Biennial Repor

1953 and 1954

National Bureau

of Standards

U. S. Department of Commerce

f

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Sinclair Weeks, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A. V. Astin, Director

Biennial Report

1953 and 1954

National Bureau

of Standards

Miscellaneous Publication 213

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. - Price 60 cents
Preface

Because the customary annual report of the National Bureau of Standards was

not issued for fiscal year 1953, this report covers the 2-year period from July 1, 1952, to June 30, 1954. At the scheduled time for the preparation and release of

the 1953 report the Bureau was undergoing a comprehensive survey by an Ad Hoc

Committee appointed by the Secretary of Commerce to "evaluate the present

functions and operation of the NBS in relation to present national needs." A

number of important changes affecting the over-all Bureau program were made as a result of this survey. It was considered more appropriate to delay the report

for a year in order to include the complete recommendations of the Ad Hoc

Committee rather than to report on them partially.

The present report consists of five sections: (1) A general review or summary,

(2) a resume of the Bureau's research and development achievements, (3) a review

of the testing and calibration program, (4) a discussion of the Bureau's various

cooperative activities, and (5) appendix material consisting primarily of statistical and organizational material. During the early part of fiscal year 1954, important weapons programs which

the Bureau had been conducting for the Department of Defense were transferred

to that agency. This transfer involved major organizational units comprising

about 40 percent of the Bureau's staff. The present report includes no review

of these transferred weapons programs.

A. V. Astin, Director.
Contents

Page

1 . General Review 1 1.1. Technical Activities 2

1.2. Calibration, Cooperative and Other Services 7

1.3. Administrative Activities 10

1.4. Publications 13

2. Research and Development Program 14

2.1. Electricity. 14

Dielectric properties at high temperatures 14, Measurement of multimegohm resistors 14, Pin insulators 14, Thermal

transfer instruments 15, Kilowatthour standard 15.

2.2. Optics and Metrology 16 Relative luminous efficiency of spectral regions 16, Searchlight

reflectors 17, Lighted suit for carrier landing officer 17, Color measurement of signal smokes 17, Calibration of pyrheliometers 18, Reflectance standards 18, Electronic computer

used in optical design arid analysis 18, Quality of optical

imagery 19, Refractometry of optical glass 19, Photographic

sensitometry 20, Chemical analysis of photographic solutions

20, Intercomparison of secondary length standards 20, Lowexpanding cobalt-iron-chrom-ium alloys 21, Measurement of end gages 21.

2.3. Heat and Power 21 Temperature standards 22, High-temperature research 23, High polymers 23, Properties of fluorine and deuterium

compounds 23, Isotopic determination of water content 25, Low-temperature physics 25, Cryogenic engineering 27, Combustion in engines 28, Heat engines 29, Pneumatic tires 29, Oil-free bearings 30.

2.4. Atomic and Radiation Physics 30

Hyperfine structure of technetium 31, Electron scattering 31, Calibration of beta-ray opthalmic applicators 32, Formamide counting 32, Spectral-line intensities for 70 elements 33, Intermetallic semiconductors 33, Synchroton operation 34, Elastic nuclear scattering 34, X-ray spectrometers 35, Highsensitivity fluoroscopic unit for high-energy X-rays 35, Data transmitting system 36, X-ray protection 36.

Ill
Page

2.5. Chemistry 37

Colloidal dispersions 37, Basic calcium phosphates 37, Thermochemical measurements 38, Research in analytical chemistry 38, Phenomena of crystallization 39, pH standards 40, Precise intercomparisons of acidic substances 40, Titanium

compounds 41, Electrodeposition from nonaqueous media

41, Labeled sugars 42, Gas analysis procedures of extreme

sensitivity 42.

2.6. Mechanics 42 Speed of sound in the sea 43, Free molecule propagation of sound 43, Artificial mastoid 43, Properties of electroacoustic transducers 44, Architectural acoustics 44, Noise reduction in jet engines 44, Calibration of vibration pickups at audiofrequencies 44, Calibration of microphones 45, Measurement

of high pressures 45, Aerological and flight test instruments

45, Turbulent flow 46, Hot-wire anemometer development 46, Positive waves 46, High-temperature strength of aircraft structures 47, Solution of structural problems with SEAC 47, Failures in welded ships 48, Photoelectric interference fringe counter 49, Stress-strain curve in shear 49, Gas-turbine combustion 49, Fuel metering accessories for aircraft 50.

2.7. Organic and Fibrous Materials 50

Synthetic rubber 51, Dynamic properties of fibrous materials 51, Degradation of record papers 52, Papers made from inorganic

fibers 52, Impregnated leather 52, Sonic studies on leather 53, High-pressure studies 53, Blood plasma expanders 54, Degradation of polymers 55, New polymer structures 55, Aircraft

plastics 56, Plastic packaging materials 56, Aircraft coatings

56, Dimensional changes in dental amalgam 57, Hydraulic

turbine dental handpiece 57, High-speed motion picture study

of dental burs 58, Zinc oxide-eugenol materials 58.

2.8. Metallurgy 59 Pure metals 59, Structure of metals 59, Fracture of metals

61, Corrosion 61.

2.9. Mineral Products 62 Ceramic single crystals 63, Improvement of ceramic dielectrics 63, Lead-titanate lead-zirconate dielectric ceramics 64, Constitution of glass 64, Cermets 65, Hard coating for metal

65, Ceramic-to-metal bonding 66, Ceramic coatings for nuclear

reactors 66, Durability of concreting materials 66} Nature and

structure of portland cement 67, Hydrothermal reactions 68, Standard X-ray diffraction patterns 68, Thermal expansion

by X-ray diffraction 69, Automatic recording balance 69.

IV
Page

2.10. Building Technology 69

Resistance of concrete to impact 70, Lightweight concrete 71, Self-ignition of materials 71, Thermal insulating value of

air spaces 71, Hydraulics and pneumatics of plumbing

systems 72, Water vapor and heat flow through insulated panels 72, Edge insulation of concrete-slab floors 72, Ventilation measurements 73, Asphalt roofing 73. 2.11. Applied Mathematics. 74 Numerical analysis 74, Computation 74, Statistical engineering 75.

2.12. Electronics 76 Mechanized production of electronics 77, Circuit standardization 78, Vibration generator 78, Improved meteorological

soundings 79, Error voltage detector 79, Liquid level indicator

79, FOSDIC 80, A high-speed coin-weighing machine 80, Electro-optical image processing system 81, Physiological

monitor 81, High-resolution micromanometer 82, Wide-range

barium-titanate accelerometer 82. 2.13. Automatic Electronic Computers: Information Processing 83 SEAC 84, DYSEAC 84, Diode-capacitor memory 85, Inputoutput equipment 85, SWAC 85. 2.14. Radio Propagation 86 Ionospheric disturbances 87, Arctic radio propagation 88, Oblique incidence studies 88, Low-frequency ionospheric measurements 88, Radio astronomy 89, Theoretical studies 89, Radio warning service 90, Radio noise studies 90, Tropospheric propagation 91, Cheyenne Mountain experi- ments 91, Modulation studies 92, Standards for characteristics of materials 93, Primary microwave frequency standard 93, Microwave noise standards 94, Atomic time

and frequency standards 94.

3. Calibration, Testing, and Standard Samples 95

3.1. Ad Hoc Committee Recommendations 95

3.2. Conferences with Government and Industry Users of Bureau

§£• - \ Services 96

3.3. Transfer of Services to Private Agencies 96

3.4. Testing for the Public 97

3.5. Testing for Government Purchase 98

3.6. Testing for Regulatory Agencies 99

3.7. Services to State Governments 99

3.8. Standard Samples , 100

3.9. Relations with the General Services Administration ............ 100

V
3.10. Services in Specific Areas

Page 100

Electricity 101, Optics and metrology 101, Heat and power

102, Atomic and radiation physics 103, Chemistry 104, Mechanics 104, Organic and fibrous materials 105, Metallurgy

106, Mineral products 106, Building technology 107, Radio 108.

Basic instrumentation 110, Weights and measures 111, Radiation

protection 113, Research associate program 113, Radio propagation service 115, International 116.

4. Cooperative Activities 109

5. Appendices

5.1. Organization

5.2. Fiscal Data on NBS Program . . 5.3. Advisory Committees

5.4. Awards and Honors

5.5. Memorandum of Understanding

5.6. List of Publications

119

119 124

125 129

131 132

VI
1. General Review

During the fiscal years 1953 and 1954 the National Bureau of

Standards continued to serve the Federal Government as a scientific laboratory and to provide basic standards for science and

industry in accordance with the legislative authority under which

the Bureau was established in 1901. The fields represented by

these activities included physics, mathematics, chemistry, and

various branches of engineering. Some work was also done of

interest to the medical, biological, and dental sciences—for example,

radiation studies, electronic instrumentation for the operating room,

and properties of dental amalgams.

Within the physical sciences, the Bureau was engaged in fundamental and applied research, development, calibration and testing,

and a variety of scientific services. Much of the research program

is concerned with the custody, maintenance, and development of

the national standards of physical measurement—a primary and

unique function of the Bureau. This function requires the development of new and improved standards to meet the demands ot science and industry, and the development of associated methods

of measurement and instrumentation. It also involves the rendering of calibration services to science, industry, and commerce. In

addition the Bureau determines fundamental physical constants

and the basic properties of materials, develops improved methods

for testing materials and equipment, and cooperates with other

governmental agencies and private organizations in the establishment of standard practices such as codes and specifications. The

Bureau serves the Government in several specific ways: by rendering advisory services on technical problems, by testing materials

and supplies, and by invention and development of devices to meet the special needs of the Government.

In fulfilling these responsibilities, the Bureau has had to contend

with ever-growing demands for its results and services. These

demands arise principally in two ways: First, as science and technology progress, the needs for greater precision increase. Second,

as new fields of science and technology develop—for example, the

1
exploitation of high-radio frequencies and the industrial applica-

/ tion of atomic and nuclear physics—new standards must be

developed, new methods and instruments of measurement devised,

and appropriate calibration services must be made available.

1.1. Technical Activities

Fundamental Standards. Progress was made in several areas concerned with the development, establishment, and improvement

of fundamental standards. Thus the range of the piston gage used

as a primary standard of pressure was extended from 50,000 to 200,000 pounds per square inch to meet the requirements of modern

ordnance and the chemical industry. Two new pieces of equipment

which improve the precision and decrease the time required for the

calibration of standard temperature measuring instruments were

placed in operation. The first of these, an aluminum sulfur boiler,

permits the realization of the sulfur melting point with the highest

precision and stability ever attained. The second, a device for

comparing thermocouples and resistance thermometers with

standard instruments, has reduced the calibration time per thermocouple from 3 hours to 20 minutes. Improved equipment was

assembled for the convenient and accurate measurement of

standard electrical resistors of extremely high (multimegohm)

values required by recent developments in atomic physics.

A standard method was established for calibration of very small,

intense beta-ray sources used in the treatment of eye diseases.

Instrumentation was developed and placed in operation for measuring more rapidly the rates of standard alternating-current

watthour meters.

To meet more exacting industrial needs, the Bureau undertook

a major revision of the microwave frequency standard originally

prepared in 1945. The new standard has fixed-frequency outputs

corresponding to those frequencies most needed in calibration

work, and the standard provides signals of higher power over a broader region of the microwave spectrum. An accurate secondary

standard of complex permeability, the radio-frequency permeameter, was developed by the Bureau, made available for commercial manufacture, and adopted by a large segment of industry.

An extension of this instrument, capable of measuring the temperature coefficient of the best commercially available ferrites and

2
nearly all other high-frequency magnetic materials, was also placed

in operation. Another contribution to the field of radio standards was the development of a noise standard for measurement of noise

power at microwave frequencies. The new standard will be used

to calibrate secondary noise standards.

Instrumentation and Measurement. During the 2 years advances

were made in the field of instrumentation and methods of measurement. A type of spectrometer employing a crystal scintillation

detector was devised to measure the energy of X-rays in the range

between 0.5 and 50 million volts. The characteristics of the spectrometer provide a detection efficiency that is 100,000 times better

than previously available and thus opens the door to important

new high-energy X-ray investigations as well as greatly expediting

current studies.

A highly sensitive micromanometer was designed to measure

differential pressures as low as 0.03 micron of mercury with resolutions of the order of 0.001 micron of mercury. The instrument can

detect pressure differentials 100 to 1,000 times smaller than pre- vious systems. Besides measuring static differential pressures, the micromanometer can measure pressures that are varying at

rates up to 20 cycles per second. The instrument can also be

modified to measure absolute pressures. Work in aerological instrumentation resulted in the development

of an improved humidity measuring element having high sensitivity and extremely rapid response. These characteristics promise increased accuracy of measurement, particularly under conditions encountered in radiosonde and aircraft use. Properties of Matter. Studies of the properties of matter and

materials were conducted in many fields. In low-temperature

physics alinement of radioactive nuclei was achieved in the course

of an investigation of the nuclear resonance of radioactive materials

at temperatures near absolute zero. This result promises to provide a new tool in nuclear physics for studying the processes of

nuclear disintegration. Another project in low-temperature physics, a study of the paramagnetic properties of matter at extremely

low temperatures, was concerned with chromic methylamine alum

as a temperature standard at temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero.
Sugars labeled in specific positions with radioactive carbon 14

have long been sought by research workers in biology, medicine,

and chemistry. In biology, for example, such sugars can be used

in the study of complicated life chemistry. The Bureau's first results were obtained in 1952 with the development of 12 such

radioactive sugars. In the last 2 years methods were completed

for synthesis of 20 additional " tracer" sugars and related compounds. The number of compounds for which methods have been

developed is now over 40, and quantities of these substances suffi- cient for extensive research in normal and pathological animal and

plant metabolism have been issued to 75 laboratories.

The present shortage of materials suitable for crystal rectifiers and transistors led the Bureau to explore a new group of semiconducting materials. Germanium, commonly used in the past for

the production of rectifiers and transistors, has serious limitations

at elevated temperatures. Bureau scientists found that a series

of compounds formed between the metal antimony and the metals

indium, gallium, or aluminum may solve this problem. It has

been demonstrated that these compounds are all semiconductors

with properties similar to those of silicon and germanium. Gallium antimony is particularly promising, for it appears that

rectifiers can be made from it which will operate at much higher

temperatures than those made with germanium, and it has the

advantage of a much lower melting point than silicon. To meet the increasing need for high-temperature protection of

alloys in nuclear reactors, the Bureau developed a ceramic coating

material that has an extremely low thermal neutron absorption

coefficient. Tests indicate that the coating satisfactorily withstands temperatures in excess of 1,000° C and in some cases re- duces oxidation of the metal by 50 to 75 percent.

The process for impregnation of leather with natural rubber,

originally developed by the Bureau in 1949, was modified to per- mit the use of polyisobutylene as an impregnant. Soles impregnated with this polymeric material have the same greatly improved

abrasion and water resistance as those containing rubber. The

treatment reduces water absorption by about half and increases wear by about 80 percent. In addition, polyisobutylene has a

distinct advantage over rubber as an impregnant in that it eliminates the milling operation previously required. It also results

4
in large savings of time, labor, and materials in the tannery.

Special Development Programs. Two industrially significant developmental programs conducted for other Government agencies were concerned with electronic computers and a system for the

automatic, mechanized production of electronic equipment. The

computer program, which has been supported largely by the Department of Defense, has included research, development, application, and training with high-speed, automatically sequenced

machines. The Bureau has also been instrumental in the establishment of commercial sources of supply for such machines and

has conducted research in numerical analysis which over the past

few years has contributed to the application of machine techniques

to problems in many fields of science and engineering.

During 1953 and 1954 the two NBS computers, SEAC and

SWAC, were in continuous operation on mathematical, statistical,

and physical problems. A third high-speed digital computer

DYSEAC—was completed and delivered to the Signal Corps for a

special application. DYSEAC was designed to serve as the

nucleus of a complex data processing network. The flexibility

with which this machine controls and responds to a variety of external devices—which may include one or more full-scale computers of similar design—should enable scientists to explore diverse

new areas of interest. Examples include the automatization of

industrial and commercial operations, such as the "automatic fac- tory" and the "automatic office," or any fields where rapid information-processing and real-time control systems are necessary.

DYSEAC is a portable machine, installed in a trailer van to facili- tate its movement to the site of an experiment.

Developments in improved memory systems also pointed the

way to future advances in the capacity and flexibility of electronic

data processing systems. The Diode-Capacitor Memory, an in- formation storage device utilizing diodes and capacitors as its basic

storage units, has advantages of simplicity and extremely high

speed. The Bureau also developed an experimental high-speed

memory of the Williams (cathode-ray-tube) type as well as improved matrix memories. The scope and complexity of the problems which SWAC can solve were greatly extended through the

installation of a magnetic drum auxiliary memory for use in con- junction with the computer's high-speed memory.

3
In recent years the construction of many large-scale electronic

computers has brought about an increasing need for equipment to bridge the gap between the machines and their sources of information. NBS developed an instrument for the Bureau of the Census

that provides rapid, automatic processing of information into a form suitable for direct input to large-scale computers. Named

FOSDIC (Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Computers),

the machine reads marks on microfilmed copies of documents that

have been marked with an ordinary pencil or pen, and then processes the information into electrical pulses which are recorded on

magnetic tape for direct input to an electronic computer such as the Census Univac. This machine is expected to reduce considerably the massive amount of paperwork entailed in summarizing

Census information on the entire population. FOSDIC may also

be applied to the processing of other types of information that

must be handled in large quantities.

Considerable industrial interest was shown in a new approach

to the design and production of electronic systems, which was

sponsored at NBS by the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics as an

industrial preparedness measure in production research. The

project has two significant aspects: First, a modular design system,

and, second, a mechanized production system. The design system

depends upon the use of stacked ceramic wafers. Some 4 to 6 of

these small wafers, each about the size of a postage stamp, each

bearing printed or applied resistors, conductors, capacitors, and

other parts, make up a module. A module corresponds to a stage

of an electronic device, consisting of the circuitry associated with

a tube. A set of modules forms the completed electronic device.

The modular design system has a number of potential advantages.

Perhaps the most striking is its suitability for automatic production,

which was in large measure the objective of the project. The

uniformity and simplicity of the parts used in the design system

permit mechanized production. This system of production has

culminated in the design and construction of a pilot plant. Here,

starting with noncritical raw materials, wafers, capacitor bodies,

and adhesive tape resistors are made. These parts are then fed

into a series of machines which apply conducting inks, perform

tinning and soldering, apply resistors, form completed capacitors,

and assemble completed "wafer circuits" into modules. Automatic

6
inspection ensures reliability of the finished product. Several

industrial contractors assisted in the design and construction of

the machines and in engineering applications of the system to Naval electronic equipment. The Navy is currently supervising

operation of the pilot line in the mechanized production of ex- perimental lots for fleet use. Additional examples of typical projects are given in Section 2,

Research and Development, beginning on page 14.

1.2. Calibration, Cooperative, and Other Services

The calibration and testing services of the Bureau, stemming

from its development, custody, and maintenance of the national

standards of measurement, involved the performance of approximately 400,000 calibrations and tests during the 2 years. In

addition, about 48,000 standard samples of certified chemicals,

metals, and alloys were issued.

The calibration services, rendered to both Government and the

public, involve thousands of instruments and devices sent to the

Bureau by industry, private and university laboratories, and the

Government. Some of these are standard laboratory devices;

others are master instruments used by industry to calibrate such

production tools as shop gage blocks. Typical activities in this area included the following calibrations and tests: 600 photographic

lenses, 251 base-line invar tapes and wires, 447 steel tapes, 2,908

haemacytometer chambers, 23,593 cover glasses, 66,589 clinical thermometers, and 2,766 radioactive preparations.

Testing at the Bureau is concerned primarily with materials

usually raw materials like cement—purchased by the Government.

For example, 26,000,000 barrels of cement were sample-tested

during the year. The 52,000 tests involved were carried out at four field stations located near the sources of supply of cement and

at the Bureau's Washington laboratories. Closely related to this

work is the program of the Cement Reference Laboratory, which is concerned with appropriate equipment standards and test methods

used in the testing of cement. This laboratory is located at the Bureau and is jointly supported by the Government and the American

Society for Testing Materials. Another example of testing for the

Government was the life-testing of 14,000 lamps, a sample from over

14,000,000. Some 5,000 samples of such materials as paints and

7
varnishes, soaps and detergents, metals and alloys, carbon paper

and typewriter ribbons, and reagent chemicals were analyzed or

tested, largely for compliance with purchase specifications. Other

examples of calibration and testing may be found in Section 3,

page 95.

Standard samples are materials that are certified for chemical

composition or for some physical or chemical property, such as heat

of combustion, melting point, or index of refraction. Primary

chemical standards and metals with certified melting points make

possible uniform measurements of heat and temperature in the same way that standard weights provide uniformity of measure in buying and selling. Standard pigments define the colors of paints.

A large variety of hydrocarbons, supplied as single substances of

high purity, calibrate the instruments that control the composition

of motor gasolines, aviation fuels, and synthetic rubber. The list of standard samples issued by NBS now includes more than 500

materials.

The various advisory and cooperative activities of the Bureau

(Section 43 page 109) are also of considerable technical value.

Services of this kind are rendered on a variety of topics and problems to State and local governments as well as to the agencies of

the Federal Government. For example, the Bureau cooperates

closely with State and municipal governments in the field of weights

and measures. Here the Bureau has fundamental responsibility

for the standards of weights and measures while State and municipal governments possess regulatory authority concerned with the

maintenance of uniform procedures. The Bureau contributes to these local bodies the means and methods whereby measurements

in commerce may be made in a uniform manner, consistent with

the national standards.

Continuous and more extensive work is undertaken through

various scientific and technical committees. The Bureau is represented on numerous committees, panels, and commissions of

other Government agencies. These include the Interdepartmental

Committee on Scientific Research and Development, the Federal

Fire Council, the Interdepartmental Radio Advisory Committee,

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the Interdepartmental Screw Thread Committee, the Building Research

Advisory Board, and a number of similar groups, including advisory

8
committees to the Department of Defense. Bureau personnel

represent the Department of Commerce on the Physical, Chemical,

and Engineering Divisions of the National Research Council.

By actively participating in the activities and projects of professional societies and standardizing bodies, the Bureau plays an active

role in the development of test methods and criteria, in the application of scientific discoveries, and in fundamental research programs

of a national nature. In this way the Bureau assists in developing

and improving engineering standards, purchase specifications, and

building and safety codes. NBS staff members participated in over 100 national groups such as the Acoustical Society of America,

American Society for Testing Materials, American Standards

Association, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, American

Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, Institute of Radio Engineers, Instrument

Society of America, American Petroleum Institute, American

Chemical Society, and National Association of Corrosion Engineers.

The National Bureau of Standards is also active in many international groups (Section 4, page 109). These societies deal largely

with the establishment and maintenance of international scientific standards and the establishment of values for scientific constants. Another phase of international cooperation involves a program whereby scientists or diplomatic representatives from

other countries are accepted at NBS as guest workers or visitors. Both aspects, which are important to the United States in terms of commerce and trade as well as the international policies of the

Government, are coordinated on the diplomatic level by the State

Department. The Bureau also renders services to foreign countries

in the form of calibrations, tests, and exchange of standards and

publications.

During the past 2 years over 2,000 scientists and technicians,

including many special groups, visited the Bureau from abroad.

They ranged from directors of research establishments similar to the National Bureau of Standards to post-graduate students.

Thirty guest workers from other countries spent from one to 12

months at the Bureau observing or receiving training in their fields of special interest. Countries represented included Turkey, Brazil,

Belgium, Austria, Egypt, South Africa, Java, Philippines, Columbia, India, Germany, Norway, England, Spain, and Switzer9
land. Some of the guest workers directly represented their governments while others represented private industry or institutions

of learning.

1.3. Administrative Activities

The program of the Bureau during the reporting period may be

classified into two major budgetary divisions: First, the basic program concerned with fundamental standards, measurement, and

properties of matter, which was supported by direct appropriations

from the Congress. Second, various projects undertaken for other

Government agencies, which transferred the necessary supporting

funds to the Bureau.

During 1953 the total funds obligated for both areas of activity,

including construction and facilities, were $48,242,038. Of this

total, about 17 percent, or $8, 157,759 came from direct Congressional appropriation for the basic program while the remaining 83

percent ($40,084,279) represented programs conducted for other

Government agencies. The bulk of the transferred funds (all but

$ 1,240,700) were provided by the Department of Defense and the

Atomic Energy Commission.

In 1954 the total obligations for operations dropped to $25,152,-

900, of which only 70 percent was supported by funds transferred

to the Bureau by other agencies. A total of $6,490,718 came from

direct appropriation for the basic program. This marked shift in the total program level and in the relative proportion of transferred

funds was largely the result of the transfer of the Bureau's weaponry

development projects, involving obligations of over $20,000,000 a year, to the Department of Defense. (Appendix, page 124.)

Prior to 1954, the Bureau's contributions to defense activities

in emergency periods had brought about the assignment of a high

proportion of its total effort to applied research and development

in ordnance and guided missiles. To evaluate this and other as- pects of the Bureau's program in relation to national needs, the

Secretary of Commerce in April 1953 appointed an x\d Hoc Evaluation Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Mervin J. Kelly,

President of Bell Telephone Laboratories. The members of the

Committee (Appendix, page 125) were nominated by nine leading

scientific and engineering societies. After making a comprehensive

review, the Ad Hoc Committee reported in October 1953 that the

10
Bureau's statutory functions were well conceived and its operations

generally sound. At the same time the Committee made a number

of significant recommendations (Appendix, page 125) which have

been or are being put into effect. These recommendations were

directed mainly toward improved balance in the general program.

The first recommendation to be implemented was the transfer

of the Bureau's weaponry development work to the Department of

Defense. Four major divisions, including about 40 percent of

the Bureau's personnel, were involved. This transfer resulted in the creation by the Army Ordnance Corps of the Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratories, which continue to operate adjacent to the Bureau in Washington, and also the creation of a new U. S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory by absorption of former NBS guided

missile activities at Corona, California. Another transfer took

place at the end of fiscal year 1954, when the Institute for Numerical Analysis, until then a section of the NBS Division of Applied

Mathematics, became a part of the University of California at Los

Angeles. This latter activity had been supported by the Office of

Naval Research and by the U. S. Air Force. The x^\d Hoc Committee recommended more adequate appropriations for the basic program as the most important step toward

improving program balance at the Bureau. Appropriations for basic programs had been declining gradually for several years and

were 25 percent less for 1954 than for 1953. The Committee

recommended that the Bureau's staff be built back within 2 years

to its 1950 level, and this was reflected in the budget presented to the Congress in 1954. However, only 12.5 percent of the increase

requested by the administration was appropriated for 1955.

Establishment of a number of technical area advisory committees

(Appendix, page 127) was another recommendation of the Ad Hoc

Committee. Ten such committees have now been formed. Eight

scientific and engineering societies represented on the Ad Hoc

Committee have nominated advisory groups. Included are recognized authorities in physics, chemistry, mathematics, metallurgy, and electrical, radio, civil, and mechanical engineering. In

addition, the American Ceramic Society and the National Conference on Weights and Measures have designated groups at the

Bureau's request to advise in their areas of special interest. Nominations have also been invited from the American Society for

321720—54 2 1

1
Testing Materials and the American Standards Association. These

special advisory committees, supplementing the Bureau's statutory

Visiting Committee (Appendix, page 125), should prove a valuable

source of consultation and stimulation and should strengthen

NBS ties with the nation's scientific and technological effort. During this period, the Secretary of Commerce also requested the

National Academy of Sciences to appoint a committee to review the

Bureau's work on battery additives, a topic that had assumed a controversial status. Under the chairmanship of Dr. Zay Jeffries,

Vice President (retired), General Electric Company, this committee

thoroughly evaluated the tests made by the Bureau over a long

period and concluded that the quality of the work had been excellent and that the Bureau was correct in its findings.

A third survey, of a somewhat different type, is being conducted

by Social Research, Inc., under contract with the Bureau. The

purpose is to supply executives and supervisors at the Bureau with

specific information about working relationships and internal communication needs and to point the way toward strengthening the

Bureau's environment for creative research.

Three new research facilities were completed during the 1953-54

period. One, a specially designed radioactivity (gamma-ray)

laboratory, places the Bureau in a stronger position to meet

increasing scientific and technical demands growing out of advances

in the uses of atomic energy. Another was a major addition to the

Bureau's Betatron Laboratory which permits greater safety and

efficiency in the operation of the betatron and synchrotron. The

third was a radio research laboratory in Boulder, Colorado. By the

end of 1954, after several years of planning and preparation, the

NBS Central Radio Propagation Laboratory was moved to the

Boulder site to provide a more favorable environment for its work.

The NBS Boulder Laboratories also include the NBS-AEC

Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory, which has been engaged

primarily in low-temperature work for the Atomic Energy Commission since its establishment in 1951.

At the end of the reporting period total employment at the

Bureau was about 2,800. Of this number, about 80 percent were members of the various technical divisions, including the small

number of administrative, secretarial, and clerical personnel in12
volved in divisional operations. The remaining 20 percent was made

up of the central administrative, plant, shops, and various service

personnel. Most of the staff was stationed at the Bureau's laboratories in Washington, D. C. However, about 400 were located at the NBS Boulder Laboratories, and a much smaller number were

distributed among 20 field stations in this country and abroad.

1.4. Publications

In general, the output of the Bureau's technical program is embodied in its reports and publications. Even when the work is developmental in nature—for example, the development of a

specific device—a report will represent the culmination of the

activity, and it is this report which will often prove of most value

to science and industry. The reports and publications of the

Bureau are therefore suggestive of the scope of its activities. During the 2 years these totaled over 2,600 exclusive of calibration and test reports and of general administrative documents.

Some 2,000 classified and unclassified reports were issued to other

Government agencies, particularly the Department of Defense,

while over 600 papers and documents were published formally.

Of the formal publications, some 550 consisted of scientific and

technical papers, 174 of which were published in the Journal of

Research of the National Bureau of Standards (a monthly periodical)

and the remainder in the journals of various professional, engineering, and trade organizations. In addition, approximately 200

summary reports were published in the Bureau's monthly Technical

News Bulletin. The third monthly periodical of the Bureau,

Basic Radio Propagation Predictions, presented each month, for a 1-month period 3 months in advance, radio-propagation data

needed in determining the best frequencies to use in long-range

radio communications.

Seventy papers were published in the Bureau's nonperiodical

series of publications: 20 in the Applied Mathematics Series, 5 in the Handbook series, 30 in the Circular series, 8 in the Building

Materials and Structures Report series, and 7 in the Miscellaneous

Publication series. A list of publications issued during the two fiscal years is given

in the Appendix, Section 5, (page 132).

13
2. Research and Development Program

The Bureau's technical program is carried out through organizational units called Divisions. These are shown in Appendix 5.1. The review of the research and development programs is presented

in this section under headings corresponding generally to these

organizational units.

2.1. Electricity

The work in electricity is devoted primarily to the establishment, maintenance, extension, and dissemination of the units of

measurement for electrical and magnetic quantities. The object

is to provide electrical standards which are as far as possible

constant with time, uniform throughout the nation, and consistent

with the more fundamental mechanical units. The electrical

work includes dissemination of standards for resistance, inductance,

capacitance, voltage, current, power, energy, magnetizing force,

and magnetic induction.

Dielectric Properties at High Temperatures. Some modern

plastic materials can be operated satisfactorily as electrical insulators at much higher temperatures than were previously possible.

To secure accurate quantitative data on the dielectric constant

and dielectric loss at higher temperatures, the Bureau developed

new techniques and constructed special apparatus which will operate up to 500° C.

Measurement of Multimegohm Resistors. Recent developments

in atomic physics often require measurements of very small electric

currents which result from radiation-produced ionization. For

such measurements standard resistors of very high values (often

millions of millions of ohms) are required. Improved equipment

has been assembled for the convenient and accurate measurement

of such resistors; and studies of their change with voltage, humidity, and time have begun.

Pin Insulators. A pin-type porcelain insulator intended for use on an electric transmission line is so designed that, when excessive

voltage is applied, spark-over should occur through the air around

it without damage to the porcelain. The Rural Electrification

Administration has found that certain types of insulators are

14
punctured and shattered when lightning strikes the line near them.

Lightning insulator research has been conducted under REA

sponsorship in the NBS High Voltage Laboratory. Studies at various rates of voltage application show that some insulators,

which would flash-over at slower rates of application, puncture

when the rate is as high as 10 million volts per microsecond. As a

result, specifications and laboratory test methods are being designed to discriminate between insulator designs that are and those

that are not subject to this kind of failure. Similar tests were

applied to lightning arrestors. Test conditions and procedures were devised to determine which types of arrestors would fail when

exposed to sudden applications of high voltage.

Thermal Transfer Instruments. Earlier NBS studies of error sources in thermal converters in precise measurements of audiofrequency electric currents have led to prototype development of

two new measuring devices using such converters. These are:

(a) A convenient ''volt-ampere converter," which can be used

with a d-c potentiometer, measuring to an accuracy of ±0.05 percent up to 20,000 cps; and (b) a portable thermocouple voltammeter incorporating a self checking circuit accurate to 0.5 percent up to 50,000 cps. The former device is now in commercial

production by an instrument company.

Kilowatthour Standard. Equipment was completed for quicker

testing of standard watthour meters. A picked meter of high

quality was fitted with a mirror and surrounded by a phosphorescent scale to record accurately angular position of its rotor as a

signal light flashed. The meter is calibrated by applying a known

electrical power to its circuits and flashing the light at the beginning

and end of a measured time interval. The standard meter is then

connected to measure the same energy as the meter under test, and the light is flashed at the beginning and end of a preset integral

number of revolutions of the tested meter. Two additional

standard meters, kept at constant temperature, serve as references

to check on any possible drift in calibration of the working standard. Calibration against the more basic direct current standards

is made about once a year. Use of the new equipment will decrease the previous test time and still retain most of the precision

of the primary d-c method.

15
2.2. Optics and Metrology

A large part of the Bureau's work in optics and metrology was

concerned with measurement, instrumentation, and standardization problems in photometry, colorimetry, optical instruments,

photographic technology, and those phases of metrology which

are most dependent upon optical methods. Calibration of line

and end standards, interferometric measurements of length, and

determination of the coefficient of linear expansion were included

in these activities. In addition, specific development programs

were carried out for other Government agencies. Typical fields of activity included lighting of naval aircraft and of landing fields; measurement of atmospheric transmittance and its application to airplane landings; ships' navigation lights; measurement of the

index of refraction of optical glasses and crystals through the

ultraviolet, visible, and infrared spectral range; application of

new high-speed electronic computing machines to optical design;

objective methods for quantitatively measuring and evaluating

the performance of photographic lenses and other optical systems;

study of spectacle lens performance; development of improved

methods of testing photographic emulsions; intercomparison

between the International Prototype Meter and the secondary

standards of the Bureau; and interferometric methods of cali- brating gages.

Relative Luminous Efficiency of Spectral Regions. World trade

in lighting devices requires that the relative luminous efficiency

of the various parts of the spectrum be accurately known and

agreed upon so that lighting devices may be competitively evaluated on a reliable and uniform basis. The standard luminousefficiency function, recommended in 1924 by the International

Commission on Illumination (CIE), has served this purpose well. These standard data have also been incorporated into a standard

method recommended by the CIE for specifying the colors of

objects and light sources. However, among the many satis- factory applications of this method are a few cases of commercial

importance (titanium pigments, fluorescent lamps, white ceramics,

plastics and enamels) yielding poor correlation with direct visual

comparisons. The poor correlation is traceable to errors in the

standard luminous-efficiency function for the extreme short-wave

(violet and blue) portion of the visible spectrum. The Bureau

16
has completed a redetermination of the relative luminous-efficiency

function for this portion of the spectrum. It is expected that the

results of the redetermination will be used by the CIE to revise the

standard luminous-efficiency function by amounts unimportant

in photometry but sufficient to correct the poor correlation in the

colorimetry of fluorescent lamps and white materials.

