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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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AMERiCAN EDITOR'S COMMENT m

AUTHORSHIP x

FOREWORD xi

Chapter 1. The Foundations and Principles of Soviet Military Development ..... 1

The Foundations of Soviet Military Development • 3

The Principles of Soviet Military Development .1 . 4

Social and Political Principles , 5

Organizational Principles ... 7

The Main Principles of Training and Education 11

Chapter 2. The CPSU and the Soviet Armed Forces j. 13

The Leadership of the CPSU—the Very Foundation of Soviet Military

Development 13

Political Organs, Party and Komsomol Organizations erf" the Soviet Armed Forces 23

Party-Political Work in the Armed Forces 30

On the Leading Role of the CPSU in the Armed Forces (from resolutions of Party

congresses and conferences, plenary meetings of the Central Committee, and

other documents) 34

Chapter 3. Marxist-Leninist Military Theory . 39

The Theory of War and the Army .......>, 39

Soviet Military Science 47

Soviet Military Doctrine ' 61

Chapter 4. The Fundamentals of Military Psychology and Military Pedagogy ^ . . 67

Military Psychology ? . . . . 67

The Mental Processes of a Person Under Military Service Conditions 70

Consideration of the Mental States of Servicemen* 79

The Mental Characteristics of the Serviceman's Personality 80

On the Psychological Training of Soviet Servicemen for Successful Operations in

Modem War . . 85

Military Pedagogy 86

The Theory of Training Soviet Servicemen 88

The Theory of the Ideological Education of Soviet Servicemen 97

Concerning the Pedagogical Proficiency of the Officer 104

Chapter 5. The Armed Forces of the USSR • „ 107

The Structure of the Soviet Armed Forces 109

A High Honor and a Great Responsibility 119

Dates of the Most Important Events 120

v

r

• Thu jcclion heiding w»s «milled from the T«ble of Coniems of the Ru»i»n te«t [U.S. Ed ].
;

Chapter 6. The Military Profession ^ .'; x 147

The Concern of the Communist Party for the Training and Education of Military

Cadres 147

Military Service Requirements for Officer Personnel of the Armed Forces of the

USSR (Principal Provisions) 153

Internal Service Regulations of the Armed Forces of the USSR (Extracts) 156

Disciplinary Regulations of the Armed Forces of the USSR (Extracts) 167

Awards of the Motherland . . 175

Higher Military Educational Institutions and Advanced Studies 194

Privileges and Pensions of Officers 200

Officers" Comradely Courts of Honor 206

Chapter TV The Armies of the Warsaw Pact Countries^ 211

The Trustworthy Shield ot Socialism 212

The Bulgarian People's Army 215

The Hungarian People's Army 216

The National People's Army of the GDR 217

The Polish People's Army 219

The Romanian People's Army 220

The Czechoslovak People's Army 221

Strengthening International Solidarity 222

Chapter 8. The Armed Forces of the Imperialist States l 224

The Armed Forces of the USA 225

The Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Germany (ERG) 238

The Armed Forces of Great Britain 246

The Armed Forces of Italy 251

The Armed Forces of Turkey 253

The Imperialist Aggressive Military Blocs 254

The Main Design Specifications of Weapons and Combat Materiel 261

Chapter 9. Science and Military Affairs 268

The Contributions of Scientists (The Most important Facts) 276

Chapter 10. Weapons and Military Technology ,. 280

Chapter 11. The Essentials of Sanitation and Hygiene . d . . . . 299

Chapter 12. General Reference Data 318

Basic Information About the Countries of the World 318

Principal International Organizations and Associations 322

Astronomical and Geographical Information 327

Physicomathematical Data 343

Foreign Exchange Rates , 356

Reference Books on General and Special Topics 356
AMERICAN EDITOR'S COMMENT ON THE OFFICER'S

HANDBOOK

The Soviet Officer's Handbook is the thirteenth volume in the "Soviet

Military Thought" series, translated and published under the auspices of the

United States Air Force.

This compendium about the Soviet Armed Forces appeared in Moscow

bookstores in 1971 as the fifteenth book in the Soviet "Officer's Library."1

It is one of the most basic works in that series and had an original pressrun of 83,000, which exceeds by far the pressrun of the other volumes in

the "Officer's Library.'' As stated in the foreword, the handbook is intended to assist "officers in broadening their outlook and in resolving

many practical problems related to the training and education of subordinates."

Organizational principles of the Soviet Armed Forces, including a discussion of Soviet concepts of cadre organization, centralization, and unity of

command are covered in Chapter One. The next chapter is concerned with

the relationship between the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and its

Armed Forces, and more specifically between the Party's Central Committee,

the Main Political Directorate, the Ministry of Defense, and the Party organizations in military units.

Chapter Three, "Marxist-Leninist Military Theory," contains brief explanations of key terms in Soviet military thought. In contrast to the United

States, where a word such as doctrine is often used ambiguously, in the Soviet

Union such terms as doctrine, military science, military art, strategy, operational art, and tactics have precise meanings and cannot be used interchangeably. Military doctrine, for example, is the military policy of the Communist

Party and has legal force, whereas strategy is one of the component parts of

military art. A proper understanding of these terms is therefore essential for

understanding Soviet military writings.

Chapter Four is concerned with military psychology and military

pedagogy, two subjects considered to be major fields of study for Soviet

1 The "Officer's Library" series of books was announced by Voyenizdal, !he publishing house

of the Ministry of Defense, in December. I%4 A total of 17 books were issued in this series,

the first appearing in 1%5 and the last in 1973.
officers and treated in greater detail in two important Soviet military works,

Military Pedagogy and Military Psychology (Volumes Nos. 7 and 8 in the U.S.

Air Force's "Soviet Military Thought" series).

"The Armed Forces of the USSR" are described in Chapter Five. All

of the five services and their branches are discussed in turn, with a brief

explanation of the roles and missions of each. This chapter will be particularly useful to readers who are unfamiliar with how the organization of

the Soviet Armed Forces differs from the American tri-service concept.

Chapter Six, "The Military Profession," provides information on the legal

status of Soviet officers, both on active duty and in the reserves. It also

includes excerpts from regulations governing the relationship between servicemen of different ranks, the maintenance of discipline, and the award of

uccorations.

The Armed Forces of the other Warsaw Pact states are described very

superficially in Chapter Seven, whereas Chapter Eight presents much more

detailed and often tendentious information on "The Armed Forces of the

Imperialist States."

The next three chapters, "Science and Military Affairs," "Weapons and

Military Technology," and "Essentials of Sanitation and Hygiene," are of

interest in describing Soviet views and in presenting what the Soviet military leadership considers each officer should know. The final chapter,

"General Reference Data," is basic information of the type found in many

almanacs, which the reader may wish to scan because of the method of

presentation.

