sky or from luminaries and ceiling and walls. At any position in space,

there is an amount of light (the total luminous flux reaching that point) and

there is a flow of light (the complex of directions from which the light reaches

the point). It is obvious that the effectiveness of the light in enabling us to see depends on both amount and flow. It is not enough to measure the amount

of light irrespective of its directional effects; in fact, the directional effects are probably more important than the amount. When this light falls on an

object, the amount is reduced by absorption, slightly for a whitish object or considerably for a dark object, and this can give us contrast on a scale from about

80% to 2%. The flow of this light is changed by reflection, refraction or

diffusion, which can give us contrast in a much more delicate way and on a much

wider scale. The capacity of light to reveal texture and shape is just as

important as to reveal colour or shade.

To summarize, this mysterious element we call light is a flow of radiant power

which is virtually imperceptible unless it is changed in spectral balance

(colour) or in amount (absorption) or in direction (diffusion and texture) and

which is invahably absorbed almost instantaneously by the objects on which it

falls. When we see an object, it is because the light falling on that object is changed in direction or amount of colour by the object. Light is our means of

visual perception of the whole world around us but we only use for vision

less than one ten-millionth part of the power from our lamps, or even less

of natural light.

'

Thus far in our examination of il- lumination in buildings we have

touched upon the features of lighting

and the characteristics of people who

require lighting. The next major in- terest is concerned with buildings as

places which contain specific activities.

Buildings differ with respect to il- lumination requirements. The

specification of lighting requirements

becomes meaningful only when we

consider the tasks (activities) performed in buildings. For example, one

such hierarchical specification

scheme might be as follows: a nursing

home, staff offices, common spaces,

and patient rooms. Uniform lighting

for everyone could be wasteful from

an energy use standpoint, since

elderly people require more light than

others. Therefore, building areas for

staff personnel do not require as much light for activities to be performed as those housing patient functions, except where special requirements exist as In examination rooms.

Illumination in BuildingsGeneral

Lighting serves both a primary and

secondary role in design. For example, sometimes a characteristic of

light, such as sunlight, is used as an end in itself to produce an effect on

building occupants. In most situations, however, lighting supports an

activity, such as reading. Lighting, In this latter instance, need not be confined to practical concerns such as

providing an appropriate visual en- vironment for working. Another

lighting requirement Is to enhance

and highlight objects, spaces, and

forms. Shadowing and modeling ef- fects produced by lights are also fre- quently used to serve similar

aesthetic purposes.

While all of these above functions are

generally recognized as important by

lighting engineers, researchers have

concentrated their efforts almost exclusively on task lighting requirements and problems of lighting

quality (e.g., glare). Positive at- tributes of light (including pleasing

color characteristics) have not been

ignored. Many industries and commercial enterprises have performed

market research studies to determine

the appropriate lighting conditions to display products (e.g., furniture,

clothing, food). These investigations

have dealt with specific products and

as a result it is difficult to make any

general statements about their

findings.

Let us now consider several aspects

of lighting in more detail which are of

particular importance in design.

Since sources of light (radiant energy)

exhibit characteristics similar to acoustical energy, we will employ a commonly used approach in acoustics to categorize lighting

problems—source, path, and

receiver.

In highly industrialized countries, especially the United States of America,

daylight has been used for building il- lumination purposes more for

aesthetic reasons than utilitarian ones. While glass office building

facades are apparent throughout

most major cities, these same

buildings have artificial illumination

sufficient to provide necessary light

during evening and daylight hours,

and these lights often tend to be on all day long. Daylight and sunlight are

therefore used as sources of special

and/or supplementary lighting.

^ Holmes

There are occasions where light sources may be viewed directly by

occupants of buildings. This outcome

might result by design or accident

and it might be beneficial or detrimental, depending on the particular design situation and the activities to be performed in the space.

For example, in most instances we

would not want the sun to be viewed

directly, but at sunset when sun luminance is tolerable and the sun can be viewed directly this sight can

be spectacular. Similarly, for most activities we would not anticipate that

viewing a source of light would be

beneficial, but a restaurant lighted by

candles is readily accepted by many

153
diners for the "mood" often as- sociated with this type of lighting.

Under most circumstances, however,

lighting in buildings is designed to minimize the direct exposure of the

eye to light sources in the field of

view. One reason for this approach is that our visual sense is phototroplc.

That is, we tend to look at the

brightest areas before us on an in- voluntary basis. A visible source of

light would therefore distract a person from attending to anything

else. Another difficulty associated

with having a light source in a direct

field of view is the glare that is produced by lights—discomfort and

disability glare.

Light can undergo several kinds of

changes between the source and our

eyes. It may be redirected, absorbed,

polarized, and diffracted (broken into

spectral components). The redirection of light can occur by reflection or transmission. In either case, the light

rays can be deviated in a regular

manner that preserves images (as in a

mirror, or through a lens); or the rays can be diffused in more or less ran- dom directions.

The particular value of light to us is that it can be changed, in color or in- tensity, by the objects which reflect (or transmit) the light falling on them;

this is how we see objects. Generally,

we see things because they absorb

some of the light and transmit or

reflect the remainder.

There are two different modes of dif- ferential absorption; if the power in only some of the wavelengths in the

spectrum is changed by selective absorption, we see a change in color; if the intensity of the light is changed

uniformly at all wavelengths by partial

absorption or by a directional effect,

we see a difference in contrast. (The

latter occurs if the immediate sur- round does not change, or changes

differently.)

The ultimate success (or failure) of a

lighting system design is determined

by how well it satisfies the requirements of the people for whom it was

intended. At the very minimum, il- lumination must be responsive to the

needs of those with normal vision.

For particular buildings, such as those which are to house the visually

handicapped, the specialized re- quirements of these occupants must

also be met.

We have already mentioned one

physiologically based response—

phototropism—which if ignored, is

likely to lead to bad lighting conditions and other problems not limited

to distraction.

154

One potential building illumination

problem is dark adaptation—the ex- perience which we encounter when

entering a dark theater from a bright

street. Although we begin to see

reasonably well within a few minutes,

complete adaptation to seeing in the

darkened space takes approximately

40 minutes. The reasons for taking

this long are related to the fact that

different visual processes are used

for daytime and nighttime vision. The

central part of the eye (fovea) is used

during daytime (with cones as light

sensitive cells) while the periphery of

the eye (and rod cells) is used under

conditions of limited lighting. In bright

lights, the cones function well, but the

rods are knocked out by the

bleaching of their photosensitive pigment. When the bright light is replaced by dim light, the cone

system does not have enough light to function, and the rod system recovers

only gradually as the photopigment is regenerated.

Park Adaptation Levels

t^inui-ee m the PsrK

OB ^ndard Luminodirv

Functions '

10

0.1

0.6

on

0-^

0.1

0

If * f :

•1 * •1 < -tl —

1 -~H

•••

•

50O (oOO 100

p\iototop\c (cones)

••••• 66otopic (rods)

in the illustration mentioned above, a problem could result if an emergency

occurred in the theater which is usually dark. A general power failure in these circumstances often activates an emergency lighting system of

bright highly focused beams of light

frequently directed more horizontally

than vertically. People viewing these

lights directly would quickly lose their

dark adaption and yet the illumination

provided by the lights might not be

sufficiently well distributed for cone

vision to function optimally in all locations. Consequently, accidents and

injuries might occur as occupants

move toward the building exits

without sufficient lighting to find their

way around potential obstacles.
Dark adaptation is but one form of

visual adaptation—the process by

whicii the eye adjusts to variations in lighting levels. Another type of adjustment of the eye is transient adaptation. R. Boynton (psychologist)

studied this phenomenon at the

University of Rochester in New York.

He cited an example of transient

adaptation which is common to many

people. Suppose that you are sitting at a desk, observing low contrast materials

which, under the prevailing conditions

of illumination, are just barely visible. Imagine that you then look through the

window at the bright sky for a moment

or two, and then focus down again on

your task. The low-contrast details will,

at least for a moment, be invisible and

some time will be required before the initial level of visibility is regained. ^

In a study of lighting at the Gulbenkian

Museum, J. Ribiero (architect) et al. ac counted for the adaptation of the eye.

Gulbenkian Museum-Entry Lobby (W. Allen)

Gulbenkian Museum-Carpet Lighting (W. Allen)

Some exhibits must be at the lowest levels while others can be exposed to much

higher levels without harm. However, if there are substantial areas of strongly contrasting brightness in the same general area, the darker areas will seem very disadvantaged and inadequate by comparison with the brighter, and since the lower il- lumination should not be increased, the other must be kept to a moderate level. Thus it is the requirements of the most light-sensitive objects that will tend to determine the illumination "key" for a given collection. Here it is a low key. Visitors must, however, be able to see the displays well, and if the illumination is in a low key

the environment should provide ready adaptation to these low levels. This has three

principal implications for design:

(a) Adaptation from outdoor brightness to relative darkness indoors must be ef- fected naturally and rapidly.

(b) Changes of general brightness level from one part of the museum to another

must be graduated in moderate steps.

(c) No major part of any general view should be greatly brighter than the prevailing

key.

The problems of brightness gradation were approached in the following ways.

The Museum is entered indoors from other parts of the building complex or directly

from outdoors. The approach indoors takes place through a long gallery for temporary exhibitions in which the ceiling comprises simple gratings of a low reflec- tance, honey-colored wood, with fluorescent lamps in the space above them. The

walls are of grey glass with ivory-colored sheer curtains, and the floor is the greygreen carpet of moderate brightness described earlier for the Museum itself. Spotlights can be fixed anywhere on the ceiling to light individual exhibits. The impression is of illumination at a medium key with a certain amount of sparkle.

The temporary gallery leads to the main lobby which is also the entry from outdoors,

and is designed to deal with the transition problem for visitors exposed immediately

previously to very bright sunshine. It is a large space with grey glass on two walls, one the entry itself and the other looking into a patio and protected by an external

canopy. Visitors turn then to the right into the control and sales zone; this has no

direct natural light but receives a certain amount which is diffused into it by reflection. It is a step down in bhghtness. One then enters the display area, either to the

normal full circuit beginning with the Egyptians, or the half-circuit which comprises

only the European art.

' R. M. Boynton, "Some Visual Factors in Reducing Lighting Levels," in The Basis

for Effective Management of Lighting, ed.

D. K. Ross (Washington, D.C., 1975).

155
The Egyptian room is "played" at a very low key, lighted only by overspill from

showcases or from a few items lighted by profile lights. There is no natural light. The

objects themselves are well-lighted and the room has a strong dramatic quality.

Although the general key is very low, dark adaptation is effected quickly and without

a sense of dissatisfaction. From this point onwards, all spaces in the Museum, with one small exception, are moderately higher in key and visitors have no sense of in- adequate lighting anywhere.*

I'M

Gulbenkian Museum—Egyptian Room, Exhibit Lighting Only (W. Allen)

Quantity and Quality of

Ligiiting

The two most general conditions

which have to be met by lighting

systems are quantity and quality of

the illumination provided. Most of the

research performed by visual

researchers interested in lighting

comes under either one or the other

of these headings. Let us first consider the amount of light needed to perform desired activities.

" J. S. Ribiero et al., "Lighting of the

Calouste Gulbenkian Museum," Lighting

Research and Technology, 3 (1971).

Quantity

The trend of illumination levels

recommended for buildings in the

United States has been steadily upward for many years. As a consequence, these levels in the United

States are now substantially higher

than those employed elsewhere in the world. As long as energy

resources were thought to be abundant and inexpensive, there was little reason to question the lighting practices followed for most buildings.

However, the current energy situation

has led many architects, lighting

designers and engineers, owners and

occupants of buildings to carefully ex- amine traditional lighting practices

with a view toward using less energy

for illumination. Many assumptions,

such as the desirability of uniform

lighting, have been questioned in the

light of energy usage implications. For

example, a commonly employed

rationale which has led to uniformly

high prescribed levels of illumination

in office buildings is as follows:

• Sufficient lighting is required for

the most demanding visual task to be

performed, e.g., a fourth carbon

which is handwritten.

• We cannot (or should not) determine in advance where this task will be performed.

• The overall lighting should be sufficient to enable the task to be performed anywhere.

• High intensity uniform lighting is therefore an appropriate lighting objective.

Such reasoning for lighting design is no longer supported by many lighting

experts today. Instead, most now feel a combination of local task and

overall background lighting is best.

Historically, building task lighting

levels have been determined in the

laboratory. The objective of the

studies was to determine how well

people could perform very difficult visual tasks—those which would re- quire the discrimination of fine

details. Lighting levels are selected on the basis of threshold measure- ments (where the subject can barely see the stimulus) and are then adjusted upward to permit continued

task performance at more comfortable lighting levels. These threshold

visual acuity studies comprise a large

proportion of the research dealing

with illumination requirements in buildings. A follow-up to these

procedures in recent years has been

the investigation of more realistic

tasks examined in the laboratory and

under field conditions. An example of

such a task is to determine how well

people can thread a needle under a

variety of illumination conditions.

An approach which differs importantly from the one based on threshold

judgments is currently being

developed and refined in a series of

studies being conducted by G.

Yonemura (psychologist). It employs

suprathreshold tasks and requires

experimental subjects to make judgments of clarity (how clearly

something can be seen) rather than a determination of when it is barely

visible. The major assumption made

by the researcher in these investigations is that under most circumstances lighting designers deal with

objects, forms, and spaces which can be seen without too much difficulty.

The design problem is therefore

translated into how well it can (or

should) be seen.

156
Regardless of how measurements are made to determine task lighting re- quirements, it is also necessary to consider the levels of lighting which

"surround" a task. Great disparities

between task and background

lighting would lead to problems as- sociated with adaptation as mentioned earlier. Crouch indicates the

importance of this factor when

designing the lighting for any space.

He notes that surroundings of the

task which are too dark or too bright

may be equally harmful and quotes

Boynton as indicating that for near

optimal results, the variations in luminance of the large surfaces in in- teriors from that of the task should not

be greater than 3:1 for the immediate

surrounds, and 10:1 for the remote

surrounds. The task should never be

darker than the surroundings.

Quality

The subjective impressions made by

different lighting systems were

studied by J. Flynn (architect) et al. They wanted to find out if people oc- cupying a room would show consistent preferences for lighting arrangements. They ran the study in a controlled laboratory with a number of

lighting arrangements that permit significant variation in the visual character of

the space without changing any of the

other physical conditions.^ Groups of

subjects performed two tasks. First,

they rated the lighting arrangement

used when the room was entered.

Following this, each of six different

arrangements were rated separately

after all six were shown briefly to familiarize the subjects with all the

Valuation of Lighting Arrangemeryf6 (f\^m, et al )

f\oor Plan

Sectionl

overhead downlighting^low inten6'ity

dectionZ

k^^,^ peripheral wallSections

overhead diffu6e;

low aettiriQ

6ectlon4

K overhead

\M<r| l'ghtinQ-f(

downendwall5

Sections

overhead diffu^>e,

high inten6ity

Section

overhead downI ighti ng+peri pheral

"•overhead diffuse

J. E. Flynn et al., "Interim Study of Procedures for Investigating the Effect of Light on Impression and Behavior,"

Journal of I ES, 3 (October 1973).

ArranQementa ( ) Arrangament (o ( —)

• • • • • • • •

friendly

p\eaear\f

like

harmony

6afi6fyiD9

beautiful

5ociable

related

interesting

dear

bright

•fecee clear

di6tirv:t

focuead

radiant

large

long

Evaluative Factor

• \• #

u—

•

-•—

'

'•\

••

f^rceptual Claritv Factor

Spaciousness ^ac^or

ho6tile

unpiea6ant

di6l;l<e

frustrating

uglv

unsociable

tense

monotonous

hazv

dim

facce obsoire

vague

unfocused

dull

email

short

cramped

15
study conditions. Ratings were made

by semantic differential rating scales.

The authors found that the initial ratings made were similar to those obtained later, and

that people responded differently to each lighting arrangement.

Research designed to examine

lighting quality has been mainly to

identify and eliminate bad lighting

design, rather than determine the

features of good illumination. The

particular problem presently receiving the greatest attention is glare.

Illumination engineers have dealt

with two glare phenomena which have

been treated as separate issues

discomfort glare and disability glare.

Glare

While discomfort glare is produced by

physiological and/or psychological

factors (not yet well-understood)

which result in a painful experience, it has no particular effect on the performance of visual tasks. Disability glare,

by definition, occurs when the

presence of glare results in poorer

task performance than occurs when

no glare is present. Boynton explains

disability glare as follows:

It is caused by stray light in the eye that reaches regions of the retina remote

from the primary retinal image of the

glare source. Thus, in addition to the

retinal images of a major glare source

(e.g., automobile headlights at night),

which would not by themselves present

any problem, a significant amount of

light is scattered across the foveal area, thereby reducing the contrast of

whatever critical detail is represented

there.^

^ Boynton

Types* of 6\are.

e>pecuiar Glare

158

Boynton, in the same paper discusses

another major lighting problem:

From the standpoint of interior lighting,

especially where localized sources of il- lumination are concerned, there is another aspect of poor lighting quality

that is more important than disability

glare. This is the loss of visibility caused

by specular reflections from glossy surfaces. The common example of this is the problem that arises when trying to read slick magazines, a task that becomes totally impossible if the

material to be read is held at an angle

that permits a virtual image of a bright source of light, seen by specular reflection, to overlay and nearly obliterate the

diffusely reflecting contrast of the black

type in relation to the underlying page.

This is the basis for recommending that reading lamps should throw their light over the shoulder of the observer. But if one is working at a desk and the lamp is mounted on it, this geometry is almost

unattainable.''

Disability glare impairs our ability to perform tasks. The glare can be

caused by a bright source directly in the field of vision or by means of

reflections. Reflected glare occurs from a combination of factors as- sociated with the characteristics of

the light source, the location of the

observer, the geometry of the light,

and the properties of the surface being viewed.

' Boynton

H. Blackwell (psychologist)

in his studies of disability

glare relied heavily on a technique

which produced and then used

veiling reflections to establish a

visibility equivalence between a practical task and the performance on a 4-

minute disc task (identical to that

used in his other studies). He

developed a visual task evaluator

(VTE) to reduce the contrast of the

task by means of a veil of light until the task was just barely visible. The

next step was to substitute the disc for

the practical task and further reduce

the contrast to absolute threshold

level (defined as the level at which it can be detected 50% of the time).

In discussing problems of glare,

Boynton indicates that:

Disability glare is seldom what people

are complaining about when they object to the high light levels of some

modern interior lighting installations. What is complained about instead is that the bright lights are uncomfortable, that they hurt the eyes, that they result in ocular fatigue, and that they are sometimes perceived as being injurious

. . . but discomfort glare is a very complex function of many variables, in- cluding the distribution of the offending

elements of glare in the visual field.^

Boynton
The physiological basis for discomfort

glare was studied by G. Fry

(psychophysicist). One eye was ex- posed to a glare source and

measurements were taken of the

other eye (since both eyes work "in parallel," this procedure is feasible).

Fry has found a clear relationship

between judgments of discomfort

glare and the pupillary action of the

eye (openings and closings) required

while the eye adjusts to light. He at- tributes the sensation of discomfort to the muscle strain associated with the

movements of the iris (a diaphragm

which controls the size of the pupil

opening).

Discomfort glare was reviewed by

O.Ostberg and P. Stone in a recent

publication. The methods described

(by these authors) below are in- dicative of the approaches that have

been employed in such investigations:

Nutting appears to be the first researctier attempting to evaluate levels of glare directly by means of

systematically asking subjects for their subjective responses. The subjects were first adapted to set brightnesses,

and then suddenly exposed to fields of

varying brightnesses above the adaptation levels. The glare source was snapped on and off repeatedly, and its brightness was changed until the subject thought it was "just bright enough to appear glaring. " The results were not

analyzed in detail, but Nutting found the

method promising in that the subjective

assessment was quite a definite quantity and that the three observers obtained surprisingly concordant data.

This method of glare assessment

employing production of just glaring

sensation levels and brief moments of

exposure has ever since dominated the

American experimental research on dis- comfort glare.

Hopkinson introduced the "A BCD

criteha of discomfort glare. " These

criteria are still used in Great Britain,

and the rationale for employing them

has gradually been worked out

(Hopkinson, 1950). During continuous

exposure to glare, the subjects adjusted

the background luminance of the glare source (set by the expehmenter) so that the total impression was that of one of

the specified degrees of discomfort

(A =Just intolerable, B=Just uncomfortable, C = Satisfactory, D = Just not

perceptible). Hopkinson noted that the

subjects found it much more difficult to make the observations when they were asked to control the source brightness

than when controlling the background

brightness. The use of letters to label the

discomfort glare categories was

deliberate, and Hopkinson even stated

that the A BCD scale should not be

treated as a numerical rating scale.

Hopkinson designed an experiment

aimed at compahng direct magnitude

estimations of brightness and discomfort glare. The subjects, so far as possible naive in the context were asked to adjust conditions in a room with glaring

light sources until the experienced discomfort was "twice, " "ten times, " "onehalf," and "one-tenth" of the original

(standard) level of discomfort

Luckiesh and Guth worked out a stan- dard technique for momentary ex- posure to glare to approximate the conditions where a worker looks up from his

normal adaptation brightness, such as

the brightness of a table top, to a source

of higher bhghtness. The exposures

consisted of repeated cycles of 10 se- conds length: 1 sec exp- 1 sec Interv1

sec exp- 1 sec interv- 1 sec exp -5 sec

interv. The subject's task was to adjust one parameter of the glare source so as

to give a sensation "at the borderline

between comfort and discomfort " This was called the BCD sensation.

Kronlund etal. (1970) investigated the

role of lighting at building sites. It was

not a pure study of discomfort glare as

their interest was the "goodness" (from

the workers' point of view) of the flood

lighting, but the study is worth mentioning because of the method employed.

The worker was asked to call out the

"goodness" of the light provided to his

workplace, and the "goodness" should

be given in relation to the very best

lighting he could think of when performing that particular job. The very best

should be denoted "100.

The problems associated with glare

and specular reflection are traceable

to one characteristic of lighting

design—the presence of a bright source of illumination. Another

property of many building lighting

systems which has been a cause of

complaints (especially in the case of

fluorescent lighting) is their intermittency, that is, fluctuations in light output, perceived as flicker.

^ O. Ostberg and P. Stone, "Methods for Evaluating Discomfort Glare Aspects of Lighting," Goteborg Psychological

Reports. 4(1974).

Flicker Perception

In the early days of fluorescent

lighting, flicker was a problem for two

reasons—types of phosphor used

and ballast design. Both of these

problems have now been largely

overcome in modern lighting systems.

The topic of the perception of flicker

has been one of theoretical interest

for researchers and of practical concern to lighting designers because of

the operating characteristics of

fluorescent lamps. J. Collins (British

physicist) conducted a number of in- vestigations to explore this subject.

He employed a box containing a uniformly illuminated white screen which

occupied a large field of view. Toward

the top of the field of view, a small slit was illuminated from behind by a

fluorescent lamp. The visual field was

caused to fluctuate with respect to luminance by means of a sectored

disc mounted in front of the eyes of

the subject. The subject controlled

the speed of a motor driving the disc.

His instructions were to judge when

the following conditions were ex- perienced: "just obvious flicker," "just

uncomfortable flicker," and "just in- tolerable flicker." The experimenter

measured the actual rotating speed of

the disc while these judgments were made, by means of a stroboscope.

159
R. Hopkinson (architect) indicates

that:

The visual effect of a lighit which is fluc- tuating may be perceived in one or both

of two ways. The light itself may not be

perceived directly as flickering, but it may be noticed that objects which are moving appear to move in jerks . ... On

the other hand, if the frequency of the

fluctuation is low, the actual fluctuations

may be perceived by the eye either in the light source itself or in the Il- luminated visual field. '°

Recently, illuminating engineers have

become more conscious that an important aspect of the quality of il- lumination relates to the spectral

(wavelength) composition of the light,

and its effect on the appearance of

colored objects. Discussion of il- lumination color is taken up in the

next chapter.

Lighting IVIeasurement

iVIetliods

The subject of lighting will be dealt

with from the standpoint of its effects on the people who occupy buildings.

Most of the investigations described

are designed to determine how well

people can see under various conditions of illumination. Our major in- terest is to indicate how data were

collected, not the findings and

recommendations resulting from

these studies.

'° R. G. Hopkinson and J. B. Collins, The

Ergonomics of Lighting (London, 1970).

160

Visual Acuity Approaches

Most studies of visual acuity—which

are designed to determine the limits

of the eye to resolve fine detail—are based on psychophysical procedures

analogous (or identical) to those used

to detect the presence of light. The

studies are designed to determine appropriate levels for illumination in buildings to perform specific activities. Recently, the general applicability of such an approach for all

lighting has been questioned.

One method employed by illumination

researchers was based on the commonly used Snellen eye charts

familiar to most people who have had

their vision tested. M. Gilbert and

Hopkinson studied the effects of

various illumination conditions on a

series of such charts. In addition to the usual black letters on a white

background, they used white letters on a black background, and white let- ters on backgrounds of various

shades of gray. (The study was

designed to simulate a classroom

chalkboard task.)

The Snellen eye chart is used to determine the capability of a person

to distinguish details in a pattern of

visual stimulation. Another technique

often employed for the same purpose

is the Landolt ring. This is a circle

with a gap in it (a letter "C" with a narrow opening). The gap can appear

at any part of the circle, and the task

of the experimental subject is to determine where the gap is.

Illumination Levels

Recommended by lES*

Selected Tasks and Spaces

Recommended

Situation Illumination, or task footcandles

Assembly:

Rough easy seeing 30

Rough difficult seeing 50

Medium 100

Fine 500

Extra fine 1000

Machine shops:

Rough bench and machine work 50

Fine bench and machine work 500

Extra-fine bench and machine

work, grinding —fine work 1000

Storage rooms or warehouses:

Inactive 5

Offices:

Cartography, designing,

detailed drafting 200

Accounting, bookkeeping, etc. 150

Mail sorting 100

Corridor, elevators, stairways 20

Residences:

Kitchen, food preparation 150

Reading, writing 70

• lES Handbook, 5th ed., 1972

Several Acui-ly Measures
R. Lythgoe (British physicist) performed a study with a Landolt ring to determine the effect of the surround on the ability to perform a simple

visual acuity task: the determination

of the minimum size of detail which can be resolved. The luminance of the

surround was varied from well below

that of the task to a value considerably above the task.

The Illuminating Engineering Society

Handbool< is the single most influential source document for the lighting

levels now recommended for

buildings in the United States. These

levels have been developed in large

measure as a result of the work of H. Blackwell and his associates

(psychologists). Blackwell has

employed a variety of techniques in his investigations. His early work

made use of a procedure where a cir- cular target was presented to subjects

at the center of a field of uniform

luminance.

Lx»minous Pise

(BlacKwell)

SurroundThe target consisted of a uniform

luminous increment presented within a circular area on a uniform

background field. The target was

presented at a number of contrast

levels above and below the level of the

immediate background, for periods

ranging from 0.001 to 1 second. Experimental subjects were told the size

and positioning of the target as well as the duration of exposure. Each ex- perimental trial consisted of four time

intervals. The task of the subject was

to identify the particular interval during which the target actually appeared. The subject was forced to choose one of the time intervals,

whether or not he thought he detected

the target. This "forced choice"

procedure is more sensitive than the

more common one which requires the

subject to report only whether or not a

flash was seen. detection Task.

P^oen+age 36curac\) 66

a func+ion of i3rqe,f

Percentage 3ccur3cy

100

ReiatNe targetcontBst

While Landolt rings, discs and Snellen

Eye Charts have been used to simulate difficult visual tasks such as might be encountered in buildings,

these methods have limited application. In the experiments discussed so

far, subjects knew where to look for

the stimulus; it was not necessary for

them to locate the material to be

viewed. However, there are many

tasks performed in buildings which

have this added dimension—the need

first to find something and then to perform some follow-up activity. For

example, proofreading of printed

material requires one to determine

whether errors exist, and if so, correct them. This involves a type of

scanning procedure, without knowing

where (or if) errors exist. Industrial in- spection tasks such as wiring provide

another instance of the need for this

type of activity. The methodologies

used for static tasks were sometimes

modified to meet these dynamic task

situations. Other techniques have

been developed to better understand

"visual search" activities such as

locating targets on radar displays.

The Landolt ring was used as a

"building block" in a chart of rings in studies by M. Weston (British

physicist). He printed a series of such

charts with different levels of contrast. The task of the subject was to cancel

every ring with a gap in a specified

direction by means of a pencil marking. In order to accomplish this task,

the entire array of rings had to be

searched systematically. Performance of the task was measured in terms of speed as well as accuracy.

O. Blackwell (psychologist and wife of H. Blackwell) has used two

procedures in her studies of illumination needs in various population

groups. She employed a display of

five Landolt rings, one in the center of

four others in one study. The location

of the "open" rings was changed. A

random succession of displays with

from zero to five open rings was

presented for 1 second each, after

which time the subject reported the

number of rings opened at the right.

The performance of subjects was

better when contrast ratios were

higher.

Weston landoif Rin9

Performance Charf

CoOCt O OOC

ccoo coco Cooc

O OOC oooo OODO

o oeo O OOC*

cooc oooo Oooo

r\^

OOCO O 00 o

cooo oocc

oooc C 0 oc oooo

oo oo oo oo ccoo

coco O OOo oooc

ocoo Oooo o OOO

oooo oooo Oooo

0

CP

161
Another procedure used by O. Blackwell was to have a subject look

through an aperture at a luminous

screen with a small spot (4 minutes)

of light at the center. The task of the

subject was to adjust the spot of light

until it was "barely visible" against the

background. The illuminance of the screen was systematically varied, upward and downward, for a series of

trials, to determine visual perfor- mance. In both studies, older people

required more light than younger

ones for comparable performance.

H. Bodmann (German illuminating

engineer) developed a more

elaborate (and automated) method to examine the type of "search" task

developed by Weston. Bodmann

employed a chart, with the numbers

from 1 to 100 randomly distributed on

the surface.

The experimenter called out a number, and the subject had to locate the number and to touch a hole

adjacent to the number with a metal

pointer. The pointer was connected

electronically to recording equipment,

which provided an indication of the

time taken to respond. The variables

examined in the study were the size of

typeface used for the numbers and

the contrast of the type with the

background.

The Field Task Simulator was

developed by H. Blackwell to more

closely approximate "real world"

viewing conditions. The apparatus

consisted of a large rotating wheel,

which contained 50 luminous disc

targets on the periphery. Targets were produced by adding luminous

increments to some discs by means

of projectors mounted below. The cir- cular wheel was rotated at a number

of different speeds. The subjects were to indicate that they detected a

target by pressing a button mounted

on the simulator.

The tasks described thus far are

laboratory methods developed to better understand how people see. In re- cent years, researchers have used

more realistic tasks to better understand lighting requirements for particular industrial and commercial

building environments.

A series of realistic industrial and

commercial studies under varied

conditions of illumination was con- ducted by S. Smith (psychologist).

One of these studies involved the use

of three-dimensional objects

Realistic Tasi< Study (S. Smitli)

Lincoln pennies. The task of the subject was to read the dates of pennies

of three qualities (new, worn, badly

worn) as quickly and as accurately as

possible. The subjects performed

this task using an eye marker camera

requiring a fixed head position.

A camera was used by L. Buttolph

(consulting illuminating engineer) to determine how people perform visual

work tasks in realistic settings. He set up time-lapse cameras in offices and

schools to determine the typical viewing angles employed by people. In his

school survey, he examined fourth,

seventh, and ninth grade students. In the office work, which lasted for

several months, he took thousands of

frames of stop-action motion picture

film.

Sodmann 6earch -Task Chart

162
Suprathreshold Studies

Yonemura has developed a research

approach designed to be more

realistic in terms of the visual task

than the one traditionally employed in lighting studies. The primary dif- ferences between his method and

that of H. Blackwell, for example, are concerned with the instructions to the

subject and the task employed in the

study. In contrast to the absolute

threshold judgments usually

employed in lighting studies

(something that can barely be seen),

Yonemura has used suprathreshold

tasks (objects which can readily be

seen). However, subjects have a dif- ferent judgment to make—instead of / can (or cannot) detect the object, they

determine "how well" the object can

be seen.

In his first investigations, one using

sine-wave gratings and another

employing square-wave gratings (see

illustration), observers were asked to vary the contrast of a grating pattern so that it appeared to be equal in contrast to an adjacent grating pattern

identical in all respects except for

mean luminance. Starting with a high

level of luminance, levels were

systematically lowered until apparatus limitations were reached.

(The results obtained using this

technique differed considerably from

those achieved with traditional approaches; namely—increased lighting

levels did not produce better

task performance. Instead, an

optional lighting level was found;

beyond which, task performance

declined.)

I 'llBllillllllilllll^^

Square Wave Grating; Yonemura Study (NBS)

dummary Visibility Data

(Yonemura)

o.o 1.0 Z.O 3.0

Luminance Oogcd/nf)

163
Yonemura then did a follow-up study.

He was interested in determining

whether he would obtain similar

results as to illumination requirements if the experiment were con- ducted using more realistic tasks

judgments of printed matter. Since

reading is a widespread activity in buildings, this appeared to be a

logical first step in following up the initial studies. Charts were printed at different levels of darkness on a

variety of backgrounds ranging from

white to dark gray. That is, contrast

ratios were explored. Another

variable examined was the level of

lighting associated with the task. As

in the previous instance, the response

of the subject was to judge which of

two compared stimuli was clearer.

The findings in this study were consistent with those obtained in the earlier

investigations. Printed Matter; Yonemura Study (NBS)

mail oxon ^1 ;ki owo <i\\\

\<>\\\ I'M'

m;m oxen 25 37 84 90 oxxo owx

raw see van 90 8S 76 60 M xoxxx oxooo

nooo muB mew » n » » S4 » M noi mi oo.a

«Br u*« worm «v» WM «

Research Procedure; Yonemura Printed Matter Study (NBS)

164

A review of the lighting factors which

are of interest to architects reveals

that not only light but sliadow effects,

too, are significant (mood, emphasis,

expression of intended use, modification of appearance). C. Neenan

(lighting designer) indicates that

lighting cannot be understood

without a knowledge of shadow effects. In describing shadow effects,

Neenan indicates that:

Ttie physical size of the light source

determines the density of the shadow,

and the optical characteristics determine the acuity, or sharpness, of the

edges of the shadow. The shadow cast

Shadow Apparatus

(Neenan)

by a soft light has a feathered edge. The

gradual change in shadow density from

the shaded area to a lighted area is an

asset when it is necessary to blend the

light of luminaire groups. It can be a

liability when shadow acuity is desired.''''

A test has been designed to describe

and quantify the shadows produced

by luminaires called the "shadow factor test." The test involves measuring

the Incident light falling on a test area

both before and after a shadow is cast on it. This approach is said to provide an effective means of

evaluating shadows.

Photocell

Removable Verfica I Shadow Caster

Luminaire

Light Shield Box

ftini6hed black inside)

C. J. Neenan, "Shadow Characteristics

of Stage Lights for Theatre, Television

and Motion Pictures," Illuminating

Engineering. 63 (1968).
Subjective Appraisals

Recently it has been possible to study

some of these factors by the method

known as the multiple criterion

technique. After identifying a set of

variables which are sensitive to

lighting conditions, subjects adjust

one physical parameter at a time

based on some preselected criterion.

(The subject may increase the apparent size of reading type to maximize the ease of reading, while the il- lumination level on the type is maintained at a constant level. By performing this type of test at each of

several levels of illumination, a set of

equal sensation curves is obtained

which relate the type size with varying

levels of illumination.)

The above procedure has been

modified in some investigations.

Instead of having the subject control

the characteristics of the stimulus, the

experiment is carried out under a

fixed, predetermined set of conditions. The subject's performance is then examined over a period of time

to determine whether his responses

are consistent from trial to trial during

the course of the study. The critical data in this approach consist of the

variability of responses over time.

This approach has the advantage of

providing standardized conditions to

all subjects which facilitates data

collection and analysis. When subjects are permitted to vary conditions, many do it rapidly, others slowly, because a considerable degree of

judgment is involved.

An example of an experimental

method for appraising a lighting in- stallation is that by Stiles and his

colleagues in the assessing of street

lighting. They employed street

lighting experts to obtain their opinions on a number of installations in various streets. The observers were

asked to assess the visibility, the at- tractiveness, and the degree of glare

of various installations on arbitrary

scales. Attempts were then made to correlate these collective opinions of

the installations with various physical

facts which had been measured.

Hewitt describes an appraisal method

carried out by a small team of ex- perienced observers (architects and

lighting designers). They used the

following approach. A questionnaire

is issued to observers before they

enter the room. They are asked first to record their initial impressions of

the interior. Next, they answer questions on such items as the furnishing

and decorations, the way in which

stated visual tasks are lighted, discomfort glare from windows or artificial lighting, sparkle, specular

reflections, directional qualities, color

rendering, and brightness distribution. Having thus made an appraisal

of the lighting effects, observers are asked to judge the methods of

lighting, i.e., the windows, the light fit- tings, and the arrangement of the

lighting installation. Finally they are asked to make an overall judgment to

identify critical factors associated with

lighting and rank those factors which

seem to have had the greatest in- fluence on their opinion. Each appraisal takes from 30 to 40 minutes

excluding the time required for taking

measurements of illumination and

luminance.

Hopkinson indicates that the appraisal of lighting must be undertaken by the user of the lighting. Objective measurements can only show

how the lighting measures up against

physical standards which must

themselves have been determined by

a subjective appraisal if they are to convey any notion of the excellence of

the lighting.

Conclusion

While illumination research goes back

many years, many problems are evident when we consider user requirements. Most research concerned with

defining lighting level needs was

developed under threshold laboratory

conditions, with young adults serving as subjects. Recent work has shown

that these early studies must be supplemented by field studies of realistic

tasks, suprathreshold investigations,

and examinations of the needs of

special populations such as the elderly. On the other hand, we must not

neglect the quality of illumination. The

positive features of lighting

(psychological and/or aesthetic) are

not well-understood either, and merit

attention. Finally, studies of the

relationship between natural and artificial illumination are required

especially in view of the need to conserve energy.

165

13

Color

Color Rendering—The Effects of Light on Objects

Factors Influencing Color Perception

Color Classification Systems

Munsell System

Natural Color System

Studies of Color in Buildings

Conclusion

Families of Color: Light/Dark— Vivid/Grayish

'

In addition to famiiies of hues, we have families of light colors and families of dark

colors. The samples illustrate the way in which these colors relate to each other.

To describe any color you have to be aware not only of its hue, but also of its lightness and darkness, and its vividness or grayishness.

' D.B. Judd, Co/or /n Our Everyday Lives {\NasU\ng\on,D.C., 1975).

We have covered two aspects of the

visual environment in the present part

of this work—illumination and

perception. Color is a component part

of each of these problem areas, and

we will now discuss it at some length.

The complexity of color, its importance in design, and the breadth of its literature necessitate this approach.

Unfortunately, however, few studies

dealing with color in buildings have

been performed. Instead, the

research literature deals more with

how people classify, measure, and

perceive colors.

Color is a fundamental characteristic

of both materials and light. It is therefore not surprising that color has

received attention from the scientific,

artistic, commercial, and design communities. For the architect in particular, color provides an important

additional attribute which can be in- corporated into many aspects of his

work—whether pragmatic or

aesthetic. The architect therefore

would like a better understanding of

the effects of colors on people.

Color research presents a microcosm

of many problems which face social

scientists and architects working in collaboration. The architect wants

colors which can be employed to evoke moods and feelings, call attention to selected attributes of buildings,

and generally enhance the environment. The goals are therefore

primarily subjective ones—rooted in emotional and aesthetic experiences.

Color research, in contrast, has until quite recently remained in the

mainstream of the classical (objective) scientific research tradition

dating from the time of Newton (chap.

19). The study of color, however, is by no means limited to physics. D. Judd

(physicist and colorimetrist) indicated

that the study of color has several

aspects—chemical, physical, psychological, and physiological. He

noted that the study of color is neither

purely physical or psychological but can best be described as the evaluation

of radiant energy in terms of the visual

perception of the human eye. The

measurement methods of color are

therefore ultimately based on the ability

of a person to make evaluative judgements concerning the stimuli presented

by an experimenter.^

One of the factors which stands in the

way of an understanding of color is the extraordinary sensitivity of the

average person with respect to distinguishing colors from one another.

Under ideal viewing conditions, the

number of distinguishable colors is estimated to be between 5 and 10

million. As a means of dealing with

this large number of colors, considerable efforts have been expended

to develop procedures to categorize

colors as simply as possible, i.e., to

identify basic parameters and classify

colors accordingly. Of particular in- terest is the fact that the major impetus for this work was provided by

artists intent on teaching the use of

color to students—A. Munsell and T. Johansson.

' D. B. Judd and G. Wyszecki, Color in Business, Science and Industry (New

York, 1975).

167
Color serves many esthetic purposes In the design of buildings.

It creates an atmosphere. A bright color scheme for a building tends to express

gaiety and excitement: a quiet scheme may express dignity and repose.

It suggests either unity or diversity. A uniform color scheme contributes a sense of

unity, while a varied color scheme gives a feeling of diversity.

It expresses the character of materials. If a building has a red tile roof, gray stone

walls, and brown wood thm, the essential character of each matehal is clearly

stated. If these have the same color, the building looks like a clay model.

It defines form. A line, a two-dimensional surface, or a three-dimensional volumn is defined If Its color contrasts with its surroundings.

It affects proportions, l^aterials with contrasting colors laid In horizontal lines tend to emphasize a feeling of breadth. If laid in vertical lines, they promote the sense of

height.

It brings out scale. A building made up of elements of uniform color looks like a

monolith. Its scale is difficult to judge at a distance. If, however, its elements

(including openings) are of constrasting colors, the scale of the building Is more

easily conveyed.

It gives a sense of weight. Elements in dark colors look heavy; those in light colors

look light in weight. For this reason, the color of tall structures is sometimes

graduated from dark at the bottom to light at the top.^

Another obstacle to the study of color

is the widespread finding that people

respond to colors in highly individual

ways. That is, considerable individual

differences are apparent with respect

to major color responses—e.g., color

preferences. One goal has been to respond to the needs of the

marketplace. This effort has been

directed toward adequately specifying colors to permit agreement

between potential buyers and sellers

of products where color

characteristics are important—e.g., paints, raw materials, finished

products.

^ W. Fau\kner, Architecture and Color (New

York, 1972)

The attributes described above by

Faulkner are only concerned with object colors— i.e., colors associated

with the surface characteristics of

materials and objects. Our experiencing of color is considerably more

complex, however. The perception of a particular color in the environment

is dependent not only on the energy

distribution of the source, or on the

properties of an object which result in the selective transmission, reflection,

and absorption of particular

wavelengths, but on the interaction of

the properties of light and objects.

We will discuss this topic first, because of its importance.

168

Color Rendering—The Effects of Light on Objects

The light striking an object will be affected by interaction with the object in a number

of different ways. The resulting light disthbutlons give us our Impressions of what

the object looks like. Specular reflection, for example, makes the object look glossy

or shiny. Metals are distinguished by stronger specular reflection than that from

other materials, and smooth surfaces are always shinier than rough ones.

The diffuse reflection caused by the scattering of light within a material, where no

selective absorption by dyes or pigments Is Involved, causes a white appearance.

White paper, for example. Is white by diffuse reflection. This means it must contain

many internal surfaces, each of which reflects some of the light. This is indeed the case, as paper Is composed of many small fibers. It Is white because the fibers absorb almost no light. Snow, talcum powder, milk, and all other white materials look

white because they scatter light by multiple reflection but do not absorb It.

When absorption Is the dominant process, dark colors result, if all wavelengths are absorbed, black results. Selective absorption of just certain wavelengths results In our perception of color. In the majority of objects all these processes are operating;

specular (shiny) reflection, diffuse reflection by scattering and absorption."

The topics of color and lighting are in- separable when the concern of the

architect is color rendering—the ef- fect of lighting attributes on color appearance.

The light reaching a viewer's eye from

the objects in a room determines what

colors the objects appear to be. For

each object, the light sent to the eye

depends on the amount of light

reflected from each wavelength of the

light source that shines on the object.

If the light source, for example, contains no red wavelengths, it does not

matter how reflective the object is in the red part of the spectrum; there is no red light for the object to reflect.

An extreme example of such a light source is the low pressure sodium

discharge lamp, which has virtually all

its energy in a narrow band of the

yellow part of the spectrum. Under

such a source, all objects appear

yellow, with the only differences being

in the amount of yellow reflected. The

advent of the energy crisis has intensified the need to be sensitive to problems of color rendering, since

often there is a tradeoff between

energy efficiency and the color

rendering properties of lamps. This

problem was recently studied by two

researchers.

" Judd and Wyszecki
S. Aston and H. Bellchambers con- ducted a study to determine the

tradeoffs between two qualities of

lights—efficiency and color rendering. Two cabinets were designed and

furjiished as identical miniature

rooms with the colors of the objects

and surrounds of the room carefully

specified. One cabinet was il- luminated by fluorescent lamps with

good color rendering properties and

the other by fluorescent lamps with

high luminous efficiency. The

observers in the study stood in front

of the two cabinets so as to have a full view of both.

Illumination levels in the high

luminous efficiency cabinet were set

at three different levels (standard).

Subjects were asked to adjust the

levels of the other fluorescent lamps

(comparison) until they were

equivalent to the standard in terms of

"overall clarity." The average light in- tensity levels set were considerably

below those of the three levels es- tablished as standards. In other

words, subjects accepted less light

when the light rendered colors well.

Even more serious than the aesthetic

problems that might arise from color

distortions produced by light sources

are the possible safety implications.

Thus, under some lighting systems,

red danger signs may appear to be

orange or brown. The safety warning

signal embodied in the red color is thereby lost or transmitted into a wrong message.

Factors Influencing Color

Perception

The inability to perceive color coded

messages is not confined to characteristics of lights. Many people

have color deficiencies which prevent

them from responding reliably to chromatic signals, safety markings, or color coding. Many types and levels of

color deficiency have been identified.

Since the time of Gestalt psychology,

researchers have been aware of the

importance of context on the way that

object colors are perceived. For ex- ample, D. Katz (psychologist) ex- amined colors by means of a "reduction screen," with a hole in it. When an

object is seen through such a screen

a colored surface appears as a film

color, because the screen eliminates

the perception of context—position,

illumination, relation to surroundings.

This work on film color was done in conjunction with research which

showed that the surface colors of objects remained constant despite the

characteristics of illumination. This

result is explained by the cues

available in the situation, e.g., an object recognizable as a lemon appears

yellow even when illuminated by a colored light (within limits).

Katz identified three kinds of colors:

Surface colors which are two dimensional, localized at a given distance

and usually the colors of perceived objects; volumic colors, which are the

tridimensional colors of transparent

media, like colored liquids, colored

air; and film colors, which are primary

and without localization or precise

spatial characteristics.

Judd notes that determining the

pleasantness of color combinations is not only complicated but controversial. A widely held view is that color

preference combinations depend too

much on individual taste, and are

therefore too complicated for scientific study. Despite the difficulties

posed by the topic, H. Helson

(psychologist) conducted a study con- cerned with the judgment of the

pleasantness of color combinations

under varied lighting conditions. The

investigation was performed in a light

booth employing 10 observers—

5

males and 5 females. The subjects

viewed 125 chips (5 cm square) on

each of 25 background colors under

five different sources of illuminationincandescent and fluorescent. Each

of 3,125 object background color

combinations was viewed 5 times

once under each lighting condition.

Colors of 20 uniformly distributed

hues were shown. For each

hue there were ranges of grayish

colors and various degrees of

saturation. The color chips were

viewed 1 2 at a time with the subjects

being asked to rate each combination

for "pleasantness," on a scale from 1 to 9 (1 = very, very unpleasant, 5 =

neutral or indifferent, 9 = very, very

pleasant).

The major findings (not to be take as

definitive) were as follows:

• The most notable finding was that

to be pleasant, an object color must

stand out from the background color

by being definitely either lighter or darker.

• Women rated all lights higher than

men for object colors of "warm" hues

(red to yellow); men rated them higher

for "cool" object colors (blue to redpurple).

• Light or dark background colors were preferred to intermediate ones.

• Preferred object colors (in order) were green, blue, and purple.