Searchlight Reflectors. A method for determining the focal

point and evaluating the quality of searchlight reflectors was

developed for the Navy. The technique is rapid, convenient, and

easily applied in confined space; it does not require precision equipment nor highly trained personnel. A very small light source

is placed at or near the focal point of the parabolic reflector, and

a specially designed opaque mask is interposed in the collimated

beam. When the light source is at the focal point, the shadow

of the mask falls exactly on a traced outline of the mask on a screen. In addition, the appearance of the light pattern on the screen

indicates quickly and sensitively any imperfections in the reflector

and any inaccuracy in its figure.

Lighted Suit for Carrier Landing Officer. Landing aircraft on a

carrier at night requires the closest possible coordination between

the landing signal officer on the deck and the pilot of the aircraft,

who must see and interpret quickly the signals of the landing signal

officer. To provide high visibility and to insure ease and speed of

identification, a lighted suit and signal paddles were developed for

the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics. Each complete equipment has

210 miniature lighting fixtures mounted on flexible strips attached

to the suit and paddles. Signals made with this equipment are highly conspicuous and give the pilot the same "feel" that he

obtains from signals during daytime landings.

Color Measurement of Signal Smokes. Pyrotechnic smokes of

various colors for ground-to-air signaling are used in the establishment of a line in advance of infantry to prevent inadvertent attacks

by air forces on their own ground positions. To be easily visible

the signal smokes must be distinctly different in color from the

terrain forming the background, and vivid colors must be used lest the signal smokes be confused with the uncolored smokes of ordinary battle operations. The Army Chemical Corps carries on continuous research to improve the formulations of these signal smokes

and has sought the aid of NBS. The Bureau is engaged in develop17
ing methods of measuring the colors of smokes, not only to give

members of the Chemical Corps a sure way of knowing when their

research efforts are proceeding toward the development of more vivid

colors but also for color checking delivered pyrotechnics. For

laboratory evaluation of smoke color, the Bureau designed and

built a photoelectric colorimeter and an associated smoke chamber.

In cooperation with General Aniline & Film Corporation, the Bureau also developed color standards systematically color-spaced for

field evaluation of smoke colors by visual comparison. Through

use of fluorescent dyes, the color range was extended beyond that

covered by previous surface-color systems.

Calibration of Pyrheliometers. A method of calibrating pyrheliometers by use of the Bureau's 15-foot light integrating sphere was

devised for the Weather Bureau. Pyrheliometers measure the

intensity of solar radiation. In the past pyrheliometer calibrations had to be made outdoors on clear days. This dependence on

the weather often resulted in lengthy delays and low accuracy.

The new method gives results accurate to about 0.5 percent instead

of the 5 percent obtainable by the old method.

Reflectance Standards. The demand for ''nonselective" (white,

gray, black) reflectance standards necessitated procurement and

calibration of new sets. Eleven hundred 4%-inch square porcelain

enameled iron plaques were obtained, enough to make 100 sets containing 1 1 standards each. These new plaques could have been

calibrated by comparison with the NBS master reflectance standards.

It was decided, however, to make a fundamental calibration of a

set of the new plaques and to recalibrate the old master set to determine whether the old set had changed. Results obtained on

the master set indicate no material changes although the newly

determined values are higher in general by a few tenths of a percent

than the values adopted in 1945.

Electronic Computer Used in Optical Design and Analysis. Nine

lenses submitted by the Department of Defense were analyzed by

electronic computing machines. For each lens 16 graphs were

prepared to show the chromatic aberration and other deviations

from perfect imagery at four different field angles. To present

aberration effects more clearly, "spot diagrams" corresponding to each field angle have been prepared for some of the lenses. For

each spot diagram 30 rays are traced, permitting the derivation of

18
a polynomial by which the intersections of from 800 to 1,500 rays

with the image plane are determined. Ray intersections are plotted

and their distribution and departures from a point image permit

an estimate of energy distribution. All computations, including

point plotting, are made by automatic machines. Without the use of electronic computing machinery, such diagrams could not

be produced in a reasonable time.

By use of electronic computing techniques, a lens of 40-inch

focal length covering a small field with nearly perfect imagery was

designed and a prototype constructed. Three triplets of the Cooke

type were also designed in this way.

Quality of Optical Imagery. A current study deals with objective

methods of evaluating the image formed by an optical system and

development of the instrumentation required to perform this evaluation. A number of methods have been proposed, involving such

test objects as sine wave and square wave periodic patterns, knife

edges, and variable slits. All these methods are being investigated,

not only for the information that may be obtained from each, but

also for the correlations existing among them. One instrument

developed for this work at NBS is the photoelectric image scanner.

It converts the spatial brightness variations in the image being

examined into a graphic trace on an oscilloscope screen. This

device has shown considerable usefulness for measuring the trans- mission of optical systems and also for measuring shutter speeds.

An exhaustive theoretical study of the problems associated with

image evaluation has been completed. This study dealt with an

analysis of the point image, extension of point-image relations to

fine-line images, and relations between fine-line and knife-edge

images. The superior reliability of long-line patterns as compared

to short-line patterns for use in resolving power test charts was

established.

Refractometry of Optical Glass. A coordinated study was made

of the physical properties of five selected optical glasses produced

and annealed in the Bureau's experimental glass plant. This

study yields comparative data on refractive indices, spectral trans- missive properties, densities, and thermal expansivities of each of

the materials investigated. The resulting charts and tables are expected to be of considerable utility in optical glass technology

and research because they provide so great a variety of data on

19
each specific glass. Ordinarily these properties are not all measured on the same glass. Because of recent interest in image forming systems utilizing infrared radiations, the measurements of index

of refraction and transmittance were extended considerably beyond

the spectral range for which optical glass is generally cataloged.

Photographic Sensitometry. A system of photographic sensitometry known as Bargamma, designed at the Bureau specifically

for the sensitometry and grading of photographic papers, was

adopted as American Standard PH2.2-1953. Most manufacturers of photographic papers are using this system for product

control, and it is expected that the grading of papers by contrast,

scale, maximum density, and other properties will soon become

standard practice with all American manufacturers.

Along with the Bargamma system of sensitometry, a proposed

general specification was developed which defines the various

photographic and physical characteristics of photographic papers.

Promulgation of this specification is expected within the coming

year. Chemical Analysis of Photographic Solutions. Several procedures were devised for analyzing chemicals in photographic developing

and fixing baths. A new procedure was worked out for estimating

the carbonate content of developing solutions by precipitating the

carbonate as barium carbonate and titrating with standard acid.

Previously the carbonate had generally been determined by measuring the volume of carbon dioxide evolved when the carbonate

is acidified. However, the older method is more difficult for the average analyst and requires special apparatus not readily

available. Intercomparison of Secondary Length Standards. The Bureau

periodically standardizes its secondary length standards by comparison with the National Prototype Meter, upon which all length

measurement in this country is based. The intercomparison of

the total lengths of the NBS meter bars had been completed during

fiscal year 1952. All but three of these bars have the 1-meter

interval subdivided to millimeters. A calibration of the subintervals of the subdivided bars was begun in fiscal year 1953 and completed in fiscal year 1954.

The probable error of the calibrations varied from ±0.02 to ±0.04 micron. It was found that individual measurements varied

20
in some cases by as much as 0.15 micron from those previously

determined. These differences do not necessarily represent actual

changes; in most cases they are probably due to better equipment

and operating conditions.

Low-Expanding Cobalt-Iron-Chromium Alloys. An investigation of cobalt-iron-chromium alloys was completed. Within a limited range of composition, some of these alloys have very low

coefficients of linear thermal expansion at atmospheric temperatures. However, at low temperatures they expand on cooling be- cause of martensitic transformation. If these alloys are then

heated after complete or incomplete transformation, the coeffi- cients of expansion are greater than before the transformation.

Measurement of End Gages. An NBS-Meggers mercury 198

lamp was placed in operation as a standard light source in the interferometric measurement of gage blocks longer than 1 inch. The

sharpness of the interference bands, as compared with those from

sources formerly utilized, permitted a 50-percent reduction of observational errors in visual estimation of band fractions. However, as the range of wavelengths of mercury is more limited than

that of other sources previously used, the band fractions must be

read very accurately in order to determine the order of interference

with certainty.

In the past, slight variations and uncertainties in determining

temperatures have been a source of observational error in absolute

measurement of the lengths of 2-, 3-, 4-inch, and longer master

gage blocks. Several improvements were made in the equipment

to reduce these errors. Another source of uncertainty within a range of about one-millionth of an inch is due to variations in light- wave phase shift upon reflection from different gaging surfaces.

Improved techniques were developed for more accurate measure- ment of this shift.

2.3. Heat and Power

To provide a fundamental basis for precise measurements of

heat and power, the Bureau maintains temperature scales covering

most of the range from the lowest obtainable temperature to the

highest temperature of incandescent bodies and flames. The

Bureau is also responsible for determining and maintaining standards of viscosity, heat capacity, and heat of combustion; it main21
tains the primary standards for determination of the octane number

of automotive and aviation fuels. Research is conducted to in- crease the accuracy of these standards and to ^develop improved

measuring instruments and apparatus.

From the standards of temperature, the work broadens to include

the determination of quantities of heat by calorimetry at temperatures extending over a large part of the scale. Concurrent theoretical programs relate thermal properties to molecular structure and permit the calculation and compilation of tables of thermal

properties over an even wider temperature range. Particular

emphasis is placed on investigations of electrical, magnetic, and

thermal properties of matter at extremely low temperatures. In

cooperation with the research programs of medical agencies, the

Bureau applies thermodynamic techniques to the measurement of

biologically important materials. Rheological studies, dealing

with the flow characteristics of lubricants and of rubber solutions, are also conducted. From these fields of activity, the work in heat

and power extends to research on the mechanism of combustion

in engines, bearing and lubrication studies, applied thermodynamic

investigations of such heat engines as compressors and internal

combustion engines, high pressure pneumatics, and cryogenic (lowtemperature) engineering.

Temperature Standards. Two new pieces of equipment that

improve the precision and decrease the time required for calibrating

standard temperature-measuring instruments were placed in operation. The first of these, an aluminum sulfur boiler having wells

for 10 thermometers, replaced the earlier type accommodating only

1 thermometer. In addition to a saving in time previously required

for individual thermometers to come to equilibrium, this design

also permits attainment of the sulfur melting point (444.6° C.)

with the highest precision and stability ever achieved. The

reliability and stability of the temperature obtained with this

boiler led to the discovery of a previously unknown temperature

drift that must be taken into consideration in the precise calibration

of resistance thermometers. The temperature of the liquid sulfur

and its vapor falls slowly for over a day after the boiling pressure is reached but then remains constant for periods up to 10 days, the

longest time of continuous observation. The equilibrium temperature after the first day is taken to define the fixed point.

22
The second instrument is a comparator for use with standard

platinum versus platinum-rhodium thermocouples and resistance

thermometers. This device consists of copper blocks in a nickelchromium shell with holes extending into the uniform temperature

region for insertion of resistance thermometers and thermocouples.

Calibration time per thermocouple has been reduced from 3 hours

to 20 minutes with the new comparator.

High-Temperature Research. As part of an investigation of

radiation from systems at high temperatures, emission and absorption in flames were studied over a very wide range of conditions.

Flames of hydrocarbons and oxygen from 0.002 to 1.0 atmosphere

pressure were investigated to determine the value of OH, CH, and

C2 spectra as temperature indicators. Several types of atomic

flame apparatus were constructed and used in studies of the

mechanism of hydrocarbon combustion. Intensity distributions

in the ultraviolet and visible bands of OH, CH, and C2 were measured for flames of acetylene with OH and of acetylene with

atomic oxygen. At the same time samples of the combustion

products were taken for mass spectrometric analysis in an effort to correlate composition with radiation data.

High Polymers. Studies of rheological and thermodynamic

properties of elastomeric polymers have been undertaken to improve existing knowledge and control of their behavior in processing operations, and to increase knowledge of their molecular

and technological properties so that new polymers with specified

properties can be developed on a controlled rather than on a trial and error basis.

Thermodynamic data on polymer solutions are meager, discordant, and in disagreement with theoretical predictions. To obtain

a better understanding of polymer solutions, measurements of

heat of solution, density, and vapor pressure were begun on several

polymer-solvent systems. The densities of polystyrene in benzene,

toluene, ethylbenzene, and 2-butanene were measured, and the

vapor pressure and heat of solution of polybutadiene in benzene

are being measured.

Properties of Fluorine and Deuterium Compounds. Fluorine

compounds are utilized in refrigeration, polymer, metallurgical,

and other industries. Members of this large class, ranging from high

stability to extreme reactivity, are being investigated as materials

23
that may help satisfy the increasing severe requirements of military

development programs. In such investigations complete sets of

thermodynamic data are usually needed to evaluate or predict

performance for all substances involved in the process. A research

program aimed at the eventual fulfillment of such needs was ini- tiated several years ago. This research, carried out largely with

funds transferred from the Defense Department and from the

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, has included measurements of specific heats of gases, liquids, and solids at temperatures within the range of 12° to 1,200° Kelvin. Various related

properties—such as vapor pressure, heat of vaporization, melting

point, heat of fusion, and entropy—also were determined experimentally. A new apparatus has been developed for determining

heat of fluorination and another for density and compressibility of

corrosive gases. The heat of formation of carbon tetrafluoride

important in the thermodynamics of fluorocarbons and in the

interpretation of other properties of these materials—was recently

determined.

The molecular and spectroscopic properties of key fluorine compounds are also being intensively analyzed and interpreted.

Theoretical studies of the results obtained from infrared, Raman,

and microwave spectra, and from electron and X-ray diffraction

experiments, provide the basis for calculating the thermodynamic

properties of a large number of related gases from 50° to 5,000°

Kelvin—far beyond the range in which accurate measurements

are feasible. Thermal functions of about 30 fluorine compounds

have been calculated to date, and calorimetric measurements on 8 compounds have been completed.

High-speed computing techniques have been developed and

applied to problems in thermodynamics and molecular structure. These advances have now made it possible to make calculations

with a speed, accuracy, and economy heretofore unobtainable.

For example, tables of thermodynamic functions that formerly

required several weeks to complete can now be obtained in a matter of minutes.

With the aid of these high-speed techniques, it has been possible

to correlate the behavior of compounds of hydrogen and its isotopes

(deuterium and tritium) and to obtain an insight into the fundamental nature of isotope effects in general. Similarly, some of the

24
forces which act within and between molecules can now be determined with far greater reliability.

Isotonic Determination of Water Content. An optical spectroscopic method which uses heavy water to determine the total water

content of biological tissues and other materials was reported in

1952. Since that time, study of operating characteristics has

increased the precision and speed of measurement. Applications

of the technique have been investigated, and the procedure is being

extended to isotopes of carbon and nitrogen. The method is based on a spectroscopic measurement of the ratio of ordinary to heavy water in a solution containing the sample. With a sample

of about 1 ml, a precision of between 0.1 and 2.0 percent is obtained

in an hour or less. A determination can be made on a sample of

less than 0.1 ml, in less than 10 minutes to a precision of a few percent. Reproducibility is good over a period of several months.

In cooperation with Walter Reed Army Medical Center, the

technique was applied to research on body-water variation in hemorrhagic fever. Field teams in Korea collected 73 blood samples which were then frozen and shipped to NBS for analysis of

water content. In this way body-water variations were studied to determine whether the treatment being used was causing excessive

dehydration of the patients.

Low-Temperature Physics. At present, temperatures below

approximately 1 ° Kelvin are measured only by magnetic techniques.

Investigation of the paramagnetic properties of matter at extremely

low temperatures has centered on the study of chromic methylamine

alum as a possible temperature standard. This paramagnetic

salt has been employed both for cooling by adiabatic demagnetization to about one-hundredth of a degree above absolute zero, and

for measuring these temperatures in terms of magnetic susceptibility. The salt has proved particularly useful for such temperature determinations because it follows the theoretical predictions

exceptionally well. Correlation with theory holds quite accurately

down to temperatures of 0.08° Kelvin, making this alum an effective

"thermometer." The magnetic properties of the substance are reproducible down to the lowest temperature attained—about

0.01° K. Development of equipment for measuring true thermodynamic temperatures in this range below 0.08° K is under way.

The vapor pressure of liquid helium, a secondary temperature

25
standard, has been measured in the range from 1.3 to 4.9° K, using

chromic methylamine alum as a thermometer. Errors are known

to exist in the presently accepted helium temperature scale and

these measurements, coupled with the results of other workers,

should make a revision possible.

Experimental and theoretical investigations were conducted on

the thermodynamic properties of superconductors—metals which

lose all electrical resistance at temperatures near absolute zero. A contribution to theory was made in the development of a generalized treatment of the so-called "two-fluid model" of a superconductor. The possibility of the transition temperature being modified by application of torsional strain was also investigated, and an upper limit for the magnitude of such an effect was obtained.

Extremely fine metal filaments are under development for a study

of size effects. This study should aid in the development of the

electronic, as opposed to phenomenological, theory.

A continuing program dealt with second sound, a unique wavelike form of heat transfer occurring only in liquid helium II. Measurement of second sound velocity in helium II was extended

down to the region of one-hundredth of a degree above absolute

zero. The dependence of this velocity on temperature has been

of critical significance to an understanding of the nature of helium

II, the only known "quantum liquid." Besides providing thermodynamic data relating to the behavior of liquid helium II, the study

revealed various unexpected tendencies in velocity of propagation

at the lowest temperatures which suggest the need for further

refinement of the theory.

A program was initiated for investigating nuclear resonance of

radioactive materials at temperatures near absolute zero. In the course of this work, alinement of radioactive nuclei was achieved

in a low-temperature investigation of gamma-ray emission from

cerium-141 nuclei in a cerium salt cooled to 0.003° K. At such low

temperature the effects of thermal agitation become so small that

nuclear alinement can take place. This result promises to provide

a new tool in nuclear physics for studying the processes of nuclear

disintegration. For example, the magnetic moment of the nucleus can be determined as well as the changes in angular momenta

accompanying the emission. Thus, a common meeting ground

26
has been found for nuclear physics and low-temperature physics,

normally regarded as widely separate fields. Cryogenic Engineering. Low-temperature liquified gases—oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen—are finding increased application in industry and national defense, making necessary larger, more convenient, and less hazardous equipment for producing and handling

them. As a result, many new and highly complex engineering

problems have arisen in the low-temperature field, where much

remains to be learned about the mechanical and thermal behavior

of engineering materials and the nature of low-temperature processes. With the cooperation of the Atomic Energy Commission,

NBS has carried on a program of research and development in cryogenic (low-temperature) engineering since 1951.

In 1953, applying results of pioneer research at the Los Alamos

Scientific Laboratory, the Bureau succeeded in producing highconcentration (97-percent) liquid para-hydrogen in large quantities.

Normal hydrogen consists of 25-percent para-hydrogen and 75-

percent ortho-hydrogen. At low temperatures the ortho-hydrogen

spontaneously changes slowly to para-hydrogen, with the liberation

of heat. Consequently, liquid para-hydrogen has much better

storing properties than liquid normal hydrogen. This development

is expected to have two important consequences: (1) It will make

it practical to store liquid hydrogen for long periods with small loss,

and (2) it will make it possible to reduce the size of future liquid

hydrogen plants because liquid para-hydrogen can now be accumulated slowly and stored efficiently with greatly reduced loss. Unrefrigerated liquid hydrogen containers will henceforth be satis- factory for many applications, with a resultant saving of perhaps

half the cost of present equipment as well as large reductions in weight and number of operating personnel.

Recently a 400-liter, all aluminum Dewar was designed and fabricated. Besides its light weight, the Dewar has a low rate of loss: 0.75 percent of liquid para-hydrogen per day. The inner liquid

hydrogen container is surrounded, in its insulating vacuum space,

by a liquid nitrogen shield. The low loss rate is due in part to another NBS development, a low-thermal-conductance multisurface mechanical support. Now that the feasibility of vacuum-tight

aluminum construction has been demonstrated, larger containers,

321720—54 3 27
up to 2,000 liter capacity, are being designed. These are expecte

to have an even lower loss rate. To provide engineering data for the design of cryogenic equipment, apparatus was designed and constructed for measuring

mechanical and thermal properties from 20° to 300° K and for

investigating emissivities of metal surfaces to determine their

thermal radiation transfers across insulating vacuum spaces. Emissivities of 60 different metal surfaces have been measured.

Combustion in Engines. As compression ratios of modern gasoline engines are continually raised, knock and preignition become more troublesome. The rapidly expanding use of Diesel engines

has also emphasized problems of cold starting and engine roughness and smoking under heavy-load operation. All these difficulties are associated with the combustion phenomenon known as autoignition, which occurs when a fuel-air mixture is heated by

compression until it ignites spontaneously without spark. Fuel

injected into the hot air in a Diesel cylinder ignites by this process, while knock in a gasoline engine is caused by explosive autoignition

of the last, unburned portion of the fuel-air mixture to be traversed

by the normal flame from the spark plug.

Seeking information that will lead to more efficient utilization

of fuels, the Bureau is conducting an intensive investigation of

autoignition. The apparatus includes a specially built singlecylinder engine of variable compression ratio in which a wide range

of operating conditions may be simulated. The engine has been

modified to permit compression-ignition of a single homogeneous

premixed charge of fuel and air in the absence of burned residual

gases, cylinder hot spots, and lubricating oil. Pressure, rate of

change of pressure, and light emission are oscillographically re- corded as functions of crank angle or time. In order to follow the

reaction by mass spectrometric analysis of the mixture, a mechanical device was developed to take samples of the rapidly changing

gas in the combustion chamber during extremely short intervals

0.2 millisecond or less. The rapid sampling valve has been useful in tracing the reactions

that take place in the combustion of hexane. The hexane is degraded by thermal decomposition and oxidized into nearly all predictable fragments, including olefins, aldehydes, and acetylene.

In order to obtain more useful analyses, current emphasis is being

28
placed on simpler hydrocarbon fuels, such as propane and isobutane.

The products found clearly indicate that two types of reactions

take place. In one the fuel is thermally decomposed and dehydrogenated; in the other it is oxidized to oxygen-containing compounds.

There is considerable evidence, both from the NBS studies and

from those in other laboratories, that acetylene may be the essential intermediate in carbon formation in burning mixtures. Additional experiments are being carried out to verify this premise by

burning fuels having isotopic carbon in selected places in the molecule. Carbon is readily formed in knocking combustion, even

with lean mixtures, and this may indicate that formation of carbon

from the acetylene present is a faster reaction than the direct

oxidation of acetylene under these conditions.

Heat Engines. The octane number of gasoline is determined in a standard laboratory engine under prescribed operating conditions. One operating variable which is not directly controlled in the current standard test methods is the altitude or ambient pres- sure at the point of test. To improve the uniformity of test methods and reproducibility in octane rating, two sets of experiments were conducted in the Bureau's altitude chamber in co- operation with the American Society for Testing Materials. In

the first series of experiments, an evaluation was made of several

types of auxiliary equipment designed to pressurize the air-induction system to one atmosphere, regardless of the ambient pressure. The equipment operated satisfactorily, and reproducible ratings were obtained at all altitudes. The second series investigated the

possibility of compensating for changes in altitude by adjusting

the compression ratio and inlet air temperature, thereby eliminating additional equipment. These adjustments were made in accordance with theoretical calculations to give a constant charge

density and temperature at the instant of ignition. This approach was found to be inapplicable because of the effects of secondary

variables. However, it did serve as a basis for empirical development of the desired conditions. The empirical results appear

quite satisfactory in the great majority of cases. These conditions are being standardized and studied for reproducibility.

Pneumatic Tires. The Synthetic Rubber Division of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation has been engaged in an extensive

program to develop large-size, heavy-duty pneumatic tires from

29
synthetic rubber for trucks and buses. In connection with this

program, the Bureau is conducting power-loss and contained-air

temperature-rise investigations on experimental tires using different

materials, compositions, and designs. Equipment specially developed for this purpose include dynamometers for power measure- ments and a thermocouple-slipring arrangement for measuring

the contained-air temperature. Investigations to date show that

relations between power loss and contained-air temperature rise are essentially linear. The results further indicate that with tires of the same design, changing from natural rubber to a synthetic

rubber increases the power loss up to 50 percent or more, depending upon the type and proportion of the synthetic rubber. The

power loss is also greatly affected by tire design, to such an extent

that natural rubber tires of some designs gave almost as much

power loss as synthetic rubber tires of other designs.

Oil-Free Bearings. It is essential that aircraft clocks and similar

instruments operate satisfactorily over a temperature range from — 55° to 70° C. At subzero temperatures congealing of watch

and clock oils prevents satisfactory performance. A current

project, sponsored by the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics, is con- cerned with investigation of materials for use as oil-free bearings

to replace jewels, which require lubrication. Materials investigated include plastics, plastics with fillers, impregnated metals,

and impregnated carbon. Wear tests, conducted with both

rotating and oscillating shafts, have indicated good wear resistance

with several materials. The investigation is being continued in an attempt to find materials having good wear resistance in combination with low coefficients of friction that are not adversely

affected by the wide range in temperature nor by operation for

long periods.

2.4. Atomic and Radiation Physics

Basic atomic and nuclear research is important to other research

laboratories, medical institutions, industry, the military services,

and other Government agencies. The Bureau's program in atomic

and radiation physics is concerned primarily with studies of (1)

particles such as atoms, nuclei, neutrons, and electrons; (2) properties of radiations, particularly gamma and X-rays and ultraviolet,

visible, and infrared light; and (3) the interactions between such

30
radiations and particles. Emphasis is placed on the fundamental

research and development necessary to meet the increasing demand

for new standards, more accurate values of atomic and nuclear

constants, reliable data on the properties of high-energy radiations,

new and improved methods of measurement, and the calibration of

radiation sources and radiation detection instruments.

In addition to Bureau-sponsored programs, investigations were

carried out for the Atomic Energy Commission, the Department of

Defense, and other Government laboratories. Typical programs

included the studies of radiation protection, the development of

radiation detectors, research on semiconductors and solid state

electronics, and development of new techniques in electron physics

and mass spectrometry.

Hyperfine Structure of Technetium. When suitably excited and

examined with high resolving power, many spectral lines exhibit more than one component. In general, these hyperfine components

are ascribed either to different isotopes of a given chemical element

or to a hyperfine splitting of atomic energy levels because of interactions between valence electrons and atomic nuclei. Increased

knowledge of such hyperfine structures will permit quantitative

evaluation of certain properties of atomic nuclei, which are prerequisite to an eventual understanding of the structures and forces

in these nuclei. As an important step toward this goal the Bureau

has completed investigation of the hyperfine structure in the first spectrum of technetium, an element sought for 80 years and only

recently separated from uranium fission products. A two-milligram sample of 43TC99 was excited to emit light in a liquid-nitrogencooled hollow cathode, and spectrograms were made with an

interferometer and quartz-prism spectrograph. Several dozeji

technetium lines were resolved into 4 to 10 components each,

permitting calculation of hyperfine interval factors and nuclear

moments. The mechanical moment or spin of the technetium

nucleus was found to be about 9/2 units, the magnetic dipole

moment was calculated to be about +5.5 nuclear magnetrons, and

a small electric quadrupole moment indicated that charge distribution in the technetium nucleus is nearly spherically symmetrical.

Electron Scattering. Considerable progress has been made in instrumentation for medium-energy electron scattering studies.

This program, sponsored by the Office of Naval Research, is directed

31
toward a better understanding of the processes by which electrons

lose energy upon impact with atoms. The instrumentation for

these studies consists of two main assemblies. The first of these

is a high-resolution "electron spectrograph/' which is capable of

detecting a loss of less than 5 volts out of an initial electron energy

of 50,000 volts. To complement this instrument, which is limited

to only slightly deflected electrons, and to permit studies of

collisions resulting in greater electron deflection, the Bureau also

constructed another apparatus. This instrument, is arranged for automatic data recording, and gives, in less than one-half hour,

energy loss and intensity as a function of angle of deflection at %° intervals over a range of more than 100°. Data on copper,

aluminum, beryllium, and gold have been obtained. The smallangle measurements have been equally successful, data having

been obtained for 25 metals and insulators. The small-angle

studies have provided much new knowledge about the mechanism

of electron energy losses. Calibration of Beta-Ray Opthalmic Applicators. Beta-ray therapy

is used in the treatment of certain diseases of the eye, and intense

beta-ray sources of small size are being produced commercially

for this purpose. The active material normally consists of radioactive strontium-90 or of radium D-f-E. The Bureau developed

a standard method for calibrating these beta-ray sources that

expresses the dosage delivered to the patient in terms most useful

to the physician. Extrapolation ionization-chamber techniques

determine the dose rate at different depths in tissue-equivalent

material along the axis normal to the plane face of the applicator.

Autoradiographic techniques have also been perfected to study

radiation distribution at various depths in tissue-equivalent

material.

Formamide Counting. In order to determine the activities of

radioactive nuclides for medical and research purposes the investigator generally uses a known aliquot of a solution of a salt of the

nuclide in question. From this a solid source is prepared either by

precipitation or by evaporation, and beta-ray strength is determined by normal counting methods. It would be advantageous

to be able to assay beta-emitters also in the solution form. In the

case of soft beta-emitters, the attenuation in the normally used

membrane cover makes this method impractical; without this

32
cover the vapors from the water solution interfere with the

operation of the counter. To obviate this difficulty, especially in counting soft beta radiation from radioactive carbon-14, the Bureau carried out experiments with the organic solvent, formamide, which has an extremely

low vapor pressure. It was found that a specially constructed

2 7r beta counter containing a small dish of formamide behaved in a perfectly normal fashion. Moreover, small amounts of aqueous

solutions of radioactive nuclides could be dissolved in the formamide without changing the counting characteristics of the 2 ir beta

counter. Formamide counting, developed for radioactive carbon-14,

has been satisfactorily extended to the secondary standardization

of radioactive phosphorus-32, cobalt-60, iodine-131, strontium-90

and yttrium-90, and thallium-204. This method could also prove

very convenient for calibration in research and hospital radiological

laboratories.

Spectral-Line Intensities for 70 Elements. In principle any

chemical element can be uniquely identified by its spectral line

wavelengths, and the composition of any mixture of chemical

elements can be determined accurately by comparing its spectralline intensities with those of standard samples. The wavelengths

of atomic radiations of all chemical elements are accurately known,

but their relative intensities have never been presented on a uniform

physical scale for the entire useful range of wavelengths. To supply

such information the Bureau has measured the relative intensities

of all spectral radiations of 70 chemical elements detectable when

each element was diluted one-thousand-fold in copper, excited in a direct-current arc, and its spectrum recorded photographically from

the ultraviolet (2000 A) to the infrared (9000 A). The spectral-line

intensities of the diluted elements were estimated by comparison

with accurately measured relative intensities of copper lines and

then converted to true relative intensities on the same scale for

all 70 elements. Wavelengths and intensities of about 30,000

spectral-lines of these 70 elements, together with the atomic levels that account for the radiations, are being compiled for publication.

Intermetallic Semiconductors. An important development in electronics achieved during the last 2 years at NBS was an independent discovery of a new group of semiconducting materials

that may alleviate the present shortage of crystal rectifiers and

33
transistors. Past experience has shown that, although germanium

can be used successfully for rectifiers and transistors, the units do

not function well at high temperatures. This limitation, which

prevents the use of some devices and severely restricts others, is fundamental to the electronic nature of germanium and cannot be

removed. A possible solution is the use of silicon as a germanium

replacement. Unfortunately, because of its high melting point and

reactive nature, it is extremely difficult to grow the required single

crystals of silicon of sufficient purity for use in practical units.

A series of intermetallic compounds formed between the metals

antimony or arsenic and the metals indium, gallium, or aluminum

may solve this problem. It has been found that these compounds

are all semiconductors with properties comparable to those of silicon or germanium. In particular, the compound gallium antimonide

can be used to make rectifiers that will operate at temperatures

much higher than are possible with germanium. This compound

has a much lower melting point than silicon, making it much easier

to fabricate. The development of transistors made of this material

is under way.

In addition, recent observations of photoconductive effects in these intermetallic compounds suggests that they may be useful as photocells, particularly in the infrared region. This possibility is now being explored.

Synchrotron Operation. Successful operation of the NBS synchrotron at 180 million electron volts (Mev) has been attained

during the past 2 years. The X-radiation output of this synchrotron has been maintained reliably at an intensity higher than that

of any other similar accelerator operating in this energy range.

Although it has been desirable to reserve approximately half of the

operating time for a study and improvement of operating characteristics, a considerable amount of radiation research has already

been done. Some of the research problems utilizing the synchrotron during the past year were (1) attenuation measurements of

high-energy X-radiation in concrete, (2) side scattering of photons

in hydrocarbons and its effect on ionization dose measurements,

(3) tests for a pattern amplifier to permit visual radiography, and

(4) nuclear absorption of photons.

Elastic Nuclear Scattering. A high-energy spectrometer recently

developed at the Bureau makes possible the study of X-radiation

34
photon interaction with the nucleus. For example, the probability

of a photon of a given energy being absorbed and reemitted by the

nucleus at energies of the order of 15 Mev is now being examined.

The first experimental observation of the "resonance" character

of the excitation function for elastic nuclear scattering of highenergy photons (5 to 30 Mev) was made with the Bureau's 50-Mev

betatron. This work was supported by the Air Force. The "reso- nance" character of the nuclear absorption of high-energy photons

has been known experimentally for a number of years. Although

very general dispersion theory indicated that a similar "resonance"

should be observed in the elastic scattering cross section, this fact

has never before been verified experimentally. The analysis of

these scattering results is leading to valuable information about

the energy-level structure of nuclei studied at excitation energies

of 5 to 30 Mev.

X-ray Spectrometers. The Bureau has developed a scintillation

crystal detector to measure individual X-ray photon energies in the

range from 0.5 to 50 Mev. The detector is especially suited to research with betatrons and synchrotrons. In this spectrometer

a single X-ray photon is totally absorbed in a large bath of scintil- lator, producing a light flash of magnitude proportional to the X-ray

energy. This spectrometer provides a detection efficiency 100,000

times better than that previously available from spectrometers

with comparable energy resolution. In consequence, many highenergy X-ray experiments are now possible and their interpretations will be facilitated.

Accurate analysis of X-rays having energies between 0.2 and 12

Mev is made possible by another new spectrometer. Called the

NBS magnetic Compton spectrometer, it operates in an energy

range that bridges the gap between other types of X-ray spectrometers. Data obtained with the spectrometer are used in studying

X-ray absorption properties of various materials. It is expected

that the spectrometer will also provide information leading to a

better understanding of the nature of X-ray production.

High-Sensitivity Fluoroscopic Unitfor High-Energy X-Rays. The

betatron laboratory has developed a sensitive fluoroscopic instrument that can be used industrially with high-energy X-rays for

rapid inspection of fixed slabs of material. The fluoroscope

displays continuously a replica of the X-ray image on a TV kine35
scope. When 180-Mev X-radiations from the synchrotron are used, the instrument is sufficiently sensitive in its present state to reproduce scenes through as much as 6 feet of concrete or 12 feet of water. The high sensitivity of this instrument makes it capable

of responding to a single X-ray burst from the synchrotron. This means that it can be used either as an X-ray stroboscope, to stop

cyclic action Occurring inside the object being viewed, or as a single

shot X-ray camera, with an effective shutter speed equal to the

time length of an X-ray burst. With a burst time of the order of

a microsecond, the camera is extremely fast, and can be used to investigate very rapid transient phenomena.

Data Transmitting System. At the request of the Atomic Energy

Commission, a system was developed by the Bureau for monitoring

and transmitting radiation intensity and other data to a central

control station. Evaluation tests were conducted by the AEC

with NBS assistance at atomic-bomb tests in Nevada. These

tests were highly satisfactory, and the AEC is proceeding with plans

for wide application of the system.

The data can be transmitted over considerable distances because

the system utilizes an FM radio link operating in the VHF band.