Contributors to this book include some well-known Soviet military writers.

The editor of the work, General-Major (Reserve) S. N. Kozlov, a Candidate

of Military Sciences, was given an award at the Frunze Prize ceremonies in

1966 for his "outstanding military writings." 2 General-Major Ye. F Sulimov, another contributor, is a Doctor of Philosophical Sciences and heads

the Department of Scientific Communism at the Lenin Military Political

Academy.'Colonel S. A. Tyushkevich, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences and

chief of a section of the Military History Institute of the Ministry of Defense,

was the editor of the fifth edition (1968) of Marxism-Leninism on War and

Army,* which included both Generals Kozlov and Sulimov among its authors. Tyushkevich also wrote Philosophy and Military Theory, published in

1976 not by Voyenizdat. but by the Academy of Sciences. Other authors are

also experts in the fields they cover.

The prominence of the contributors to this work, its inclusion in the

"Officer's Library" series, and its wide distribution all attest to the important

ro'r it is intended to play in the education of Soviet officers. Its publication

in English as part of the U.S. Air Force's "Soviet Military Thought" series

1

In March 1965 the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved the award of the "Frunze

Prize" each year fci "excellent military or military-historical works."

1 This book has also been published in the U.S. Air Force's "Soviet Military Thought" series

(No. 2).

VIII
now makes it possible for this volume to be used as a concise reference work

by a wide circle of American readers.

The translation and publication o/The Officer's Handbook does not constitute approval by any U.S. Government organization ofthe inferences, findings

and conclusions contained therein. Publication is solely for the exchange and

stimulation of ideas.

i.
AUTHORSHIP

The handbook was prepared by a group of authors consisting of: Doctor

of Philosophical Sciences, General-Major Ye. F. Sulimov (Section I); Doctor

of Historical Sciences, Colonel S. V. Baranov and Candidate of Historical

Sciences, Colonel Yu. N. Artamoshin (Section II); Colonel P. A. Sidorov

(Section III); Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Lieutenant Colonel N. F.

Fedenko and Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences, Colonel A. V. Barabanshchikov (Section IV); Candidate of Military Sciences, Colonel I. S. Zheltikov,

Engineer Colonel N. I. Bazanov, Colonels A. I. Karpov and I. A. Korotkov

(Sections V and X); General-Lieutenant V. M. Domnikov (Section VI);

Candidate of Military Sciences, Colonel (Retired) V. V, Mochalov (Section

VII); General-Major I. D. Dement'yev (Section VIII); Candidate of Military

Sciences, Colonel N. G. Sopelev and Doctor of Philosophical Sciences, Colonel S. A. Tyushkevich (Section IX); Colonel of Medical Services, A. V.

Maksimov (Section XI); Candidate of Historical Sciences, Captain 1st Rank

(Retired) L. M. Yeremeyev (Section XII).

Editor

Candidate of Military Sciences

General-Major (Reserve) S. N, KOZLOV
FOREWORD

Command, political, engineering and technical cadre play a great role in

the life and combat activity of the Soviet Amied Forces. Soviet officers are

the backbone, the cohesive force of our Armed Forces. They are the agents

of Communist Party policy in the forces, they organize and implement the

training and education ofsubordinates, they reinforce order and good organization in units and on ships.

Under present-day conditions, which are characterized by the fundamental

changes which have taken place in military science as a result ofscientific and

technical progress, the Communist Party is placing increased demands on

our officer cadre. The Party considers it essential that command and all staff

personnel should be thoroughly conversant with Marxist-Leninist theory,

should be highly trained in military theory, and satisfy all the requirements

of modern military theory and practice.

In the opinion of the authors, this manual will prove of real assistance to

military cadres in broadening their outlook on military theory and solving

problems related to the training and education of their subordinates. It is

intended for officers of all Services ofthe Armed Forces, and especially junior

officers.

The first sections of the book are devoted to vital military-theoretical

problems. These set forth the foundations and principles of Soviet military

development, and deal with questions relating to the leadership of the Armed

Forces by the CPSU,* Marxist-Leninist teachings on war and the ariny,

Soviet military science and doctrine, and the principles of Soviet military

psychology and pedagogy are examined.

The subsequent sections deal with the Soviet Armed Forces and their

officer corps. These are concerned with the present-day structure of Soviet

military organization. A brief description is given of the Services and

branches of the Armed Forces at their present stage of development. The

reader is informed about the constant concern of the Communist Party for

the training and education of military cadres. Excerpts from documents

governing practical questions relating to officer service ?re quoted.

A special section contains reference material on the organization of the

Warsaw Pact, the history of its origin, the role and significance of this

• CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union [U.S. Ed.).

V-
organization in ensuring the security of the socialist community; and on the

armed forces of the other member countries of the Warsaw Pact.

The information contained in the section on "Science and Military Affairs"

attests to the ever-increasing influence ofscience and scientific and technological progress on military affairs, the development of contemporary methods

and means of armed combat and troop control.

In this book, the reader will also find a variety of reference material on the

military history of the Soviet State, from the field of the natural sciences,

military geography, advice on basic health matters, etc.

The spectrum of problems related to the activities of our officers is broad

and varied and, undoubtedly, as military affairs develop further, the range

ofthese problems will increase. The officer of today has to be conversant with

such a mass of information, facts and figures, that it would be very difficult

for him to retain it in his memory. He has to have recourse to reference

literature.

However, it should be borne in mind that to assemble the reference material needed by an officer in a book of limited size is a very difficult task. This

handbook may not satisfy all of the reader's requirements, since these range

over such a broad and varied spectrum.

The authors and publisher request the readers of this book to send their

opinions and comments on it to Voyennoye izdatel'stvo, Moscow, K.-160.

XII
Chapter 1. THE FOUNDATIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF

SOVIET MILITARY DEVELOPMENT

The activities of the Soviet State, born of the Great October Socialist

Revolution, are characterized by the great variety and complexity of the

functions which it fulfills. The most important among these is that of ensuring that the country is reliably defended, i.e., the military function. This is

fulfilled by a special organization: the Armed Forces.

In view of the complexity of international conditions and the presence in

the world of aggressive imperialist forces which are hostile to our system, the

Communist Party and the Soviet government take all the steps essential for

further strengthening the country's defenses and increasing the fighting

power of our Armed Forces. "Being well aware of the aggressive nature of

imperialism, our Party considers it essential to support the peaceful policy

of the Soviet Union with its invincible defensive might. The interests of the

Soviet people and of world peace demand this.