169
Judd discussed the influence of other

colors on color perception:

THE SAME COLOR MAY APPEAR TO

VARY IN LIGHTNESS AND

GRA YNESS. Every color is influenced

by the color next to it. Whenever colors are brought together which differ in any

respect, their differences appear

greater. The panels in the accompanying illustration show this effect. The

smaller rectangles in each pair are the

same color. (Check by masking.) In the

upper pair on this page the Inner gray

panel appears darker on the light

background and lighter on the dark

background. In the middle pair the inner

green appears less gray on the gray

background and more gray on the

green background. In the lower pair the

inner green appears both lighter and

yellower on the dark blue background

and darker and bluer on the yellow

background.^

'Judd

170
IDENTICALCOLORS MAY APPEAR

TO VARY IN LIGHTNESS AND HUE. In the upper pair ... the inner orange panel

appears darker and redder on the yellow

background and lighter and yellower on

the red background. In the middle pair

the inner beige appears darker and redder on the green background and lighter

and yellower on the blue background. In the lower pair the inner yellow panel appears slightly redder on the blue

background and slightly greener on the

magenta background. These induced

color effects are ever present and are of

greater or lesser extent depending upon

the particular situation. These induction

principles are helpful when a fixed or existing color must be presented in the

most favorable way through choice of a new surrounding color or group of

colors. "

'Judd
HARMONY USING NEIGHBORING HUES. Another kind of harmony results from

using neighboring hues with approphate lightness differences. ^

' Judd

172

The topic of color harmony brings us

to the research performed to develop

an orderly way of describing the

countless colors which can be dif- ferentiated by people. The architect,

the consumer, the manufacturer, and

supplier of raw material, all require

the means to specify colors to ensure

satisfaction with goods being

purchased when color is an important

attribute. Fortunately, considerable

research has been performed to specify and classify colors in an

orderly way.

Color Classification

Systems

Suppose that an observer on a deserted

island finds a large number of colored

pebbles and wishes to arrange them as

to color in some orderly manner. Let us assume that he chooses first to separate

the colored (chromatic) pebbles (red,

yellow, blue, green, etc.) from the

colorless (achromatic) pebbles (white,

black, or gray).

The observer might then arrange the

achromatic pebbles in order from white,

through light gray, to dark gray, and

finally to black according to their lightness or value. He might also

arrange the chromatic pebbles, first according to their hues (the reds

together, the yellows together, etc.). He

might then realize that these would also

vary as to lightness, or value, and might

arrange them systematically (the light

reds together, the medium reds

together, etc.)ln the same way that he

arranged the achromtic pebbles.

However, he might notice that the

colored pebbles differ from each other

in another way, besides hue and

"Dee^err Island Study"

(After Billmeyer

and Salfzman)

f\r6X separate "achromatic"

from "chromatic" pebbles...

o o o

o •

achromatic chromatic

,,,and arrange them in

order of liQhtneeswhite

9 • •

black

Next, 6eparate chromatic

pebbles bv "hue"...

blue ®®o s^ellow

o red

...and then bN) lightness

wi+hin each hue:

Pinal|N|^ t>ut)d\\i\de each

group on -Hne b^sis of

gra^ v6. color oon-fenf,

'"chroma" or " 6atu ration".

SI

O O O —

• • —

—

chroma
lightness. Some of the red pebbles

might be bright red, lil<e tomatoes, and

others a dull red like brick. This quality

determines the strength of the color, as compared to gray, and is known as

saturation or chroma.

If our observer is both unusually

sensitive to color and highly intelligent,

he would then have arranged the

pebbles according to their hue,

lightness, and saturation, as three of the

basic attributes of color, all of which

must be noted to describe or specify a

color completely. °

Several color classification systems

have been developed. They differ in terms of how colors are described

and grouped as well as with respect to the precision of the specifications.

In general, three approaches have

been employed in writing color

specifications: the naming of the

desired colors; the development of

color atlases which provide samples

of the colors in the form of chips; a mathematical expression of the

amounts of three primary colors

which in combination are capable of

defining all existing colors.

Munsell System

The most widely used system of color

specification in the United States is the Munsell system. Munsell wanted

to develop a color notation system, il- lustrated by charts of measured

colors, to make the recording of color

easy and convenient to assist in the

teaching of color to children. After

initiating his work, he was contacted

° F.W. Billmeyer and M. Saltzman,

Principles of Color Technology (New York,

I 1966).

by a group of retailers who wanted a standard system of colors, based on

charts with numbers. This was the

start of a general application of the

Munsell system approach for commercial, industrial, and residential use.

Judd described the system as follows:

The conception of the surface color

solid is that each point in it represents

the perception of a surface color and

each color just perceptibly different is represented by points separated from

the first point by unit distance.

The scale of the solid must therefore be

psychologically spaced. The unit for the

lightness scale is the just perceptible dif- ference in lightness starting with zero for black. The unit for the saturation scale is the just perceptible difference in saturation starting with zero for the gray having

the same lightness as the color perception to be designated. Hue measure- ments are described in an analogous

manner.

'

The determination of the appropriate

"psychological spacing" in the

Munsell system is based upon the

ability of subjects to quantify the dif- ferences between compared colored

chips, for all three attributes of color.

The Munsell system consists of five

primary hues and five intermediate

ones. These hues are further subdivided, and together with

breakdowns of value (lightness) and

chroma (saturation) form the other

dimensions of the system. The value

scale ranges from 0 (perfect black) to 10 (perfect white). The chroma scale

is open-ended, but in practice often

extends to 12 or 14 (depending on the

ability to produce stable color chips of

various hues and values). Because of

the problem of instability (fading), the

actual chips do not achieve all of the

colors which in theory should be

available.

Munsell designations may be determined by visual comparisons of color

samples with the chips in the Munsell

Book of Color. First, the page with

chips of the closest hue is determined, then the colors on that page

are compared with the sample being

placed next to the standard chips—

until the best visual match can be

made.

^ Judd and Wyszecki

173

The Munsell Color 6y6tem

white

dacKgrey

blacK

Hue6 are 5pac&d around the vertical lightnese

axi6 called 'Value" Unere is an increa'De in

eaturati'on (ct\roma) wi-Hn horizontal distance from

the center axi5 to the out6ide of the color solid.
K. Kelly (physicist) formulated a

"Universal Color Language" based

most heavily on the Munsell Color

System. The language was developed

in recognition of the need for color

designation systems having a range

of precision. For example, if we were

to select a color to be used to paint a

wall, perhaps "light blue" would be a

sufficient description to meet our

needs. On the other hand, if we

wanted to restore a painting to its original colors, we would want to specify the colors required with the

greatest degree of precision possible.

The Universal Color Language has six

levels of precision —the first three being based on names alone.

Level 1. The color solid is divided into

13 color name blocks—each of which

contains a large range of colors. It is intended to be easy to use, employing

basic hue names and the neutrals

(white, gray and black). Although the

hue breakdowns are not precise, the

boundaries are identical with those

used in levels 2 through 6. As an il- lustration, a carpet could be

described as being brown (Br).

List of generic hue names and neutrals and their abbreviations

comprising Level 1 of the UCL. Each hue name is illustrated

by an appropriate Centroid Color.* °

Color name

AbbreviationCentroid

Color

Color name

Pink

Red

Orange

Brown

Yellow

Olive

Yellow Green

Pk

Br

01

YG

Green

Blue

Purple

White

Gray

Black

Abbreviation

Centroid

Color

G

Wh

Gy

Bk

* CAUTION: Since all the colors in this Table are photographs of Centroid Colors, they are approximations of them and so should never be used in place of the actual samples.

174

'»K.L. Kelly and D.B. Judd, Color: Universal

Language and Dictionary of Names

(Washington, D.C., 1976).
Level 2. The color solid is divided into

29 blocks; four of the Level 1 blocks

being unchanged, while nine others

are further subdivided. In addition to the 13 color names used previously,

16 new intermediate names are added. The intermediate names

describe positions between adjacent

colors in the Munsell solid. Using a

Level 2 description, a carpet can be

described as yellowish brown (yBr).

Level 3. The color solid is now divided

into 267 color name blocks. The color

names now account for lightness and

saturation of colors, not merely the

hues—thereby considerably ex- panding the size of the set of colors

employed. The gray part of the color

solid is divided into light, medium and

dark parts. A carpet can now be

designated as light yellowish brown

(l.yBr).

List of intermediate hue names and their abbreviations used in Levels 2

and 3 of the UCL, each illustrated with an appropriate Centroid Color.'

Color name

Reddish orange

Orange yellow

Greenish yellow

Yellowish green

Bluish Green

Greenish blue

Purplish blue

Violet

AbbreviationCentroid

Color

Color name

AbbreviationCentroid

Color

rO

OY

gY

yG

bG

gB

pB

Reddish purple

Purplish red

Purplish pink

Yellowish pink

Reddish brown

Yellowish brown

Olive brown

Olive green

rP

pR

pPk

yPk

rBr

yBr

OIBr

OIG

" Kelly and Judd

175
Scheme of the hue modifiers, the "-ish" grays and the neutrals with

their modifiers. Abbreviations are given in parentheses."

IS >

3

S

£^

White (Wh)

-ish

wh (

-ish

V\ very pale

(v.p.)

very light

(V.I.)

brilliant

It

gra'

•

Gy) 'T ,2

(brill.)

light (1.

-

"(p'f

light grayish

(1 av I

light

(1.)

>^a ^

-ish

gray

(

-ish

Gy)

medium

gr

(med.

Gy

grayish

(gy.)

moderate

(m.)

strong

(s.)

m .—

.

dark

gray

(d.

Gy)

dark

-ish

gri

(d.

-ish

Gy

dark grayish dark deep

black

(Bk)

-ish

black

(

-ish

Bk) blackish

(bk.)

very dark

(v.d.)

very deep

(v. deep)

vivid

(V.)

NlunseM Chroma (Saturation)

'^'Kelly and Judd

176

A photograph illustrating the value

or lightness scale with five

Centroid Colors: very light green,

light green, moderate green, dark

green and very dark green. '

A photograph illustrating the

chroma or saturation scale with

five Centroid Colors: gray, grayish

green, moderate green, strong

green and vivid green.

very dark

green

147

vivid green

139

^Kelly and Judd '"Kelly and Judd
Levels 4 and 5. These levels go

beyond a naming system for

designating colors. Instead, they

employ t'he Munsell system of color

samples (or their equivalent) to identify colors which correspond to those

shown by sample chips (Level 4) or which can be interpolated (Level 5).

Level 6. Represents the state-of-theart of physical instrumentation to make measurements of color

parameters. This degree of accuracy

is not appropriate for specifying

characteristics of interest to the

architect at present.

In describing the Munsell color spacing procedure, Newhall indicated that

since the characteristics of the field surrounding the task itself were important, observations were made

against backgrounds of white, black,

and gray. The illumination and viewing conditions were carefully standardized. A series of Munsell color chip

samples was used in the study. They

were evaluated under two sets of conditions. In both instances, the task of

the observer was to estimate a ratio

which represents the "differences"

between the color chips being compared. For example, "CI" represents

the color perceived as belonging to the chosen standard, "C2", the color

to be evaluated, and "R" is the es- timate of the ratio. "A" indicates the

attribute being examined—e.g., lightness (C2/C1/)A=RA.

^Kelly and Judd

Six Levels of Color Language "

GENERAL

APPLICABILITY

COLOR NAME DESIGNATIONS NUMERAL AND/OR LETTER COLOR DESIGNATIONS

LEVEL OF

FINENESS

OF COLOR

DESIGNATION

Level 1

[least precisel Level 2 Level 3

Level 4 Level 5

Level 6 [most precisel

NUMBER OF

DIVISIONS OF COLOR SOLID

13 29 267- 943-7056

• = 100,000 ^ 5,000,000

TYPE OF COLOR

DESIGNATION

Generic hue names and

neutrals |See

circled designatlon<i in

diagram below]

All hue names

and neutrals

ISee diagram

below)

ISCC-NBS

All hue names

and neutrals

with modifiers

INBS-C553I

Color-order Systems

[Collections of

color standards

sampling the

color solid

systematically!

visually interpolated Munsell

notation [From

Munsell Book of

Colorl

CIE [i.y.Yj or

Instrumentally

Interpolated

Munsell Notation

EXAMPLE OF COLOR

DESIGNATION

brown yellowish brown

light yellowish brown

Icentroid #76|

Munsell 1548'

10YR 6/4

"

9'/; YR 6.4/474" X = 0.395

y

= 0.382

Y = 35.6% or

9.6YR 6.45/4.3"

ALTERNATE COLOR-ORDER SYSTEMS

USABLE AT

GIVEN LEVELS

pPk )i<^ yPk pR (^R) fO ^

(fwhitT^ vi/ OY

j;:— yBr ^ Cj^aT) OlBr (V)

©

gB yG 0

bG 0

SCCA 21 6-

|9th Std l 70128

HCC 800'

H407

M&P 7056'

list Ed.l

12H6

Plochere 1248'

180 0 5-d

Ridgway 1115'

XXIX 13 "b

CHM 943°

|3rd Ed.l

3 gc 4 Increased Fineness of Color Designation

Statistical Expression of Color Trends [roll -up methodi 4-

* Figures indicate the number of color samples in each collection.

*' The smallest unit used rn the Hue, Value and Chroma parts of the Munsell notation in Levels 4 [1 Hue step, I Value step and

2 Chroma steps), 5 ['/z Hue step, 0.1 Value step and Chroma stepi and 6 |0.1 Hue step, 0.05 Value step and 0.1 Chroma stepi indicates

the accuracy to which the parts of the Munsell notation are specified in that Level.

17
The hue circle is the scale for constant visual hues, usually represented by

the colors of maximum color strength in each hue. Wherever this scale starts

it will return to this starting point and may thus conveniently be shown

as a circle. The unique perceptions of the hue circle are the four phmary

hues which are neither-nor hues. They are the yellow (Y), (which is neither

greenish nor reddish), the red (R), (neither yellowish nor bluish), and the

green (G), (neither bluish nor yellowish), and blue (B), (neither reddish nor

greenish). Between these primary hues lie the hues that are both. Orange is both a yellow and red color, etc.

When hue character is illustrated in the color circle, It seems natural to situate yellow and blue opposite each other as both are neither greenish nor

reddish, and green opposite red as both are neither yellowish nor bluish.

By using this method of illustration we arrive at the symmetrical color

circle.''^

The observer would compare C2 with

C1 in terms of relative lightness.

The colors would be directly compared and a judgment made concerning the fraction or multiple by

which the lightness of C2 is related

to C1. The observer has the option

of recording his estimate by either

numbers or linear extents (lengths

of lines). C1 = 1.0, C2 = 1.5.

An alternative procedure employed was to present pairs of chips to subjects (CI and C2) to be compared

with other pairs (C3 and C4) and the

differences between pairs are esti- mated in terms of ratios— in the same

manner as above.

Natural Color System

An alternative to the Munsell

approach for ordering colors is the Johansson ("Swedish") Natural

Color System.

Johansson was interested in developing a theory of color composition

which produces aesthetically pleasing

results. His worl< was later used

by Swedish industries manufacturing

colored materials. Johansson's

system lil<e the Munsell System is represented by an atlas of colors.

Johansson indicated that A colour

system, which is to be a basis for studies in color aesthetics must use

only attributes of visual color perception, i.e., such attributes of a color

which could be experienced and

evaluated solely with the help of the

color sense of a human being. ''^

This system is designed to describe

colors and color relations quantitatively in terms of somewhat different

characters (qualities) of the perception than those used by Munsell.

The samples within the Munsell Book

of Color are intended to be equally

spaced along the perception scales,

but the spacing between samples

of the Natural Color System is not

intended to be constant.

Unique color perceptions are described on the basis of a lightness

scale and a hue circle. The lightness

scale ranges from white to black

with shades of gray between.

The basis of the quantitative definition

of hue in the Natural Color System

is the ratio of the primary colors seen as contributing to the hue of any

sample. Thus, all reddish orange

colors perceived as, for example, 60%

red and 40% yellow, are regarded as having the same hue, regardless of

lightness or color strength. It has

been found in work in Sweden that

subjects can make these percentage

estimates of color content with satisfactory consistency.

Among colors of constant hue, the

natural reference points for the color

strength scale, are the color of maximum color strength (an imaginary

color which is absolutely chromatic)

and the neutral color of the same

lightness. Thus the color strength

scale can be illustrated with a straight

line from neutral to the "maximum

color. "'^

Ail colors of constant hue can be

arranged in a diagram along the two

remaining parameters of lightness

and color strength. Other attributes

such as cleanness and saturation can be expressed in terms of these

three parameters.

The quantitative details of the Natural

Color System are still evolving, on the basis of work still in progress

in Sweden. Judd and D. Nickerson

(physicist) believed that with minor

adjustments, the Natural Color System

could be brought into a one-to-one

correspondence with the Munsell

system. They have published

formulas giving the correspondence

between the different variable sets

of the two systems.

'^A, Hard, "NCS: A Descriptive Colour

Order and Scaling System with Application for Environmental Design,"

Man-Environment Systems, 5 (1975).

^'Hard.

'«Hard.

Color Attributes

Natural Color System

Hue:

One color being yellower, greener,

etc. than another one.

Lightness:

One color being lighter than another

one.

Color Strength:

One color being more intense than

another.

Cleanness:

One color is dirtier, the other one,

cleaner.

Saturation:

One color is paler, the other one,

deeper.

178
E. Berglund (Swedish researcher)

describes an application of the

Natural Color System. Participants

start with a large number of color

samples which are sorted into five

groups: neutral (black, gray, white),

yellowish, reddish, bluish, and greenish. These groups are then further

analyzed. For example, the samples

in the yellowish group are divided into

three further groups—pure yellow,

greenish yellow, and reddish yellow.

(The same procedure is followed for the other colors.) The colors are then arranged in a circle with the four

primary colors as fixed points. The

final step is to develop a constant

hue chart.

Another study by Berglund using the

Natural Color System is described

below:

Samples were produced as series of

15 painted cards in the size of

6x10cm.The cards had a semimatte

finish and were viewed under approximately 45° normal geometry in

artificial daylight, here represented

by a suitable arrangement of cubes.

For each of the unique hues three

such series of colored cards were

produced, where as far as possible

only the attribute of hue varied

with each series. One of the three

series (A) showed very light, unsaturated but clean colors. The

second series (B) showed colors of

moderate to high saturation but still as clean and unshadowed as possible.

In the third series (C) all colors were

moderately saturated and dull.^^

'^E. Berglund, Applications of tlie Natural Colour System (Stockholm).

Studies of Color in

Buildings

Our discussion of color has surveyed

several general methods of classifying and measuring colors, but

studies directly concerned with

buildings have been rare. We will now

describe a few such investigations.

R. Kuller (Swedish psychologist)

performed two studies to find out

the influence of color on the perception of a room. In the first investigation, he used color slides of a

perspective sketch of a room. The in- terior details of the room (e.g.,

furniture, curtains) were varied in terms of their colors, while the room

itself was in black and white. Kuller

found that color greatly influenced the

responses of subjects, as measured

by a semantic rating scale.

Perspective Sketch of- Room

(Kuller)
His next study was designed to find

out if people responded comparably when only the walls were colored.

The hues employed were yellow,

green, red, and blue, and, four intermediate ones in the Natural Color

System. They were varied in terms of

lightness and chromatic strength.

Results of Rating Scale

(Kuller)

When we think of how colors effect our perception of the environment,

aesthetic concerns come to mind

first. Colors are said to influence our

feelings as in the case of "warm"

or "cool" environments. However,

there is a considerable gap between

experimental evidence showing such

effects and opinions stating the

effects to be real ones.

^vj Po\nt

7

room in colourphotv

(etMmat\on by coWeqe ^dente>)

•^.^ uncoloured dr3Mnq of room

(eetimation t>y architecture ^udent'b)

••••• discoloured drawing drroom

(C'btimation by cr)emietry etudcnt6)

180

The effect of color on feelings of

warmth was tested by F. Houghton

(research engineer) et al. A canvas

screen 6 ft. x 6 ft. (1.8 m) was placed

at one end of a room 17 ft. x 8 ft. (5.1m X 2.4m). AlOOO-watt projector

at the far end of the room produced

a lighted area approximately 5 ft. 4 in. (1.6 m) in diameter. Subjects

viewed the screen under three conditions—with white light, and with the

light produced by using a red and

then a blue filter in front of the projector lens. The subjects viewed each of

these conditions for an extended

time, usually 40 minutes or more.

Effect of Color on Feelings of Warmth

CHoughton eta I.)

The responses were physiologicalskin and oral temperature and pulse

rate were monitored and environmental conditions were carefully

controlled (77° dry bulb temperature,

50% relative humidity). Observers

rated their feelings of warmth on a

scale with 4 as "ideal," 2 "cool" and 6

"warm." The ratings remained 4

under all conditions, with no evidence

that color had any effect on perceived warmth.
Another study designed to measure

the reaction of subjects to room

colors was performed by I. Payne

(architect). He measured pupil size as

a means of determining how people

respond to colored stimuli. In his first experiment, he measured the re- sponse of six architects and six

non-architects to a series of color

slides: two pictures of the interior of a contemporary building, the exterior

of an historic building, and a nonarchitectural picture (flowers). Pupillary responses were recorded with a 16-mm camera. Each slide was

presented for 5 seconds and each in- dividual's response was related to his

response to the first slide, a blank

gray slide of the same intensity as the others. The results indicated

that the subjects reacted more positively to the color slides than the gray

ones, with architects reacting to a greater degree than non-architects.

The second experiment performed by

Payne consisted of slides of model

rooms which varied in color (red,

blue, and white) and complexity

(a simple room and a complex room).

The simple room was an empty space

with scale furniture and the complex

room was the same cube with additional horizontal and vertical planes.

The results indicated pupillary re- sponse order to be red-white-blue,

with red creating the most positive

reaction (widest pupil response).

Plan of RjpillaryApparatus

(Payne)

projector

drapes

While Payne investigated responses

to color by physiological means,

M. Inui (Japanese lighting engineer)

conducted a general building survey

to determine the colors most often

used. He examined 381 rooms in several building types (movie theatres, hotels, hospitals, schools, and

dwellings). He classified the colors of

ceilings, floors, walls, and doors

using Munsell color chip samples,

examining 2,139 colors in all. While

his sampling procedure was not carefully controlled, the research approach

is an interesting one.

Conclusion

This brief review of color suggests

that M/E researchers have only begun

to examine the effects of color on

people in buildings. Researchers can offer limited suggestions, supported more by basic findings,

rather than by studies performed in buildings, or simulations of them.

This is not to say that building color

requirements cannot be researched,

only that the subject has received

limited attention. The energy crisis may provide the impetus required

to better understand the role of

color in buildings. The popularity of

high efficiency light sources (which in some instances have undesirable

color rendering properties), has

made many people increasingly aware

of color as an important environmental

attribute. This attention may provide

the impetus to conduct research to better understand color perception

from the standpoint of building users.

We have reviewed several research

approaches and requirements dealing

with the auditory and visual environments. While many different methods

of study were described, they are predominantly parametric laboratory

investigations. Studies of the effectiveness of illumination in occupied

buildings are difficult to find as

are evaluations of acoustical designs.

From the standpoint of performance

activities, a major effort is required

by M/E researchers to test and

validate laboratory based findings

under actual use conditions. In this

way, design guidelines can be evaluated and improved in an orderly way.

181
182
PartV

Less Explored Senses

It goes without saying that all architects aspire to the creation of beautiful buildings.

But a fundamental weakness in most discussions of architectural esthetics is a

failure to relate it to its matrix of experiential reality. Our whole literature suffers from

this conceptual limitation since it tends to divorce the esthetic process from the rest of experience, as though it were an abstract problem in pure logic. Thus we persist

in discussing buildings as though their esthetic impact upon us were an exclusively

visual phenomenon. And this leads immediately to serious misconceptions as to the actual relationship between the building and its human occupants. Our very ter- minology reveals this misapprehension: we speak of having seen such and such a

building, of liking or not liking its looks, of its seeming too large or too small in scale,

etc., etc. These are all useful terms, of course, insofar as they convey a part of the

whole truth about our relationship to our buildings. But they are also extremely misleading in suggesting that man exists in some dimension quite separate and apart

from his buildings; that his only relationship with them is that of passive exposure;

that this exposure occurs only along the narrow channel of vision; and that the

whole experience is quite unaffected by the environment in which it occurs.

The facts are quite otherwise and our modes of thought must be revised to corres- pond to them. For architecture—like man himself—is totally submerged in the

natural external environment. It can never be felt, perceived, experienced, in anything less than multidimensional totality. A change in one aspect or quality of

this environment inevitably affects our perception of and response to all the rest. Recognition of this fact is crucial for esthetic theory, above ail for architectural esthetics. Far from being narrowly based upon any single sense of perception like vi- sion, our response to a building derives from our body's total response to and

perception of the environmental conditions which that building affords. It is literally

impossible to experience architecture in any "simpler" way. ^

' J. M. Fitch, Tiie Arciiitectural Manipulation

of Space, Time, and Gravity (New York,

1969).

Le Corbusier stressed the importance of human scale in design. (The size of

the body being the natural "yardsticl<" by which we perceive our surroundings.)

By using this analogy, Le Corbusier acknowledged the pre-eminence among

architects of visual attributes in design, and at the same time contributed to an even greater emphasis of them. Buildings do not serve only visual functions.

Rather, they have the potential of stimulating all of our senses and cannot avoid

having an impact on several of them. The architect therefore designs spaces

and volumes which are in fact perceived not only visually but by means of other sense modalities as well. The non-visual aspects of buildings, with the exceptions of the acoustic and thermal environments, have received little attention by

M/E researchers and merit serious research and design consideration

because of the actual and potential importance to building occupants. The present part of this work describes research studies dealing with these en- vironmental factors.

With the exception of work dealing with thermal comfort, it will become apparent that the sensory information needed by architects is simply not available

for the most part, nor are the research procedures to develop the required data

available.

183

14

The Thermal Environment

Laboratory Studies

Performance Measures

Observational Studies

Field Studies

Asymmetrical Heating

Conclusion

It seems not so long ago when environmental studies were focused on the prescription of minimum temperatures and problems of underheating.

The 'modern' lightweight building of that type that has become characteristic of

many schools, hospitals and offices is well equipped to generate enough heat to overcome thermal losses, but, since it has large glass areas and is of lightweight

construction, it tends to be thermally unstable. Having little thermal storage capacity

it responds rapidly to solar inputs while the large glazed areas emphasize the

'greenhouse effect. ' In addition, it is poorly equipped with regulatory controlsradiators and convectors are relatively insensitive to temperature changes and convectors have extremely poor feedback characteristics.

The study of overheating has thus generated new thinking about the nature of ther- mal comfort, replacing the older, passive model which equated comfort with

physiological neutrality, by an active model of a self-regulatory system in openended interaction with the physical environment in forms governed by social constraints. In the course of such a change, it goes without saying that single values are replaced by ranges of temperatures and other vahables. The final outcome of such

studies is not only to produce a new theoretical model of the thermal environment

but to direct attention to control mechanisms as part of the feedback loop, whether

these be more responsive window and ventilation controls, more sensitive ther- mostats and sensors. ..\

' F. J. Langdon, "Human Sciences and the

Environment in Buildings," Build Inter- national, 6 (Jan-Feb 1973).

The call for energy conservation has

highlighted the importance of the

thermal environment. While studies of

thermal comfort date back more than

half a century, most design data were

collected under a narrow range of

conditions which might limit their applicability under actual use conditions. For the most part, studies have

been performed under wellcontrolled laboratory conditions with

subjects not performing meaningful

activities.

Historically, buildings have been

described in terms of their adequacy

in serving as a shelter, providing

protection against extreme climatic

conditions. Buildings therefore serve as climate modifiers, to accommodate the needs of their occupants,

first physiologically (for survival), and

then to accommodate the activities

performed by them.

Architects are not really faced with the

problem of determining the thermal

requirements necessary for survival.

Foll< wisdom, scientific findings, and

the inherent adaptability of people

have all played a role in overcoming

this basic necessity. Of particular importance has been the range of

available solutions, from wearing appropriate clothing to employing

energy to modify environmental conditions.

However, design for survival only is certainly not sufficient today. How

should the thermal environment be

designed? What are the optimum

conditions for people engaging in activities within buildings? Although answers to these questions have been

provided, we believe that the

problems have not been adequately

solved because of shortcomings in the methods used as a basis for

design recommendations. These will be examined later.

The thermal properties of buildings

have received increasing attention in recent years, with the advent of the

"energy crisis." The major energy re- quirement for buildings is for heating

and cooling. Consequently, it is not

surprising that when seeking ways to conserve energy, many people are

looking toward the thermal attributes

of the building as a potential source of

saving. More particularly, a number

of recommended solutions are

directed toward asking building occupants to adjust to environmental conditions considered less than optimum. For example, one recom- mended approach is to lower

temperatures in buildings during the

winter season, and ask people to wear

heavier clothing as a means of attaining comfort.

185
Past design practices have contributed to the scope of the problem

faced by those seeking to save energy

in buildings. Total dependence on

forced air conditioning and circulation

in sealed buildings (having un- openable windows) appeared to be a

logical approach when energy was in- expensive and abundant. Now,

buildings designed in this manner

pose a problem for those concerned

with saving energy. For example,

many energy conserving approaches

are heavily dependent on the

traditional concept of considering a

building shell as a permeable

membrane. Windows can serve the

energy saving function of permitting

outdoor climatic conditions, when

favorable, to reduce energy consumption, e.g., opening the windows

during evening hours in the summertime to dissipate the unwanted ac- cumulated heat load in a building.

Windows can also be used to ventilate

the building using natural breezes for

air movement. Defining an appropriate thermal environment,

therefore, has implications for both

building occupants and energy

usage.

Research concerned with specifying

environmental conditions for survival can be traced back many years. For

example, the development of submarines and high altitude aircraft

necessitated the design and construction of vehicles which not only

sustain life but permit activities to be

performed. More recently, space age

technology has accelerated the

development of information required

for man to survive and function. When

defining such environments, many

characteristics are taken into account,

but none more important than those

which provide acceptable thermal

conditions.

Military and space research activities

have focused on determining the en- vironmental limits of man, i.e., the upper and lower limits of toleration, in terms of: (1) life safety and (2) the performance of activities. On the other

hand, researchers responsive to the

needs of architects have examined

thermal comfort, using relatively

moderate ranges of temperatures to define the desirable thermal environments of buildings.

Early studies of thermal comfort were

designed to obtain response measures which were subjective and

physiologically based. Body and skin

temperatures, pulse and sweat rate were among the physiological

measurements taken. Subjects were

also asked to evaluate the environment using verbal and numerical

scales. While traditional investigations have been performed in laboratories, in recent years there has

been an increasing emphasis on conducting research in actual buildings

while typical activities are being performed. Still another approach has

been to combine the features of

laboratory and field investigations.

The goal for those studying the effects

of the thermal environment on people

is often stated in one of two ways. It is to describe environmental

characteristics which produce:

• Thermal comfort, defined as that

condition of mind which expresses

satisfaction with the thermal environment, or

• Thermal neutrality, defined as the

condition in which a person would

prefer neither warmer nor cooler sur- roundings.

As with the auditory area of research,

the approaches concentrate on

preventing feelings of discomfort,

rather than on how to produce a

positive response to thermal conditions, e.g., interesting, invigorating.

The classic studies of F. Houghton

and C. Yagloglou (engineers), which

started more than half a century ago.

have provided the general framework

for laboratory studies since that time.

Their research rationale underlies

most thermal comfort studies

available today:

The bodily feeling of warmth is not due

alone to the temperature indicated by

the dry bulb thermometer, neither does

it depend solely upon the wet bulb

temperature. Dry air at a relatively high

temperature may feel cooler than air of

considerably lower temperature with

high moisture content.

Physiological Measures of Thermal Comfort (F. Rohles)

186
Human comfort or discomfort depend

largely on the relation between the rate of heat production and dissipation. By

the process of metabolism heat is constantly generated within the body, while on the other hand, loss of heat is constantly occurring from the surface of the

body by radiation, convection and

evaporation. To maintain a constant

body temperature the loss of heat must

equal the heat produced. It is therefore

apparent that any interference with the

elimination of heat from the body is ac- companied by a rise in temperature and

a feeling of discomfort.

There are three principal factors af- fecting loss of body heat:

1 . Temperature.

2. Humidity.

3. Air motion.

As the temperature of the air and sur- rounding objects rises, the loss of heat

by convection and radiation decreases.

When the temperature reaches that of

the body, the loss by radiation and convection ceases. Finally, as the air temperature exceeds that of the body,

heat passes from the air to the body.

If, on the other hand, the relative humidity is increased the heat loss by

evaporation decreases. If while the dry

bulb temperature increases, the wet

bulb temperature decreases sufficiently,

the increase in the loss of heat by

evaporation may be made equal to the

decrease in the loss of heat by radiation

and convection, resulting in no change

in the thermal state of the body

temperature or comfort.

From the above, it is concluded that there must necessarily be certain combinations of temperatures and

humidities, which produce the same

total body heat loss by radiation, convection and evaporation and therefore

the same feeling of comfort or discomfort. Lines passing through such air conditions may be called equal comfort

lines. The fact is further substantiated by

the general experience of heating

engineers in observing that the lower the

humidity the higher the temperature re- quired for the same degree of comfort.

Determining these equal comfort lines

for various temperatures, humidities and

air velocities is the object of an important investigation being carried on at the

Research Laboratory.''

Representative Values for Heat

Production at Various Activities

(From Canter)

Heat Production*

Activity W/m ^

Basal metabolism 45

Seated at rest 60

Standing at rest 65

Office work 75

Walking on level ground

at3.2km/h 115

at8.0km/h 340

Heavy manual work 250

Digging 320

'Metabolic Heat Production

per unit surface area, W/m ^

^ F. C. Houghton and C. P. Yagloglou,

"Determination of the Comfort Zone,"

ASHVE Transactions, 29 (1923).

Later work by Houghton and

Yagloglou and their successors in the

following decades has also shown the

importance of clothing and activity on

thermal responses to building environments.

Conrrfort Lineb^ Ncvin^

(Fanger)

Ambient Temp.

The line e>howe» different

comDinationf) of ambient

-temperature and humidity

which will provide optimal

thermal comfort for

6edentarv^ persons.

Laboratory Studies

The influence of the early work by

Houghton and Yagloglou has been so

great that the variables examined and

the methods that they developed form

the basis for most studies being performed today in this research area. Their investigations were designed to establish and define a comfort zone in terms of the variables comprising "ef- fective temperature," namely air temperature, velocity, and relative

humidity. In their studies, they used

male subjects, sometimes fully

clothed, in other instances stripped to the waist. The subjects entered the

first of two adjoining rooms, which dif- fered from one another in terms of one or more of the variables indicated

above. They remained in the first room for either one-half or one full hour. Afterward they entered the sec- ond room. The conditions of wet-bulb

and dry-bulb temperatures were adjusted in the second room until subjects reported that the rooms were

equal in warmth or coolness. From

these studies, they derived lines of

equal comfort which still form the

basis for accepted thermal performance of buildings in the United

States—ASHRAE criteria. The in- vestigators also made physiological

measurements—pulse rate, weight

loss, and increase of body

temperature.

187
Effective Temperature (ET)

(ASHRAE)

ET temperature

^ftn^dfion Diicomfort Reouldtionof 1 1 _ _ 111

Health ET

1

LimiTea Toieranos "Failure o^^r^

AO f?l<-in evaporafion

vcr ^ r lOT Ver^y uncomfort. 100

Ho4- Uncomfortable danger of

Increa6in9

va6odilafion

heat-etroKe

Warm f'iiOhtlbi

uncom-forfable

90

30 t)Weatin9

6ii9hi-l^ warm W

Neutral Comfortable 1^ re^i^tered

6Weatin9 Normal

0631 in

20

'bliOfhH^ coo\ 10

16

Cool ^hghtlN

uncomfortable behavioral

^ ^ cnanget?

Complaints from

drvj) mLico6a 60

Cold 6hiverin9 Impairmen-I'

10 Mer^ cold Uncomforfable peripheral

circulatiori 50

Possibly the most comprehensive

investigation of thermal comfort was performed by F. Rohles

(psychologist). The test subjects

in the study consisted of 800

male and 800 female college students

ranging in age from 18 to 24. A total of

160 experimental conditions were examined—8 relative humidities (15%

to 85%) and 20 dry-bulb temperatures

(60 °F to 98 °F) (16 °C to 37 °C). Ten

subjects, five men and five women,

participated in each test condition.

Different subjects were used for all conditions.

The tests were conducted in an en- vironmental test chamber consisting

of: a main chamber 1 2 ft. (3.7 m) wide,

24 ft. (7.3 m) long with an 8 ft. (2.4 m)

ceiling; a pretest room 9 ft. (2.7 m)

wide and 1 8 ft. (5.5 m) long; a control room. All subjects wore cotton twill shirts and trousers.

Subjects reported to the pretest room

where temperatures ranged from

75 °F to 78 °F (24 °C to 26 °C). They

were read instructions about the

study and told how to rate their thermal sensations. After approximately 30 minutes, the subjects

entered the main test chamber. They

sat at tables and were permitted to read, tall<, or play cards. The study

lasted 3 hours, and the environment

was rated at 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0

hour intervals. The rating sheets were

collected after each rating period.

188
standard Uniform (F. Rohles)

Thermal Comfort Laboratory

(F. Rohles)

The results of the study by Rohles led

to an examination of the scale used to rate the environment, which combined thermal sensation (e.g., cool,

warm) with a comfort rating (comfortable). Later ASHRAE studies

employed two scales to obtain

separate ratings of "sensation" and

"comfort."

Thermal Comfort Evaluation

fcS 72 76 80 84 88

Dry Bulb W

Lines of thermal eente-

-\-\on -for men and women

comDined after an

exposure of 3 tiour^.

The ability to perform activities is generally important in M/E studies. In thermal comfort work, this factor is especially significant. This is because

activities require different levels of effort (i.e., the heat produced by a person performing an activity), which

influence the balance of bodily heat

production and dissipation—a major

influence on feelings of thermal comfort.

Insulation Values of a Variety of Clothing Ensembles

(From Canter)

Clothing Insulation

Light sleeveless dress. 0.2

cotton underwear

Light trousers. 0.5

short sleeve shirt

Warm long sleeve dress, 0.7

full length slip

Light trousers, vest, 0.7

long sleeve shirt

Light trousers, vest. 0.9

long sleeve shirt, jacket

A goal of researchers has therefore

been to develop a standardized

procedure to define levels of activity,

measured by heat production. P. McNall (engineer) et al. describe such a procedure in a study of temperature,

humidity, and activity levels. The

study was performed in a way similar

to that described in the Rohles study.

The activity levels were achieved by

having subjects walk up and down for

5-minute periods on two 4 in. (10 cm)

steps. The rates of walking speed

were varied to accomplish the three

metabolic rates—600, 800, and

1000 Btu/h.

Thermal Comfort

Work Studv

(hA^NalletaL)

Male subject during 5 min.

walK period on two-steps

189
Comfort Votes for Four Activities

(Nevins and McMail)

26

o

E

.«>

7X)

15

10

SedentarN,!-

Activil^lj-^^

Activity

Activiiv3-

Air Temperature i*<^^

Compari6on between the comfort equation and +he

re5uit6 of Nlevm6 and IV\cNall . Tlie curvee are comforth nee correspondi ng -to four different activities.

Mevina andMct^all Comfort equation

in contrast to the ASHRAE research

approach, where several subjects

participate simultaneously under en- vironmental conditions specified by

the researcher, P. Fanger (Danish

engineer) conducted extensive

laboratory studies in another way.

Fanger's experimental technique is described in one such study by

Fanger and B. Olesen, concerned

with skin temperature distribution for a resting person. Thirty-two subjects

(16 males and 16 females) took part in the study, one at a time. Each subject wore a harness on which 14 heat

measurement devices (thermistors)

were attached. The thermistors were

taped to the skin in the locations

specified in the accompanying figure.

A standard cotton twill uniform was

worn in the environmental chamber.

At the start of the study, the

temperature was set at 25.6 °C, based

on earlier studies by Fanger defining

thermal comfort. The ambient

temperature was then varied in accor- dance with the c/es/re of the subject,

who was asked at 10-minute intervals

whether adjustments (warmer or

cooler) should be made. The subject

was encouraged to request very small

changes if desired. Male and female

subjects preferred similar

190

temperatures. In addition, the only

region where males and females dif- fered significantly in their local skin

temperature was on the feet, the feet temperatures of females being 2.10 °C

lower than that of males.^

Finally, in the case of one

subject, a skin temperature

distribution was obtained by

means of thermography. This subject was tested and photographed

in the nude.

Fanger later refined his method of obtaining thermographic records of subjects, which he describes in the

following way: Basically, the subject is photographed from many different

directions. A fixed camera is used, with

mirrors mounted around the subject. A

large number of photographs is then

taken of each subject and each

photograph is planimetered. Subjects

are photographed seated and standing,

nude and clothed. Each photograph

then provides the projected area of the

body for a given viewing angle. When

the projected area of the body is known

for an adequately large number of

angles, the desired data for the human

body is then calculated.*

Predicfed P^rcenfa^i^e of Dissatisfied (ppd) as

a Function of Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)

(Fanger)

(oO

30

D

Q. AO

Cl

-Z.O -1-5 -io -0-5 0 0.5 7.0 1.5 Z.0

p^AV

^ p. 0.¥aT\Qer, Thermal Comfort

(Copenhagen, 1970). "Fanger
Performance Measures

The most direct way of finding out

how temperature or other en- vironmental conditions affect the

ability to perform an activity is to vary

the environment, e.g., room

temperature, in an orderly way and

determine the consequences,

measured in terms of performance.

Studies of this type date from the time

of the Hawthorne investigations performed in the 1920's and 1930's (see

chap. 19). More recently, human fac- tors researchers since World War II have intensively examined task performance, primarily under extreme

environmental conditions. At the

same time, industrial psychologists

have developed a multitude of standardized tasks and psychological

tests for job selection and performance evaluation purposes.

D. Wyon (psychologist) has been a

strong advocate of the need to in- clude performance measures in M/E

studies. In several studies, he has

used measures of performance in conjunction with other methods of

evaluating how subjects respond to thermal conditions. An illustration of

his approach is an investigation

carried out in a climatic chamber.

Thirty-two subjects, 16 male and 16

female, participated separately in a 5-

hour experiment, wearing standardized uniforms. Room temperatures were varied while several different

types of measurements were made:

• physiological (body temperature,

weight),

• subjective judgments (semantic

differential),

• performance tests (numerical,

word memory, typing).

One measure of performance was the score achieved on a task of adding

sets of five 2-digit numbers. Subjects were paid on the basis of their ac- curacy. Another test was concerned

with word memory. A list of 25 common words was shown to subjects.

Later a list of 50 words was presented,

and the task was to identify words

from the earlier list of 25, which appeared on the test list. Wyon has

found that the ability to perform

several tasks was impaired at temperatures of 27 °C and above.

Observational Studies

Since the thermal resistance of

clothing has an important effect on

thermal comfort, clothing cannot be

ignored in such research. The

traditional way of dealing with clothing

has been to standardize it in laboratory studies. For example, all subjects participating in a study

would wear a standard uniform, having known thermal resistance properties. Clothing would then be a

"control" variable—one which would

be fixed for all experimental conditions.

Clothing has also been used as a dependent variable or response

measure in a field study of classroom

behavior. M. Humphreys (British

physicist) studied thermal comfort in a classroom, by keeping a record of

the clothing worn by children aged 1

1

to 17, during the months of May

through July. Boys and girls wore

traditional uniforms to school, and were able to remove or add items of

clothing at their discretion during the

school day. Humphreys used a timelapse camera to record the appearance of the children every 8

minutes. The time and temperature were recorded on each photograph

as well. In general, he found a close

relationship between room

temperatures and the clothing worn

by the children.

SKin Temperature Measurements

(oiesen and Ranger)

191
Another study dealing with the effects

of thermal conditions on the behavior

of school children was performed by

I. Holmberg and Wyon. The investigation tool< part in an observational

classroom, fitted with one-way

mirrors to permit the children to be

seen, without disrupting their activities. Four researchers, using identical checklists, observed 50 in- dividual children, aged 9 to 11 , in a predetermined sequence whereby

each child was observed for 1 minute

in every 10-minute period. The

behaviors recorded dealt with

posture, clothing, appearance, concentration, restlessness, and conduct.

These categories of observation were

developed in a preliminary pilot study.

Three room temperatures (20 °C,

27 °C, 30 °C) were used to determine

whether they affected the behavior of

the children in an orderly way. The

test sessions consisted of two 40-

minute periods, separated by a 10-

minute rest period.

We have discussed several

procedures used to determine how

thermal conditions may influence

people. The earliest studies concentrated on physiological effects

(e.g., skin temperature, sweat rate)

and voting or rating procedures.

Then, as we have seen, observational

approaches were employed, based on

the judgments of trained researchers.

In all of these approaches we still must determine the implications of

the observations and measurements

made. Can thermal conditions be

related to the ability of people to perform desired and/or needed activities?

Checklist of Observations

(Wyon and Holmberg)

1 Posture Legs apart +

1

(-3 to +5) together

Arms spread + 1 held close

Hand open +

1

closed " "1 Leaning back +

1

head in hand 4- 1

2 Clothing Collar open + 1

(0 to +5) Jacket open + 1 Arms bare + 1 Shoes off + 1 Removal of item + 1

3 Appearance Sweating + 1

(0 to +6) Flushed + 1 Mouth open + 1 Fanning face + 1 Wiping forehead or hands + 1 Loosening clothing + 1

Index of perceptible response to heat (1 + 2 + 3) (-3 to +16)

4 Inattention Gazing around + 1

(0 to +4) Closing eyes + 1 Playing + 1 Yawning + 1

5 Restlessness Writhing about + 1

(0 to +3) Tipping chair + 1 Fidgeting + 1

6 Disturbance Laughing aloud + 1

(0 to +4) Talking to neighbor + 1 Standing up + 1 Teasing neighbor + 1

Index of undesirable classroom behaviour (4 + 5 + 6) (0 to +11)

Field Studies

As far back as the 1 920's, there was a

realization among ASHRAE

researchers that laboratory studies

using college students were insufficient to define thermal conditions in buildings. Consequently, several field investigations were performed in office buildings. The subjects were male

and female employees between 20

and 70 years of age. One such study

was performed by A. Newton et al. in an air conditioned building in Minneapolis, Minnesota between May

and July 1937. A questionnaire was

given to the employees, to determine

their responses to the environment.

The questionnaires were filled out

every day and collected the next day.

The building was divided into zones and wet- and dry-bulb temperatures

as well as relative humidity measure- ments were recorded in the morning,

at midday, and at the end of the working day. The measures of thermal en- vironmental conditions were then

compared with the response data.

The study did not demonstrate simple

clearcut relationships between en- vironmental attributes and the

responses of subjects.

192
Questions -for Bvaluatinq Subjecis

fesponseslo Asymmetric fediation

(Olesen^etal.)

Po vjou want a higherfora

lower)air temperafure^

— temperature

change

Do ^ou teel a difference

between the temperaiure

of the end walls'?

Which is

warmest?

15 it

uncomforiable?

I l6 anything bofherin9\jou?|

Another field investigation was performed in an office building by

L.Anderson et al. In the study, humidity

conditions were systematically

modified, while temperatures were

not altered. The conditions were as

follows: (1 ) humidifier working always;

(2) humidifier operating 1 hour in the

morning and 1 hour in the afternoon;

(3) humidifier working 2 hours

AM, 2 hours PM; and (4) humidifier

not working. Wet- and dry-bulb

temperatures were taken and workers

(600+) were asked to fill out rating

scales. Low humidity was cause for

complaint, but temperature was a more critical factor when it exceeded

20-22 °C, the recommended range in Sweden.

Thermal Comfort Scales

(Anderson, et al.)

Condition Judgment

Temperature Much too hot

Too hot

Comfortably warm

Neither warm, cool

Comfortably cool

Too cold

Much too cold

Humidity Too dry

Pleasant

Too humid

Air Quality Stuffy

Normal

Fresh

Air Movement Too draughty

Pleasant

Still, stagnant

Asymmetrical Heating

The architect's involvement with thermal comfort is often indirect, since in most modern buildings this area is addressed by thermal engineers. The

major exception concerns radiant

heating primarily related to window

areas and/or lighting systems. The

relationship of building design

features (e.g., room dimensions, window sizes, placement and orientation,

shading, materials, etc.) to thermal

comfort was explored by F. Langdon

and A. Loudon in a study of school

buildings.

The school investigation was a followup of an earlier study dealing with of- fice buildings. A questionnaire distributed to teachers dealt with questions about the use of the room, in- cidence of direct sunlight, and the

efficiency of windows and blinds for

ventilation and cooling. Thermal comfort was assessed on a 7-point scale

ranging from comfortably cool to un- comfortably hot and by a question

dealing with the frequency and intensity of discomfort. Teachers were also

asked for observations about children

(e.g., appearance) and opinions

regarding the effects of overheating on their own performance and that of

the children. Estimates of the thermal

performance of the buildings (based on the building features cited above) were correlated with the thermal

responses of occupants. The survey

indicated the main factors which govern

overheating in the summer, and

(established) a general relationship

between rise in calculated peak

temperatures and increase in thermal

discomfort.^

The problem of asymmetrical heating

has also received considerable

laboratory research attention in the

past decade. For example, D. Mclntyre (British physicist) conducted a

series of experiments in a thermal en- vironmental chamber where air was

admitted through a permeable floor

and was extracted through grills set at

^ F. J. Langdon and A. Loudon, "Discomfort in Schools from Overheating in Summer," Journal of The Institution of Heating

and Ventilation Engineers, 37 (March

1970).

the top of the walls. Four subjects were run at one time. They sat in the

chamber for 45 minutes, reading,

talking, writing, or engaging in other

sedentary activites and then rated the

environment by means of a variety of

rating scales. The results showed

that uneven radiation was disliked by

subjects.