Because propagation is "line of sight" at these frequencies, the

system utilizes repeater stations. The operator at the control

station has complete control over the data stations, is able to interrogate them and have any station he chooses transmit at any

desired time. The operator can also select from several trans- mission programs. Except for the control station, the entire

system is battery operated and is designed to operate unattended

for long periods of time.

X-Ray Protection. Radiation tests have been completed with

the Bureau's 50-million-volt betatron on X-radiation attenuation

in concrete. Increasing applications of high-energy radiations to such work as cancer therapy and inspection of thick metal castings

have made these data valuable to hospitals and industries. For

economy of construction in X-ray installation it is important to know as exactly as possible what barrier thicknesses will provide

adequate protection to personnel.

The Bureau is concerned with determining radiation attenuations in barriers designed to stop X- and gamma radiations of

various energies. In determining barrier thicknesses required to

36
stop obliquely incident radiations, the usual assumption has been

that adequate protection can be calculated from attenuation curves known for normal incidence, the significant factor being the length

of beam path irrespective of the angle of incidence. Experiments

were carried out to determine the validity of this assumption. The

results showed that for large angles of incidence it was in error by

as much as a factor of 10. The Bureau now has available experimental data on oblique radiation attenuation and hence is in a better position to assist those who plan X-ray installations.

Detailed procedures for designing X-radiation barriers are presented

in NBS Handbook 50, X-Ray Protection Design.

2.5. Chemistry

A wide range of fundamental and applied research is carried on

in physical, analytical, organic, and inorganic chemistry. Special

laboratories are devoted to organic protective coatings, detergents

and adsorbents, carbohydrates, metals and alloys, pure substances,

electrodeposited coatings, gases, acid-base indicators and pH

standards, and hydrocarbons. Highly varied techniques are used

in the analytical work of the several groups; many types of physicochemical measurements are made: an entire section, by way of

illustration, is occupied with emission spectroscopy as an analytical

tool. Most of the Bureau's Standard Samples, critical in industrial quality control and in research throughout the Nation, originate in this division.

Colloidal Dispersions. Fundamental studies have been made of

certain properties of nonpolymeric colloid solutions. Detergents,

typical of that class of material known as association colloids, have

been the subject of viscometric and light-scattering measurements,

by which the size and shape of the colloidal detergent particles

have been determined. The importance of the electric charge

carried by the colloidal aggregates in determining the properties

of their solutions has been reaffirmed, and the effect of adding small

ionizing salts has also been investigated. Extension of this work

by means of electrophoretic and diffusion experiments will lead to

results of fundamental significance in fields as diverse as detergency,

corrosion, and physiological processes. Basic Calcium Phosphates. The basic calcium phosphates are important in agriculture, in clarifying sugar liquors, in water puri37
fication, and in studying tooth and bone structure. They are a group of basic compounds of rather widely varying ratios of cal- cium to phosphate. Because physical properties of calcium phosphates depend not only on chemical composition, but to a greater

extent upon method of preparation, fundamental studies have been

made of their chemical and physical properties as related to method

of preparation. Practical applications of these materials depend

largely on their adsorptive properties; control of crystal size and

surface area (that is, available surface per unit weight of substance)

is therefore of importance. Basic phosphates having 7-fold variations in surface area and comparable variations in other properties can now be prepared at will. Thermochemical Measurements. One of the fundamental branches

of chemistry is the study of the forces or binding energies with

which atoms are held together in molecules. Thermochemical

measurements of heats of formation are essential to the evaluation

of total binding energies in molecules. In general, quite detailed

information on binding energies can be obtained from studying

differences in heats of formation of those molecules having certain

aspects or groups in common, such as isomers and homologous

series of organic compounds. Thermochemical data are also

essential to the engineer calculating heat balances in chemical

plants and are required for determining reaction equilibrium constants that are necessary to chemical process development.

Thermochemical studies at NBS have determined heats of formation of o-, m-3 and ^-tert-butyltoluene, yielding information on

steric effects in hydrocarbon molecules. Measurements of heats

of formation of all pentenes and pentadienes and a few hexenes

have given information on effects of alkyl substituents on double

bond energetics, which are valuable in synthetic rubber development. Measurements have also been made on the boron hydrides

and other boron compounds. These measurements will aid in understanding these relatively new compounds in which the usual

laws of chemical binding do not apply.

Research in Analytical Chemistry. During the past decade many

metals have been employed for the first time in production of

alloys that are strong and durable under conditions such as the

high temperatures developed in jet engines. Control of composition necessary for the production of such alloys has created many

38
new problems for the analyst, because the metals are among the

less common elements that have received relatively little study and

in addition are much alike in their chemical properties as to make

analytical separations difficult. A technique of separation based on ion exchange—the differential retention of metal ions on the

surfaces of certain resins—has aided in the solution of these problems. This technique, which has proved successful elsewhere for

difficult separations, has been successfully applied in NBS laboratories to the quantitative separation of cobalt, nickel, iron, and

manganese as they occur in cobalt-base jet-engine alloys. Ion

exchange has also successfully separated niobium, tantalum, tita- nium, tungsten, and molybdenum as they occur in stainless steels. For the latter elements, photometric methods have been developed

to give quantitative determinations after ion-exchange separation.

Spectrographic methods of analysis were developed for the following applications: (1) Determination of impurities in nickel used in cathodes of electron tubes, (2) analysis of complex dental alloys

for major and minor constituents, (3) determination of impurities

in highly purified titanium tetrachloride, (4) determination of

trace elements in portland cement, (5) a rapid method for determining beryllium in dust, and (6) flame photometric determination of

alkalies in refractory materials. These methods offer advantages

of speed or sensitivity over classical methods.

Phenomena of Crystallization. One of the most widely used

methods of purifying substances is to recrystallize them repeatedly,

either from solution or from their own liquid state. In this process

there are two important limitations to the degree of purification

that can be accomplished in a single step, the extent to which the

less pure liquid can be separated mechanically from the more pure

solid, and the extent to which impurities accompany the major

constituent during crystal formation.

A distinct advance has been made in providing optimum conditions for mechanical separation of solid and liquid upon crystallization from the molten state. The substance is placed in an evacuated glass vessel and lowered by a special device through a bath

consisting of two immiscible liquids, the upper one kept above the

freezing point of the substance and the lower one kept below it. At the boundary between liquids there is a sharp difference of

temperature. As the substance passes through this boundary it

39
tends to form large single crystals having minimum surface in contact with the liquid. When solidification is nearly complete,

the remaining liquid is allowed to flow into a side arm of the vessel

and is there sealed off without opening the system. The entire

operation is repeated several times and eventually there is obtained

a single crystal of extremely high purity that is optically homogeneous and without inclusions.

pH Standards. In many manufacturing and research operations

measurement and regulation of acidity, or pH, is essential for controlling process steps. NBS maintains and issues standards for

the precise calibration of instruments used in measuring and controlling pH. The temperature range over which these standards

are certified, previously 0° to 60° C, has been extended to 95° C,

to bring the upper limit nearer to the boiling point of water. To

fix the extended pH values it was necessary to determine the standard electrode potentials of the silver-silver-chloride electrode at the higher temperatures. These potentials are expected to serve

also as standard reference potentials for measuring the electromotive force of cells. Precise Intercomparisons of Acidic Substances. One of the

Standard Samples issued by the Bureau, potassium hydrogen

phthalate, is probably the most widely used standard of its type

to establish the accuracy of the innumerable assays of acids and

alkalies that are made by the chemical industry. Although the

acid strength of the standard itself has been well enough known

for all ordinary purposes, it has never been fixed with the accuracy

that is desirable for a primary standard. In the past its acid

value has been fixed by a chain of three comparisons, with the re- sulting possibility of an accumulation of small errors. A refined

technique has been employed with satisfactory results. The procedure involves potentiometric titration in a cell provided with a

differential hydrogen-electrode system for determining the equivalence point. The strength of the potassium hydrogen phthalate

has been compared, through the medium of a selected basic substance common to both reactions, with benzoic acid whose purity was determined by independent means. The precision thus at- tained has decreased by a factor of ten the uncertainty which has

existed in the knowledge of the acid value of the standard.

40
Titanium Compounds. In recent years the Navy has sponsored

a broad program of basic research on the extractive metallurgy of

titanium, a metal of rapidly growing industrial and technological

importance. The preparation of a series of titanium compounds

of high and thoroughly established purity was assigned to NBS.

Extraordinary purity has been achieved in the preparation of the

first of this series, titanium chloride, and the new methods used

for the purification have already attracted the interest of industrial producers of titanium and its compounds. Work is in progress on four other compounds for which the highly purified tetra- chloride provides the starting point.

Electrodeposition from Nonaqueous Media. The art of electroplating has widespread and important uses but its application has

been limited by the relatively small number of metals that can be

electrodeposited from water solutions. Many other elements have

physical and chemical properties that would make them extremely

useful as coatings plated on other metals or in other electrodeposited

forms. Among them are beryllium, aluminum, titanium, zirconium, niobium, tantalum, molybdenum, and tungsten, but their

chemical nature is such that they cannot be plated from aqueous

solutions.

Many new types of compounds have been studied in efforts to deposit these metals from nonaqueous solvents, or from fused

salts. Although most of them have proven unsatisfactory, the

Bureau has made some advances in processes for aluminum and

molybdenum plating.

Ways have been found to correct the earlier faults of the aluminum-plating bath in which ether is the solvent. Addition agents

that promote the brightness of the deposits have been found, and

adherence of the deposited aluminum to the basis metal has been

improved. Means have also been found to plate alloys of aluminum with zirconium, and of beryllium with boron. Successful

plating of beryllium alone has not yet been accomplished. Satisfactory deposits of molybdenum in the form of the granular metal

have been obtained from fused-salt baths under conditions which

may have significance for the recovery of the metal from its ores. There has also been preliminary success in depositing the metal

as a surface layer on other metals.

41
Labeled Sugars. Preparation of sugars and related compounds

labeled with radioactive carbon-14 (C14

) in specific positions in the

molecule has continued, and methods have now been developed

for preparing more than 40 compounds. The project, sponsored

by the Atomic Energy Commission, first brought results in 1952

when 12 labeled sugars were announced. Because nongovernment

laboratories have begun regular production of only two of these

substances (it is hoped that others will follow), it has been neces- sary for the Bureau to maintain a supply of 30 others as well as to continue work on additional compounds. Quantities sufficient for extensive research in normal and pathological animal and plant

metabolism have been issued to 75 laboratories, among them several actively engaged in cancer studies.

Gas Analysis Procedures of Extreme Sensitivity. The method for

determining the purity of hydrogen by thermal-conductivity measurements has been refined to yield a procedure at least 10 times more sensitive than any previously known. The method will detect as little as 1 part of any other gaseous substance in 10 million

parts of hydrogen, with an apparatus designed to give direct instrumental readings from any one of more than 50 sampling points.

A prototype field instrument for determining water in gases at pressures as high as 6,000 pounds per square inch and with a frost

point as low as —65° F has been completed for the Air Force.

The instrument, with a unique combination of accuracy, range,

sensitivity, portability, and speed, is capable of determining the

water at high pressure in gas that after expansion will have a frost point as low as —100° F. Mounted on wheels, it can be trundled

to any part of an airfield and a determination can be made at subzero temperatures in a minute or two with an extremely small

sample.

2.6. Mechanics

Basic research in mechanics is concerned with the determination

of mechanical properties of materials in the gaseous, liquid, and

solid state; the propagation of waves through solids, liquids, and

gases; fluid flow (such as that occurring on the surface of an air- plane wing or during the break of a dam) ; and the response of mechanical bodies (such as metallic structures) to applied forces. Applied research in mechanics seeks to improve calibration pro42
cedures for mechanical standards (laboratory weights, force dynamometers, vibration pickups, microphones, pressure gages) and

to find solutions to problems in the evaluation and development

of such devices as aircraft oxygen apparatus for high-altitude flight or after-burners for jet engines.

Throughout this program increasing use is being made of electrical and electronic methods. For example, precise calibrations

of vibration pickups, vibration generators, and microphones at high frequencies are being made more and more by electrical measurements alone, utilizing the reciprocity principle; the NBS elec- tronic computer, SEAC, is being employed to save computation

time in studies of vibrating structures; and precise determinations

of humidity are being made by a microwave refraction technique.

Speed of Sound in the Sea. A velocimeter that automatically measures and records the speed of sound at ocean depths as great

as 3,000 feet was developed for the Navy. The device is being

used by the Chesapeake Bay Institute, and improved models are under development. These instruments promise to be useful for

research into the physics of sound in the ocean as well as in studies

of signal propagation under water. Free Molecule Propagation of Sound. A new type of sound

propagation was discovered as a byproduct of the Bureau's investigation into the propagation of sound in rarefied gases. This type

of propagation occurs if the sound path is much shorter than the

mean free path of the gas molecules so that intermolecular en- counters are not significant. The simple theory for the velocity

and attenuation of free-molecule sound was confirmed in its main

features by experiments with the ultrasonic gas interferometer.

It may be possible to apply the results of this work to the study

of gas-molecular reflection and accommodation coefficients and

to other problems in gas dynamics.

Artificial Mastoid. An artificial mastoid is needed to represent an "average human head" in tests of hearing aids of the bone

conduction type. A mechanical driver was designed and built

to measure the mechanical impedance of the head at audiofrequencies. Results of preliminary measurements with this device

indicated that the head may be represented by a simple mechanical

system consisting of a very stiff spring with a small amount of

damping. From the data obtained so far, it appears that a simple

321720—54 4 43
artificial mastoid can be constructed that will make it possible

for the Bureau to supply calibrations of bone conductors for

audiometric purposes.

Properties of Electroacoustic Transducers. A method was devised

for monitoring and controlling the motion of a sound source. This method makes it possible to stabilize the behavior of a sound

source under varying conditions of load. In addition, it was

found that the method could be applied to measurements of

sound pressure using carrier-modulated microphone amplifiers

with precision equivalent to that previously available only with

microphones operated through direct audiofrequency amplifiers.

This makes it possible to make acoustic measurements of high

accuracy while taking advantage of the favorable signal-to-noise

ratios which can be achieved when radiofrequencies are used to detect the sound impinging on the microphone.

Architectural Acoustics. An improved method was developed

for measuring and recording continuously the sound transmission

loss of a partition wall at various frequencies. Continuous recording at low frequencies has proved particularly useful in reducing

errors arising from sound wave interferences in reverberant

measuring rooms. The presence of the interference patterns of

"random" sound wave fields was predicted theoretically and con- firmed experimentally.

Noise Reduction in Jet Engines. Jet engine noise presents a hazard to hearing and is sometimes severe enough to cause damage

in aircraft structures. Apparatus was built for measuring the

noise attenuation provided by cylindrical space absorbers designed

to reduce the noise of jet engines being tested. To determine

the mechanism of noise generation, preliminary measurements

were made of the total sound energy produced by model jets.

Calibration of Vibration Pickups at Audiofrequencies. By means

of a modified pistonphone, a technique was developed for obtaining

the response of a capacitance-type vibration pickup probe. The

reciprocity calibration of a condenser microphone was used as a

reference. The instrument consists of a barium titanate driver

coupled to a circular piston, which generates a sound pressure in a small vibration-isolated enclosure. Measurement of the sound

pressure with the condenser microphone permits computation of

the motion of the piston and calibration of the capacitance probe.

44
A probe calibration accuracy of 5 percent is achieved for the

frequency range from 100 to 10,000 cps. Vibration amplitudes as small as 10~9 cm have been measured with comparable accuracy.

Calibration of Microphones. Microphones having absolute cali- brations are used to measure sound pressures to an accuracy of

about 1 percent. Such calibrations have hitherto been made over

the frequency range from 50 cps to 10,000 cps. By means of

specially designed small enclosures, calibrations can now be made

up to 20,000 cps. At the other end of the frequency range, accurate

calibrations have been extended down to a frequency of 1 cps. This has been achieved with the aid of a mathematical investigation into the cooling effects of the walls of the microphone-calibration enclosures at very low frequencies.

Measurement of High Pressures. Modern chemical industry and

modern ordnance both require an extension of the range of the

piston gage to serve as a pressure standard from 50,000 to 200,000

pounds per square inch. Under the sponsorship of Watertown

Arsenal, two of the difficulties preventing this extension were

overcome. First, the dimensional change from internal pressure on the cylinder of the piston gage was compensated by balancing

with a controlled external pressure. Secondly, a special insulator

solved the problem of leakage through pressure-indicator lead

holes. The insulator consists of a small sapphire bushing that has

been subjected to pressures up to 180,000 pounds per square inch

without failure. Installation of new piston gages is being completed to give primary standards for measuring pressures up to 200,000 pounds per square inch.

Aerological and Flight Test Instruments. Work in aerological in- strumentation resulted in the development of an improved humidity measuring element having high sensitivity and extremely

rapid response; these characteristics promise improved accuracy of

measurement, particularly under conditions encountered in radiosonde and aircraft use. Improved flight test instruments developed for special purposes include a helicopter airspeed gage and a compact high-speed photo-panel unit for recording temperatures

at 96 locations on an aircraft every 6 seconds. Research in the

application of thin evaporated films resulted in the development

of electrical resistors having improved characteristics.

45
Turbulent Flow. Chaotic motions, known as turbulence, play a key role in nearly all technological applications of fluid flow. When

water flows through a pipe, for example, only under exceptional

circumstances does it move in an orderly fashion. In general, it becomes jumbled and confused, partially blocking its own progress

through the pipe. Similar phenomena occur in the flow of air along the surface of an airplane and in the flow about a body

moving through a fluid. Here the forces experienced by the body

are strongly influenced by turbulence. The Bureau recently con- cluded a 2-year investigation of the mechanics of turbulent motions

which was sponsored by the National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics. Studies were conducted with air flowing along a

flat wall in one case and with air flowing in a pipe in another case. Hot-wire anomometers were used in various ways to derive such

information as the following: where and in what quantities turbulent motions were produced; where and at what rate turbulent

motions were dissipated by viscosity.

Hot-Wire Anomometer Development. Under the sponsorship of

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the factors

governing the cooling of fine heated wires were investigated in the

transonic and supersonic speed ranges. The purpose was to find

those characteristics of the hot wire that can be exploited to produce

a tool for research at high speeds. By covering a wide range of

speeds, air densities, and wire temperatures with wires of different

sizes set at various orientations to the stream, new possibilities were uncovered. Wires as small as 0.00005 inch in diameter were

used. With such fine wires, rapidly fluctuating quantities can be

measured. The investigation has made it possible to measure

fluctuations in velocity, density, and temperature at speeds up to twice the speed of sound. Such measurements aid in evaluating

data obtained in supersonic wind tunnels.

Positive Waves. Positive waves are flood waves caused by the

sudden break of a dam. The nature of the wave depends not

only on the height of water behind the dam but also on the roughness of the valley or channel into which the water is discharged.

This important type of transient flow was studied theoretically

and in the laboratory. High-speed photography and other techniques were used to observe a flood wave discharging into a channel

after the sudden raising of a vertical gate simulating the dam.

46
The waves were discharged into channels of three degrees of hydraulic roughness. The results indicate that there is a short time

interval just after the opening of the gate during which the

resulting flow is primarily determined by viscosity effects rather

than by turbulent resistance. The initial flow shows good agreement with the results of a theoretical analysis.

High-Temperature Strength of Aircraft Structures. The development of jet- and rocket-powered aircraft and the subsequent

penetration of the sonic barrier have resulted in a steady increase

in structural temperatures resulting from skin friction. The

problem of building structures capable of withstanding these temperatures is becoming a major obstacle to the attainment of higher

speeds. Many materials and components in aircraft construction

undergo severe weakening at temperatures produced by aerodynamic heating. One weakening effect is creep—i. e., continuing

deformation with time under constant loading—while losses in material strength and stiffness constitute another.

To increase available information on creep of aircraft structures,

the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, sponsored

studies of riveted aluminum alloy joints at 300°, 400°, and 500° F

and of spotwelded joints of stainless steel at 800° F. The results

show that the creep of the riveted joints is considerably greater

than the creep of unriveted sheet, although not so large that the

creep of the sheet could be considered negligible compared to that

of the joints. Limited data indicate that the creep rupture

strength of a riveted joint may be approximated by assuming that

the creep rupture efficiency of a joint at any temperature is equal

to the room-temperature efficiency. The creep of the spotwelded

joints in stainless steel was found to be negligible after 200 hours

at 800° F at loads up to 97 percent of their ultimate strength.

Solution of Structural Problems with SEAC. In the design of

machines and structures, an important factor in the choice of

methods of analysis is the time available. Limited time results

in the use of estimates and approximate formulas where more

accurate though cumbersome formulas are available, and in the

study of only a few design variables where a more thorough search

might yield a more efficient design. Any means of reducing

analysis time, particularly if it does not result in an increase in

cost, is therefore of prime importance in determining what design

47
methods will be used. The advent of high-speed digital computing

machines showed promise of such a large reduction in analysis

time that their application to the difficult and tedious problems

of static and dynamic analysis of aircraft structures has been

pursued vigorously.

One of the first applications was the computation of the influence

coefficients, or deflections per unit increase in load, for tapered

cantilever beams. A basic code was devised for SEAC (National

Bureau of Standards Eastern Automatic Computer), making it possible to compute influence coefficients for beams having up to 23 stations at which the deflections must be known. In an ex- ample for a beam having nine stations, the computing time was

3 minutes as compared with 2 days when done by hand on a conventional computing machine.

An additional application has been the analysis of delta wings

for high speed aircraft. Wings of this type, when formed of a

thin metal skin reinforced by spanwise beams and chordwise ribs

in a conventional manner, form highly redundant structures. Structural analysis of such wings is thus extremely complex.

General codes to be used in SEAC for carrying out such analyses

have been devised and found to give satisfactory results. In the dynamic analysis of large aircraft structures subject to vibration and shock, it is frequently necessary to analyze a manydegree-of-freedom system because of the high flexibility of the

lightweight structure and the presence of heavy engine weights,

as well as the fuselage weight, in addition to the distributed structural weight. The development of a general code for computing

the vibration modes and natural frequencies of such structures with up to 63° of freedom has been completed. For shock loads, a step-by-step method of dynamic analysis has been coded for several specific problems.

Failures in Welded Ships. NBS research efforts undertaken at the request of the Ship Structure Committee have provided additional evidence on the major causes of structural failures in welded

merchant ships—in particular, the critical role of certain properties

of steel which, in the past, have not been recognized in specification

requirements. The Bureau has received and examined samples

from nearly 100 ships in which fractures have occurred, and studies

of 126 plates selected from 65 of these ships have been completed.

48
When sufficient and suitable material was available, the laboratory

investigation included examination of the fracture and of welds,

microscopic examination, chemical analyses of the plates, Charpy

V-notched bar tests over a range of temperatures, and tension tests. Photoelectric Interference Fringe Counter. The interferometer

makes use of the sharpness in the interference fringes between wave

trains of monochromatic light for precise measurement of distances.

Because of its precision, interferometry has become a favorite

procedure in the calibration of strain gages. However, the operator

may suffer considerable fatigue and eye strain in counting several

thousand fringes. Fatigue may even cause him to lose count of the

number of fringes and may limit him to a slow counting rate with

frequent rest periods.

To overcome these disadvantages, a simple, low-cost counting

device was developed. This device is attached to the eyepiece

tube of the viewing system and, by means of a photo-multiplier

tube, amplifier, and digital counter, enables the operator to count

large numbers of fringes at a rapid rate without loss of accuracy.

It is believed that this device will be of considerable utility in other

laboratories because of the ease with which calibrations of improved

accuracy may be carried out. Stress-Strain Curve in Shear. The stress-strain curve in shear is of direct interest to structural designers for estimating the shear

load carried by sheet beyond the plastic range. It is of indirect

interest to those studying the plastic behavior of materials under

combined stress. Several procedures have been suggested for determining the

stress-strain curve in shear of thin isotropic sheet material. Two of

the most promising among these were the twisted-square-plate

method and the annulus method. The theory for these methods

was developed and then tried out in the laboratory on aluminum

alloy sheet. The results agreed closely with those obtained from

tensile and compressive tests on the assumption of certain formulas

derived in the theory of elasticity and of plasticity.

Gas-Turbine Combustion. A fuel injection system embodying

simultaneous control of the rates of admission of liquid fuel and air to the primary combustion zone was developed and evaluated.

Considerable progress has been made in the development of a

similar unit which vaporizes the fuel before mixing it with the

49
primary air. With this device, conditions favorable to high combustion efficiency and short flames are realized in the primary

combustion zone over a wide range of operating conditions.

Comparisons of the field of mixing of primary flame gas with

secondary air have revealed that the large differences in temperature and density are important in promoting mixing. Relatively

minor vibrations of the flame have also been found to be effective

in accelerating the mixing process. Fuel Metering Accessories for Aircraft. Studies of the effects of

fuel density and viscosity on the performance of metering devices

have led to the adoption by the military services of high-purity

normal heptane as a standard test fluid for aircraft carburetors.

A continuously indicating meter for kinematic viscosity, devised

in the course of these studies, is now being produced commercially.

A hydraulically-driven test bench for turbojet fuel-control units has

been developed for evaluating these units under conditions simulating rapid engine acceleration. This bench now serves for the

testing of master fuel-control units, which are then circulated

among Navy overhaul stations and used in correlating the results

obtained with other test benches.

2.7. Organic and Fibrous Materials

The Bureau conducts both fundamental and applied research in the field of natural and synthetic polymeric substances such as rubber, textiles, paper, leather, plastics, and related materials.

These polymeric materials are unique in that they are basically

composed of long, chainlike molecules in which as many as several

million smaller molecules may be joined together by a process

known as polymerization. Many important properties of polymeric substances are related to such characteristics of the large

molecules, as size, shape, distribution, flexibility, and interaction

with other molecules. Studies of the fundamental mechanisms

involved in the formation of large molecules are important in advancing the understanding of this valuable group of industrially

important materials.

Basic research activities of the past 2 years included studies of

phase transitions and crystallization phenomena in polymers,

nature of polymerization and degradation mechanisms involved

in the formation and deterioration of polymeric materials, the rela50
tion between structure and stability of polymeric materials, and

the propagation of stresses in fibers. Contributions were also made

in the development of methods for the characterization of macromolecules.

Representative projects in applied research were concerned with

the preparation of new types of paper from inorganic fibrous

materials, development of a hot-dip plastic packing material,

dimensional changes in dental amalgams, high-speed dental cutting

instruments, dental therapeutic agents, treatment of heat-resistant

plastic glazing materials to decrease crazing and increase impact

strength, surface deterioration of plastic trays, creep of transparent

plastics used in windows of aircraft, development of simulated

performance tests for meteorological balloons, and abrasion of

aircraft coatings.

Synthetic Rubber. As part of a continuing program for improving

the tests used in controlling the quality and uniformity of synthetic

rubber, studies were made of the Mooney viscometer. This instrument, which measures the viscosity or plasticity of the rubber, is used to control rubber polymerization. Variations in viscosity

seriously affect the processing of rubber during manufacture. The

NBS investigation included the influence of variations in rotors,

dies, and rate of shear on the Mooney viscometer. As a result, rotors and dies of improved design have been constructed and are under test in a number of synthetic rubber plants.

Rubber is subjected to dynamic stresses in its most important

uses, and its dynamic properties are more significant than the static

properties normally used in testing. In order to avoid complexities associated with vulcanization and aging, polyisobutylene, a nonvulcanizable elastomer, was selected as a prototype for intensive study of dynamic properties. Data were accumulated to represent the dynamic response of a polyisobutylene polymer over

the complete range of frequencies.

Dynamic Properties of Fibrous Materials. Textiles, plastics, and

other organic materials are subjected to very high-speed impact or shock loading in such uses as safey belts and appliances. Important criteria of suitability for these uses include the magnitude and

propagation of the stresses and strains developed in the material,

the energy absorbed and recoverable, and energy to rupture.

Equipment was constructed for evaluating these characteristics of
textile fibers, yarns, and cords at rates of deformation of the order

of 1,000 to 100,000 percent per second. A procedure was developed for obtaining load-deformation curves for periods of the

order of a millisecond.

Degradation of Record Papers. The degradation of record papers

due to light, heat, or adverse storage conditions has long been an important problem to librarians and archivists. When papers

undergo this deterioration, the aldehyde content of the cellulose in the papers usually changes. Some means of measuring the aldehyde content is therefore important in order to study and evaluate

such degradation. A reaction that can serve as a basis for such a method is that of chlorous acid with the aldehyde. Studies of the

stoichiometry and kinetics of the reaction of chlorous acid with

glucose and similar sugars have been completed. Glucose served

as the model in these experiments because it contains an aldehyde

group and because it is the principal building unit of the natural

high polymer, cellulose. Both iodometric and photometric procedures for determining chlorous acid were included.

Papers Made From Inorganic Fibers. A broad program of re- search on the manufacture of papers from inorganic fibers has been

conducted under the sponsorship of the Naval Research Laboratory. Major attention has been centered on glass fibers. Although paper made entirely of glass fibers was originally developed

by NBS for military uses, the all-glass paper is now used in respirators for mine workers and as a laboratory filter paper. Experimental papers have also been made from fibers of nearly pure silica produced in the laboratory, from a commercially obtainable alumina-silica compound, and from asbestos. In recent studies of

glass-fiber paper, the effects of certain mechanical treatments in the paper mill and of the acidity of the fiber suspension in the

beater were investigated. As a result, the tensile strength of the

paper was increased from about 40 to nearly 400 pounds per square

inch. By proper choice of fibers and control of the settings of the

papermaking machine, glass papers were made in thicknesses ranging

from 2 to more than 50 mils.

Impregnated Leather. The process for impregnation of leather

with natural rubber, originally developed by the Bureau in 1949, was extended to permit the use of polyisobutylene as an impregnant.

Soles impregnated with this polymer have the same greatly im52
proved abrasion and water resistance as those containing rubber

However, polyisobutylene has a distinct advantage over rubber as an impregnant in that it eliminates the milling operation required

to reduce the molecular size of natural rubber sufficiently to allow

deep penetration. It also results in large savings of time, labor,

and materials in the tannery.

Research in materials and techniques for leather impregnation is continuing at NBS. The Bureau is also carrying on pilot-plant

studies of butyl-impregnation processes under the sponsorship of

the Department of the Navy. Recent developments include a

versatile economical latex-pigment finish with an embossed grain,

and a method for blending hard resins, such as modified rosins,

with polyisobutylene or butyl rubber to produce leather with

almost any desired stiffness. Sonic Studies on Leather. In recent years the use of sonic

techniques for the nondestructive study of polymers has become

widespread. Measurement of the velocity and attenuation of a sound wave as it travels through a given material reveals a number

of important physical properties—e. g., elasticity and internal

friction—which are characteristic of the material.

During the past 2 years, sound propagation studies have been

applied to the development of equipment and methods for the nondestructive evaluation of leathers for use in military footwear.

Transmitted sound waves presumably travel along the fibers of

the leather, undergoing apparent velocity changes dependent on

fiber orientation. The occurrence of stain, shrinkage, or aging

tends to modify the fibrous structure, and hence the transmission

of sound. Under the proper conditions nondestructive velocity

tests show good correlation with destructive tensile strength or breaking elongation tests. The effects of accelerated aging,

tannage, grease, and moisture can also be effectively demonstrated.

Sonic studies with leather may thus be expected to contribute substantially to a better understanding of the mechanical

and thermodynamic behavior of collagen and other long-chain

molecules.

High-Pressure Studies. An investigation of the effect of high

pressure on polymers at different temperatures was undertaken in order to obtain fundamental information on pressure-volumetemperature relations. During the last year this work was

53
sponsored by the Office of Naval Research. The compressibilities

of a large number of synthetic and natural polymers were found to be intermediate between those of true liquids and true solids. This

result indicates that the polymers have an intermediate type of

molecular structure. Pressure-volume-temperature measurements on a series of

natural rubber-sulfur compounds showed no observable effect of

pressure on the glass transition temperature and no isothermal

glass transition pressure. Similar data on most members of the

homologous polyfluoroethylene series resulted in a complex phase

diagram for Teflon which was studied to temperatures of 80° C.

No other member of the series showed any transition in the range

studied. Calculated thermodynamic quantities revealed differ- ences in intermolecular forces with varying degrees of fluorine

substitution.

The work on polymers was accompanied by compression studies

of glasses and cements. Data were obtained on a series of twocomponent glasses—alkali silicates and borates—of various compositions. The compressibility of dry hydrated cement was found

comparable to that of silicate rocks. With added moisture the

compressibility increases, and above some minimum moisture

content an isothermal transition analogous to a phase transition

is observed. Additional studies were made of aging and composition of the cement.

Compression studies of several pure materials prepared in both

glassy and crystalline modifications indicated that compressibility

of the glassy form is the greater. A single exception was found in arsenious oxide, in which both modifications exhibit the same

compressibility.

Blood Plasma Expanders. In cooperation with the Office of the

Surgeon General of the Department of the Army and the National

Research Council, the Bureau continued to study the molecular

properties of polymers for use as blood plasma volume expanders.

Since the primary function of these materials is to provide adequate

colloidal osmotic pressure in the blood vessels, their interaction with

normal blood constituents and their diffusion through tissue membranes are of great clinical significance.

Both the equilibrium ultracentrifuge and osmotic pressure

methods were used to investigate the interaction of the polymers

54
with human serum albumin. The effective osmotic pressure was

greater than that calculated from the single components, indicating

a definite interaction, possibly due to a mutual repulsion of the

solutes. A technique using carbon-14 labeled materials was successfully developed and used to study the sorption of blood volume

expanders by natural blood components.

Degradation of Polymers. One of the primary considerations in the industrial utilization of polymeric materials is their resistance

to various environmental factors such as sunlight, temperature,

mechanical forces, oxygen, and attack by chemicals. The stability

of polymers depends both upon the molecular structure, which

determines the mechanisms and kinetics of breakdown, and upon

various traces of additional chemical compounds. Knowledge of

the mechanisms of degradation should make it possible to devise means of lengthening the service life of these materials and should

also aid in the development of new polymers with improved

properties.

During 1953, the Bureau perfected methods for investigating

the nature of degradation processes in polymers. These methods

are based on the isotope effects in deuterated materials. Investigations also revealed that traces of residual catalytic substances

materially lower the thermal stability of some types of polymers.

Evidence was obtained that deterioration resulting from exposure

to heat and ultraviolet radiant energy can be attributed in many

cases to the presence of traces of oxygen combined in oxygenated

structures in the polymer molecules.

New Polymer Structures. Military and industrial developments

of recent years, particularly in the fields of jet propulsion and

atomic power, have brought about increased demands for new

materials capable of withstanding very high temperatures. A

comprehensive investigation has been undertaken with the ultimate

aim of developing new monomers and polymers of greater thermal

stability. This work is a part of a broad research program which

seeks to obtain basic data for understanding the relationship

between the structure of polymers and their stability.

In the course of the investigation, a number of new fluorinated

organic and semiorganic compounds not hitherto reported in the

literature have been successfully synthesized. A new polymer, a fully fluorinated polyphenyl, has been prepared from

55
one of these materials and appears to be very stable to thermal

degradation.

Aircraft Plastics. The causes of many of the failures of trans- parent plastic windows on aircraft are unknown. To aid in the

solution of this problem, NBS conducted an investigation for the

Navy Bureau of Aeronautics of the effect of differential temperature

conditions on the creep of the plastic materials. To simulate flight

conditions, the temperature of one face was kept higher than that

of the other while the materials were subjected to a tensile stress; the extension in length was then measured. The resulting data

explain why some of the service failures occur. For example,

when one face of a laminated plastic window is at a relatively high

temperature, the major part of the load is carried by the face at the

lower temperature. Thus, failure occurs at an apparently low

stress, calculated on the basis of the total thickness of the laminate.

Although the thermoset materials creep less than the thermoplastic materials, they fracture in a short time under relatively

low stresses. Plastic Packaging Materials. Hot-dip plastic packaging materials for metal parts are difficult to strip from the coated parts

at low temperatures. This is a serious hindrance to repairs on

military equipment in the field. The packaging materials also

deteriorate rapidly during the hot-dipping operation, which causes

a serious loss in their protective properties. Recently the Bureau

developed several improved hot-dip strippable plastic packaging

materials for the Department of the Navy. These improved materials can be stripped at — 65° F and applied by hot dipping at

less than 300° F. They have good resistance to high-temperature

degradation and protect the coated metal parts from corrosion.