"Therefore, one of the constant concerns of the Central Committee, the

Soviet government, and the entire nation is the strengthening of our glorious

Armed Forces." '

In all its activities in the field of military development the Party proceeds

on the basis that strengthening the country's defensive capabilities and the

military might of the Armed Forces is one of the conditions indispensable

for the successful accomplishment of the tasks of building communism.

Soviet military development is based on authentic scientific foundations

and principles, formulated and substantiated in the works of V. L Lenin and

the resolutions of our Party. The CPSU has upheld them in its irreconcilable

struggle v .h anti-Party elements.

Under present-day conditions, the foundations and principles of Soviet

military development have been evolved further in the Program ofthe CPSU,

in the resolutions of the XXIII Party Congress, in Plenary Meetings of the

Central Committee, in documents devoted to the 50th Anniversary of the

Great October Revolution and the Armed Forces, and in the new Universal

Military Service Law.

1 L. I. Brezhnev, 50 let veliKikh pobed sotsializma [Fifty Years of the Great Victories of

Socialism). Politizdat, 1967, p. 59.

1
What is meant by Soviet military development? This concept incorporates

everything connected with the creation and maintenance of the military

power of our state essential for maintaining the security of the homeland.

The military strength of the state is determined by many conditions and factors; primarily by economic, scientific and technical, moral and political,

and military potential (resources). All its elements are interrelated and

interdependent.

In evolving military policy and implementing military development, the

CPSU and the Soviet State extend their organizational activity both into the

social sphere, upon which the creation ofits military power depends; and into

the Armed Forces, in which this power is directly realized.

Thus, in the broad sense of the term, military development encompasses

the entire complex of measures by which the military policy of the Party and

the State is effected, beginning with the organization of military production,

the education ofthe population in moral-political and military affairs and the

implementation of mobilization measures, and ending with ideological

and organizational measures which are implemented in the Armed Forces

themselves.

The concept "military development" is also used in a narrower sense. It also includes measures

directly connected with building up and strengthening the Armed Forces, namely, the organization of military units and formations and bringing them up to strength, their being equipped

with materiel and weapons, the training and education of personnel, the development of military science, the training of cadres, and the mobilization of units and formations for combat

readiness.

Military development in our country conforms to the established laws of

socialist and communist development and the political needs of the state at

any given stage in its evolution. It is inseparable from general socialist and

communist development. V. I. Lenin said: "The experiment in military development carried out by the Soviet regime cannot be looked upon as an isolated

experiment. War includes all the forms of all the fields ofdevelopment. It was

possible for the development of our army to lead to successful results only

because it was accomplished in the spirit of overall Soviet development, on

the basis of class interrelationships which are manifested in the sphere of any

development." 2

Military development is a complex process of the interaction of objective conditions and the subjective factor. On the basis of a thorough understanding of the conditions and potent:

aI of a socialist country relating

to the reinforcement of its defenses, nd the elaboration and application

of scientifically sound Leninist princip>s f'. military development, the

CPSU is able to carry out this process succ iiully. The Armed Forces,

which were created under the wise leadership of the Party by the endeavors

of the Soviet people and government, were always, and will always be,

capable of the tasks of guarding the achievements of the Great October

Revolution.

1 V. I. Lenin, Poln. sobr, soch. [Complete Collected Works], XL, 76-77. (Hereafter, cited as:

Lenin]
THE FOUNDATIONS OF SOVIET MILITARY DEVELOPMENT

By the foundations of Soviet military development we mean those aspects

of the social life of our state which have a determining influence on its

military organization. A new type of Armed Forces is being founded upon

them and they embody the sources of its strength.

Marxism-Leninism teaches that the Armed Forces are a special organ of

the state, that they contain within themselves features characteristic of the

given state, and are part of its political superstructure. The type of army and

its basic social and political characteristics are determined by the type ofstate

and, in the final analysis, by the nature of the social system and the method

of production.

The new type of Armed Forces corresponds to the socialist type of state;

it differs radically in its nature, purpose and role m society from the armed

forces of the exploiter states.

Historically, the Soviet Armed Forces became the first form of socialist

army. They are indissolubly linked with all aspects of the life of Soviet

society, and are founded on the same basis. Our Armed Forces are "an exact

copy, an exact impression of our workers' and peasants' nation. ..." 3 They

embody the special features of the Soviet social system, the nature of our

state, and reflect the political tasks being resolved by the Soviet State with

the assistance of the Armed Forces.

Thus, the foundations of Soviet military development are:—

—Socialist economy, primarily the sectors of heavy industry, transport,

communications, agriculture, etc. The economic aspects of production and

the scientific and technical resources of the state determine the quantity and

quality of the armaments which form the material basis for the prosecution

of war.

Even during the period of the Russo-Japanese War, V. I. Lenin referred

to the strengthening of the ties between the military organization of the

country and its economic and cultural system. These objective laws are even

more clearly manifested in the conditions created by present-day scientific

and technical progress. The economic, scientific, and technical achievements

of the USSR, which have astounded the whole world, made it possible to

increase the military might of the Armed Forces to an unprecedented degree.

The further economic growth of the country and its scientific and technical

progress will lead to an even greater strengthening of the defensive might of

the USSR.

—Socialist social relationships (the social system) based on public ownership of the means of production, collective labor, comradely collaboration,

and mutual aid. Socialism frees the working man from all forms of economic,

political, and spiritual oppression. It gives the worker access to material

security, to the treasures of science and culture, makes him the creator of a

new and truly human form of life.

' M. V. Frunze, Izbrannyyeproizvedeniya [Selected Works). Voyenizdat, 1965, p. 330. [Hereafter, cited as: Frunze]
Socialism is forming the new man, a man very active in work and in

politics, a selfless defender of the new system. This is the main advantage of

socialism over capitalism, the source of its invincibility.

The Soviet social and governmental system is based on the firm alliance

between the working class and peasants and on the friendship of the peoples of the USSR. The complete and final victory of socialism in our country has resulted in the social, political, and ideological unity of Soviet

society, which embodies the firm alliance between the working classes and

the intelligentsia, the brotherhood of socialist nations, the unity of the

CPSU, the Soviet government, and people. During the period of the building of communism, the political organization of society is gaining in stability, strength, and unity.

—Marxism-Leninism and its teaching on war and the army. Communist

ideology, the ideology ofthe entire Soviet people, communist moral teaching,

which motivates the behavior of our people, a high degree of political consciousness, and selfless devotion to the ideas of communism—these form the

elements of the spiritual world of Soviet man and inspire feelings of passionate love for the socialist Motherland, a burning hatred of its enemies, and

unshakable tenacity in the defense of the socialist homeland.