193
The same author examined five levels

of relative humidity (20% to 60%) with

temperature held constant at 23 °C

for 5 hours. In this investigation, Mclntyre used a questionnaire and a mood

adjective checklist to obtain

responses from subjects to the environment. Prior to the study

a personality test was administered to measure introversion

and extroversion characteristics of

the subjects. The differences in relative humidity had no apparent ef- fect on the subjects.

Unlike other M/E problem areas (e.g.,

visual perception) where the features

of the physical environment are sometimes not given sufficient attention (to correlate with human

responses), thermal comfort research

has always stressed this requirement.

On the other hand, thermal comfort

work needs to: (1) cover extended

time periods, (2) deal with the

responses of individuals (rather than

group averages), and (3) be con- ducted under realistic field conditions.

(The latter criticism applies to most

M/E research.)

Diagram of Test Chamber

CM'^Intyre) .^outlet

air inlef

Thermal Comfort Mood Adjective Check List

(Mclntyre)

Time. Name.

Each of the words in the following list describes feelings or mood. Please use the list to describe your feelings at this moment. Mark each word according to these instructions:

If the word definitely describes how you feel at the moment you read it, circle the double star (**) to the right of the

word. For example, if the word is calm and you are definitely feeling calm at the moment, circle the double star as follows:

Calm (*) * ? no (This means you definitely feel calm at this moment).

If the word only slightly applies to your feelings at the moment, circle the single star as follows:

Calm** (*) ? no (This means you feel slightly calm at the moment)

.

If the word is not clear to you or if you cannot decide whether or not it describes your feelings, circle the question mark as

follows:

Calm** * no (This means you cannot decide whether you are calm or not)

.

If you clearly decide that the word does not apply to your feelings at this moment, circle the no as follows:

Calm** * ? (no) (This means you are sure you are not calm at this moment)

.

Work rapidly. Your first reaction is the best. Work down the first column before going to the next. This should take only a few minutes

worthless ** * ? no sad ** * 7 no empty ** * ? no

angry ** * ? no earnest ** * ? no tired ** * ? no

concentrating ** * ? no sluggish ** * ? no kindly ** * ? no drowsy ** * ? no forgiving ** * 9 no fearful

* * ? no

affectionate ** * ? no clutched up ** * ? no regretful ** * ? no

apprehensive ** * ? no lonely ** * ? no egotistic ** * ? no

blue ** * ? no cocky ** * ? no overjoyed ** * ? no

boastful ** * ? no lighthearted ** * ? no vigorous ** * ? no

elated ** * ? no energetic ** * ? no witty ** * 9 no

active ** * ? no playful ** * 9 no rebellious ** * ? no

nonchalant ** * ? no suspicious ** * ? no serious ** * ? no

sceptical ** * ? no startled ** * ? no warmhearted * * 9 no shocked ** * ? no defiant ** * ? no insecure ** * ? no

bold ** * ? no thoughtful ** * ? no self-centered ** * ? no

helpless ** * ? no hopeless ** * ? no pleased ** * ? no

miserable ** * ? no tense ** * ? no vulnerable ** * ? no

Have you marked all the words?

194
A study designed to overcome some

of these deficiencies was performed

by Humphreys and J. Nicol. It took

place at the then Building Research

Station of the United Kingdom in a

building housing offices and

laboratories between April 1967 and

July 1 968. The subjects were 1

8

members of the scientific and clerical

staff who worked at their regular jobs

while participating in the study. On the

desk of each subject was an

automatic environmental monitor

which recorded globe temperature,

air velocity, wet-bulb and dry-bulb

temperature, and comfort votes.

The monitors were connected to a

central data logger. At hourly intervals an auditory signal (whistle) indicated

when it was time to register a vote. Comparisons of simple measures of

globe and air temperature were also

good as complex indices for the conditions studied.

Conclusion

There has been a dramatic shift in emphasis in recent years among the

researchers investigating thermal

comfort. Instead of relying primarily on physical and physiological

measurements made in laboratories,

"real world" studies are on the rise. Humphreys, Fanger, Wyon, and

A. Nevins (psychologist), among the

most active researchers in this discipline, are all using psychological

and performance related measures to a greater extent than they have in the

past. Fanger indicates that long-term

performance oriented investigations,

lasting several weeks, are being ini- tiated in Denmark. This approach

more nearly simulates the actual ex- perience of building occupants than

studies of short duration.

It is time to examine a number of as- sumptions which form the basis of our

present definition of thermal comfort.

It is often taken for granted that uniform environmental conditions are

best. Heating and cooling systems are designed to produce uniform and

stable temperatures, but where is the

information to demonstrate that this is a desirable goal? Rooms have

temperature gradients, vertically and

horizontally, and evidence exists that

people are often sensitive to such dif- ferences; but while extreme dif- ferences are cause for complaint,

small ones might be desirable.

Thermal Comfort Research Applicability

Variables Real Life Conditions Experimental Studies

Setting Complex environment Sterile laboratory

Activity Meaningful, complex Simple, artificial

Thermal

Conditions

Experienced

Dynamic, changeable Static

Population Young—Aged

Healthy—Handicapped

Young healthy adults

Duration Relatively short

(several hours at most)

Long term (weeks, months)

Fanger and I. Griffiths (British

physicist) summarized requirements

for better information dealing with the

thermal environment.

Research has concentrated on in- vestigation of subjective warmth as a

function of the four major physical

variables, but work has (only) begun on

other physical variables such as nonuniformity (with respect to space and

time). The general picture that has

emerged is that the work of the psychologist in this field has just begun. ^

Fanger

Finally, design for an energy efficient

and acceptable thermal environment

should include a degree of flexibility to enable occupants (or building

operators) to control environmental

conditions, e.g., by opening windows,

having "local" thermostats, etc.

195

15

The Olfactory EnvironmentAir Quaiity

Characteristics of Odors

Human Olfactory Response

Odor Quality

Research Procedures

Selection of Subjects

Laboratory Procedures

Field Techniques

Measurement Approaches

Conclusion

The F^R5 Odor Square (part of Henmng^ omen prism)

3

c'

> 3

Vanillin

Lavender

Thyme

Clovee

3

3

g

O

q5

2

^ /A

Arbor V/itae

Tan^y

0

Lemon Oil

Acetic &ner

Acetone

Rne

FranKmo&nee

0^

197
Activities are sometimes identified by

means of characteristic odors. This

attribute is both a source of enjoyment and a cause for complaint. For

example, many people retain a fond

memory of the aromas of bread baking and coffee roasting. We are all aware of perfumes, soaps, and candles developed primarily to satisfy our

desires for pleasant odors. Similarly,

the food industry has been at the

forefront of using odors to enhance

the appeal of their products especially

foods derived from chemicals.

On the other hand, many environmental odors are undesired by-products

of technology. Manufacturing

processes and transportation

systems both contribute to air quality

problems in our outdoor

environment—thereby creating

problems in buildings as well. When dealing with air quality, we

should recognize that although the nose is a sensitive detector, it is not an

infallible one with respect to safety.

Many gases which are dangerous to health are odorless (e.g., carbon

monoxide).

The architectural literature

sometimes deals with odors en- countered in certain building typeshospitals, museums, libraries,

schools, and homes. Although agreement exists that many such buildings

have distinctive odors, these opinions

are not substantiated by research

which is sparse in this area. Several

researchers have examined odors

from the standpoint of environmental

pollution problems, and these will be

discussed.

When compared with the research

techniques available to investigators

of the auditory and visual environment, the state-of-the-art in odor in- vestigations is best described as

primitive. This study area has been

largely neglected by many disciplines

which would logically be expected to pursue this work—namely

physiologists and experimental psychologists. Those few researchers

who have been active have had only

limited success. The primary reason

for this rather bleak picture is that the

study of odor poses a unique set of

problems for the researcher.

Odors appear to have strong

emotional impacts on people which

are difficult to identify and measure. Many thousands of different odors can be discriminated, and different

concentrations can also be perceived.

People vary considerably in their

ability to make reliable odor judgments.

Olfaction is frequently described as an alarm system because of its extraordinary sensitivity and the ability

of people to distinguish among thousands of different odors. People

can detect such minute concentrations of odor producing substances

that chemists cannot accurately

measure the concentrations.

Another major problem with odor

research is the availability of ex- perimental apparatus and techniques

to conduct studies. Unlike auditory

and visual studies, where

sophisticated instrumentation is the

rule, the working tools available to the

odor researcher permit only rather

crude measurements.

Uncertainties exist in all phases of

study—from defining the

characteristics of an odorant through

the measurement system used to vary

and transport it to the subject, and the

means by which a person receives

and interprets the odor. Added to these problems is the need to develop

a classification and descriptive

system whereby odors can be reliably

and accurately described. Such a system is needed to form the basis for

effective communication among

scientists and laymen. The design of

experiments in olfaction must be especially sensitive to adaptation or

olfactory fatigue, which can lead to faulty findings if ignored. This

phenomenon is well known to anyone

who has encountered a strong odor,

which after a time is almost unnoticeable.

As a result of the complexity of

designing appropriate investigations,

methodological studies are of particular importance. Finally, since the

subject of odors is not frequently

covered in architectural publications,

we will provide a brief background to assist in the understanding of the

research methodologies described

later.

Characteristics of Odors

Odors, like other sensory stimuli, can be placed into one of two general

categories: source and ambient.

Source odors are those existing at the

point of origin or at their point of exit to the general atmosphere, and ambient odors are those existing in the

general atmosphere. Odor sources can be categorized as confined or unconfined. Confined sources can

generally be characterized in terms of

volumetric rate of discharge,

temperature, moisture content, location, elevation, and area. Typical confined sources include stacks and

fume vents. Unconfined sources consist of large sources such as sewage

treatment plants and stockyards

where the extent of the source precludes its confinement.

Odors can be characterized by intensity, quality, acceptability, and pervasiveness. Odor intensity is defined as the numerical or verbal indication

of the strength of an odor. Odor

quality is the verbal description of an

odor, accomplished within the

vocabulary capabilities of the in- dividual and normally expressed by

comparison with common odors. Acceptability is an absolute acceptance/rejection of the odor on the

basis of intensity and/or quality. Pervasiveness is the ability of an odor to spread throughout a large volume of

air and persist at perceptible levels.

198
The human nose is the ultimate standard against which the intensity of an odor must be evaluated. The

response of the human nose to odors

is bounded at the lower end by a

threshold value and is marked near

the upper end by a concentration

provoking a sense of objectionability.

The threshold is defined as the concentration at which odor quality can

be just recognized. The detection

threshold limit is used most commonly by researchers, although the

quality-recognition-sensation has

resulted in more consistent research

findings than the detection sensation.

Individual response for detection of

odors varies widely. As a result, a

panel of people is normally used to determine odor threshold concentration and to report threshold values as

the "effective dosage" at which 50% of

the panelists perceive the odor.

Reported threshold concentrations

for the same odorant vary widely, not

only because of individual response

variability, but also because of lack of

standardization of techniques for

managing samples and presenting

them to observers.

Henning Prism

Putrid

Fragrant Ethereal

Spicy Ir^ j ^Resinous

Burned

Human Olfactory Response

Human odor intensity scales are designed to measure the perceived

intensity of some specified

characteristic of a material. The

descriptor of the odor may be general

(e.g., overall intensity of odor) or

specific (e.g., pungency). Trained

subjects, specifically instructed in the

attribute to be evaluated, are presented a series of samples. Each

sample is rated by intensity with alter- native points anchored as follows:

none, slight, moderate, large or

strong, and extreme.

Olfactory sensitivity is known to be

highly variable and is subject to physical as well as psychological in- fluences. Some of the factors which

have been reported to influence the

olfactory sensitivity are as follows:

Odor Classification Schemes

' Odor sensitivity of the individual

observer varies diurnally (according

to the time of day) but is reasonably

constant for a group of observers.

• The sense of smell is rapidly

fatigued, though fatigue for one odor

does not necessarily affect the

perception of dissimilar odors.

• Responses to odors are not totally

objective because psychological

responses vary in different observers.

• The sensitivity of observers varies

widely in that some persons are ex- tremely sensitive while others are almost insensitive to odors; sensitivity

decreases with age.

Henning

Name Examples

Horstman

Name

Spicy Cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg Flowers

Flowery Heliotrope, jasmine Pulp mill

Fruity Apple, orange oil, vinegar Smoke, woodsmoke

Resinous Coniferous oils, turpentine Burning leaves

Foul Hydrogen sulfide; products decaying Mustiness

Burnt Tarry and scorched substances Gasoline

Odor Quality

The characteristic of odor quality is normally defined in terms of commonly perceived odors or by associating unfamiliar with familiar

odors. Experimental subjects do not

have the vocabulary to describe the

thousands of odors which can be distinguished by most people. To make

this problem still more complex, often

the quality of an odor changes with

dilution.

Research Procedures

Unlike noise research where dBA

meters approximate many auditory

responses and are easily read, in odor research no comparable

"hardware" capability exists. Instead

people are relied upon as an integral

part of the "measurement system,"

both to sense the odor, and to measure it. Consequently, differences

among individuals are a major source

of error in research, and methods

have been devised to minimize these

errors. One technique designed for

this purpose is to carefully train subjects, thereby obtaining consistent

data from experts.

199
Selection of Subjects

Prior to training, the researchers can

eliminate potential subjects by using a screening test to ensure that a nninimum level of performance is achieved. J. Wittes and A. Turk

(chemist) devised the triangle test to select people for participation in an odor study. Three odorous solution

samples were presented to subjects,

two of which were the same. The task

of the person was to correctly identify

the "odd" odor. A series of such trials was conducted and the scores

calculated. Participants in the study were selected on the basis of achieving the highest total scores.

In a follow-up study, Turk with

S. Mehlman developed an alternative

procedure to the triangle test to select

experimental participants. The subjects were first exposed to a group of

odors to be judged. They then were

asked to define the odors in terms of

from three to eight qualities that

seemed reasonable in light of subjective associations and chemical

analysis. Selections were then made

on the basis of familiarity with the

odors and the results of the analytical

findings, i.e., ability to consistently

identify odors. Then an odor standard

was made up to represent each

quality description that had been

identified. These standards were then

used (at various levels of concentration) as a basis of comparison

for the odors being investigated.

Laboratory Procedures

Odor researchers have relied heavily

upon measures of absolute

thresholds in their studies (the

minimum concentration of an odor

which can be detected). By mixing

sufficient uncontaminated air with a measured quality of odorous air, the

odor present in the mixture can be

reduced to threshold levels. This

technique is usually termed the vapor

dilution method.

The first person to use the technique

was Zwaardemaker (Dutch psychologist) who invented the olfactometer in 1895. This instrument is the prototype of those in general use

today. In its simplest form, it consists

of a glass tube open at both ends, over which is slipped a hard rubber or

plastic tube. The inner surface of the

tube is impregnated with the odorous

material being investigated. As the

tubes are extended, more of the air inhaled comes in contact with the

odorous material, the odor concentration thereby being raised. By

placing markings on the tubes, the

amount of exposed surface of the

odorant can be measured at the time

that a subject indicates that it is barely

detectable—thereby providing a

physical measure which correlates

with the judgment. This procedure,

being quite cumbersome because of

the nature and size of the experimental apparatus, is confined to laboratory investigations of

"synthetic" chemical odors, as contrasted to environmental ones. The

olfactometer limited the experimental

control of the stimulus, i.e., there was

no assurance that the same amount of

200

The Zwaardemater

^6creen (single) Olfactometer

(Pfaffman)

gla5f) Variation6 m odor ^irenqth

tube 3re obtained by changing

ihe cylinder's position

rubber cylinder

Olfectomeler

exhaust fan

QQQQ O}

control panel

to exhaust fan
odorous material was presented on

two successive exposures.

C. Eisberg and I. Levy developed an

alternative procedure to overcome

this difficulty. The method entailed the use of an odorous liquid which was

placed in a 500-cc bottle. An outlet

tube leads to the nostrils; an inlet tube

is attached to a syringe. Air is forced

into the bottle using the syringe as a pump. With the nosepiece in place,

the stopcock on the inlet tube is removed, releasing a "blast" of

odorous vapor into the nostrils. In successive trials, the air pressure is modified systematically, to determine

the threshold. This approach, while

solving one problem, created another

one—pressure variations can be

sensed by subjects, thereby confusing experimental findings.

Odor Study Apparatus

(John Pierce Foundation)

^Ia5t Injection Method

Subject Participating in Odor Study

(John Pierce Foundation)

Field Techniques

The Copley International Corporation

conducted a national study on air pollution for the Environmental

Protection Agency incorporating both

laboratory and field procedures. The

investigation was conducted in four

phases. The first was directed toward

screening subjects who were to take

part in the study, using the triangle

test. Then, training sessions were

conducted with panel members, using odor reference standards. Four

field investigations were performed

near refineries and a rendering plant.

The study consisted of placing panelists around a location. Subjects were instructed to record odorant in- tensities at 30-second intervals for 20-

to 30-minute periods. The intensities were rated on the basis of a 4-point

dilution scale, practiced in the

laboratory. They relied on their

memories to compare odors with the

standards. Finally, the subjects

returned to the laboratory to be tested

again as a cross-check against the

initial triangle test.

In the field investigation a device

called a scentometer was employed

as a measurement instrument. The

scentometer is a commercial tool for

measuring odor intensities at the particular site where there is an odor

problem. It was designed for use by

air pollution control inspectors. It is small (5 in. x6 in. x 2 1/2 in.) (13cm x 15 cm X 6 cm) and functions by

diluting air samples with purified air,

just as the other instruments, but dilutions are accomplished in a different

way. A combination of critically sized

holes admits ambient air to the "mixing chamber" which then passes

through two nosepieces to the lungs

of the subject as he breathes. Under

normal conditions, the subject

breathes air through a scentometer

for a minute with all odorous inlets

closed. Then, the odor is presented

to the subject in a series of trials in in- creasing concentrations. That is, the

smallest opening is used first, then

the next largest, and so on.

Odor Test

(Cjop\e)j International CorporaWof])

Pleasant* Neutral- Unpleasant- Very Unpleas- Unbearable
One of the most pervasive unwanted

odors in the community is that of

engine exhausts. Consequently, a number of investigations have addressed this problem. Colucciand

Barnes conducted odor tests on a

diesel bus using an aircraft hangar to produce a controlled environment.

Different degrees of exhaust dilution were achieved by varying the distance

between the bus and a panel of six

subjects. The experimental task was

to judge whether the diesel exhaust

odor could be detected over the

background odors. The thresholds were then defined in terms of distance; the greater the distance, the

greater the odor intensity.

Turk has developed a kit of diesel

odor quality and intensity standards

for the U.S. Public Health Service.

The kit is taken to a site, and ex- perimental participants are asked to judge which of the four qualities are

present: diesel composite (D), burntsmoky (B), oily (O), or aromatic (A).

When a quality is determined to be

present, a set of concentrations of the

quality (e.g., diesel composite—D, 1 through 1 2 with 1 2 being the

strongest) is given to the person who

then matches the perceived environmental odor with the standard.

A comprehensive study of diesel

engine exhaust odor was also performed by K. Springer and C. Hare.

They employed both questionnaire

surveys and a mobile odor evaluation

laboratory in a study conducted in five

major cities. Two diesel engine ex- hausts were used to produce the

odors used in the study which was

conducted under carefully controlled

conditions. The study was conducted

in the mobile laboratory ("sniffmobile"), using the procedure

developed by Turk. In addition to participating in the preceding phase of

the study, subjects were asked to rate odors on a 5-point scale.

Measurement Approaches

Rating scales have been a preferred

method of evaluating odors. Another

approach has been to have subjects

sample odors and then try to describe

what they smell like. This method is seldom used because the findings are

very diverse, and therefore difficult to analyze and interpret.

One method employed to combine

the features of verbal descriptors and

scaling (multidimensional scaling)

was developed by H. Moskowitz and

C. Gerbers. They used 15 chemicals

as odorants, and rated them in a number of ways. Subjects were first asked to rate the intensity of each

odor by a numerical rating. (Odors

receiving the same rating were considered to be equally strong.) The

subjects then rated each odor in terms of a number of attributes. Zero

was to be used when the attribute was

not noticed, but no upper limit was

given for ratings. Next, the subjects

rated the pleasantness ( + ) or un- pleasantness (-) of each odor, with (0)

being neutral. The final task was to judge the dissimilarity of: (1 ) pairs of

odorants, (2) odorants and word

descriptors, and (3) pairs of word

descriptors using the same

procedure employed to rate the 1 7 at- tributes. The results were analyzed

and interpreted using multidimensional procedures.

Descriptions of Odors

(Moskowitz and Gerbers)

1. Sweet

2. Pungent

3. Heavy

4. Flowery

5. Solvent

6. Fragrant

7. Oily

8. Minty

9. Burnt

10. Goaty

11. Putrid

12. Camphor

13. Fruity

14. Spicy

15. Intensity

16. Pleasantness

17. Familiarity

Conclusion

The ability of a building occupant to judge the quality of air is likely to become more important as energy

conservation programs are formulated. A number of the techniques

suggested to save energy in buildings

has important implications for the

quality of the air in buildings. For ex- ample, if buildings are sealed better

than they have been, there will be a

lower rate of air exchange between

the indoor and outdoor environments.

This may or may not improve the air indoors depending on the relative

quality of indoor and outdoor air. Another suggested energy saver is to reduce the ventilation requirements

now typically employed in buildings.

Reduced ventilation, if combined with

tighter buildings, will further reduce

the indoor-outdoor air exchanges.

This would maximize the influence of

any indoor activities on air quality and

possibly lead to undesirable odors

and unhealthy conditions. The

tradeoffs between energy conservation and air quality deserve serious at- tention by architects, mechanical

engineers, and planners. Therefore, a need exists for improved methods

and information dealing with the

quality of outdoor and indoor air.

202
16

Environmental StabilityMovements

Simulation Studies—Building Movement

Field Studies of Building Movement

Studies of Movement—Transportation

Performance Studies

Conclusion

Movement in buildings typically

results from wind, construction activities, mechanical devices,

neighboring factories, and transportation systems—roadway, rail, and

aircraft. Movement also occurs as a

result of activities by building occupants, e.g., children's games. Until

quite recently, architects have not

demonstrated great concern about

building deflections as a source of oc- cupant dissatisfaction. The materials

and techniques commonly used

produced structures with few building

movement problems. Newly

developed methods, employing

"lightweight" construction techniques, however, have altered the situation. While the engineers and

designers have become highly

sophisticated in producing buildings

which are safe from a structural

standpoint, the acceptability of

buildings has assumed greater

prominence, that is, the success of

the structure in meeting the day-today needs of the occupants. Unfortunately, the latter day construction

methods have introduced unwanted

deflection. For example, floor deflections when walking across a room

might be annoying in themselves but

might also raise questions in the

minds of occupants concerning the

quality and safety of construction,

regardless of the objective facts. High-rise structures have been prone

to drift problems during storms and

high winds. Vibrations have been

another source of difficulty,

sometimes associated with

mechanical equipment, in other in- stances as a result of human related

activities.

Since building movement has only

recently been recognized as a problem area, most researchers dealing with the topic have been con- cerned with movements produced by

vehicles, primarily to better understand the effects of vibration on people. While a few of these studies are mentioned, the reader should be aware that the experimental variables

(usually vibrations) employed in them

differ considerably from those en- countered in buildings. As in many

sensory research areas, an early

study has made a profound impact

upon later research.

The first of the more thorough

research programs was carried out by

H. Reiher and F. Meister. A total of 25

persons, between 25 and 40 years of

age, either stood or lay down on a

platform undergoing vertical or

horizontal motion. After being ex- posed to one type of vibration for

about 10 minutes, subjects were

asked to make judgments on a 6-

point scale (imperceptible, just

perceptible, distinctly perceptible,

strongly perceptible, unpleasant, or exceedingly unpleasant). The curves

derived by these authors are in widespread use today and serve as

the foundation for all following

studies.

203
Simulation Studies—

Buiiding iVIovement

p. Chen and C. Robertson reviewed

studies of movement in buildings and

performed a series of investigations

using a motion simulator. They in- dicated that human reactions to vibration can be classified into six comfort

zones. While describing their own in- vestigations they further note that absolute thresholds (barely detectable)

vary considerably from person to person and are influenced by several

factors.

Chen and Robertson employed a motion simulator (HATS) consisting of a room mounted on a platform which

could be moved simultaneously in two

directions. The room had a door but no window (which might provide

visual motion cues). Of particular in- terest are the instructions given to the

subjects. This factor is an important one often neglected in research

studies, and yet has an important in- fluence on the results of behavioral

studies. The same researchers

systematically varied the information

given to the subjects. The subjects in one instance were not told to expect

the room to move. Instead, they were

told that the study was a visual

screening test, and later, tests of distance and height judgments. In a

follow-on test, subjects were told the

nature of the study, i.e., to determine

when motion was perceived.

Pynamic Qesponse fecurngnce Piagram

of Buidiiruj Movement

(Chen, R±)erl5on)

(Perception Threshold (mmdirO)

^andiHC) C-fore^/aft)

t)\tt\nq hide to6idc)

Sitting C-fore ^aft)

M. Yamada (engineer) and T. Goto

(engineer) designed a simulated

house which enabled them to systematically vary a number of

parameters associated with the

perception of motion in buildings. The

purpose of their experimental

program was to develop criteria for

motions in tall buildings. The

researchers employed a variety of approaches in their work. The first procedure consisted of asking subjects to stand in the same direction to the longitudinal axis for fore and aft test. When these tests were completed

"side to side tests" followed. The

simulator was operated in terms of a predetermined schedule. The ex- perimental subjects indicated

whenever the sensation of motion

changes. This information was

recorded together with a description

of the characteristics and duration of

the motion in physical terms.

Factors Influencing Vibration

Thresholds

Period of Isolation

Body Orientation

Body [Movement

Body Posture

Expectancy of Sway

Visual Cues

Activity being performed

204
(Motion Simulator

(Yamada ^6oto)

motor ^

-fran6mie>5ion

gear

platform

5haKe6topper

motor

steel

rod

^ 930

The next series of studies described

by Yamada and Goto was designed to determine the effects of motion on

task performance. The task of the

subject was to trace lines, squares,

and circles while seated in a chair

within the simulated house. The

responses measured were the time

taken to complete the tasks and the

deviations from the base line, i.e., the

degree of accuracy of tracing. The ex- perimental conditions were similar to those employed in the earlier studies.

The final study by the same authors

was concerned with the movement of

people in buildings—vertical and

horizontal. In this investigation the

researchers used a motion picture

camera, focusing on the head and

feet of the subjects. The camera was

set on a platform above the house

(the roof was removed). Vertical and

horizontal lines spaced 200 mm apart were drawn on the ceiling and the

walls of the house. The subject was

brought into the house and marks

were placed on the top of the head

Experimental Factors for Human Perception and

Tolerance Threshold

(Yamada and Goto)

Sex Male Female

Age (years old) 8-12

Childhood

18-22

Youth

45-55

Middle age

people

18-22

Youth

Number of Subjects 5 20 5 5

standing standing

Body Posture standing

sitting on

a chair

sitting on

the floor

lying on

the floor

standing

sitting on

a chair

sitting on

the floor

lying on

the floor

Body Orientation fore and aft side to sidefore and aft side to side

205
and the toes. Then, with the house being nrioved in accordance with the ex- perimental design, the subject "wall<s a line" back and forth between walls

at a pace of 84 steps per minute (indicated by a metronome). The subject

is photographed while the tests are performed. A similar study was performed with subjects ascending and

descending a stairway.

These studies demonstrate a highly

innovative method of collecting

building user responses to movement

under controlled, yet semi-realistic

conditions.

Field Studies of Building

Movement

Of the several causes of building

movement, wind has perhaps the

most widespread effect. J. Reed

(engineer) investigated wind-induced

motion in two office buildings. He in- strumented two buildings to measure

the motions induced during severe

storms. After storms lasting almost 24

hours he conducted a survey of the

building occupants to determine their

reactions. He was especially in- terested in identifying the particular cues employed by occupants in making their assessments (auditory,

visual).

The problem addressed above is often termed one of "instructional

set." Research subjects are directed

to attend to certain features of the en- vironment while ignoring others. This

procedure frequently makes it difficult for researchers to relate laboratory

data to realistic settings.

Noticeability of Motion Cues

(MIT Survey)

Motion Cues

Movement of doors, fixtures, etc.

Creaking sounds

Feeling self moving (includes

motion sickness symptoms)

Looking out window and

sensing building moving

Comments from co-workers

Other

No preference

Not knowing building was moving

Total

D. Allen and J. Swallow (Canadian

researchers) describe a study

procedure recommended by them to determine whether a vibration

problem exists in a building. It is based on a "heel impact" test, where

a person standing on his toes drops

suddenly to his heels. They suggest

that the test be performed by a 1 70-lb.

(77 kg) man, standing at the

Building A

Total % Most Next most

(if noticed) noticeable noticeable

56.2 18.8 9.4

92.1 28.1 34.4

62.5 28.1 17.2

62.5 4.7 10.9

37.5 12.5 7.8

46.9 4.7 12.5

3.1 7.8

100.0 100.0

geometric center of a floor. Subjective

impressions would be obtained from

a subject also standing near the

center of the floor. The authors further

state that: The test should be repeated

at the 1/4 and 1/6 points on the

centerline perpendicular to the direction

of the stiffeners. ^

Building B

Total % Most Next most

(if noticed) noticeable noticeable

64.1 9.4 37.7

64.1 20.8 26.4

69.9 51.0 15.1

11.3 1.9 3.8

17.0 11.3

34.0 1.9

5.6 15.1

5.6

100.0 100.0

' D. L. Allen and J. L. Swallow, "Annoying

Floor Vibrations—Diagnosis and

Therapy," Journal of Sound and Vioration (1975).

206
At the Commonwealth Experimental

Building Station, N.S.W., Australia, a

vibrator was designed, built, and

used. Research subjects performed

their usual tasks unaware of the existence of the vibrator. The study consisted of enabling subjects to volunteer comments about their environment. The study authors noted

that the lower values of the ReiherMeister Scale did not elicit comments

about vibration until the movements

were brought to the attention of subjects, at which time the movements

were noticed. They point out that the

Reiher-Meister Scale was developed

by subjecting people to vibration in a

laboratory and asking them to state

their reactions to movements. Under

these circumstances, it is likely that

subjects would be aware of vibrations

that would not be noticed under

everyday conditions.

Studies of MovementTransportation

W. Helberg and E. Sperling had subjects sit on a wooden bench which

was attached to a vibrating table. The

bench was moved either horizontally or vertically, but not both ways

simultaneously. Vibrations that were

"very nearly" sinusoidal, at frequencies of between 1 and 12 Hz, were

used. The amplitudes employed were

between 0.01 and 2.5 cm. Subjects were seated for periods ranging from

2 to 1 0 minutes. After this time, they were asked to make judgments on a

7-point scale (just perceptible to in- tolerable).

D. Parks and F. Snyder investigated

human reaction to low frequency

vibration. A hydraulically actuated

shake table was used to provide vertical, sinusoidal vibrations at frequencies ranging from 1 to 23 Hz. The

vibration platform was mounted with a standard aircraft seat having felt covered plywood in place of a seat

cushion. Four categories of subjective

judgments were recorded along with

electrocardiograms. The subjects were asked to identify four levels of

vibration severity: (1) Definitely

perceptible, (2) Mildly annoying, (3)

Extremely annoying, and (4) Alarming.

Human 6en6il:ivitry to Vibration feiher-Meister "dcalc)

frequency (H ^) (Austral lan Study)

0.001 0.01

Ampli+ude (di^place-ment-from ro\dpcyb\t\cr\

A study by A. Weisz et al. compared

the effects of sinusoidal and random

vibration. Actually three different

vibration conditions were used: a simple sinusoid at 5 Hz; sinusoidal vibration at 5 Hz with random amplitude;

and random vibration frequencies

ranging from 4 to 1 2 Hz. Subjects were required to perform either visual or auditory monitoring tasks during

exposure to the vibration.

C. Holland et al. used a simulator with an electrically controlled, hydraulically powered feedback system. The in- put to the system was a voltage supplied by an analog computer. Thirtynine "rides" (combinations of movement conditions) were made up of

combinations of 8 or 32 sine-wave

components. Frequency components

were spaced at intervals of 0.25 Hz

with a frequency range between 1 and

9 Hz. One "ride," at a gain setting of

1 .50, was used as a standard for comparison. Subjects were told that the

value of this standard was 1 0, and that

other rides were to be quantified in terms of "roughness" as compared

with this value. Each ride lasted 60

seconds, with the standard presented

first. Background noises ranging

between 90 and 94 dB were included

under all experimental conditions.

207
H. Jacklin and G. Lidell followed up

initial studies performed on a

vibrating platform with tests in passenger vehicles. An accelerometer

was placed on the rear seat of a conventional five-passenger automobile.

The subjects were tested under a

variety of conditions (three roads,

three loadings, three tire pressures) in order to determine when movement

in the left rear seat was judged

"disturbing" to the passenger. The

test car was started slowly and accelerated gradually, until this condition was reported.

Van Deusen had subjects rate the

"ride discomfort" of a truck moving on

21 different paved and unpaved road

surfaces. The ratings were made by

regulating the sound intensity of white

noise until it "matched" the degree of

discomfort associated with the ride.

Physical measurements were made

by means of pickup transducers

located on the vehicle seats. Time

records of vibration during acceleration were obtained for each vehicle in three mutually perpendicular directions for each noted condition.

208

3ummar^ of Findings o-f *' Movement" Studies

1.0 06

O.(o

0.^

41

C

o

1

0.1 008

0.0^

O.OZ

O.Ol

/

/

VV

\

M 1

•

•

• —

•

•

•

• ^^^^

\

\

\

\

Frequency (Hz.)

Reiher- Meif)ter

Parks

JacWin

Helber9-6perlin9

Con6t<9nt

40 <pO go
Performance Studies

The studies described have employed

the procedure of having subjects

mal<e judgments concerning the

noticeability and/or discomfort

caused by motion. More recent

studies performed for military and

space missions have been designed

to determine the effects of vibration

primarily on the ability to perform

tasks. A number of these investigations will now be described to indicate

the type of performance measures

obtained.

A very common tasl< is reading and it therefore has received considerable

research attention. J. Dennis, for ex- ample had subjects read a series of 2-

digit numbers (at a visual angle of 5

minutes of arc, distance 10 ft. 10 in.) (3.3 m) while seated on a vibration

table. Subjects were exposed to

"light" (5-27 Hz; amplitude 0.1 in. to 0.003 in. (2.5 mm to 0.076 mm)) and

"heavy" (7-90 Hz; 0.1 in. to 0.003 in. (2.5 mm to 0.076 mm)) vibrations.

Visual performance was significantly

affected by all but one of the conditions. As expected, heavy vibrations were responsible for more errors than

light ones.

M. Schmitz examined the effects of

vibration on a number of tasl<s. In his

study, 18 subjects were seated on a contour wooden chair, mounted on a

shal<e table which was vibrated as

follows: 0.15 g and 0.30 g at 3.5 Hz,

and 0.18 g and 0.35 g at 2.5 Hz. Subjects first performed a driver simulation task for 15 minutes. Then the

vibration conditions took place.

Measurements taken were: visual

acuity, using Landolt rings; a hand

tremor test which required the subject

to keep his index finger steady; and a

test to maintain constant foot pressure. The findings of this study were

inconclusive—consistent effects were

not apparent.

Since noise often accompanies vibration as an environmental problem,

many studies have been conducted to determine their combined effects (as

well as their individual ones) on task

performance. R. Hornick examined

the effects of noise and/or vibration on simple reaction time, responding

to a simple signal as soon as possible.

The experimental conditions were:

control (no noise or vibration); noise

alone (87 dB); vertical vibration alone

(3.5 Hz at 0.30 g); and combined noise

and vibration. The task of the subject

was to press a button as soon as possible after the onset of a red signal

light. This study also did not produce

any systematic findings attributable to the experimental conditions.

The tasks most frequently examined

in vibration studies have concerned

tracking. Tracking involves following a target in two- or three-dimensional

space with reference to an observer.

The observer is required to make a continuously changing response to a continuously changing "error" signal

which is fed back to him. Tracking

tasks have been primarily designed

for those responsible for monitoring

and/or flying aircraft (and more

recently, space vehicles). An example

of a tracking task is as follows. A

cathode-ray oscilloscope is used as a

display device. The experimenter presents a signal (which moves in a manner preprogrammed to suit ex- perimental purposes) on the display.

The task of the subject is to control

the movement of the signal by means

of a joystick (or other control) in ac- cordance with experimental instructions, for example, center the target

signal on a vertical line on the display.

The complexity of tracking tasks can be varied readily (e.g., size, speed of

movement, delay of feedback,

number of other possible signals,

etc.), thereby making them a very important and versatile research approach for many problems, but so far limited in M/E studies.

Conclusion

While comparatively few studies have

been performed which deal with the

effects of building movement on people, their quality has generally been

high. Furthermore, the research approaches have been quite varied,

ranging from performance to attitude

measurements, under controlled

laboratory and field conditions.

Perhaps the first requirement for M/E

researchers is to determine how

widespread and important the

building movement problem is. One

approach could be to employ Reed's

procedure of conducting user surveys

of lightweight high-rise buildings,

while at the same time making

physical measurements of the

building. Then, important problem

areas could be researched employing

semi-realistic yet controlled

procedures similar to those

developed by Yamada and Goto. The

findings from this research could then

be used and tested in new buildings, as a means of improving current

criteria used for building movement.

209
210
!7

The Cutaneous EnvironmentSkin Senses

Tactile Information

Pressure Sensitivity

Temperature Sensitivity

Shape vs. Texture

Texture

Conclusion

Pi6fribution of Vibratory Sensitivity

< finger

^hand —• forearm —•elbow ^ forehead —•nose

^neck

•shoulder

•breae-r

"•sternum

'Upper abdomen

lower abdomen

• buttocKs

\high

• upper leg

-•Kneecap —^calf

Decibels -^5

re 1 micron

-ZD -\b -10 5 70 75 7J) Z5

211
Consider the earliest experiences that

we have—those dating from

childhood. An infant, when confronted with an object, touches, handles, observes, and ultimately tries to put most objects in the mouth. This

series of activities enables the infant

to experience objects in many ways,

each one making a contribution to overall understanding.

The childhood experience of touch

has been a popular research approach in this study area. The habit of

holding and touching objects never

leaves us, as indicated by the "don't

touch" signs which appear in museums, zoos, and other places

where novel objects (or species) can

be found. Touch is an especially important source of information in the

experiencing of form and texture, two

attributes of special importance in buildings.

Information about form and texture is not obtained exclusively by touch.

Rather, visual phenomena are also

important information sources. For

example, when we enter a building,

within a short distance we often en- counter several different surface

characteristics. The street pavement,

steps, doormats inside and outside of an entrance, the finished surface of

the interior, and carpets frequently

have different and distinctive textural

features which we become aware of

by seeing and walking on them.

Cutaneous experience is therefore

dependent on two sets of interrelated

experiences—visual as well as tactual ones. In a sense, the information

gained by each sensory system

strengthens that obtained by the

other, thereby making each perception more vivid than would otherwise

be the case.

Museum Exhibit— To Be Jouclted (NBS)

212

Study of Tactile Response (Nli-I)

Although only form and texture have

been mentioned so far, the skin senses provide a broad range of in- formation concerning our environment, and the objects around us. Studies have shown the skin to be

sensitive to heat (cold), vibration,

pain, and even light. The complexity

and variety of problems addressed in this research area are indicated by

the lack of a generally accepted

name for the discipline. Among the

terms used by researchers of the skin senses to describe the topic are

"haptic," "cutaneous," and "tactile."

Our understanding of touch sensations is comparatively limited. The

question of which nerve endings in the skin (and deeper-lying tissues)

respond to common touches and

pressures is still far from settled. It should therefore not be surprising

that the phenomena experienced are even difficult to classify. A skin

characteristic generally determined is that it is not uniformly sensitive. This

characteristic has been noted by ex- amining the surfaces of different

parts of the body.
Three separate sets of responses

have been classified under the skin senses: one for pressure reception, one for pain, and the last one dealing

with temperature changes.

The problems typically addressed by

researchers have dealt with determining the physiological basis of

touch sensations and the sensory

limits (and capabilities). Another

research area has been to determine

the relative importance of touch as compared with other senses as a

function of age (especially in children). A limited number of studies

have been conducted to determine

the potential of touch as a means for

communicating (braille, informational

coding procedures).

We have been only partially successful in our attempt to find studies of

direct application to building-related

problems. However, the research

methodologies employed in the in- vestigations are sometimes applicable to building design problems.

Tactile Information

The skin senses have been looked

upon as a potential means of communication under special circumstances. For example, doorknobs in public buildings are sometimes

coded by having a rough surface to indicate that they are exits to a

building. This coding device enables

blind people to select the appropriate

pathway to safety in emergency conditions.

In the design of aircraft controls and

displays, researchers have examined

the skin senses to determine how they

might be used to augment the eye

and the ear, which are sometimes

overloaded with information. That is, more information is presented visually and aurally to pilots than can be

handled efficiently by them. For many

years the skin senses have been

employed as a means of conveying

information to blind people. This

general problem area has been ex- plored in some depth to devise

techniques which are more effective

than braille writing for transmitting in- formation.

Although various parts of the body

have been used as sensing organs,

the fingers and the hands have

received the most research attention.

T. Austin and R. Sleight wanted to determine how accurately familiar

forms could be identified when

touched with the index finger. They

used numbers, letters, and geometric

forms approximately 1/2 in. (1.3 cm)

in size, which were cut from masonite.

(Twenty-five of the forms were readily

identified, but only when the subject

was permitted to move his finger.)

The design of control equipment for

aircraft was influenced by the ability

of people to recognize different

shapes. E. McCormick (human factors researcher) describes the

problem as follows:

At certain times in piloting tine aircraft tlie

pilot is as busy as the proverbial one- armed paperhanger with the sevenyear itch. Since it is important that the

pilot's operations be simplified as much

as possible, it was believed that if control lever knobs could be recognized by

touch, there would be fewer things that the pilot would have to look at.

'

The problem was studied by designing a variety of control knobs and having subjects identify them while

blindfolded. The objective was to determine how many different shapes

could be used, without too many confusion errors. Eleven shapes were

found to be the maximum number

which could be readily identified.

Variety of Switch and Knob Shapes

Ibqqle SWitcJh Shapes

Knob Shapes

E. J. McCormick, Human Factors in Engineering and Design (New York,

1976).

213
G. Hawkes (psychologist) conducted

an investigation to determine the ef- fectiveness of electrical stimulation to the finger and the hand as a means of

communication. Electrodes were at- tached to the index finger and the

palm. Several different levels of in- tensity were used, and the durations

ranged from 50 to 1500 msec. Subjects could distinguish four intensity

levels and four durations, but found it easier to distinguish among durations

than intensities.

J. Bliss et al. performed a number of

studies to devise tactile means of

communications. In one study, subjects had a series of airjet stimulators

fastened to their fingers. The experiments consisted of the presentation

of patterns of air stimulation on the

fingers which were to be interpreted

by subjects in accordance with in- structions given to them beforehand.

The subjects were able to perform

the task this way as well as they did

visually, but more training was re- quired.

Tactile Research Usinq Air Stimulation

(B>li55etal.)

Array of aihett), cx^nnectingtube^, and h^vnd holder

u6ed to pretiexit tactile dot patternt.

214

Another study by the same authors

employed an array of vibrators to provide feedback information to subjects who remotely manipulated a set

of tongs. By using this device, subjects successfully completed a number of simple tasks, e.g., lifting

objects and opening latches.

Vibration Feedbackfor temote Movement

(Bliss eta!-)
Magnitude Functions forAppanent]j^1en6>ity

of VI bration (finqer)

50

\libmt\on Amplitude in OecitDele

^

\j\brating rod held between 'f\n^5

^ m'Me^inqer onVitrating button, at nqht angle 1X> Vit^ration direction

middlefingeron button, parallel to vibration direction

A. Burrows and F. Cummings

developed an aircraft column grip

which was modified to house an

electrically driven device. When an

aircraft warning sensing system was

activated, the device vibrated at 268

vibrations per minute. Subjects used

this device and a visual warning signal

in a study to determine their relative

effectiveness. The tests showed that

both methods of presenting danger

signals gave comparable results.

In chapter 7 we mentioned the study

by Bach Y Rita et al., who employed

space age technology to enable blind

people to "see" through their skin.

Television scan signals have been used

to switch an approximately one-foot

square array of tiny vibrators pressed

against the soft skin on the blind subjects' backs. After approximately 10

hours of training, they were able to recognize familiar objects viewed by the

television camera. With additional ex- perience the students could discriminate between people in a room,

follow movements and even discover

visual effects, such as perspective and

shadow.'^

The studies we have mentioned thus

far fall into the applied research area. Now, we will examine the more fundamental work performed in this

study area.

Gonrirol GDlumn Employed by Burrows

frequency <268 vibfdtion^/m/n. at 3o volts

Al^ii3v ^om Pilot Tomrd PHot

^ F. A. Geldard, 7"/ie Human Senses {2nd

ed.), (New York, 1972).

215
Pressure Sensitivity

Since the skin surface varies considerably with respect to sensitivity, one early approach was to develop

sensitivity "maps." This was ac- complished by using a rubber stamp

in the form of a square (20 mm by 20

mm, containing 420 squares). The

center of each square imprinted on a body surface was then stimulated.

Because of the varied sensitivities of

the skin surface, stimulation could be

presented in many forms:

mechanical, thermal, electrical, and

chemical means have all been

employed. Similarly, for the arousal of

"touch," "contact," and "pressure"

sensations, solids, liquids, and even

air blasts are used.

The oldest and best known technique

was developed by M. von Frey

(physiologist). He used a series of

straight (animal and human) hairs of

different diameters, fastened to a wooden handle. The diameters of the

hairs were measured and the force

exerted computed. The threshold was

then determined for a series of bodily

regions, by determining the

"weakest" hair which was noticeable

to the subject, by its touch.

S. Stevens (psychophysicist)

collected judgments of the magnitude

of vibration in three different ways: (1

)

a vibrating rod held between the

fingers, (2) a vibrating button upon

which the finger rested at a right

angle to the direction of vibration, and

(3) on the vibrating button, with the

finger held parallel to the vibration.

He presented the subject with a vibration of moderate amplitude, and gave

it an arbitrary value of 10. This

number served as the standard for

making further estimates. For example, one which appeared to be twice as strong would be scored as 20; one

half as strong, as 5.

Temperature Sensitivity

Chapter 14 dealt with the thermal environment. Here we will briefly mention one aspect of temperature—skin

sensitivity. The temperature sensitivity of the skin has been examined

by employing the grid technique

mentioned earlier. The Dallenbach

temperature stimulator has been a much used instrument in these

studies. The instrument has a contact

point which is limited to 1 mm, and

whose temperature is controlled by a

rapid flow of water. It has the added

feature of controlling pressure by

means of a spring mechanism at the

bottom.

Vi bratory "loudness* Contours

(from Verrilld)

J?i'6placement mdecibeis

re 1 micron peaK

70

Micron Scale

100 1000

Frequency ^hcrf*)

Estimated loudne65 as a function of frequency of

vibration. Intensrh/ fin decibels 5L) is referred to

frireshoid for zso Hz.

The pailenbach

'Temperature Stimulator

^^eter i 6

epnnq

handle

scale

contacts sKin

Pistribution of Cold

and Warm 6po+s Found

on Upper Arm

temperature

G;|ylinderi

O cold spot • warm spot

Da^ 1 Da^i 4

51 ro

216
Shape vs. Texture

A number of studies have been

designed to determine the relative importance of each of these attributes of

materials. One such investigation,

performed by C. Gliner was designed

to determine how well children in kindergarten and the third grade discriminate differences in shape and

texture. In particular, Gliner was in- terested in finding out whether there

was any identifiable trend in preferences with the passage of time.

Gliner used a classical psychophysical procedure to collect her

data. She describes her approach as

follows:

The conditions of the experiment were

defined by the particular stimuli

presented... . The texture stimuli were a sehes of sandpapers of different coarseness; the shape stimuli, a graded

sehes of ellipses. The texture series

consisted of 15 grits (24-500) of sandpaper. The particular grits were chosen

because they represented the widest

range and maximum number of values

available in one kind of abrasive.