Aircraft Coatings. Abrasion resistance is one of the most important of the properties which determine the service performance

of protective coatings for military aircraft. However, thoroughly

reliable measurement of this property in the laboratory has not

been possible with existing methods, either because of poor reproducibility or failure to correlate with actual service.

Under the sponsorship of the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics, a laboratory test method was developed for measuring the abrasion

resistance of organic coatings on metals. The method is expected

to be of considerable value in the selection of coating materials

56
capable of withstanding the rigors of service on modern military

aircraft. It utilizes a jet of fine abrasive particles under closely

controlled conditions of pressure, distance, and angle to abrade

through the coating. The abrasive jet method is rapid, possesses

good reproducibility, and makes it possible to differentiate significantly between materials that are difficult to distinguish by

qualitative methods.

Dimensional Changes in Dental Amalgam. Although silver-alloy

amalgams have been widely used in dental restorations for over a hundred years, the metallurgical processes involved in the hardening of these materials have never been completely understood.

This is particularly true of the reactions responsible for the dimensional changes which occur during and immediately following solidi- fication. Recently a new approach to the problem was made at the Bureau. Through use of X-ray diffraction techniques at low

temperatures, the dimensional changes were correlated with the

presence of uncombined mercury in the alloy after its initial hardening.

From these data, it appears that the initial shrinkage observed

during the hardening of amalgam results from the reaction of

mercury with the alloy to form compounds having a smaller volume

than that of the original alloy and mercury together. The subsequent expansion is caused by diffusion of uncombined mercury

throughout the material, and the final shrinkage then results from

combination of this mercury with existing phases or with residual

alloy. On the basis of this explanation, a reduction in the size of the alloy particles or a heat treatment which would make the

particles more reactive would tend to cause a reduced expansion or even a net shrinkage of the amalgam.

Hydraulic Turbine Dental Handpiece. At present the maximum

speed of conventional dental cutting instruments is about 6,500

rpm. Because of the small size of dental burs, this rate of rotation

gives too low a linear speed for efficient cutting of tooth structures. For example, a recent NBS study shows that a steel bur can remove

the same amount of material in 4 seconds at 12,000 rpm as it can

in approximately 30 seconds at 2,000 rpm. However, in spite of

the disadvantages of using low rotational speeds, dentists have

hesitated to use higher speeds with the conventional gear-type

handpiece because of the excessive vibration and heat developed

57
and the potential hazard to the patient caused by the high inertia of

the revolving instrument.

To make high-speed operation safe and convenient, a hydraulicturbine dental handpiece which attains a speed of 61,000 rpm was

developed. At this speed, very low cutting pressure is required

and dental enamel can be cut rapidly with a minimum of vibration

and heating. By positioning the turbine in the head of the handpiece and connecting it directly to the cutting tool, the mechanical

difficulties involved in the use of high rotational speeds with the

conventional belt-and-gear propelled cutting tools have been eliminated. Besides making possible more efficient cutting of tooth

structures and reducing the time spent by the patient in the

dental chair, the hydraulic-turbine handpiece also promises to be

of considerable utility in other fields where small amounts of hard

materials must be removed by grinding, as in tool and die making.

High-Speed Motion Picture Study of Dental Burs. Significant

information on the cutting action of rotating dental instruments was provided by a photographic technique developed at the Bureau.

In this technique, a high-speed motion picture camera is used in combination with an optical magnification system to make a greatly

enlarged, slow-motion record of the action of each blade of a dental

bur throughout the cutting cycle. It was thus possible to obtain

dynamic observations of clogging, intermittent cutting, eccentric

rotation, and other hitherto unsuspected details of the passage of

the bur blades through the tooth structure. Used in combination

with conventional test procedures, the photographic method should

prove of considerable value for experimental study of new types

of dental burs since it will permit rapid evaluation of new disigns

prior to extended laboratory and clinical investigations.

Zinc Oxide-Eugenol Materials. A mixture of zinc oxide and

eugenol is used as the essential ingredient in a wide variety of

dental products, such as impression pastes and temporary filling

materials, where compatibility with the oral tissues is necessary.

However, the reaction responsible for the setting or hardening of

the zinc oxide-eugenol mixture has not been understood, and the

hardening characteristics of the materials have been inconsistent

in dental practice, particularly where climatic conditions vary

widely. An investigation of these materials demonstrated that

particle size, degree of hydration, relative humidity, and tempera58
ture greatly affect setting time. X-ray diffraction patterns of

the mixture showed the formation of a hitherto unreported crystalline compound. Chemical analysis indicated that this compound

has the formula (CioHnC^Zn.

2.8. Metallurgy

The work in physical metallurgy is concerned with the melting,

working, and heat treatment of metals and alloys; determination

of their structure and properties; and studies of the effects of

various factors on structure and behavior under normal and

abnormal conditions of service. In general, this program is directed toward a better understanding of the properties and behavior of metals in order that new or improved metals and alloys

may be developed for better performance in established uses and

to meet the requirements of new applications. Recent investigations have dealt with the purification of iron and chromium, the

structure and fracture of metals, and metallic corrosion.

Pure Metals. The direct and accurate determination of the

properties of pure iron serves as a basis for understanding the behavior of steel, which is essentially iron modified by the presence

of carbon, alloying elements, and impurities. The purest iron

previously available was prepared at the Bureau about 1935 and

contained 200 parts per million total of impurities. However,

recent increased knowledge of the effect of extremely small concentrations of certain constituents indicates the desirability of

further reduction in impurity content. Iron that contains only

30 parts of impurities per million parts of iron has now been prepared, and attempts to convert it into useful form for determination of its properties are in progress. Chromium metal is strong, hard, and resistant to corrosion and

to high temperatures, but its possible applications are restricted by

its brittleness. There is reason to believe that this brittleness is affected by the very small amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen that may be present. Processes have been devised to reduce

materially the content of gaseous elements in high-purity chromium, and the effect of this superpurification on the properties of

the metal is being investigated.

Structure of Metals. Accurate knowledge of the intimate struc-

| ture of metals and alloys—and of the changes in structure that

321720—54 5 59
result from fabrication operations, heat treatment, and applied

stress—is essential to a better understanding of the utilization of

known metals and of the possible applications of new metals.

Constitution diagrams were completed for four binary systems:

uranium-beryllium, uranium-titanium, uranium-silver, and ura- nium-gold. In comparing the new uranium-silver and uraniumgold diagrams with the existing uranium-copper diagram, it was

found that the Hume-Rothery and Pauling generalizations do not

explain satisfactorily the differences evident in the diagrams of

these three Group IB metals, but that inclusion of ionization potential considerations improves the explanation of the relations of

these three elements to uranium. Results of X-ray diffraction

and microscopic examination of iridium-osmium alloys increased

the limited amount of information available on these binary alloys.

The Bureau established possibilities and some limitations in the use of polarized light to identify structural features of tin, aluminum, and monel, particularly to demonstrate the crystalline orientation of individual grains of metal. In a study of the possible use of metals or alloys to replace quartz or mercury for ultrasonic

delay lines in thermionic equipment, certain isoelastic alloys

showed promise because of the small attenuation and distortion of

the sound pulses and because of their thermal stability over the

desired range of temperature.

When steel is hardened by quenching from elevated temperatures,

the solution of carbon in gamma iron (austenite) may decompose to form various combinations of iron carbide and alpha iron, depending upon the carbon content of the steel and upon the conditions

of the heat treatment. The structural arrangement of iron carbide

and alpha iron that is called martensite is the hardest of these

combinations; consequently, the hardness of the quenched steel is proportional to the amount of martensite it contains. In a study

of the effect of various factors on the transformation of austenite

to martensite in steels containing 0.50 percent carbon, it was shown

that the temperature at which the transformation begins is affected

by the grain size at the beginning of the quench but that variations

in austenitizing temperatures (except for their effect on grain size)

and in the rate of quenching from these temperatures are without

appreciable effects.

60
Fracture of Metals. The demands of present-day engineering

design require increasingly detailed understanding of the service

metals may be expected to render and the mechanism by which

they fail. Many metals fail by creep under loads appreciably less than the normal tensile strength at corresponding temperatures.

However, a recent study showed that high-purity nickel can be

strengthened by strain-aging so that it has an appreciable creep

life under stresses in excess of the short-time tensile strength at this

temperature. The mechanism of fatigue failures in helical springs

made from steel spring wire was studied; the relation was shown

between the bending fatigue properties of the wire and the strength

of springs wound from the wire. In other studies of the susceptibility of metals to fatigue, it was shown that the fatigue notch

sensitivity of certain high-strength aluminum alloys is affected by

structural constituents.

Lowering the temperature increases the tensile strength of many

metals and alloys without appreciably affecting their ductility. On

the other hand, some metals, including many structural steels, show

an abrupt loss of ductility at low temperatures. This abrupt

transition has been the cause of many structural failures such as those that have occurred in welded ships during and subsequent to World War II. Properties of the ship plates that had fractured in service were extensively studied. The information thus obtained

is of value in the development of better specifications for ship steel. The deformation of steel, as a result of applied stress, produces

progressive work-hardening which reduces ductility. It has been

assumed that the development of deformation twins in the microstructure is an indication of the development of a brittle structure; but recent work has shown that the deformation twins formed in ingot iron, either by impact or tension at low temperatures, are formed before the iron loses its ductility. In another investigation

it was shown that commercially pure titanium retains its ductility

down to -—196° C unless stress-raising notches are present in the

surface. The decrease in ductility was greater for shallow notches

than for deep ones. Corrosion. NBS research on the corrosion of metals in different

environments is primarily concerned with the mechanism of corrosion. However, these studies are accompanied by others with more direct practical applications.

61
During the past 2 years, studies of the corrosion of sheet metal

for aircraft were continued in both marine and inland atmospheres.

Investigations of the corrosion of metals in service underground

were brought to a close after continuous operation since 1922. All

specimens have been removed from the test sites and have been

evaluated in the laboratory.

A number of monocrystalline specimens were prepared to determine the reactions of corrosive media with exposed areas representing different crystallographic planes of the metal. Results to date, with monocrystalline aluminum, show that attack by acids

is greatest on the octahedral (111) planes and least on the cubic

(100) planes. Alkaline solutions were found to have the reverse

effect: the attack is greatest on the cubic planes and least on the

octahedral planes. Further work is in progress to correlate and

explain these directional effects. Other investigations dealt with intergranular cracking of alpha

brass and low-carbon steel under the combined action of applied

stress and a corrosive environment. It was demonstrated that the

cracks occur in those grain boundaries that have high interfacial

energies because of the crystalline orientation and contact angle

of adjacent grains.

A reinvestigation of the Preece test, for the evaluation of gal-,

vanized coatings, was made for the American Society for Testing

Materials. The results confirm earlier NBS conclusions that the

Preece test cannot be relied upon to indicate the thickness of galvanized coatings because of the different rates of solution of zinc

and the zinc-iron alloys that are present in varying proportions in different commercial galvanized coatings. A procedure for elec- trolytic stripping of the galvanized coatings was shown to yield more information than is obtained from conventional stripping

procedures.

2.9. Mineral Products

Technological advances in many industrial fields, as well as the

needs of various branches of the defense agencies have created a demand for materials useful at temperatures above the service

range of unprotected metals. Ceramic materials—inorganic, nonmetallic mineral products—are finding many new applications to meet these demands. Determination of their physical and chem62
ical properties, and the basic mechanisms of their behavior in service, are of vital importance to their more efficient utilization.

During 1953 and 1954 the high-temperature reactions of refractory systems important in the development of atomic energy were

investigated. Two studies of ceramics for nuclear power reactors were initiated, and special ceramic coatings which permit the use

of high-temperature alloys in nuclear reactors were developed.

The viscosities, densities, surface tensions, and electrical conductivities of simple glass systems were studied to increase the knowledge of glass constitution.

A fundamental study of the mechanism of ceramic coating adherence to metals has led to a consistent theory of the role of adherence-promoting oxides in the ceramic-metal bond. Lowtemperature adsorption techniques were used to determine the

nature of cement-hydra tion products. A combination of X-ray

and thermal analysis has given information on the mechanism and

reaction products of thermal decomposition of some bivalent

carbonates.

Ceramic Single Crystals. Under the sponsorship of the Wright

Air Development Center, an investigation was undertaken of the

plastic deformation of ceramicoxide single crystals in order to relate

their mechanical and optical properties to comparable polycrystalline oxide bodies. The work so far has been confined to single

crystals of sapphire, rutile, and periclase. It has been demonstrated

that single crystals of these three oxides begin to deform at about

one-half of the respective melting point temperatures on the absolute scale. The slip planes for sapphire, rutile, and periclase have

been determined. Data on the shear stresses required at various

temperatures to cause these deformations, and information regarding the effects of deformation and "annealing" in sapphire on electrical conductivity have been obtained. This knowledge of singlecrystal behavior will form the basis for further study of polycrystalline ceramics at elevated temperatures.

Improvement of Ceramic Dielectrics. Ceramics first came into

prominence for use as dielectrics because of the "unusually high

capacitance of barium titanate. This material has a capacitance

at room temperature of 1,200 to 1,500 (compared to mica with a

specific capacitance of about 6), thus making miniaturization of

capacitors of practical interest. However, the electrical loss of

63
barium titanate is quite high, and its change in capacitance with

temperature is very large; thus, the characteristics of an electronic

circuit using barium titanate will vary widely with temperature.

During a course of investigation for the Signal Corps, the Navy

Bureau of Ships, and the Office of Ordnance Research to improve

the characteristics of this material, more than a hundred ceramic

compositions have been developed for electronic equipment. In some Signal Corps apparatus, constancy of performance over a wide temperature range is of primary importance. BaO-5Ti02 is a composition typical of several developed for such use; its capacitance is 37, its quality factor is 2,300, and its capacitance change

is zero over a range from —40° to +200° C.

Lead-Titanate Lead-Zirconate Dielectric Ceramics. Piezoelectric

ceramics serve as the active component in many devices such as phono-pick-ups, microphones, underwater sound devices, and

vibration detectors. Until recently, barium titanate has been

used for these purposes, but its application to high-temperature

devices has been seriously limited due to its narrow operating

temperature range—from 0° to 100° C. Following a study of a new ceramic compound—a lead-titanate lead-zirconate solid

solution—the Bureau developed a particular compositional range

which has a uniform response approximately equal to that of barium

titanate but over a much wider temperature range—from —50° to +200° C. Potential applications for the new material include

military equipment and ultrasonic generators which operate at high frequencies.

Constitution of Glass. Basic information resulting from a continuing study of the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties

of simple glasses has been useful in a number of projects where

glasses are being developed to meet military specifications requiring

materials with unusual or closely specified properties.

A special glass system (Na2 0-Ti02-Si02 ) was studied to determine the limits of glass formation and the optical properties.

While the range of compositions that will yield color-free glasses is quite limited, glasses which are useful for optical work have been

found and others may evolve when current studies are completed.

Investigations have been made on some selected properties of

alkaline earth borates. The properties measured included surface

tension, electrical resistivity, and density of the molten glass.

64
Homogeneous glasses are not formed at low concentrations of

alkaline earth materials but the melt consists of two immiscible

liquids. The extent- of the two-liquid region is inversely related

to the size of the alkaline earth ions; that is, the two-liquid region

is larger in the glasses containing the small calcium ion than in

those containing the larger barium ion. It was found that at low

concentrations of the alkaline earth the volume of the glass was

less than the volume the boric acid alone would occupy. This

contraction of volume is greater in the case of the small calcium ion

with higher electrical field strength than for the large barium ion.

Additions of selected oxides will reduce the two-liquid region.

Projects are in progress directed toward the development of

silicate glasses with special properties, such as good transmittance

in the near infrared, high softening temperatures, high refractive

index, good chemical stability, and flame working characteristics.

In another study, if was found that the modulus of rupture for arsenic sulfide glasses could be increased from 2,100 to 6,500 pounds

per square inch by quenching the material in oil. Cermets. Materials that will withstand high temperatures are

essential to the improved design of jet aircraft power units. The

combination of suitable metal and ceramic components provides a high-temperature-resistant material possessing properties of both

metals and ceramics. These comparatively new materials, designated "cermets," are generally quite brittle because of the ceramic

phase. Cermet brittleness makes tensile strength measurements

difficult. To evaluate various designs and grips used in the tensile

testing of cermets, plastic models of several cermet specimens

commonly in use were photoelastically investigated. As a result,

three cermet specimen designs were chosen for studies. Indications

are that cermet tensile strengths may range up to 30 percent

greater than previously accepted values.

Hard Coatingfor Metal. A new coating technique was developed

by which a hard, erosion-resistant cermet layer can be applied to a metal or alloy, by using standard ceramic coating procedures.

The coating—a chromium boride-nickel combination—consists of

a mixture of cermet powder, ceramic frit, clay, and water. The

mixture is ball-milled, applied to the base, and fired at about

2,000° F. During the firing the ceramic phase in the coating

serves as a flux to permit welding of the cermet particles without

65
the necessity of a highly purified oxygen-free atmosphere. Depending on the firing temperature, the ceramic material either sweats

out to the surface or remains as occlusions in the cermet network.

Coating thicknesses can be varied from 0.001 to 0.030 in. are reasonably ductile, and provide protection against oxidation in

low-strategic alloys and molybdenum during extended periods at temperatures up to 1,800° F. The coating also provides a hard

facing for the metal or alloy surface.

Ceramic-to-Metal Bonding. Investigations recently completed

have yielded additional information on the ceramic-to-metal bond

mechanism. This work, sponsored by the NACA, has shown the

importance of roughness or anchor points at the surface of the

metal in controlling the adhesiveness of the coating. It was found

that the nickel-dip process roughens the steel surface of the basis

metal during the subsequent firing of the coating. Using radioactive nickel as a tracer, it was shown that the nickel selectively

plates the steel surface during the nickel-dip process. When the

specimen is at firing temperature, the coating acts as an electrolyte;

the nickel-plated areas are protected cathodically while the areas of exposed steel are attacked galvanically. The result is a pitted

surface which contains numerous undercuts or anchor points where

the enamel can readily anchor itself. Ceramic Coatings for Nuclear Reactors. To meet the increasing

need for high-temperature protection of alloys in nuclear reactors, a ceramic coating material was developed which has an extremely

low thermal neutron absorption coefficient. Most promising of the

materials investigated were boron-free coatings of the frit-refrac- tory type in which a high-barium frit is combined with ceriachromic oxides. Tests indicate that these coatings (with neutron

absorption coefficients in the range of 0.15 to 0.50 barn) satis- factorily withstand temperatures in excess of the 1,000° C found

in nuclear reactors. Metallographic examinations of tested metal

specimens, coated and uncoated, show that the presence of the

coating in some cases reduces the amount of oxidation of the metal

by 50 to 75 percent.

Durability of Concreting Materials. The durability of concrete

under exposure to freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, and

salt action is of major concern to the construction industry. Durability is closely related to cement pore size and distribution, and

66
may be studied with the aid of gas adsorption techniques. These

techniques are also useful to evaluate the physical differences in cement structures which result from different chemical compositions. Nitrogen adsorption tests have indicated that the surface area of the micropores within the material may range from less than 1 square meter per gram to more than 50 square meters per

gram, depending on the degree of hydration.

Similar techniques in the studies of aggregates have indicated

that the internal surface as determined by nitrogen adsorpton

may range from 0.02 square meter per gram for such materials as granites to more than 5 square meters per gram for unsound

aggregates such as cherts. Opal, an amorphous silica which has a

deleterious effect when used in concretes with cements of high

alkali content, has an internal surface of from 50 to 100 square

meters per gram when determined by water vapor adsorption but

a negligible surface as determined by nitrogen.

A versatile freezing and thawing apparatus was constructed and

placed in operation to determine the effects of the many variables

upon the rate and type of disintegration produced in concrete

specimens. It is now being used to compare the results being

obtained by the four current ASTM types of freezing and thawing

cycles as applied to various types of concrete; the apparatus can

test concrete by all four methods simultaneously.

Fundamental studies have been carried out to determine the

mechanism of the reaction between certain aggregates and the

alkalies in cement. This reaction is known to cause deterioration

and disintegration of concrete structures. Nature and Structure of Portland Cement. A program of basic

research, conducted in cooperation with the Portland Cement Association, is now concerned with systems containing soda, potash,

lime, alumina, ferric oxide, and silica. The purpose is to learn the

effects of every variable in composition and heat treatment as re- flected in the behavior of the concrete. These studies are expected

to give not only a new understanding of the behavior of cement in concrete but new principles of control in manufacture and utiliza- tion of cement.

Two useful tools have recently been developed in connection with

cement research. One is a high-temperature centrifuge that separates the liquid and solid phases of a small (3 g) charge in a furnace

67
at temperatures up to 1,600° C. By this means the boundary

curves and invariant points in a polycomponent system may be

followed with a great saving in time over conventional methods.

Another tool is a hot-wire apparatus used for growing single crystals under direct observation and control of the operator. Although designed for use in X-ray structure analysis, many other

applications have been found, including the determination of melting points of materials and preliminary exploration of mineral

systems.

Electron-microscope techniques have been employed in conjunction with electron diffraction, X-ray diffraction, and other methods

to discover the nature of cement hydration compounds. These

studies indicate that particles ranging from 50 to 200 angstroms in diameter may result from the hydration of calcium silicate and

constitute experimental verification of theoretical deductions based on adsorption data. Similarly, spherical particles of slightly

smaller diameter were observed in fully hydrated portland cement

paste. Low-angle X-ray scattering data further confirm the

existence of such discrete particles.

Hydrothermal Reactions. Many chemical reactions that take

place slowly or not at all at ordinary temperatures progress rapidly

under hydrothermal conditions—in the presence of steam under

pressure at temperatures above the boiling point of water. Using

this technique in a study of hydrated strontium silicates, seven compounds not hitherto described were discovered. A study of the

lime-water-alumina system at room temperature has now been

extended with this technique to include several isotherms up to 2,500° C. This is of considerable interest because of the increasing use of steam curing in the concrete industry. The stability ranges

of calcium aluminate hexahydrate, hydrated alumina and calcium

hydroxide were defined in this study. A similar study of the limesilica-water system, at 180°, is nearing completion.

Standard X-Ray Diffraction Patterns. The work on production

of accurate X-ray powder patterns of inorganic solids has been continued. This is part of the work of increasing and improving the

ASTM file, which is used extensively for identification of solid

phases by industrial and research groups. At present, 180 patterns

of high precision have been produced. Of these, 22 are of compounds not previously represented in the file.

68
Thermal Expansion by X-Ray Diffraction. There is a growing

need for accurate thermal-expansion data on compounds which

are to be intimately mixed with other compounds and subjected to heat treatment. One example is cermets. To obtain such information by conventional means on nonisotropic bodies requires a

single crystal of known orientation. To eliminate the difficulty of

obtaining such a crystal, a study of thermal expansion by hightemperature X-ray diffraction has been inaugurated. Through

this method, accurate thermal expansions in the various crystallographic directions can be measured accurately on a small powder

sample of a compound. The changes in angles of diffraction from

known crystallographic directions are determined by Geiger counter from a sample at temperatures up to 1,400° C in a helium

atmosphere.

Automatic Recording Balance. In recent years there has been a great increase in the use of differential thermal analysis for the

identification of mineral products and for studies of thermal

changes. As a tool to augment and check the information so obtained and to make it possible to interpret better the results of

such tests, a recording weight loss apparatus has been developed.

With this equipment the change in weight of a sample due to hydration, oxidation, reduction, etc., can be recorded simultaneously with the differential thermal analysis curve. This equipment,

based on an electronically activated balance, has been used in the

study of the breakdown with heat of the bivalent carbonates, with

particular attention to mixed carbonates in solid solutions. The

automatic recording balance should find application in studies of

the rate of drying, oxidation, decomposition, etc., in many industrial

applications. Considerable interest has been shown in this

development by scientific and industrial laboratories.

2.10. Building Technology

Over the past several years the Building Technology Division

has conducted a critical examination of old building practices and

a search for new practices based on sound engineering principles.

The major aim is to increase economy of construction and maintenance. Before full advantage can be taken of the kind of engineering approach that has guided the rapid technological development

of other industries, the building profession must be supplied with

69
adequate standards of measurement, new testing procedures,

fundamental engineering data, and performance standards. No

industrial organization has the facilities or incentive to obtain the

needed fundamental engineering data. The building profession,

therefore, depends on the National Bureau of Standards for basic

research in the fields of building materials, structures, and equipment (excluding forest products which are studied by the Department of Agriculture Forest Products Laboratory).

The Bureau's fields of interest include structural engineering,

building codes, safety engineering, fire protection, heating and

air conditioning, as well as flooring, roofing, and wall finishing

materials. Typical studies completed during 1953 and 1954, or presently under way, concern durability of masonry materials,

determination of concrete impact resistance, structural and fire resistance properties of prestressed thin-shell concrete structures,

fire endurance tests on building structures, effects of edge insulation

upon temperature and condensation on concrete slab floors, flooring

material in Army structures and asphaltic materials, floor surfaces,

and bituminous roofing. The Bureau continued to render assist- ance to Federal, State, and municipal bodies on the development

of adequate building codes and safety standards.

Resistance of Concrete to Impact. Designers concerned with

safety of structures subjected to impulsive loads need information on the dynamic properties of concrete. At the request of the Navy

Bureau of Yards and Docks, the Bureau conducted a study of the

resistance of concretes to compressive forces applied at high loading

rates ranging from 10~ 6 to about 10 inches per inch per second.

The highest straining rate obtained by using a drop-hammer

machine, was about 106 times as great as that attained normally

in "static" tests performed on conventional testing machines.

The properties determined included the compressive strength and

the modulus of elasticity of the concrete. Two types of concrete were investigated: a "weak" concrete of

2,500 pounds per square inch nominal static compressive strength

and a "strong" concrete of 6,500 pounds per square inch. For

both types of concrete, the dynamic compressive strength was

found to be higher than the static strength, and became relatively

greater as the rate of loading increased. Modulus of elasticity

in both types of concrete was also affected, but to a lesser extent.

70
Lightweight Concrete. Lower dead-weight and better heat insulation may be obtained in many types of structures by using concrete

with such light-weight aggregates as expanded shale, slate, clay,

and slag. The lower densities achieved with these materials are usually accompanied by some sacrifice of strength and increases

of shrinkage and water absorption. Bureau studies of light-weight

aggregates have shown that when the usual fine aggregate is partially or entirely replaced by small uniformly distributed spherical air cells, there is a further but tolerable decrease in strength even though other improvements are obtained.

Compressive strength of 500 to 1,000 pounds per square inch,

sufficient for walls of one or two story structures, were achieved

with air-entrained concretes having dry densities of 45 to 70 lbs

per cubic ft, depending on the type of aggregate and the amount of

entrained air. Using 20 to 30 percent of entrained air, an increase

in freezing and thawing resistance resulted, as well as decreased

water capillarity and absorption, and lower thermal conductivity.

Self-Ignition of Materials. A significant portion of the fires which occur in the United States each year are attributable to spontaneous ignition of certain combustible materials. During a study of the self-heating properties of such materials a special

(adiabatic) furnace was devised which tends to keep the exterior of

a test specimen at the same temperature as the interior and simultaneously measures and records the increase of temperature within

the sample up to the ignition point. With this apparatus, exploratory tests have been performed on a number of fibrous and liquid

materials, and a study is under way to determine the relationship

of thermal constants to the self-ignition hazard of various materials.

Recently the apparatus was used as a means to determine the cause

of a fire which occurred spontaneously in a Government structure. Thermal Insulating Value of Air Spaces. In recent years there

has been an increased interest in the utilization of aluminum foil and other reflective surfaces to form thermally insulating air spaces

in buildings. Extensive measurements by the Bureau on the

quantitative effects of surface emissivity, orientation, thickness,

and temperature conditions of such air spaces have provided useful

information for Government agencies, engineers, and architects.

Sponsored by the Housing and Home Finance Agency this program

has provided basic data and methods of calculation by which the

71
insulating values of air spaces can be computed for almost all of

the conditions encountered in ordinary buildings.

Hydraulics and Pneumatics of Plumbing Systems. The last of a

series of laboratory investigations started in 1946 for the National

Housing Agency (later succeeded by the Housing and Home

Finance Agency) on optimum pipe dimensions and arrangements,

capacities of plumbing drainage and venting systems was completed and the principal results were published. Significant use was made of these results by the coordinating committee for a National Plumbing Code and the New York State Building Code

Commission in the development of model plumbing codes.

A preliminary investigation of the hydraulics and pneumatics of

drainage and vent piping systems required in connection with

food-waste disposers was conducted for the National Electrical

Manufacturers Association.

Water Vapor and Heat Flow Through Insulated Panels. Moisture

accumulation in the insulated walls, roofs, and floors of refrigerated structures impairs their insulating effectiveness, leads to serious

difficulty in maintaining low temperatures internally, and causes rapid deterioration of the structure. To assist the Army Quartermaster Corps in the evaluation and improvement of present re- frigerated structure designs, the Bureau undertook a study of

moisture accumulation in panels subject to typical heat flow under

severe moisture conditions. An apparatus was constructed to expose a 4- by 8-ft test panel to certain temperature-moisture conditions, and simultaneously determine the heat and moisture flow

as well as moisture accumulation in the test panel. The entire

apparatus can be rotated to permit tests of the panel in positions

simulating its use as a wall, floor, or roof. Edge Insulation of Concrete-Slab Floors. In recent years there

has been a great increase in the number of basementless houses

constructed. The floor most generally used in this type of house

is the concrete slab, sometimes placed on the ground but more

often on a fill of gravel or similar material. Because concrete is a good conductor of heat as compared to wood flooring, a concrete

floor will be relatively cool in the region near the outside walls in

cold weather, often making it uncomfortable for those who occupy

that part of the room. Various methods for overcoming this diffi- culty have been considered by the building industry, but one which

72
has attained considerable usage is the insulation of the slab edges

exposed to the outside temperature. A systematic study conducted by the Bureau under the sponsorship of the Housing and Home

Finance Agency has shown that edge insulation does in fact reduce

cooling at the exposed edges of the floor slab, and has provided

quantitative data on the relative merits of different methods of

edge insulation.

Ventilation Measurements. Computation of heat loss of a building usually includes an item for the heat carried out of the building

because of cold air infiltration. Although these computations are only approximations, they are widely used because accurate air leakage measurements for different structures have not been available. The Bureau therefore studied a number of methods for

measuring infiltration and the ventilation of attics and crawl

spaces in an experimental house. Several tracer gas methods,

such as helium gas with a katharometer, ethane gas with an interferometer, and methane gas with an infrared gas analyzer, were

evaluated and found to be more accurate and better suited to field use than calorimetric methods or direct air-flow measurements.

The heated thermocouple anemometer was found to be the best

instrument for measuring the very low air velocities in ducts and

rooms. Such an anemometer and a portable helium katharometer were designed and built at the Bureau, and calibration tests were made to evaluate their performance.

Asphalt Roofing. Since 1926 the Asphalt Roofing Industry Bureau has maintained a Research Associate at the Bureau to study

industry-wide technical problems of asphalt roofing. Many of the

current materials and techniques used in the roofing industry are

direct results of these investigations. Presently under study is the

mechanism of weathering and ways of modifying asphalt to in- crease its durability. Because of the inert nature of many asphalt

constituents, new methods of analysis have been devised to follow

the process of weathering. Two asphalts, differing widely in durability, were exposed outdoors as well as in an accelerated durability machine. Study of changes in composition, molecular weight,

unsaturation, infrared absorption, carbon-hydrogen ratio, oxygen,

sulphur, and nitrogen revealed trends and differences in the behavior of the two asphalts.

73
2.11. Applied Mathematics

The National Bureau of Standards mathematics laboratories were established in recognition of the need for a central, mathematical consulting and research facility equipped with high-speed

automatic machinery, capable of providing analytical and computing services for the technical staff of the Bureau and for other

Government agencies. In this area the Bureau engages in basic

mathematical research directed principally toward better utilization of the new electronic computing machinery and progress in

mathematical statistics and mathematical physics; and in addition

acts as a service organization, particularly in the fields of computation engineering statistics and quality control.

Numerical Analysis. Experiments on matrix problems of various sorts were conducted on the National Bureau of Standards

Western Automatic Computer, SWAC. Problems of stability and

control of round-off error by special programing devices were undertaken. Some interesting inequalities were obtained between the

eigenvalues of certain special matrices and those of the corresponding linear operators. Research was carried out on differential

equations of a special type having to do with numerical methods

and questions of stability and asymptotic series solution.

Other studies were conducted on exhaustive methods of search

and methods of embedding discrete variables in continuous spaces;

eigenvalue problems in classical mechanics and scattering in quantum mechanics; Monte Carlo problems; sampling problems; and

problems in logic relating to design, programing, and coding automatic digital computers, and locating malfunctions in such equipment. In addition program planning studies were conducted.

Special attention was given to the so-called assignment problem

and to various problems in communication.

Computation. Considerable progress in the theory and applications of linear programing has been made. New methods of handling the so-called "transportation" problem, and the problem of

awarding purchase contracts to bidders at minimum total cost,

have been devised and tested. Answers obtained on SEAC (the

National Bureau bf Standards Eastern Automatic Computer) were

used directly in the award of contracts to bidders for over 30 cases submitted by the New York Quartermaster Purchasing Agency.

A collection of integrals of the higher transcendental functions

74
was compiled. Progress was made on computations arising in

studies of atomic radiation; more specifically, the calculation of

conversion coefficients for the atomic K and L shells. Significant

results concerned with the relation between the characteristic values

of integral equations and those of corresponding algebraic systems were obtained. Theoretical and practical studies were carried out

in connection with certain nonlinear differential equations; in particular, the equation of Painleve was investigated.

A problem originating in studies of the reaction of nerve fibers to

electrical stimuli, carried on at the National Naval Medical Center,

involved the solution of a system of four nonlinear ordinary differ- ential equations containing a parameter that describes the input

current to the nerve. The output potential generated by the nerve exhibited two distinct behavior patterns depending on the

parameter. The transition value of the parameter defining the

two modes of behavior were obtained to an accuracy of one-thousandth of a milliampere. This work was done on SEAC, and the

results were found to check very closely with experiments involving more than a million nerve fiber reactions. The numerical results

as obtained on SEAC provided information concerning the transition value which could not be determined accurately by experiments.

Statistical Engineering. Activities in statistical engineering were

directed toward providing assistance to physical scientists of NBS

and other Government agencies. In addition, the Bureau prepared manuals and bibliographies on selected phases of statistical

methodology, and conducted basic research in mathematical statistics and the theory of probability.

The major portion of the research activity continues to be con- cerned with design arrangements for physical science experimentation. During this period, NBS mathematicians developed an

important new class of designs involving a partial replication of a Latin square arrangement to meet the needs of experimentalists

who wish to ascertain the existence of interactions without a complete repetition of the original design. Other examples include the

discovery of new designs with two plots per block derivable from

the incidence matrix of a balanced or partially balanced incomplete

block design, and the discovery of a new class of designs involving

only two replications. These designs are especially useful in

321720—54 6 75
physical science experimentation where large numbers of replications are either too expensive or yield more than the necessary

degree of precision.

Results relating to necessary conditions for the existence of partially balanced incomplete block designs with two associate classes were worked out. These results are useful in delimiting the area within which new arrangements can be found.

Extreme-value theory is intimately connected with the concept

of safety factors. In building codes it is the maximum wind that

is of concern. In tensile strength testing it is the weakest point

of the cross section that often determines strength. The Bureau

carried on research in methods of estimation of parameters of the

extreme-value distribution and found new estimators with improved properties over those previously known, resulting in more

efficient methods of analysis of extreme value data.