Such, in general terms, are the economic, social-political, and ideologicaltheoretical foundations of Soviet military development. In addition, the term

foundations of military development implies the most vital aspects of its

essential ingredients, its most fundamental and definitive principles. These

principles are so important, their consistent application so essential, that they

acquire the significance of foundations. Thus, the Program of the CPSU

defines Party leadership of the Armed Forces and strengthening of the role

and influence of Party organizations in the Armed Forces as the cornerstone

of military development.

THE PRINCIPLES OF SOVIET MILITARY DEVELOPMENT

Generally speaking, "principle" is understood to mean a basic point of any

teaching or a basic requirement, an obligatory norm governing people's

activities and behavior. A principle in the context of military development

is taken to mean the obligatory requirement, the norm, from which the

political and military leadership of the state proceeds as it creates and

strengthens the Armed Forces.

Correct principles are the necessary conclusions from the perceived objective laws of the development of military affairs and the Armed Forces, from

generalized experience of military operations, and, therefore, are of great

importance in military development. It is impossible to put military measures

into effect with skill and consistency without them.

Our Party was faced with the problem of elaborating the theoretical principles of Soviet military development when it became necessary for the young

Soviet Republic to create an army of the state of the proletarian dictatorship

in order to repel armed attack by internal counterrevolutionaries and the
intervention of the imperialist countries. V. I. Lenin and the Communist

Party evolved a classic solution to this problem; with unsurpassed mastery,

they embodied the elaborated theoretical points in the practice of military

development.

The principles of Soviet military development are inseparable from the

principles of general state and party development.

The creation and strengthening of the Armed Forces is a complex and

multifaceted process, which includes the production of arms and materiel,

recruitment, the education and training of personnel, leadership ofthe armed

forces, troop control and organization, the disposition of cadres, etc. Each

of these spheres of activity is distinguished by its own essential requirements

and principles. These are numerous and they express requirements of different scope. It is essential, therefore, to classify them. There are three groups

of principles of Soviet military development: social and political, organizational, and training and education.

Social and Political Principles

Principles of this kind form the sociopolitical character of the Armed

Forces and reflect the most important aspects of its nature and purpose. In

Soviet military development they are expressed in the political leadership of

the Armed Forces, in the relationship between them and the people, in their

attitude towards people of other countries, and in the nature of the relationships between servicemen within the Armed Forces.

The principle of Party leadership. The decisive role of the supervisory,

organizing, and educational activities of the Communist Party in Soviet

military development is emphasized in the Program of the CPSU, in resolutions adopted at Party meetings. Plenary meetings ofthe Central Committee,

and other Party documents. "The Party devotes unremitting attention to the

enhancement of its organizing and supervisory influence over the entire life

and activities of the Army, Air Force, and Navy and the rallying of Armed

Forces personnel around the Communist Party and the Soviet government,

to strengthening the unity of the Armed Forces and the people, to the

education of military personnel in a spirit of courage, gallantry, heroism, and

military cooperation with the armies of other socialist countries, and readiness at any moment to defend the Land of the Soviets, home of the builders

of communism."4

Enhancement of the Communist Party's role of leadership in the life and

activities of the Armed Forces and intensification of the activeness and

influence of Party organizations in the Armed Forces is the main social and

political principle that has a decisive effect on military development as a

whole.

In socialist countries, the leadership of the entire program of building a

4 Programma Kommunistickeskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza [Program ofthe Communist Party

of the Soviet Union]. Pravda Iidat., !%1. p. 112. [Hereafter cited as: Programma . . .]
new society, and strengthening the defenses and the armed forces is exercised

by the Marxist-Leninist parties. This feature of the political organization of

a socialist society is no mere accident. These are the objective laws of its

development, governed by the nature ofsocialist social relationships and the

requirements of the evolution of the society and its armed defense.

Only the Communist Party can ensure the successful fulfillment of all these

tasks, since it is armed with Marxist-Leninist theory, is closely associated

with the people and enjoys their unbounded confidence, is welded together

by Party discipline, and possesses the unsurpassed qualities of inspirer and

organizer of the masses. It is a concentration of the best representatives of

the working class and all workers, the intellect, honor, and conscience of our

age.

In complete conformity with its position in the political organization of

society, the Communist Party directs the defenses of the socialist homeland,

the armed forces of the country, and holds this powerful political lever in its

hands.

The leadership and guiding activities ofthe CPSU in military development

are multifaceted. Any important question in this field is resolved by the Party

before becoming a program of activities for the state and the people. It

formulates the state's military and military-technical policy and develops its

military doctrine. The Party elaborates the principles of military development and organizes their practical realization. It directs the training and

disposition of military personnel, supervises the activities of military institutions, and directs the life and combat activities of the troops.

The CPSU influences every aspect of the activities of the Armed Forces

through its ideological and organizational function. Its policies and directives are propounded by military councils down to unit level, commanders invested with unity of command, political, Party, and Komsomol

organizations.

The Communist Party's most important means of influencing the life and

activities of the forces, one of the Leninist Party's principles of leadership of

the Armed Forces, is well-organized and purposeful Party-political work.

The principle of the unity of the Armed Forces and people. The most

important feature of the Armed Forces of a socialist state is its genuine

national character. In an exploiting society, everything is done to isolate the

Armed Forces from the people, to set it against the people, to hide the true

purpose of the Armed Forces from the soldiers. In a socialist society, on the

other hand, the Armed Forces are built on the idea of closeness, one could

almost say unification, with the people. By put ung this Leninist principle into

practice, the Party has created a military force which is closely linked with

the people and reliably safeguards its interests.

In our Soviet land, the reinforcement of military might and the Aimed

Forces has become a genuinely national matter, and the defense of the

socialist Fatherland the sacred duty of every citizen of the USSR. Recognizing the extreme importance of the unity of the army and the people in

strengthening the defense of the nation, the CPSU gives this matter its

•
unremitting attention. The Report of the CC* CPSU to the XXIII Party

Congress emphasizes that: "It is essential to improve civil defense and military-patriotic work among workers, especially young people, to strengthen

the links for providing voluntary assistance by military units and subunits to

staffs of production organizations, training establishments, kolkhozes^ and

sovkhozes, X and to be more concerned about the needs of the soldiers and

officers of the Soviet Army and their families. The entire Party and Soviet

community are obliged to be constantly occupied with this matter." 5

The further strengthening ofthe unity of the army and the people is greatly

facilitated by the adoption ofthe measures provided for in the new Universal

Military Service Law passed by the Third Session of the Supreme Soviet of

the USSR in October 1967.

The principle ofinternationalism. In Soviet military development this principle is expressed, first and foremost, in the inviolable friendship of the

peoples of the Soviet Union. All the socialist nations and peoples of our

country are united by a single military organization and they all have equal

rights and duties with respect to the defense ofthe Motherland. Fighting men

of different nationalities, bound by ties of firm friendship and comradeshipin-arms, fulfill their duty selflessly.