The shape series was composed of 15

ellipses which ranged from a circle 2 in- ches in diameter to an ellipse whose

major axis was 3 3/4 inches and minor

axis was 1 14 inches. The sum of the

lengths of the major and minor axes remained constant at 4 inches for each

shape throughout the series.

Both the shape and the texture series of

15 pairs were presented in two contexts. The texture pairs were presented side

by side and either covered the entire

perceptual field (Texture condition) or

Shape V5. lecture

Stud^ of Sandpapers

(6\ir\er)

cm

were confined to the top of a constant

elliptical shape (Shaped-Texture condition).

Subject faced a 30 x 24 inch screen and

reached his hand through a curtained 5

1/2x6 inch hole to feel two stimuli. The

stimuli were mounted on a turntable 30

inches in diameter. Each standard was

flanked by two different comparison

stimuli, but a hand guide restricted the

subject's movements such that he could

feel only one pair of stimuli (the stan- dard and one comparison) at a time.

The subject was told that he would have

to feel the two things and say if they were the same or different from each

other.

Gliner found that older children

generally performed better than

younger ones, but there was no

evidence that either shape or texture

changed in relative importance as en- vironmental cues, as a function of

age.

A. Siegel and B. Vance also studied

children's preferences for touch and

sight. The apparatus used in the study

was a wooden tray with three wells. In- side the wells were spheres and

cubes of different colors, sizes, and

textures. The child had the opportunity to view and touch the samples;

he then judged which two (of a group) were the "same." Texture ranked last among the other attributes—color

and shape.

Texture

D. Katz, the Gestalt psychologist mentioned earlier (chap. 11) employed the

same attributes that he did when ex- amining color to describe touch sensations.

• Surface—discriminations are made by moving fingers against an

object. Object is solid, oriented and

located spatially.

• Something which fills a space

encountering a fluid material such as water or an air stream, which is not

oriented or localized in space. Its resistance is elastic. Discriminations

such as elasticity, stickiness, and

viscosity can be made.

• Film—touching an object with thin

rubber gloves or through a very thick

film surface (0.0105 mm).

Katz then tried to determine how long

it would take subjects to identify

materials using only the sense of

touch in their fingertips. He collected

approximately 40 samples of material

(15 cm X 15 cm) and mounted them

on a wooden plate. Examples of the

types of materials used are: linens,

velvet, blotting paper, sandpaper,

woolen cloth, leather. Subjects were

asked to make two judgments: (1

)

when something was felt, and (2)

when the material was recognized.

(Katz hypothesized that every

material has a "thermal Gestalt"

which is used for recognition.)

^ C. Gliner, "Tactual Discrimination

Thresholds for Shape and Texture In Young Children," Journal of Experimental

Child Psyetiology, 5 (1967).

217
M. Yoshida conducted a study which

essentially followed up the earlier in- vestigation by Katz. Yoshida

employed 50 materials similar to those used by Katz, and had subjects

rate the materials on a series of 7- point semantic differential scales. No

particular instructions were given as

to how the task should be performed.

The subjects handled the material

samples by stroking lightly on the surface, picking them up by the tip or crumpling them in the hand at times*

Yoshida summarized his major

findings as follows:

The results clearly indicate the opposition between fibers and materials. The

most important physical dimension

which differentiates these two groups is specific gravity (not weight).

Tactual impressions under colder conditions are nearly the same as those un- der warmer conditions. And tactual impressions without participation of vision are nearly the same as those in the main

experiment with vision.^

Of interest to both designers and people who use buildings are the texture

and shape of objects and surfaces.

Cutaneous Semantic Scale of Materials

(affer Yoshida)

(adjective) *verv"4 :'5lightlv" ^Verv" (adjective)

substantial fe^r-otungeten

^

r^plug,^ emply

stiff

"l^lpwerpot ab6orbent cotton ^^lif

Sharp ^wab absorbent cotton dull

painful ^^^^^ fcQ^;'-^^^^^,

, painless

vif;r/^if^ ^Qyg^ glassplate runny

glossy candle wax ferrotunpsten ^^^^^ ^^^^^

caet iron stainleee steel

brittle

Clear> ferrotungsten

218

ENTER

BRAILLE/TACTILE

(SIGN SAMPLE)

Tactile Signs (Seton Name Plate Corporation)

" M. Yoshida, "Dimensions of Tactual

impressions," Psychological Research,

10(1968). ^ Yoshida
Conclusion

The study of the tactile environment

has not received sufficient attention

by researchers. Information for practical as well as aesthetic purposes

should be compiled as an aid to design. For example, consider tactile

coding of information as an aid for

blind people to find directions in buildings (surface textures on walls or

floors). Such designs can also prove

valuable to people with normal vision,

and when vision is impaired by

smoke, blackout conditions, or loss of

power during fire emergencies.

In this, and the preceding part of the

work, we have reviewed the research

approaches used to study the "sensory environment." Each sensory area has been described separately, with

few studies dealing with more than one modality. There are two reasons

for organizing this study in this way.

First, the preponderance of sensory

research has been parametric and

therefore this organization scheme is a logical one. A limited number of

researchers have examined the ef- fects of combined environmental at- tributes, such as the effects of dif- ferent noise and vibration levels on

performance. However, in these in- stances the research methods used

typically consisted of a combination of

traditional ones, not new approaches

developed for combined sensory

studies. Since the methods are

already described in one of the

chapters, we saw no reason to do so

again.

Man's Senses and the Energies That Stimulate Them

(Van Cott)

Sensation Sense Organ Stimulation Origin

oignt Eye Some electromagnetic waves External

Hearing Ear Some amplitude and frequency

\/Qrrationc of nrocciiro in V Ctl 1 Ct 11 1 1 o \J\ pioooUivy Ml surrounding media

External

Rotation Semicircular canals Change of fluid pressures in inner ear.

Internal

Muscle receptors Muscle stretching 1 nternal

Falling and

till r\ ^

recTi linear

movement

Otoliths Position changes of small,

bony bodies in inner ear.

Internal

Taste Specialized cells in tongue and mouthChemical substances External on

contact

omen Specialized cells in mucous membrane at top of nasal cavity

Vaporized chemical substances External

Touch Skin Surface deformation On contact

Pressure Skin and underlying tissue Surface deformation On contact

Temperature Skin and underlying tissue Temperature changes of sur- rounding media or objects,

friction, and some chemicals.

External on contact

Pain Unknown, but thought to be

1 1 IICl VC dlVjIII^O

Intense pressure, heat, cold,

oiiu^r\, <5hnpk j^nH cii lu c^omp ovjiiio phpmipplQ L^i 1 d 1 1 1 ^ci lo

External on contact.

ment (kinesthesis)

Mii<^p|p nprvp pndinnc;

Tendon nerve endings

MiJ<=irlp <=;trptrhinn

Muscle contraction

1IIInternal 111 C4 1

Internal

Joints Unknown Internal

Mechanical vibration No specific organ Amplitude and frequency variations of pressure

External on contact

219
220
Part VI

Summary

Summary, Conclusions, and Directions

M/E Discipline Needed Now

Development and Application of User Data

Using Existing Information

Problem Areas

Buildings often do not properly serve

their primary users, the occupants.

This is the premise which underlies

this work. One main reason for this is that user information employed in building design is not adequate. How

does a building's design influence the

behavior of people? If we better un- derstood this relationship and fed the

information into the design process,

we would have buildings that better

carry out their intended functions.

Improved user information is especially important during design and

post occupancy evaluation.

Almost half a century has passed

since Walter Gropius first called for

better human behavioral data. The

need is still largely unmet. Why?

The behavioral sciences have for over

a hundred years researched

problems of an M/E nature. Countless

sensory studies have been made to trace the links between environmental

characteristics and sensory

responses. Unfortunately, however,

the studies have been concerned less

with the midrange of conditions found

in buildings than with environmental

extremes encountered in military and

space situations. Moreover,

researchers have explored basic sensory processes (such as auditory and

visual thresholds) rather than

responses to environmental stimuli

found in buildings. Human factors

studies have dealt less with everyday

design problems than with

man/machine requirements. Hence

M/E and other social science disciplines have uncovered a wealth of

information of potential value in building design, but the data are often

either hard to find or not directly applicable.

Although M/E studies perse go back

to the late 1930's, with the work of

Svend Riemer (see chap. 19), the past

decade has accounted for the bulk of

such studies. Limitations are evident.

The typical M/E study is narrowly

defined, being conducted to solve a

particular design problem. Other

architects or researchers are hard put

to use the findings due to a lack of appropriate documentation on how the

studies are conducted. Research

methodology is often not well

described which makes it difficult or impossible to evaluate the findings,

implications, and/or conclusions.

Another problem in M/E research is the widespread and often in- discriminate use of survey questionnaires and semantic differential

scales, with little evident relationship

to buildings and building design factors. The findings of studies of this

kind are in the form of attitudes, judgments, and feelings about an environment which is not described in a meaningful way. They do not tell the

architect what is "good" or "bad"

design practice.

A barrier to both traditional social

science research and M/E studies has

been the absence of generally ac- cepted methods for making M/E

observations and measurements.

How relevant are well-developed

methods to the solution of M/E

problems? The record is vague on

this point. As for the M/E state-of-theart, the quality of information varies

from study to study, depending on the

researchers' skills.

221
Another block in the development of user data is architectural tradition.

For the most part, architects want to spend as little time as they can in un- covering such data. Much user data

therefore comes from indirect

sources—codes, standards, and

guidelines prepared by regulatory

and technical organizations. While

these "requirements" (lighting, noise,

safety-related data, etc.) are often

said to be based on behavioral in- vestigations, their research basis is often uncertain, which can make for

questionable design recommendations.

The other route—discussions

between the architect and client—too

frequently serves as the primary

means for developing user-related

data. The building user is seldom an

important contributor. The quality of

information therefore largely depends

on the personal experiences of the

architect and client and on their ability to apply these experiences to a given

design problem.

Architectural training in most in- stances has tended to underestimate

the importance of ultimate building

users, and the relevance of behavioral

research to design. Consequently, the

architect approaches the need to define user requirements from a nontechnical standpoint, relying largely on personal preferences and ex- periences. The information in technical behavioral research

publications is therefore hard for the

architect to understand or interpret.

Ignorance of potentially valuable existing sources has led to undue ex- penditures for better user data. For

the most part, however, the architect

and client seldom place a high priority on development of such information.

The informality of the design process

has served to place the need for and

development of user information in a secondary role. Furthermore,

although post occupancy evaluation

is cited as a step in the building

process, studies of this type are rare. As a result, architects designing new

buildings have limited benefit of past user experiences.

Interestingly enough, the current in- formation explosion has intensified

the value of user requirement data for

design. For example, energy and

materials shortages are likely to intensify. The increasing costs of these resources have contributed toward a new look at building costs. Thus,

long-term (life cycle) costs in terms of

energy, money, and space adaptiveness are receiving a lot of attention. The building community now

finds that a major expense over the

lifetime of a building is the salaries of

its users and operators, which in turn has led to curiosity as to the effectiveness of buildings for performing

required activities.

Since the architect is now likely to concentrate on a more efficient use of

materials, energy, and space, more

nontraditional design solutions are

likely. This may make new unfamiliar

designs less acceptable to building users (e.g., different surface

materials, less space, natural ventilation, smaller windows, etc.).

222
One trend is the design of a "permanent" building shell, with flexible, in- terior elements to accommodate a

variety of activities. Buildings are conceived as having a variety of potential uses. This definition of buildings is similar to the outlook of human fac- tors researchers who examine

problems from a systems viewpoint,

with man as part of a man/environment or man/machine system.

Flexible Space Use.

activitv designed for...

...activity used for

A recent study of energy use by

Princeton University^ illustrates the

need to think of a building from the

standpoint of a dynamic system, with

human components rather than a

passive structure. The investigation of

energy usage in a town house community (Twin Rivers, New Jersey)

showed that energy cannot be saved

merely by upgrading the thermal ef- ficiency of buildings (e.g., adding in- sulation). Rather, the energy-related

activities of residents were found to strongly influence the amount of

energy consumed. Other studies have

shown that maintenance, such as

cleaning floors, has consumed more

energy for lighting by a handful of

employees than was consumed in a

fully staffed office building during a normal work day.

The research at Twin Rivers illustrates

the involvement of the general public

in both user requirements and major

social issues. The consumer and en- vironmental movements reflect the

average citizen's growing awareness

of and sensitivity to issues which

touch his day-to-day life. Programs

are now proposed which are meant to encourage U.S. homeowners to upgrade their dwellings with respect to overall quality and/or energy use. Increased costs of services and lack

of skilled craftsmen have also en- couraged homeowners to be more

self-reliant. All of this has served to heighten the awareness of people to the way they interact with their built environment.

' C. Seligman etal., Psychological Strategies

To Reduce Energy Consumption: First Annual Progress flepo/t (Princeton, 1976).

M/E Technical Issues

Topic Requirement

Models Determine adequacy of physical

science approach

Develop improved models

Measurements and Observations Improved methods

Complex environments

Psychophysical approaches

Emotions

Aesthetics

Responses

Performance

Characterization General population

Special groups

Aged

Handicapped

Children

Analytic Elements Systems

Subsystems

Activities

Tasks

Processes Interdisciplinary cooperation

Designing by team

Performance approach

The information explosion has

spurred architects toward a team approach to practice. The many

technical and regulatory issues that

must be resolved in the building

process have made it harder for a

single person (or small group) to design other than modest buildings.

Team design allows architectural

firms to employ social scientist

specialists to meet user information

needs as part of the design process,

either on a consulting basis or as part

of their permanent staff.

223
M/E Discipline Needed

Now

The time is right for an orderly

development of information dealing

with how people respond to buildings,

i.e., for determining user requirements.

The task of developing high quality user information is huge due to the

amounts of relevant subject matter

and its complexity. Hence, architects

and behavioral researchers should

seek approaches directed to a systematic development of

knowledge on M/E interactions.

Instead of today's largely piecemeal,

independent, and narrow studies of

M/E problems, researchers should

foster the steady accumulation of in- formation available to all researchers

and designers. This can be done by

developing appropriate methods for

making M/E observations and

measurements, refining and standardizing them, thereby permitting

one researcher to verify the

findings of another.

We need a scientific M/E discipline.

At present, this study area is more of a practitioner's art consisting of many

studies tailored to answer specific

questions. Lacking is the ability of

researchers and/or architects to use

findings for purposes beyond those

being studied. A feature of a scientific

discipline is the development of

mathematical models and procedures

so results may be generalized.

Development And

Application Of User Data

If M/E information is to help the

building community, it should arise as

part of the design process, with the user an integral part of that process.

We should determine where, when,

and what type of user data is required

for each stage of design. We should

plan for timely data collection, i.e., before design decisions are made

which are likely to influence activities

in the building. Bad design decisions

made early may lead to poor performance for the life of a building.

User data must be developed to permit later evaluation. For example, if the requirement is for a "comfortable"

environment, and comfort cannot be

readily measured, then the adequacy

of the design cannot be determined.

Similarly, when requirements specify

certain activities (e.g., being able to converse without raising one's voice), tests can be devised to determine

whether the need is being met.

Such procedures should be

documented if progress toward an M/E discipline is to be meaningful.

The absence of records makes

evaluation cumbersome and ineffectual, and makes it difficult for one

architect to benefit from the ex- perience of others. When these shortcomings are overcome, an ac- cumulated body of M/E information

will be available for all architects and

researchers to use as the next

generation of buildings is designed.

Ideally, buildings would be evaluated

by means of simple, inexpensive in- struments. For example, thermographic photographs of buildings

supply information about insulation

properties of a building shell, which in turn provide insight into thermal comfort. The dBA sound level meter is an

instrument which gives a readout of

sound levels, weighted so as to con- form with the hearing sensitivity of

people. Before we can rely on instruments for measurements, however,

we must know what should be

measured, that is, the physical

parameters which correlate with the

ways people respond to buildings.

This is the greatest task confronting

M/E researchers.

Development of Improved User Information

(dentification of

B>u 1 Id ing Problems

Informational

Kleede>

1 nformation

Aval la bi lit V

Information

Development

5iate-of-the-Art

Compilaiion5 Research

.7

\

X

a

z

5

Solution -to Problem

224
Using Existing information

To meet the immediate needs of the

architect, better use must be made of

information already available among

the social science disciplines. One

way to reach these data is to foster in- terest among these professionals in attacking M/E problems in- dependently, as consultants, or as members of design teams. This way

existing expertise and data can be

profitably used.

Measurement Techniques

(After Lozar)

Self Report Methods

Survey Attitude Instruments

Open-ended Question

Directed Question

Semantic Differential

Correlation Mapping

Cognitive Mapping

Diaries-Activity Log

Simulation Mechanisms

Photographic Simulation

Games

Scale Models

Video Simulation (experiential)

Video Simulation (interior)

Interview Techniques

Unstructured

Structured

Participant Interview

Another way to address the problem

is to make the architect familiar with

behavior research approaches for

developing user information. That is the central point of this work. By

pointing up the links between design

issues and observational and

measurement procedures, we hope to have shown that the key to developing

improved user data lies in the tools

available to collect the data, namely

measurement methods.

Man-Environment Interrelations

and Dimensions

General attitudes

General attitudes

Factors of perception

Attitude and location

Attitude factors

Time in daily activities

Perception of drawings

Choice under constraints

Perception of models

Perception of landscape

Validity of TV simulation

Perceptions

Attitudes

Attitudes

By explaining how, when, and why

certain research methods are employed to solve M/E problems, we

hope architects will gain an insight

into the behavioral research process,

thereby enhancing collaboration

between the two professions.

Although we have stressed research

methodology, we have sought to show

that the methods are merely the

means toward the ultimate requirement of obtaining M/E information.

Even though we believe in measure- ment methods and the need for objectivity in dealing with user requirements, we feel that science should not

be "sold" to the designer as a panacea. There is every reason to expect

useful data in some areas, for example those dealing with sensory

processes. However, many questions

posed by the architect, such as those

dealing with mood, pleasantness,

comfort, and aesthetic enjoyment,

have been difficult to answer.

Behavioral scientists have failed to obtain objective indicators of feelings

and emotion, nor has the question

been answered relating the environment and behavior. What degree of

"cause and effect" can we expect

between the two, and under what cir- cumstances?

As the major consumer of viable

building user information, the architects must play a key role in developing and refining it. To do this, they

should be aware of the procedures

used by researchers who develop in- formation applicable to M/E

problems. Architects should also

understand better the behavioral

research bases of building codes,

standards, and regulations, which in turn depend on understanding how

behavioral research studies are

carried on.

Architects knowledgeable about

behavioral research will be:

• More sensitive toward the advantages and limitations of behavioral

research methods,

• Better able to identify possible

limits of design data, more particularly as it applies to different types of activities and people within the building,

• Able to recognize better actual or

potential user problems,

• Better able to critique criteria and

building practices related to users,

• Able to make effective use of

behavioral researchers as consultants

or staff members,

• Prepared to ask better userrelated questions of clients and

building occupants,

• Better equipped to tap behavioral

science source information directly.

225
A Process Model for the Comprehension of Environmental Displays

(Craik)

1Observers

2

Presentation of

Environmental Displays

3

Nature and Format of Judgments

4

Validational Criteria

Special Competence Groups: Direct Experience: Free Descriptions Measures of Objective Character-

• Architects • Looking at istics of Environmental Displays

• Planners • Walking around and through Adjective Checklists

• Real Estate Appraisers • Driving around and through Judgments by Experts

• Stage Designers • Aerial Views Activity and Mood Checklists

• "Space" Managers, (i.e., hotel. • Living in Any Judgment-form in Column 3

theatre, resort managers, building Q-sort Descriptions based upon more extensive Acquaintsuperintendents, etc.) Simulative Exploration ance with the Environmental Display

Ratings

Special User-Client Groups: Cinematic and Photographic Studies

• Elderly Persons Thematic Potential Analysis

• Migrant Workers Sketches and Drawings

• College Students Symbolic Equivalents

Models and Replicas

Groups formed on the basis of Multisensory Equivalents

Relevant Personality Measures Tachistoscopic Views

Emphatic Interpretations:

Everyman, General Public Laser Beam Presentations • "Role" enactments

• "Role" improvisations

No Prese!.itation

Social Stereotypic Cues

Beliefs about Human Consequences

Viewing Time

"Motivational" System

226
Problem Areas

A major challenge facing M/E

researchers is to find ways to quantify

the benefits of improved building environments. For example, the benefits

of quieter buildings are difficult to quantify so that such improvements

are frequently placed in the category

of unnecessary frills. Yet, long-term

exposure to noise is thought to harm

health and performance. If the effects

of noise and other similar factors

(e.g., air pollutants) are both bad and

measurable, then not only costs but

benefits associated with their control can be evaluated the same way as

engineering decisions during the

design process.

Architects' sources are mainly case

study solutions organized as handbooks. The architect has the choice of

using this information or calling in his

own or outside resources to make the

decision. Typical information sources used by the architect do not say why

or under what circumstances a solution is appropriate (or inappropriate).

For example, the architect might

decide that walls for bedrooms

should have a certain STC rating.

Handbooks do not say why this rating

was chosen or what was the research

basis for the recommendation.

Consequently, if the architect has to decide whether the rating fits a special-purpose facility (a home for

the aged), he must look elsewhere.

Similarly, building codes and regulations exist in response to the health

and safety requirements of occupants. Unfortunately, it is usually impossible to uncover the scientific or

historical basis for code requirements, that is the rationale which supports them. For example, the width of

exit stairways is often set for fire safety reasons. The dimension is chosen to let two people go down

side-by-side, thereby speeding

evacuation of a building. However, re- cent studies have shown that people

move single file in a stairway. Other

factors must also be considered, such

as the need to provide room for

stretchers, heavy equipment.

Design assumptions also merit attention. For example, HVAC systems of

buildings are designed to provide a

relatively constant temperature. Is this

a desirable goal? Perhaps variations

of temperature or air movement

within an acceptable range make

more sense to the user.

Another hurdle concerns the different

viewpoints of the architectural and

behavioral research professionals even when exploring similar subjects.

For example, both need to synthesize

information on a variety of topics to develop a reasonable solution to a problem. Yet each does so with dif- ferent types of payoff in mind. The

process of synthesizing information is for the architect a means to the end of

solving a problem related to the

building being designed. In contrast,

the researcher will often focus on the

process of synthesizing information, so that the process will be better un- derstood and used to solve similar

problems in the future.

We have described these problem

areas, and others throughout this

study, not to undermine the credibility

of the user-related information

employed by architects. Rather, the

aim has been to point out that much

work is needed if improved user information is to become part of the

design process of buildings. Fortunately, there is now some momentum. The performance approach, the

rise of design teams, and the growing

number of M/E studies all attest to progress.

Social scientists bring to these efforts a desire to better understand why

people behave as they do, and they

seek ways to document their findings.

Architects, on the other hand, along

with knowledge of the built environment, bring a trained and creative

outlook to identify M/E problems re- quiring attention. Together, these

professions should foster M/E

research in whatever areas are deemed important by architects, users, and others, and which have

until now been neglected by social

scientists.

Architectural Handbooks (NBS)

227
228
Part VII

Reference Material

While we have surveyed a broad range of disciplinary research areas and

studied methods in the earlier parts of this worl<, we have at best merely

touched the surface of the material available dealing with M/E issues. This concluding part of the study will provide an overview of three subjects which are

essential to a balanced understanding of behavioral research as it applies to people and building relationships.

Chapter 19 describes the origins of behavioral research and reviews the traditions which influence how and why investigators today use the measurement

methods that they do. It is meant to provide a perspective for present M/E

studies.

Chapter 20 highlights the major research issues for studies using questionnaire

survey methods. Since survey research may be used for most M/E problems,

and is widely used, it merits separate and detailed treatment.

Chapter 21 provides a review of statistical procedures, which like survey

research, comprise a broadly based disciplinary area providing the means for

evaluating the outcomes of most scientific investigations and the development

and improvement of M/E models.

I

229

19

Behavioral Research— Historical Factors (Overview)

Diversity of Origins

Major Approaches

Analytic Research

Global (Gestalt)

Research Traditions—Philosophical

The Mind and the Body

Innate Characteristics

Learned Behavior

Research Traditions—Quantitative

Physiological

Early Studies

Central Nervous System

Reflex Behavior

Psychophysics

Experimental Research

Psychophysical Methods

Vision and Color

Color Specification

Visual Perception—Gestalt

Origins of the Gestalt Movement

Differences Among Individuals

Why People Act As They Do—Motivation and Personality Factors

Psychoanalytic Techniques

Projective Techniques

The Hawthorne Studies

Investigations of User Requirements

Conclusion

231
When people make judgments about

their environments, whether

favorable or unfavorable, what in- fluences them? Why do people

perceive the world as they do? What

role does experience play in our

lives?

The discipline of psychology has

developed largely in response to answering these, and similar questions. The procedures employed to obtain answers to inquiries consist of a variety of measurement methods

which are largely traceable to work

performed in the 18th and 19th centuries. An understanding of the origin

of these research procedures will provide an additional basis for

evaluating their usefulness, and versatility, as well as their limitations for

M/E studies.

The reasons for providing a cursory

overview of the historical development of psychological measurement

methods are therefore pragmatic, not

academic. While it might interest

some readers to learn even more

about the origins of psychological

research, we will confine our treat- ment to those men, issues, and

methods which bear directly on the

development of measurement techniques which are related to design.

The social sciences share a good deal

with the profession of architecture.

The problems dealt with are not

always readily categorized, because

they both seek to respond to the re- quirements and aspirations of people.

Some needs are tangible and readily

defined, such as those concerned

with protection from dangers. In other

instances, needs have emotional and

aesthetic connotations, which resist

definition. People respond to environments at both conscious and subconscious levels of awareness. The social

scientist and the designer must

therefore not confine their interests to only those factors which can be readily identified, but must consider man

"as a whole."

Diversity of Origins

The study of psychological

phenomena reflects the complexity of man. The approaches used have

ranged from philosophical speculation to classical scientific procedures

and finally the development of new

techniques when traditional approaches were not successful.

A number of issues has dominated

the discipline of psychology since its origin. They are of particular importance to M/E studies as well because

of their relevance to design

problems.

• How does man become aware of

the environment?

• What are the relationships

between thought and emotion?

• In what ways are individuals

similar, and different?

• What commonalities exist among

species, including man?

• What are the relative merits of the

analytic,and global (comprehensive)

approach to psychological research,

i.e., how useful is the natural science

model for psychological research?

iVIaJor Approacties

When we examine historical developments in psychological research, two

approaches appear to be dominant.

One, the traditional one, is based on

analytic procedures; while an alter- native viewpoint is expressed by

those who advocate a unitary approach which treats man as a complete entity.

Analytic Research

The classical scientific approach is an analytic one. In its purest case, it consists of the control of all variables

except the one being examined. That

variable (independent) is then varied

systematically by the researcher and

measurements made on another

variable (dependent). A<=- or.a gains

more information about the topic un- der investigation, a mathematical

model of the phenomenon is developed to enable predictions to be

made regarding the nature and extent

of the influence of the independent

variable on the dependent one. To ac- complish this result, quantitative in- formation is required.

The physiological research tradition

has exemplified this classical

research approach, and in doing so has been an early and important contributor to the discipline of psychology. Its objective is to find a

biological basis to account for the way

people respond to the environment,

that is, to determine the extent of the

relationship between the structure the body and the way that it functions.

Closely associated with the classical

physiological tradition in psychology

was the study of how the sensory

processes of man operate.

Psychophysics was developed to determine the relationships between

characteristics of physical stimuli

(e.g., intensity of light) and the sensory perception by the individual

(brightness). The goal was to obtain

objective and quantitative information

concerning sensory experiences by

asking experimental subjects to function as pure measurement devices,

untainted by subjective judgments

and opinions.

Global (Gestalt)

Classical research was challenged

when problems arose which could

not be attacked properly with the

methods available. In both

physiological and sensory

(psychophysical) studies, innovative

researchers challenged the applicability of research procedures,

and simultaneously the assumptions

associated with the research approaches. (The interdependence

between research assumptions and

experimental methodology is one of

the primary reasons for presenting an historic overview of psychological

research.)

In physiological research, itwasSigmund Freud (1856-1939), trained as

a neurophysiologist, who found

himself unable to explain behavioral

symptoms for ailments such as

hysteria on the basis of physiological

findings. Consequently, he developed

alternative methods of explaining

behavior, which were qualitative and

subjective, but which most importantly considered the patient's entire life experience.

232
One of the philosophical and research

traditions of sensory research

provides an alternative to the analytic

study of behavior. This tradition, exemplified by the phenomenologist

and Gestalt movements, has rejected

the analytic approach as not being

applicable to research dealing with

behavior. Like Freud, the pioneer

Gestalt scientists developed research

procedures quite different from the

traditional ones. They were qualitative

rather than quantitative. They relied on demonstrations to make their

points, something that everyone

could experience.

The analytic and holistic approaches

were not parallel developments.

Rather, they were often closely in- terrelated, exercising considerable in- fluence on one another. When either

the analytic or Gestalt approach

predominated, advocates of the other

approach were actively developing

alternative approaches. For example,

the Gestalt emphasis on an integrated

approach based on immediate and

naive perceptions was a reaction to the analytic procedures developed by

psychophysicists to understand the

elements of sensation and perception.

Since current behavioral research is traceable to traditions in both

philosophy and science, it is not surprising that its methodologies have

antecedents in both "camps."

Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of many research

methodologies are traceable to these

origins. A number of the traditions

which form the basis of psychological

research today will now be examined.

Research TraditionsPhilosophical

How does the inner world of man in- teract with the outside world? That is, how do people gain knowledge of the

world at large? There are two major

opposing viewpoints designed to answer this question. One stresses

the importance of the inborn

characteristics of people—termed a

nativistic outlook. The advocates of

this approach argue that people are

basically preprogrammed in away

that ensures their ability to live effectively in the world. The opposing viewpoint emphasizes the adaptability of

people and argues that people are born with the potential for learning,

and life experiences provide the

learning necessary for survival and

accomplishment.

This issue was the cause for speculation by philosophers as far back as

the earliest writings by the Greeks.

The Mind and the Body

In more recent times, Rene Descartes

(French philosopher, 1596-1650) is often mentioned as the one who identified many issues which later became

central to the discipline of psychology. Descartes was concerned

with the relationship of the mind and

the body which the Greek

philosophers speculated about. He

hypothesized that the mind and body

of man interacted at the pineal gland,

which is at the ba^e of the brain

(cerebrum).

Descartes was important for another

reason. He was part of a

philosophical tradition but at the

same time relied on the empirical approach used by scientists. (In an effort to learn how the nervous system

operated, he dissected parts of the

body which were then observed in detail.)

Innate Characteristics

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz

(German philosopher, 1646-1716) in- dicated that the human body was

born with a system of complex and

interrelated elements called monads.

Monads were defined as fundamental

activities which became evident while

the person matured. In a sense, the

monad can be termed as a perceptual element, not capable of further

analysis. The work of Leibnitz

therefore addressed two problems of

vital interest to psychological

research—the importance of innate

characteristics and the limitations of

the traditional analytic approach to research.

Immanual Kant (German philosopher,

1724-1804), speculated that the

human "mind" is predisposed to think

and perceive in certain ways. For ex- ample, spatial relationships are perceived as they are because

perceptual ordering is a psychological necessity. This viewpoint

has been elaborated by later researchers, thereby constituting a major alternative to the analytic

procedures favored by researchers

following classical scientific

procedures. The rationale for

phenomenological, Gestalt, and many

present-day perceptual researchers can be traced to the work of Kant.

Rudolph Herman Lotze (German

philosopher, 1817-1881), a more immediate and direct influence on the

Gestalt movement, had a theory of

space perception. He indicated that

the mind has an inherent capacity for

arranging sensory content spatially, even though that content is not in- herently spatial. Another way of making this point is that perceived space

is derived from conscious data,

themselves not spatial.

This cursory treatment of the

philosophical origins of the nativistic

approach will now be followed by a

similar treatment of a number of the

philosophical advocates of the learning approach in psychology who also

served as theorists for analytic

research in psychology.

Learned Behavior

Thomas Hobbes (English

philosopher, 1588-1679) disagreed

with Descartes concerning how man

comes by his ideas. He argued that

sensations are the ultimate source of

knowledge and that people learned to associate sense impressions with one

another. The associations were said

to be formed when two conditions

come together either in space or time

and the associations strengthened

when the conditions are repeated.

For example, when we say "grass,"

we think of the color green because

we repeatedly experience the visual

sensations together. This concept

may be considered as a conceptual

forerunner of the analytic approach to psychological research.

233
John Locke (English philosopher,

1632-1704) carried the position of

Hobbes to the extreme in his view that

the infant's mind is a "tabula rasa"

(blank tablet) and therefore all knowledge is gained from experience.

Ideas are the elements of experience,

which an analysis of the mind will reveal, that is, the mind can be

analyzed in terms of elements called

ideas.

James Mill (English philosopher,

1773-1836) argued that sensations

and ideas are the raw material of the

mind. Knowledge is said to begin with

sensations, which are then trans- formed into larger units which are capable of being analyzed into elements. For example. Mill says brick is a complex idea, mortar another complex idea, these-ideas together with

ideas of position and quantity, compose my idea of a wall. '

John Stuart Mill (English philosopher,

1806-1873) disagreed with the

foregoing conception by his father,

James Mill. He argued that many elements may generate complex ideas,

but these ideas are more than the

mere sum of the individual parts. For

example, if we add blue and yellow

pigments we obtain a green pigment

which would not be predicted from

each of the constituent elements. Mill stressed the need for direct ex- perimentation, instead of speculation, as the way to learn about the

characteristics of man, thereby

promoting scientific inquiry of human

behavior.

With the ideas of John Stuart Mill, we

will now examine the research traditions in psychology.

Research TraditionsQuantitative

Physiological

Man's biological inheritance plays an

important role in determining

behavior, although the extent of this

role is sometimes a topic of dispute.

For example, there are inherent

limitations in our ability to sense en- vironmental stimuli. That is, there are many sources of potential stimulation

in the environment, such as different

forms of energy. People have the

ability to detect some forms of energy

(e.g., sound, visible light) but not

others (e.g., x-rays, ultraviolet rays).

Even when we have the sense organs

to detect energy we are limited in our

ability to use it effectively. If a sound

is too soft, or at too high or low a fre- quency, it cannot be heard; if a sound

is too intense, it can cause permanent

hearing damage.

Of particular importance is the lack of a clear relationship between our

ability to detect things in our environment and their effect on us—for good

or ill. Atmospheric pollutants, ul- traviolet rays, and odorless gases all have the potential to affect our wellbeing, but the effects frequently are

not noticeable until the damage is done.

^ E. Boring, A History of Experimental

Psychology (New York, 1950).

When people are affected by such en- vironmental factors, how may we

determine the nature of such effects?

We cannot rely on observations by

researchers using the unaided eye—

the effects are not always readily visi- ble. We cannot ask people to examine

their own reactions, because as we

already have indicated some effects

cannot be sensed.

For problems of this type, more subtle and sensitive detectors of shortand long-term changes that might occur within people as a result of en- vironmental conditions are needed.

These procedures are equally applicable when the changes are internal to the person, e.g., emotional. The

observation and measurement of

these phenomena have been the

province of physiological research in psychology. In a sense, physiological

investigators treat experimental subjects as though they were "black

boxes," ignoring subjective aspects

of behavior. Their goal is to make

measurements which are biologically

determined rather than being under

the conscious control of subjects. Advocates of physiological studies of

behavior indicate that physiological

responses have the advantage of being relatively free from "extraneous"

influences such as experience,

preferences, and cultural factors,

which unduly complicate research in the behavioral sciences.

Many important M/E studies are

physiological in nature, especially

those dealing with stimuli which are

likely to cause permanent damage.

One such example is research performed to determine the effects of

smoke resulting from fires in buildings on health, well-being, and

behavior. Studies of this kind are fre- quently conducted using animal subjects. The research procedures

employed often include the destruction of the animal, followed by an

autopsy to determine the effects of

various compositions and intensities

of smoke on the organism. Similar

procedures have been used in noise

studies to pinpoint the site of the

damage caused by intense sound

levels.

The disciplines of physiology and

neurophysiology have particularly

benefitted by space-age technologies

which have revolutionized research

procedures leading to an abundance

of information concerning the human

body, such as detailed photographs

and measurements of body structures.

The newly developed physiological

procedures enable M/E studies to be

performed which were not feasible

until now. For example, eye marker cameras enable us to determine en- vironmental features observed by ex- perimental subjects, e.g., how many

times and for how long an object was

viewed by a person. Thermographic cameras enable us to determine the

temperature of various parts of the

body to provide insights into

temperature and the feeling of thermal comfort. Physiological recording

devices are employed to determine

the effects of different types of activities on such factors as heart rate,

respiration, and blood volume.

234
The sophisticated and frequently

electronically based physiological

research methods of today, such as

electron microscopy, are an out- growth of the techniques which can be traced back to the 18th century.

Then, as is the case today for many

researchers in the human sciences, a

biologically based explanation for

observed behavior was the goal.

Early Studies

The desire to learn more about the in- teraction of man and environment in the 18th century was not confined to philosophical speculations.

Physiologists were actively engaged

in research designed to better un- derstand the functioning of the brain,

the nervous system, and the sensory

modalities and how these structures

interacted with one another. The

methods available to early

researchers were quite primitive, but

the problems addressed were often

similar. The studies were particularly

concerned with explaining the

relationship of sensory, neural and

motor functions, behaviors explained

by the biological characteristics of man.

Physiological research in psychology

(perhaps more than any other

behavioral research area) was in the

mainstream of traditional research.

The experimental procedures

employed evolved directly from other

related disciplines (e.g., biology).

Only a few of the early researchers

will be mentioned to illustrate the particular problems addressed and the

types of methods employed.

r

Electron Microscope (NIH)

Central Nervous System

Marshall Hall (English physiologist

and physician, 1790-1857) is often

listed as the forerunner of

physiological psychology. He

observed animals after decapitation

and noticed that movements continued when appropriate stimulation

was provided. He concluded that

there were several layers of behavior:

Voluntary— brain (cerebrum); reflexspinal cord; involuntary—muscles;

respiratory—brain (medulla).

Pierre Fluorens (French researcher

and philosopher, 1794-1870) followed

the work of Hall and concentrated on

the functions of the brain, which was

considered a relatively simple organ.

He employed careful experimental

procedures which consisted of

removing (extirpating) areas of the

brains of animals to determine the ef- fects on behavior. He removed one

major area at a time, on the assumption that each part had separate and

independent functions. He found that

brain structures were closely related

to particular sensory and motor functions.

G. Fritsch (German anatomist, anthropologist, 1838-1927) and I. Hitzig

(German physiologist, neurologist,

1838-1907) used electrical stimuation

of the cerebral cortex of a dog as an independent variable to identify the

motor areas within the brain, with

movements of the body and limbs

being the dependent variables. Their

work led to follow-up studies by

others which resulted in the detailed

mapping of the motor centers of a

variety of animals.

Charles Bell (English physiologist,

1774-1842) and Francois Magendie

(French physiologist, 1783-1855)

employed experimental animals

whose nerves were systematically

severed to determine the effects of

this procedure on motor movement.

They found that sensory and motor

nerves are both anatomically and

functionally separate from one

another in the spinal cord.

Paul Broca (French pathologist and

anthropologist, 1824-1880) is often

identified as the originator of the

clinical (symptomatic) study of brain

functioning. He was a physician who

treated a patient for many years who

appeared to be normal in all respects

except that he could not speak. After

the patient died, an autopsy was performed and Broca found a brain le- sion (in the third frontal convolution of

the left cerebral hemisphere) which

was the cause of the speech impairment. This was the first clear-cut

demonstration of the localization of

function within the brain.

We will conclude the historical

background of physiological

research methods by mentioning two

Russian investigators identified with

the study of reflex behavior.

235
Reflex Behavior

M. Sechenov (Russian physiologist,

1829-1905) demonstrated that when

salt was placed on the cut end of the

spinal cord, that spinal reflexes were

inhibited. He also identified an in- hibitory center in the brain. Sechenov

argued that all thinking and in- telligence depend on stimulation and

that all acts of conscious and unconscious life are reflexes.

Ivan Pavlov (Russian physiologist,

1849-1936) was influenced by the

earlier work of Sechenov in his

studies of reflexes. Pavlov operated

to bring the ducts for the digestive

secretions to the surface of the body, so

that secretion could be easily observed

and measured. By this means then he

discovered how the digestive juices

begin to flow when animals anticipate

food. Out of that observation grew the

technique of the conditioned reflex, the

measuring of anticipation by observing

the flow of gastric and intestinal juices or saliva. Pavlov saw that he had a means for measuring many qualities

earlier regarded as psychical. At first he

spoke of "psychical secretion": later he

would write "the so-called psychical

processes"; still later his phrase was

"conditioned reflexes.

"

Every student of psychology now knows

the nature of "classical conditioning, " in which a second stimulus, which occurs

with or just before the stimulus of an un- conditioned reflex, comes, with repetition, to elicit the reflex movement alone.

Conditioning is an objective substitute

for introspection, a form of language

which enables an experimenter to know

what discrimination an animal can

make, what it does and does not

perceive. Conditioning is, in fact, a kind

of language, which the experimenter

provides so as to enable an animal to communicate with him, but the

phenomena of communication occur

entirely on the objective level of stimuli,

nerve-action and secretion, without any

need for assuming consciousness as an entity. Nevertheless, because we are so accustomed to use the vocabulary of

consciousness, the old psychical terms

inevitably creep into common thought

about these matters, as they did also in Pavlov's exposition.'^

Psychophyslcs

The architect, in order to meet the

needs of those who are to occupy the

buildings being designed,

manipulates physical characteristics

of the environment. A major assumption shared by architects and psychologists is that the environment

does have an influence on behavior,

although the magnitude of the

relationship is often disputed.

Behavioral research, if it is to be

useful to the architect must therefore

say something about the relationships

of the physical environment and

behavior. The study of psychophyslcs

was founded to explore and quantify

these relationships. Such studies

share a characteristic with

physiological investigations, the

premise being that man should be

studied from a biological standpoint

having inherent capabilities and

limitations, traceable to bodily struc- tures and functions.

Psychophysical studies have been

traditionally designed to relate sensory processes (seeing, hearing) to environmental stimuli. Their goal was

to determine the nature and intensity

of a stimulus (S) which results in responses (R) by subjects which take

such forms as:

• I can barely smell anything.

• The first sound is louder than the

second one.

• The buildings are of equal height.

• The light on the left is just

noticeably brighter than the one on

the right.

Experimental subjects therefore re- spond as though they were measuring

instruments (experience and training

theoretically being of secondary importance).

Psychophysical investigations, which

today are conducted by many

laboratory researchers, can be traced

to the origins of psychology, when the

basic approaches were developed.

Pavlov's Condi+ioning Apparatus

236

^ Boring
Experimental Research

Wilhelm Wundt (German physiologist

and psychologist, 1832-1920) is considered the founder of experimental

psychology because he was the first person who promoted the idea of psychology as an independent science.

Wundt, in his laboratory at Leipzig,

Germany, undertook a program of

research which was a logical extension of the philosophy of James and

John Stuart Mill. Wundt outlined the

problem of psychology as(1) the

analysis of conscious processes into

elements, (2) the determination of the manner of connection of these ele- ments, and (3) the determination of their laws of connection. The goal of psychology is the analysis of mind into simple qualities and the determination of

the form of their ordered multiplicity.

The method, Wundt thought, is adequate to the problem except in the case

of the higher processes, where analysis

fails and we are reduced to the comparative observation of social

phenomena.^

The laboratory work at Leipzig ex- plored the areas of sensation and

perception, with special emphasis on

vision. The visual studies covered a broad range of topics including color,

form, and size perception, optical illu- sions, binocular vision, and

perceived movement. These topics are not substantially different from

those now being pursued by visual

researchers, although the methods

used by current investigators are not

limited to those employed by Wundt

and his associates.

^ Boring

Psychophysical Methods

The experimental method employed

by Wundt was a psychophysical one,

developed with two other Germans,

Ernst Weber (German physiologist

and anatomist, 1795-1878) and

G. T. Fechner (physicist and philosopher, 1801-1887).

Weber was especially concerned with

how the subjective world of an in- dividual relates to the physical

world—the body as well as all physical surrounds which are capable of being perceived. Unlike

Descartes, Weber employed an empirical approach to collect information. He systematically varied a series

of weights to study the ability of

human subjects to make judgments

about the weights. Subjects were

asked to determine when it was possible for them to make consistent

judgments as to whether two weights were similar or different. He

developed a scale based on the ability

of subjects to make just noticeable

discrimination (JND's) of compared

weights. He later used the same

technique to study "brightness" discriminations.

The need to connect the inner world

of sensation of the individual to the

outer world of physical objects and

energy in its many forms (radiant,

acoustic, etc.) was highlighted by

Fechner, who is often considered the

founder of psychophysics. Fechner

pointed out that if sensory ex- periences are to be understood, we

must be able to make statements

about the relative size of sensations,

for example, that one light was two or three times as bright as another one.

The desire to quantify such sensations dates back to Hipparchus in ancient Greece (approximately 150

B.C.), who invented a scale of stellar magnitude. The brightest stars of the

"first magnitude" and those which appeared less bright were assigned dif- ferent magnitudes. A sixth magnitude

star was one which could barely be

seen. (Stellar magnitudes are still used today as a form of classification.)

Fechner began with the work of

Weber and extended his research

into other sensory areas. Fechner

argued that sensation could not be

measured (this assertion is not

generally agreed to any longer). All we can do, he agreed, is to observe

whether a sensation is present or absent, or that one sensation is greater

than, equal to, or less than another

sensation. We are unable to say

anything about the absolute

magnitude of the sensation, but we

can measure stimuli, and therefore

measure the stimulus values necessary to give rise to a particular sensation (or to a difference between two

sensations). We can therefore

measure the threshold values of the

stimulus which correspond to sensitivity measurements (sensitivity being the inverse of the threshold value).

Fechner distinguished between absolute and differential sensitivity (the

latter referring to the minimal separation required between two stimuli,

along a relevant physical scale, in order for them to be judged as dif- ferent). He recognized the importance

of making many measurements

because judgments vary and he

Photome+ric Intensi-hy

of Stars

Ctased on thousands of

historical ot?f>ervation6)

IZO 180

Relafive Photometnclnten^ity

therefore employed statistical techniques to analyze his data.

Since Fechner believed that sensation

could not be measured directly (while

the stimulus could), he had to formulate a procedure to indirectly

measure sensation. He employed in- crements of Just noticeable differences (JND's) to determine the

magnitude of sensation—one JND

being the basic measurement unit. Thevalidity of the procedure, which

assumes that the JND's are equal to one another regardless of the level of

the stimulus, is not generally ac- cepted today. However, experimental

findings have generally supported

this approach when judgments are made at moderate intensity levels.

Perhaps Fechner's most significant

contribution to research is the three

basic methods he developed to collect psychophysical data.

237
• Method of average error—This

approach starts with the assumption

that it is not possible to obtain a single true measure of anything because

sense organs and instruments vary. We therefore have to obtain a large

number of approximately equal

measurements and obtain a distribution of values. The average (mean) of

this distribution is the best available

approximation possible of the "true value." Since each individual judgment is considered an error (a departure from thetrue value), it was

named the "method of average error." An example of the use of this method

is to present a pair of lights to a subject, varying in intensity. The task of

the experimental subject is to adjust one of the lights until it appears just as bright as the comparison light. A

number of different judgments is re- quired, each one representing a

single trial. The average of the trials then is computed to determine the

best estimate of the "true" value. That

is, a number based on many judgments is likely to be more correct

than one derived from few judgments.

• Method of constant stimuli—The

experimenter preselects a number of

levels of the variable that he is studying. For example, if he is concerned

with the ability to judge length, and

selects lengths of 10, 20, 30, 40, and

50 millimeters (mm), for each of the

preselected lengths he develops

"comparison" lengths ranging from 1 to 3 mm above and below the standard (constant) one. The subject is then required to judge the comparison lengths against the standard one (are they longer or not, shorter or

not?). The judgments are made for a

number of trials presented in a ran- dom order, each judgment being

made several times. After all of the

judgments are made, they are analyzed statistically to determine

when a preselected criterion has

been met (e.g.. What length is seen as

longer than the standard on 75% of ail

trials?).

• Method of limits—This method is more specialized than the preceding ones and is primarily used to determine thresholds of sensitivity (when a

stimulus can barely be perceived).