2.12. Electronics

In electronics the Bureau carries out a broad and diversified

program including both research and development. Research is directed toward certain basic phenomena and properties of materials of potential significance to electronics. Development covers not only the field of electronic circuitry for the performance of new

functions by electronics but also the broader phases of fabrication

technology by which optimum designs for electronic equipment

may be achieved. Emphasis has also been placed on improving

operational reliability of electronic equipment by development of

new components and application of new materials and assembly

techniques. This work is of particular importance to the military

in adapting electronic devices to climatic and operational ex- tremes. Much of the work is sponsored by the Department of

Defense as well as by other Government agencies.

During 1953 and 1954 the work in electronics consisted essentially of an expansion and intensification of the various phases of

the program already under way, including new components and

new techniques; the publication of detailed information on subminiaturization techniques for low-frequency receivers; a program

of electronic circuit standardization; investigation of the properties

and mechanisms of cathodes in electron tubes; continuation and

76
expansion of a tube information service; and studies of resistor

wire.

A large amount of attention was directed toward application en- gineering and instrumentation, and to introducing new equipment.

Examples of such work include an instrumentation system for improved meteorological sounds, an error voltage detector for servo- mechanisms, a liquid level indicator for cryogenic production facilities, a miniature electrostatic high-voltage generator for use with

radioactivity detectors, a coin weighing machine useful in the

manufacture of United States coins, and a physiological monitor

which automatically detects changes in the condition of a patient

under anesthesia throughout the course of an operation.

One NBS project which attracted considerable industrial interest

has established the feasibility of mechanized production techniques for electronic equipment. Formerly code-named PROJECT

TINKERTOY, this development was announced to the public in the fall of 1953.

Mechanized Production of Electronics. A totally new mechanized

production system and a novel electronic design which makes this

possible were developed by the Bureau under the sponsorship of

the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics as an industrial preparedness measure. The objective of the program was to establish facilities or systems suitable for rapid mobilization in emergency periods.

These facilities have a dual purpose, being rapidly convertible

from military to civilian products (and back again) on short

notice, and are expected to reduce substantially the lead time in production.

The key to automatic, mechanized production of electronic

equipment is the MDE—for Modular Design of Electronics. The

system establishes a series of mechanically standardized and uniform modules that have a wide range of electrical characteristics.

Each module, in general, consists of some 4 to 6 thin ceramic

wafers, bearing various circuits associated with an electronic stage.

Combinations of modules into major subassemblies of electronic

equipment is possible because there is great similarity between

circuits and parts of circuits in modern electronic equipment.

The production of modules and assemblies, designed in accord- ance with the MDE system, is achieved mechanically. The production system, called MPE—Mechanized Production of Electronics,

77
utilizes noncritical raw materials. Ceramic wafers and capacitors

are produced directly in quantity from the raw materials, while

another part of the line produces adhesive tape resistors. These

and other basic parts are fed into the production line. The appropriate circuits are printed by automatic machines. Quality control is established by automatic inspection, directed by information

prepared in punched card form. Special components, not suitable

for "printing" techniques, can be incorporated into the modules.

Automatic physical and electronic inspection is provided for in the

production line. Industry has shown considerable interest in applying the NBSNavy modular and mechanized production techniques to civilian

products. An independent study recently completed by a private

management consulting firm concluded that the development

could reduce the manufacturing cost of certain electronic equipment as much as 44 percent. At present, the MDE-MPE pilot

plant, operated by an industrial organization, is turning out an

important item of Naval electronic equipment whose design and

performance are equal to or superior to its conventional counterpart.

Circuit Standardization. The possibility of electronic circuit

standardization for aeronautical equipment has been studied for

the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics. A degree of standardization

would not only simplify the mobilization of the electronics industry

in times of national emergency and contribute to advances made

in the machine production of electronic assemblies, but also would

minimize variations in electronic circuit designs to reduce design

costs, provide simplified, reliable circuits, reduce parts procurement and engineering maintenance costs, decrease maintenance

training, and decrease stocking problems. Thus far, the Bureau

has developed 22 "preferred" circuits now undergoing acceptance

studies by industrial and technical groups.

Vibration Generator. Electronic equipment is being called upon

increasingly for applications where it is subjected to severe shock

and vibration, requiring the development of special rugged components. Because electron tubes are especially troublesome under

severe vibration, an improved wide-range vibration generator was

developed at NBS to study tube microphonics. The instrument

produces accelerations up to 20 times that of gravity over the wide

78
range of 100 to 10,000 cycles per second. The tube under study is fitted into a hole in the vibrator's moving element, or armature,

which is driven by an audiofrequency voltage. Although this

model was built to accommodate subminiature tubes, the design can easily be modified for microphonic studies of miniature or

octal tubes.

Improved Meteorological Soundings. Atmospheric temperature

and humidity gradients—the rates at which air temperature and

moisture change, with altitude—can be measured with increased

accuracy, at heights up to 20,000 feet, by means of a low-level

sounding system developed for the Navy Bureau of Ships. Airborne instruments consisting of an electromechanical altimeter,

a hygrometer, and a thermoelectric measuring device are carried

aloft by a balloon or kite connected to a ground station by a light-weight 3-conductor electrical cable. The information provided by this "wiresonde" is useful in making measurements of the

propagation of radio waves in the lower atmosphere.

Error Voltage Detector. Some of the most important and rapid

technological advances of the past decade have been in the automatic control of machines and processes. Many significant applications are based on servo feedback systems. A crucial element

of any servo system is the method or device used for sensing an error signal, which usually means detecting the difference

between two voltages. The Bureau's detector provides an answer

to the need for precise error-voltage sampling in many servo-control

applications. This broad-band, low-level device utilizes crystal

diodes in a bridge circuit, operates on the rf chopper principle,

and shows a resolution to 1 millivolt with a bandwidth of at least

1 megacycle. The flexibility, accuracy, and reliability the detector

provides should make it suitable for many applications in nucleonics

and other processing plant operations where precise operating

controls are needed.

Liquid Level Indicator. A low-temperature instrument that

measures, indicates, records and controls the level of liquefied

gases such as hydrogen or nitrogen has been developed for the

liquefaction installation at the NBS-AEC Cryogenic Laboratory

at Boulder, Colorado. This electronic instrument operates on

the capacitance principle and makes use of the difference in dielectric constants of the liquid and vapor states. The sensing element

79
is a vertical cylindrical capacitor whose capacitance is a function

of the height of the liquid refrigerant column. The instrument

is designed to be used interchangeably with hydrogen, nitrogen,

oxygen, or helium by changing the sensitivity and range controls on the associated electronic circuitry. It also incorporates a control system that maintains the liquid level at a predetermined

point.

FOSDIC. An instrument that provides rapid, automatic

processing of information into a form suitable for input to largescale electronic computers has been developed for the Bureau

of the Census. Named FOSDIC (Film Optical Sensing Device

for Input to Computers), the machine reads marks on microfilmed

copies of documents that have been marked with an ordinary

pencil or > pen, and then processes the information into electrical

pulses which are recorded on magnetic tape for direct input to an

electronic computer such as UNIVAC. FOSDIC is designed

to reduce the work that is now involved in converting written

records into a medium acceptable to input by data-processing

machines, allows considerable freedom in design of the documents,

and does not require the use of any special writing instrument.

It is anticipated that ultimately the use of this machine will

reduce appreciably the massive amount of paper work entailed

in summarizing Census information on the entire population.

Although designed for Census operations, FOSDIC may be

generally applied to the processing of other types of information

that must be handled in large quantities.

A High-Speed Coin-Weighing Machine. A fully automatic

machine for weighing coins rapidly has been developed for the

Department of the Treasury. The NBS machine will weigh and

sort 18,000 coins per hour with an accuracy of }{ of 1 percent in the

weighing of 25-cent pieces and with even greater accuracy for the

half- and one-dollar coins. This system has the advantages of high

sensitivity, low susceptibility to seismic noise, and independence of

other physical properties of the coin except diameter, which,

however, is held to extremely close tolerances in manufacture.

The machine is much faster than the automatically fed analytical

beam balance now in use at the Mint.

The machine weighs coins by measuring the degree of unbalance

imparted to a rapidly moving flywheel into which two coins, the

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standard and the one to be weighed, have been placed. If the

flywheel is precisely balanced initially, the difference in weight

between the two coins will displace the center of gravity slightly

from the geometric center of the wheel. Detection of this displacement provides the basis for measuring the weight of the coin.

Electro-Optical Image Processing System. An experimental

optico-electronic system was constructed that will facilitate the

study of visual perception and recognition of patterns. The

system also promises to have a number of useful engineering applications. The device can clarify blurred images or produce outline

pictures and line drawings from halftone photographs. Developed

under the NBS basic instrumentation program, the system operates on patterns in the form of photographic transparencies placed in an

optical assembly between a cathode-ray tube with a moving spot

and a photomultiplier tube. The signals resulting from scanning

the picture are amplified and fed back to the intensity control of

the cathode-ray tube, and thus, produce a picture on its screen. The negative feedback obtained in this way improves the tonal

rendition of the picture. The same signals are also supplied to another amplifier and the resulting signal is used to control a monitor cathode-ray tube which reproduces the same picture.

Altering the monitor for the image processing is accomplished by

introducing modifying circuits between the phototube and the

monitor. This freedom to modify the picture on the monitor is the essence of the system.

Physiological Monitor. Working under the sponsorship of the

Veterans' Administration, NBS developed an electronic instrument

which automatically detects changes in the physiological condition

of a patient under anaesthesia throughout the course of an operation. Known as the NBS Physiological Monitor, the instrument measures changes in the patient's blood pressure, heart beat, and

respiration as they occur and presents the data on a panel for

interpretation by the surgeon or anaesthesiologist. A permanent

record of the patient's condition during the operation is also

provided by a recording device incorporated in the assembly.

Because the Physiological Monitor provides a continuous indication of the patient's physiological condition during surgery, it should help greatly in the prevention or control of emergencies

confronting the surgeon at the operating table or during certain

81
critical postoperative periods. The instrument is also expected to aid in those phases of medical research—such as studies of the effect of drugs on blood pressure—that require a knowledge of the

behavior of physiological variables over long periods.

High-Resolution Micromanometer. A highly sensitive micromanometer, designed to measure differential pressures as low as 0.03 micron of mercury with resolutions of the order of 0.001

micron of Hg, was developed by the Bureau's Office of Basic

Instrumentation. The NBS micromanometer utilizes a thin

diaphragm combined with a capacitance-type pickup and a resonant-bridge carrier system to detect pressure differentials 100

to 1,000 times smaller than previous systems. Although designed

to measure differential pressures, the NBS micromanometer can

be modified to measure absolute pressures below 1 micron in apparatus where the presence of mercury, oil, or other liquid is undesirable. This may be accomplished either by maintaining a high

vacuum on one side of the diaphragm or by sealing one side at a high-vacuum level. The micromanometer should then be particularly useful for calibrating ionization gages. The characteristics of the instrument are such that it could possibly be used also as a secondary standard of low pressure in the range between

0.001 and 1 micron of Hg.

Wide-Range Barium-Titanate Accelerometer. A barium-titanate

accelerometer with exceptionally wide frequency and acceleration

ranges has been designed and constructed by the Office of Basic

Instrumentation. Known as the NBS-33-14 Accelerometer, the

device combines small size and low mass, uniformity of response,

good shielding, very low cable noise, small transverse response,

and other desirable characteristics. In connection with perform- ance tests on this accelerometer, several experimental techniques

have been developed or improved for obtaining accurate calibrations at high levels of acceleration.

As a result of the widespread availability of barium titanate, a great many types of piezoelectric accelerometers using crystals of

this material have been built over the past few years in industrial

and Government laboratories. In an effort to improve the

characteristics of these devices, the Bureau is conducting a number of investigations of barium-titanate accelerometers as part of a program of basic instrumentation. Designed to meet

82
the exacting requirements of a specialized military application,

the NBS-33-14 Accelerometer has a range of i 50,000 g and a natural frequency of 90,000 cycles per second.

2.13. Automatic Electronic Computers: Information

Processing

During 1953 and 1954, the Bureau continued its work in research,

development, applications analysis, and technical consultation on

electronic digital techniques in mathematical and scientific computations, massive paperwork operations, and control systems. A

new high-speed computer, the DYSEAC, designed to serve as the

experimental nucleus for a complex data-processing network, was

completed and delivered to its sponsor, the Department of Defense.

Successful test of the DYSEAC on a radar tracking program that

required interaction of the computer with special input, output,

and external control equipment demonstrated the versatility of the

DYSEAC system in real-time problems. Another experiment

involved the interconnection of SEAC and DYSEAC so that the

two machines worked cooperatively on a common task. These

developments are indicative of the rapidly expanding opportunities

for high-speed digital techniques in new areas such as air traffic control, information processing for large-scale paperwork operations of the Government, and automatic equipment control.

An exploratory program to determine the applicability of

electronic techniques to problems of supply management was

carried out with the cooperation of the Navy Bureau of Supplies

and Accounts. The study involved problem definition and

machine coding of a major supply replenishment procedure, the

development of a new and much faster method of sorting and

simultaneously merging new data with master files, and promising

developments in the design and prototype construction of an

automatic type-character reader.

Studies in applications of digital techniques to control systems,

especially military applications, resulted in comprehensive reports on various weapons—systems planning problems and the development of special display and control equipment which has been successfully operated with the DYSEAC. This work now includes

studies of the development of tactical training systems.

83
Developments in improved high-speed memory systems have also

pointed the way for significant advances in the capacity and flexi- bility of electronic data-processing systems. In particular, highspeed memory development included a new experimental Williamstype unit as well as improved matrix memories. A diode-capacitor

memory has been successfully tested in conjunction with SEAC.

SEAC. The experimental modification, operation, and maintenance of the SEAC continued during 1953 and 1954. The computer performed regularly scheduled productive operation on a variety of problems with an over-all operating efficiency of 80 percent. The SEAC was also used for experimental engineering

evaluation of input-output, auxiliary storage and other equipment

and components. Examples of such uses were the testing of the

diode-capacitor memory and cavity wire drive device, and the

experimental interconnection of SEAC and DYSEAC. Engineering modifications of SEAC included improvement of the Williams

memory so that it is available for regular productive use, construction and testing of a new high-speed outscriber, and the trial use of

a multichannel modified tape unit for productive runs. DYSEAC. The systems design, construction, and program

checking of the DYSEAC was a major project of the electronic

computers laboratory during 1953 and 1954. The new computer

uses dynamic circuit techniques similar to those used in SEAC, but

its operating capabilities are considerably extended by special

logical design features. Developments in component packaging

techniques and standardization of circuitry so that only two types

of etched- circuit plug-in packages are used enabled modular construction of the machine which is installed in a trailer van. An

additional van provides space for supporting power supply and

personnel.

The special design features enable DYSEAC to communicate in an extremely flexible manner with a wide variety of external control devices and to serve as a major element in a generalized feedback control loop. Special manual-monitor facilities, flexible program-control features, and versatile input-output selection and

control provide DYSEAC with the properties of concurrent operation, self-regulation, and interruptability. The machine can

therefore respond effectively to new information and control sig84
nals originated either by the human operators or by remote external

devices on an unscheduled basis.

Diode-Capacitor Memory. Continued research on rapid-access

memories for electronic computers has resulted in the development

of an information storage device utilizing diodes and capacitors as basic storage units. This recently completed unit appears to be

faster than any other system and more than matches the speed of

the arithmetic unit now used in SEAC. Because of its simplicity,

it should be more reliable than other memories now in use. The

most difficult part of the basic problem of high-speed access was

overcome by the development of a selector matrix using diodes and

transformers. SEAC was used to determine the unit's reliability; on five occasions it ran continuously for 3-day periods and on

another occasion for 1 week without error. Input-Output Equipment. With the development of many largescale electronic computers in recent years has come an increasing

need for equipment to bridge the gap between the machines and

their sources of information. The Bureau has therefore been

actively engaged in the development of high-speed input-output

equipment. External magnetic tape and wire units have been

devised as aids to the computer on problems which require auxiliary

memory capacity or considerable input-output operations. One

such device can store 12,000 words on a 1,200-foot magnetic tape.

Other developments in this field include promising work on highdensity tape-recording—up to 400 or more bits per inch—as well as a new prototype tape cartridge. Initial work on new devices is exemplified by the design and construction of a novel automatic

tape tester, and the completion of a model notched-disk memory for

random-access data storage.

SWAC. During 1953 and 1954 SWAG, the National Bureau of

Standards Western Automatic Computer, operated at 93 percent

efficiency on a 80- to 120-hour a week basis, solving a wide range of

problems in physics, engineering, mathematics, statistics, and

meteorology. The scope and complexity of the problems which

SWAC can solve were greatly extended through the installation

and successful operation of a magnetic drum auxiliary memory.

This new memory is a revolving metal drum that retains numbers

and instructions on its surface in the form of magnetic pulses like

those used in tape recording. It was used in conjunction with the

85
already existing cathode-ray-tube memory to enlarge the over-all

memory capacity of the machine, providing a storehouse for a library of numerical methods of routines of instructions which,

when obeyed by the machine, can facilitate the solution of a large

class of problems. The new magnetic memory can store 4,096

"words" of 37 binary digits each, in contrast with the 256 words of

the cathode-ray-tube memory. This high-capacity memory makes

possible the solution of very large sets of simultaneous equations

such as arise in logistics; certain types of partial differental equations which occur frequently in aeronautical research, in heat

transfer problems, in electromagnetic theory, and in other fields; and combinatorial problems, applications of which have recently

engaged the attention of scientists.

2.14. Radio Propagation

The Central Radio Propagation Laboratory is responsible for the

collection and coordination of radio propagation data, and for the

custody and development of the national primary standards for

electrical quantities at radio frequencies. Research programs are undertaken in the fields of radio physics, geophysics associated

with radio propagation, properties of matter at radio and microwave frequencies, precise measurement techniques for electrical

quantities at radiofrequencies, and primary radiofrequency standards. The Laboratory operates eight ionospheric sounding

stations, participates in the operation of seven additional stations,

and assembles, analyzes, and distributes data received from

approximately 75 other ionospheric stations. Advisory and consulting services are provided other agencies of the government such

as the Department of Defense, Federal Communications Commission, Civil Aeronautics Administration, and State Department.

Because the ionosphere makes possible the long distance propagation of radio waves, major emphasis is placed on a study of this

medium. Theoretical and experimental studies are aimed at obtaining a better understanding of the formation of the ionosphere, causes and characteristics of ionospheric disturbances, and the

interaction between the ionosphere and radio waves. Radio

sounding data serve as research data as well as for the regular

preparation of predictions. The sounding stations themselves

are important links for research in which geographic location is

86
important. In addition, permanent, temporary, and mobile field stations assist in special experiments.

High-frequency propagation through the troposphere is being

studied because of its importance to the Defense Department,

commercial airlines, and TV and FM broadcasters. Such factors

as terrain, climate, and meteorology affect propagation and studies are carried out to determine this influence. Because of the close

relation between propagation phenomena and some aspects of

radio systems, communication reliability has been studied as a function of antenna patterns versus radiowave angle-of-arrival,

various schemes of diversity reception, modulation methods, and

radio noise.

Ionospheric soundings and solar data assembled from the worldwide network of ionospheric sounding stations and solar observatories make possible Bureau predictions of optimum frequencies

for long-distance communication throughout the world. These

predictions are published each month for a period covering 3

months in advance of the date of publication. Long-range predictions are supplemented by short term ionospheric disturbance

notices communicated over the Bureau's radio stations, which also

broadcast time and frequency standards.

A long-range program designed to extend the range of standard

frequencies, include additional types of measurements, and in- crease the magnitude range of radio measurements is now under

way. Atomic clocks, made possible by techniques of microwave

spectroscopy, are being developed as part of this program. The

NBS radio propagation program will be greatly aided by the new

specially designed radio laboratory at Boulder, Colorado. This

building provides integrated facilities for researches that have

heretofore been widely scattered.

Ionospheric Disturbances. A better understanding of ionospheric

disturbances would provide a better insight into the formation and

characteristics of the ionosphere. A new technique for studying

such disturbances over the North American continent has been

applied using maps which are similar in appearance to meteorological pressure or temperature maps. The study showed clearly for

the first time the existence of disturbance centers that move

several thousand kilometers at speeds up to 300 kilometers per

hour.

8 7
Data for 3 years of operation at 2.3 megacycles per second have

now been gathered and analyzed, and regular diurnal variations

in the direction and amplitude of these winds have been observed.

Simplified automatic phase shift correlation equipment has been

constructed and is in operation. This equipment operates automatically and gathers extensive data efficiently.

Arctic Radio Propagation. The Aurora, which occurs most often

in a narrow circular band surrounding the magnetic North Pole, causes frequent interruption in long-distance high-frequency radio

communication. A north-south chain of field strength recording

stations has been operated to provide data on this region. Analysis of the results shows that the antenna pattern is of great importance in determining the effective mode of propagation. Of

particular significance is the discovery that north of the maximumauroral-frequency zone signal propagation takes place with high

reliability. Signals were received over one path 98 percent of the

total time of operation.

Oblique Incidence Studies. Because much higher frequencies

will be reflected from the ionosphere at oblique incidence than at normal incidence, current theory relates the maximum usable

frequency at oblique incidence to that at normal incidence. Characteristics of the oblique reflection are therefore customarily in- ferred from normal incidence measurements. However, an analysis

of communication operations records has indicated that communication (and therefore reflection) seems to be taking place at fre- quencies several percent higher than current theory would indicate.

A series of tests are being carried out not only to study this effect but to investigate ionospheric reciprocity and determine the origin

of backscatter echoes. Results of measurements made over 1,150-

and 2,370-kilometer paths indicate that the current theory would

predict a maximum usable frequency of the order of 5 or 6 percent

low. Actual radio traffic data, however, seem to indicate that for even longer paths (very low angles of incidence) the errors in the

current theory should be larger than have been observed so far. Extended propagation paths will be studied to check this point.

Low-Frequency Ionospheric Measurements. A study of data

obtained with the NBS low-frequency ionosphere recorder led to the discovery of a new "intermediate layer" at about 160 kilometers

out of which the regular E layer forms at daybreak and into which

88
it recedes at sunset. Although it appears irregularly at night, the

intermediate layer seems to be a nighttime equivalent of the highfrequency daytime regular E layer. . An ordinary wave echo from a low layer usually shields the

reflections of the same polarization from higher layers, but passes

the extraordinary wave echoes from above. The converse is true of an extraordinary wave low level echo. However, an anomaly

has been seen—an extraordinary-wave F2 layer echo has at times

been noted exhibiting a retardation cusp apparently due to the

ordinary wave intermediate layer below. This will be studied

further following the move to Colorado where canyon sites offer shielded areas for the erection of special equipment.

Radio Astronomy. The Bureau continued its study of cosmic

and solar radio waves from outer space utilizing the recently

developed techniques of radio astronomy. Three 25-foot parabolic

reflectors for receiving solar radio noise were transferred from Washington to a field station in Colorado, where automatic controls

have been installed and routine measurements undertaken at 167

and 460 Mc/s. At the new location, the mountains of the Continental Divide provide a natural knife edge horizon at sunset,

and a study of the records of successive days at sunset during a period of activity on the sun provides a means of locating the active

region on the sun as it sets behind the mountains. Regular sum- mary reports of solar activity were initiated.

Work on a nonlinear theory of plasma oscillation shows that the

period of a space charge wave is a function of its amplitude and

phase velocity. The theory developed explains the second harmonic

component in solar radio noise as well as the decrease in fundamental frequency with increase in burst intensity. Theoretical investigations of shock wave propagation in an ionized atmosphere with

a superposed magnetic field show departures from Maxwellian

distribution. The effect may explain the anomalous dual temperature which has been obtained experimentally for the solar chromosphere. Effects of shock waves on space charge waves suggest

that the fine structure of solar radio noise may be due to space

charge waves.

Theoretical Studies. Information theory concepts were applied

to propagation through time-varying media with a view toward

ascertaining the fundamental limitations imposed upon communica89
tions systems which utilize propagation links. The signal fading

present in such systems represents a type of information degradation not considered in conventional information theory which

postulates steady signals contaminated by noise. r In continuing previous work on tides in the earth's atmosphere,

both thermally and gravitationally excited oscillations were considered in a rotating atmosphere composed of a perfect gas in hydrostatic equilibrium. Several current atmospheric models were

tested and in all but the isothermal atmosphere the solar thermal

action exceeded the gravitational by a factor of the order of one

hundred. The predicted time of maximum tide was off by about

2}i hours, however, and it was suggested that eddy viscosity effects at the base of the atmosphere could account for the discrepancy.

The atmospheric profile as determined by V-2 rocket measurements

gave closest agreement with observation regarding magnitude of

the tidal effect. The above results represent a vast departure

from ideas held since 1924 that thermal and gravitational effects would be of equal importance.

Radio Warning Service. A study of vertical soundings obtained

at Canadian stations has resulted in an ionospheric disturbance

index for use in day-to-day forecasting. The index, based on

the relative deviation from normality of F2 region electron densities

is expressed on the quality figure scale and has been shown to be

strongly correlated with nighttime North Atlantic radio propagation quality figures. This work represents progress in the difficult problem of relating ionospheric storms to radio propagation disturbance. The indices are being derived currently and used on a

trial basis as a guide to forecasters.

The average magnetic activity associated with solar flares and

classified according to the nature of the associated 200 megacycle

radiofrequency event has been analyzed in considerable detail. The results point towards an important refinement in the methods

of forecasting magnetic disturbance on the basis of combined radio

and optical observation of flare-type solar activity.

Radio Noise Studies. For a number of years the radio division

has studied radio noise of both terrestrial and extraterrestrial origin. Atmospheric radio noise, which determines the ultimate

limit to radio reception on frequencies below about 30 megacycles,

originates principally in thunderstorms throughout the world.

90
However, man-made radio interference causes considerable diffi- culty in measuring noise of natural origin and necessitates the

careful selection of recording sites. A mobile recording unit has

been used to investigate various recording locations in an effort to locate those with a low man-made noise level. The lowest

levels observed were in the vicinity of Bill, Wyoming, which has

been chosen as the site for a third recording station.

A highly specialized recording-receiver has been developed to meet the need for improved accuracy and standardization in measuring radio noise. This receiver incorporates many improvements

over commercially available equipment. Some of the principal

features are low noise figure, good gain and frequency stability, narrow bandwidth, wide dynamic range, provision for absolute

average power measurement, and improved presentation of data.

Provision is made to record data automatically on 8 frequencies

from 50 kilocycles to 20 megacycles. Several receiver-recorders are being built. Tropospheric Propagation. Research was continued on the

problem of allocating radio frequency channels to very-high-frequency communication and broadcasting services. Experimental

studies were continued to determine meteorology effects of the

lower atmosphere on the received signal strength. A remarkable

phenomenon was observed on radio circuits operating within the

line of sight at frequencies of the order of 1,000 megacycles and

higher. This phenomenon, known as the space-wave fadeout, is thought to be a result of ducting in the lower atmosphere which is fairly common to all geographical areas. The Bureau's study indi- cates that space-wave fadeouts may be of serious consequence to UHF services, particularly where low antennas are involved, as in UHF air navigation systems.

Obstacle gain measurements were made of television broadcast

signals received on a 100-mile path with a 14,000-foot mountain,

Pike's Peak, in the middle of the path. These measurements demonstrated both the marked decrease in transmission loss and the

reduction in fading associated with optimum location of large

obstacles in such propagation paths.

Cheyenne Mountain Experiments. Tropospheric propagation

research facilities have been established at the NBS Cheyenne

Mountain Field Station at Colorado Springs, Colorado, to deter321720—54 7 91
mine the necessary propagation factors for the effective allocation

and use of air navigation and communication facilities. The program has included the development, installation, and operation of a system for studying propagation factors at 1,000 megacycles.

A moderately directive semipyramidal horn antenna radiates 1.6 megawatts of effective power at an operating frequency of 1,046

megacycles. The transmitter is now operating on a regular

schedule for the systematic collection of tropospheric propagation

data. This program marks a new departure in propagation re- search which in the past has often followed rather than preceded

the use of a new portion of the frequency spectrum.

In addition to the 1,000-megacycle system, complementary 100-

and 200-megacycle systems are operated side by side to determine

the frequency dependence factors in this region of the spectrum.

Transmission losses measured at these three frequency ranges over

a variety of path lengths and antenna heights are being analyzed to determine diurnal and month-to-month variations in median signal

level as well as range and rate of short term fluctuations in instantaneous signal level. The prolonged space-wave fadeouts occurring

primarily in 1,000-megacycle transmissions over line-of-sight paths were analyzed to determine the mechanisms influencing the propagation of VHF and UHF radio waves both within and beyond

the radio horizon and to provide basic information for use in determining service and interference ranges of various radio systems.

A large amount of data obtained from continuous recordings of

commercial transmitting stations by universities, engineering consultants, and the Federal Communications Commission was re- ceived from various geographical areas of the United States. These data have been used for developing more complete and ac- curate physical, mathematical, and statistical methods of describing

tropospheric propagation. Work has progressed on the theoretical

aspects of the problem of tropospheric scattering. A new method

of numerical integration has been developed which handles more

adequately the complicated integral involved in tropospheric

scattering. Propagation charts, technical reports and memoranda,

and special methods of analysis were prepared on the problem of

predicting transmission loss versus distance and antenna height for

any time of day or season. A new approach to the problem of

prediction was made by the development of the concept of "angular

92
distance." This parameter has been found particularly helpful

in accounting for gross effects of terrain irregularities.

Modulation Studies. Because of the premium placed upon space

in the radiofrequency spectrum and the necessity for more reliable

communications, a study of various types of modulation efficiency

and methods of communicating over radio paths was undertaken.

The effect of transmitter keying wave shape on interference produced was investigated and a relatively simple filter designed that can be used in the keying circuit of linear transmitters to provide

a very marked reduction in adjacent channel interference. The

frequency spectrum of a frequency-shift keying transmitter has

been analyzed to determine the effect of audio low-pass filtering of

the keying wave applied to the reactance tube. The mathematical

analyses, confirmed by experimental measurements, have indicated

that a considerable reduction in side band energy can be obtained.

Standardsfor Characteristics of Materials. An accurate secondary

standard of complex permeability, the radiofrequency permeameter, was developed, privately manufactured, and adopted by a

sizeable segment of industry. An extension of this instrument

capable of measuring the temperature coefficient of the best commercially available ferrites and nearly all other high-frequency

magnetic materials was also placed into operation. The frequency

range covered by these instruments (100 kilocycles to 40 megacycles) was extended by the design, construction, and evaluation of

a re-entrant cavity system capable of performing complex permeability measurements in the region of 55 to 200 megacycles.

A standard solid-dielectric specimen holder was modified to allow

dielectric measurements to 100 megacycles and to 100° Centigrade

under controlled temperature and humidity conditions. A new

resonant-cavity-type specimen holder was designed and is nearly

completed. It will extend the frequency range to 1,000 megacycles

and the temperature range from —40° to +500° Centigrade.

Primary Microwave Frequency Standard. A major revision of

the microwave frequency standard was undertaken to incorporate

the most modern features and to simplify its operation. The new

standard has fixed-frequency outputs corresponding to those

frequencies for which there is greatest demand for calibration service. The signals are of higher power and extend higher in the

frequency range. The power available at the 10 and 50 megacycle

93
outputs of the frequency multiplier chain is 5 watts; at the 250

and 3,000 megacycle outputs, 1 watt; and at 9,000 megacycles,

20 milliwatts. A new technique of mixing at the end of the multiplier chain rather than internally resulted in the elimination of

spurious and poor-quality signals within specific frequency regions.

In addition, this mixing technique simplifies the generation of

equally-spaced standard signals used in calibrating adjustable

frequency meters. It is now possible to set up the standard with

combinations of outputs along the multiplier chain such that a

single direct-reading control selects each successive desired standard

frequency over the range of the common type of meter. This

feature is in operation over the frequency range of 550 to 40,000

megacycles.

Microwave Noise Standards: An apparatus for measuring noise

power at microwave frequencies was developed for calibrating

secondary noise standards. Noise sources such as fluorescent tubes

or noise klystrons, when calibrated as secondary standards permit an easy determination of the noise factor of microwave networks.

Equivalent noise temperatures of typical secondary sources may

be calibrated with an absolute accuracy of approximately 0.1 decibels, the temperature being known to within 2 deg Kelvin.

The noise-measuring apparatus consists of a standard noise source together with a noise comparator which balances the noise powers

of the unknown and standard sources. Atomic Time and Frequency Standards. The program for atomic

frequency and time standards has been carried to the point where

the relative merits of the gas absorption and atomic beam techniques can be assayed, and decisions made on the next phase of

the program. Progress on the atomic beam technique was such

that it is definitely the most accurate now available, with further

improvements in accuracy still possible. It appears possible to make beam equipments simple enough to compete in running time

with gas cell clocks.

Work on a cesium atomic beam method was begun shortly after

the initial work on the ammonia clock. With this equipment a spectrum line having the sharpest resonance ever obtained has

been excited. This sharpness of resonance, or "Q", is commonly

of the order of a few hundred for radio circuits. For a good quartz

crystal resonator it may be from a hundred thousand to a few

94
million. For the cesium beam, a Q value of 30 million has been

obtained.

Absolute measurements of the cesium resonance frequency

against WWV and Naval Observatory time have been completed,

and have resulted in tentative values of an independent primary

standard of frequency. These tentative values are now being

cross-checked to ensure that they provide a firm absolute value.

3. Calibration, Testing, and Standard Samples

The reduction in the appropriation to the Bureau for Research

and Testing for Fiscal Year 1954 and the studies by the Ad Hoc

Committee of the Secretary of Commerce that were concluded

early in that fiscal year initiated a general reexamination of the

Bureau's services to the Government and the public in the testing

area. Testing, as understood when reference is made to research

and testing, includes the following three types of activities: (1) The

comparison and calibration of instruments and other standards of

measurement; (2) quality control and qualification, acceptance,

regulatory, and referee testing; and (3) preparation and distribution of standard samples.

* 3.1. Ad Hoc Committee Recommendations

The findings of the Secretary's Ad Hoc Committee regarding the

testing area may be summarized by the following excerpts from its report:

"This area might be considered as one of the important end products in the Bureau's basic programs. It is made up of so large a number of specific items

7 that they have not received individual examination by the Committee. The

Committee is concerned that a larger amount of repetitive testing is now done

by the Bureau than is necessary with the present state of development of tech- nology in industry . . . "The Committee recommends that the repetitive test operations of the Bureau be critically examined by the Bureau and the proposed advisory committees . . . "The personnel and facilities of the test program area of the Bureau should

be primarily employed in the development of specifications and testing and

quality control procedures. The Bureau should exert a leadership for the maintenance of high quality in the products of Government purchase with the minimum of participation in repetitive tests. "Increased funds for maintenance of present standard samples supply and

for the development of new standard samples are urgently needed."

95
In keeping with these recommendations, the Bureau instituted a policy of restricting the calibration services, insofar as possible, to the calibration of basic standards. As in previous years, tests of

products were made only at the request of other Government agencies except when the Bureau possessed facilities not available else- where or in the rare instances when referee tests were required. The

standard sample program was maintained to the fullest extent

permitted by available funds.

3.2. Conferences With Government and Industry Users of

Bureau Services

In August 1953, the policy of emphasizing calibration of basic

standards was announced at two major conferences. One confer- ence was with representatives of Government agencies; the other was with scientific apparatus manufacturers and dealers and representatives of industries that make extensive use of the Bureau's

calibration services and standard samples. At these conferences

basic standards were defined as including (1) standards used to calibrate other standards or working instruments; (2) standards

required by law or regulation to be certified by the National Bureau

of Standards; and (3') standards for measurements requiring such

high precision that direct comparison with the standards of the

Bureau is essential.

In the conference with other Government agencies it was agreed

that the Bureau would continue to provide the minimum essential

calibration service from its directly appropriated funds. Specifically, the Bureau would calibrate without charge one instrument of

each kind and type required by any given laboratory in the course

of a year, and would repeat the calibration as necessary. If, as a matter of economy or convenience, the agency wished to have repli- cate instruments calibrated by the Bureau it was agreed that this

service would be rendered on a reimbursement basis.