Now this principle also expresses the solidarity of fraternal socialist countries, the military cooperation of their armies, joint defense of the world

socialist system from imperialist aggression. It has been embodied in the

Warsaw Pact, as well as in bilateral friendship, cooperation and mutual

assistance agreements between socialist countries. The force and effectiveness

ofsocialist internationalism were clearly manifested during the defense ofthe

victories of socialism in Czechoslovakia against the intrigues of internal and

external counterrevolution.

The principle of internationalism is manifested in the fact that our Army

is built up and trained as an army of liberation. Armed Forces personnel are

educated in a spirit of respect for the sovereignty of small and large nations

and class hatred towards oppressors. This principle also provides for assistance to young national states in ensuring their security against the intrigues

ofthe colonial powers, and military development aid (the training of national

cadres, the provision of arms for defense against attack from imperialists,

etc.).

Organizational Principles

The nature of the organizational principles of military development differs substantially from the nature of social and political principles. War

requirements, the material and technical and economic resources of the

* Central Committee [U.S. Ed).

t Collective farms (U.S. Ed.].

t State tarms [U. S. Ed.].

1 Maierialy XXIII s'yezda KPSS [Materials of the XXHI Congress of the CPSU]. Politizrtat.

1966. p. 78.
State, military equipment and weaponry have a decisive influence on them.

The most important principle of organizational development is the principle ofthe cadre organization of the Soviet Armed Forces. This principle was

thoroughly validated and embodied in the resolutions of the VIII and X

Party Congresses and further developed in subsequent Party documents.

The activities of service personnel are associated with the necessity of

mastering weapons and military equipment and the methods and procedures

of using them, the development of collective operations, good organization,

discipline and training of the will. Modern warfare imposes ever increasing

demands in this connection. This is why it is necessary to subject servicemen

to a specific period of training and education under the actual conditions of

life in a unit of the regular army.

In today's complex international situation, the existence of a regular army

is vitally necessary to ensure the security of our country. While imperialism

exists with its powerful regular anned forces and enormous reserves of weapons of mass destruction, our own country and fraternal socialist states are

forced to retain their own regular armies and strengthen them by every

possible means.

Victory in a modem war is achieved by the efforts of all the Services and

branches of the Armed Forces. Hence, the organizational principle of the

continuous improvement of the organizational structure of our army and the

harmonious development ofall the Services and branches ofthe Armed Forces.

The question of structure, of changing the organizational forms and ratio

of the Services and branches of the Armed Forces is resolved by our Party

on the basis of an assessment of the country's internal situation, the international situation, and the development of methods and means of armed

combat.

The principle ofcentralism plays an exceptionally important role in Soviet

military development. The need for strict centralization stems from the nature of the tasks which the Ar 2d Forces carry out. Troop leadership and

control must ensure purposefulness, good order and discipline, flexibility and

rapidity of action. Without this, the successful accomplishment of combat

missions in a war with a strong and clever enemy and the organization of

efficient cooperation are impossible.

Centralism in the organizational structure of the Armed Forces and the

system of controlling them finds expression in the fact that all Armed Forces

components with their staffs and other command and control elements are

strictly subordinate to the central agencies ofstate power, to a single Supreme

Command. Subordinate command and control elements comply strictly with

the orders, directives and decrees of those superior to them, and are accountable to them for all questions relating to their activities. In military development this principle is provided for by the extraterritorial structure of the

Armed Forces, by the appointment of higher officers and commanders by

government agencies and the appropriate command, and by supervision of

the execution of duties from the top downwards. In addition, the principle

of centralism assumes initiative and aeativity on the part of the lowest

mm
elements and their leaders, and reliance on subordinates' experience and

knowledge.

The principle of unity of command. The Program of the CPSU defines

unity of command as the most important principle of Soviet military development. Unity of command in our Armed Forces originated and developed

normally as an expression of the objective need to ensure unity of the will

and action of large masses of people, and good discipline and organization,

without which the fulfillment of combat missions is impossible. This method

of control has been proved by expei iment and tested over many years of

practical experience. "It is necessary to analyze this experiment," said V.l.

Lenin. "It progressed in a regular fashion, developing from fortuitous, vague

collective decision making through collective decision making elevated into

a system of organization which permeated the entire institution of the army,

and now, as a general tendency, has come to unity of command, as the only

correct way of organizing work." 6

Our Party resolved this question on the basis ofsocial and political conditions, the distribution of class forces in the country and the maturity of the

officer personnel. When the dictatorship ofthe proletariat had become firmly

established, when the army had become more experienced and mature, and

there were trained command personnel devoted to the people and the Motherland, the transition to unity of command was complete.

Unity of command in the forces at unit level is now more necessary than

ever since modern warfare is characterized by its highly dynamic quality and

is subject to rapid situation changes, which could be followed by equally

rapid changes in the direction and nature ofthe activities ofthe forces. Under

these circumstances, the course of events would not leave sufficient time for

joint decisions. Now more than ever before there is a need for commanders

with absolute authority, whose orders would be treated as inviolable law by

subordinates.

Unity of command in our Armed Forces is founded on Party principles.

This means that:

—the commander (officer in charge) is the representative of the Party and

the Government in the forces, the bearer of their policy, the custodian of

Soviet laws and military regulations;

—he is the absolute master of the forces entrusted to him, who bears full

responsibility tor all aspects of the life and activities of the subunit, unit, ship,

formation, or establishment, for the state of the combat and political training

of its personnel, its fighting efficiency and combat readiness;

—the commander with sole (military and political) authority is intimately

associated with his personnel, shows constant concern for the needs of his

subordinates, sees that all servicemen fulfill their duties properly, and guards

their legal rights;

—in all his work he relies on Party organization, exploits the force of Party

«Lenin. XL 77,

9
influence on the troops in order to improve the standard of combat and

political training and the strengthening of military discipline;

—he makes wide use ofthe well-tried means of criticism and self-criticism,

and the strength of the Armed Forces social and political agencies in the

interests of enhancing the cause.

The principle ofconscious military discipline. Centuries of military history

have shown that without firm discipline it is impossible for an army to be

efficient in combat, and that firm discipline is the basis of an army's fighting

efficiency. "A military organization," wrote M. V. Frunze, "is a specific

organization, which demands of its members a high degree of efficiency,

precision, executive ability, endurance, promptness in carrying out all orders,

etc "

7

The necessity of achieving unity of will and action, strict fulfillment of

laws, regulations, and instructions, and prompt and accurate execution of

orders determines the specific form of subordination in a socialist army as

well, but here subordination has an entirely different character from that in

a bourgeois army, in which it is based on class domination and compulsion.