For example, if we want to determine

the range of frequencies which can be heard we may start at 100 Hz and

present tones at higher and higher

frequencies keeping intensity constant until the subject can no longer

hear anything. The limit is the highest

frequency heard. Ordinarily, we would also start at inaudibly

high frequencies and progressively

lower the frequency until the tone can

just be heard. The threshold is usually

the computed average of the two

limits, which typically differ

somewhat. A similar procedure can be used to determine the low fre- quency limit as well as the low intensity limit for a variety of frequencies.

It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of these methods in the evolution of an experimental approach in psychology. A considerable proportion of the research findings available are based upon this work, especially

those investigations concerned with

specifying characteristics of the sensory environment in buildings, such

as lighting levels, acoustical criteria.

Fechner assumed that people were

not capable of making direct es- timates of magnitudes, e.g., one

sound being three times as loud as

another. Instead, he employed the

concept of just noticeable differences

(JND) which were defined as "equal

units of sensation." The sound would

be increased until a subject reported

a JND, which was the second step in the ladder. The second sound is then

increased until another JND is identified. A sensation of a given loudness

is then defined as the sum of all of the

JND steps. Physical measurements

are made of the sound levels at each

step. The psychophysical data obtained therefore include physical measures of the stimulus (e.g., sound)

and corresponding sensations.

Generally, such investigations have

shown that the physical size of the

JND grows larger in direct proportion

to the magnitude of the stimulus.

Fiechners Law

(6fimuiu6 increa6e6

geometrical/^, f>en6ation

increaee^ anthmetical/\/)

5)timulLi^ (geome+rio)

238
In devising sensory scales, Stevens,

in contrast to Fechner, often had subjects make direct estimates of the

magnitudes of sensations. A sample

of the instructions given to participants in scaling investigations by

Stevens was as follows:

You will be presented with a series of

stimuli in irregular order. Your task is to

tell how intense they seem by assigning

numbers to them. Call the first stimulus

any number that seems appropriate to you. Then assign numbers to successive impressions. There is no limit to the

range of numbers that you may use. You may use whole numbers, decimals,

or fractions. Try to make each number

match the intensity as you perceive it*

Stevens then carried his procedure

one step further than most psychophysical researchers. He had subjects respond to one sensory stimulus

(e.g., sound) by modifying the intensity of another stimulus (e.g., light)

until they were equally matched in subjective intensity. For example, in one such study, subjects were asked

to adjust the level of a white noise until it matched the brightness of a light.

In this way, Stevens developed a body

of information which related the

responses made to sensory stimuli to one another (e.g., odor, vibration). He

used the same technique to obtain

measurements of other factors (e.g.,

judgments of length).

Vision and Coior

The systematic study of color dates

from the experiments of Isaac Newton

(English physicist, 1642-1727). His

critical discovery was that the refraction of white light by a prism breaks it up into the different spectral colors

which can be differentiated from one

another by the degree of refraction

associated with each one. In order to determine the number of separate

colors he performed a study with

himself and his assistant serving as

subjects. Boring quotes Newton as

follows: / delineated therefore in a Paper the Pehmeter of the Spectrum

and I held the Paper so that the

Spectrum might fare upon this delineated Figure, and agree with it exactly, whilst an Assistant, whose Eyes

for distinguishing Colours were more

critical than mine, did by right lines

drawn cross the Spectrum, note the

Confines of the Colours . . . And this Operation being divers times repeated

both in the same, and in several

Papers, I found that the Observations

agreed well enough with one another.^

As a result of this study, Newton con- cluded that there were seven pure

colors, corresponding to seven kinds of

light.^

Newton's investigations were not

limited to the analysis of light into

spectral components but also in- cluded laws of color mixture of light sources:

" S. S. Stevens, Psychophysics (New York,

1975).

^ Boring

' Boring

(I) Colours may be produced by Composition which shall be like to the

Colours of homogeneal Light as to the

Appearance of Colour, but not as to the

Immutability of Colour and Constitution

of Light. And those Colours by how

much they are more compounded by so much are they less full and intense, and

by too much Composition they may be

diluted and weaken'd till they cease, and the Mixture becomes white or grey. There may be also Colours produced by

Composition, which are not fully like any

of the Colours of homogeneal Light.

(II) Whiteness and all grey Colours

between white and black may be com- pounded of Colours, and the whiteness

of the Suns Light is compounded of all the phmary Colours mix'd in a due

Proportion.''

Newton'3 Color Circle

' Boring

239

Equal Sensation Functions

(Steven 6)

Equal Sensation Functions obtained by matches

between loudness and various criterion stimulus

3 10 10^ 103 10^ 10^

5 Relative Intensiiy of Criierion Stimulus

1 elec. Current ^60 Hz) (^vibration (60 Hz)

Z. handgrip 7 number

3 redness 8 length

roughness brightness

5 vocal efFort 10 hardness
Boring indicated that:

The greater number of experiments

supporting these iaws was made with

the optical system in the accompanying

illustration. By allowing only certain

colors to pass at L, the resultant mixture can be seen by placing a screen at W2.

Newton found that, with proper combinations of lights, fewer than all the

primaries can produce white. He found

too that, the more complex the mixture,

the lesser the saturation of the color. The rapid succession of colors, he

showed, produces the same result as

their simultaneous mixture. This last discovery he made by fashioning a cardboard comb with teeth as wide as the

spaces between them and moving the

comb rapidly up and down at the lens,

L. In this case some of the colors were

always intercepted at any moment but

the rapid succession gave white at W2

His reference to mixed colors, "which

are not fully like any of the Colours of

homogeneal Light, " was, of course, to the purple.^

Newton also experimented wXh sur- face colors and concluded that the

colors of objects are due to their

selective reflection of light. Newton

thereby discovered and established

the essential directions for color

research for all of those who studied

this topic after his time.

Thomas Young (British physician and

philosopher, 1773-1829) discovered

that the experimental findings obtained by Newton could be explained on the basis of three primary colors.

As a result, he thought of the color

figure as a triangle, instead of a circle

since all color mixtures will lie within

the triangle formed by them.

Herman von Helmholtz (German

physiologist, 1821-1894) tried to establish a physiological basis of color

theory based on the speculations of

Young. He investigated color mixture

phenomena in paints as well as lights

and noted the differences in the

phenomena. He then modified the

laws of color mixture formulated by

Newton indicating that they hold for

lights but not for pigments.

Although there were at that time three

principal methods of mixing colors,

the one advocated by Helmholtz consisted of mixing pure spectral lights.

An optical system with a prism,

similar to the one shown for Newton,

was so arranged that most of the

colors could be interrupted, the

Color TTieory

(You - He1 mhoi tz)

red

sensitive f

Boring

Helmhol+z's Color Triangle

OjQn blue

green

sensitive

violet

sensitive

green

chosen colors be left, allowed to recombine, and viewed projected

upon a screen or through a telescope.

This procedure was used to examine

pairs of lights of differing colors

which when combined in appropriate

ratios give the sensation of white. In- numerable pairs of such combinations are possible. (Helmholtz did not

limit his studies to visual phenomena;

he was equally active in the area of

psychoacoustics.)

Boring describes the other two

methods known at the time of

Helmholtz in the following way:

There was also the method of mixture by

transmission and reflection, a method

originated by J. H. Lambert in 1 760.

The observer, viewing one color obli- quely through a glass plate, sees

another color reflected from the glass,

the two superposed. Helmholtz, when

he deschbed the method, pointed out

that it could be used with colors obtained by white light passed through li- quid filters. This technique is common

today with plate glass or half-silvered

240
mirrors in a wide variety of situations

which require the combination of two

visual fields. The half mirror is set at 45°

to the line of sight, so that one field can be seen directly through it and the

other, at right angles to the line of

sight, as reflected from it.

Of course the simplest method of

mixture is the combination of colors as sectors of a disk which rotates so

rapidly that the colors fuse. Maxwell

(1855) invented the colored disks

with the radii cut so that the disks can be fitted together and the resultant sectors varied at will.^

Arthur Konig (German physicist,

1856-1901) prepared the way for

follow-on work in color in much the

same way that Newton had done

earlier. Konig determined the

brightness and sensitivity response of

the eye as a joint function of

wavelength and intensity, using a method similar to that ofHelmholtz.

He performed a study, with himself as

the only subject, using 13 different

wavelengths, at 8 levels of intensity

ranging from absolute threshold

(barely detectable) to a high level of

intensity. The curves he obtained were interpreted as demonstrating

two kinds of sensitivity curves (and

underlying sensory receptors), one

for daylight (cones) vision and the

other for nighttime (rods) viewing.

These data (together with those of one other investigator, Abney)

formed the primary basis for international color specification until 1931.

(Like Helmholtz, Konig explored

auditory phenomena as well as visual

ones.)

' Boring

Color Specification

In 1931, the International Commission

on Illumination (formerly ICI, now

CIE) wanted to systematize the

specification of colors and base it on a

physical measurement system using

three primary colors. W. Wright summarized this approach as follows:

Before a system of colour measurement

can be established, agreement on two

separate issues is required. The disthbution coefficients give the amounts of

three stimuli required to match the

colours through the spectrum and the

first stage in the preparation of a stan- dard system of colour measurement is therefore the adoption of colour-mixture

data representative of a normal

observer. The second stage required

agreement on a set of reference stimuli

relative to which the distribution coefficients can be transformed and in terms of which standard colour

specifications can be expressed. This

second issue can be decided from considerations of practical convenience in technical work without the limitations

that are imposed on the choice of

stimuli in a visual colorimeter.

Konig's Color Triangle

green

red blue

The essential observations that had to be made were a series of colour

matches of the spectral colours by

means of some form of trichromatic

colorimeter. The light received by the

observer consists of a series of rapid

pulses of red, green, and blue radiation,

which, owing to the persistence of vision, are perceived as a steady beam of

a uniform colour whose chromaticity

and luminance are governed by the

openings in front of the three filters in AB. These openings are controlled by

radial shutters TV, T2/ and T3/, which

are adjusted by the observer until the

mixed beam matches the test colour;

the angular setting of the shutters then

gives a measure of(R),(G) and (B) in the mixture.

The spectral colour to be matched

was provided by an independent

double-monochromator light of

wavelength I emerging from the exitslit which was projected into the other

half of the photometer prism.''°

Wright conducted a study parallel to the one designed by Guild. This study

employed similar though not identical

apparatus and the same experimental

procedure. The data obtained from

these two investigations were

averaged with those mentioned

earlier (Konig and Abney) to define

the CIE 1931 Standard Observer. Once

the color matching characteristics of

the standard observer were defined, it was necessary to agree on reference

stimuli; the RGB (red, green, blue)

system was not adopted because

negative quantities would be necessary and this would pose difficulties in terms of computations and

"hardware" development, e.g., colorimeters.

The distribution curves form the basis

of the CIE system; they confirm all of

the data needed to specify colors.

(The 1931 Standard Observer data

have since been corrected and

modified but stand as The international standard for color

specification.)

Example of CIE

Chromaticity

Boundaries

W. D. Wright, The Measurement of Color

(London, 1958).

241
We noted earlier that the scientific

(analytic) study of behavior had its counterpart among those who

favored a holistic and

phenomenological approach. This

dichotomy existed in color research

as well.

Johann von Goethe (German poet,

1748-1832) was very much interested

in color perception and was adamantly opposed to the theories and ex- periments of Newton. Goethe

emphasized the importance of intuitive observation which he applied

to such problem areas as

afterimages, contrast effects,

shadows, and color blindness

phenomena. His color theory, based

on the notion that colors are mixtures

of dark and light, is illustrated by the

attributes he lists for yellow and blue

(his two basic colors).

Goethe's theory of color appeared in 1810 and can be interpreted as a twocolor (yellow-blue) theory or a fourcolor (red-yellow-green-blue) one

(with red and green being derived

colors). The phenomenologists have

agreed that these four colors are the

primary ones based on simple observation.

Ewald Hering (German physician and

physiologist, 1834-1918) developed a

"natural system of color sensations."

The theory maintains that there are

six primary sensations from which all color sensations derive. They fall naturally into three pairs of polar opposites: red-green, yellow-blue, and

white-black. In contrast to Young and

Helmholtz who were concerned with a

theoretical explanation of color appearances in terms of stimulus attributes, Hering approached the topic

from the point of view of analyzing

visual sensations, that is, he

emphasized the role of the observer.

It was the sensations themselves

which were perceived to be the "real

facts" of interest. The Natural System

of Colour (chap. 13) was developed

on the color vision theory of Hering.

Color Attributes

(Goethe)

Plus Minus

Yellow Blue

Brightness Darkness

Light Shadow

Warmth Cold

Active Passive

Force Weakness

Repulsion Attraction

Proximity Distance

Acid Alkali

242

Visual Perception—Gestalt

A danger to objective psychology—is to try to achieve the quantitative, the

numerical, the experimental record as quickly as possible, or to regard as really

valuable only those experiments which yield numbers and curves. Every research

must employ those methods which are appropriate to its subject and to its state of

development; what matters is not simply the imitation of the trappings

of the exact sciences. In the most important areas of objective psychology,

there is very much to observe which so far cannot be studied quantitatively either

directly or indirectly. Thus the investigator will necessarily find himself on a bypath

if he observes only the quantitative and leaves unobserved—and therefore without

influence on his questions and his thinking—the other behavior of the subjects

studied. Then he will not at all see the major part of his task; his theories will necessarily be one-sided and narrow.

Findings and problems of the rapidly advancing human phenomenological

psychology can, it is true, lead immediately to quantitatively formulated

experimental questions for objective psychology as well. But the scope of

quantitative proof in this region has remained just about the same as its scope in human psychology. And even in the latter field, were not the points of view which are now being applied to objective psychology first achieved entirely in qualitative

experience? Thus if every good question and also every meaningful quantitative

experiment go back ultimately to such qualitative observation, then a simple

methodological conclusion follows: The investigator must wander—again and again

and over its whole extent—through this foundation of all inquiry and all experimentation. Of the total range of psychological investigation, even contemporary human psychology knows only parts. In this science we know how to make observations in special areas like perception and memory, but according to what laws a man, for example, reacts as a whole, "as a system," to life situations in which he is highly involved emotionally—about this we know astonishingly little as

psychologists, and from such slight knowledge we cannot properly derive sharp

questions for objective psychology. Thus for such cases, which concern the

behavior of the organism as a whole, we remain dependent on observation within

objective psychology.''''

W. Kohler, Gestalt Psychology (New

York, 1947).
The iVluller-Lyer Illu6ion

straight hne^are equal in length

Studies of complex visual phenomena

paralleled physiological psychology

and psychophysics and are

traceable to the Gestalt movement in psychology. Leibnitz and Kant argued

that an analytic approach was not applicable to the study of human

behavior. The Gestalt psychologists

supported this view and favored a dynamic interpretation of behavior.

They argued that people respond to the environment in an integrated way

and therefore that global (holistic)

observations of behavior are necessary. That is, the person responds as an entity, and by using analytic

methods of study, we are asl<ing people to behave in a way that does not

correspond to everyday life.

The greatest impetus for the Gestalt

movement in psychology rested in the everyday experience of most

people. Visual phenomena, such as

the Mueller-Lyer and other illusions, were well known to many researchers

and laymen. However, the early sensory psychologists could not account

for these sensory experiences in their

analytic approach to research. It was

left to the followers of Gestalt psychology to initiate the first systematic

investigation of these phenomena,

and a theoretical formulation to ac- count for the illusions.

Origins of the Gestalt Movement

The origin of Gestalt psychology

resembles that of psychoanalysis. A

bright researcher was faced with a problem which could not be solved

using traditional methods and thereby was faced with the need to formulate an alternative explanation

(hypothesis) and research approach.

Max Wertheimer (German psychologist, 1880-1943), generally

credited as the founder of Gestalt

psychology, broke with the past due

to his findings in perceptual

organization and apparent movement. As with Freud, his primary

breakthrough involved an insight

which questioned the very research

framework assumed by his

predecessors.

A major interest of Wertheimer was

the study of apparent movements.

His investigations of this phenomenon

led him (and other Gestaltists) to reject the classical analytic research approach to perceptual phenomena.

The methodology employed in his

study followed classical principles,

but the findings could not be ex- plained by this theoretical

framework.

The study consisted of two stimuli

projected successively on different

parts of the retina. Under proper conditions the subject reports that a movement can be seen. This apparent movement (termed the phi

phenomenon) explains stroboscopic

movements on which the motion picture industry is based. Wertheimer

243
used a tachlstoscope to present simple geometric figures for a short time

interval. He presented a figure twice,

separated by time intervals which

varied from experimental trial to trial. When the interval between presentations was very short (less than 30

msec) the perception was of both

figures seen together. When the in- terval was long (above 200 msec) the

subject perceived a succession of two. However, between these two in- tervals, the subject saw the "pure

movement," without seeing any object.

(Optimum interval was 60 msec.) He

insisted that movement was an immediate experience which could not be

explained or even examined using the

analytic methods of traditional

science.

Let us now consider a number of the

other researchers who influenced the

development of the Gestalt movement

and the problem areas which in- terested them.

Franz Brentano (priest and

philosopher, 1836-1917) provided a

philosophical explanation for the appearance of illusions. He argued that

physical phenomena are "acts." When one sees a color, the color itself is not mental. It is the act of seeing that is mental. There is no meaning to seeing

unless something is seen. The act always implies an object—refers to a contenf^ Brentano, unlike Wundt,

was not an experimental researcher.

Instead, in arguing about perceptual

illusions, he based his approach on

the design of a critical experiment—

a

sudden insight or awareness of a phenomenon in contrast with the use

of classical scientific methodology to

Boring

quantify phenomena. The subject

matter of Gestalt studies lends itself to

"all or none" responses—e.g., seeing

or not seeing an illusion.

Erich Jaensch (German psychologist,

1883-1940) addressed a basic concern of the architect in his work

depth perception. He discussed

phenomenology in terms of empty

space and its "psychic" representation. In common with other Gestalt

researchers, Jaensch was particularly

intrigued by illusions. He was especially interested in constancy

phenomena, that is, when

characteristics of objects such as size

and color do not appear to change in appearance even when there are changes in the physical world which

"should" lead to such perceptual

changes. His work on color transformation exemplifies this situation.

Schroder Stairs

The work of other Gestalt researchers

has been discussed earlier in chapter

1 1 , and we will therefore go on to our

next topic.

. Man- Girl Figures are a pari- of a aeries of progressively modified drawings devised by

Oerald Fisher in 1967.

Rabbit-Duck

Kfeversiiple Figure

Wundts Illusion

of Pirechon

244
Differences Among

Individuals

Another major field of study in befiavioral research is that of dif- ferences between individuals. This

problem area started with studies of

genius in the population and later was expanded to intelligence testing

in general and test development. This

research has always employed

statistical distributions of people,

which in turn have led to survey

research.

The study of individual differences is traceable to the early 1 9th century

when mental and physical attributes

of an extensive number of people were measured. The objective of this

and later work on this topic has been

to look at a large population and

determine how characteristics are

distributed among them—e.g., height,

I.Q. scores, etc. The nature of the

problems addressed led to the

development and refinement of

statistical procedures later used in many areas of social research—e.g., surveys. Another illustration of

studies of population characteristics

is exemplified by the work of early

researchers concerned with mental

health. The French physician Esquirol in 1838 wrote a two-volume

treatise in which he made a distinction

between people who were mentally

retarded and those who were insane.

He noted that many degrees of mental

ability were evident, which varied

along a continuum from normality to low-grade idiocy. (He found that

language ability was the most sensitive indicator of intelligence level.)

Sir Francis Galton (English

anthropologist, 1822-1911) pioneered

several approaches to the study of

man designed to determine how people differ from one another, in terms of a variety of attributes. His initial in- terest in the topic focused on determining the hereditary basis of genius,

which later broadened to include the

inheritance of other characteristics.

These studies led to the examination

of physical, sensory, and other

characteristics of the general population which he wanted to relate to high

intelligence— i.e., genius. He performed this task by devising a series

of tests to determine how well people

performed on a variety of tasks. In addition, he compiled anthropometric

data to describe the physical

characteristics of the people being

studied.

One of the major contributions of

Galton to psychological research is the development of the first large

orderly body of information on many

attributes of people. One important source of information was educational

institutions which were induced by

Galton to make anthropometric

measurements and keep them on file. Galton also set up a laboratory at an

international exposition where

measurements of keenness of vision

and hearing, muscular strength and

reaction time were made in addition

to anthropometric measurements.

Galton employed tests of ability,

which were designed to exhibit dif- ferences in aptitudes among the

general population. He was one of the

first users of questionnaires and

rating scales as well.

At Greenwich (England) in 1 796, N. l\/laskelyne dismissed D. Kinnebrook, hiis

assistant, because Kinnebrook observed the times of stellar transits almost a second later than he did.

The error was serious, for upon such observations depended the calibration of the

clock, and upon the clock depended all other observations of place and time.

The accepted manner of observing stellar transits at that time was the "eye and ear"

method of Bradley. The field of the telescope was divided by parallel cross-wires in the reticle. The observational problem consisted in noting, to one tenth of a second,

the time at which a given star crossed a given wire. The observer looked at the

clock, noted the time to a second, began counting seconds with the heard beats of

the clock, watched the star cross the field of the telescope, noted and "fixed in mind" its position at the beat of the clock just before it came to the critical wire.

This method was accepted and regarded as accurate to one or at least two tenths of a second.

. . . Had it not been for F. W. Bessel (1 784-1846), this event, might have passed into

oblivion. . . Bessel sent to England for a copy of Maskelyne's complete observations

and determined to see whether this personal difference could be found amongst

observers more experienced than Kinnebrook ....

In 1820, he found an opportunity to compare himself with Walbeck at Konigsberg.

They selected two stars for five nights. Bessel was found always to observe earlier than Walbeck. The average difference was 1.041 sees., with but little variability

about the average. If Kinnebrook'. s error of 0.8 sec. was "incredible, " this difference was even more so, though Bessel recorded: "We ended the observations with the

conviction that it would be impossible for either to observe differently, even by only a

single tenth of a second. " Bessel presented the differences between two observers

in the form of an equation (A-B=X), which was referred to as a "personal equation?^

Boring

245
Since Gallon's interests dealt with

large numbers of measurements, he

was faced with the problem of

describing his findings quantitatively.

This requirement led to the use of

statistical methods appropriate for

analyzing the differences found

among the population. Galton, in applying statistical analysis to his

findings, observed that inherited

characteristics tend to approach the

average (mean) value of a distribution

of measurements. For example, sons

of tall fathers are on the average, not as tall as their fathers while the sons

of short men are taller than their

fathers.

Of particular importance was his discovery that most characteristics of

people are distributed among the

population in a very regular way.

Human traits such as height, weight,

aptitudes, and personality

characteristics approximate a normal

curve. Furthermore, in general, the

larger the group tested, the more

closely will a distribution of scores approximate this curve. The normal

curve permits us to say not only

something about the average score (mean) but also about the distribution

of scores (standard deviation). (See

chap. 21 for a discussion of statistics.)

Height Variations Among Populations

(Rapoport)

Height 6n.)

Shaded. Area Ccmbined (jroup^

P&rcBntile.

246

Population Sizes and Weights

(Roberts)

Height (cm)

175

o

A

•

w

o

77a

7h5

IhO

155

160

746

740

AG 45 50 63 (oO

Weight (Kg^

(ob no

O - African

# "American

^-European

-Aeian

Survey research which constitutes a

substantial proportion of M/E in- vestigations owes a great deal to the

application of statistical analyses

which are dependent on the normal

curve for testing findings. Furthermore, the work of Galton led the way

to later research which pursued in detail the study areas which he

initiated.
Why People Act As They

Do—Motivation and

Personality Factors

We have stressed the importance of

obtaining "facts" concerning M/E

relationships. However, in the attempt

to obtain objective information, we

should be continually aware that man

also has emotional, psychological,

and cognitive experiences and needs

which exercise important influences.

As we noted earlier, these subjective

and highly individualized influences are frequently the ones which are of

primary concer'n to architects, e.g., the desire to create warm, intimate,

pleasing, inviting environments.

The development of research

methods to explore the motivations

and feelings of people mari<ed the

origin of clinical psychology and psychiatry as research disciplines. The

work of Sigmund Freud, for example,

illustrated the need to treat people

whose illnesses could not be traced to physical causes—but to personal ex- periences and/or personality

characteristics. While many of the approaches used to determine why people act as they do were developed to diagnose abnormal behavior, later refinements and applications dealt

with the motivations of normal people.

The research methods in both cases were intended to obtain information

about views that individuals were

either unable or unwilling to express.

Psychoanalytic Techniques

If we seek the origins of qualitative

research methodology, a logical

starting place is the work of Freud, an

Austrian born physician, researcher,

and founder of psychoanalysis. Freud

was trained in the use of traditional

physiological and medical methods

but found them to be of limited

usefulness in the treatment of several

behavioral abnormalities.

He developed psychoanalysis in order to understand the symptoms

exhibited by patients whose illnesses

could not be attributed to physical impairments. Freud used hypnosis as a

therapeutic device for treating

hysterical patients suffering from

paralysis, mental confusion, and

other difficulties. The technique consisted of hypnotizing the patients and

encouraging them to talk about their

difficulties. After this therapy a temporary improvement in the subject's

condition frequently resulted.

Freud concluded that hypnosis was

not the important aspect of this

therapeutic approach—rather it was

the talking out of the problem. He

therefore eliminated hypnosis from

his treatment and instead induced

patients to relax and say whatever

came to mind, to "free associate."

While this occurs, the analyst not only

attends to what is being said, but also

to the emotions displayed when the

patient is talking. During free association sessions, as well as when in- terpreting dreams, Freud was con- cerned with motivational factors, both

conscious and subconscious. He considered motivations to be major in- fluences on behavior. Freud's work

pointed toward the importance of being aware of unexpressed values and

beliefs when investigating problems

such as determining the requirements

for building occupants. Freud also

pioneered the development of

methods which could be used to "tap

the subconscious."

Although psychoanalysis is perhaps

the most popularly known technique

used to learn about the inner world of

people, it represents only one of many

methods which was developed to achieve this purpose. Another

method, as noted earlier is the use of

projective techniques.

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques present the

respondent with a stimulus which is characterized by some degree of ambiguity. The respondent is then re- quired to give a spontaneous

response to that stimulus. It is not the

respondent's response perse that is important, but the manner in which

the stimulus is interpreted.

These procedures taken together are very valuable in determining what factors influence people in making judgments and decisions concerning all topics, including building satisfaction.

They constitute a versatile and powerful research approach, whose full potential has not yet been realized.

Some of the more commonly used

techniques will be briefly described.

One method developed by Saul

Rosenzweig (psychologist) employs

cartoons to encourage the subject to "project" into a given situation. A

drawing or cartoon with "balloons" to represent speech is given to a subject. One of the balloons is left blank

and it is the task of the subject to fill it

in.

Cartoon Test"

247
Other researchers have employed

photographs to determine how subjects respond to ambiguous situations. The objective in both instances

is to present subjects with depicted

situations which are highly ambiguous, thereby enabling people to describe situations which they are unlikely to respond to if addressed

directly— i.e., emotionally tinged ones

such as strong prejudices.

Thematic Appercepfion

Test (TAT)

Projective tests are also often quite

time-consuming and expensive. Most

of the tests must be administered on

an individual basis. Trained personnel

are required to score the tests and

results often vary depending upon the

scorers' individual interpretations.

And, finally the validity of these in- terpretations is subject to much controversy.

Since most people communicate verbally, it is not surprising that considerable effort has been expended

on developing methods which

obtain information from verbal

material. One such technique is termed "sentence completion." The

respondent is presented with a number of incomplete statements

which are to be completed with a

single word, several words, or entire

phrases. The sentence beginnings can vary greatly in subtlety and

degree of ambiguity. Spontaneity is particularly important with the

sentence completion technique. As in the case of the other projective

methods the sentence completion

method provides the researcher with a technique which is limited only by

the imagination of the person gathering data although as with other

research methods, professional ex- perience is of paramount importance.

In the methods already mentioned,

the subject is presented with a good

deal of information to "structure" the

test situation. The situation under

which the behaviors are examined is somewhat narrowly defined. Other

techniques have been used which are much more "open ended," in which

subjects have more freedom to ex- press themselves. This objective is sometimes accomplished using verbal techniques—sentence completions starting with I . . ., My . . ., Buildings are .... An alternative approach is to ask people to make drawings or sketches of objects or maps of areas similar to the procedures

employed by Lynch and other M/E

researchers. (See Chap. 6.)

One very effective method of obtaining information has been the development of game situations. For example, child psychologists for many

years have used dolls and doll houses

to learn how children feel about

themselves, their parents, their home

environments, etc. By playacting with

the dolls, children are encouraged to express themselves in a way that is not acceptable otherwise.

The advantages of projective techniques are several. The indirect

presentation permits the true purpose

of the test to be disguised, and

therefore makes faking difficult. Faking can often be a problem with

questionnaires or other straightforward techniques in which the

respondent "sees through" the test. The indirect presentation also allows

for an in-depth probe of areas which

may be beyond the individual's conscious awareness or behind his social

facade. These techniques can help

researchers to penetrate many

barriers such as:

Sentence Completion Test

Sometimes noise makes me

The lighting I like best

What I like most about my kitchen is

I wish my neighbors would

In my spare time Mike to

• Awareness—People often do not

know why they have particular at- titudes.

• Irrationality— People respond to accepted cultural norms based on

habit and acceptability.

• Self-incrimination —People defend their self-images. Taboo opinions are not openly expressed.

• Politeness—People prefer to say

positive rather than negative things.

While open-ended methods offer the

opportunity for subjects to express

themselves freely, there are several

disadvantages inherent in this approach. People differ considerably in terms of experience, information,

drawing ability, and ability to verbalize.

In addition, the wealth of data on many topics often makes it difficult or impossible for a researcher to organize the information in a manner

which permits the solution of the

problem being investigated. That is, after collecting a good deal of data,

the solution is no closer than it was

before conducting a study.

248
The Hawthorne Studies

Our final "historic" investigation is the

"classic" Hawthorne studies con- ducted at the Hawthorne works of the

Western Electric Company between

1927 and 1939.'" These studies were

instrumental in highlighting the complexity of "real world" research, performed in actual work environments,

and they indicated the Importance of

having a "multivariate" viewpoint

rather than limiting research to single

parameter studies. Although many

years have passed since the completion of the Hawthorne studies, the

research and methodological

problems that were identified as a

result of the studies are still with us to- day. Because of the similarities of the

objectives of these studies to much of

M/E research, they will be considered

in some detail.

The Hawthorne Studies consisted of a

series of five large-scale investigations. Each succeeding study was

developed as a result of questions

raised by the preceding one. The initial objective was a "simple" and

pragmatic one—to alter environmental conditions in order to increase the

quality and quantity of production.

The first investigations were designed

to determine the effects of varying the

levels of illumination on three departments in the production process: in- spection of small parts, assembly of

relays, winding of coils.

'* F. J. Roethllsberger and W. J. Dickson,

Management and the Worker

(Cambridge, Mass., 1941).

In the small parts department,

average levels of illumination of 3, 6,

14, and 23 foot-candles were used

(independent variable). The production (dependent variable) of the

workers varied, but not in any

systematic relationship to the amount

of illumination.

In the other two departments, the in- tensities of illumination used were 5, 12, 25, and 44 foot-candles. The

production rates in these departments were increased when compared with previous performance, but

the changes could not be attributed to changes in levels of illumination.

The problem was thought to be more

complex than originally conceived,

and a second experiment was

designed, using more sophisticated

procedures. This second study took

place in one department and two

groups of workers participated. The

reason for this change in procedure

was to account for possible dif- ferences among the work tasks, or the

characteristics of the people in the

departments, which might have ac- counted for the results in the first study. For example, if the inspection

of small parts required very little il- lumination, while the assembly of

relays required more illumination,

comparing the results obtained in one

department with those achieved in another one wouldn't make much

sense. It would be like comparing

"apples and oranges." Similarly, if the

workers in one department were more capable of doing their jobs than

those in another department, any dif- ferences obtained in the experiment

might be attributed to the differences

in skill levels between the people being compared, rather than to levels of

illumination. In effect, "differences in

skill" could operate as an unstated

and unknown "independent variable."

As a means of overcoming these difficulties, the second investigation was

designed in such a way that all of the

workers performed the same task. In addition, comparisons would be

made between workers who were

equated in terms of such factors as experience and average production.

The researchers also wanted to guard

against any spirit of competition

between the two groups. They were

concerned with determining typical

performance measures, not those obtained during competitive conditions

which would not likely continue

beyond the duration of the study, and

could "mask" any effects associated

with illumination. The study design

called for one group to work under

relatively constant illumination

(control group) while the other (test

group) worked under three different

illumination intensities.

The results of the second investigation added to the confusion because

both groups increased production

noticeably.

A third experiment was then designed

to further refine experimental

procedures. In this investigation the

control group worked under a constant intensity of 10 foot-candles. The

test group began with an intensity of

10 foot-candles, with the intensity

reduced systematically over time until the level was 3 foot-candles. Levels of

production were maintained. In a

follow-up study, levels were reduced

still further, "to the levels or ordinary

moonlight," also without a decrease in production.

The last of the illumination experiments was conducted in the coil winding department. At first, the in- tensity of lights was increased on a

daily basis. The workers reported that

they liked the brighter lights. An

electrician then changed the bulbs

but lighting intensity was not changed.

The workers reported that they en- joyed the increased lighting (despite

the lack of change). The next phase of

the investigation involved a

"decrease" in illumination. When il- lumination levels were decreased, the

workers indicated that the lighting

was not as pleasant as it had been

earlier. Finally the workers were told

that illumination levels would be

lowered and although bulbs were

replaced, the levels were the same as

they were before. The workers again

indicated that the "lowering" of il- lumination levels was unpleasant

when compared with the previous

condition. During all of these conditions, there was no real change in production.

249
In short, a series of studies conducted

over a considerable time period

designed to determine the

relationship between levels of il- lumination and production indicated

that no direct relationship could be

demonstrated. (These findings have

been replicated time and again in il- lumination research and noise

research as well, when simple causeeffect solutions have been at- tempted.)

When environmental characteristics

(lighting levels) could not account for

the productivity levels of workers, the

Hawthorne investigators started looking at other factors (variables) which

might have accounted for the

findings. The second major study

(lasting 5 years) pursued the answers

to a series of questions.

• Do employees actually become

tired?

• Are rest pauses desirable?

• Is a shorter working day

desirable?

• What are the attitudes of

employees toward their work and

toward the company?

• What is the effect of changing the

type of working equipment?

• Why does production fall off in the

afternoon?

In trying to answer these questions,

the investigators did not systematically vary environmental conditions

(lighting levels). Instead, the independent variables that they used focused on such factors as rest pauses,

wages, incentives, and changes in supervision.

As in the first study, the findings

again were difficult to interpret

because no simple relationship

between any of the independent

variables and performance

was evident. At the conclusion

of the study the experimenters in- ferred that they had not studied the

relationship between monotony or

fatigue and performance, but had

conducted a sociological and psychological study. By trying to control

one set of variables, they had in- troduced a new one—a social situation involving changes in attitudes

and interpersonal relations. The in- vestigators then began to question

many assumptions that they had

previously made. They realized that

the study actually was a complex one,

and that it was not possible to predict

the effect of a single factor, when it was embedded in a complex

Office Workers (NBS)

250

"environment"—physical, psychological, and social.

Follow-on studies pursued questions

of attitude, interviewing techniques,

formation of work groups, communications, and other subjects

which form the basis for the discipline

of industrial psychology.

The Hawthorne Studies have been

presented in some detail because

they provide a constant reminder to those who tend to oversimplify the difficulty of obtaining a meaningful answer to what appears to be a "simple question."

We will conclude this chapter by

presenting a brief discussion of the

development and current status of

research in the area of user requirements.

Investigations of User

Requirements

Perhaps the most thorough investigations of user requirements are among

the earliest ones reported. In the

1930's, 1940's, and 1950's, Svend

Reimer (Swedish researcher) used a

variety of techniques in collecting user data associated with the home.

Reimer stated that:

l-iousing standards and liousing design

assume some relation between the

physical and human attributes of housing. Accepting the fact that light and air

relate to certain infections, standard

ratios of window and floor space are established. In the belief that crowding affects property values, family or community welfare, occupancy is regulated.

The scientific study of such relations

leads to the formulation of humane and

effective housing standards and to the

development of truly functional design.

Reimer's research methods were then

adapted by researchers who did

several studies for the John Pierce

Foundation in the 1940's. The techniques used by these early researchers

are largely synonymous with most of

the field methods used later. The

most impressive feature of their approach is that they employed all the

methods, not just one or a small sample. Their investigations serve as a model which has not been replicated

since that time. They collected their

basic data in the following ways:

• Activity Log—The husband and

wife each kept a detailed log of the

S. Reimer, "Livability—A New Factor in Home Value," The Appraisal Journal, 14

(April 1946).
activities they engaged in over an 8-

day period.

• Interviews—A trained interviewer using a structured

questionnaire obtained detailed information on activities such as sleeping,

child care, dressing, and eating.

• Observations—A trained in- vestigator made systematic observations of the house, furnishings, and

possessions.

• Measurements—A researcher

made detailed measurements of

room sizes, furniture, and other

possessions.

• Sketches—Drawings were made

of furniture arrangements within

the home.

• Expert Panel—In the design of

special purpose facilities, such as a sickroom, experienced investigators

made recommendations based on

available data obtained in hospitals.

• Human Factors Studies—In the

design of kitchens special studies were conducted using

anthropometric data and requirements for space determined by the

activities being performed.

• Projective Techniques—A series

of open-ended questions was asked

to identify some basic needs of the

respondents. (If no monetary constraints were imposed, where and

how would you live? What would you

tell an architect to include in a house specially built for you?)

• Simulation—Studies were conducted using small model furniture

placed in a cardboard room space.

(What bedroom furnishings and

arrangements doyou want if money

is no object?)

Following the studies conducted by

the John Pierce Foundation, research

in the United States concerned with

the relationship between environment

and behavior tended to be isolated

within specific disciplines. In 1970,

Proshansky, Ittleson, and Rivlin

published a book. Environmental

Psychology, which served to pull the

field together. Through this book the

authors were able to define the field of

environmental psychology and to

identify the problem areas in this new

and growing discipline. The authors

stress that the only adequate definition of a field is in terms of theory. But,

since the field of environmental psychology does not yet have a

theoretical orientation, the authors

provide an operational definition: en- vironmental psychology is what en- vironmental psychologists do.

According to the authors, environmental psychologists work in four major areas. One area concerns

basic psychological processes as

they related to the environment. A

second area deals with behavioral concepts such as territoriality and

privacy. These concepts are

specifically related to the way an in- dividual relates to the environment.

The authors maintain that as the field of environmental psychology

matures, more concepts of this nature

will be developed. The relationship

between social institutions and en- vironmental design constitutes a

fourth area. Finally, the area of en- vironmental planning is explored. It is

in this area that the need for communication between the behavioral

scientists and planners becomes

critical.

All of these areas have one unifying

theme—each is concerned with the

relationship between environment

and behavior. And although at the

present time environmental psychology must be defined operationally, the authors stress that the field must ultimately be based upon

theoretical concepts. Environmental

psychology is an emergent discipline

that must evolve as an interdisciplinary

superstructure of theoretical constructs and principles rooted in the basic for- mulations and empirical findings of

many separate disciplines.

Robert Gutman continued to define

environmental psychology in the

same way as Proshansky, Ittleson,

and Rivlin. He edited a book, People

and Buildings, the purpose of which is to make known and accessible some

of the more important works in en- vironmental psychology. Gutman

emphasizes that a great deal of

research needs to be done if the

potential contributions of the social

sciences to design are to be fully

realized. On the other hand, he

acknowledges that much research

has already been undertaken and

many concepts have been developed

but these contributions are not readily

available to the designer. It is for this reason that he has collected some of

the more important works and

published them in his book.

H. M. Proshansky, W. H. Ittleson, and L. G. Rivlin (Eds), Environmental

Psychology: Man and His Physical Setting

(New York, 1970).

A more recent contribution of social

and behavioral reseachers to the

M/E field has been in the area of post

occupancy evaluation. In her book,

Easter Hill Village, Claire Cooper has

presented a user evaluation of the

design solutions employed at Easter

Hill Village, a public housing project in California. Cooper interviewed the

designers of the project to determine

the objectives of their design and the

physical means by which they

satisfied these objectives. She also in- terviewed the sponsor of the project

to find out what effect budget

restraints had on the physical design.

Finally, detailed interviews were con- ducted with a large number of residents.

Conclusion

This overview of historical research is intended to suggest the general

streams of thought, from the origin of

experimental work in psychology to the current issues addressed by M/E

researchers. Obviously, many other

theoretical and research studies

strongly influence the M/E study area

as it exists today, but these contributions must be described elsewhere

and by others.

251

20

Surveys

Assumptions in Survey Research

Classes of Surveys

Survey Administration

Tine Survey Interview

Interview—Standard vs. Nonstandard

Recording of Responses

Self-Administered Questionnaires

Questionnaire Development

Question Content and Wording

Questionnaire Design

Conclusion

One of the most widely used methods

of obtaining information in M/E

studies is the survey and more particularly the questionnaire.

It is doubtful, however, whether even

the best surveys can be employed as

the sole source of information in defining requirements of building

users. The design and conduct of

valid surveys is a research technique

which requires as much expertise as any of the other methodologies discussed in this book. Surveys have

probably been misapplied and misinterpreted in M/E studies more than

any other method mainly because

they appear to be such a simple approach to data collection.

The chief reason for the popularity of

the questionnaire survey is the flexibility it affords the researcher. As

long as questions can be formulated,

it is possible to organize these questions in the form of a survey. For this

reason, surveys have been used for

the purposes of planning, evaluation,

and decision making as well as for

research.

Survey techniques became very popular in the 1930's and 1940's especially with the advent of opinion polling

and the requirements associated with

advertising. (Magazine and newspaper circulation, radio listening and

later television viewing habits all were

subjects of surveys to determine how

many people used these media. This

information, in turn, largely influenced

advertisers in terms of how to most ef- fectively use their advertising

budgets.)

In reviewing the survey literature,

C. Glock (sociologist) indicates that

researchers seem to have studiously

avoided defining a survey because

any definition broad enough to cover

all of the methods employed would be

so general as to be meaningless. He

makes the point, however, that there

is general agreement that the data

collected must be standardized in some format to enable the ex- perimenter to perform a statistical analysis, which enables meaningful

conclusions to be drawn from survey

findings. This goal of standardization

does not assume any prescribed format but takes into account that even open-ended questions should be

amenable to some kind of coding and

analysis. Who the subjects are, how

they are selected, what data are

collected and in what way, are all subject to variation, depending on the re- quirements of the study. Individuals are most often the subject of surveys

although larger entities such as

groups, organizations, and communities are sometimes sampled,

particularly by sociologists.

The sample of respondents to be

questioned in the study is selected on

the basis of sharing characteristics

with the population of interest. For ex- ample, when we want to determine

the needs of the aged in terms of

special residential requirements, the

respondents of the study are members of that age group. With

respect to the number of respondents

necessary to question, this decision is made primarily on the basis of

statistical requirements. That is, a

large enough sample is employed to

253
enable the researcher to make a decision. For research purposes, the

larger the size of the sample, the better (this is true for all research not just

surveys). However, increasing sample

size increases costs and lengthens

the time required to complete a study

and these very practical concerns

often dictate the number of subjects

ultimately used in a study.

(References are cited in the appendix

if more information is desired concerning survey design and analysis.)

Assumptions in Survey

Research

Although particular surveys are likely to differ from one another as to subject matter, approach, and the factors

just noted, they share a number of

basic assumptions and characteristics. The most important of

these concerns the type of data obtained.

Surveys are based on verbal

responses of subjects. By employing

this methodology, researchers as- sume that verbal responses to questions are indicative of other forms of

behavior. For example, let us assume

a person is asked whether he would

buy a home with a specified set of

characteristics. The response is "yes." Does this mean that given the resources and opportunity to make

such a purchase, that the individual

would behave that way, i.e., actually

buy the house? Perhaps, but there is no assurance that verbal statements

of intent will be followed through by

the actual behaviors of concern.

Public opinion pollsters have long

been aware of this dilemma and

carefully refrain from stating that a preference for a candidate at a given

time is a predictor of voting behavior

at a later date.

Another basic assumption associated

with many questionnaire surveys concerns the willingness and ability of

respondents to provide meaningful

information. A respondent who participates in a survey may not provide

information of any usefulness for one

of several reasons, such as:

• lack of information on the topic

discussed,

• lack of any opinion,

• misunderstanding of the question,

• difficulty formulating a verbal

response,

• unwillingness to respond truthfully,

• fear of being misquoted.

The survey researcher must therefore

learn how to win the confidence of a

respondent, and how to keep him

motivated and interested until the re- quired data are collected. The in- vestigator must make every effort to develop a survey instrument free

from bias, whether his own or that of

the respondent.

D. Lucas and S. Britt (psychologists)

summarized a number of personal

respondent characteristics which

may lead to biased findings:

• People are dominated by their

self-interests. They resent long interviews or questionnaires and are impatient with responding to questions

that are irrelevant to them.

• Personal privacy must be

respected. Respondents are reluctant

to discuss matters of income, age,

and health unless they clearly see the

need for providing such data.

• People are inclined to deny certain

motives. The need for social approval

is shared by all respondents. There is a reluctance to openly express views

which are not generally accepted in the community.

• People often rationalize their acts. Logical reasons are frequently given

for performing actions, but the ex- planations might not be accurate. In many instances, people do not know

why they act as they do.

5aifnple Size i6 an Important facfor in Research

5>mall sample • lar^^e sample254
Classes of Surveys

Surveys are sometimes divided into

one of two major classes, based

primarily on the approach taken in collecting data and the function

served by the survey. A. Oppenheim

(survey researcher) describes these

classes as descriptive and analytical.

The descriptive survey enumerates

people and objects and is typified by

the census and by opinion polls. It is usually designed as a means of

gathering and organizing a body of

facts. The questions posed and

therefore answered take the form of

"how many" and what proportion,

rather than "why." The concern of the

analyst is primarily to compare distributions of people, objects or

events. An example of this type of approach is demonstrated by a survey

conducted by the University of Illinois on interest in retirement housing. The

survey was undertaken to determine

the type of housing arrangements

preferred by retired individuals connected with the University. The sur- vey resulted in a listing of features

preferred with no attempt to probe

why some features were preferable to others.

The "why" questions are treated in the

analytic surveys. While the compilation of discrete categories of information may serve a useful function, it is often necessary to determine in- terrelationships among variables.

This examination requires the sort of

experimental manipulation of

variables usually associated with

laboratory research. For this reason,

the analytic survey, which is designed

to clarify associations and provide

explanations, is sometimes termed

"the poor man's experiment." The

analytic survey presupposes a

theoretical framework suggesting

causality among variables. In this

respect it sharply differs from the

descriptive approach. Analytic sur- veys may be further divided into

several approaches.

Panel design involves repeated

measurements on particular subjects.

The same respondents are subjected

to identical measurement operations

at different times to enable computation of individual scores during each

experimental phase.

This procedure is useful when in- novative building designs are employed. For example, when open

space planning was first used in schools an assessment by teachers

with limited experience with this approach might be highly favorable,

primarily because of the novelty as- sociated with a "break with the past."

However, a better test of the acceptability of the open space plan would

be to obtain several repeated evaluations by the same teachers (and

students) who have had prolonged

experience with the approach. This

approach is necessary to determine

whether the novelty effect has worn

off, and would thereby provide more

valid data.

Trend studies are another example of

analytic investigations. In this in- stance equivalent subjects are measured at different times to determine any changes in population

habits. The decennial census is the

most widely known application of this

approach. Another important use of

trend studies is exemplified by the

current energy shortage where more

information is needed concerning

how fuels are used and how this

usage has changed over time.

Prediction studies are investigations

which employ different measurement

methods on the same respondents at different times. For example, when

impact assessments are made, it is often necessary to predict the way

that people would react to a change in their environment. Let us assume that a new type of lighting is proposed to

be installed in an office building. A

researcher might be asked to determine the attitudes of people toward

the new lighting. In response to the

inquiry, a questionnaire survey is con- ducted before a decision is made to determine whether the occupants are

for or against the new lighting. The

results of the study might indicate

that people are generally favorable

toward the lighting. Partially on the

basis of these reactions, the lighting

is installed. Then some time after the

lighting has been in use, another sur- vey is conducted to determine

whether the attitudes of the people

have changed as a result of their ex- perience with it. The findings of this

study might confirm or contradict the

results of the earlier predictive in- vestigation.

Office Furniture Ligfiting (NBS)

255
When studies of this type are conducted, the researcher must be sensitive to several possible sources of

error.lt is important to employ dif- ferent methods of assessing attitudes

in this "before and after" study to minimize the possibility of introducing errors in later evaluations. One

possible source of error is that

respondents might remember their

original responses to questions,

thereby influencing later ones. Another problem is that subjects of

surveys are likely to compare notes

after the first evaluation, and the

judgments of one person may be in- fluenced by this feedback information

during later administrations of the

same questionnaire. These issues are

of critical importance in evaluative

research of buildings, when it is necessary to evaluate a building more

than once in order to determine

changes over time.