In the conference regarding calibration services to the public,

the scientific apparatus makers and others were asked to cooperate

in keeping their requests to a minimum, particularly as regards

secondary standards such as mercury-in-glass thermometers and

volumetric glassware. The possibility of working out a system

of priorities for calibration services was explored and was found

to be impractical because of the very large number of items involved

96
and the difficulty of assessing the relative importance of difFerent

areas. It was explained that while other Federal agencies can

reimburse the Bureau for services, the fees collected from the

public are required by law to be deposited in the Treasury and

are not available to the Bureau.

3.3. Transfer of Services to Private Agencies

At the conference with industry representatives consideration was given to the possibility of transferring some of the larger

routine calibration operations to nongovernmental agencies. The

matter was explored further with representatives of commercial

testing laboratories, who visited the Bureau and made detailed

studies of the operations. No shift seemed feasible because the

diversity of items and requirements even in the larger areas was

such that the work did not appear attractive as a commercial

venture. In the field of materials testing, however, it was possible to give

up one operation—the testing of samples of the breath of radium

workers for radon content. This test service, which the Bureau

had provided because facilities were not available elsewhere, was

discontinued when a university laboratory was found equipped

and willing to do the work.

The Bureau divested itself of another service activity in the

testing area by arranging for the American Society for Testing

Materials to take over the responsibility for publishing the Directory of Commercial and College Testing Laboratories, which the

Bureau had maintained since 1927. A joint announcement by the

Bureau and the ASTM stated that the present edition of the

Directory (NBS Miscellaneous Publication Ml 87) would continue

to be available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, until the revised edition in preparation

by ASTM was ready for distribution by that Society.

3.4. Testing for the Public

A large number of requests for qualification and acceptance

testing services were referred to commercial and college testing

laboratories, usually by reference to the above-mentioned Directory. Requests from manufacturers and dealers for the evaluation of products being offered for sale to the Government were

97
referred to agencies that might be interested in purchasing the

products. These agencies were informed that the Bureau would

make the tests only on the request of another Federal agency and

would furnish the results only to that agency.

The Bureau conducted a small number of tests involving the use of special or unique facilities not available in commercial

or college laboratories. The fee value of such tests in fiscal year

1953 was $18,600; in fiscal year 1954 it had been reduced to $6,900.

Very few referee tests were found necessary since most of the

differences that were brought to the Bureau for consideration were resolved informally. In some instances information and

experience available to Bureau staff members provided the solution, while in other instances disagreements growing out of inadequate test methods led to the development of new or revised

methods in cooperation with technical committees of national

standardizing organizations in which the Bureau is represented.

The extent of the use of the Bureau's standard samples for reconciling differences in chemical analyses was emphasized by a number

of requests for new standard samples.

3.5. Testing for Government Purchase

The sample-testing of cement purchased by Government agencies

amounted to more than three-fourths of all the acceptance testing

done by the Bureau. In order to render prompt and efficient

service in connection with major Government construction projects,

work was carried on not only in Washington but also in field laboratories in Allen town, Pennsylvania; Denver, Colorado; San

Francisco, California; Seattle, Washington; and Kansas City,

Missouri. The Kansas City laboratory was set up on a temporary

basis in connection with nearby construction projects. Since the

Bureau tested the bulk of the cement purchased by the Government, it was able to effect economies made possible by operating on a large scale. With regard to this operation the Ad Hoc Committee stated,

"The acceptance testing of portland cement ... is, in fact, only

sampling and analyzing for Government agencies. Hence, it seems

a legitimate function for the Bureau." The Committee, however,

did not wish this approval of the cement testing program to set a

98
precedent for large-scale testing operations in other fields, but

added,

' 'Although the work outlined . . . above appears proper

and well carried out, a word of caution is offered. As a general

rule, routine repetitive testing does not add strength to the Bureau's

scientific effort. Thus the endeavor should not be considered a pattern for future testing."

The sample testing of electric lamps was another area in which the

Bureau continued to evaluate a large proportion of Government

purchases. The cost of this operation in fiscal year 1954 was

$38,700 as compared with $1,016,000 for the testing of cement.

In addition to the foregoing items, the Bureau tested a great

number of other products. The significance of these tests was

indicated by the number of instances in which the product failed to comply with the specification under which it was being tested.

In one area, that of building materials, 137 samples out of 280

samples tested did not meet specifications.

3.6. Testing for Regulatory Agencies

The Bureau was called upon to perform a variety of testing

services by regulatory agencies of the Government. The majority

of the tests were carried out for three agencies as follows: (1) Tests

for the Federal Trade Commission relating to incorrect labeling

and misleading claims; (2) tests for the Post Office Department

involving allegedly fraudulent use of the mails; and (3) examination

and inspection of aircraft and aircraft parts for the Civil Aeronautics Board, often for the purpose of determining the cause of

accidents. The relatively small volume of such testing in relation

to the over-all Bureau program is indicated by the fact that the cost

in fiscal year 1953 was estimated at $24,000, and inj fiscal year

1954 at about $13,000.

3.7. Services to State Governments

In accordance with its statutory function, the Bureau continued

to provide calibration services without charge for the standards

used by the different States. The principal service of this kind was

maintenance of the Master Railway Track Scale Depot at Clearing,

Illinois, and the operation of two test cars for the calibration of

master track scales. This service is important in providing a

99
uniform basis for agreement between buyers and sellers of

commodities.

Because State universities perform important standardizing

services within their States, the Bureau calibrates standards and

provides them with the standard samples required for education

and public service. However, inasmuch as many State universities

now act as contractors for Federal agencies, the Bureau asked that

services required in the capacity of a contractor be requested

directly by the sponsoring Federal agency so that the Bureau could

be reimbursed for the cost of the work.

3.8. Standard Samples

The Ad Hoc Committee stressed the importance of the Bureau's

standard sample program, stating, "This is a proper function for the Bureau and one that within its resources it has performed

well." The Committee stated (at the beginning of fiscal year

1953) that it had not been possible for the Bureau to increase the

numbers of standard samples or even to maintain its former

position. This statement was still applicable throughout fiscal years 1953 and 1954. The Committee also noted the frequent use

of standard samples in refereeing questions between buyer and

seller. The extent to which standard samples were used by

industry for this and other purposes is indicated by the fact that

sales to the public in 1954 amounted to $99,000 while the total

value of the samples furnished to all Federal and State agencies

combined was $20,000.

3.9. Relations With the General Services Administration

The Bureau and the General Services Administration have

many common interests in the area of testing and specifications.

The General Services Administration is assigned broad responsibility for purchasing supplies and services required by the Federal

Government together with related functions including specifications, inspection, and testing. The Bureau, for its part, is authorized to develop test methods; to test materials, supplies, and

equipment, including items purchased for Government use; and

to cooperate with other governmental agencies in the development

of specifications. The functions of the two agencies when viewed

broadly are supplementary, and it is in the interest of the Govern100
ment that they work closely together. To facilitate effective co- operation a Memorandum of Understanding (Appendix, page 131) was developed between the two agencies. The memorandum deals

particularly with the assignment to the Bureau of responsibility

for specifications for general test methods and for individual

products in the area of its competence, and with the conduct of

qualification and acceptance testing.

3.10. Services in Specific Areas

Services in specific areas within the scope of the various technical divisions of the Bureau are summarized in the following

paragraphs.

Electricity. Since 1924 the Bureau has conducted annual qualification tests on various types of dry cells and batteries as a basis

for their purchase by Government agencies. Similar tests on

special batteries for use in hearing aids were continued for the

Veterans' Administration. Testing of standard measuring apparatus for manufacturers, electric power companies, State Public

Utility Commissions, university laboratories, and private testing

laboratories as well as for many agencies of the Federal Government continued at a constantly rising level. During the 2-year

period calibrations were furnished on 2,352 standards of electrical

resistance, inductance or capacitance, 1,256 electrical measuring

instruments and related apparatus and 1,181 standard cells. Optics and Metrology. The calibration of standards included

such items as incandescent, fluorescent, and mercury-vapor lamp

standards of luminous intensity, luminous flux, and color temperature; standards for checking the reliability of spectrophotometers

and for referencing the 100 percent reflectance values; colorimetric

and photometric standards for television tubes, signal glassware,

and petroleum products; and glass or vitreous enamel standards

of color, reflectance, opacity, gloss, and luminance. Also included were miscellaneous items submitted for calibration such as ruby

mica, Lovibond glasses, and exposure meters. In all, approximately 500 standards were calibrated in the 2 years. Over

14,000,000 incandescent, fluorescent, and photographic flash lamps

were sample tested.

Testing in the field of photometry and colorimetry included

paints and varnishes, glass, luminous tape, cotton standards, road

101
signs, signal devices, mirrors, sunglasses, smoke signals and luminosity filters, and standards of luminous flux, color temperature,

reflectance and gloss. This work was done for many Government

agencies and included approximately 250 items, x^pproximately

600 airplane cameras, photographic objectives, telescopes, binoculars, goggles, and spectacle lenses were tested. Approximately

1,120 samples of film were tested for residual sodium thiosulfate

content for numerous agencies of the Federal Government as well

as for State governments, universities, and for industry. Also, two

samples of new types of film base were tested for compliance with

NBS standards for permanent record use. A total of 32 samples of photographic films, 7 samples of plates,

49 samples of papers, 16 samples of sensitized tracing cloth, 46

samples of diazo papers, and 6 samples of developers were tested for the General Services Administration for compliance with Federal

specifications. Several determination of silver content in fixing

baths were made for other agencies in connection with the reclamation of silver. A total of approximately 3,800 NBS Microcopy

Resolution Test Charts, used in testing microcopying cameras and

films, and several hundred copies of instructions for their use were

furnished to Government and State agencies, to universities and to industry.

During the past 2 years the Bureau tested or calibrated 24 length

standards, 251 base-line invar tapes and wires, 447 steel tapes, 2,908

haemacytometer chambers, 23,593 cover glasses for haemacytometers, 344 sieves, 3 precision graduated circles, and other miscellaneous items. This work included the highly precise calibration

of several length standards with probable errors ranging from

2X 10~6 to 4X 10~6 inch, and circles calibrated to the nearest second.

The quantity of testing or calibration of gages and related items

has remained at a high level throughout the period. Among the

API gages tested was a large number of master and references gages

for use in foreign countries; also three sets (38 pairs) of regional

master cable drilling tool joint gages were recalibrated for the first time in about 25 years. Measurements were made of errors in planeness of 24X36 in. granite surface plates intended to be flat within a range from a true plane to 0.00005 in. convex. Heat and Power. A total of 4,532 liquid-in-glass thermometers,

249 resistance thermometers, 71 optical thermometers, and 859

102
thermocouples and thermocouples materials were calibrated.

Calibrations of 533 deep sea reversing thermometers were made for the Navy Hydrographic Office. Of 66,589 clinical thermometers

tested, 56,662 represented a sampling of over 566,620 thermometers

purchased by the Veterans' Administration and the Department of

Agriculture. Tests and calibrations were made on several special

types of thermometers and thermometric devices.

One hundred fifty-six viscometers were tested and 1,614 standard

viscosity samples were supplied to other laboratories for use in the calibration of viscometers. Seventeen gasolines and fuel oils,

2 standard reference fuels, 23 lubricants, and 59 miscellaneous

materials were tested for various Government agencies. Heats of

combustion were measured for 36 samples of jet engine fuels. One

hundred thirty nonroutine tests on aircraft electrical network

equipment and 138 nonroutine tests of high-pressure pneumatic

devices and equipment were conducted for the Navy Department.

Eleven engine-generator sets were tested for the Engineer Research

and Development Laboratory and one automobile was inspected

for the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Heat capacity measure- ments were made on a number of standard materials for the Calorimetry Conference Program. The heat capacities of samples of

brass and plexiglass were determined for the Navy.

Atomic and Radiation Physics. More than 1,750 radioactive

standards were issued including RaD-E, C14

, Na22, P

32

, Co60

. Sr90

, Y

90

,

1

131

, Ti2(U

, radium, radon, alpha-ray standards, and radium, ura- nium, and thorium rock standards. The Bureau measured and certified 2,766 radium, mesothorium, and cobalt preparations. Fifteen

alpha-ray and 13 miscellaneous gamma-ray sources were calibrated.

Over 1,700 breath and air samples were tested for radon content

while 589 ores and sludges and 267 water samples were tested for radium content. Twenty-one mercury-198 lamps (a new length

standard developed by NBS) were distributed to universities,

Government institutions, and private industry. Neutron measurements of 16 radium-beryllium sources and more than 1,900

chemical and isotopic analyses were carried out. Two thermal

neutron fluxes were calibrated and 32 thermal neutron dosimeters were calibrated at the request of the AEC.

Tests and calibrations were made on the following items: 66

r-meters, 328 ionization-chamber pocket dosimeters, 535 phosphor

103
glass dosimeters, 50 photographic dosimeters, 80 special radiation

instruments, 19 radiographic chemicals, 135 pieces of lead glass, 8 lead-lined building blocks, 3 protective aprons, and 28 miscellaneous X-ray units and accessories.

One-hundred and six lamps that serve as fundamental standards

of total radiant energy were calibrated and issued; these are the

only standards of this type in the United States. About 100 eyeprotective lenses were tested for various industrial and Government laboratories for compliance with Federal specifications.

Approximately 25 photoelectric and photoconducting cells were

calibrated for spectral sensitivity and 20 tungsten filament lamps

for spectral emissivity. In addition 6 standards of spectral radiant

energy, 1 photoelectric photometer, 4 thermopiles, 59 samples of

welding glass, and 4 special lamps were calibrated. Four paint

samples and 23 samples of safety glass for eye protection and for

windshields were tested. In addition about 200 samples of glass

and 125 samples of plastic were tested for other laboratories within

the Bureau.

Chemistry. About 5,000 samples of a great variety of materials,

including paints and varnishes, soaps and detergents, metals and

alloys, carbon paper and typewriter ribbons, and reagent chemicals, were analyzed or tested, either for compliance with purchase specifications or in connection with research projects or regulatory

investigations. Calibrations in the field of chemistry included

16 polarimeters for the assay of sugar and 88 quartz plates used

as secondary standards to check these instruments. The calibration of Magne-gages, formerly done by the Bureau, was taken over by the instrument manufacturer. The NBS standardizing service

essential to the use of these instruments is now provided in the

form of specimens of plated metals with coatings of certified thickness. . The number of these standard samples issued was 16,700.

About 48,000 standards of certified composition or purity were

issued. One new standard was added—a chromium-nickel alloy

used for electrical heating. Thirty standards were renewed during

the year—13 steels, 3 bronzes, 2 cast irons, a ferroalloy, a zinc-base

alloy, melting-point lead, melting-point copper, and potassium

dichromate. Sixteen benzoic acid thermometric standards were

issued, bringing to 96 the total of these calibrating devices issued

since this service was begun about 7 years ago.

104
Mechanics. Sound absorption tests on 143 samples of acoustic

material and sound transmission loss tests on 17 wall structures were made for other government agencies, industry, and the public.

Calibrations were performed on 37 microphones, sound level meters, and earphones, about 200 pressure measuring instruments,

89 anemometers for measuring wind velocity, 1,011 elastic calibration devices, including proving rings, dynamometers and aircraft

weighing cells, 11,355 weights, 18 balances, 28 master railway track

scales, 721 other railway track scales, 112 scale testing cars, 172

other types of scales, 1,402 water current meters, 1,827 hydrometers, 61,545 burets and pipets, 6,135 flasks, 322 other measures

of volumetric capacity, and 27 flow meters.

Tension, compression, bending, torsion, hardness, and other

mechanical tests were made on a variety of specimens submitted

by other Government departments, State institutions and private

organizations to determine mechanical performance and compli- ance with specifications. Specimens included reinforcing steel,

aluminum and copper conductors, wire and fiber rope, expansion,

joint filler, hand tools, pole top pins, crossarm pins, upset spool

bolts, insulator wire holders, pencils, crayons, signal flares, electric fans, and other articles. Precise density determinations were made on 118 samples of liquids and solids. Organic and Fibrous Materials. The present test method for

evaluating pneumatic tires requires a combination of laboratory

and road-service tests. Not only does the inability to control

conditions in a road test present difficulties but such tests are

costly and time consuming. To overcome the deficiencies of the

road test, the Bureau is developing a new tire tester under the

sponsorship of the Army Ordnance Corps.

The stiffness of paper is an important property in such practical uses as wrapping papers, sanitary tissues, playing cards, and others.

While several methods have been proposed in the past for measuring this property, all have met objections and none has been generally accepted. A new apparatus for measuring the stiffness of

papers of all kinds has been developed by NBS. This apparatus

will measure stiffness ranging from very light and flexible tissues to cards and light paperboards.

Typical materials tested for various Government agencies in 1953 and 1954 were alkyd diisccyanate radome foams, cordage of

105
various types, hose, tanning materials, floor coverings, beltings,

expansion joint materials, treated duck, flags, various leather and

paper products, solid rubber tires, and water and stain repellents.

In conjunction with the American Dental Association Research

Fellowship maintained at the Bureau, a number of dental materials were tested for compliance with ADA Specifications. Dental

materials and equipment were also tested for the military services

and the Veterans' Administration. The demand for the nine

standard samples for rubber compounding ingredients continued

to be large.

Nearly 900 textile mills and other organizations in the United

States and abroad have obtained light-sensitive paper from the

Bureau for calibrating the carbon arc lamps used in testing color

fastness of textiles. The paper, produced in the paper mill at the

Bureau, is now being prepared in booklets of standard faded strips.

The NBS "Master" lamp used to standardize the paper was

replaced with new improved equipment during 1954. The paper

standards are now sold through the NBS Standard Sample Service.

Metallurgy. Various metallurgical tests were made for such

agencies as the Coast Guard, Federal Trade Commission, Army

Engineers, Department of Justice, Post Office Department, and

General Services Administration. About 2,570 pieces were heat

treated for other Government agencies and other units of the

Bureau. Castings with a total weight of 17 tons were made in the experimental foundry for other agencies of the Government.

The eight steels developed for the International Cooperative

Investigation several years ago are still in demand by research

laboratories as standards for use in the determination of oxygen

and nitrogen in steel by vacuum fusion.

Mineral Products, Federal agencies engaged in construction

activities requested tests on more than 52,000 samples representing

26 million barrels of portland cement. The tests, both physical

and chemical, were carried out in five separate field stations established for this purpose as well as at the central laboratory in Washington. A statistical study has been made to determine the minimum number of samples and amount of testing required to give

adequate information regarding the quality lot of cement. Closely

related to this work is the program of the Cement Reference

Laboratory, which inspects, when requested, the apparatus and

L06
test methods of cement testing laboratories throughout the United

States. The Cement Reference Laboratory is located at the

National Bureau of Standards and is jointly supported by the

Bureau, the Public Roads Administration, U. S. Corps of Engineers,

| and the American Society for Testing Materials. Twelve thousand

vials of standard fineness samples of cement were prepared and

4,000 were distributed to various laboratories.

Tests were conducted on soils, aggregates, pozzolans, oxychloride

cements, water, concrete and related materials. Refractory items

such as fire-clay bricks, air-setting mortars, insulating refractory

bricks, and refractory castables were tested for compliance with

Federal Specifications. Tests were conducted for various States on safety glass compliance with the American Standards Association

Code for Glazing in Motor Vehicles. A substantial volume of

crucible grade natural flake graphite was. tested prior to its storage

in the National stockpile.

Building Technology. Structural tests were made on 178 samples

of brick and concrete, 216 masonry units, 188 units of pipe, 85

samples of tile, 16 samples of calking compounds, 12 samples of

natural building stone, 30 standard samples of limestone blocks,

and 60 other miscellaneous building materials. Approximately

60 tests of fire extinguishers and equipment were performed. A

total of 29 fire-resistance tests were made on floors, walls, columns,

beams, or roof assemblies. Fifty-eight investigations of fire hazard

of materials were made, including 10 tests for fabric flammability,

12 tests on paint flammability, 16 flammability tests of interior

finish materials, and 20 tests of spontaneous ignition hazard.

Thirty-nine miscellaneous fire studies, including tests for mail

hazards on marine flares, and on matches, were performed. Seven

air-conditioning units were tested.

Thermal-conductivity tests were conducted on 79 samples

including lightweight concrete slabs, roof insulation, building

board, mineral wool, and lightweight concrete blocks. Performance tests were made on 9 impingement air filters and on 5 electrostatic air cleaners. A total of eight miscellaneous household items

such as Venetian blinds, flush valves, faucet aerators, substitute

heating duct materials, and refrigeration components, were tested.

An electric map heater was tested for the Army Map Service.

Design approval tests were performed on four elevator buffers.
Performance tests of refrigerators for storing whole blood were made for the Military Operations Subcommittee of the U. S. Congress. Three large walls with reinforced mortar facing were

tested for the Federal Civil Defense Administration to determine

their resistance to transverse loads. Performance tests on air cleaners were made for the Navy Bureau of Ships and the Public

Buildings Service. A total of 3,866 samples of bituminous road

materials were tested for the Government of the District of

Columbia, and 164 miscellaneous bituminous materials for other

Government agencies.

Radio. In the high-frequency region, 186 instruments and devices of 15 types were calibrated and 23 dielectric samples were measured for industrial and Government laboratories. The in- struments consisted of attenuators, standard capacitors, filters, field strength meters, a test oscillator, audiofrequency bridge, amplifier, slotted line, vacuum-tube voltmeters, and voltage generators

The dielectric properties of materials such as iron and ferrite field plastics, polyethylene, soil, Bentorite, high temperature laminates,

ceramics, ferrites, antenna housing materials, fused quartz, barium

titanate, cesium iodide, araldite, teflon, alundum, glass, and indian

lava were measured as well as the radiofrequency properties of a

large number of capacitors, resistors, and inductors. A thorough

examination of the complex permeability versus frequency behavior of the majority of commercially available as well as of some

experimental ferrites was made. Causes for relaxation behavior were investigated as were effects of aging and climatic changes.

A comprehensive program of powdered iron core properties was

about 75 percent completed utilizing measurements on over 6,000

cores with approximately 15,000 sets of data. Important properties of such materials available in this country will be known after

completion of the tests. A precise measurement of the loss characteristics of the core material exhibiting the lowest known losses in

1 to 10 megacycle region was made and about 25 standard samples

of this material were distributed to interested manufacturers and

laboratories.

In the microwave region, calibration service was made available

for attenuaters in two additional waveguide sizes. A number of

the attenuation calibrations were made on directional couplers,

indicating a trend toward the use of this device for a very stable

108
type of attenuation standard. Requests reveal a definite trend

toward demands for calibrations at many discrete frequencies, making the calibrations much more involved. In 1953 very extensive

calibrations were made of nine waveguide attenuators for a large

defense department program. Over 60 frequency meters were

calibrated, the majority being in the X-band region. Calibration

of power meters continues to be on an experimental basis and is confined to the UHF region and a narrow portion of the X-band

region. Although a service is offered to calibrate power meters

up to a level of 10 watts in the UHF region, an effort is being made

to extend the range for X-band power meters from several milli- watts up to at least 5 watts. This is being accomplished by using

calorimetric methods.

4. Cooperative Activities

The active participation of the Bureau's staff in projects of professional societies and standardizing bodies greatly enhances the

dissemination and utilization of the results of NBS research, development, standardizing, and testing activities. At the same time,

staff members are able to keep in close touch with technical and

scientific advances elsewhere and to coordinate the standards and

specifications used in industry with those employed by the Government.

The extent of this activity is indicated by the fact that in Fiscal

Year 1953 Bureau staff members took an active part in the work

of 681 technical committees of more than 100 national societies,

serving in 182 positions as chairman or secretary of a committee.

For example, NBS personnel serve as President and Editor of the

Optical Society of America, President of the Instrument Society

of America, and a director of the American Chemical Society.

They also participated actively in 52 international committees

and served as chairman or secretary of 21. These figures do not

include numerous assignments to task forces or minor ad hoc committees.

This cooperative activity led to the promulgation of 15 national

codes in 1953 dealing with various subjects ranging from protection

against fire, lightning, and radiation to plumbing and building

construction. Also promulgated during the same period were

214 Federal Specifications based on the work of technical committees

109
of the Federal Specifications Board in which Bureau staff members

took an active part. Many of these specifications were based on

investigations conducted at the Bureau.

The Fiscal Year 1954 marked a transition from the committee

method to the assigned-agency method for the preparation of Federal Specifications. Under the new plan the General Services

Administration assigns agencies such as the Bureau the responsibility for specifications in their fields of competence. Although the

former interagency technical committees have been abolished,

Bureau staff members have found it helpful to make extensive use

of these committee contacts for coordinating the specifications

being developed with Government and industry.

Projects for the development of new and improved methods of

test were conducted in all of the Bureau's technical divisions.

These methods related to a very wide variety of subjects, including

standard procedures for realizing thermometric fixed points; methods for measuring the characteristics of X-ray tubes; techniques

for evaluating talking books for the blind; general methods for

testing rubber, leather, textile, paper, and plastic products; and

procedures for the application of statistics to sampling, inspection,

testing, and the design of experiments. In 1953, 203 test methods

were published and 53 more were issued in unpublished reports.

During the past 2 years, Bureau services ranged from the provision of an original and effective method for analyzing California

smog to recommended building maintenance procedures that will

result in substantial savings to the Defense Department. Advice

and assistance was rendered to Congressional committees in such

areas as the use of bagasse as newsprint and the preparation of

legislation limiting the distribution and sale of hazardous and highly

flammable fabrics. In the field of mathematics a large computation program involving the determination of temperature rise in certain nuclear reactors was carried out for university and industrial contractors of the Atomic Energy Commission. An electron

tube information and testing service was established to serve the

Bureau, other Government agencies and industry. This service

endeavors to answer questions on the characteristics, performance,

instructions, and availability of electron tubes. Some 800 requests

for advice were received from agencies of the Department of Defense, the Federal Trade Commission, the War Munitions Board,

and the Office of International Trade. Other forms which the

110
Bureau's cooperative activities assume are indicated in the following paragraphs.

Basic Instrumentation. The Office of Basic Instrumentation was

established in 1950 to serve as a research, reference, and consultation center on problems of instrumentation for the laboratories of

government and industry. This program, sponsored by the Office

of Naval Research, the Air Research and Development Command,

the Atomic Energy Commission, and the National Bureau of

Standards, represents an effort to utilize the Bureau's facilities and

experience in the field of physical measurements to advance those

techniques of measurement and control that are fundamental to progress in science and industrial technology.

Improved instruments for measuring basic physical magnitudes

are vital to advances in the physical sciences and their applications. Yet until recently the problem of designing instruments to measure different quantities and for use under different conditions

has been largely left to the individual scientist or engineer working in his particular technical field. However, it is coming to be more and more widely recognized that the problems met with in designing various kinds of scientific instruments have much in common and that the designer of an instrument for a specific purpose can often benefit from the experience gained by others with

instruments built for quite unrelated purposes. The coordinated

planning of research on instrumentation as a science in itself makes

it possible to take advantage of ideas and developments originating in various technical fields that have a bearing on basic instrumentation problems.

The technical work of the Office of Basic Instrumentation has

two principal objectives: (1) Systematic analysis of available

methods and devices in terms of their performance and characteristics, and (2) research on new applications of principles and materials leading to the development of instruments and techniques

not now available. This program is carried out largely through

the assignment of instrumentation research projects to those NBS

laboratories that are best qualified to conduct research in the

particular field of science involved. Examples of such work in- clude the high-resolution micromanometer, barium titanate ac- celerometer, and optical image feedback system, reported upon

elsewhere in this document. The Office of Basic Instrumentation

also maintains a small laboratory staff for investigation of special

111
problems and a group of specialists in instrumentation literature

who are developing a reference and consultation service to aid in

the solution of instrumentation problems.

Weights and Measures. The translation of the national standards of length and mass, and of the derived standards of capacity,

to the channels of industry and trade is a matter of great economic

importance to the producing, manufacturing, processing, and distributing agencies of this country and to all purchasers of commodities and services. Congress has left to the individual states the regulation of commercial weighing and measuring devices.

The National Bureau of Standards serves in a technical advisory

and coordinating capacity largely by virtue of its custody and

maintenance of the national standards and of its related calibration services. To aid in this work the Bureau maintains an Office

of Weights and Measures.

The over-all functions of the Office of Weights and Measures are

to assist in increasing the uniformity of weights and measures

throughout the United States, and to provide means and methods

for making measurements consistent with the national standards

of measurement. Commerce and industry have become increasingly aware of the importance of weights and measures administration. Because of this the demand made upon the Bureau for

assistance and advice in this field has continued to increase during

this period. A definite program of assistance to State and local departments, as well as to business and industry, in the several

phases of weights and measures supervision, was planned and

successfully pursued.

The Bureau's major medium of cooperation with weights and

measures officials, equipment manufacturers, and associated interests is the National Conference on Weights and Measures. The

director of the Bureau is President of the Conference, and the chief

of the Bureau's Office of Weights and Measures is the Secretary of

the Conference. The 38th and 39th meetings of this organization were held in Washington in May 1953 and 1954. In 1953 the

official delegate registration was 430, including 201 weights and

measures officials from 39 States and the District of Columbia,

95 representatives of manufacturers of weighing and measuring

devices, 75 representatives of associations, business, industry, and

railroad, and 53 persons from Federal agencies. The 1954 total

registration was 455, including 211 weights and measures officials

112
representing 39 States and the District of Columbia, 110 representatives of manufacturers of weighing and measuring devices, 78

representatives of associations, business, industry, and railroads,

and 51 persons from Federal agencies.

One of the technical standing committees of the Conference, in which the Bureau has been especially active, is the Committee on

Specifications and Tolerances. This committee is charged with

the responsibility of developing the technical requirements for commercial weighing and measuring devices. After research and

development the requirements are presented to the Conference for adoption and then to the several States for promulgation.

Actions of the 38th National Conference included the following:

Adoption of further specifications and tolerances for commercial

weighing and measuring devices; adoption of the Committee on Methods of Sale of Commodities; recommendations on several

commodities; adoption of the Committee on Legislation's recom- mendations on certain labeling and package-marking requirements.

Included in the actions of the 39th National Conference were: Adoption of modifications to codes of specifications and tolerances

for linear measures, taximeters, liquid-measuring devices, greasemeasuring devices, scales, and the tentative code for farm milk

tanks in final form; adoption of recommendations of Committee on Methods of Sale of Commodities relative to certain commodities

and their packaging; adoption of the Report of the Committee on Weights and Measures Education dealing with the activities and

salaries of weights and measures departments and officials. Radiation Protection. The National Committee on Radiation

Protection, an advisory group made up of experts in various phases

of the radiation field and sponsored by NBS, continued work at a high level of activity. The Committee prepares recommendations

for safe operating and handling procedures for radioactive substances and other sources of radiation for use by industry, the

medical profession, and research workers. The reports of the

Committee are published as NBS Handbooks; four were published

during the 2-year period and three others were in press. Research Associate Program. An important area of cooperation

between the National Bureau of Standards and American industry

is defined by the Bureau's Research Associate Plan. This plan is an arrangement whereby technical, industrial, and commercial

organizations can support work at NBS on projects which are of

113
special interest to them, yet of sufficient general interest to justify use of Government facilities. Research associate projects must not only be of value to all groups concerned in the particular field and to the Federal Government, but must also be important from the standpoint of the

Nation's sum total of technologic knowledge. While the arrangement is preferably made with an association or group representing

a major part of the industry concerned, projects may be undertaken

in cooperation with single companies or individuals when the

results may be expected to be of value to the general public. In

any case, the results become a part of the public domain and are published by the Bureau.

Since the Research Associate Plan was established in 1920, more

than 175 organizations and individuals have supported cooperative

research at the Bureau. At present 16 groups are supporting some

42 research associates at NBS. Included are cooperative projects on pyrometric cones, bone char, sugar research, electrodeposition,

trailer plumbing systems, dental materials, cement, porcelain

enamel, X-ray diffraction methods, masonry mortars reinforced

concrete, fire resistance, and asphalts. Research Associate Plans

active during the 2 years are as follows:

Sponsor

American Dental Association American Electroplaters Society

American Gas Association American Iron and Steel Institute American Society for Testing Materials

American Society of Mechanical Engineers Asphalt Roofing Industry Bureau Bone Char Research, Inc. Calcium Chloride Association Edward Orton Ceramic Foundation

McPherson Foundation for Sanitary

Research

National Research Council

Porcelain Enamel Institute Portland Cement Association Sugar Research Foundation

Joint Committee of Chemical Analysis

X-ray Diffraction Methods (ASTM &

Am. Crystallographic Assoc.)

114

Field of Activity

Dental research Porosity of electrodeposits

Metering gas flow Reinforced concrete Cement reference laboratories Elevator research

Asphalt roofing research Research on adsorbents for sugar refining

Hydration of portland cement

Temperatures of pyrometric cones

Trailer plumbing systems

Masonry research and fire resistance Test methods for porcelain enamels

Cement research Chemistry of calcium phosphates

Standard X-ray diffraction powder

patterns
Many of the projects have been extremely specific and therefore

of relatively short duration. Others, such as that supported by

the American Dental Association, have been directed toward

fundamental research in the field; this project ha,s been active

since 1928. Through application of the methods of the physical

sciences to the study of dental materials, the program has aided

in the solution of many of the problems encountered by the practicing dentist, such as postoperative pain following a filling, accurate

casting of gold inlays and bridgework, and failure of denture resins.

Radio Propagation Service. One of the most important services

of the Bureau is its continuous appraisal and advance warning of

ionospheric disturbances which disrupt radio communication.

During 1953 and 1954 the radio disturbance warning and forecast

services were modified and extended. Concurrent with the move

of the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory to Boulder, Colorado,

the North Atlantic service was consolidated at Ft. Belvoir, Virginia.

Advance forecasts from 1 to 24 days ahead were initiated semiweekly and medium term forecasts for 24 hours ahead were made

once a day. Short term forecasts are now issued regularly every

6 hours and are broadcast on WWV. Many reports of ionospheric,

solar, geomagnetic, and radio wave propagation data were regularly mailed, telephoned, or telegraphed to such government

agencies as the Army, Navy, Air Force, Civil Aeronautics Administration, Federal Communications Commission, Central Intelli- gence Agency, and the Department of State, as well as to commercial users such as Press Wireless, Radio Corporation of America,

Radio Free Europe, and Aeronautical Radio, Inc. Foreign recipi- ents include agencies of the British, Canadian, Australian, and

French governments. The regular exchange of ionospheric data was continued with a large number of countries participating in the worldwide program of ionospheric observations.

At the request of the U. S. Senate Committee on Government

Operations, studies and recommendations were made concerning

the choice of transmitter sites for the International Administration

of the State Department. A member of the staff participated in a polar flight with the Air Weather Squadron to determine proper

frequency usage to ensure reliable communications in that region.

Advice was given to the U. S. Naval Research Laboratory on the

monitoring for position fixes of radiosonde balloons which are al- lowed to travel with the winds at heights of 30,000 feet for dis115
tances up to 8,000 miles. Training in interpretation of ionospheric

records was given to U. S. communication personnel, both military

and civilian, as well as to foreign government personnel. Information was given to the U. S. Air Force on probable range of maximum

usable frequencies for sky-wave transmission during a sunspot

cycle for use in antenna design, and to the Federal Communications Commission on methods of predicting sunspot numbers.

Daily-hourly tabulations of ionospheric data from Puerto Rico were furnished to the U. S. Army Signal Corps for use in a study

of possible correlation between the state of the ionosphere and the

development of hurricanes in the Caribbean.

At the request of the Department of Defense, NBS staff members

joined a special group of radio propagation experts in an investigation of unusual reports of extended range tropospheric propagation

in mountainous regions. It was found that under certain conditions mountain obstacles directly in the path of VHF transmissions

could greatly enhance the received signal over that which would

have been obtained if the mountain obstacles were not present.