In a socialist army it is based on the common interests of the commanders

and their subordinates in ensuring the security of the socialist state.

The feasibility of basing military discipline on a high degree of consciousness on the part of military personnel, of combining and fusing into a single

entity the requirements of discipline and self-discipline, was first discovered

in a socialist army.

Reliance on consciousness in the reinforcement of military discipline does

not exclude elements of compulsion where this is called for in the interests

of ensuring the fighting efficiency and combat readiness of the forces.

The strengthening of military discipline is a perennial problem. This is

attributable to two factors: the fact that the forces are brought up to strength

each year by new contingents, which have to be put into operational service,

and the fact that the requirements for good organization and discipline are

being constantly increased. The modern revolution in military affairs imposes

particularly heavy demands on discipline, good organization, and order in

the forces.

The organizational principles also include the principle of maintaining

constant combat readiness of the Soviet Armed Forces.

The deepening of the general crisis of capitalism and the intensification of

its contradictions increases imperialist adventurism and the danger it poses

for the peoples of the world and for peace and social progress. This is

convincingly demonstrated by recent events. Militant imperialism may start

to unleash a nuclear war. Therefore, Soviet military doctrine is based on the

need to maintain constant vigilance and keep its forces in a state of permanent

battle readiness, so that they are able, under any conditions, to repulse an

aggressor's attack and deal him a crushing blow. To maintain a high state

of constant combat readiness is the main task of the Soviet Armed Forces.

' Frunze, p. 459.

10
The Main Principles of Training and Education

The process of training and education, the formation of high moral and

fighting qualities ofthe personnel is also governed by specific principles. They

are determined by the Soviet social and state system and the nature and

purpose of our army; they are based on the great ideas of Marxism-Leninism,

the teachings of military pedagogy and psychology, and the demands of

modern warfare.

First and foremost among these principles is the principle of the unity of

training and education. It is a well-known fact that the success of a soldier

in carrying out his duty depends upon both his ability and his mentality. It

is impossible to compare one to the other: both ofthese aspects are intimately

related. It is important, therefore, in teaching to educate and in educating to

teach; and for this there are \mple opportunities. There are no forms of

military training which preclude the instilling of courage and fearlessness, a

high sense of duty to the Motherland, military pride, burning hatred of the

enemy, or in which it is impossible to teach new knowledge in military affairs

or to perfect practical skills.

The duration of the period of training and education for conscripts, according to the new Universal Military Service Law, is limited to 2-3 years.

At the same time, military affairs have become extremely complex, thus

entailing all-round training and making it essential for commanders and

political officers to place a high value on the time factor and to make constant

efforts to improve methods of training and educating subordinates.

The whole system of combat and political training of personnel is based

on the principle: "teach the troops what is needed in modern warfare," and

instill into servicemen those qualities which ensure that they fulfill their

duties under the most difficult conditions of modern warfare. Therefore,

training should be carried out under conditions as close as possible to those

experienced in actual combat, in a spirit of active, offensive action.

Success in forming high moral and fighting qualities is also ensured by

conforming to the principle of consideration of the special features of the

military collective and the individual qualities ofservicemen. After all, young

people come into the Army with different levels of general education and

widely varying knowledge of ideology and life. The functional duties of

soldiers and sailors and of the entire collective are by no means identical. All

of which obliges us to approach people and collectives individually, taking

their specific nature into consideration. The use of the "average" collective

or the "average" man as a standard cannot yield positive results, since in real

life there are only real people.

The teaching and educational process is not an end in itself, but a means

of training high-principled and capable defenders of the Motherland. The

soldier in a socialist army is animated by high ideals; the knowledge of his

patriotic and international duty motivates all his thoughts and actions, urges

him on tirelessly to master his military vocation, to s:ubbomly overcome the

difficulties and dangers of military life, to fight the enemy to the last drop of

11
blood. That is why communist singleness of purpose is one of the most

important principles in the formation of high moral and fighting qualities in

the Soviet soldier.

Such, in short, are the foundations and principles of Soviet military development. It goes without saying that there are others besides those listed

above. They all play an imf ortant role in our military development and in

the life and combat activities of the Armed Forces.

The principles ofmilitary development vary under the influence of changes

in the internal and international situation ofthe country and the development

of military affairs. This makes it essential for our military cadres to make a

thorough study of the processes associated with military development, in

order to be able to carry out their practical activities properly.

What to Read on This Section

Marksizm-leninizm o voyne iarmii [Marxism-Leninism on War and Army],*

5th edition. Voyenizdat, 1968, Ch. V.

Metodologicheskiye problemy voyennoy teorii i praktiki [Methodological

Problems of Military Theory and Practice], 2nd edition. Voyenizdat, 1969,

Ch. VIII, §2.

* Available in English, No. 2, USAF "Soviet Military Thought" series [U.S. Ed.].

12
Chapter 2. THE CPSU AND THE SOVIET ARMED

FORCES

For more than half a century the history of the Soviet Armed Forces has

been continuously associated with the name of V. I. Lenin and the activities

of the Communist Party. Our Party is the creator; leader, and educator of

the Armed Forces and the organizer of their historical victories over the

enemies of the Soviet Homeland. The Soviet Armed Forces are indebted to

its undivided leadership for their invincible might and high moral, political,

and fighting qualities. The leadership of the CPSU is the main source of the

strength of the Soviet State and its Armed Forces.

THE LEADERSHIP OF THE CPSU-THE VERY FOUNDATION OF SOVIET

MILITARY DEVELOPMENT

Leadership of the Communist Party and reinforcement of the role and

influence of Party organizations in the Armed Forces, which is emphasized

in the Program of the CPSU, is the basic principle of Soviet military development. The undivided leadership of the Armed Forces by the Party and its

Central Committee is the objective law of their life and combat activities.

This law is determined by the role which our Party plays in the life of Soviet

society, as its leading and guiding force.

After the victory ofthe Great October Socialist Revolution the Communist

Party became the ruling party. It took upon itself the ultimate responsibility

for all aspects of the life and activities of the state, its safety from the

encroachments of world imperialism, and for the building of socialism and

communism.

Unlike all previous social and economic formations, the assertion ofsocialism and communism does not take the form of an upheaval, but is the result

of the conscious, purposeful activities of the people. Activities of this kind

can only be secured by the M. fist-Leninist Party. As the political leader of

the Soviet people, the CPSU e >ures proper leadership of the masses and

imparts to their struggle for the aci.evement of their ultimate goal—communism—an organized, systematic and scientifically sound character.