Survey Administration

One useful method of examining the

available data collection methods is on the basis of personal interaction

between interviewer{s) and

respondent{s). Many techniques rely on a face-to-face interaction between

both participants, while others are based on impersonal procedures. As

might be expected, in still other in- stances, combinations of both techniques are employed.

When questionnaires are sent

through the mail, the researcher's

tasks are to design an appropriate set

of questions and then analyze the

findings—not to interact with respondents. At the other extreme is a situation where the experimenter has not

yet developed a formal questionnaire,

but has a number of general topics to be covered. In this instance, it is necessary to follow up responses to questions in a manner that suits the

purpose of the study. Maximum flexibility is required, as well as a thorough knowledge of how to conduct interviews and elicit information

which relates to the problem area of

interest, both requiring a high degree

of skill.

The overriding factors which will determine the most effective method

of collecting data are the goals of the

study, the quality of information

available on the topic being in- vestigated, and time as well as cost

considerations. To the extent that the

problem is not well defined, it is necessary to "open up" problem

areas which could not be anticipated.

This goal may be accomplished by

the wording of a self-administered

questionnaire, by means of an interview situation or by a combination of

the two, an interview which is guided

by using a questionnaire.

Let us first consider the interview

situation.

The Survey Interview

The procedure that often comes to mind first when one thinks of a survey

is an interviewer asking a respondent

a series of questions and recording

responses when they are obtained. A

slight departure from this approach is an interviewer asking questions of a group of people (for example, all of

the members of a family).

As survey techniques have become

more sophisticated, the interview

situation has become quite complex,

necessitating a delicate interaction

between the respondent and the in- terviewer. Instead of asking a series of

questions, the interviewer is now

often required to administer a complex seriesof tests which are designed to obtain subtle but quantifiable data on attitudes and opinions.

Indirect measures are often desired

by the researcher and they are obtained using photographs, adjective

descriptors, maps, and a variety of

other techniques that have been

described more fully in other areas of

this report (see Parts II and III).

Since data collection often occurs in a

setting where two people are in- teracting, there are many possibilities

of introducing biases due to the

characteristics and expectations of

each of the participants. Some of

these problems will be treated in detail because of their influences on

the validity of the data obtained in sur- veys.

A. Blankenship (market researcher)

indicates that the function of the in- troduction and opening statement in an interview situation is to create rapport. Since it is desirable to conduct

the interview in a relaxed and rather

informal manner, it is the task of the

interviewer to set the respondent at ease and foster this atmosphere for

the duration of the interview. It is often necessary to devote a good

deal of time and effort for this purpose because although the interviewer regards the question and

answer session as routine, the

respondent may be ill at ease in what

is often a very novel situation. If the

respondent is not relaxed, the quality

of the responses may be dubious.

The interview situation is one in which

there is an interaction between at least two people and therefore personal factors cannot be ignored in any

overall research plan. The interviewer

must occupy some "role" during the

interview, i.e., expert, detached

observer, helpful friend, etc. The particular role which is appropriate depends largely upon the purpose of

the interview. There are some

general guidelines, however. The in- terviewer should not appear ignorant

or totally naive to the respondent

because this would reinforce the idea

that the responses are not understood. When the subject matter is highly specialized, a certain degree of

sophistication is needed by the interviewer, especially when there is need

to pursue a topic under discussion.

256
The interviewer should not be in a

position to control sanctions affecting

the respondent, that is, he should be

outside the power hierarchy in which

the respondent normally finds

himself. If he is not, the respondent

will attempt to put himself in such a

light as to gain the interviewer's support and avoid his censure, and will not talk freely about any topic where

he fears he might discredit himself. It

is important finally for the interviewer

to retain his detachment and

studiously avoid social contacts with

respondents during the course of the

study. Differences in race, sex, age,

or religion may result in responses

that are dependent more on the

backgrounds of the participants in the interview situation than on the

subject matter under investigation.

Just the fact that the interviewer is unfamiliar to the respondent and

therefore a stranger, might produce

findings that are not objective. The

relative status between the interviewer

and respondent (as perceived by the

respondent primarily) is also a possible source of bias. This criticism has

been a major one in studies con- ducted in disadvantaged areas. Inter- viewers with middle-class

backgrounds have typically collected

data from people who did not share

these backgrounds. Another major

source of error is the differences in language patterns between interviewers and respondents which cause

a very real communications barrier.

Hall indicates that even during interviews communication occurs at dif- ferent levels of consciousness and is not restricted to verbal exchanges.

He describes a silent language whereby the individual reacts to subtle in- fluences such as gestures and other

body and facial movements. They

serve as both a stimulus and a response to things said and done. An

interview situation is rich in this type

of non-verbal communication and

often it is a determining factor in the success or failure of the interview. An

interviewer may unwittingly convey at- titudes, feelings, and judgments. For

example, he may nod or frown thereby indicating his approval or disapproval of a respondent's comments.

In this situation the interviewer has in- fluenced the response and the interview is no longer unbiased but

reflects the interviewer's opinions or

biases.

Interview—Standard vs. Nonstandard

After it has been decided to use the

interview to collect data, it is necessary to adopt a general format in order to define the interview situation.

Basically, two procedures are

available to the researcher. One consists of the use of a standardized for- mat whereby a maximum effort is applied toward planning every detail of

the interview. Questionnaire content,

instructions, training and selection of

interviewers are based upon the as- sumption that the data collection will be centrally planned and controlled.

The interviewers will serve as an ex- tension of the person responsible for

planning the study. Essentially any

deviation from planned procedure is defined as experimental error. This

approach emphasizes the importance

of obtaining a data base of information that is comparable on a case-to- case basis. The responses tend to be

more reliable and errors attributed to the wording of questions are minimized. Since the format is a rigid

one, it is likely that the administration

of the survey will take less time than a

less direct approach.

In contrast to the highly standardized

interview, there are researchers who

advocate a more flexible approach.

One such approach is the focused In- terview, which employs an interview

guide with a list of objectives and

suggested questions. Using this

technique, an interviewer can explore

new topics as they are introduced and

can follow up in detail when this appears to be a useful approach. The

advocates of this flexible format

stress that it permits a standardization

of meaning rather than of the less important mechanical aspects of the in- terview. Another advantage is that the

responses are considered more valid

in that respondents are permitted to reply in their own way rather than to an artificially restricted set of alter- natives. Finally, the flexible approach

enables the interviewer to make more

use of his skills and experience in following up appropriate leads.

In determining which procedure

should be selected for a particular

study, the following factors should be

taken into account:

• Availability of trained

interviewers—A flexible approach

makes more demands on the knowhow of the interviewer than does the

standardized approach. It takes ex- perience to recognize responses that

should be followed up and skill to direct the interview in an appropriate

direction at the pace required to complete the interview. In those sur- veys where a large number of people

is to be included in the sample, it would probably be very difficult to

find enough experienced interviewers or to train a sufficient staff. The types of skills required for nonstandardized interviews are often ac- quired on-the-job rather than in the

classroom because they involve personal interactions rather than a mastery of information.

• Scope of the survey—When a

large number of people is to be interviewed, the time necessary to complete each questionnaire is a key in- gredient toward successful completion of the study. For example, the

rigid format lends itself to more concise administration than does the flex- ible one and is therefore more likely to be used as a cost saving factor.

257
In subject areas not well defined, a

flexible approach is a logical one. This

enables trained interviewers to establish the limits of the problem and

the range of responses that might be

expected. Since the standardized format presupposes a thorough information base (the responses which are judged to be appropriate are all preselected), any "novel" reply would

have to be considered a source of error. When these errors constitute

more than a very small proportion of

responses, the results of the entire

survey are suspect. At the other ex- treme, some areas have been

researched for a long period of time

and the need becomes one which is primarily quantitative. Standardized

interviewing practices permit

sophisticated statistical examination

of the data and the drawing of conclusions with confidence and are

therefore preferable. In short, when

the variables are fairly well identified,

there is less need for the flexible approach permitted by the nonstandardized interview.

Recording of Responses

In the interview survey planning

process, the actual recording of

responses is a topic that is often

neglected. Since these responses

comprise the "raw data" obtained, it is

difficult to overrate the importance of

recording them thoroughly and accurately. A variety of techniques have

been employed to accomplish this

purpose:

• Write up from memory—The interviewer minimizes notetaking during

the interview to bolster a free ex- change of views and to emphasize

the conversational tone of the interview. This method has the fault of permitting distortion of findings due to any biases that the interviewer has.

Major points in the interview are emphasized and others are

eliminated altogether. Consistency of

viewpoint is likely to be recorded at the expense of any contradictory

statements that might have been

made. Apart from distortion, a good

deal of information is lost because of

Different Methods of Recording Responses

Field codinq, rati 09-^

Write up -from memory X/ferbatim notetaKinc^

258

the inability of the interviewer to remember all that had been covered

during the session.

• Field coding—The interviewer uses a form to code specific answers

into predetermined categories. This

approach is very well adapted to questionnaires consisting of closed

questions. The alternatives can be

presented to the respondent and

readily checked by the interviewer.

• Field ratings—The interviewer is provided with a set of rating forms.

On the basis of the interviews he

makes judgments on the major issues

covered in the survey. This method is best employed by interviewers

thoroughly trained and familiar with

the subject areas of concern. This

method is not used too often.

• Verbatim notetaking—The

recording of responses word for word

while the respondent is being interviewed is attempted by some interviewers who are concerned with

completeness. Very little systematic

Mechanical record (09

work has been done to evaluate this

approach but it obviously minimizes

any personal interaction between the

respondent and the interviewer.

• Mechanical recording— In some

instances, the respondent talks into a microphone and his answers are recorded. A problem associated with

this technique is the requirement to have the interview typed for evaluation purposes. Typing becomes as expensive as interviewing because of

the sheer wealth of material that is recorded. Also respondents may

"clam up" or "show off" when confronted with a microphone.

Self-Administered

Questionnaires

The most widely known use of self- administered questionnaires is the

mail survey. For many years

researchers and opinion pollsters

who typically use large samples

and/or draw from a widely dispersed

population have used this method of

data collection. Its primary advantages are that it is quite cheap to administer, it is standardized, it can be

designed for simple data analysis,

and can be mailed to a large number

of people rather inexpensively. From

the standpoint of the respondent, it can be filled out at a convenient time

and place and produces minimal disruption from usual activities.

Mail surveys do have a number of

shortcomings. The problem being in- vestigated must be well defined and

the questions phrased in simple and

unambiguous terms because there is no way of providing clarifying information. People with low intelligence,
limited education, or reading difficulty

often have to be excluded from the

sample. The questionnaire must be

designed in such a way that item se- quence is not important because

respondents often will not answer

questions in order of appearance on

the form. Factual questions are not

appropriate because the respondent

has the opportunity to look up the answer or ask someone else for the

information. If information is desired

from a particular member of the family, it is impossible to ensure that other

opinions have not been solicited. The

lack of an interviewer leads to shallow

responses because there is no opportunity to assist in providing a context,

to probe for more information and,

possibly most important, to help to motivate and encourage the respondent with assurances about the importance of the task. Mail surveys

typically have low response rates; the

proportion of responses received is considerably lower than that obtained during interviews. This poses a sampling problem because in many

studies nonrespondents have been

found to have different characteristics

than respondents. One method

employed to increase response rate has been to use reminders in the form

of letters and telephone calls.

The telephone has been used by

researchers as a followup to the mail

survey and diary approaches (see

chap. 5). In addition, in recent years,

survey researchers have increasingly

employed the telephone as a method

of collecting the data they seek. This

method overcomes some of the

deficiencies associated with mail surveys, e.g., the rate of responding is

increased and there is personal contact which enables some clarification

of questions. The telephone contact

with respondents can be made by

nontechnical people, but it is necessary to train them not to volunteer in- formation (or respond to questions)

which would prejudice the findings of

the study.

5elf-Adminislered

Questionnaires

Mai 1 1 09 5urve^^

Telephone Interview

Questionnaire Deveiopment

The items on a survey can be written

in several different ways. The amount

of available information in a subject area is an important determinant of

the approach employed. Where a

relatively new area is being explored,

it is logical to ask questions that are open-ended, because the problem

must be adequately defined before

meaningful measures are possible. In a sense, it is first necessary to un- derstand the problem thoroughly to be able to ask the correct questions in an appropriate form to produce objective and valid data. The greater the

amount of information available, the

more feasible it is to concentrate on

obtaining responses that are objective and quantifiable. Several of the

methods used in item construction

will be discussed.

An open-ended question (How do you

feel about this office?) permits the

respondent to reply in any terms that

appear to be appropriate. It is a

realistic and natural way of posing

questions. As noted earlier, a primary

advantage of this approach is the opportunity it affords the researcher to better understand the problem being

addressed. This result is ac- complished partially by encouraging

respondents to think about general

problem areas—which often provides

insights into variables which were un- known or unrecognized by the

researcher. Another "payoff" to the

researcher is that there is an opportunity to probe into general problem

areas, thereby identifying pertinent

variables more precisely than was

possible before such a study.

Open-ended questions have a number of shortcomings. Subjects

differ greatly in terms of how quickly

they respond and the depth of their

responses. The researcher should be aware of the possibility that a few in- telligent and/or articulate subjects

might provide the preponderance of

the responses, thereby biasing a

study. In such a situation, the in- vestigator must control and limit the

amount of information provided by a

single subject. There is a number of

other difficulties associated with this

approach. For example, pertinent

replies are often not stated because

they are too obvious, gradations of

opinion are difficult to handle, provincial and slang expressions are fre- quently used and difficult to interpret.

Generally, the responses obtained to open-ended survey questions are so

rich and varied that the researcher is faced with a formidable task in trying

to make sense of the data. The

organization and particularly the

analysis of data of this type provide a major challenge to any researcher.

Since open-ended questions are by

their nature unstructured, it would not

be appropriate (or possible) to formulate any guidelines indicating how

they are used.

259
The same question noted earlier may

be made into a dichotomous Item by

forcing the respondent to choose

between two responses. {How do you

feel about this office?

Favorable , Unfavorable

) In this instance the subject's response is highly structured in that he is not free to reply in any way

that he might think appropriate.

Dichotomous Items

Do you have a window or windows in your office or work area?

Yes

No

Are you able to see as much of the

outside world as you would like from

your desk?

Yes

No

d Don't know/no opinion

Does your office ever become so

noisy that you find it difficult to work?

Yes

No

Cantril indicates that provision for

"don't know" and "no opinion"

response is necessary most of the

time. Some provisions often must be

made for qualified responses; that is, those not neatly fitting the categories

included in the survey. He also in- dicates that when two-way questions

are used, alternatives should be explicit rather than implicit. Special at- tention should be devoted toward ex- pressing the negative in detail when

necessary because it is often the victim of oversight. (Instead of: Do you

tfiink ttiis is a good or bad office?, it is better to ask: Which statement best

describes your attitude? This is a good

office or This is a bad office )

Another approach sometimes

employed with dichotomous items is the paired comparison technique in which the respondent matches two

items which he feels express compatible ideas or are in some way equal.

Paired Comparison

Please read the following pairs of items and check the one item in each

pair which you feel is most important

to have in your office.

CH a window

D comfortable temperature

CI comfortable temperature

D good light

good ventilation

n freedom from noise

260

By definition items having more than

two response categories are multiple

choice (although "no opinion"

responses are discussed as a third

category under dichotomous items).

The design of these items in many

respects is more difficult than the

others. It is particularly important that

the choices available be mutually exclusive as well as exhaustive. Cantril

notes that the response categories

should be balanced in that if there are more alternatives that are positive

than negative, the findings can be ex- pected to reflect this distribution.

When several alternatives are

available for response, care should be

exercised not to produce items that are extremely complex. If too many

alternatives are available, the task of

selecting an appropriate one is very

difficult and time-consuming. Also,

there is a tendency for many people to select the last alternative because it was read most recently and is therefore relatively fresh in the mind

of the respondent. The multiple

choice format is especially good when

gradations of attitude or opinion are

appropriate. It also has the advantage of calling attention to a range of

possible alternatives.

Checklist Evaluation

Which of the following best describe

the view out of the window closest to you? (Check as many as apply.)

s atisfying open

limited bright

simple D uncluttered

D pleasant D frustrating

confined I—I complex

n dim n boring

D stimulating D unpleasant

Multiple Choice Items

Does your office ever get warm

enough to make you feel uncomfortable?

often

n sometimes

n only occasionally

n never

Do you prefer working by natural

light, artificial light or a combination

of natural and artificial?

prefer natural

D prefer artificial CH prefer combination

Two variations of the multiple choice

technique are rank ordering, which is useful in determining relative

priorities, and checklists, which

provide another means of obtaining

information from respondents.

Rank Order Evaluation

Listed below are some of the advantages of windows. Please rank them

from 1 to 10 in order of their importance to you. "1 " should be the

most important advantage. "10 " the

least important.

n let you tell time of day

n let sunshine in

let you know what the weather is n let in warmth

n let you see what's going on outside

provide a way for fresh air to enter

n give a change of view to break

monotony

D provide light for plants
One method of combining some of

the features of "open" and "closed"

questions was tested by Suchman.

His basic questionnaire consisted of a

series of multiple choice items using a

structured format. However, in- terspersed among the questions on a random basis were follow-up questions such as: Can you tell me a little more about that? This method was

employed to accomplish several purposes. It provided information in- dicating whether respondents were

replying in a manner consistent with

the assumptions underlying the

design of the questions. That is, the

researcher works using some welldefined frame of reference, and

although through instructions and

through the content of question items

it is assumed that the respondent

shares this point of view, the

researcher seldom obtains any verifying data. The random probe is lil<ely to provide reasons for selecting

responses and these reasons can

clarify the respondent's frame of

reference. Another purpose served by

the probe is to determine how well the

item is understood. A detailed reply

provides valuable insight into this factor. Finally, information provided in detail by the respondent may provide

insight into meaningful ways of alter- ing or expanding the questionnaire to accomplish the purpose for which it was designed. Most of these features

have in common the one aspect that

they enable the researcher to upgrade the quality of his questionnaire.

Question Content and Wording

S. Payne (survey researcher) made

these observations concerning the

content and wording of questions:

Assumptions made by the researcher

should be identified. (Some examples of

assumptions are: People know what

they are talking about. There is a basis

for opinion. Question items are understood by the respondents.)

The words could, should, and might are

often used interchangeably although

they convey different meanings.

(Could—possibility, should—moral

connotation, might—probability.)

Survey questions should have the same

meaning to everyone.

Most studies are conducted by college

trained people who have difficulty talk- ing to those with grammar school

educations. This takes the form of either

talking down to them or talking over their heads.

Items which are complex or deal with

particular subject matter must be

carefully constructed.

In a list of numbers, those near the middle of the list or near the average will be

selected most frequently.

In a list of ideas, those positioned at the beginning and at the end will be

most popular. (Especially the first one listed.)

In a verbal statement of two ideas, the one stated last is most frequently

selected.

A Checklist for questions:

Does it mean what we intend?

Does it have any other meanings? If so, does the context make the intended

meaning clear?

Do any words have more than one

pronunciation? Is there a word of

similar pronunciation that it might be

confused with?

Is a simpler word or phrase suggested

in a dictionary or thesaurus?''

A. Blankenship summarized his ex- perience as follows:

Questions should be phrased in concrete and specific terms rather than

abstract ones.

Whenever possible, questions should

refer to objective behavior capable of

empihcal verification rather than to opinions or attitudes.

The necessity to measure and validate

responses should be kept in mind.

In wording a question, the intensity of

phrasing influences responses. (Always

and almost always produce distorted

data because the respondent can

often think of an exception.)

The content of a question should not be

offensive to the respondent.

Questions should be worded in an un- emotional and unbiased fashion.

Question content should interest more

than a small minority of respondents. (If people are indifferent to an item, their responses will not be given careful

thought and the result might be misleading.)^

H. Cantril (survey research psychologist) indicates that:

There is a need for clarity of expression.

(Some items are too vague to permit

precise answers. Qthers are obscure in meaning and produce worthless

responses.)

Items should be worded without

stereotyped expressions. (They lead to predictable and useless answers.)

The vocabulary used should be suitable

to the level of education of the population sampled.

The use of overly technical and unfamiliar words should be avoided.

Questions should be unambiguous.

(Ambiguity leads to responses that are

often confusing and/or worthless.)^

When employing a fully structured

questionnaire, the goal of the

researcher is to present respondents

with forced choices. That is, responses must be made in a prescribed way. Forced choice

questionnaires are sometimes based

on verbal expressions (yes, no), may

be quantitative (rate the acceptability

of your office on a scale of 1 to 5, with

5 being the "high" end of the scale), or may combine both features. The

number of optional responses

available to the respondent can be

varied whether verbal or numerical

responses are desired.

^ S. L. Payne, The Art of Asking Questions

(Princeton, 1951).

^ A. B. Blankenship, Consumer and Opinion Research: The Questionnaire Technique, (New York, 1943).

^ H. Cantril, Gauging Public Opinion

(Princeton, 1944).

261
Questionnaire Design

Investigators have specified methods

designed to organize the individual

items on a questionnaire into a unified

test instrument. The rationale in many

instances is to promote a favorable

interview climate for the conduct of

the study (to promote a feeling of rapport between the interviewer and the

respondent).

Let us examine the context devised by one researcher which illustrates the

type of information desired, and the

approach used to collect data.

G. Gallup (statistician and pollster)

devised an approach to the sequencing of questions in public opinion

research. He advises the early use of

filter questions, which are primarily

factual in nature. In this manner the

interviewer is able to determine the

extent of knowledge possessed by the

respondent about the topic under

study. The next series of questions

are of the open-ended variety. The

purpose served by this approach is to get the subject to tall< freely about the

problem; the free flow of information

provides insights and enables the

responses to be obtained in some

depth. The next step recommended

is a series of yes-no items which fulfill the requirement to "vote" on the issue

and meet the demands for objectivity

associated with data processing and

analysis. After the tabulation of

responses, the respondent is questioned about his reasons for the

responses that were given. Finally, the

interviewer asks about the strength of

feeling concerning the topic under

discussion.

Funnel Techniq^ue

general questions

Whatdo you thinlcof

your environment^"

What don't N^ou liKe about

the lights in your roorri^"

Specific questions

Lucas and Britt also dealt with the

question of survey design strategy

and made the following points:

• Questionnaires should be as brief as possible.

• The first question should be one

that can readily be answered without

difficulty.

• The sequencing of questions is important. Questions should not be

asked which might prejudice the

response to later questions. For ex- ample, if we wanted to determine the

optimal dimensions of a bedroom, we

should not ask respondents first, "How large is your bedroom?" If we

did, then the earlier response might

influence the later one.

• Several difficult questions should

not be asked in succession. By making it difficult for respondents to reply,

there is a likelihood that they will become defensive and ill at ease.

Gallup's Questionnaire Design Strategy

Subject Area Questions

Awareness Will you tell me what . . . means to you?

Attitude What, if anything, should be done

about. . . ?

Reaction to Specific Proposal It has been suggested that. . .

Intensity of Feeling How strongly do you feel about this?

From: Gallup, George, Qualitative Measurement of Public Opinion: The Quintamensional Plan of Question Design (American Institute of Public Opinion, Princeton, New Jersey, 1947)

.

• The sponsor of the research

should not be revealed, since the

respondent may have strong feelings

for (or against) him, thereby compromising the value of the responses.

• Finally, if there are questions

which are likely to arouse strong feeling, then they should appear at the

end of the survey where they will not

influence later responses.

Conclusion

Questionnaire surveys are a powerful

research "tool" when used by trained

researchers. When misused,

however, they can be the source of

misleading findings contributing to erroneous conclusions. We noted

earlier that in our opinion, they have

been naively used and seriously misapplied in many M/E investigations.

There is a logical reason for this out- come, namely that surveys are deceptively simple in their appearance. As

a result, anyone interested in obtaining information is tempted to conduct

a survey, often without any training or

insight which might induce caution

before plunging ahead. Architects

who would not think of entering a

laboratory to perform an experiment

without proper training do not show

the same reluctance to design and

carry out a questionnaire survey. Yet,

both research methods require un- derstanding and training if the data

obtained are to be meaningful. In many instances, more training and ex- perience are needed in survey studies

than in laboratory investigations.

262
21

Classification, IVIeasurement,

and Statistics

Classification

Sampling

Efficient Sample Design

Measurement

Measurement Errors

Normal Probability Curve

Conclusion

Part II shows how scientific methods

are used to develop information and

reviews several of those employed in M/E studies. It also describes

problems whose solution will lead to a

better understanding of how people

are affected by their surroundings

and hence to the design of more

responsive buildings.

Qualitative and quantitative techniques used to develop information in the biological, behavioral, and

physical sciences apply equally to solving M/E problems. They consist

of classification procedures,

measurement approaches, and

statistical methods used to plan and

evaluate research. Such research

methods or statistical analysis

procedures are central to all forms of

research.

What follows is an introduction to the

subject. The authors hope the reader

will see fit to pursue the topic further

due to its importance in M/E re- search. (See bibliography.)

Architects and behavioral

researchers want better M/E information. Their goals, however, are not the same. The architect wants data to help make appropriate design

choices. As B. Skinner (psychologist)

describes the goal of behavioral (and

other) sciences: It is a search for order,

for uniformities, for lawful relations

among the events in nature. It begins, as we all begin, by observing single

episodes, but it quickly passes on to the

general rule, to scientific law... . Science

sharpens and supplements experience

by demonstrating more and more rela- tions among events and by

demonstrating them more and more

precisely. '

The architect and the traditional

researcher therefore start from a

similar premise—the need to observe

single "episodes," but they part company thereafter. Unfortunately, many

M/E studies do not go beyond the

architect's immediate need for better user data. With proper research planning, not only can these needs be

met, but at the same time, information can be developed to serve other purposes too, such as to help formulate

and test general rules and scientific

laws. This advances the professions

of M/E research and architecture.

This chapter discusses theory, concepts, and mathematical models. This

kind of framework enables a researcher to evaluate and select appropriate statistical procedures and

sampling approaches.

Classification

E. Wilson (chemist) writes:

All sciences start with the process of

selection of classification. The universe

is too vast and complex to be treated as

a whole: so a manageable part of it must

be chosen for observation and in- vestigation. Furthermore, all scientific laws are based on classifications . . . the basis for a given classification is an entirely prictical one: What is the

classification to be used for ?

^

' B. F. Skinner, Science and Human

Sehawo/- (New York, 1953).

^ E. B. Wilson, An Introduction to Scientific flesearcA) (New York, 1952).

263
In M/E research, the number of possible classifications approaches infinity.

Building types, activities, and

characteristics of potential users are examples of important M/E classifications. They are definable in terms of

properties which are readily observable, and therefore capable of being

at least seen, if not measured. As

Wilson notes: Scientifically, classification is of the utmost importance because

of the empirically established fact that it

is possible to set up certain classes in such a way that mere membership in the

class renders highly probable, the possession of attributes other than those

used to define the class. In other words,

certain properties appear to be as- sociated with one another.^

Let us first consider a proposed

building as a member of a class of

buildings called "residential," e.g., apartment houses. Multiple-occupant

occupant residential buildings are the

population of interest. (The population is the total group of individuals

and objects to which a study might

pertain.)

The researcher now faces a problem.

Countless buildings are included in the classification "residential." While

these buildings are likely to share

many features, they will differ from

one another in important ways. For

example, most residential buildings

have common spaces indoors and

outdoors, and facilities for disposing

of garbage and performing other re- quired activities such as washing and

drying clothing.

^ Wilson

264

On the other hand, while some

residential buildings have common

spaces equipped with comfortable

seating facilities, television sets, and

even fireplaces, in most others these

amenities are lacking. The classification of "residential buildings" may

therefore not be appropriate if the

research is to identify activities performed in common spaces. A finer

classification breakdown may be re- quired, e.g., luxury residential

buildings. As Wilson notes,

membership in the class of luxury

residential buildings would likely be

linked to classes of other attributes of

High-Rise Residential Building (NBS)

interest related to building features

(e.g., presence of tennis courts, swimming pools) and attributes of people

living in such buildings (e.g., wealth,

education, status).

If the problem is to assess the activities performed in common spaces

of luxury residential buildings, then

we have redefined and narrowed the

population of interest from all residential buildings to luxury

buildings. The research task is still formidable. There are countless luxury buildings, and one cannot study

all of them. How then can the required

information be obtained?

Why not determine the correct

number of tennis courts to accommodate the residents? A luxury

building with tennis courts is arbitrarily selected and usage patterns are observed—when, how frequently,

waiting time to get a court, etc. This

observational data could then be supplemented by a questionnaire survey

to obtain a measure of satisfaction

with the tennis facilities—for example,

to see if residents have tried and

failed to obtain access to courts, and

so no longer try to use them.

Assuming data has been compiled in- dicating tennis court usage for the

building, to what extent do these

findings apply to all such tennis

courts? In Wilson's terms: under what

circumstances is this process of

generalization justified? This is one of

the most fundamental human questions, a question which practical scientists

have to answer daily.* Jo answer this

question we need to select for observation a number and type of individual

members from a class (e.g., tennis

courts in luxury buildings), since all class members cannot be examined.

This procedure is called sampling.

' Wilson
Sampling

In most research, very few of the possible number of observations and

measurements are actually made. (At

best, a limited number of luxury

buildings can be examined.) The

nature of the sampling process is likely to determine the success of such an

inductive study—one based on a

limited set of observations intended to represent a class of events, objects,

etc. Unbiased sampling is critical if the measurements are to be

representative of the population. An

approach termed random sampling is used, whenever applicable, to minimize sampling bias. The major

requirements for a random sample

are: (1) Each individual or object in the population must have a known

(e.g., equal) chance of being in- cluded, (2) Selection of one individual or object should not affect the selection of another.

Random Sample:

Random sampling is typically ac- complished by using tables of ran- dom numbers. Assume that the study

of luxury residences is confined to a community with 100 such buildings.

Each building in the population of 100

would be assigned a different

number. If a 10% sample were considered adequate, then 10 random

numbers would be chosen to select

the particular buildings to be studied.

In some instances, it may be appropriate to take a stratified sample.

If the population has certain known

characteristics, such as 25% low-rise,

and 75% high-rise luxury buildings

(with tennis courts), then the sample

although selected randomly, could

reflect this stratification.

<

Stratified Sample:

While the number of people,

buildings, activities, etc. being

sampled is an important factor (sample size), what matters more is the ef- ficiency of the sample—that is, the extent to which the members of the

sample represent the important at- tributes in terms of the research being

performed. For example, if a larger

sample of luxury buildings were ex- amined but included in the sample

were many buildings housing elderly

people who could not play tennis,

then the data collected on court usage

would not apply to building residents

who were younger.

factors in Selecting

Sample Group

Who U6e6 building?

26J
Efficient Sample Design

Ideally, if we wanted to determine

what particular people do in a given

situation, we would observe them. In our example, since the building does

not yet exist and we have no way of

knowing who the occupants are, this

procedure clearly cannot be followed.

We must therefore decide what fac- tors (variables) associated with

building characteristics and/or the

potential occupants are important

when user requirements are developed. Assume we want to determine what facilities should be

provided for the prospective

occupants—for recreation and other

desired or required activities. One

research approach is to administer a

questionnaire.

How do we determine the respondents of the questionnaire?

We want a sample of people who are

likely to respond to questions in the

same way as the building residents

would, if they could be identified and

interviewed.

A favored approach is to start with a

building having features like the one

being designed and to do a limited

study—a pilot investigation. Suppose

that on the basis of the pilot study, the

responses to questions by older people differ from those of younger ones.

The two groups would appear to have

different requirements. These

findings suggest that during a full- scale study a conscious effort must be

made to include younger and older

people among the sample, if the

results are to be useful (assuming that

the planned building will have elderly

people). The survey therefore would

consist of at least two sub-samples,

elderly and younger people.

This sampling procedure has important implications for the size of the

study, since we need a minimum

number of observations to ensure

believable research findings due to

statistical concerns to be discussed

later. The research problem is to determine how much data must be

collected to make a decision, i.e., whether the responses (measurements, observations) of groups being

compared are different in important

ways. For example, how can we

reliably determine whether age is an

important factor when examining user requirements in residential buildings?

Once the sample is divided into two

components (elderly and younger),

the minimum sample size possible is twice what it was before age was

treated as an important (independent)

variable (when each variable is to be

measured with equal precision).

Similarly, if pilot findings showed that user requirements differed with

respect to sex and building type (e.g.,

high-rise and low-rise), the survey

design would become very complex;

the number of experimental groups

doubling with each additional

variable.

266

Study Design—Complexity, Subjects

Observations

(Minimum)

Stratification

Variables Design, Subjects

10 10

20 Age

• Old

• Young

Old

10

Young

10

40 Age

• Old

• Young

Sex

• Male

• Female

Sex M.

Sex F.

Old

10

10

Age

Young*

10

10

80 Age

• Old

• Young

Old

High Rise

Age

Young

Sex

• Male

• Female

Sex M.

Sex F.

10

10

1

0

10

Building Type

• High Rise

• Low Rise Old

Low Rise

Age

Young

SexM. 10 10

Sex F. 10 10

' It is not always necessary to double the total sample size for eacti added variable. For example, if the quantity being studied is affected by age and sex independently (no interaction) , then age and

sex effects may be estimated by samples of 10 when only 5 subjects are sampled in each cell.
Measurement

What is meant by measurement?

The measurement of individuals and

objects may be of various l<inds, and

may be taken to varying degrees of

precision. When individuals or things

have been ranked or arranged in a

series with respect to some attribute or

trait, we have perhaps the simplest sort of measurement. Children may be put in order for height, weight, or regularity of

school attendance: salesmen may be

ranked for years of experience, or amount of sales over a year; advertisements or pictures may be ranked for amount of color, or for cost, or for sales

appeal....

Measurements of individuals may also

be expressed as scores. Scores are

usually given in terms of time taken to complete a task, or amount done in a

given time; less often scores are expressed in terms of difficulty of the task performed, or excellence of the final result.^

Measurement takes many forms.

Some measures require a simple

procedure and little equipment. For

example, air temperature measures may be made by looking at a thermometer and reading the position of

mercury on a scale. On the other

hand, if we wanted to determine the

effects of temperature changes on a person we might require

sophisticated physiological recording

equipment to measure heart rate,

pulse, skin temperature, and sweat

rate.

For M/E information to help the

architect it should be stated in quantitative terms whenever possible. The

data should result from careful observation and measurement procedures

and be presented in a form which

helps the architect make informed

design choices. The level of precision

required for a measurement is dictated by the type of decision to be

made. If the research goal is to make

recommendations for acceptable

room temperatures in a building, then measures of how people respond to small temperature differences, e.g., 1-2 °C, are an important research

consideration, both to ensure adequate thermal comfort and for energy

usage implications.

Measurement Errors

Measurements and observations are

subject to error. It is equally true for a

classification task, such as determining whether a given residential

building should be classified as "luxury" or not, and the case where

measurements are made by reading a thermometer. While the magnitude

and frequency of errors will be in- fluenced by the difficulty of the

measurement or observation task, errors are present in even the

simplest task. The researcher's goal

is therefore to reduce error size by

appropriate controls, and then to es- timate the size of errors which cannot

be eliminated.

^ H. E. Garrett, Statistics in Psycliology and

Education (Nevj York, 1953).

Four kinds of measurements were

identified by S. Stevens

(psychophysicist): nominal, ordinal,

Interval, and ratio scales. They differ

from one another according to their

mathematical properties, i.e., their use of numbers.

The nominal scale is the simplest. It uses a number as a means of identification. The number is a label only

and serves the same function as a name (e.g., the number on the uniform of an athlete). The most

widespread use of the nominal scale

is as a means of classification. For ex- ample, if we categorized buildings

into types, we would have a nominal

scale as long as each building is placed in only one classification

category—i.e., the categories must be

mutually exclusive. Numbers cannot

be manipulated, e.g., dividing, adding, or multiplying them.

An ordinal scale may be used to rank

items, for example, to determine

which of five possible colors are

preferred by prospective occupants

of a building. One way to determine

the best choice is to give color samples to all, and ask each to rank the

colors (i.e., 1 to 5). The colors would

then be assigned numbers in accor- dance with their average rankings.

This final ranking will indicate only the

order of preference. We would know

which colors are rated as being more

(or less) acceptable than all others,

but we could not say how much

difference there was between adjacent

ranks.

An interval scale goes one step

beyond the ordinal scale. Numbers

not only reflect the rank order of items

but also the relative amount of distance or difference between items.

Stevens illustrates this concept by

saying that temperature (Fahrenheit

or Celsius) and time are examples of

intervals which permit quantitative

comparisons, i.e., the day may be

divided into hours, minutes, and sec- onds; and these intervals may be

used to show the extent of time dif- ferences being compared.

The ratio scale has all the properties

of the above scales and, in addition,

has a fixed zero point which may be

used as a frame of reference. A ratio

scale enables ratios, fractions, and

multiples of any measured quantity to be computed. Most physical qualities

(e.g., length, weight, etc.) are measurable by ratio scales.

The key quality of a ratio scale is that

it permits one to count things. It is the

level of scale used when we count

people, objects, buildings, and

events. This fact is often overlooked in discussions of measurement,

because it is so basic and common.

Finally, ratio scales allow

sophisticated mathematical models

and procedures to be used to analyze

and understand M/E relationships.

267
The relationship of experimental

design, statistical and measurement

factors will now be discussed in a

hypothetical case study. The study is

illustrative only, and designed to highlight major issues. It is not in- tended as a comprehensive treat- ment. Case Study: Area requirements

for a common activity room (e.g., TV

viewing, conversation).

Assume that our task is to further

define user requirements for a planned residential building. A pilot study

has suggested that a room is needed

where residents can meet to talk to one another and watch television.

Measurements of such rooms in several similar buildings have in- dicated that they range in area from

1 50 square feet to 400 square feet

(13.5 sq. m to 36 sq. m). The research

problem is to develop information to decide the appropriate room size.

Many procedures are available. One

approach is to conduct a comprehensive study, using the method used in the pilot investigation. This means ex- amining a sizable number of residential buildings with similar occupancies, determining whether they have

rooms for the desired purpose and if so, measuring them. After compiling

and analyzing these findings, the

room dimensions might be selected on the basis of statistical criteria—

e.g., the average size.

Another way of developing the

desired information is a questionnaire

survey. A sample of multipleoccupant buildings could be selected

and their residents questioned about

the desired size of an activity room,

and/or the degree of interest ex- pressed in having a room for this

purpose. If the question about size is not asked specifically, size might be

inferred on the basis of expressed

interest and design data on spatial

requirements for people.

Surveys of room dimensions and of

people are indirect indicators of room

usage. Our goal is to develop information concerning appropriate room

size based on actual usage patterns.

The reasoning for this research approach is as follows. The best room

size would be one which would ac- commodate most of the people who

would like to use the room, most of

the time. A smaller room would be

filled to capacity too often; a larger

one would seldom be used to its potential—thereby wasting space

which could be set aside for other

activities—e.g., indoor activities such

as ping-pong. The working

hypothesis is that the best sized room

is one which during peak occupancy,

meets the needs of most building

residents most of the time. Data will be based on field observations of a

representative sample of 20 similar

buildings with activity rooms of the

sizes indicated previously. Room size

and peak occupancy data will be

recorded and statistical tests performed to determine the degree of

relationship between peak usage and

room size. If room size is a determining factor of usage, then decisions will have to be made as to the optimum

size of the television room based on

other tradeoffs.

The first step in designing an experiment is to simplify the situation. While

activity room areas would be likely to vary almost continuously in size if the

population (complete set) of such

rooms were examined, we will test two

classes of room size—small (between

150 and 225 sq. ft.) (13.5 and 20 sq. m) and large (between 300 and 400

sq. ft.) (27 and 36 sq. m). The room

sample examined will consist of 10

rooms which fall into each of these

classifications. Research observations will be made by counting the

number of people using each room at 3-hour intervals for the time period

between 8 a.m. and 1 1 p.m. (6 per

day). Since a single measure (per

hour) is insufficient because of

measurement errors, each room will be observed 10 times, based on a random sampling procedure.

Residential Building (NBS)

Room Occupancv

dtudv Desi9n
The research approach is based upon

the following reasoning. Several

variables which might influence room

usage will be controlled. For example,

the number and quality of seats, room

decor, and size of television set may

influence how many people use the room. Consequently, to the extent

possible the rooms to be observed

will be roughly equivalent with regard

to these factors. (We could not hope

to obtain a sample of identical rooms

in real settings.) But many other factors, such as the nearby recreational

facilities and the characteristics of

particular buildings' residents, may

also influence room usage.

Why not try to control these

variables?

Let us consider only the attributes of

people for the moment. Any approach

which would require groups of people

to be equated in terms of age, in- telligence, economic, social, and

cultural backgrounds would fail as it would be hard to find enough people

who share that many characteristics.

Furthermore, the study cost would be

excessive due to the need to study the

interactions of so many variables.

Instead of attempting to control the

many extraneous variables which may

affect the results of the study, we

hope, by randomly selecting the sample of rooms to be observed, that

these variables will also operate ran- domly. That is, we hypothesize that

there is no reason to believe that the

variables will operate differently on a

"small" room than on a "large" one. Therefore in essence, they can be ignored.

Since the purpose of a research study

is to answer a question, experimental

conditions are arranged to collect

data in a form which produces an

answer. Frequently, an experimental

design allows two sets of data to be

compared, so as to determine

whether the measurements obtained

in one experimental group are dif- ferent than those of a comparison

group.

In the case described, the goal is to see whether the number of people using small rooms is different from that

using large rooms. Statistical

procedures are used to help make the

needed comparisons, and are especially useful when many variables are being studied simultaneously. On

the other hand, the researcher should

not forget that while statistical

analysis is a useful tool to help make

judgments, it is only a means to that

end.

Statistical analysis of data may reveal

significant differences between compared groups of observations, even

though the differences are unimportant from a practical viewpoint. For

example, should study results show

that significantly more people use the

large room than the small one, but the

actual numbers are ten and eight, we

might judge this difference unimportant from the design decision viewpoint. On the other hand, if we found

that on the average, 25 people used

the larger room as compared to five

for the smaller room, then a statistical

analysis of our findings would be

superfluous: the importance of the

findings is self-evident.

Most research findings are not so

clearcut. Instead, differences in response measurements often need

to be interpreted. One method used

for such interpretations is the null

hypothesis.

In using the null hypothesis the

researcher asks questions in a way

that seems contrary to common

sense. Even though what is sought is whether there are any differences

between the experimental groups

(e.g., small vs. large rooms), the

research hypothesis statement takes

the form that there are no differences

between the groups being compared.

This procedure permits the use of

powerful statistical methods to evaluate findings by determining

whether the results obtained could be

expected as a result of chance factors. If chance factors can be ruled

out (on the basis of some probability,

e.g., 99%), then the differences

between the scores in the two groups

may be attributed to room size.

Tests of the null hypothesis are based

on (1 ) the degree of confidence (confidence level) desired by the ex- perimenter when making a judgment,

(2) the actual differences in scores, (3)

the number of subjects (and/or

observations) included in the study,

and (4) the degree of variability of the scores within each group.

95 Percent Confidence Limits

(affer £dward6)

m

The horizontal line repreeentethefiyed \ja\ue, of

itie population mean m. Varying valueeof the

lower con-Fidence \\m\f m^snd the upper contidtnce, linMf in 6Licce65ive random aample^,

are r&pre^benied b^i "H^^ lower and upper end

points, respectively, of -the vertical lines. It it> assumed that in the long run, 95 percent of

the vertical lines will contain the parameter m.

269
Statistical estimates can be made as

to the likelihood of differences of

various magnitudes arising due to chance factors alone. These es- timates in turn are based on

theoretical distributions— in behavioral research, typically a nor- mal distribution (for theoretical and

empirical reasons).

A level of significance is chosen prior

to the collection of data in a study.

The choice of level reflects a balancing of the potential costs of two possible types of error, termed errors of

the first kind, and errors of the

second kind.

An error of the first kind would be, in Wilson's terms: the fraction which

represents the risk the investigator is

willing to take of rejecting the hypothesis

of irrelevance when it is actually true. That is to say, If a given investigator

always used a 5 percent level of

significance and always tested variables

with no measurable effect, his statistics would cause him to make the mistake once in 20 cases in the long run of

ascribing a real effect to variables of no

importance (errors). These apparent ef- fects would just be the effects of

chance.^ By changing the level of

significance, e.g., to one percent, the

risk of making errors of the first kind

may be reduced. On the other hand,

this approach increases the likelihood

of making errors of the second kind—

not rejecting the null hypothesis,

when in fact the measures being compared are different as a consequence

of the experimental factors being

investigated—and not due to irrele- vant (chance) factors.

^ Wilson

To quote Wilson again:

Choice of Level. The choice of

significance level would depend upon

the penalties for errors of the first and

second kinds and upon the expectation

of different sorts of results which prior

knowledge suggests. If the rejection of

the null hypothesis that the factor in question has negligible effect means

that a million dollars is to be spent in building a plant based on the alternative

hypothesis that the factor does have a

certain effect, the prudent investigator

will tend to set the risk level for errors of

the first kind at a low value, perhaps

toward one in ten thousand or so. On

the other hand, it may be that the acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is wrong, an error of the second kind,

carries with it a larger penalty. Thus a

given process may be encountering

serious troubles so that management is clutching at straws in seeking a solution.

Under these circumstances it is important to keep low the chance of missing

real effects. This can be done by changing the significance level, taking greater

risks of thinking there is an effect when

there isn't. If neither of these risks can

safely be made high, the only solution is

to increase the number of observations

or to improve the accuracy of each

one.''

' Wilson

The null hypothesis that the difference

in mean scores between two groups

has arisen entirely by chance is usually taken to mean that the scores in both groups are drawn from a single

normally distributed population of

such scores, as opposed to two

systematically different populations.

This single population of scores has a

true population mean, and the two

group means are statistical estimates

of the population mean. Except by a

lucky coincidence, the mean of a sample of modest size, drawn from a

particular population, will differ from

the population mean somewhat, and

will differ from the means of other

such samples. Each sample mean

contains what is assumed to be a ran- dom error; i.e., the difference

between the sample mean and the

true population mean is an error of

estimate, which, for a large group of

samples, is normally distributed

around an average error of zero.

The rationale for error estimates in general is stated by J. Roebuck as

follows:

The statistics calculated from samples,

while correctly descriptive of the samples, are each merely an estimate of

population parameters, since not all of

the possible measurements are

represented. The potential unknown

deviation of the sample statistic from the

comparable true population parameter

is called the sampling error. This un- known error is presumed to be a single

estimate of the population of sampling

errors that would exist if many samples

were obtained, and the statistics calculated for each sample. The single

value obtained from the first sampling is thus subject to an uncertainty, which can be concisely expressed as a

probability estimate, assuming the population of errors is normally distributed.^

J. A. Roebuck, K. H. E. Kroemer and M.

S. Thompson, Engineering Anthropometry

Metiiods (New York, 1975).

Approximaffe Sampling Error

100 ;2oo 300 400 5oo 150 1,ooo -1,250

sample Size

270
Normal Probability Curve

Why judge M/E research findings by

comparing a group of measurements

with a "normal distribution"?

The research plan described earlier

was used to test the null hypothesis,

i.e., to determine if differences among

groups of scores are attributable to chance factors. In statistical terms,

"chance" is the probability of an event—its expected frequency of oc- currence among similar events. Fre- quency of occurrence is sometimes

based upon a knowledge of conditions which determine the occurrence

of a phenomenon—as in dice throwing or coin tossing. In these instances,

given a large number of cases, the

outcome of a study (assuming un- biased coins and dice) is not only

predictable in terms of chance factors, but describable by a simple

mathematical formulation l<nown as

binomial expansion, which, when

plotted, is roughly in the form of a nor- mal probability curve. The normal distribution (probability) curve is a symmetrical bell-shaped curve with most

measurements bunched up near the

middle and tapering off at the sides.

The normal curve is very useful when

one compares observed distributions

of data with distributions expected by

chance—i.e., when tests of the null hypothesis are valid. (Comparisons

are made of the "areas" under the

normal curve.) Fortunately, many

behavioral research factors are distributed among the general population in accordance with a normal distribution.

The standard deviation is a direct

measure of the variation of individual

measurements organized around the

average value. It determines the width

of the normal curve.