A theoretical explanation for this enhancement was advanced and

plans were made to take advantage of this effect in future VHF

point-to-point applications. Advice was also furnished the Federal

Communications Commission Radio Propagation Advisory Committee, relative to appropriate means for predicting the transmission loss to be expected on transmission paths typical of a television

broadcast service.

International. Under authority of the Department of Commerce

and several educational exchange programs of the Department of

State, such as the Mutual Security Act of 1951, Foreign Economic

Assistance Act (Smith- Mundt Act), the Fulbright Act, and others,

the Bureau conducts visitor and trainee programs which permit

foreign scientists and technicians to work, study, and visit at the

Bureau. These activities also permit the National Bureau of

Standards to keep more closely in touch with scientific developments in other countries. Services to foreign countries take the

form of tests, calibrations, and exchange of standards and publications. An example of an advisory service rendered to a foreign

country is shown by the service given to Costa Rica under the

Point IV program. A staff member has been conducting a survey

to determine the "standards'' requirements of Costa Rica and to make recommendations for the establishment of a standards

116
research agency. This service will be supplemented by a program

for training personnel in the United States for work in such an

institution. Plans are also being drawn for assistance to Brazil in establishing a modern paints, varnishes, and lacquers laboratory.

Bureau members attended meetings of the following organizations: International Electrochemical Commission, International

Civil Aviation Organization, International Committee on Optics,

International Commission on Illumination, International Astronomical Union, International Scientific Radio Union, International

Commission on Radiological Protection, International Union of

Pure and Applied Chemistry, International Union on Pure and

Applied Physics, International Committee for Uniform Methods of

Sugar Analysis, International Congress for Applied Mechanics,

International Association of Dental Research, and International

Organization for Standardization. At many of the meetings

Bureau members presided over sessions and served as chairmen of

the U. S. delegation or as officers of the organization. For example

the International Association for Dental Research, composed of

members from 25 countries, is the leading technical organization

in the field of dental research. Its presidency is held by a member

of the NBS Dental Research Associate Group sponsored by the

American Dental Association. Through representation in this

organization the dental research group at the National Bureau of

Standards receives and gives valuable assistance to the advancement of organized dental research in the United States as well as

assisting in the dissemination of information to advance the dental

profession's service to the public.

During 1953, the International Association and the Research

Council of the American Dental Association worked out a program

for making better use of the technical knowledge of manufacturers,

schools, and NBS in dental materials specifications. This is the

first technical committee on dental materials that includes the

three groups: dental profession, Government agencies, and manufacturers. Close liaison between all the elements in the dental

field has thus been established so that the consumers and producers can assist each other in standardizing procedures for evaluating

the materials used by both civilian and Federal dentists. This

program, typified by the work already begun on dental amalgam

and chrome-cobalt casting alloys, should be of great value to both

civil and military dental service.

117
During the 2 years extensive investigations were carried out in collaboration with the standardizing laboratories of the United

Kingdom and Canada with a view to establishing international

standards of the radioactive nuclides in general use in medicine

and research. Only by such means can the clinical and experimental results obtained in one country be compared with those

obtained elsewhere. As part of this program the Bureau distributed samples of radioactive carbon-14, phosphorus-32, cobalt60, and iodine-131 to the National Physical Laboratory and to Atomic Energy of Canada, Limited. The National Physical

Laboratory, on its part, distributed to the National Bureau of

Standards and Atomic Energy of Canada, Limited, samples of

radioactive strontium-90 in equilibrium with its radioactive

daughter product yttrium-90 and of gold-198. The latter is very

short-lived, decaying to half its intensity in only 2.7 days, so that

the most precise planning had to be undertaken to assure the

success of the intercomparison. The results obtained in these

international comparisons have been so satisfactory that international standards have already been proposed of a number of the

radioactive nuclides. The question of establishing secondary means of standardization, to allow the shorter-lived standards to be preserved, is now under discussion.

Intercomparisons were carried out during 1954 between the

British and United States primary radium standards and the

Canadian National radium standard at the National Physical

Laboratory in Teddington, England, the National Research

Council of Canada laboratory in Ottawa, and the National Bureau

of Standards. During the past year the Bureau actively participated in international conferences dealing with radiation protection and radiation standards. At meetings of the International

Commissions of Radiological Units and Radiological Protection,

in Copenhagen, a new unit of dosage was adopted for use with

high-energy radiations. International agreement was also reached on a much wider scale than ever before in matters of protection

from radiation. Recommendations developed by the National

Committee on Radiation Protection, which is sponsored by the

Bureau, formed the principal basis of the new international recommendations. A permanent organization was established for future

intercomparison of standards of radiation dosage and protection.

118
Also, a primary X-ray standard ionization chamber of the National Bureau of Standards was compared with the National

Physical Laboratory standard. As a result, there is now good

agreement between these X-ray standards, on which therapeutic

j use of X-rays depends.

5. Appendices

5.1. Organization of the National Bureau of Standards * Allen V. Astin, Director Associate Director for Chemistry

Wallace R. Brode

Associate Director for Physics

Robert D. Huntoon

Associate Director for Testing

A. T. McPherson

Associate Director for Administration

Nicholas E. Golovin

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DIVISIONS AND SECTIONS

ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS

F. B. Silsbee, Chief Resistance and Reactance —

Electron Tubes —

Electrical Instruments -

Magnetic Measurements —

Process Technology —

Engineering Electronics —

Electronic Instrumentation

Electrochemistry —

J. L. Thomas

C. P. Marsden, Jr.

F. M. Defandorf

R. L. Sanford

L. P. TUCKERMAN

P. J. Selgin

C. Stansbury

W. J. Hamer

OPTICS AND METROLOGY

I. C. Gardner, Chief Photometry and Colorimetry

Optical Instruments Photographic Technology

Length

Engineering Metrology

K. S. Gibson

F. E. Washer

R. Davis

L. V. Judson

I. H. Fullmer

As of October 1954

119
HEAT AND POWER

F. G. Brickwedde, Chief Temperature Measurements

Thermodynamics —

Cryogenic Physics —

Engines and Lubrication —

Engine Fuels —

F. G. Brickwedde

C. W. Beckett

R. P. Hudson {actg.)

J. F. Swindells {actg.) F. L. Howard

ATOMIC AND RADIATION PHYSICS

L. S. Taylor, Chief Atomic Physics Laboratory

Spectroscopy —

Radiometry —

Mass Spectrometry —

Solid State Physics —

Electron Physics —

Atomic Physics —

Radiation Physics Laboratory

Nuclear Physics —

Radioactivity —

X-rays —

Betatron —

Nucleonic Instrumentation —

Radiological Equipment —

Radiation Instruments Branch,

Atomic Energy Commission —

W. F. Meggers

E. K. Plyler

F. L. MOHLER

R. G. Breckenridge

L. L. Marton

L. M. Branscomb

H. O. Wyckoff

U. Fano

W. B. Mann

H. O. Wyckoff

H. W. Koch

L. COSTRELL

S. W. Smith

R. L. BUTENHOFF

CHEMISTRY

E. Wichers, Chief Organic Coatings —

Surface Chemistry —

Organic Chemistry —

Analytical Chemistry

Inorganic Chemistry —

Electrodeposition —

Gas Chemistry —

Physical Chemistry —

Thermochemistry —

Spectrochemistry —

Pure Substances —

P. T. Howard

J. I. Hoffman

W. H. Smith H. A. Bright

R. Gilchrist Brenner

R. Weaver

R. Smith

J. Prosen

B. F. SCRIBNER

C. P. Saylor

120
MECHANICS

W. Ramberg, Chief Sound —

Mechanical Instruments —

Fluid Mechanics —

Engineering Mechanics —

Mass and Scale —

Capacity, Density and Fluid Meters

Combustion Controls —

R. K. Cook

E. C. Lloyd

G. B. Schubauer

B. L. Wilson

D. R. Tate

H. S. Bean

E. F. Fiock

ORGANIC AND FIBROUS MATERIALS

G. M. Kline, Chief Rubber

Textiles Paper

Leather

Testing and SpecificationsPolymer Structure Organic Plastics Dental Research

L. A. Wood

W. D. Appel

R. B. Hobbs

E. L. Wallace

R. D. Stiehler

N. Bekkedahl

F. W. Reinhart

W. T. Sweeney

METALLURGY

J. G. Thompson, Chief Thermal Metallurgy — T. G. Digges

Chemical Metallurgy — L. L. Wyman

Mechanical Metallurgy— J. A. Bennett

Corrosion — G. A. Ellinger

MINERAL PRODUCTS

I. C. Schoonover, Chief

Porcelain and Pottery — R. F. Geller

Glass — C. H. Hahner

Refractories — R. A. Heindl

Enameled Metals — W. N. Harrison

Concreting Materials — R. L. Blaine

Constitution and Microstructure— H. F. McMurdie
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

D. E. Parsons, Chief

Structural Engineering

Fire Protection Heating and Air Conditioning - Floor, Roof, and Wall CoveringsCodes and Specifications

D. E. Parsons

A. F. Robertson

R. S. Dill H. R. Snoke

G. N. Thompson

APPLIED MATHEMATICS

F. L. Alt, Acting Chief Numerical Analysis — J. Todd

Computation — M. Abramowitz (actg.) Statistical Engineering— C. Eisenhart

Mathematical Physics — E. W. Cannon

DATA PROCESSING SYSTEMS

S. N. Alexander, Chief Components and Techniques

Digital Circuitry and Devices

Digital Systems

Analog Systems

A. W. Holt

R. D. Elbourn

A. L. Liener

H. K. Skramstad (actg.)

OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS—

Wallace R. Brode, Chief

OFFICE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES—

W. S. Bussey, Chief

OFFICE OF BASIC INSTRUMENTATION—

W. A. Wildhack, Chief

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS

Accounting —

Personnel —

Administrative Services —

Shops —

Supply —

Management Planning Staff"

Budget —

Internal Audit Staff —

Plant —

G. D. HORSBURGH

G. R. Porter

H. P. Dalzell

F. P. Brown

C. B. Kipps (actg.) Ivan Asay

W. W. Bolton, Jr. P. McClenon (actg.) C. A. DlEMAN
BOULDER LABORATORIES

F. W. Brown, Director CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING

R. B. Scott, Chief Cryogenic Equipment— B. W. Birmingham {actg.)

Cryogenic Processes — P. C. Vander Arend {actg.)

Properties of Materials— M. M. Reynolds {actg.)

Gas Liquefaction — V. S. Johnson {actg.)

RADIO PROPAGATION PHYSICS

R. J. Slutz, Chief Upper Atmosphere Research — T. N. Gautier {actg.)

Ionospheric Research — R. Bateman

Regular Propagation Services— W. B. Chadwick

RADIO PROPAGATION ENGINEERING

K. A. Norton, Chief Frequency Utilization Research — K. A. Norton {actg.)

Tropospheric Propagation Research— J. W. Herbstreit

RADIO STANDARDS

H. A. Thomas, Chief High Frequency Standards Branch— W. D. George

Microwave Standards Branch — H. Lyons

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION— S. W. J. Welch

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

FIELD ESTABLISHMENTS

National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colo. Cheyenne Mt. Field Station, Colorado Springs, Colo. Standard Frequency Transmitter WWV, Beltsville, Md.

Radio Field Station, Ft. Belvoir, Va. Radio Propagation Field Station, Sterling, Va. Radio Propagation Field Stations Anchorage, Alaska Point Barrow, Alaska

Guam Puerto Rico

Narsarssuak, Greenland Puuene Maui, T. H. Panama Canal Zone Lamp Inspector, Brookline 46, Mass. Master Railway Track Scale Depot, Clearing, 111. Materials Testing Laboratories

Allentown, Pa. San Francisco, Calif. Denver, Colo. Seattle, Wash.

321720—54 9 123
5.2 Fiscal Data on NBS Program

PROGRAM AND SOURCE OF FINANCING

Supported by NBS Appropriations

Operating Programs:

Research and Testing Radio Propagation and Standards Operation and Administration . . .

Total

.

Construction and Facilities Programs:

Operation and Administration

Construction of Laboratories Emergency Facilities, Radiation Physics Laboratory

Total

Total, NBS Appropriations. Supported by Other Agencies

Department of Defense and AEC:

Ordnance & Missile Development Programs

Other Programs

Total

Other Agencies

Total, Other Agencies

.

Total Program

Obligations Incurred

Fiscal Year 1953 Fiscal Year 1954

$3,954,847

2,677,267

776,000

7,408,114

404,444

214,403

130,798

749,645

8,157,759

24,518,053

14,325,526

38,843,579

1,240,700

40,084,279

$2,992,239

1,941,084 750,000

5,683,323

238,554

568,841

807,395

6,490,718

3,328,121

14,396,391

17,724,512

937,670

18,662,182

25,152,900

Programs transferred to the Department of Defense, September 27, 1953.

124
5.3. Advisory Committees

STATUTORY VISITING COMMITTEE

[Reports annually to Secretary of Commerce on NBS activities (Dates indicate expiration of appointment.)] Dr. Detlev W. Bronk, President, National Academy of Sciences (1955)

Professor J. H. Van Vleck, Dean, Division of Applied Science, Harvard

University (1956) Dr. M. J. Kelly, President, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. (1957) Dr. Clyde E. Williams, President, Battelle Memorial Institute (1958) Dr. Crawford H. Greenewalt, President, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.

(1959)

[Members whose terms expired during reporting period.] Dr. Robert F. Mehl, Head, Metals Research Laboratory, Carnegie Institute of Technology (1953) Dr. Donald H. Menzel, Director, Harvard Observatory (1954)

AD HOC COMMITTEE FOR THE EVALUATION OF NATIONAL BUREAU

OF STANDARDS

[Appointed at request of Secretary of Commerce from members of nine scientific and technical

societies.] Dr. Mervin J. Kelly of Bell Telephone Laboratories, Chairman of the committee,

representing the National Academy of Sciences Dr. Lee A. DuBridge of California Institute of Technology, representing the American Institute of Physics Dr. Kenneth S. Pitzer of the University of California, representing the American Chemical Society Dr. William L. Everitt of the University of Illinois, representing the Institute of Radio Engineers Dr. James W. Parker of The Detroit Edison Company, representing the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Dr. Clyde E. Williams of Battelle Memorial Institute, representing the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers Dr. Abel Wolman of Johns Hopkins University, representing the American

Society of Civil Engineers Dr. Guy Suits of the General Electric Company, representing the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers Dr. J. Barkley Rosser of Cornell University, representing the Policy Committee for Mathematics

Committee's Major General Conclusions

[Page 20 of committee report]

1. The National Bureau of Standards is of vital importance to national

strength2. It is an organization with a splendid record and tradition, internationally

recognized and respected.

3. It is, in general, staffed with professional men of competence, integrity and

loyalty to the Bureau's functions and objectives.

125
4. With the increasing range and depth of technology, the need for the services of the National Bureau of Standards becomes even more important and

its functions more complex. The accurate determination of physical

constants, the properties of materials, standards and standard practices,

and testing and evaluation procedures are all essential services for our

industrial society.

5. Since the close of the war the technology of the nation has shot rapidly forward. The Bureau's basic programs expanded until 1950 but at a rate beneath that justified by the needs. Since 1950 the decrease in basic programs must be considered as tragic. The

ground lost since 1950 should be regained in the next two fiscal years and the programs then expanded as detailed studies by the Director and his advisory committees find necessary.

6. Scientific and technical services to other agencies of Government are important responsibilities of the Bureau. In general, the Bureau

has discharged these responsibilities well.

7. The Department of Defense and the Atomic Energy Commission have

made broad and significant use of the Bureau. Their use of the Bureau in areas other than development of weapons is of value to the Bureau in its basic programs and should be encouraged.

8. The volume of weaponry development work has become large in comparison with all other activities of the Bureau. Its relative size and its effects on the other Bureau programs make its transfer from

the Bureau desirable.

9. Other agencies of the Government do not make as large use of the

services of the Bureau as might well be expected. The Committee

believes that an increase in the use of the Bureau by other agencies

of Government should be encouraged.

10. If the recommendations of the Committee are followed, the Bureau

should be in a position to perform its authorized functions in bal- ance at the minimum level for the nation's needs within a four -vear period.

AD HOC COMMITTEE ON BATTERY ADDITIVES OF THE NATIONAL

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

[Appointed to evaluate NBS Program in battery additive testing.] Zay Jeffries, Chairman, Vice President (retired), General Electric Company

Elmer K. Bolton, Director of Chemical Department (retired), E. I. du Pont de

Nemours and Co. William G. Cochran, Professor of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins University

J. P. Fugassi, Professor of Physical Chemistry, Carnegie Institute of Technology

John G. Kirkwood, Professor of Chemistry, Yale University

Victor K. LaMer, Professor of Chemistry, Columbia University

Lewis G. Longsworth, Member, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research

Joseph E. Mayer, Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Chicago

Fred E. Terman, Dean, School of Engineering, Stanford University

Samuel S. Wilks, Professor of Mathematical Statistics, Princeton University

126
NBS TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEES

[Designated by leading scientific and technical societies to advise NBS Director in specific technical

areas.] AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS

Dr. C. G. Suits, General Electric Company

Dean F. E. Terman, Stanford University Dr. E. W. Engstrom, Radio Corporation of America

Mr. Robert C. Sprague, Sprague Electric Company

Dr. Ralph Bowx, Bell Telephone Laboratories Dr. J. A. Hutcheson, Westinghouse Electric Corporation

INSTITUTE OF RADIO ENGINEERS

Dr. A. W. Straiton, University of Texas Dean F. E. Terman, Stanford University

Professor Hexry G. Booker, Cornell University

Mr. Harold O. Peterson, Radio Corporation of America

Mr. Stuart L. Bailey, Jansky & Bailey

Dean William L. Everett, University of Illinois AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

Professor F. Seitz, University of Illinois Professor J. W. Beams, University of Virginia

Professor D. M. Dennison, University of Michigan Dr. E. M. Purcell, Harvard University

Professor J. A. Bearden, Johns Hopkins University Dr. M. Deutsch, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Dr. Hale Sabine, Celotex Corporation

Professor R. B. Lindsay, Brown University

Dean R. A. Sawyer, University of Michigan

POLICY COMMITTEE FOR MATHEMATICS

Dean Mixa Rees, Hunter College

Professor Philip M. Morse, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Dr. Edward Teller, University of California Professor David Blackwell, Howard University

Professor A. H. Taub, University of Illinois Professor Mark Kac, Cornell University

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGICAL

ENGINEERS

Dr. Walter A. Deax, Aluminum Company of America

Mr. Earle E. Schumacher, Bell Telephone Laboratories Dr. Maxwell Gexsamer, Columbia University

Mr. Clarence E. Sims, Battelle Memorial Institute Dr. E. C. Smith, Republic Steel Corporation Dr. Cyril S. Smith, University of Chicago

127
AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY

Professor N. Howell Furman, Princeton University

Professor C. S. Marvel, University of Illinois Dr. Milton Harris, Harris Research Laboratories Dr. C. F. Rassweiler, Johns Manville Corporation Dr. J. R. Ruhoff, Mallinckrodt Chemical Works

Dr. Norman A. Shepard, American Cyanamid Company

AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY

Mr. Ray Birch, Director of Research, Harbison-Walker Refractories Company

Dr. K. C. Lyon, Technical Manager, Indiana Glass Company

Mr. E. P. McNamara, Cambridge Tile Company

Dean Elburt Osborn, Pennsylvania State University

Mr. Wayne Deringer, A. O. Smith Corporation Dr. Allan Bates, Portland Cement Association

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

Mr. James W

t

. Parker, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Professor Dana Young, Yale University

Professor S. R. Beitler, Ohio State University

Professor C. Harold Berry, Harvard University

Professor A. P. Colburn, University of Delaware

Mr. Paul V. Miller, Taft Pierce Manufacturing Company

NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

John P. McBride, Director of Standards and Necessities of Life, Boston, Mass. W. M. Harks, Bowser Inc. Burns H. Dreese, Hobart Manufacturing Company

Alvin V. Hokanson, National Association of Retail Grocers Charles M. Fuller, Sealer of Weights and Measures, Los Angeles, California Harry J. Kennedy, Continental Oil Company

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS

Dr. G. H. Hickox, National Science Foundation Dr. A. T. Ippen, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Mr. Raymond C. Reese, Toledo, Ohio

128
5.4. Awards and Honors

Recognition of the Bureau's contributions to science and

technology often takes the form of awards and honors from aca- demic, industrial, and professional groups. The following list reflects such recognition bestowed on Bureau staff members during

the fiscal years 1953 and 1954. RECIPIENT

Appel, William D.

Astin, Dr. A. V. Bailey, E. C. Bailey, W. H. Bekkedahl, Dr. N. P. Bennett, J. A. Blum, Dr. William

(retired)

HONOR

Honorary Master of Science Honorary Professorship Olney Medal

Exceptional Service Award

Honorary Doctor of Science Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service x-\ward Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Elliott Cresson Medal

A. W. Hothersall Medal

Bright, H. A. Brode, Dr. W. R. Broida, Dr. H. P. Campbell, W. R. Carwile, N. L. Clabaugh, W. S. Coblentz, Dr. W. W.

(retired). Connor, Mary P. Cordero, Fidel

Craig, D. N.

Craig, N. C. Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory. Denison, Dr. I. A. Douglas, C. A. Dunmore, F. W. (retired) Geller, R. F. Genensky, S. M.

Gilford, S. R. Goldberg, Dr. H.

Haas, P. H.

Hartman, C. C. Henry, R. L. Hermach, F. L. HOATS, EARLE D. Holt, A. W.

Hubbard, Dr. D. Hughes, L. L. Humphreys, C. J. Insley, Dr. H. Kalmus, H. P. Kanagy, Dr. J. R.

Honorary Doctor of Science Meritorious Service Award

Election to Membership Awarded Fellowship Award in the Engineering Sciences

First Prize in Eighth Photographic

Exhibit

Meritorious Service Award

Second Annual Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Awarded Fellowship Exceptional Service Award

1954 Willis Rodney Whitney

Award.

Meritorious Service Award

Annual Pioneer Award

Honorary Membership Awarded Fellowship Meritorious Service Award

Exceptional Service Award

Excellence in Mechanical Design

for r-f Permeameter.

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Arthur S. Flemming Award

Award in the Engineering Sciences Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Exceptional Service Award

Exceptional Service Award

Alsop Award

Meritorious Service Award

SOURCE

Lowell Textile Institute American Association of Textile Chemists & Colorists U. S. Department of Commerce

Lehigh University U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

Franklin Institute Institute of Metal Finishing (London, England)

University of Pennsylvania U. S. Department of Commerce

National Academy of Sciences John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Wa shington Academy of

Sciences American Society for Testing

Materials U. S. Department of Commerce

Society for Applied Spectros- copy. U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

National Science Foundation

U. S. Department of Commerce

National Association of Corrosion Engineers. U. S. Department of Commerce

National Conference on Air- borne Electronics. Keramos (honorary fraternity) Brown University U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

Editors, DESIGN NEWS

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

Junior Chamber of Commerce

Washington Academy of Sciences U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commecre

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

American Leather Chemist Assn. U. S. Department of Commerce

129
5.4. Awards and Honors (Continued)

RECIPIENT HONOR SOURCE

Kingsbury, D. E. Kline, Dr. G. M.

Lamb, Dr. V. A. Levedahl, W. J. Lyons, Dr. H. Maxwell, Dr. E. McLane, Dr. C. K. Meggers, Dr. W. F. Miscampbell, J. Modular Design of Electronic Equipment (group award) Mong, L. E. National Bureau of Standards

Newman, Dr. S. B. Parker, L. L. Parsons, D. E. Pellam, Dr. J. R.

Piper, W. M.

Projector, T. H. Rabinow, J. Reid, M. A. Roeser, W. F. Rosenberg, S. J. Scal, R. K-F. SCHRODT, J. P. Shafer, M. R. Sommer, H.

Souder, Dr. W.

Sparks, C. M.

Stewart, C. L. Tallerico, F. Taylor, L. S. Tener, R. F. Thompson, G. N. Wagman, D. D. Wall, Dr. L. A. Watstein, D. Weaver, E. R. Weir, C. E.

Meritorious Service Award

Award of Merit

Exceptional Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Awarded Fellowship Award in the Physical Sciences Meritorious Service Award

Selection as a Fellow

Elliott Cresson Medal

Election to Membership

Meritorious Service Award

Exceptional Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Blue Ribbon Award for Exhibit Depicting Services to Science and Industry (Jointly Shared by

NBS & Presentation, Inc.) Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award Award of Merit Arthur S. Flemming Award

Award in the Physical Sciences Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Excellence in Mechanical Design

for Searchlight Focusing Device

Excellence in Mechanical Design

for Conveyor Belt Sorter Awarded Fellowship Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious. Service Award

Citation and Medal

Special Citation Meritorious Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Henry Harrington Janeway Award

Meritorious Service Award

Exceptional Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

Fellowship for Study in Laboratoire de Chimie Physique, Paris Wason Medal

Exceptional Service Award

Meritorious Service Award

U. S. Department of Commerce

American Society for Testing

Materials U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

National Science Foundation Washington Academy of

Sciences U. S. Department of Commerce

John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation , Franklin Institute National Academy of Sciences U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

Advertising Club of Washington

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

American Society for Testing

Materials Junior Chamber of Commerce

Washington Academy of

Sciences U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

Editors, DESIGN NEH S

Editors, DESIGN NEWS

National Science Foundation Sigma Tau (honorary engineering fraternity) U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

Indiana University Goucher College U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

American Radium Society U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

Fulbright Act American Concrete Institute U. S. Department of Commerce

U. S. Department of Commerce

130
5.5. Memorandum of Understanding

Memorandum of Understanding Between the General Services Administration and the National Bureau of Standards With Regard to Specifications and

Testing The General Services Administration in accordance with its responsibilities

under Public Law 152, 81st Congress, as amended, Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, and its Administrative Order No. 113, dated December 14, 1951, titled, "Payment of Fees forTesting Articles and Commodities,"

and the National Bureau of Standards in accordance with its responsibilities

under its basic law as amended in Public Law 619, 81st Congress, mutually agree

to the following assignment of responsibilities for specifications and testing:

1. Specifications. The General Services Administration will endeavor to assign to the National Bureau of Standards specification projects for general

methods of test and for end products which come within the scope of the technical competence and interest of the Bureau. All consultative and advisory services and those laboratory studies having to do with the development of specifications

for general methods of test will be financed by the National Bureau of Standards

within the limitations of funds available for this purpose. The laboratory investigations or tests in connection with development of specifications for commodities

will be financed by the General Services Administration either from appropriated

funds or through funds from other sources within the limitation of such available

funds. The National Bureau of Standards will undertake to compare the quality of products procured under specifications in which it is interested with the quality

of products on the open market, using for this purpose its own test results, test results made available by the General Services Administration, and pertinent information from other sources. The General Services Administration will obtain technical advice and assistance on an individual agency or Ad Hoc arrangement for group meetings to reconcile technical differences when the nature and scope of the problem necessitates such

consultation.

2. Testing. When qualification tests are called for by a specification or are required by Federal Supply contracts in connection with procurement under a specification prepared by the National Bureau of Standards, the General Services Administration will designate the Bureau as the laboratory to make the tests. The Bureau will be reimbursed for the cost of such testing by the General Services Administration either from appropriated funds or from charges to the suppliers of the products concerned. The National Bureau of Standards will undertake to perform acceptance test- ing of samples submitted to it by the Regional Offices of the General Services Administration in accordance with prearranged agreements. The General Services Administration will make every reasonable effort to send to the Bureau for acceptance testing a portion of the samples of those products for which the specifications have been assigned to the Bureau. The Bureau will be reimbursed for the cost of such testing by the General Services Administration. The National Bureau of Standards will undertake to conduct a program of

interlaboratory testing to aid in maintaining a uniform high quality of acceptance

testing on the part ot all laboratories concerned with Government procurement

that are willing to participate. The Bureau will establish any reference samples

that may be required in this program, and will finance the program within the

limitations of funds available for the purpose.

131
3. Effectuation of Agreement. In order to effectuate the policy set forth

in this document, the Federal Supply Service, GSA, and the National Bureau of Standards will from time to time as conditions and operations warrant develop

supplemental arrangements and procedures involved in establishing the detailed

responsibilities and functions covering the assignment of Federal and Interim

Federal Specifications for methods of test and end products. Further arrange- ments and procedures may be made to achieve and maintain effective and efficient materials acceptance testing operations. Such supplemental understandings or arrangements will be consistent with the principles stated herein. Clifton E. Mack,

Commissioner, Federal Supply Service. January 29, 1953. A. V. Astin,

Director* National Bureau of Standards. January 5, 1953.

5.6. Publications

Publications in the Bureau's Series Journal of Research. The Journal, issued monthly, presents research papers

in various fields of physics, mathematics, chemistry, metallurgy, and the engineering sciences. (Annual subscription: domestic, $4.00; foreign, $5.25.) Research

Papers published from July 1952 to June 1954, inclusive: Volume 49, July-December 1952

2336. Fine structure in some infrared bands of methylene halides. Earle K.

Plyler and W. S. Benedict.

2337. Overlapping dissociation constants of 4,4

/ -diaminobenzophenone from

spectral-absorbency measurements. Elizabeth E. Sager and Iris J. Siewers. 2338. Calibrating wavelengths in the region from 0.6 to 2.6 microns. Nicolo

Acquista and Earle K. Plyler. 2339. Long-tube method for field determination of sound-absorption coefficients. Earle Jones, Seymour Edelman, and Albert London.

2340. Refractive uniformity of a borosilicate glass after different annealing

treatments. Leroy W. Tilton, Fred W. Rosberry, and Florence T. Badger.

2341. Solution of systems of linear equations by minimized iterations. Cornelius Lanczos.

2342. Heats of hydration and possolan content of portland-possolan cements. Edwin S. Newman and Lansing S. Wells. 2343. Infrared properties of cesium bromide prisms. Earle K. Plyler and

Nicolo Acquista.

2344. Titanium dioxide rectifiers. R. G. Breckenridge and W. R. Hosier. 2345. Infrared spectra of noble gases (12000 to 19000 A). Curtis J. Humphreys

and Henry J. Kotkowski.

2346. A viscometric study of the micelles of sodium dodecyl sulfate in dilute

solution. Lawrence M. Kushner, Blanton C. Duncan, and James L. Hoffman.

132
2347. Absorption spectrum of water vapor between 4.5 and 13 microns. W. S. Benedict, H. H. Claassen, and J. H. Shaw.

2348. On calculating the zeros of polynomials by the method of Lucas. Herbert

E. Salzer. 2349. Effect of moisture on compressibility of natural high polymers. C. E. Weir.

2350. Thermodynamics of some simple sulfur-containing molecules. William H. Evans and Donald D. Wagman.

2351. A correlation of pollarized light extinctions with crystal orientation in 70 nickel-30 copper alloy. H. C. Vacher.

2352. Magnesium-rich side of the magnesium-zirconium constitution diagram.

J. H. Schaum and H. C. Burnett.

2353. A study of the diphenylamine test for aliphatic nitrocompounds. Kivi Grebber and J. V. Karabinos.

2354. Influence of prior strain history on the tensile properties and structures

of high-purity copper. William D. Jenkins and Thomas G. Digges.

2355. A description of the arc and spark spectra of rhenium. William F. Meggers.

2356. Hydraulic resistance effect upon the dam-break functions. Robert F.

Dressier. 2357. Ultraviolet radiant energy from the sun observed at 11,190 feet. Ralph

Stair. 2358. Mass spectra of the tetramethyl compounds of carbon, silicon, germanium,

tin, and lead. Vernon H. Dibeler. 2359. Determination of planeness and bending of optical flats. Walter B. Emerson.

2360. Index of refraction of magnesium oxide. Robert E. Stephens and Irving H. Malitson.

2361. Refractivity of potassium bromide for visible wavelengths. Robert J. Spindler and William S. Rodney.

2362. On approximate solutions of systems of linear inequalities. Alan J. Hoffman.

2363. Deuterium and hydrogen electrode characteristics of lithia-silica glasses.

Donald Hubbard and Given W. Cleek.

2364. Calorimetric properties of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) from 0° to 365°. George T. Furukawa, Robert E. McCoskey, and Gerard J. King.

2365. Analytical and experimental studies with idealized gas turbine combustors.

Fillmer W. Ruegg and Howard J. Klug.

2366. Corrosion of galvanized steel in soils. Irving A. Denison and Melvin

Romanoff.

2367. Corrosion of low-alloy irons and steels in soils. Irving A. Denison and

Melvin Romanoff.

2368. Loading of quartz oscillator plates. Leland T. Sogn and Philip A. Simpson.

2369. Effects of moderate biaxial stretch-forming on tensile and crazing properties of acrylic plastic glazing. B. M. Axilrod, M. A. Sherman, V. Cohen, and

I. Wolock.

2370. Mass spectra of fluorocarbons. Fred L. Mohler, Vernon H. Dibeler, and

R. M. Reese.

2371. A method of computing exact inverses of matrices with integer coefficients.

J. Barkley Rosser.

2372. Effect of water on the induction period of the polymerization of methyl

methacrylate. I. C. Schoonover, G. M. Brauer, and W. T. Sweeney.

2373. Transmittancy of commercial sugar liquors: dependence on concentration

of total solids. V. R. Deitz, N. L. Pennington, and H. L. Hoffman, Jr.

133
2374. Extension of the first spectrum of rhodium (Rh I). Robert J. Murphy.

2375. Heat generation in the setting of magnesium oxychloride cements. Edwin

S. Newman, John B. Gilfrich, and Lansing S. Wells. 2376. Stiffness of paper. F. T. Carson and Vernon Worthington.

2377. A convenient small osmometer. G. A. Hanks and S. G. Weissberg.

2378. Low even configurations of the first spectrum of molybdenum (Mo I). Richard E. Trees and Marion M. Harvey.

2379. Methods of conjugate gradients for solving linear systems. Magnus R. Hestenes and Eduard Stiefel. Volume 50, January-June 1953

2380. The sixth series in the spectrum of atomic hydrogen. Curtis J. Humphreys.

2381. National Bureau of Standards mobile low-level sounding system. P. D.

Lowell, W. Hakkarinen, and D. L. Randall.

2382. A simple calculation of dielectric loss from dielectric dispersion for polar

polymers. Paul Ehrlich. 2383. Struve function of order three-halves. 2384. Spectral energy distribution of the International Commission on Illumination light sources A, B, and C. Raymond Davis, Kasson S. Gibson, and Geraldine Walker Haupt.

2385. The constants in the equation for atmospheric refractive index at radio

frequencies. Ernest K. Smith, Jr., and Stanley Weintraub.

2386. Tables of complete elliptic integrals. J. M. Hammersley.

2387. Assembled polygon for the calibration of angle blocks. Clyde E. Haven

and Arthur G. Strang.

2388. On the spectrum of energy in turbulent shear flow. C. M. Tchen.

2389. Beryllium-uranium system. R. W. Buzzard.

2390. Pulsed light system for multiple-cell ultracentrifuge rotor. M. Wales, P. G. Sulzer, and L. C. Williams.

2391. Damping of elastically supported element in a vacuum tube. S. Levy, E. V. Hobbs, W. D. Kroll, and L. Mordfin.

2392. Calorimetric determination of the half-life of polonium. D. C. Ginnings,

Anne F. Ball, and D. T. Vier. 2393. Determination of molecular weights of dextrans by means of alkaline copper

reagents. H. S. Isbell, C. F. Snyder, N. B. Holt, and M. R. Dryden.

2394. An interferometer procedure applied to the study of the chemical durability of silicates, enamels, and metals. Robert G. Pike and Donald Hubbard.