V. I. Lenin pointed out that without a party, iron-hard and tempered in

conflict, without a party which enjoys the confidence of the entire honest

13
element in a given class, without a party capable of following the mood of

the masses and influencing it, it would be impossible to wage a successful

struggle for socialism.1 He emphasized that "the dictatorship of the proletariat is only possible through the Communist Party." 2

The principal activities of the Party are the political leadership of society

and the elaboration and solution ofthe radical problems of building socialism

and communism. V. I. Lenin pointed out that the correctness ofthe Communist Party's policy determines the future of the Soviet regime. The Party's

policy is the vital basis of the Soviet system. Relying on Marxist-Leninist

teaching and a knowledge ofthe objective laws ofthe development ofsociety,

the Communist Party elaborates and puts into effect the policy which lies at

the basis of all spheres of the life of our state, without exception—economic,

social, spiritual, and international relations. The Party gives to our people a

scientifically substantiated program of action, indicates the aims ofthe struggle and the means of achieving them. By its titanic efforts, it ensures the

inH-ctrn^tih!- , i «i-nv ideological and political unity of society and the purposeful

development of all the component parts ofthe social organism. "We have not,

nor could there be, another political force which would be as capable of

taking into consideration, combining, and coordinating the interests and

needs of all the classes and social groups, all the nations and peoples, and all

the generations of our society with such completeness and consistency as the

Communist Party. The Party stands out as the organizing nucleus of the

entire social system, the collective intellect of the whole Soviet people." 3

Speaking about the leading role of the Party in the system of the Soviet

State, V. I. Lenin indicated that it was called upon to be not only the people's

political leader, but also its tireless organizer and teacher. The Communist

Party's leadership of society and its relations with the masses are effected

through an extensive coordinated system ofstate and public organizations—

councils, trade unions, the Komsomol and voluntary societies. It combines

and directs their efforts towards a common goal activating organizational

and ideological-educational work by its characteristic methods, developing

by every possible means creativity, initiative, and influence among the masses

who belong to these organizations.

The leading role of the Communist Party in a socialist society also presupposes the necessity of leadership of the Armed Forces. They are of the same

flesh as our people and state, its armed bulwark. V. I. Lenin demanded

indivisible Party leadership of the entire life and activities of the Armed

Forces. On 25 December 1918 on his initiative, the Central Committee ofthe

Party adopted a program resolution "On the Policy of the Military Department." in which it was stated that the policy of the Military Department, as

in all other departments and institutions, is cond"cted strictly on the basis

of genera! directives issued by «he Party in the person of its Central Commit1 Sec Lenin. XLI, 27

1 Lenin. XLIII. 42.

' Brezhnev. Delo Lenina zhivel ipobezhdayet (Lenin's Work Lives and Conquers). Polilizdat,

1970. p 36.

14
tee and under its direct control. Our Party has always strictly fulfilled this

Leninist requirement and continues to do so.

How is the Communist Party's leadership of the Armed Forces expressed?

Firstly, by the fact that all questions relating to the defense of the socialist

Fatherland, military development, military theory and practice are, as they

were in the past, resolved in strict accordance with Party ideology and policy,

on the basis of directives and instructions formulated in resolutions of congresses and plenary meetings of the Central Committee of the Party and the

Politburo of the CC CPSU.

The military policy of the Party, being part of the overall policy of the

CPSU, provides for the resolution ofthe most important problems ofmilitary

development. These are, first and foremost, problems relating to the strengthening of the defensive potential of the country as a whole: the creation and

development of a material and technical base for the military power of the

state; well-organized military production; and the moral, political, and military training of the entire nation for the heroic defense of the Homeland.

Ensuring the unity of the political, economic, and military leadership of the

country, the Party strives for the most efficient utilization of the economy,

the achievements of science and technology, and the moral and political

forces of the state in the interests of reinforcing its defensive power.

Secondly, the Communist Party's leadership of the Armed Forces is expressed in the fact that its Central Committee is directly concerned with

questions relating to their life and activities, determines the principal trends

and challenges of their development and takes care of the reinforcement of

their fighting power, discipline, and solidarity. The Central Committee of the

Party formulates guidelines for the development of the technical equipment

ofthe Armed Forces, supplying the forces with aii kinds of modern weaponry

and material; determines the optimum ratio in the development of the Services and branches of the Armed Forces; evolves Soviet military doctrine;

selects and allocates executive military cadres; develops and puts into practice the principles of personnel training and education; and concerns itself

with increasing the vigilance and combat readiness of the forces. All these

questions are resolved in conformity with the specific historical conditions

and the requirements of military science, having regard to experience and

practice, and combined with constant supervision of the fulfillment of the

Party's directives and instructions. This ensures that, before any decision is

taken on questions relating to military development, the Central Committee

of the Party carefully studies the state of affairs in the Armed Forces, the

actual conditions and circumstances, and consults with executive military

personnel. It is not uncommon for Party and Government leaders and members of the CC CPSU to be actually in the forces themselves, where they

familiarize themselves with their life and training and the work of instructing

and educating personnel. All this allows our Party and its Central Committee

to resolve correctly the most complex questions of military development.

Thirdly, the Communist Party's leadership of the Armed Forces is manifested in the fact that there is a well-balanced system of political organs.

IS
Party and Krusomol organizations within them. These carry out extensive

educational and organizational work in the forces.

The Central Committee devotes unflagging attention to questions of Partypolitical work in the Armed Forces, improving their forms and methods and

increasing their fighting spirit and efficiency. Party and political work has the

effect of rallying the personnel around the Party and the Soviet government,

and mobilizes them for the fulfillment of the tasks facing the Armed Forces.

Fourthly, the leading role of the Communist Party in the Armed Forces

is manifested in the fact that during the trials of war the Party, by its policy

and military-organizational activities, ensures the unity of the front and the

rear, the transformation of the country into a single armed camp, and firm

leadership of the forces.

The scientific basis of the policy of the CPSU in the field of military

development is Marxism-Leninism. In its work the Party draws on the

objective laws of the development of human society and considers the objective laws of war as a social phenomenon. The most progressive, MarxistLeninist world outlook and a genuinely scientific method make it possible for

the Party to penetrate deeply into the essence of war and military science,

to study them in continuous evolution, in their relationship to the class

struggle and the policy of the state on an international scale.

V. I. Lenin repeatedly warned our Party and the Soviet people that while

imperialism exists the threat of military adventure against the Land of the

Soviets will remain. For this reason he demanded that the security of the

Soviet Republic be gi- en the most serious consideration and adjured the

nation to be constantly vigilant, to strengthen the Armed Forces, to keep

them in a permanent state of high-level combat readiness and fighting efficiency. "... the ruling class, the proletariat," stated Lenin, "only if it wants

to and will rule, must demonstrate this in its military organization."4 He

taught that the army of a socialist state can only guarantee the safety of its

socialist Fatherland if, in its moral and political attitude, as well as its

organization, technical equipment and operational methods, it meets all the

requirements of military theory and practice.