The Mormal Law of Brror

967. ofcases

99io ofcases

cr= Standard Peviation

As W. Youden indicates:

...if we drew a vertical line through the

highest point of a (normal) curve, the curve would be symmetrical about it. The vertical line or high point of the curve represents the value for the

average of the data. It is customary to use this vertical line as a reference point

for marking off multiples of the standard

deviation to the right and to the left. You

will see that when we have proceeded

as much as three standard deviations on

either side of the center line, the curve has dropped to about one percent of its height at the center... . Ordinates

erected at plus (and minus) two stan- dard deviations include approximately

95 percent of the area. Similarly or- dinates at 2.57 standard deviations

enclose 99 percent of the area.^

In the room size example, let us as- sume a confidence level of 99%. We

then want to find out if small and large

rooms typically are occupied by the

same number of people. In the

proposed study the total number of

observations is considerable for each

size room, 10 (rooms) x 6 (time

periods) x 10 (replications) = 600. Let us examine two subsamples (10 X 1 x

10), and assume they are representative of all data.

The simplest (and ideal) case consists

of data which would not even require

statistical analysis since the results

would be relatively self-evident, e.g., average occupancy "scores" of 20

(large) and 5 (small) or 10 (large) and

10 (small).

^ W. J. Youden, Risk, Choice and Prediction

(Belmont, Calif., 1974).

271
What is meant by an average score?

An average score is a measure of

"central tendency" (that is, a typical

value in some sense) in that it gives a concise description of a group of scores. It also enables us to compare

the scores of two or more groups in terms of typical performance. Three

average scores are in common use—

the median, the mode, and the

arithmetic mean, which is usually

used as the average score.

Whereas an average score summarizes one major characteristic of a group of scores, it does not describe

their variability, i.e., the scatter of the

individual scores around the measure

of central tendency. Finding the

variability of groups of scores is

critical in deciding whether compared

scores are different from one another,

because it asks how typical are the

average scores being compared. For

example, in the ideal case, the

"average" score would be a grouping

of identical scores, i.e., every

measure would be the same.

In general, the narrower the range of scores, the more typical the average

score. The wider the distribution of

scores, the less justification we have

in using an average score with any

degree of confidence. The reason for

this is the concern that we are grouping measures (observations) of things

or events which may be very imprecise, i.e., large experimental

errors are included in the data.

Measures of Central Tendency—Distributions

(After Arkln and Colton)

Mean (Arithmetic) Mode Median

Definition:

The average score; the sum of scores

divided by the number of cases

Most frequent or common value Value of the middle item when items are arranged according to size—e.g.

if item total is 21 , then value of 1 1 th item is median.

Characteristics:

• A calculated average

• Every case has a determinate value

• The sum of deviations about the

mean is zero

• 1 ndependent of extreme items

• Average position

• Average position affected by number of items, not by the size of

extreme values

Advantages:

• Most commonly used average

• Most easily understood

• Computation is relatively simple

• Total values and number of values

sufficient for computation

• It may be treated algebraically

• Most typical and therefore most

descriptive value

• Simple to approximate by observation where there are a small number

of cases

• Not necessary to arrange or compute values

• Easily calculated

• Not distorted by extreme values

• May be calculated when distributions are "open ended", i.e. where

items are grouped as "over" and

"under" values

Disadvantages:

• Value may be distorted by extreme

values and therefore may not be

typical

• Can be approximated only when

data are limited

• Of limited usefulness when a large

number of values is not available

• Mode may not exist (values not

repeated)

• Cannot be manipulated algebraically

• Relatively unfamiliar

• Items must be arranged in terms of

size

• Cannot be manipulated algebraically

272
In General, More Data Means More Reliability

Our task is to compare the usage of

small and large rooms. Let us assume

that the appropriate measure is the

room's peak occupancy. A data point

would therefore be the highest

"score" among the observations

made of a particular room on a given

day. The total data set consists of 200

observations, 100 each for small and

large rooms (10 rooms, 10 observations). The comparison will be

made by statistically comparing the

"averages" of the peak scores. However, if the comparisons are to be

meaningful, we must first find out how

typical the average scores are—that

is, to what extent the scores in each

group differ from one another. Dif- ferences within each group take two

forms. In one case, it is a problem of

reliability— i.e., the extent to which the

peak number of people occupying a room is the same on the 10 occasions

when observations are made. The

other way that scores within the group

may be expected to vary is with

respect to the 10 different rooms

which constitute the study sample.

For example, the rooms in some

buildings might be used intensively

and those in others might not be used

at all.

The need to look at the variability of a group of scores is a major factor in determining the sample size in a

study. The research question

becomes one of the amount of data

required to make a decision about

whether the two groups being compared have different requirements.

We must trade off between collecting a minimal amount of data (with the at- tendant risk of not reaching the correct decision about the "reality" of the

differences found) and collecting a

great deal of data (which increases

time and money costs but improves

the chances of making a correct

decision).

For example, in our study, if we have a minimum number of rooms in each

group (e.g., 10), one may need a 5-

point difference (3,8) in ratings

between groups in order to conclude

that room size differences are necessary to account for the findings. On

the other hand, assuming 100 rooms

in each group, then a 3-point dif- ference in scores might be statistically

significant, that is, a difference not at- tributable to chance factors. (One

purpose of the pilot study is to es- timate the range of variation among

measures.) The fact that differences are statistically significant should not

dictate the design decision, however.

If the actual peak occupancy values were 20 for small rooms and 25 for

large rooms, the absolute

difference—i.e., 5, might not justify

the amount of space required for a

large room.

If occupancy rates for large rooms

were found to be significantly greater

than those for smaller rooms, how are these findings to be interpreted?

In scientific research, the goal is to be

able to make cause-effect statements.

Can we reasonably say that the

number of people occupying a room

is caused by the size of that room?

No, too many other factors are not ac- counted for, i.e., the random variables

(decor, seats, quality of television,

etc.).

What can be said is that room size

and occupancy are highly and

positively correlated with one another.

The two variables vary systematically

in the same direction. In contrast, oc- cupancy rates and noise levels are probably highly correlated also, but

the correlation in this case would be

negative, i.e., the greater the noise

level, the fewer the people in the room

(unless of course, the source of the

noise is the people).

Conclusion

It soon becomes apparent that the en- vironment where people perform activities is extremely complex. Social,

cultural, and personal factors come

into play and interact with building

and environmental features in all their

complexity. Consequently, simple

cause-effect relationships between

environmental and behavioral

variables are rare. Instead, it is more

realistic to assume that environmental

features influence the activities of

people to differing degrees,

depending on circumstances.

The goal of M/E research is to better

understand these variables and to determine the extent to which

behavior is associated (correlates)

with design feature variables.

Correlational Data

^ g) to loo fooo 7o,coc

^

(\oq scale)

273
CommonVocabulary Kleededl

Social Scientist architect

tach needs to understand the vocabulary of the

other.
Glossary

Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of physical

stimulus that is needed to produce ai sensation; frequently interpreted as responding to half (50%) of the

stimuli presented (psychophysics).

Achromatic

Lacking in hue and saturation. Achromatic colors vary only in brightness,

from black to white, e.g., various

shade of gray.

Acoustics

1. Acoustics is the science of sound,

including its production, transmission, and effects.

2. The acoustics of a room are those

qualities that together determine its character with respect to distinct

hearing.

Activity

Anything an organism does or that

happens within an organism; anything

requiring expenditure of energy by an

organism.

Adaptation

In general, adjustment to en- vironmental conditions. Sensory

adaptation involves a change in the

characteristics of experience as a

result of prior experience. In design,

becoming less sensitive to en- vironmental attributes after

prolonged experience.

Additive Mixture

A color formed by the combination of

light of different colors, for example,

the combination of blue and red light sources to produce violet.

Amplitude

The amount or value of a wave or a

fluctuating magnitude or variable.

Analytic Approach

One that assumes that a complex

process can be understood by breaking it into its components, and that

the complex can best be improved by

improving its parts.

Analytical Survey

A survey designed to clarify associations and provide explanations. It presupposes a theoretical framework suggesting causality among

variables, as contrasted with a descriptive survey, which enumerates

but does not ask "why."

Anecholc Chamber

One whose surfaces absorb effect- ively all the sound incident thereon,

affording essentially conditions where

the effects of boundaries are negligible. Space where hearing research

is often conducted.

Anthropometry

The science of measuring the human

body and its parts and functional

capacities.

A Common 6et of An-fhroporneiric \n6frumenf5

1 1 1 . 1 . 1 . L I d^I^LLiiidLi.LLJ.l.l. 'illlililllll

IiIiIiIiIiIiIiIiIiIiI;T

Architecture

1. The profession of designing buildings, open areas, communities, etc., usually with some regard to aesthetic

effect. 2. The result or product of

architectural work, as a building.

3. The character or style of a building.

Arrival Distance

The distance that a newcomer uses to separate himself from a person

already occupying a space.

Articulation Index (Al)

A numerically calculated measure of

the intelligibility of transmitted or processed speech. It takes into ac- count the limitations of the trans- mission path and the background

noise.

Articulation Test

A test for accuracy in pronouncing

speech sounds, both singly and in connected speech.

Attenuation

A reduction in the degree or amount

of anything. For example, the at- tenuation of noise produced by a

barrier.

Audiogram

A graph showing hearing thresholds

in terms of frequency and intensity.

Audiometer

An instrument for measuring hearing

sensitivity.

Autonomic Response

Response by a division of the nervous system serving the endocrine glands

and smooth muscles.

275
Average

Measure of central tendency. Three

average scores are in common use

median, mode, and arithmetic mean.

A-Weighted Sound Pressure Level

(A-Level, L^)

A measurement of sound pressure

level in which the sound has been

filtered or weighted to quantitatively

reduce the effects of the high and

low frequency components. It was

designed to approximate the response

of the human ear to sound. A-level

is measured in decibels with a

standard sound level meter which

contains the weighting network for "A." Background Noise

The total of all noise in a system or sit- uation, independent of the presence

of the desired signal.

Behavior Setting

In ecological psychology, the bounded

units (towns, schools, meetings, etc.) within which the behavior studied occurs. (Barker)

Behavioral Mechanisms

Affective, gross motor, manipulation,

verbal, and thinking mechanisms

used in studying behavior settings.

Bimodai

Refers to a frequency distribution with

two peaks.

Bounded Units

The behavior settings in which

ecological behavior occurs. They are:

1) self-generated 2) with specific

time-space loci 3) with unbroken

boundaries which separate them from

differing external patterns. (Barker)

Brightness

The subjective impression of the total amount of light reaching the eye from

a visual stimulus.

Case Study

A collection of all relevant evidence

social, psychological, physiological,

biographical, environmental, vocational—to illustrate a single activity,

individual, or a single social unit

such as a family.

Cerebrum

In man, the largest portion of the brain

occupying the entire upper part of the

cranium and consisting of the right

and left hemispheres.

Chance

In research, something that happens

unpredictably without discernable

human intention or observable cause. Chroma

Synonym for color saturation.

Chroma Scale

A scale ranging from neutral (gray,

black, or white) to the most saturated

or nongray color. In the Munsell

surface-color solid, the chroma scale

is represented by distance from the

central axis.

Chromaticity

The quality of a color stimulus determined by its dominant wavelength and

its purity.

Chronocyclography

A photographic method of recording

movements. A series of pictures of the

sequence of movements is obtained by

several exposures at known intervals on one and the same photograph.

Cine Camera

A camera used in interval

photography with intervals that can be

set from 2 exposures/second to I ex- posure/54 seconds.

Class Interval

In statistics, a small section of a scale,

according to which frequency distri- butions are grouped, e.g., heights,

weights.

Clo Value

A numerical value given to clothing in thermal comfort computations (0 =

no clothing).

Closed IVIessage Set

Used in speech intelligibility studies in which the subject knows all of the

possible messages.

Cochlea

A coiled structure of the inner ear which contains the receptors essential

for hearing.

Coding

1. (Statistics). The process of trans- forming a set of scores into a more

convenient set. 2. (Information theory).

The transformation of messages into

signals.

Cognitive Map

1. The ability to reorder and reconstruct parts of our experience to provide a complete picture of a situation 2. The

description of a place in terms of its location and psychological influences,

from the standpoint of an individual.

Color

Visual sensation determined by the

interaction of wavelength, intensity,

and mixture of wavelengths of light.

Color Rendering

The effect of a light source on the

color appearance of objects as compared with appearance under

a standard light source. Colorimeter

A device for measuring colors and

specifying them in numerical or symbolic terms.

Comparison

The member of a stimulus pair which

is varied by the subject until it matches

the standard, or other stimulus in the

pair. Also, the pair member upon which

a judgment is made relative to the

standard.

Conditioned Reflex

A reflex based on previous experience

rather than inherited structure, such

as dogs salivating at the sound of a

bell (Pavlov).

Cone

One of the cone-shaped cells of the

retina used in color vision.

Confederate

A person working with an experimenter as a covert participant in a research

study.

Confidence Level

The probability of the truth of a statement that a parametric value will be included in a confidence interval.

Constancy Phenomena

The tendency for brightness, color,

size, or shape to remain relatively

constant despite marked changes in stimulation.

Control Group

Similar in all respects to an experimental group, but not subject to changes in experimental conditions.

Control Setting

In laboratory research, control of the

stimulus.

Control Variables

Those which are unchanged in an

experiment, as distinguished from

independent variables.

276
Correlation

A relationship between variables such

that changes in one are accompanied

by changes in the other, either positively (as when weight tends to increase

with height) or negatively.

Correlational Data

O 0.4 ofc 0.8 10 \x Relative Target Contrast

Sample, accurac)) curves response probabilit\j data fiffed bv a cumulafive curve

Critical Distance

The flight distance, or point at which

encroachment into an animal's terri- tory by another animal produces flight or attack. (Also: flight distance.)

Critical Flicker Frequency (CFF)

The frequency of light flashes necessary to produce an uninterrupted

experience of brightness, i.e., without

flicker. Cross-Sectional Survey

A type of survey in which the data

result from a time-ordered series of

questions asked of a sample of a predefined population of subjects.

Cutaneous

Pertaining to the skin.

Dark Adaptation

The process by which the daylight cone vision is taken over by nighttime

rod vision. Eyes are considerably more

sensitive after dark adaptation.

Data

Information obtained from a scientific

study, or by other techniques.

Data Analysis

Analysis of information obtained from

a scientific study, or other techniques.

dBA

A quantity in decibels which can be

read from a standard sound level meter. The A-weighting network is designed to approximate the sensitivity

of the human ear at moderate sound

levels. Decibel (dB)

The unit of sound intensity.

Deductive

The mode of reasoning that starts with premises or propositions and

attempts to derive valid conclusions

therefrom.

Defensible Space

Concept developed by Oscar Newman;

involves idea that neighborhood security can be increased by specific architectural design features that allow

surveillance by residents as a part of

their everyday activities. Dependent Variable

The variable whose value changes

as a result of the experimenter's

changes in another variable, the

independent variable.

Descriptive Survey

One designed to answer questions

about the distribution of some

datum (e.g., income) in a population

or among subgroups of a population.

Diary

A method used in M/E studies where

people maintain records of activities

performed. Duration times and fre- quencies are often critical. Dichotomous Items

Survey questions which require the

subject to make a forced choice

between two explicit alternatives.

Difference LImen (threshold DL)

The smallest change in a physical

variable that is detected by an

observer; frequently interpreted as responsive to 50% of the stimuli

presented (psychophysics).

Disability Glare

Glare resulting in reduced visual performance and visibility.

Discomfort Glare

Glare which results in a feeling of an- noyance. It does not necessarily in- terfere with visual performance or

visibility.

Discontinuous Photography

A technique for recording the

behavior of subjects at discrete in- stants of time of interest to the

researcher.

Display

Any means of presenting information

to a person.

Distance Relationships Among Ffeople

Intimate Personal Social Public

4\

4-i2ff.

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277
Distance After Departure

The distance which birds (or other

organisms) will keep between each

other after intermediate birds have

left. Drift

Movement of buildings such as high

rise structures during storm conditions when high velocity winds

are present.

Ecoiogicai Psychoiogy

The study of organisms in reference

to their physical environment, especially their responses to stimuli

which are environmental.

Effective Temperature

A combination of air temperature,

wind velocity, and relative humidity

used in investigations designed to establish and define a comfort zone

for human subjects.

Eiectrocardiogram (EKG)

Graphic records produced by an

electrocardiograph, a galvanometer

device that detects and records the

minute differences in potential between different parts of the body

caused by heart action.

Electroencephaiogram (EEG)

A graphic record of the wavelike

changes in the electric potential

observed when electrodes are placed on the surface of the head.

Electromyograpliy (ElVIG)

The graphic recording of electrical activity or currents in a muscle.

Eiements

Parts or constituents of a whole,

especially those that cannot be re- duced to simpler units.

Equal Loudness Contours

A curve which shows sound pressure

levels for different frequencies, heard

as having a fixed loudness level.

Ergograph

An instrument for studying fatigue in a restricted muscle group.

Ergonomics

The scientific study of the relationships between men and machines,

particularly the psychological, biological, and cultural, with the purpose

of adapting machines and jobs to meet the needs of men and of choosing suitable persons for particular

jobs or machines.

Errors of the First Kind

If as the result of a statistical test, a

statistical hypothesis is rejected

when it should be accepted.

Errors of thie Second Kind

If as the result of a test, a statistical hypothesis is accepted when it is

false, i.e., when it should have been

rejected.

Experiment

Controlled arrangement and manipulation of conditions in order to systematically observe particular

phenomena with the intention of

defining the influences and relationships which affect those phenomena.

Experimental Design

Plan of an experiment structured to answer specific experimental questions. Design usually specifies: 1)

choice of variables; 2) choice of subjects, species, age, sex, etc.; 3)

apparatus used or stimulus presentation and response recording; 4)

experimental procedure; 5) type of

analysis of results.

Experimental Psychology

1. The investigation of psychological

phenomena by experimental methods.

2. The methods and the results

obtained by experiment, systematically

set forth (often arbitrarily limited

to the psychology of the laboratory).

Experimental Setting

The characteristics of a space where

a study is being performed.

Experimental Subjects

Organisms to whom stimuli are

applied for the purpose of evoking

responses; or, more generally, the

organisms whose reactions are observed.

Feedback

Knowledge of the results of an action;

perception of a state of the body

or of the environment.

Field Study

Collection of data outside the laboratory, library, or clinic; the study of organisms in their usual habitats.

Figure-Ground

The principle that all perception

and even awareness is fundamentally

patterned into two parts or aspects

that mutually influence each other:

a) the figure, which has good contour,

unity, and is perceived as being

separate from the ground, and b) the

ground which is typically relatively

homogeneous and whose parts are

not clearly patterned.

Film Color

Hue seen as such without refer- ence to its being a surface or other

characteristic of an object.

Filter Question

A question, primarily factual in nature, which may be used in public

opinion research to enable the

interviewer to determine the extent of

knowledge possessed by the re- spondent about the topic under

study.

Fixed-Feature Space

Features of buildings that are not movable, e.g., windows, walls.

Flight Distance

A critical distance at which point

further encroachment on an animal's

territory by another animal causes

flight or attack.

Focused Interview

An interview which uses an interview

guide with a list of objectives and

suggested questions. Using this technique, an interviewer can explore

new topics as they are introduced

and can follow up in detail when this

appears to be a useful approach.

Fovea

Central part of the eye used for

daytime vision.

Free Asociation

1. An unrestricted, random flow of words or ideas. 2. In psychoanalysis, a method employed in which the

patient says whatever comes into

his mind and speaks freely.

Frequency

1. The number of cycles per unit time

in a periodic vibration. 2. The number of times a given event occurs;

especially, the number of times the

several values of a variable are

found.

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

The changes in the electrical resistance of the skin measured by a galvanometer. It is used as an indicator

of emotional arousal and tension.

278
Gaming

A research technique in which subjects' needs, activity patterns,

preferences, etc., are determined by

how they play certain games.

Gestalt

A configuration or figure whose in- tegration sometimes differs from the

totality obtained by summing the

parts.

Glare

See disability glare, discomfort glare.

Gradient

Any regular change in a magnitude

which slopes from high to low or vice

versa. Hard Architecture

A phrase used by R. Sommer to describe design features which

hinder interaction and lead to feelings

of isolation.

Hawthorne Studies

A pioneering series of studies started

in 1927 and continuing into the early

1930's done at the Western Electric

Company by Elton May, F. J. Roethlisberger, W. J. Dickson, and

their associates. The studies showed

the importance of social variables

and demonstrated that work ef- ficiency was not just the product of

physical or economic conditions.

Heel impact Test

A test to determine whether there is a

vibration problem in a building. A

170-lb. (77 kg) man stands on his toes

at the geometric center of a floor, then

drops suddenly to his heels, while a

subject standing near him gives subjective impressions of the vibration

experienced.

Hertz (Hz)

Cycles per second; a specification

of energy in waves, commonly used

in sensory research for auditory

stimuli.

Hodometer

An instrument used to measure foot

movement activity.

Holistic

A principle which holds that an organism is not equal to the sum of

its parts and must be considered

as a whole.

Home Range

A series of linkages and settings trav- ersed and occupied by an individual in his normal activities. Homogeneous

Of the same or a similar kind or

nature. Hue

The perceived dimension of color

which corresponds to the wavelength

of light which stimulates the retina.

Hues may be grouped as reds,

yellows, greens, and blues with their

intermediates, the oranges, yellowgreens, blue-greens, and purples.

Hue Circle

Scale for constant visual hues represented by symmetrical color circle. Human Factors

A discipline concerned with the

optimization of the human component

in man/machine systems. (Also

referred to as human engineering or human factors engineering).

Hypnosis

An artificially induced sleep-like state characterized by increased suggestibility, decreased initiative and will to act on one's own, recollection of

events not remembered in the normal

state, and often amnesia for that

which occurred while hypnotized.

Hypothesis

1. An assumption; a guess. 2. A tentative statement to be proven or disproven by evidence,

liluminometer

An instrument which measures

luminance, the objective correlate for

brightness.

Illusion-Visual

An incorrect visual perception usually

affecting spatial relations.

IllusionPerceived Size

Oiarvje

imageabiiity

Characteristics of the environment

which lend themselves to forming a

vivid image in the person experiencing it. Incident Light

Light shining on a specified object.

Independent Variable

1. A variable that can be observed

and assessed as a determinant of behavior. 2. The variable that is altered

independently of any other vari- able, usually by the experimenter.

Individual Differences

Any psychological characteristic,

quality, or trait by which an individual

may be distinguished from others.

Also, the differences characteristic of

individuals in different categories,

induction

The logical process by which principles or rules are derived from observed

facts. industrial Design

A discipline concerned with improving the performance of products

through better design.

Innate

Present in the individual at birth,

instructional Set

A preparatory adjustment or readiness

for a particular kind of action or experience, as a result of instructions.

Intensity

1. (Physics) the magnitude of energy

or force per given unit of space

and/or time, as of a physical stimulus.

2. The strength of any behavior,

emotion, or motivation.

279
Attraction of Ve6im h U^ien

Aciivit^ to Mui^ic

tP-i^cho logical Barrier to be

Environment » Overcome

Interval Photography

A technique for recording behavior on

film during selected intervals of time.

Interval photography is suitable for use with continuous sequences of

events where it is sufficient to record

only a sample of the process.

Interval Scale

A type of scale which does not have

an absolute zero point but possesses

equal intervals and differences.

Intimate Distance

The distance maintained between two

people discussing matters of a personal nature.

Invisible Bubble

The space around a person which,

when violated, is perceived as an in- trusion of one's privacy.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

The minimum amount of difference

detectable between two stimuli being

compared.

Laboratory Study

A study performed in a place set aside for scientific research, especially, but not exclusively, for experiment. (Laboratory studies contrast

with field studies and library

research).

Landolt Ring

An incomplete circle having a gap of

varying size, used in the determination of visual acuity.

Learning Approach

A viewpoint which emphasizes the

role of experience in behavior

research.

Legibility

The quality of a visual symbol, usually

of a printed or written symbol, that

makes it easy to read or to distinguish

from other symbols.

Level of Significance

Statistical term indicating the degree

of confidence we can have that the

result was not caused by chance

alone. The level of significance is ex- pressed as the number of times in 100

that the given result could be ex- pected to occur by chance alone.

Thus a level of "5%" means that the

result would be expected by chance

alone only 5 times in 100.

Life Space (Lewin)

The entire set of phenomena in the

environment and in the organism

itself which influences present

behavior or the possibility of

behavior. Emphasis is placed on the

interaction between the organism and

its environment in an organized, unified field. Lightness

An attribute of an object color by

means of which it can be placed in the

series between black and white.

Lightness Scale

A scale ranging from white to black

with shades of gray between. The

lightness of a chromatic (nongray)

color determines the gray to which it

is equivalent on the lightness scale.

Landolt Ring

Vimen^'ioni) of Landolt

broKen circle.

Loudness

The heard attribute of an auditory

stimulus which corresponds to the

physical attribute of intensity.

Luminance

Light energy transmitted, reflected, or emitted from a source; the actual

strength of light in the whole of the

space involved. It is the objective correlate of the subjective variable of

brightness.

Macro

A combining form meaning "large," or "extended," in contrast to micro.

Mall Survey

A method of data collection in which

self-administered questionnaires are mailed to subjects; typically, the

response rate is low.

Masking

Interference with the perception of a

stimulus caused by the simultaneous occurrence of another stimulus. In hearing, for example, a tone becomes

harder to hear if it is accompanied by

white noise. The noise is said to "mask" the tone. Maslow's Need Hierarchy

A postulated hierarchy or order in which the individual must satisfy

physiological needs first, followed by

needs for safety, love, esteem, and

self-actualization.

Matched Group

(Experimental research) one of the

groups used in an experiment which

is made equivalent in as many

respects as possible to ensure ex- perimental control.

280
Mean

The average score; the sum of the scores divided by the number of cases. Median

The middlemost score in a series

arranged in rank order.

Metabolic Rate

The rate at which certain vital physical

and chemical and physiological

reactions occur within an organism.

Metamerism

The phenomenon of color stimuli

having different spectrophotometric

characteristics but appearing

identical under favorable conditions of comparison.

Method of Average Error

One of three classic psychophysical procedures for measuring either

the differential or the absolute

threshold. The observer controls the

independent stimulus dimension

and sets it according to experimental

instructions, e.g., "just audible,"

"just noticeably different," etc. Also

known as the method of adjustment.

Metliod of Constant Stimuii

(Fechner) a psychophysical technique

used for determining absolute and

differential thresholds by requiring

the subject to compare various stimuli

drawn from a preselected sample

with a standard, or to state when a

given stimulus is noticed.

Metiiod of Limits

A psychophysical technique used

for determining the smallest difference

in a stimulus that can be discriminated by a subject. The distance

between two nondiscriminable stimuli

is increased, or the distance between

two discriminable stimuli is decreased and the average point at

which the former is first discerned or

the latter not discerned is recorded.

Metliodology

1. The systematic and logical study

and formulation of the principles

and methods used in research. 2. The

procedures actually used in a particular investigation.

Micro

A combining form meaning "small,"

"very small," or "diminished" in contrast to macro.

Milieu

A surround which provides a context

for a setting and the behaviors

which occur. Mode

In statistics, the most frequent score

of a series.

Model

A system of principles or hypotheses

or a representation which is postulated

to explain relationships in the data

and is usually presented in mathematical terms.

Mulier-Lyer illusion

The distorted perception of length

when a line has arrowheads, or reversed arrowheads. The former

looks shorter, the latter longer than the

line without arrowheads.

Multiple Cliolce Question

A question in which the subject is given several responses from which to choose.

Multiple Criterion Technique

A research technique in which the

subject adjusts one parameter at a

time out of a set of previously identified variables relevant to the behavior

being studied.

Multivariate

In statistics, a technique of analysis

designed to assess the existence and

size of effect of many variables acting

simultaneously. Also, characterizing

a measure that reflects several

variables.

Munsell System

A system for ordering surface colors

by specifying hue (color), value

(lightness), and chroma (saturation).

Nativists

A group of perceptual psychologists

who place emphasis on the inherited

factors determining perception

rather than on experience.

Needs

1. Conditions of lacking, wanting, or

requiring things which if present

would benefit the organism by

facilitating behavior or satisfying a

tension. 2. Tensions induced in the

organism by a lack, either internal or

external.

Noise

1. The sensory effect of irregular

sound waves; a sound that lacks tone,

that is composed of conflicting

pitches. 2. Undesired sound. 3. Anything that introduces extraneous

variability into a communication

process, or that reduces the information. Noise Criteria (NC) Curves

Any of several versions (SC, NC, NCA,

PNC) of criteria used for rating the

acceptability of continuous indoor

noise levels, such as produced by air- handling systems.

Nominal Scale

A scale in which numbers are as- signed to events or event classes for

identification and with no reference to any property of the event or class.

Thus, the number does not represent

any dimension of the event or class.

Nonsense Syllable

A syllable, usually of three letters (consonant-vowel-consonant), which

has no meaning. Sometimes considered useful in eliminating the in- fluence of meaning on memorizing,

but the evidence is that people

memorize nonsense by giving it a meaning of their own. Normal Distribution Curve

Symmetrical bell-shaped frequency

curve with most of the measurements

near the middle and tapering off at the

sides.

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281
Noy

A unit used in the calculation of

perceived noise levels. Null Hypothesis

(Statistics) a hypothesis stating that an experimental effect does not exist,

that the mean of a group is equal to zero, or that there is no difference

between means.

Object Constancy

The fact that perceptual objects retain a certain standard appearance, in considerable independence of sur- rounding stimuli and also of the component stimuli making up the perceptual pattern.

Objective

Not depending on the judgment or ac- curacy of the individual observer; free

from personal bias.

Observational Techniques

Techniques and procedures for assisting the observer to make more

complete and accurate observations.

Included are mechanical aids to observation, charts and checklists for

prompt and inclusive records, motion

picture photography and sound

recording, and special training of the

observer.

Octave Band

A frequency interval including those

frequencies between two tones whose

frequencies are related by a ratio of

1:2. Olfactometer

An instrument that regulates the

degree of concentration of a substance used in odor research.

Open-Ended Question

Any question which allows the person

answering flexibility of form and substance in his response.

Open Message Set

A set of messages, all of which are un- known to a listener. These message

units are presented under adverse

conditions of communication in order

to measure probability of reception.

Operational Definition

Scientific facts and concepts are

identified by the concrete operations

through which they were produced.

Ordinal Scale

A type of scale which arranges objects with reference to their

magnitude and assigns numbers

accordingly—first, second, third, etc.

It does not possess equal intervals or an absolute zero point.

Organism (O)

Any living entity which has the potential to maintain itself and exist in- dependently as a self-contained

system with functions such as respiration, digestion, etc. This includes all plants and animals.

Osmoscope

An instrument used in determining

odor thresholds.

Paired Comparisons

The pairing of stimuli in all possible

combinations, a technique often used

in psychophysics and social psychology. The subject is asked to make comparisons for each pair

formed.

Panel Study

A study in which one sample of people is interviewed recurrently over a

long period of time to investigate the

processes of response change,

usually in reference to the same

variable.

Parallax

The apparent movement of objects

when the viewpoint is shifted laterally

in the field of vision.

Parametric

A research strategy which emphasizes

definition and understanding of

basic variables usually in a laboratory

setting.

Participant Observer

An observer who gathers observation

data while taking part in a group

or an activity being observed.

Passive Observer

An observer who gathers data by not

intruding into the observed situation nor altering the situation in any

way.

Peak Noise

The maximum instantaneous sound

pressure (a) for a transient or impulsive sound of short duration in time, or (b) in a specified time interval

for a sound of long duration.

Pedometer

An instrument which measures

distance walked by recording the

number of steps taken.

Perceived Noisiness (PN)

The level in dB assigned to noise by

means of a calculation procedure

that is based on an approximation to subjective evaluations of "noisiness."

Perception

The process of obtaining information

about the world through the senses. Perceptual Constancy

A general term referring to the

tendency of objects to be perceived in the same way despite wide variations

in the manner of viewing them.

Performance Concept

An organized procedure or framework within which it is possible

to state the desired attributes of a

material component or system in order to fulfill the requirements of the

intended user without regard to the

specific means to be employed in achieving the results.

Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS)

A permanent increase in a hearing

threshold level, e.g., the loss of hearing that results from exposure to noise.

Permissive

An attitude which grants freedom of

choice and expression to another

person out of respect for his personality.

Personal Space

The normal spacing between in- dividuals in their environments.

Phenomenologlst

Pursues the philosophical study of the

progressive development of the mind.

Phonetically Balanced (PB) Words

A list of monosyllabic words that contains a distribution of speech sounds

that approximates the distribution of

the same sounds as they occur in conversational American English.

282
Photometric Room La'^out

(e>odv Measures - Hunt ^ Gi les)

light 1

^ I mirror

mirror

jB* Subject

Ii9ht^ 7"

.•••^ mirrora

f ^•i

^

^Shield

i9ht4

camera lights

Focal paths-

^^^^M^^BH^M ^MWB^MMMMM •••••••••••••••• front view bacK view side view

Phototropic

Tendency to involuntarily look at brightest spot.

Pilot Study

Preliminary limited research performed as a forerunner to an experiment, e.g., to test the adequacy of a research approach.

Pink Noise

Noise that when averaged over a

period of time will show equal energy

in each frequency interval (e.g., octave bands, 1/3-octave bands, etc.).

Population

In statistics, any collection or aggregation of individual units, e.g., buildings.

Preferred Noise Criterion (PNC)

Modification of the currently used

Noise Criterion (NC) curves. Proxemics

A formulation which describes

relationships among people and

animals in terms of distance, where

physical distance may be described on the basis of cultural, behavioral,

physiological, and social factors.

Psychoacoustlcs

A discipline that links physics and

psychology which deals with the

physical phenomena of sound as

related to audition, as well as with the

physiology and psychology of sound

receptor processes.

Psychoanalysis

A systematic approach to the study of

human functioning, normal and abnormal, originated by Freud. The psychoanalytic method is designed to bring about accessibility to the unconscious process in the patient, and

enable him to master those forces

previously unknown to him which

have seriously impaired his ability to function satisfactorily.

Psychology

A branch of science dealing with the

behavior of organisms.

Psychophysics

The branch of psychology which in- vestigates the relationships between

physical stimulus magnitudes, or the

differences between stimuli and the

corresponding sensory experiences.

Public Opinion Poll

A sampling of the general state of

feeling, opinion, or attitude of some

predefined segment of the population on an issue or group of issues.

Pulse Rate

The rate of the rhythmic rise and fall of pressure at a given point in the

arteries, resulting from heart action.

Pupillometer

An instrument which measures

changes in eye pupil size; used in studying emotional responses and

other phenomena related to eye pupil

changes.

Qualitative

Concerned with characteristics,

properties, or attributes not specified

in numerical terms.

Quantitative

Pertaining to the description or measurement of anything in numerical terms.

Questionnaire ' A set of questions, often elaborate,

which is designed so as to investigate a given subject.

Questionnaire items

Questions which make up a questionnaire survey.

283
Radiation

1. Diffusion in all directions from a source or center. 2. The spreading of

neural excitation to adjacent nerve

elements. 3. Emitted waves or particles, or the process of such emission.

Random

Occurring by chance, without voluntary control.

Random Noise

Noise that when averaged over a period of time will show equal energy

at ail frequencies in the audio range.

(The magnitude of any specific fre- quency at any given point in time is random.)

Random Sampie

A sample selected by using a random

selection procedure.

Ratio Scaie

A type of scale consisting of

magnitudes with an absolute zero

point, for which both intervals (differences) and ratios can be

calculated. All statements of ratio

must be based on this scale.

Refiection

The reversal or turning back of particles or waves which strike a surface.

The Radiant Energy Spectrum

10 10 10 JO-- 70

lo 10'

(3amm3 Ultraviolet

IK

-z 10' 10

1^10 Wave'sPM TV Short ^oadca^t

h

A'C

»••••••

I \Jto\et ^ue Green Yellow Orsnge fed I

40O

^

700

The Visible spectrum

Refraction

Reflection

5mooth surface.

Rough 6ur-face

Reflection of/ight-froma

mai£nalandffomd

(nonglobb^ mater/al.

Pariicle^i/medium have Hie

same, re^achvc indcA

Fhrticles medium have

different reffachs^e indexes

Refraction

A change or bending in the direction

of flow of a wave, especially of a light

wave, caused by passage of the wave

from one medium to another.

Relativity

The attitude or belief that the truth of

anything is always dependent on the

context, that standards of conduct are

not absolute but relative to time,

place, culture, and historical circumstances.

Reiatoscope

An instrument used in assessing an

individual's perception of an environment. The reiatoscope is a long

pencil-shaped tube with a lens; it ex- tends from a mobile television

camera down into a naturalistic model

giving a view from eye level.

284
Reliability

The degree to which results are consistent upon repetition of an experiment, or test. Requirements

Needs of the user (of a building) such

as those of health, safety, and

comfort.

Response (R)

1 . Any overt or covert behavior. 2. Any

process in the body of an organism which results from stimulation.

Rhodopsin

A substance found in the rods of the

dark adapted eye, which bleaches on exposure to the light.

Rods

Rod-shaped cells in the retina which

are thought to be the specific struc- tures for the reception of light for

vision at the lower intensities. Rod

vision is achromatic—in shades of

gray.

Sample

A part of a larger set, usually selected

deliberately, to investigate the properties of the parent population.

Sample Size

The number of sampling units in- cluded in a given sample.

Saturation

The degree to which any color

possessing a hue differs from a gray

of the same brightness.

Scale

Any series of items which is progressively arranged according to value or magnitude, into which an item can be

placed according to its quantification.

Scale Model

Reduced-size physical representation

of some aspect of the real world.

Scentometer

An instrument used in measuring

odor intensities. A combination of

critically sized holes admits ambient

air to a mixing chamber which then

passes through two nosepieces on

the way to the subject's lungs.

Sample Shares

CharacleHsfics

with Population

Decibel Scale -Representative Levels

^Stevens)

VISION decibels AUDITION

Luminance of sun

Discomfort

Sunlight on snow

Luminance of moon

Good reading light

lcandela/sq. meter

Phototopic -threshold

1G0

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

AO

30

20

10

O

Jet plane with

afferburner

Pain

Discomfort

Subway

Heavy traffic

Normal conversation

Whisper

Scientific Approach

Principles and procedures for the

systematic pursuit of knowledge in- volving the recognition and formulation

of a problem, the collection of data through observation and experiment, and testing of hypotheses.

Semantic Differential

A method of measuring the subjective

reaction to a concept or actual en- vironment in which the person rates the concept on one or more bipolar

scales.

285
Semi-Fixed Feature

Feature of building to which limited

modification is acceptable and

possible.

Sensation

Immediate elementary experiences

requiring no verbal, symbolic, or conceptual elaboration, and related

primarily to sense organ activity

such as occurring in an eye or ear and

in the associated nervous system

leading to a particular sensory area in the brain.

Settied Distance

The distance maintained between

two individuals following adjustments

after arrival of one of them.

Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratio

The ratio of the signal intensity to noise intensity, usually expressed as

the decibel difference between the

signal level and the noise level. Significant Difference

A difference in measured values which

cannot reasonably be attributed

to chance factors.

Silent Language

Nonverbal communication whereby

the individual reacts to subtle in- fluences such as gestures and

other body and facial movements.

Simple Reaction Time

The time from the onset of a single

stimulus until the organism responds.

Simulation

The imitation of certain environmental

and other conditions for purposes

of training or experimentation.

Sinusoidal

Characterized by simple harmonic,

vibratory motions, such as those

of the sine wave.

Snellen Eye Chart

A test of visual acuity consisting of a

chart of printed letters ranging from

very large to very small which the subject is asked to read at a predetermined distance.

Social Distance

The relative accessibility of one

person or group to association with

another person or group; the degree

of intimacy with which a person is willing to associate with another

person or group.

Social Psychology

The branch of psychology concerned

with the study of individuals in groups.

It deals with the psychological processes and interpersonal interactions in groups and between groups.

Sociofugal

An arrangement of people maximizing interpersonal distance.

Sociogram

(Moreno) a diagram in which group

interactions are analyzed on the basis

of mutual attractions or antipathies

between group members.

Sociology

The science of human societies,

groups, organizations, and institutions.

Sociometry

(Moreno) a technique for the

measurement of attraction and repulsion among people which uses the

method of the sociogram, a diagram

in which group interactions are analyzed on the basis of mutual at- tractions or antipathies between

group members.

Soclopetal

An arrangement of people in small

groups with little space between

persons, as around two small tables

in the middle of a large room. Sone

The sone is a unit of loudness. By

definition, a simple tone of frequency

1000 Hz, 40 dB above a listener's

threshold, produces a loudness of 1 sone. The loudness of any sound that

is judged by the listener to be n times

that of the 1-sone tone is n sones. Sound

1. An oscillation in pressure, stress,

particle displacement, particle

velocity, etc., in a medium. 2. An

auditory sensation evoked by the oscillation described above.

Sound Insulation

The use of structures and materials

designed to reduce the transmission

of sound from one room or area to another or from the exterior to the in- terior of a building.

Sound Level (noise level)

Sound level is the frequencyweighted sound pressure level measured by the use of a sound level meter with A, B, or C weightings.

Sound Level Meter

An instrument, comprising a microphone, an amplifier, an output

meter, and frequency-weighting

networks, that is used for the

measurement of noise and sound

levels in a specified manner.

Sound Transmission Class (STC)

The preferred single figure rating

system designed to give an estimate

of the sound insulation properties of a

partition or a rank ordering of a series

of partitions. It is intended for use

primarily when speech and office

noise constitute the principal noise

problem.

Spectrophotometer

An instrument used to measure the

fraction of light transmitted through or

reflected from an object, wavelength

by wavelength, throughout the visible

spectrum.

Speech Communication (SC)

Criterion Curve

One of a family of curves generated to indicate different amounts of speech

interference in auditory environments.

Speech Interference Levels (SIL)

Calculated quantities providing a guide to the interfering effect of a noise on speech. The speech in- terference level is the arithmetic

average of the sound pressure levels

of noise in the most important part of

the speech frequency rangecommonly the three octave-frequency

bands centered at 500, 1000, and

2000 Hz. Speech Spectrogram

A graphic recording of speech used

as a method of analyzing speech into

its component frequencies.

Standard

In experimental psychology, a constant stimulus against which varying

stimuli are compared.

286
standard Deviation

A statistical measure of the variability

of scores in a frequency distribution;

provides a basis for expressing scores in terms of norms. Standing Pattern

A discrete behavioral entity taking

place at a given place at a particular

time—e.g., worship service, piano les- son.

Statistical Probability

The likelihood of an occurrence, ex- pressed by the ratio of the number of

actual occurrences to that of possible occurrences; the relative frequency

with which an event occurs or is likely to occur.

Statistical Significance

The degree of probability that, in an

infinite series of measurements of the

kind in question, the value or score

obtained will not by chance alone oc- cur with significant frequency, hence

can be attributed to something other

than chance.

Stereophotography

A photographic method used for

recording very detailed information

about a bodily movement. The stereo

camera consists of two interconnected cine cameras with synchronized exposures.

Stimulus (S)

Any action or situation that elicits response from an organism.

Stratified Sample

A sample selected from a population

which has been divided into parts, a

portion of the sample coming from

each stratum.

Stress

A condition of physical or mental

strain which produces changes in the

autonomic nervous system.

Stroboscope

An instrument for determining speeds

of rotation or frequencies of vibration

of a revolving disk with holes around

the edge through which an object is viewed.

Subject

The person or animal to whom stimuli are applied for the purpose of evoking responses; or, more generally, the

person whose reactions are observed.

Subjective

1. Referring to experience available

only to the person having the ex- perience. 2. Referring to judgments

made without the use of devices or instruments.

Subsystem

A major functional part of a system,

usually consisting of several components, such as equipment, activities

performed by people, or a combination of the two. Subtractlve Mixture

Color which is formed by selectively

absorbing, or subtracting out certain

wavelengths from light.

Supratiireshold Tasic

A task which requires a judgment of

how well an object can be seen. Surface-Color Solid

A three-dimensional diagram, each

point of which represents a unique

color. In the Munsell surface-color

solid, the central axis represents

lightness, the distance from this axis

is saturation, and the angle about the

central axis is hue.

Survey

A method of collecting data by sampling a cross section of people, as

distinguished from experimental

methods.

System

An organized arrangement in which

each component part responds in ac- cordance with an overall design. It in- cludes all equipment and personnel

integrated in a manner to perform a

function.

Tachlstoscope

An apparatus used in experimental

studies of perception, learning, etc., for exposure of visual stimuli (photos,

digits) for brief intervals.

Task

A group of related job elements performed to accomplish work, e.g., discrimination, decisions, motor actions

related to one another.

Task Analysis

Task analysis is used to determine the

psychological and physical factors

essential to the adequate performance of a task. Its goal is to define

the critical activities occurring in an

operational or training situation in

such a way as to provide a sound

basis for performance evaluation.

Telephone Survey

Usually a questionnaire survey con- ducted over the telephone.

Temporary Tlireshold Sliift (ITS)

A temporary increase in a hearing

threshold level resulting from ex- posure to noise.

Territoriality

The perception of a person or group

that they possess a given place, and

all others are intruders there.

Territory

Domain of an animal which is defended upon intrusion by another

animal of the same or a different

species.

Threshold

(Psychophysics) the minimum

stimulus energy or energy change

necessary for an experimental subject to indicate an awareness of the

stimulus or stimulus change.

lhresho\<is-\/ibr6rf\on

(Chen, Robertson)

Cumulative Time fee Vear

Zmin. 10 mm. I hr.

ICfl 10' Expected Mumberof Cycles of Oi>ci { \ation

per' ^esr lna\/ing acceleration exceeding

given values

287
Time and Motion

A study involving the observation and

analysis of movements in a task with an emphasis on the amount of time

required to perform the task.

Time Budget Study

A record is made of what a person

has done during a specified period of

time.

Trace Pliotography

A photographic method of recording

behavior in which the most interesting

points on the object or test subject are fitted with small lights. Light

tracks of the subject are recorded by

making a time exposure of his movements in a dark room.

Traclcing Taslcs

Tasks involving intermittent or continuous adjustment of an instrument

or machine to maintain a desired or normal value, or to follow a moving

reference marker.

Traffic Noise Index (TNI)

A measure of the noise environment

created by highways; it is computed

from measured values of the sound

levels exceeded 10% and 90% of the

time.

Transient Adaptation

A brief variation in an observer's condition of visual adaptation caused by

momentary exposure to a stimulus

differing from the more stable

background (as by being brighter or dimmer).

Transmission Loss (TL)

A measure of sound insulation

provided by a structural configuration. Expressed in decibels, it is 10

times the logarithm to the base 10 of

the reciprocal of the sound transmission coefficient of the configuration.

(The sound transmission coefficient

is the fraction of incident sound

energy transmitted through a structural configuration).

Transposition

1. The reaction to the relationships

among stimuli rather than to the absolutes of the stimuli. 2. The in- terchange of spatial, logical, or psychological relationships between two

units of a system.

Trend Analysis

The statistical analysis of a series of

measurements of a variable, taken at several points in time, in order to dis- cover whether there is a basic direction of change.

Triangle Test

A method for selecting subjects for

participation in odor tests. The person

is presented with three odors, two of

which are identical, and is asked to select the odd one. A series of such

trials constitutes the triangle test. Unobtrusive Measures

Methods of studying behavior which

do not interfere with the normal en- vironment in which the behavior occurs. The researcher observes

without intruding into the scene.

User

An occupant of a building, i.e., anyone

who uses or performs activities in a

building.

Validity

The degree to which a research study

or test can predict performance in a

realistic situation—that is, where the

problem investigated actually exists.

Value

Relative lightness or darkness of a

color.

Vapor Dilution Method

A method of determining odor

threshold levels by mixing various

amounts of uncontaminated air with

odorous air. Variable

1. A factor the quantity of which can

be increased or decreased either in discrete or continuous steps or along

some continuum without any other

concommitant change in that factor.

2. Anything that can change or take on different characteristics appropriate to specified conditions.

White Noise

An acoustical stimulus composed of

all audible frequencies at the same in- tensity with random phase relations

between them; it sounds like "shhhhhhhhhhh."

Word Association Test

A projective technique consisting of a

list of words which is presented to the

subject one at a time. The subject is asked to respond with the first word

that comes into his mind.

288
BiMiograplqf

To further guide the reader, one or more of the following descriptive codes

appears after each entry.

[1] Popular treatment serving as a good Introduction to a subject

[2] Detailed technical work on a particular subject

[3] Edited compendium of research studies covering a restricted range

of subjects

[4] Edited compendium of research studies covering a broad range of

subjects

[5] Handbook containing densely packed information

[6] Theoretical work

[7] Research study, typically a Journal article

[8] Literature search

GENERAL REFERENCES

Archea, J., & Eastman, C. (Eds.), EDRA 2: Proceedings of the 2nd Annual

Environmental Design Research Association Conference. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Carnegie-Mellon University, October 1970. [4]

Bell, G., Randall, E., & Roeder, J., Urban Environments and Human Behavior: An

Annotated Bibliography, (Community Development Series). Stroudsburg,

Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1973. [8]

Bliss, W. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Symposium on Environmental Effects on

Behavior, Montana State University, July 21-22, 1975. [4]

Borgata, E. F. (Ed.), Social Psychology: Readings and Perspective. Chicago:

Rand McNally, 1969. [4]

Broadbent, G., Design in Architecture—Architecture and the Human Sciences.