2395. Transitions and phases of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon). Charles E. Weir.

2396. Hydrodynamic effects of gales on Lake Erie. Garbis H. Keulegan.

2397. Twisted square plate method and other methods for determining the shear

stress-strain relation of flat sheet. Walter Ramberg and James A. Miller. 2398. Stress-strain relation in shear from twisting test of annulus. Walter

Ramberg and James A. Miller. 2399. An intersystem transition in the first spectrum of beryllium. W. R. Bozman,

C. H. Corliss, W. F. Meggers, and R. E. Trees. 2400. Synthesis of lactose-l-C14 and lactobionic-l-C14 delta lactone from

3-/3-D-galactopyranosyl-a:-D-arabinose. Harriet L. Frush and Horace S. Isbell. 2401. Surface areas of cottons and modified cottons before and after swelling as determined by nitrogen sorption. Florence H. Forziati, Robert M. Brownell,

and Charles M. Hunt.

134
2402. Measurement of multimegohm resistors. Arnold H. Scott. 2403. Temperature dependence of compression of natural rubber-sulfur vulcanizated of high-sulfur content. Charles E. Weir.

2404. On a recursion formula and on some tauberian theorems. N. G. de Bruijn

and P. Erdos.

2405. Pyrolysis of styrene, acrylate, and isoprene polymers in a vacuum. S. Straus and S. L. Madorsky.

2406. Tabulation of an integral arising in the theory of cooperative phenomena.

Michael Tikson.

2407. A new method for determining linear thermal expansion of invar geodetic

surveying tapes. Peter Hidnert and Richard K. Kirby.

2408. Transmission of near-infrared energy by some two- and three-component

glasses. Jack M. Florence, Francis W. Glaze, and Mason H. Black.

2409. Refinements in radioactive standardization by 47r beta counting. W. B. Mann and H. H. Seliger. • 2410. A new technique for the mass spectrometric study of the pyrolysis products

of polystyrene. Paul Bradt, Vernon H. Dibeler, and Fred L. Mohler.

2411. Contributions to the theory of Markov chains. Kai Lai Chung.

2412. Titanium-uranium system in the region to 30 atomic percent of titanium. R. W. Buzzard, R. B. Liss, and D. P. Fickle. 2413. Nonquantized frequency-modulated altimeter. Henry P. Kalmus, John

C. Cacheris, and Herbert A. Dropkin.

2414. Infrared spectra of pentachlorofluoroethane, 1,2-dichlorotetrafluoroethane,

and l-bromo-2-fluoroethane. Delia Simpson and Earle K. Plyler. 2415. Modified 1913 reference tables for iron-constantan thermocouples. Robert

J. Corruccini and Henry Shenker.

2416. Epitaxial deposits of metals evaporated on salt substrates. Olive G.

Engel.

2417. Torsion of anisotropic elastic cylinders by forces applied on the lateral surface. Harold Luxenberg.

2418. On methods for obtaining solutions of fixed end-point problems in the

calculus of variations. Marvin L. Stein. 2419. Electron microscopy of synthetic elastomer latices. Robert R. Stromberg,

Max Swerdlow, and John Mandel.

2420. Second-order transitions of rubbers at high pressures. Charles E. Weir.

2421. Thermodynamics of the rubber-sulfur system at high pressures. Charles

E. Weir.

2422. Laboratory measurement of the corrosion of ferrous metals in soils. W. J. Schwerdtfeger.

2423. Effect of temperature on the electrical resistance and voltage departures

(errors) of glass electrodes, and upon the hygroscopicity of glass. Donald

Hubbard.

2424. On the numerical solution of parabolic partial differential equations.

Gertrude Blanch.

2425. Thermal properties of some butadiene-styrene copolymers. George T. Furukawa, Robert E. McCoskey, and Gerard J. King.

Volume 51, July-December 1953

2426. Fabrication of radio-frequency micropotentiometer resistance elements. Lewis F. Behrent.

2427. Properties of some masonry cement. D. N. Evans, A. Litvin, A. C. Figlia,

and R. L. Blaine. 2428. Subsieve particle-size measurement of metal powders by air elutriation. Rolla E. Pollard. 135
2429. Eigenvectors of matric polynomials. Murray Mannos.

2430. The system barium oxide-boric oxide-silica. Ernest M. Levin and George

M. Ugrinic. 2431. Errors introduced by finite space and time increments in dynamic response computation. Samuel Levy and Wilhelmina D. Kroll. 2432. Heat capacity, heats of fusion and vaporization, and vapor pressure of

tetrafluoroethvlene. George T. Furukawa, Robert E. McCoskev, and Martin

L. Reilly. 2433. Hydrothermal preparation of some strontium silicates. Elmer T. Carlson and Lansing S. Wells. 2434. Ultraviolet spectral radiant energy reflected from the moon. Ralph Stair and Russell Johnston.

2435. Phase equilibria in the system MgO-Ti02 . L. W. Coughanour and V. A.

DeProsse.

2436. Pairs of normal matrices with property L. Helmut YVielandt. 2437. Heat capacity of gaseous hexafluoroethane. John S. Wicklund, Howard

W. Flieger, Jr., and Joseph F. Masi.

2438. Effective circuit bandwidth for noise with a power-law spectrum. Philip R. Karr.

2439. Penetration of X- and gamma rays to extremely great depths. XJ. Fano.

2440. Refractive index of cesium bromide for ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths. William S. Rodney and Robert J. Spindler. 2441. An expansion method for parabolic partial differential equations. J. W.

Green.

2442. Characteristics of internal solitary waves. Garbis H. Keulegan.

2443. Becker value of manila rope by photoelectric reflectometrv. Sanford B. Newman, Harry K. Hammond III, and Helen F. Riddell. 2444. Dielectric relaxation in a styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer during and after

its polymerization. Paul Ehrlich and Nicholas J. De Lollis. 2445. Study of degradation of polystyrene, using ultraviolet spectrophotometry.

Mary Jane Reiney, Max Tryon, and B. G. Achhammer.

2446. Determination of carbon 14 in the terminal positions of sugars: Preparation

of D-arabinose-5-C14 from D-fructose-1, 6-C14

. Harriet L. Frush and Horace

S. Isbell. 2447. Measurement of variations in atmospheric refractive index with an airborne microwave refractometer. Howard E. Bussey and George Birnbaum.

2448. Studies in the system magnesia-silica-water at elevated temperatures and

pressures. Elmer T. Carlson, Richard B. Peppier, and Lansing S. Wells. 2449. Dielectric properties of Teflon from room temperature to 314° C and from

frequencies of 102 to 105 c/s. Paul Ehrlich. x 2450. pH of solutions ol potassium tetroxalate from 0° to 60° C. Vincent E. Bower, Roger G. Bates, and Edgar Smith.

2451. On small disturbances of plane Couette flow. Wolfgang Wasow.

2452. Diffusion length of thermal neutrons in water. James A. Dejuren and

Hyman Rosenwasser.

2453. Metal ultrasonic delay lines. Russell W. Mebs, John H. Darr, and John

D. Grimsley.

2454. A radio-frequency permeameter. Peter H.Haas.

2455. On mildly nonlinear partial difference equations of elliptic type. Lipman

Bers. 2456. Determination of glucose by means of sodium chlorite. Herbert F. Launer,

William K. Wilson, and Joseph H. Flynn.

2457. Description and analysis of the first spectrum of chromium, Cr I. Carl C.

Kiess.

136
2458. Preparation of D-arabinose-l-C 14 and D-ribose-l-Cu. Harriet L. Frush and

Horace S. Isbell. 2459. Corrosion of nickel cast irons in soils. Irving A. Denison and Melvin

Romanoff.

2460. Calorimetric properties of 41° and 122° F polybutadienes. George T. Furukawa and Robert E. McCoskey.

I 2461. Thermal degradation of tetrafluoroethylene and hydrofluoroethylene poly- mers in a vacuum. S. L. Madorsky, V. E. Hart, S. Straus, and V. A. Sedlak.

2462. An analogue computer for the solution of the radio refractive-index equation. Walter E. Johnson.

2463. On the accuracy of the numerical solution of the Dirichlet problem by finite differences. J. L. Walsh and David Young.

Volume 52, January-June 1954

2464. Apparatus for the determination of minor components of a gas mixture. Martin Shepherd.

2465. Mismatch errors in the measurement of ultrahigh-frequency and micro- wave variable attenuators. R. W. Beatty.

2466. Heat capacity, heats of transition, fusion, and vaporization, and vapor

pressure of octafluorocyclobutane. George T. Furukawa, Robert E. McCoskey,

and Martin L. Reilly. 2467. A characterization of normal matrices. Alan J. Hoffman and Olga Taussky.

2468. Prediction of the likelihood of interference at frequencies 30 to 42 megacycles in Alaska. T. N. Gautier, Jr., and C. J. Sargent.

2469. Tables for use in the interpretation of paramagnetic behavior below 1° K;

for the chromic alums (J = 3/2). Ralph F: Hudson and Charles K. McLane.

2470. Phase equilibrium relations in the system lime-titania and zirconia-titania. L. W. Coughanour, R. S. Roth, and V. A. DeProsse.

2471. Conrady's chromatic condition. Donald P. Feder.

2472. Synthesis and physical properties of several acetylenic hydrocarbons.

Philip Pomerantz, i\braham Fookson, Thomas W. Mears, Simon Rothberg,

and Frank L. Howard.

2474. Vibrational spectra of tetrafluorethylene and tetrachloroethylene. D. E. Mann, Nicolo Acquista, and Earle K. Plyler. 2475. Preparation of nickel chloride of high purity. W. Stanley Clabaugh, John

W. Donovan, and Raleigh Gilchrist. 2476. The system of lime, alumina, and water from 50° to 250° C. Richard B. Peppier and Lansing S. Wells. 2477. Absolute calibration of the NBS standard thermal neutron density. James

A. De Juren and Hyman Rosenwasser.

2478. Electro-optical shadow method of magnetic-field mapping. L. Marton,

J. Arol Simpson, and S. H. Lachenbruch.

2479. Precise measurements with Bingham viscometers and Cannon Master

viscometers. J. F. Swindells, R. C. Hardy, and R. L. Cottington.

2480. Coaxial radio-frequency connectors and their electrical quality. M. C.

Selby, E. C. Wolzien, and R. M. Jickling. 2481. Continuous measurement of atmospheric ozone by an automatic photoelectric method. Ralph Stair, Thomas C. Bagg, and Russell G. Johnson.

2482. Applications of dimensional analysis to spray-nozzle performance data. Montgomery R. Shafer and Harry L. Bovey.

2483. Silver-uranium system. R. W. Buzzard, D. P. Fickle, and J. J. Park.

2484. Nonnegative trigonometric polynomials and certain rational characteristic functions. Eugene Lukacs and Otto Szasz.

137
2485. Flame emission spectrum of water vapor in the 1.9-micron region. W. S. Benedict, Arnold M. Bass, and Earle K. Plyler. 2486. Use of Callendar's "radio-balance" for the measuremnt of the energy

emission from radioactive sources. W. B. Mann.

2487. Some factors affecting the dimensional stability of the silver-tin-(copperzinc) amalgams. J. A. Mitchell, I. C. Schoonover, George Dickson, and H. C. Vacher.

2488. A colorimeter for pyrotechnic smokes. Isadore NimerorT and Samuel W.

Wilson.

2489. Simplification of calculations in routine density and volumetric determinations. Charles T. Collett. 2490. Infrared spectrum of hydrogen sulfied in the 6,290-cm-1 region. Harry C.

Allen, Jr., and Earle K. Plyler. 2491. New formulas for facilitating osculatory interpolation. Herbert E. Salzer. 2492. Apparent specific volume of polystyrene in benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene,

and 2-butanone. Maurice GrifFel, Ralph S. Jessup, Joseph A. Cogliano, and

Rita P. Park.

2493. A cryoscopic study of the solubility of uranium in liquid sodium at 97.8° C. Thomas B. Douglas.

2494. Multirange, audiofrequency thermocouple instruments of high accuracy.

F. L. Hermach and E. S. Williams.

2495. Fatigue notch sensitivity of some aluminum alloys. J. A. Bennett and

J. G. Weinberg.

2496. Compressibilities of crystalline and glassy modifications of selenium and

glucose. Charles E. Weir.

2497. Atypical pH response of some nonsilicate glasses. Herman F. Shermer,

Gerald F. Rynders, Given W. Cleek, and Donald Hubbard.

2498. A numerical solution of Schrodinger's equation in the continuum. W. Fut- terman, E. Osborne, and David S. Saxon.

2499. Electrical measurements in the selection of bolt materials for service under- ground. W. J. Schwerdtfeger.

2500. Heat capacity of gaseous perfluoropropane. Joseph F. Masi, Howard W.

Flieger, Jr., and John S. Wicklund.

2501. Discussion of current-sheet approximations in reference to high-frequency

magnetic measurements. Bohdan Kostyshyn and Peter H. Haas.

2502. Thermodynamic functions for carbon dioxide in the ideal gas state. Harold

W. Woolley.

2503. Optical spectroscopic determination of hydrogen isotopes in aqueous mixtures. Herbert P. Broida, Harold J. Morowitz, and Margaret Selgin. 2504. Spectral transmissive properties of five selected optical glasses. Harry J. Keegan, Marion A. Belknap, and Dorothy J. Cordrey.

2506. Densities of five selected optical glasses. Charles T. Collett. 2507. Thermal expansion of five selected optical glasses. Peter Hidnert.

2508. Evaluation of the exponential integral for large complex arguments. John

Todd.

2509. On nearly triangular matrices. A. M. Ostrowski.

Technical News Bulletin. Summaries of current research at the Bureau are published each month in the Technical News Bulletin. Lists of Bureau publications during the preceding month are given. (Annual subscription: Domestic,

$1; foreign, $1.35.)

Basic Radio Propagation Predictions. The Predictions provide the information

necessary for calculating the best frequencies for communication between any two

points in the world at any time during the given month. The data are important

138
to all users of long-range radio communications and navigation, including broadcasting, airline, steamship, and wireless services, as well as to investigators of

radio propagation and the ionosphere. Each issue, covering a period of 1 month,

is released 3 months in advance and contains 16 pages, including pertinent charts, drawings, and tables. (Annual subscription: Domestic, $1; foreign, $1.25.)

Circulars. Compilations of information on various subjects related to the Bureau's scientific and technical activities. Results of Bureau studies and data

of general interest from other sources are included.

467. Atomic Energy Levels: Volume II. 506.' Automotive Antifreezes.

518. Molecular Microwave Spectra Tables.

519. Low-Temperature Physics.

521. Gravity Waves.

522. Mass Spectroscopy in Physics Research,

523. Energy Transfer in Hot Gases.

524. Electrochemical Constants.

525. Polymer Degradation Mechanisms.

526. Optical Image Evaluation.

527. Electron Physics.

528. Characteristics and Applications of Resistance Strain Gages.

529. Electrodeposition Research.

531. Extension and Dissemination of the Electrical and Magnetic Units by the National Bureau of Standards. Francis B. Silsbee. 532. Measurement of the Thickness of Capacitor Paper. Wilmer Souder and

Sanford B. Newman.

533. Method for Determining the Resolving Power of Photographic Lenses. Francis E. Washer and Irvine C. Gardner. Supplement to NBS Circular 533, National Bureau of Standards Charts for Testing Lens Resolution. This consists only of 1 set of charts with a cover

sheet. 534. Hearing Aids. Edith L. R. Corliss. 535. An Annotated Bibliography of Selected References on the Solid-State Reactions of the Uranium Oxides. S. M. Lang.

536. Radio Frequency Power Measurements. Roald A. Schrack.

537. Table of Dielectric Constants and Electric Dipole Moments of Substances

in the Gaseous State. Arthur A. Maryott and Floyd Buckley.

538. Protective Display Lighting of Historical Documents.

539. Volume I. Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns. Howard E. Swanson and Eleanor Tatge.

539. Volume II. Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns. Howard E. Swanson and Ruth K. Fuyat.

539. Volume III. Standard X-ray Diffraction Powder Patterns. Howard E. Swanson, Ruth K. Fuyat, and George M. Ugrinic.

540. Weights and Measures Case Reference Book.

541. A Spectrophotometric Atlas of the 22+—2 II Transition of OH. Arnold

M. Bass and Herbert P. Broida.

542. Graphs of the Compton Energy-Angle Relationship and the Klein-Nishina

Formula from 10 Kev to 500 Mev. Ann T. Nelms.

543. Reference Data for Orienting Quartz Plates by X-ray Diffraction. Catherine

Barclay and Leland T. Sogn.

545. Subminiaturization Techniques for Low-Frequency Receivers. Gustave

Shapiro.

321720—54 10 139
546. Effective Radio Ground-Conductivity Measurements in the United States. R. S. Kirby, J. C. Harman, F. M. Capps, and R. N. Jones. Handbooks. Recommended codes of engineering and industrial practice (in- cluding safety codes) developed in cooperation with interested industries, professional organizations, and regulatory bodies.

46. Code for Protection Against Lightning. (Supersedes H40.)

52. Maximum Permissible Amounts of Raidoisotopes in the Human Body and

Maximum Permissible Concentrations in Air and Water.

53. Recommendations for the Disposal of Carbon-14 Wastes.

55. Protection Against Betatron-Synchrotron Radiations Up to 100 Million Electron Volts.

56. Safe Handling of Cadavers Containing Radioactive Isotopes. Building Materials and Structures Reports. Results of Bureau investigations of building materials and techniques.

133. Live Loads on Floors in Buildings. John W. Dunham, Guttorm N. Brekke,

and George N. Thompson.

134. Fire Resistance of Concrete Floors. Daniel S. Goalwin.

135. Fire Tests of Steel Columns Encased with Gypsum Lath and Plaster. Nolan D. Mitchell and James V. Ryan.

136. Properties of Cavity Walls. Daniel S. Goalwin.

137. Influence of the Wash from Bronze on the Weathering of Marble. Daniel

W. Kessler and Ross E. Anderson.

138. Effect of Edge Insulation Upon Temperature and Condensation on ConcreteSlab Floors. Harold R. Martin, Paul R. Achenbach, and Richard S. Dill. 139. Studies of Stone-Setting Mortars. Daniel W. Kessler and Ross E. Anderson.

140. Selected Bibliography on Building Construction and Maintenance. L. D. C. Nobel. Applied Mathematics Series. Mathematical tables, manuals, and studies.

9. Tables of Chebyshev Polynomials Sn (x) and Cn (x). 18. Construction and Application of Conformal Maps.

19. Hypergeometirc and Legendre Functions, with Application to Integral Equations of Potential Theory.

20. Tables for Rocket and Comet Orbits. Samuel Herrick.

21. A Guide to Tables for the Normal Probability Integral.

22. Probability Tables for the Analysis of Extreme-Value Data.

23. Tables of Normal Probability Functions. (A Reissue of Mathematical

Table 14, With Corrections.)

24. Introduction to the Theory of Stochastic Processes Depending on a Continuous Parameter. Henry B. Mann.

25. Tables of the Bessel Functions Y (*), Yl (x), KQ (*), Kx (*), 0^*^ 1. (Supersedes AMS1).

26. Table of Arctan x. (A Reissue of Mathematical Table 16). 27. Tables of 10*. 28. Tables of Bessel-Clifford Functions of Orders Zero and One.

29. Simultaneous Linear Equations and the Determination of Eigenvalues.

Edited by L. J. Paige and Olga Taussky.

30. Tables of Coefficients for the Numerical Calculation of Laplace Transforms.

Herbert E. Salzer.

140
31. Table of Natural Logarithms for Arguments Between Zero and Five to Sixteen Decimal Places. (A Reissue of Mathematical Table 10.) 33. Statistical Theory of Extreme Values and Some Practical Applications. A

Series of Lectures. Emil J. Gumbel.

35. Tables of Lagrangian Coefficients for Sexagesimal Interpolation.

36. Circular and Hyperbolic Sines and Cosines for Radian Arguments. (A Reissue of Mathematical Table 3, With Corrections.)

38. Magnetic Fields of Cylindrical Coils and Annular Coils Chester Snow.

40. Table of Secants and Cosecants to Nine Significant Figures at Hundredths

of a Degree.

Miscellaneous Publications. Other types of materials, including charts, administrative pamphlets, directories, annual reports of the Bureau, and

conference reports. 205. Hydraulic Research in the United States, 1952. Edited by Helen K. Middleton and Sonya W. Matchett.

206. Report of the Thirty-Seventh National Conference on Weights and Measures,

1952. 207. Annual Report 1952. 208. Hydraulic Research in the United States, 1953. Edited by Helen K. Middleton and Sonya W. Matchett.

209. Report of the Thirty-Eighth National Conference on Weights and Measures,

1953.

210. Hydraulic Research in the United States, 1954. Edited by Helen K.

Middleton.

Publications in Outside Journals

Abramowitz, M., On the solution of the differential equation occurring in the problem of heat convection in laminar flow through a tube, J. Math. Phys. 32,

184 (July-October 1953). x^chenbach, Paul R., What is the heat pump? Parents Magazine 29, 56 (May

1954). Achenbach, Paul R., Radiant Glass Heating Panels, Heating and Ventilating 50,

83 (Jan. 1953). Achhammer, B. G., Polymer degradation studies by absorption and mass spec- trometry, Anal. Chem. 24, 1925 (December 1952). Acton, F. S., Analyzing straight-line data, J. Chem. Education 30, 128 (March

1953). Acquista, Nicolo, and Plyer, Earle K., Infrared measurements with a cesium

iodide prism, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 43, 977 (1953). A. D. A., Direct filling resins: dimensional changes resulting from polymerization

shrinkage and water sorption, J. Am. Dental Soc. 46, 540 (May 1953). Agy, Vaughn L., Location of the auroral absorption zone, J. Geophys. Res. 59, 267 (June 1954). Agy, Vaughn, Motion of the storm-D region, Nature 173, 445 (March 6, 1954).

Allen, H. C, Jr., and Plyer, E. K., The infrared spectrum of hydrogen sulfide in the 5100 cm" 1 region, J. Chem. Phys. 22, 1104 (1954).

Allred, C. M., Chart for TEn model piston attenuator, Electronics 26, 142 (Jan.

1953).

Allred, C. M., Chart for TEn model piston attenuator, Electronics Buyer's Guide

Issue (June 1953). Amory, H. I., and Smith, S. W., Military field X-ray equipment, Radiology 59, 879 (December 1952).

141
Antkiw, S., and Dibeler, V. EL, Mass spectrum of gallium vapor, J. Chem. Phys.

21, 1890 (1953). Antosiewicz, H. A., and Hammersley, J. M., The convergence of numerical

iteration, Am. Math. Monthly 60, 604 (November 1953). Appel, W. D., International co-operation on standardization of textile testing

methods, J. Home Econ. 44, 773 (December 1952). Appel, W. D., Properties of fibers, Smithsonian Physical Tables, p. 241 (1954). Appel, W. D., Tests for colorfastness of textiles under consideration in the Inter- national Organization for [Standardization, Am. Dyestuff Repr. 42, 871 (December 1953). Appel, W. D., Synthetic textiles, Americana Annual, 1, 697 (1953). Armstrong, George T., Brickwedde, F. G., and Scott, R. B., The vapor pressures of the deuteromethanes, J. Chem. Phys. 21 (July 1953).

Astin, A. V., Physical measurement and medicine, Medical Annals of the District of Columbia 22, 639 (December 1953). Axilrod, B. M., and Sherman, M. A., Stress-solvent crazing of acrylics, Modern

Plastics 30, 130 (1953). Axilrod, B. M., Sherman, M. A., Cohen, V., Wolock, I., Effects of biaxial stretch- forming, Modern Plastics 30, 117 (1952). Axilrod, B. M., Sherman, M. A., Cohen, V., Wolock, I., Effects of moderate

biaxial stretch-forming on tensile and crazing properties of acrylic plastic

glazing, NACA Technical Note 2779 (Oct. 1952). Axilrod, B. M., Closure to discussion by Prof. Maxwell of" Stress and Strain at the Onset of Crazing of Polymethyl Methacrylate at Various Temperatures" by

M. A. Sherman and B. M. Axilrod, ASTM Bull. No. 194, p. 61 (December 1953). Banos, A., and Golden, R. K., The electromagnetic field of a rotating uniformly

magnetized sphere, J. Appl. Phys. 23, 1924 (December 1952). Bass, A. M., and Benedict, W. S., A new infrared band system of FeO, Astrophys.

J. 116, 652 (1952). Bass, A. M., and Broida, H. P., Effects of vibrational state on rotational intensity distribution in OH, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 173 (1953). Bay, Z., Cleland, M. R., and McLernon, F., Fast coincidences with Cerenkov

counters, Phys. Rev. 87, 901 (1952). Beardsley, J. H., A variable length reentrant cavity for dielectric measurements

from 100 to 400 Mc, Rev. Sci. Instr. 24, 180 (February 1953). Beatty, R. W., and Huber, C. E., Lossy cable attenuator pads, Rev. Sci. Instr. 24, 1002 (October 1953). Beatty, R. W., and MacPherson, A. C, Mismatch errors in microwave power

measurements, Proc. IRE 41, 1112 (September 1953). Bekkedahl, N., Natural and synthetic rubbers, Anal. Chem. 25, 54 (January 1953). Bekkedahl, N., Symposium on Recent Developments in the Evaluation of Natural

Rubber—Introduction, ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 136, p. 1. (American Society for Testing Materials, 1953). Bender, P., Furukawa, G. T., and Hyndman, J. R., Vapor pressure of benzene

above 100° C, Ind. and Eng. Chem. 44, 387 (1952). Benedict, W. S., Plyler, Earle K., and Humphreys, C. J., The emission spectrum

of OH from 1.4 to 1.7 /x, J- Chem. Phys. 21, 398 (1953). Benedict, W. S., Gailar, Norman, and Plyler, Earle K., The vibration-rotation spectrum of D20, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 1301 (1953). Benedict, W. S., Gailar, Norman, and Plyler, Earle K., The vibration-rotation spectrum of HDO, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 1302 (1953). Bestul, A. B., and Belcher, H. V., Degradation of polyisobutylenes on shearing

in solution, J. App. Phys. 24, 1011 (August 1953).

142
Bestul, A. B., and Belcher, H. V., Temperature coefficients of non-Newtonian

viscosity at fixed shearing stress and at fixed rate of shear, J. App. Phys. 24, 696 (June 1953). Bestul, A, B., Belcher, H. V., Quinn, F. A., and Bryant, C. B., Viscosities of 0.25

to 90 percent GR-S rubber solutions, J. Phys. Chem. 56, 432 (1952).

Bilbo, A. J., and Wyman, G. M., Steric hindrance to coplanarity in o-fluoro- benzidines, J. Amer. Chem. Soc, 75, 5312 (1953). Birnbaum, G., Millimeter wavelength dispersion of water vapor, J. Chem. Phys.

21, 57 (Jan. 1953). Birnbaum, G., and Maryott, A. A., Absorption in the low-frequency wing of the NH3 inversion spectrum, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 1774 (October 1953). Birnbaum, G., and Maryott, A. A., Change in the inversion spectrum of MD3

from resonant to nonresonant absorption, Phys. Rev. 92, 270 (October 1953).

Bitter, F., Looking into the nucleus, J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 43, 233 (April 1953). Blanch, G., On the numerical solution of equations involving differential operators

with constant coefficients, Math. Tables and Other Aids to Computation 6, 219 (October 1952). Blanch, G., and Yowell, E. C, Guide to tables on punched cards (Addendum),

Math. Tables and Other Aids to Computation 7, 1 (January 1953). Bloembergen, N., and Temmer, G. M., Nuclear magnetic resonance of aligned radioactive nuclei, Phys. Rev. 89, 883 (1953). Blumenthal, L. M., Two existence theorems for systems of linear inequalities, Pac. J. Math. 2, 523 (December 1952).

Blair, J. C, Brown, J. N., and Watts, J. M., An ionosphere recorder for low fre- quences, J. Geophys. Res. 58, 99 (March 1953). Boggs, G. E., Using arc-discharge tubes in regulated low-voltage supplies, Radio

Communication Mag. 12, 25 (October 1952).

Boggs, Gail E., A stable voltage controlled logarithmic attenuator, Proc. IRE 42,

696 (April 1954). Booth, S. F., Sources and identifying symbols of Government specifications, Metal

Prog. 62, 109 (October 1952). Branscomb, L. M., Shalek, R. J., and Bonner, T. W., Intensity distributions in nitrogen bands excited in auroras and by high-energy protons and hydrogen

atoms, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 35, 107 (1954). Branscomb, L. M., and Fite, W. L. ,Photodetachment of the hydrogen negative

ion, Phys. Rev. 93, 651 (1954). Branscomb, L. M., The aurorae (Book Review), Rev. Soci. Instr. 24, 320 (1953). Breckenridge, F. C, The Kinorama as an evaluator in aviation lighting, Ilium. Eng. 47, 561 (1952). Breckenridge, R. G., Hosier, W. R., and Oshinsky, W., Electrical properties of indium antimonide, Phys. Rev. 91, 243 (1953). Breckenridge, R. G., and Hosier, W. R., Electrical properties of titanium dioxide semiconductors, Phys. Rev. 91, 793 (1953). Breckenridge, R. G., Semiconducting intermetallic compounds, Phys. Rev. 90, 488 (1953). Briggs, L. J., The limiting thickness of an electrolyzed gas film capable of sus- taining a given negative pressure, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 779 (May 1953). Brode, W. R., Stereochemical research, Rec. Chem. Prog., Summer Issue, 45

(1952). Brode, W. R., Gould, J. H., and Wyman, G. M., The relation between the absorption spectra and the chemical constitution of dyes. XXV. Phototropism

and cis-trans isomerism in aromatic azo compounds, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 74, 4641 (September 1952).

143
Brode, W. R., Gould, J. H., and Wyman, G. M., The relation between the absorption spectra and the chemical constitution of dyes. XXVI. Effect of solvent and of temperature on the cis-trans isomerization of azo dyes, J. Am.

Chem. Soc. 75, 1856 (1953). Brode, W. R., Gould, J. H., Wyman, G. M., and Whitney, J. E., A comparative

survey of spectrophotometers in the 210-760 mfi region, J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 43, 862 (October 1953). Broida, H. P., and Kane, W. R., Rotational intensity distributions of OH and OD

in electrodelen discharge through water vapor, Phys. Rev. 89, 1053 (1953). Broida, H. P., and Lalos, G. T., Rotational temperatures of OH in several flames,

J. Chem. Phys. 20, 1466 (1952). Broida, H. P., Rotational and vibrational "temperatures" of CH in flames at atmospheric pressure, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 340 (1953). Broida, H. P., Effects of self-absorption of rotational "temperatures" of OH in flames, J. Chem. Phys. 21, 1165 (July 1953). Broida, H. P., and Gaydon, A. G., The luminous reaction between carbon monoxide

and atomic oxygen, Trans. Faraday Soc. 49, 1190 (October 1953). Broida, H. P., and Gaydon, A. G., The mechanism of formation of OH, CH, and

HCO in flame spectra, using deuterium as tracer, Proc. Royal Soc. (London)

218, 60 (March 1953). Brooks, H. B., Electrical indicating instruments used in early Edison central

stations, J. Frank. Inst. 256, 401 (November 1953). Burnett, H. C, and Staugaitis, C. L., Endurance of helical springs related to properties of the wire, Metal Progr. 64, 77 (September 1953). Burstein, E., Davisson, J. W., Bell, E. E., Turner, W. J., and Lipson, H. G., Infrared photoconductivity due to neutral impurities in germanium, Phys. Rev. 93, 65 (1954). Campbell, W. R., Irwin, L. K., and Duncan, R. C, Stress studies of bulkhead

intersections for welded tankers, Welding J. 31, (February 1952). Cameron, J. M., Tables for constructing and for computing the operating characteristics of single sampling plans, Ind. Qual. Control 9, pt. 1, 37 (July 1952). Campbell, W. R., Determination of dynamic stress-strain curves from strain waves in long bars, Proc. Soc. Exp. Stress Anal. Semiann. Rep. 10, 113 (1953). Carson, F. T., and Worthington, V., Diaphragm error and testing rate in the pape

bursting test, Tappi 35, 539 (December 1952). Carson, F. T., Worthington, Vernon, The stiffness of paper, Tappi 36, 36 (Jan. 1953) and J. Research NBS 49, 385 (Dec. 1952) RP2376.

Carter, T. J., and Kanagy, J. R., A flex tension test for leather, J. Amer. Leather

Chemists Assoc. 49, 23 (January 1954).

Cassel, J., McKenna, E., and Glime, A., Studies on the polar amino acid content

of collagen and related material, J. Am. Leather Chem. Assn. 48, 277 (1953). Cassel, J., and McKenna, E., Swelling of collagen and modified collagen, J. Am.

Leather Chem. Assn. 49, 553 (1954). Cassel, J., and McKenna, E., Amide nitrogen of collagen and hide powder, J. Am.

Leather Chem. Assn. 48, 142 (1953). Caul, Harold J., and Schoonover, I. C, The color stability of direct filling resins,

J. Am. Dent. Assn. 47, 448 (1953). Connor, W. S., Some relations among the blocks of symmetrical group divisible designs, Ann. Math. Stat. 23, 602 (December 1952). Connor, W. S., and Clatworthy, W. H., Some theorems for partially balanced

designs. Ann. Math. Stat. 25, 100 (March 1954). Cook, C. C, Calibration of commercial field-strength meters, Tele-Tech 11,

. 44 (October 1952).

144
Cook, Richard K., Laboratory standard microphones, Acustica 4, 101 (1954). Cook, R. K., and Breckenridge, R. G., Anelasticity of quartz, Phys. Rev. 92, 1419 (December 1953).

Corliss, C. H., Bozman, W. R., and Westfall, F. O., Electrodeless metalhalide

lamps, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 43, 398 (1953).

Corliss, C. H., Effect of variation of circuit parameters on the excitation of spectra

by capacitor discharges, Spectrochimica Acta 5, 378 (1953).

Corliss, E. L., and Burkhard, M. D., A probe tube method for the transfer of

threshold standards between audiometer earphones, J. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 25,

990 (September 1953).

Costrell, L., FM data reduction from magnetic tape recorders, Rev. Sci. Instr. 24, 76 (January 1953). Cottony, H. V., and Johler, J. R., Cosmic radio noise intensities in the VHF

band, Proc. IRE 40, 1053 (September 1952). Craig, D. N., and Hamer, W. J., Some aspects of the charge and discharge processes in lead-acid storage batteries, Applications and Industry, No. 11, 22 (March 1954).

Curtiss, J. H., Elements of a mathematical theory of probability, Mathematics

Mag. 26, 233 (May-June 1953). Dahl, Sveere, Colorimetric determination of tetrachlorohydroquinone, Anal. Chem. 25, 1724 (November 1953). Dahl, S., Effect of sample preparation on precision in the hide substance determination, J. Am. Leather Chem. Assn. 49, 515 (1954). Davis, Raymond, Gibson, K. S., Haupt, G. W., Spectral energy distribution of the International Commission on Illumination light sources A, B, and C, Condensation of this paper appeared in J. Opt. Soc. Am. 43, 172 (1953). Decker, G. E., Note on the adjustment of Mooney viscometer die closure, ASTM

BuL, No. 195, (Tpl3) (January 1954). Decker, G. E., and Roth, F. L., Influence of variations in rotors, dies, and rate of shear on Mooney viscosity, India Rubber World 128, 339 (June 1953). Decker, G. E., and Stiehler, R. D., Temperature measurements in the Mooney

viscometer, ASTM Bulletin, No. 195, (TP7) (January 1954). Deitz, V. R., Current problems in refining with bone char, Sugar, 49, 44 (January

1954). de Klerk, D., Hudson, R. P., and Pellam, J. R., Second sound velocity measure- ments below 1°K, Phys. Rev. 89, 326 (1953). de Klerk, K. D., Adiabatic demagnitization and the temperature scale below 1°K,

Science 116, 335 (1952). de Klerk, D., Magnetic properties below 1° K, Phys. Today 6, (1953). de Klerk, D., Hudson, R. P., and Pellam, J. R., Normal fluid concentration in liquid helium II below 1° K, Phys. Rev. 89, 662 (1953). De Juren, J. A., and Rosenwasser, H., Pulse-height measurements of recoils from

B

10 (n, a) Li,7 Phys. Rev. 93, 831 (1954). Diamond, J. J., and Bean, L., Improvements in flame photometric determination

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162 II S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1954