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Canter, D. V. (Ed.), Architectural Psychology: Proceedings of the Conference at Dalandhvi, University of Strathclyde, U.K., February 23-March 1, 1969. [4]

Canter, D. V. (Ed.), Architectural Psychology. London: RIBA, 1970. [4]

Canter, D. V., & Lee, T. R. (Eds.), Psychology and the Built Environment. London:

Architectural Press, 1974. [4]

Canter, D. V. et ai., Environmental Interaction— Psychological Approaches to Our

Physical Surroundings. London: Surrey University Press, 1975. [2]

Coates, G. J., & Moffett, K. IVI. (Eds.), Response to Environment, Student

Publications of the School of Design, (Vol. 18). Raleigh, N.C.: North

Carolina State University, 1969. [4]

Craik, K. H. et ai., New Directions in Psychology 4. New York: Holt, Rinehart &

Winston, 1970. [8]

Ellingstad, U. S., & Helmstra, N. W., Methods in the Study of Human Behavior.

Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1974. [2]

Galtung, J., Theory and Methods of Social Research. New York: Columbia

University Press, 1969. [2]

Gutman, R. (Ed.), People and Buildings. New York: Basic Books, 1972. [4]

Helmstra, N. W., & Ellingstad, U. S., Human Behavior: A Systems Approach.

Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1972. [2]

Helmstra, N. W., & McFarling, L. H., Environmental Psychology. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole, 1974. [2]

Honlkman, B. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Architectural Psychology Conference at Kingston Polytechnic. [4]

Honlkman, B. (Ed.), Responding to Social Change, (Community Development

Series). Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1975. [4]

Ittleson, W. H. (Ed.), Environment and Cognition. New York: Seminar Press,

1973. [3]

Kuller, R. (Ed.), Architectural Psychology— Proceedings of the Lund Conference.

Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1973. [4]

Lang, J. (Ed.), Designing for Human Behavior: Architecture and the Behavioral

Sciences, (Community Development Series). Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden,

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Lee, T., "Psychology and living space. " Transactions of the Barlett Society, 1963-

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289
Michelson, W., Man and His Urban Environment: A Sociological Approach.

Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1970. [2]

Michelson, W., Behavioral Research Methods in Environmental Design,

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Mitchell, W. J. (Ed.), Environmental Design: Research and Practice, Proceedings

of the EDRA 3/AR 8 Conference, Los Angeles: University of California at Los Angeles, 1972. [4]

Perin, C, With Man in Mind: An Inter-Disciplinary Prospectus for Environmental

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Preiser, W. F. E. (Ed.), Environmental Design Research: Proceedings of the 4th

Annual Environmental Design Research Association Conference (2 vols.),

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Proshansky, H. M., Ittleson, W. H., & Rivlin, L. G. (Eds.), Environmental

Psychology: Man and His Physical Setting. New York: Holt, Rinehart &

Winston, 1970. [4]

Raskin, E., Architecture and People. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974.

[2]

Rubin, A. I., & Elder, J., User Requirements in the Home—Data Collection

Methodology—A State of the Art Report (HBS Report 10 852). Washington,

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Environmental Design Research Association Conference, Chapel Hill, N.C.,

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Wohlwill, J. F., "The averaging discipline of environmental psychology. "American

Psychologist, 1970, 25, 303-312. [4]

Zeisel, J., Social Science Frontiers: 6, Sociology and Architectural Design. New

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Giedion, S., Space, Time and Architecture (5th ed.). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard

University Press, 1974. [2]

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Neutra, R., Survival Through Design. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969.

[2]

Wright, J. R., "Performance Criteria in Buildings. " Scientific American, 1971

,

224(3). [7]

290

CHAPTER 2. BACKGROUND

Caudlll, W. V/., Architecture by Team. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971.

[1]

Doxiadis, C. A., Architecture In Transition. New York: Oxford University Press,

1968. [2]

Maslow, A. H., Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row, 1954. [2]

Sommer, R., Tight Spaces: Hard Architecture and How to Humanize It. Englewood

Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974. [1]

CHAPTER 3. DESIGN/BEHAVIORAL

RESEARCH BRIDGES

American Institute of Architects. Emerging Techniques 2: Architectural

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Cooper, C. C, Easter Hill Village. New York: MacMillan, 1975. [2]

Cooper, C. & Hackett, P., Analysis of the Design Process at Two ModerateIncome Housing Developments (Working Paper No. 80). Berkeley, Calif.: University of Calif., Department of Landscape Architecture, June 1968.

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Eberhard, J. P. (Ed.), The Performance Concept: A Study of Its Application to Housing, Vols. 1 , 2, & 3. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards,

June 1969. [2]

Gustafson, C. E., Pocket Glossary for Personnel Subsystem Development.

Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Wright Air Development Division, 1960. [1]

Hester, R. T., Jr., Neighborhood Space, (Community Development Series, Vol.

17). Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, 1975. [1]

Horowitz, H., "The architect's program and the behavioural sciences.

Architectural Science Review, 1966, 9(3), 71-79. [7]

Ittleson, W. H., Proshansky, H. M., & Rivlin, L. G., "Bedroom size and social

interaction on the psychiatric ward. " Environment and Behavior, 1970, 2(3),

255-270. [7]
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Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1974. [2]

Markus, T. A., "The role of building performance measurement and appraisal in design method. " The Architects' Journal Information Library, December 20,

1967. [7]

Michelson, W., & Reed, P., "The time budget. "In W. Michelson (Ed.), Behavioral

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Griffiths, I. D., & Langdon, F. J., "Subjective response to road traffic noise.

"

Journal of Sound and Vibration, 1968, 8(1), 16-32. [7]

Harris, J. D., Forty Germinal Papers in Human Hearing. Groton, Conn.: Journal of

Auditory Research, 1969. [3]

Kryter, K., "Scaling human reactions to the sound from aircraft. " Journal of the

Acoustical Society of America, 1959,31(11), 1415-1429. [7]

Kryter, K., The Effects of Noise on Man. New York: Academic Press, 1970. [2]

Kryter, K., Johnson, P. J., & Young, J. R., Judgement Tests of Flyover Noise from

Various Aircraft (NASA CR-1635). Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics

and Space Administration, August 1970. [7]

Peterson, A. P. G., & Gross, E. E., Jr., Handbook of Noise Measurement.

Concord, Mass.: General Radio, 1972. [5]

Schultz, T. J., Noise Assessment Guidelines Technical Background (HUD Report

No. TE/NA 172). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,

1972. [2]

Schultz, T. J., & McMahon, N. M., HUD Noise Assessment Guidelines.

Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1971. [2]
Stevens, S. S., Psychophysics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975. [2]

Welch, B. L., & Welch, A. S., Physiological Effects of Noise. New York: Plenum

Press, 1970. [2]

Yanlv, S., & Flynn, D., Noise Criteria for Buildings: A Critical Review (NBS Special

Publication 499). Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, Jan.

1978. [7]

CHAPTER 11. VISUAL PERCEPTION

Beardslee, D. C, & Werthelmer, M., (Eds.), Readings in Perception. Princeton,

N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1958. [3]

Carr, S., & Schlssler, D., "The city as a trip." Environment and Behavior, June

1969, 1(1), 7-35. [7]

Garling, T., "The relation of judged depth to judged size of space under different

viewing conditions. "In S. Hesselgren, Expenmenfa/ Studies on Architectural

Perception. National Swedish Building Research Document D2, 1971. [7]

Gibson, E., & Walk, R., In J. E. Hochberg, Perception. Englewood Cliffs, New

Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1964. [2]

Gibson, J. J., The Perception of the Visual World. Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside

Press, 1950. [2,6]

Heath, T. F., "Problems of measurement in environment aesthetics." Architectural

Science Review, March 1968, pp. 17-28. [7]

Henle, M., The Selected Papers of Wolfgang Kohler. New York: Liveright, 1971.

[2,6]

Hochberg, J. E., Perception. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1964.

[2]

Ittleson, W., & Kllpatrick, F.,ln J. E. Hochberg, Percepf/on. Englewood Cliffs,

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1964. [2]

Katz, D.,ln D. C. Beardslee & M. Werthelmer (Eds.), Readings In Perception.

Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1958. [3]

Koffka, K., Phnciples ofGestalt Psychology. New York: Harcourt, 1935. [2]

Kohler, W., Gestalt Psychology. New York: Liveright, 1947. [2,6]

Lucklesh, M., Visual Illusions, Their Causes, Characteristics and Applications. New

York: Dover Publications, 1965. [1]

Mowatt, M.,ln D. C. Beardslee and M. Werthelmer (Eds.), Readings in Perception.

Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1958. [7,3]

Murch, G. M., Visual and Auditory Perception. New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973.

[2,6]

Pickett, R. M., Perceiving Visual Texture: A Literature Survey (AMRL-TR-68-12).

Dayton, Ohio: Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Aerospace Medical

Research Laboratories, March 1968. [2,8]

Rubin, E.,ln D. C. Beardslee & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Readings in Perception.

Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1958. [7,3]

Valentine, C. W., The Experimental Psychology of Beauty. London: Associated

Book Publishers, 1968. [2]

Vernon, M. D., Experiments in Visual Perception. Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books,

1966. [2]

Werthelmer, M., In D. C. Beardslee & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Readings in Perception. Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1958. [7,3]

Yarbus, A. L., Eye Movements and Vision. New York: Plenum Press, 1967. [2]

CHAPTER 12. THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENTILLUMINATION

Blackwell, H. R., "Specification of interior illumination levels. " Illuminating

Engineering, 1 959, 54(6), 31 7-353. [7]

Blackwell, H. R., "The evaluation of interior lighting on the basis of visual criteria. "

Applied Optics, 1967, 6(9), 1443-1467. [7]

Bodmann, H., In R. G. Hopkinson & J. B. Collins, The Ergonomics of Lighting.

London: MacDonald, 1970. [2]

Boynton, R. M., "Some visual factors in reducing lighting levels. " In D. K. Ross

(Ed.), The Basis for Effective Management of Lighting. Washington, D.C.: Federal Energy Administration, October 1975. [7]

British Illuminating Engineering Society, "Artificial lighting." The Architects'

Journal Information Library, January 1967, 13-36. [7]

Collins, J., In R. G. Hopkinson & J. B. Collins, The Ergonomics of Lighting.

London: MacDonald, 1970. [2]

Faulkner, W., Architecture and Color. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1 972. [1]

Flynn, J. E. et al., "Intehm study of procedures for investigating the effect of light on

impression and behavior." Journal oflES, October 1973, 3(1). [7]

Gilbert, M., & Hopkinson, R. G., In R. G. Hopkinson & J. B. Collins, The

Ergonomics of Lighting. London: MacDonald, 1970. [2]

Holmes, J. G., Essays on Lighting. New York: Crane, Russak & Co., 1974. [2]

297
Hopkinson, R. G., & Collins, J. B., The Ergonomics of Lighting. London:

MacDonald, 1970. [2]

IBS Lighting Handbook (5th ed.). New York: Illuminating Engineering Society,

1972. [5]

Lam, W. M. C, "Lighting for architecture. " (Reprinted from Architectural Record,

undated.) [1]

Lythgoe, R., In R. G. Hopkinson & J. B. Collins, The Ergonomics of Lighting.

London: MacDonald, 1970. [2]

Neenan, C. J., "Shadow characteristics of stage lights for theatre, television and

motion pictures." Illuminating Engineering, 1968, 63(6), 321-326. [7]

Ostberg, O., & Stone, P., "Methods for evaluating discomfort glare aspects of

lighting. " Goteborg Psychological Reports, Univ. of Goteborg, Sweden,

1974, 4(4). [7]

Ribiero, J. S., Allen, W. A., & Deamorim, M., "Lighting of the Calouste

Gulbenklan Museum." Lighting Research and Technology, 1971, 3(2). [7]

Weston, M., In R. G. Hopkinson & J. B. Collins, The Ergonomics of Lighting.

London: MacDonald, 1970. [2]

Yonemura, G., & Kohayakawa, Y., A New Look at the Research Basis for Lighting

Level Recommendations (NBS Building Science Series 82). Washington,

D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, March 1976. [7]

CHAPTER 13. COLOR

Acking, C. A., & Kuller, R., "The perception of interior as a function of colour.

"

Ergonomics, 1972, 15(6), 645-654. [7]

Ashton, S. M., & Bellchambers, H. E., "Illumination, colour rendering and visual

clarity." Lighting Research and Technology, 1969, 1(4), 259-261. [7]

Berglund, E., Application of the Natural Colour System. Stockholm: Swedish

Colour Centre Foundation. [7]

Billmeyer, F. W., & Saltzman, M., Principles of Color Technology. New York:

John Wiley & Sons, 1966. [1]

Birren, F., Light, Color and Environment. New York: Van Nostrand, 1969. [1]

Burnham, R. W., Hanes, R. M., & Bartleson, C. J., Color: A Guide to Basic Facts

and Concepts. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1963. [2]

Evans, R. M., An Introduction to Color. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1948. [2]

298

Faulkner, W., Architecture and Color. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972. [1]

Hard, A., "NCS: A descriptive colour order and scaling system with application for environmental design. " Man-Environment Systems, 1975, 5(3). [7]

Hunter, R. S., The Measurement of Appearance. New York: John Wiley & Sons,

1975. [2]

Inui, M., Practical Analysis of Interior Color Environment (BRI Occasional Report

No. 27). Tokyo: Building Research Institute, Ministry of Construction, July

1966. [7]

Judd, D. B., "Choosing pleasant color combinations. " Lighting Design and

Application, August 1971, 1(3). [7]

Judd, D. B., Color in Our Everyday Lives (NBS Consumer Guide Series 6). Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, March 1975. [1]

Judd, D. B., & Kelly, K. L., Color-Universal Language and Dictionary of Names

(NBS Special Publication 440). Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of

Standards, December 1976. [7]

Judd, D. B., & Nickerson, D., "Relation between Munsell and Swedish natural

color system scales. " Journal of the Optical Society of America, Jan. 1 975,

65(1). [7]

Judd, D. B., & Wyszecki, G., Color in Business, Science and Industry (3rd ed.).

New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975. [2]

Kelly, K. L., In D. B. Judd & K. L. Kelly, Color— Universal Language and

Dictionary of Names (NBS Special Publication 440). Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, December 1976. [7]

Kuller, R., The Perception of an Interior as a Function of Its Colour (Report 1 ). Lund, Sweden: Lund Institute of Technology, Section of Architecture,

1969. [7]

Nimeroff, I. (Ed.), Precision Measurement and Calibration (NBS Special

Publication 300, Vol. 9, Colorimetry). Washington, D.C.: National Bureau

of Standards, June 1972. [4]

Payne, I., "Pupillary response to architectural stimuli. " In D. V. Canter (Ed.),

Architectural Psychology: Proceedings of the Conference at Dalandhvi,

University of Strathclyde, U.K., 1969. [7,4]

Srivastava, R. K., & Peel, T. S., Human Movement as a Function of Color

Stimulation. Topeka, Kan.: Environmental Research Foundation, 1968. [7]

Wright, W. D., The Measurement of Color. London: Hilger & Watts, 1958. [2]
CHAPTER 14. THE THERMAL ENVIRONMENT

Acking, C. A., & Kuller, R., Factors in the Perception ofttie l-iuman Environment:

Semantic Ratings of Interiors from Colour Slides. Lund, Sweden: Lund

Institute of Technology, Department of Theoretical and Applied

Aesthetics, 1967. [7]

Acking, C. A., & Kuller, R., "The perception of an interior as a function of its colour." Ergonomics, 1972, 15, 645-654. [7]

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-ConditionIng Engineers,

ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. New York: ASHRAE, 1972. [2,5]

Bruce, W., Man and His Thermal Environment {Division of Building Research

Technical Paper 84). Ottawa: NRC-DBR, Feb. 1960. [2,8]

Canter, D. V., & Stringer, P., Environmental Interaction— Psychological

Approaches to Our Physical Surroundings. London: Surrey University

Press, 1975. [1]

Fanger, P. O., Thermal Comfort. Copenhagen: Danish Technical Press, 1970.

[2,6]

Fanger, P. O., & Griffiths, I., In P. O. Fanger, Thermal Comfort. Copenhagen:

Danish Technical Press, 1970. [2]

Fanger, P. O., & Olesen, B., In P. O. Fanger, Thermal Comfort. Copenhagen:

Danish Technical Press, 1970. [2]

Fitch, J. IVI., The Architectural Manipulation of Space, Time, and Gravity. New

York: Columbia University, 1969. [2]

Hardy, J. D., In J. D. Hardy, A. P. Gagge & J. A. Stolwijk (Eds.), Thermal Comfort,

Physiological and Behavioral Temperature Regulation. Springfield, Illinois: Chas. Thomas, 1970. [3,7]

Holmberg, I., & Wyon, D., In Thermal Comfort and Moderate Heat Stress (BRE

Report 2). Garston, Watford, U.K.: HMSO, 1973. [7]

Houghton, F. C, & Yagloglou, C. P., "Determination of the comfort zone." ASHVE

Transactions, 1923, 29. [7]

Humphreys, M. A., Clothing and Thermal Comfort of Secondary School Children

(CIB Commission W45). Symposium on Thermal Comfort and Moderate

Heat Stress, September, 1972. [7]

Humphreys, M. A., & Nicol, J. F., Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Thermal

Comfort (BRS CP 14/71). Garston, Watford, U.K.: Building Research

Station, April 1971. [7]

Jones, R. D., Effect of Thermal Stress on Human Performance: A Review and

Critique of Existing Methodology (Tech. Memo 1 1-70). Aberdeen, Md:

Human Engineering Laboratories, 1970. [2,8]

Langdon, F. J., "Human sciences and the environment in buildings. " Build

International, Jan. -Feb. 1973, 6(1). [7]

Langdon, F. J., & Loudon, A., "Discomfort in schools from overheating in summer. " Journal of the Institution of Heating and Ventilation Engineers,

March 1970, 37, 265-274. [7]

Mangum, D. W., & Hill, J. E., Thermal Analysis— Human Comfort—Indoor

Environments (NBS Special Publication 491). Washington, D.C.: National

Bureau of Standards, Sept. 1977. [3]

Mclntyre, D., In Thermal Comfort and Moderate Heat Stress (BRE Report 2). Garston, Watford, U.K.: HMSO, 1973. [7]

McNall, P. et al., "The relative effects of convection and radiation heat transfer on

thermal comfort for sedentary and active human subjects. "ASHRAE

Transactions. 1968, 74 (Part II), 131-143. [7]

Newton, A. et al., In F. C. Houghton, C. Gutbercet & A. Rosenberg, Summer

cooling requirements in Washington, D.C. and other metropolitan districts. ASHVE Transactions, 1939, 45(577). [7]

Rohles, F. H., "Psychological aspects of thermal comfort." ASHRAE Journal,

January 1971, 86-90. [7]

Ryd, H., & Wyon, D., Methods of Evaluating Human Stress Due to Climate

(National Swedish Building Research Report D6:1970). Stockholm, 1970.

[7]

Teichner, W. H., "The subjective response to the thermal environment. " Human

Factors, 1967, 9(5), 497-510. [7]

Thermal Comfort and Moderate Heat Stress (BRE Report 2). Garston, Watford,

U.K.: HMSO, 1973. [7]

Wyon, D. P., Asgeirsdettir, T., Kjerulf-Jensen, P., & Fanger, P. O., "The effects of ambient temperature swings on comfort, performance and behavior.

"

Proceedings of Conference on Prediction of Thermal Environment in Man,

Strasbourg, France, July 1973. [7]

CHAPTER 15. THE OLFACTORY

ENVIRONMENT—AIR QUALITY

American Society for Testing and IVIaterials. Correlation of Subjective-Objective

Methods in the Study of Odors and Taste (Special Tech. Pub. ASTM 440).

Philadephia: ASTM, June 1968. [2]

Elsberg, C, & Levy, I., In D. G. Moulton, A. Turk & J. W. Johnston (Eds.),

Methods in Olfactory Research. New York: Academic Press, 1975. [3]

299
McCord, C. P., & Witheridge, W. N., Odors, Physiology and Control. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1949. [2]

Miner, R. W., "Basic odor research correlation. " Annals of the N. Y. Academy of

Sciences, March 1954, 58, art. 2. [3]

Mouiton, D. G., Turk, A., & Johnston, J. W., Methods in Olfactory Research. New

York; Academic Press, 1975. [3]

Springer, K. J., & Hare, C. T., A Field Study to Determine Public Opinion of Diesel

Engine Exhaust Odor (Rep. AR-718). San Antonio, Texas: Southwest

Research Institute, February 1970. [7]

Turit, A., In D. G. Mouiton, A. Turk & J. W. Johnston (Eds.), [Methods in Olfactory

Research. New York: Academic Press, 1975. [3]

Turl<, A., & Mehlman, S., In D. G. Mouiton, A. Turk & J. W. Johnston (Eds.),

Methods in Olfactory Research. New York: Academic Press, 1975. [3]

Wittes, J.,-& Turk, A., In D. G. Mouiton, A. Turk & J. W. Johnston (E6s.), Methods

in Olfactory Research. New York: Academic Press, 1975. [3]

CHAPTER 16. ENVIRONMENTAL STABILITYMOVEMENTS

Allen, D.L., & Swallow, J.L., "Annoying floor vibrations—diagnosis and therapy."

Journal of Sound and Vibration, 1975.[7]

Bender, E. K., & Collins, A. M., Effects of Vibration on Human Performance: A

Literature Review {BoH, Beranek and Newman Report 1767). Boston: Bolt,

Beranek and Newman, February 1969. [2,8]

Chen, P. W., & Robertson, F., "Human perception thresholds of horizontal

motion." Journal of Structural Division, Proceedings of ASCE, August 1972.

[7]

Dennis, J., In E. K. Bender & A. M. Collins, Effects of Vibration on Human

Performance: A Literature Review (Bo\X, Beranek and Newman Report

1767). Boston: Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Feb. 1969. [2,8]

Helberg, W., & Sperling, E., In W. Bryce, A Review and Assessment of Criteria for Human Comfort of Vibration (N.G.T.E. R286). Pyestock, Hants, U.K.: Ministry of Aviation, National Gas Turbine Establishment, Dec. 1966. [2,8]

Holland, C. et a!.. In E. K. Bender & A. M. Collins, Effects of Vibration on Human

Performance: A Literature flewew(Bolt, Beranek and Newman Report

1767). Boston: Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Feb. 1969. [8]

Hornick, R., In E. K. Bender & A. M. Collins, Effects of Vibration on Human

Performance: A Literature Review (Bolt, Beranek and Newman Report

1767). Boston: Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Feb. 1969. [8]

300

Irwin, A. W., "Human reactions to oscillations of buildings-acceptable limits. " Build

International, 1975, 8(2). [7]

Jacklin, H., & Lidell, G., in E. K. Bender & A. M. Collins, Effects of Vibration on Human Performance: A Literature Review (Bo\t, Beranek and Newman

Report 1767). Boston: Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Feb. 1969. [8]

Parks, D. L., & Snyder, F. W., Human Reaction to Low Frequency Vibration (Tech.

Rep. D3-3512-1). Wichita, Kansas: Boeing Co., July 1961. [7]

Reed, J. W., Wind-Induced Motion and Human Discomfort in Tall Buildings

(Research Report R71-42). Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, Department of Civil Engineering, November, 1971. [7]

Reiher, H., & IVIeister, F., In W. Bryce, A Review and Assessment of Criteria for Human Comfort of Vibration (N.G.T.E. R286). Pyestock, Hants, U.K.: Ministry of Aviation, National Gas Turbine Establishment, Dec. 1966. [8]

Schmitz, M., In E. K. Bender & A. M. Collins, Effects of Vibration On Human

Performance: A Literature Review (Bolt, Beranek and Newman Report

1767). Boston: Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Feb. 1969. [8]

Van Deusen, In E. K. Bender & A. M. Collins, Effects of Vibration on Human

Performance: A Literature fleweiv(Bolt, Beranek and Newman Report

1767). Boston: Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Feb. 1969. [8]

Weisz, A. et al.. In E. K. Bender & A. M. Collins, Effects of Vibration on Human

Performance: A Literature Review (Bolt, Beranek and Newman Report

1767). Boston: Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Feb. 1969. [8]

Yamada, M., & Goto, T., "Human response to tall building motion. " In D. Conway

(Ed.), Human Response to Tall Buildings. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden,

Hutchinson & Ross, 1977. [3,7]

CHAPTER 17. THE CUTANEOUS

ENVIRONMENT—SKIN SENSES

Austin, T., & Sleight, R., In C. H. Baker & R. J. Hall, Cutaneous Sensitivity: A

Review of Some Literature, Problems, and Approaches (U.S. Army Tech.

Memo 21-69). Aberdeen, Md.: Human Engineering Laboratories, Dec.

1969. [8]

Bach Y Rita et al.. In F. A. Geldard,r/?e Human Senses (2nd ed.). New York:

John Wiley & Sons, 1972. [2]

Baker, C. H., & Hall, R. J., Cutaneous Sensitivity: A Review of Some Literature,

Problems and Approaches (U.S. Army Tech. Memo 21-69). Aberdeen,

Md.: Human Engineering Laboratories, Dec. 1969. [8]
Burnham, C. A., & Grim, C. T., Toward a Rational Aesthetic Criterion for the

Selection of the Visual Properties of Architectural Surfaces. Paper presented

at the 7th Annual Architectural Research Conference, University of Cinn.,

Nov. 1970. [7]

Burrows, A., & Cummings, F.,ln C. H. Baker & R. J. Hall, Cutaneous Sensitivity: A

Review of Some Literature, Problems and Approaches (U. S. Army Tech.

Memo 21-69). Aberdeen, Md.: Human Engineering Laboratories, Dec.

1969. [8]

Geldard, F. A., The Human Senses (2nd ed.). New/ York: John Wiley & Sons,

1972. [2]

Giiner, C, "Tactual discrimination thresholds for shape and texture in young

children." Journal of Expehmental Child Psychology, 1967, 5, 536-547. [7]

Hawkes, G., Absolute Identification of Cutaneous Stimuli (FAA Report 62-16).

Washington, D.C.: Federal Aviation Administration, Sept. 1962. [7]

Katz, D., In D. C. Beardslee & M. Wertheimer (Eds.), Readings in Perception.

Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1958. [7,3]

McCormick, E. J., Human Factors in Engineering and Design (4th ed.). New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1976. [2]

Siegel, A., & Vance B., "Visual and haptic dimensional preference.

Developmental Psychology, 1970, 3(2), 264-266. [7]

Sinclair, D. C, Cutaneous Sensation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967.

[2]

Stevens, S. S., Psychophysics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975. [2]

Von Frey, IVI., In F. A. Geldard, The Human Senses (2nd ed.). New York: John

Wiley & Sons, 1972. [2]

Yoshida, M., "Dimensions of tactual impressions." Psychological Research. 1968,

10(3), 123-137. [7]

CHAPTER 18. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS,

AND DIRECTIONS

Gropius, W., The New Architecture and the Bauhaus. London: Faber, 1935. [1]

Gropius, W., Scope of Total Architecture. New York: Macmillan, 1970. [1]

Riemer, S., "Livability—A new factor in home value. " The Appraisal Journal, April

1946, 14(2), 148-158. [7]

Riemer, S., "Hidden dimensions of neighborhood planning. " Land Economics,

May 1950, 26, 197-201. [7]

Riemer, S., & Demerath, N. J., "The role of social research in housing design.

" Land Economics, Aug. 1952, 28(3), 230-243. [7]

Seilgman, C.et al., Psychological Strategies to Reduce Energy Consumption: First Annual Progress Report (Center for Environmental Studies, Report No.

41). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University, 1976. [7]

CHAPTER 19. BEHAVIORAL RESEARCHHISTORICAL FACTORS (OVERVIEW)

Anderson, H. H., & Anderson, G. L., An Introduction to Projective Techniques and

Other Devices for Understanding the Dynamics of Human Behavior. New

York: Prentice-Hall, 1951. [2]

Beardslee, D. C, & Wertlieimer, M. C. (Eds.), Readings in Perception.

Princeton, New Jersey: Van Nostrand, 1958. [3]

Blum, IVI., Industrial Psychology and Its Social Foundations. New York: Harper

Bros., 1949. [2]

Boring, E., Sensation and Perception in the History of Expehmental Psychology.

New York: Appleton, Century-Crofts, 1942. [2]

Boring, E., A History of Experimental Psychology (2nd ed). New York: Appleton,

Century-Crofts, 1950. [2]

Chaplin, J., & Krawiec, T., Systems and Theohes of Psychology. New York: Holt,

Rinehart& Winston, 1962. [2]

Cooper, C. C, Easter Hill Village. New York: Macmillan, 1975. [2]

Dennis, W. (Ed.), Readings in the History of Psychology. New York: Appleton,

Century-Crofts, 1948. [4]

Gutman, R. (Ed.), People and Buildings. New York:Basic Books, 1972 [4]

John B. Pierce Foundation, Family Living as the Basis for Dwelling Design, Vols.

1-5. New York: John B. Pierce Foundation, 1943. [2]

Kohler, W., Gestalt Psychology. New York: Mentor Books, 1947. [1]

Proshansky, H. M., Ittleson, W. H., & Rivlin, L. G. (Eds.), Environmental

Psychology: Man and His Physical Setting. New York: Holt, Rinehart &

Winston, 1970. [4]

Reimer, S., "Livability—A new factor in home value. " The Appraisal Journal, April

1946, 14(2), 148-158. [1]

Stevens, S. S,, Psychophysics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975. [2]

301
Vernon, M. (Ed.), Experiments in Visual Perception. Baltimore, Md.: Penguin

Books, 1966. [3]

Wright, W. D., Tlie Measurement of Color. London: Hilger & Watts, 1 958. [2]

CHAPTER 20. SURVEYS

Blankenship, A. B,, Consumer and Opinion Research: The Questionnaire

Technique. New York: Harper & Bros., 1943. [1,2]

Cantril, H., Gauging Public Opinion. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton

University Press, 1944. [2]

Edwards, A. L., Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction. New York: Appleton,

Century-Crofts, 1957. [2,6]

Gallup, G., Qualitative Measurement of Public Opinion: The Quintamensional Plan

of Question Design. Princeton, New Jersey: American Institute of Public

Opinion, 1947. [7]

Glock, C. Y. (Ed.), Survey Research in the Social Sciences. New York: Russell

Sage Foundation, 1967. [3]

Hyman, H., Survey Design and Analysis: Principles, Cases and Procedures. New

York: The Free Press, 1955. [2]

Langdon, F. J., Modern Offices: A User Survey (National Building Studies

Research Paper 41). London: HMSO, 1966. [7]

Langdon, F. J,, & Keighley, E. C, "User research in office design. " Architects'

Journal, February 5, 1964. [7]

Lucas, D. B., & Britt, S. H., Advertising Psychology and Research. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1950. [1]

Manning, P. B. (Ed.), Office Design: A Study of Environment. University of

Liverpool, Department of Building Science, Pilkington Research Unit,

1965. [2,7]

Nicholls, W. L., II, & Babbie, E. R., Oakland In Transition: A Summary of the 701

Household Survey. Berkeley, Calif.: University of Calif., Berkeley, Survey

Research Center, June 1969. [7]

Oppenheim, A. N., Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement. New York:

Basic Books, 1966. [2]

Payne, S. L., The Art of Asking Questions. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University

Press, 1951. [1]

University of Illinois at Urbana, Committee on Housing Research and

Development, Families in Public Housing: An Evaluation of Three

Residential Environments in Rockford, Illinois. Champaign, Illinois: Author,

1972. [7]

302

CHAPTER 21. CLASSIFICATION,

MEASUREMENTS, AND STATISTICS

Anastasi, A., Psychological Testing (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan, 1976. [2]

Arkin, H., & Colton, R. R., Statistical Methods. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1 955.

[2]

Cattell, R. B. (Ed.), Handbook of Multivariate Psychology. Chicago: Rand

McNally, 1966. [3]

Edwards, A. L., Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction. New York: Appleton,

Century-Crofts, 1957. [2]

Edwards, A. L., Experimental Design in Psychological Research. New York: Holt,

Rinehart & Winston, 1965. [2]

Garrett, H. E., Statistics in Psychology and Education. New York: Longmans,

Green and Co., 1953. [2]

Moroney, M., Facts From Figures (3rd ed.)., Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books,

1956. [1]

Roebuck, J. A., Kroemer, K. H. E., & Thompson, M. S., Engineering

Anthropometry Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975. [2]

Siegel, S., Nonparamethc Statistics. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956. [2]

Skinner, B. F., Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan, 1953. [2]

Stevens, S. S., Psychophysics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975. [2]

Wilson, E. B., An Introduction to Scientific Research. New York: McGraw-Hill,

1952. [2]

Youden, W. J., Risk, Choice and Prediction. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1974.

[1]
Index

SUBJECT INDEX

Absolute threshold 62

Accident research 65

Activities 29, 30

Al 133

Analytic (see Research)

Anechoic chamber 132

Anthropometry 92, 93, 102, 245

Applied (see Research)

Articulation index (see Al)

Audiogram 140

Audiometer 140

Average error (see Psychophysical

methods)

Averages 139

mean 246, 272

median 272

mode 272

Background noise 139

Basic (see Research)

Behavior setting 56, 57

Binomial expansion 27

Chance 269, 271

Chroma 173

Classical conditioning 236

Color

film 169

surface 169

volume 169

Cones 79, 154

Constancy phenomena 148, 150

Constant stimuli (see

Psychophysical methods)

Control setting 75

Control variable 45

Controls 51, 104, 213

Correlation 21, 273

Critical incident 109

Crowding 90

Dark adaptation 154

Data 41

dBA scale 47

Defensible space 65, 66

Dependent variable 34, 45, 59

Dichotomous item 260

Disability glare (see Glare)

Discomfort glare (see Glare)

Displays 104, 213

Ecological psychology 57

Electromyography 101

Equal loudness contours 137

Ergonomics 22

Errors of first kind 270

Errors of second kind 270

Experiment 41

Experimental setting 75

Eye movements 59, 146, 147, 150,

234

Figure-ground 149

Film color (see Color)

Filter questions 262

Fixed-feature space 123

Focused interview 257

Fovea 154

Galvanic skin response (GSR) 89

Games (see Simulation)

Gestalt 148, 149, 233

Glare 153

disability 158

discomfort 158, 159

Gradient 144

Hard architecture 114

Hawthorne studies 249

Hodometer 111

Hue 173

Hue circle 178

Human factors 22, 25, 95, 100, 104,

112, 251

Hypothesis 21, 34, 54

Incident light 164

Independent variable 34, 45

Interval scale (see Scale)

Interviews 256

Just noticeable difference (JND) 237

Landolt ring 161

Life space 84, 86

Lightness scale 178

Literature review 42

Loudness 137

Mapping 71, 72, 73

Matched group 90

Mean (see Average)

Median (see Average)

M/E models

correlation 55

decision 58

descriptive 58

predictive 58

S-O-R (see S-O-R)

S-R (see S-R)

Mode (see Average)

Movable space feature 122

Multiple choice 260

Multiple criterion technique 165

Multivariate (see Research)

Munsell Color System 173

Nativistic 233

Natural Color System 178, 179

NC curves 130, 133

Noise 128, 141

Noise criteria (see NC)

Nominal scale (see Scale)

Normal curve 246

Normal distribution 270, 271

Null hypothesis 269

Observations 30, 49, 54

Observer

participant 87

passive 58

Olfactometer 200

Open-ended questions 259

Operational definition 49, 50

Ordinal scale (see Scale)

Paired comparison 74, 138, 260

Panel survey (see Survey)

Parameter 45, 54

Parametric research (see Research)

Participant observer (see Observer)

Passive observer (see Observer)

PB word 135

Peak noise 139

Pedometer 101

Perceived noisiness 137

Performance approach 6, 25, 28, 29

Performance measures 191, 209

Permanent threshold shift (see PTS)

Personal space 87

Phenomenologist 233

Phonetically balanced (see PB)

Photographic (see Simulation)

Phototropic 154

Physiological 62, 77, 78, 89, 129,

180, 234, 235

Pilot study 43, 266

303
PNC 137

Population 253, 264

Prediction survey (see Survey)

Preferred noise criteria (see PNC)

Projective techniques 247, 248

Psychoanalytic 247

Psychophysical methods 236, 237

average error 137, 238

constant stimuli 238

method of limits 238

Psychophysics 21, 232

PTS 139

Questionnaires 49, 51, 115, 116, 193,

245, 253

mail 258

self-administered 258

telephone interviews 259

Random sample 265

Ratio scale (see Scale)

Relatoscope 112

Reliability 47, 48, 273

Research

analytic 44, 232

applied 41

basic 40

multivariate 45

parametric 45, 47

Respondents 46

Rhodopsin 45

Rods 79, 154

Sample 253

Scale model (see Simulation)

Scales

interval 267

ordinal 267

nominal 267

ratio 267

SC curves 13

Scentometer 201

Scientific approach 34, 39

Scientific method 21

Self-actualization 17

Semantic differential 63, 116

Semifixed-feature space 117

Sensations 233

SIL131

Silent language 257

Simulation 60, 72

games 62, 72, 74, 75

photographic 48, 71, 75, 76, 111,

114, 181

scale model 60, 61 , 72, 90, 91 , 1 1 1

,

120, 121, 123, 181

Sinusoidal 207

Snellen eye chart 160, 161

Social distance 89

Sociogram 89

Sociometry 89

Sone 137

S-O-R 55

Sound 141

Sound transmission class (see STC)

Speech communication (see SC)

Speech interference level (see SIL)

Speech intelligibility 134

S-R 55

Standard deviation 246, 271

Standard observer 241

Standardized research 42, 51

STC 28, 130, 131

Stereophotography 102

Stimulus 55, 257

Stratified sample 265

Stoboscope 159

Subsystem 25

Suprathreshold 156, 163

Surface color (see Color)

Survey designs 255

panel 255

prediction 255

trend 255

Systematic observation 30, 59, 75,

115, 117

Systems approach 23, 24, 112

Tachistoscope 114, 244

Task analysis 25, 26

Temporary threshold shift (see TTS)

Territoriality 87

Texture gradients 144, 145

Thermal comfort 186, 188

Thermal neutrality 186

Thermography 234

Time and motion studies 100

Time budget 26, 64

TL 132

TNI 139

Traffic noise index (see TNI)

Transient adaptation 155

Transmission loss (see TL)

Trend studies (see Survey)

Triangle test 200

TTS 139

Universal Color Language 174, 175,

176, 177

Unobtrusive measures 64, 111

User requirements 13

Validity 47, 48

Value 173

Vapor dilution method 200

Visual acuity 160

Volume color (see Color)

White noise 141

304
AUTHOR INDEX

Aas, D. 57

Abelson, R. 61

Abney 241

Acking, C. 112

Allen, D. 206

Allen, W. 155

Anderson, J. 87

Anderson, L. 193

Archea, J. 119

Arkin 272

Aston, S.I 69

Astrand, I. 77

Austin, T. 213

BachY Rita 97, 174, 215

Barker, R. 56, 57

Barnes 202

Baum, A. 91

Beadslee, D. 148

Bechtel, R. 48, 56, 110

Beecher, C. 99

Bell, C. 235

Belichambers, H. 169

Beranek, L. 130, 133

Berglund, E. 179

Bernard, C. 39

Berns, T. 109

Bessel, F. 245

Best, G. 110

Billmeyer, F. 172

Blackwell, H. 158, 161, 162, 163

Blackwell, 0. 161, 162

Blake, R. 118

Blankenship, A. 256, 261

Bliss, J. 214

Blondel, F. 119

Bloomfield, B. 65

Blum, M. 61, 64

Bodmann, H. 162

Bonsteel, D. Ill

Boring, E. 150, 234, 236, 237, 239,

240, 241 , 244

Boyce, P. 116

Boynton, R. 155, 158

Bradley 245

Brentano, F. 244

Bridgman, P. 49

Brill, M. 28, 33

Britt, S. 254, 262

Broadbent, C. 20

Broca, P. 235

Brookes, M. 116

Burandt, U. 103

Burrows, A. 215

Buttolph, L. 162

Calhoun, J. 90, 91

Candee, B. 61

Canter, D. 187, 189

Cantril, H. 260, 261

Carr, S. 146

Caudill, W. 19, 29

Cavanaugh, W. 133

Chapanis, A. 104

Chapin, F. 62

Chen, P. 204

Clark, D. 132

Coates, G. 114

Cohen, A. 106

Cohn, S. 62

Collins, J. 62, 97, 159

Colton 272

Colucci 202

Conway, D. 115

Cooper, C. 33, 251

Craik, K. 48, 226

Cronberg, T. 29, 35

Crook, J. 86

Crouch, C. 152, 157

Cummings, F. 215

Dabbs, J. 88

Dallenbach 216

Davis, G. 91, 115

Dempsey, C. 94, 100

Dennis, J. 209

Descartes, R. 233

Dickson, W. 249

Diffrient, N. 103

Doxiades, C. 18

Dreyfuss, H. 95

Durlak, J. 117

Eberhard, J. 23

Egolf, B. 115

Elsberg, C. 201

Englund, M. 117

Esquirol 245

Esser, A. 76

Evans, G. 89

Fanger, P. 187, 188, 190, 191, 195

Faulkner, W. 168

Fechner, G. 237, 238

Festinger, L. 113

Fidell, S. 133, 138

Fitch, J. 53, 99, 119, 183

Fisher, G. 244

Flanagan, J. 109

Fletcher, H. 137

Fluorens, P. 235

Flynn, D. 130, 131

Flynn, J. 157

Freud, S. 84, 232, 247

Fritsch, G. 235

Fry, G. 159

Gallup, G. 262

Galton, F. 92, 245

Galtung, J. 41

Garling, T. 145, 146

Garrett, H. 267

Gelb, P. 115

Geldard, F. 215

Gerbers, C. 202

Gibson, J. 144, 145

Giedion, S. 4, 7

Gilbert, M. 160

Gilbreth, F. 100

Gilbreth,

L 100

Gliner, C. 217

Clock, C. 253

Godschalk, D. 72

Goethe, J. 242

Goto, T. 204, 205, 209

Grandjean, E. 77, 96, 103

Griffiths, I. 139, 195

Gropius, W. 4, 221

Gustafson, C. 23

Guth, S. 159

Gutman, R. 83, 251

Hackett, P. 33

Hall, E. 86, 117, 257

Hall, M. 235

Hallberg, G. 117

Hard, A. 178

Hare, C. 202

Hartford, B. 115

Hawkes, G. 214

Hay, D. 65

Helberg, W. 207

Helmholtz, H. 240, 241

Helson, H. 169

Henning 199

Hering, E. 143, 242

Herrenkohl, R. 115

Hester, R. 31

Hewitt 165

Hitzig, I. 235

Hobbes, T. 233

Hochberg, J. 143

Holahan, C. 88

Holland, C. 207

Holmberg, 1. 192

Holmes, J. 152, 153

Hopkinson, R. 120, 159, 160, 165

Hornick, R. 209

Horstman 199

Houghton, F. 180, 186, 187

Howard, R. 63, 89

Humphreys, M. 191, 195

Imagoglu, M. 121

Inui, M. 121, 181

Ittleson, W. 30, 75, 76, 147, 148, 251

Jacklin, H. 208

Jaensch, E. 244

Johansson, T. 167, 178

Judd, D. 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172,

173, 178

Katz, D. 169, 217, 218

Kant, I. 233, 243

Keighley, E. 120

Keleman, K. 115

Kelly, K. 174, 175, 176, 177

Kilpatrick, F. 147, 148

Kinnebrook, D. 245

305
Kira, A. 106

Kirk, M. 102

Kleeman, W. 115

Kliment, S. 19

Kohler, 1. 147

Kohler, W. 242

Konig, A. 241

Kraegel, J. 24

Kroemer, K. 270

Kronlund 159

Kryter, K. 137, 138

Kiiller, R. 112, 179, 180

Ladd, F. 72

Lam, W. 152

Lambert, J. 240

Langdon, F. 139, 185, 193

Lau, J. 61

Learner, D. 103

Le Carpentier 103

Le Courbusier 92, 183

Leibnitz, G. 233, 243

Lerup, L. 107, 108

Levin, P. 33, 34

Levy, I. 201

Lewin, K. 84

Lidell, G. 209

Liebman, M. 88

Lindenbaum, L. 104

Locl<e, J. 234

Lotze, R. 233

Loudon, A. 193

Lowrey, R. 74

Lozar, C. 225

Lucas, D. 254, 262

Luckiesh, M. 144, 159

Lynch, K. 42, 71, 75, 114, 248

Lythgoe, R. 161

IVIagendie, F. 235

Maiek, R. 61

IVIarkus, T. 32, 33, 34, 35, 58, 121

Maskelyne, N. 245

Maslow, A. 16, 17, 123

iVlaxwell, C. 241

McCormick, E. 44, 213

Mclntyre, D. 193, 194

McMahon, N. 136

McNall, P. 189, 190

IVlehlman, S. 200

Melton, A. 110

Meister, D. 94

Meister, F. 203

Michelson, W. 26, 27, 41, 67

Mill, J. 234

Mill, J. S. 234, 237

Miller, R. 26, 101

Mintz, N. 123

Miyata, T. 121

Moreno, J. 89

Moskowitz 202

Mowatt, M. 150

Munsell, A. 167, 173

Munson, W. 137

Ne'eman, E. 120

Neenan, C. 164

Neutra, R. 5

Nevins, A. 190, 195

Newhall 177

Newman, O. 65, 66

Newton, A. 192

Newton, L 167, 239

Nickerson, D. 178

Nicoi, J. 195

Nutting, P. 159

Olesen, B. 190, 191, 193

Oppenheim, A. 255

Ostberg, 0. 159

Parks, D. 207

Pastalan, L. 90, 97

Pauls, J. 108

Pavlov, \. 236

Payne, \. 181

Payne, S. 261

Pearson, K. 137

Perin, C. 76

Peterson, G. 75

Porteous, C. 116, 117

Porteous, J. 116, 117

Proshansky, H. 30, 75, 251

Rademacher 132

Rapoport, A. 83, 84, 85, 86, 90, 92,

246

Redding, M. 75

Reed, J. 206

Reed, P. 26, 27

Reiher, H. 203

Reimer, S. 221, 250

Ribiero, J. 155, 156

Rivlin, L. 30, 75, 251

Roberts 84, 246

Robertson, C. 204

Roebuck, J. 270

Roethlisberger, F. 249

Rohles, F. 188, 189

Roizen, R. 115

Rosenzweig, S. 247

Rubin, A. 25, 106

Rubin, E. 149

Russo, N. 86, 87

Saltzman, M. 172

Sanoff, H. 114

Sasanoff, R. Ill

Savinar, J. 118

Shiisser, D. 146

Schmitz, M. 209

Schroder 244

Schultz, T. 136

Seaton, R. 62

Sechenov, M. 236

Sheridan, J. 105

Shils, E. 59

Siege!, A. 217

Skinner, B. 40, 263

Sleight, R. 213

Smith, S. 162

Snyder, F. 207

Sommer, R. 10, 87, 114, 122

Southworth, M. 73

Sperling, E. 207

Springer, K. 202

Steinfeid, E. 90

Stevens, S. 55, 137, 216, 239

Stiles 165

Stilitz, I. Ill

Stokols, D. 90

Stone, P. 159

Stroud, H. 92

Suchman, E. 109, 261

Swallow, J. 206

Taylor, F. 100

Thiel, P. 61

Thompson, M. 270

Tindall, M. 87

Turk, A. 200, 202

Vance, B. 217

Van Cott, H. 26, 58, 134, 219

Van Deusen 208

Venze 132

Verillo 216

Vigier, F. 114 von Frey, M. 216

Wachsler, R. 103

Ward, J. 102

Ware, T. 27

Watson, N. 83, 84, 85, 92

Webb, E. 64, 65

Weber, E. 237

Wells, B. 89

Wertheimer, M. 148, 149, 150, 243

Weisz, A. 207

Weston, M. 161, 162

Williamson, P. 88

Wilson, E. 51, 263, 264, 270

Wilson, R. 74

Winkel, G. 61, 111

Wittes, J. 200

Worrall, R. 75

Wright, J. 6, 28

Wright, W. 241

Wundt, W. 237, 244

Wyon, D. 191, 192, 195

Wyszecki, G. 167, 168, 173

Yagloglou, C. 186, 187

Yamada, M. 204, 205, 209

Yaniv, S. 130, 131

Yarbus, A. 146, 147

Yonemura, G. 156, 163, 164

Yoshida, M. 218

Youden, W. 271

Young, T. 240

Zwaardemaker 200

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