Lenin's theories on the armed defense of the socialist Fatherland and ehe

leader's instructions on fundamental questions of military development have

stood the test of time and demonstrated their force and vitality. They form

the theoretical foundation of the military policy of the Communist Party.

These theories are clearly expressed and developed in the Program of the

CPSU, in resolutions of Party Congresses and documents of the CC CPSU.

"The Party," it is stated in the Program of the CPSU, "proceeds on the

basis that while imperialism continues to exist, the danger of wars of aggression will remain. The CPSU considers the defense ofthe socialist Fatherland,

the strengthening of the defenses of the USSR and the might of the Soviet

Armed Forces as the sacred duty of the Party and the entire Soviet People

and the most important function of the socialist state." 5

• Lenin, XXXVIII, 139.

' Programma . . ,, p. 110.

16
Guided by V. I. Lenin's teaching on the defense of the socialist Fatherland and his recommendation that "in an age of civil war the ideal of the party of the proletariat is a belligerent party," '

the Communist Party organized and inspired the crushing defeat of the first invasion of the

Soviet Republic by the forces of international imperialism. The Party worked out a program of

national defense and the organization of our Armed Forces and determined the nature, purpose,

principles and means of their development. All the most important questions relating to the

organization and waging of the armed struggle against the interventionists and White Guards

during the Civil War were resolved under the leadership of the Party and its leader, V. I. Lenin.

Vital questions relating to the strengthening of the country's defenses, the military policy and

strategy of the Soviet State, measures for carrying out the principal strategic operations and

providing all the necessary material and human resources were discussed, despite the difficulties

of war, at regular Party congresses and plenary meetings of the Political and Organizational

Bureaus of the Central Committee. In the period between the VIII and IX Party Congresses

alone, i.e., the most difficult period of the Civil War (March 1919-April 1920), 6 plenary

meetings of the Central Committee of the Party were held, 29 meetings of the Politburo, 19

combined meetings of the Political and Organizational Bureaus and 110 meetings of the Organizational Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik). At all

these meetings the principal and priority questions discussed were those relating to national

defense, the conduct of the war and military development, and the adopted resolutions were put

into effect immediately.' The Central Committee of the Party, headed by V. I. Lenin, was the

war operations HQ, the organ of the collective leadership of the country's defenses and the

development of the Armed Forces.

The resolutions of the VIII Party Congress were of great importance in the

mobilization of all the country's forces and the creation of the people's

regular Red Army for the crushing defeat of the interventionists and White

Guards. The fundamentals of the Party's military policy at this new stage in

the development of our army were defined in V. I. Lenin's reports and

speeches at the congress and in the Party's new program and a resolution on

the military question. The congress worked out and passed program directives on all the principal questions of Soviet military development. It consolidated Lenin's policy on the completion of the formation cf the regular

Red Anny and determined practical measures for reinforcing its fighting

strength. In the words of the resolution of the VIII Congress on ihe military

question: "The Army must be trained, armed and organized in accordance

with the latest developments in military science." 8 The basic principle of

military development—undivided Communist Party leadership of the entire

life and activities of the Armed Forces—was established on the basis of

congress resolutions on the military question. In this connection the congress

outlined practical measures for the strengthening of Party leadership of the

Army, tne consolidation of its central organization, the improvement of

Party-political work in the forces, the training of officer cadres of proletarian

origin, and the strict application of the class principle in the development of

the army.

The leading role of the Communist Party in defense of the achievements

of the socialist revolution was also manifested in the fact that Party members

• Lenin, XIV. 8.

' See KPSS i stroitel'stvo Sovetskikh Vooruzhe.mykh Sil [The CPSU and the Development of

the Soviet Armed Forces). Voycnizdat, 1967, p. 67.

" KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh . . [The CPSU in Resolutions . . .], Part I, 7th ed. Gospolitizdat,

1953, p. 435.

17

^m
were in the front ranks of those fighting for the interests ofthe workers. More

than half the Party membership fought selflessly in the front line during the

Civil War.

Having repulsed the first invasion of world imperialism, the Soviet people

set about the task of peaceful socialist development At the same time, the

Communist Party did not forget about capitalist encirclement and the fact

that the reactionary forces of imperialism had not abandoned their treacherous schemes to annihilate the Soviet system by force. The Party remembered

V. I. Lenin'swords: "... Whoever forgets about the danger which constantly

threatens us and which will continue to do so while world imperialism exists,

—whoever forgets this, forgets our workers' republic." '

The Communist Party devoted unremitting attention to increasing the

country's defense capacity. Questions of military policy and the strengthening of the fighting power of the Armed Forces were discussed at the X, XI,

XII, XIII, XIV and other Congresses, at Party conferences and plenary

meetings ofthe Central Committee ofthe Party. A program for the transition

of the army to peacetime status was outlined and the means of further

military development were determined in resolutions of the X Congress of

the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik). The resolutions of the congress

emphasized the necessity of maintaining a regular army as the basis of our

Armed Forces, the development and perfection ofspecial technical units and

the regeneration and reinforcement of the Navy. In order to ensure a high

level of combat readiness and the class solidarity of the army the congress

demanded that its proletarian content be reinforced and that the proportion

of Party members in the army be increased. The X Congress paid special

attention to strengthening political organizations and increasing their active

participation in the work. In a resolution ofthe congress special emphasis was

laid on the necessity "of maintaining the political system of the Red Army

in the form that it had developed during three years of war; ofimproving and

reinforcing its organization; of strengthening its ties with local Party organizations, retaining, however, the complete independence of its system." 10

At the February and April Plenary Meetings of the Central Committee of

the Party (1924) and the XIII Congress of the Russian Communist Party

(Bolshevik) a clear-cut program of measures was drawn up for carrying out

military reforms in the period 1924-1928. The Party effected a fundamental

reconstruction of the entire system of organizing, directing and bringing the

army up to strength, training and allocating military cadres, and improved

the system of training and educating the forces and of conducting Partypolitical work in them.

Positive successes in strengthening the country's defense capacity and

increasing the fighting power of the Armed Forces were achieved as a result

ofthe realization of Lenin's plan for building socialism in the USSR. Of prime

importance in creating the economic basis of the country's defense capacity

' Lenin, XLU. 173.

KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh [The CPSU in Resolutions . . .], Part I, p. 570.

18
was the Communist Party's firm implementation of the general policy of

socialist industrialization of the country. The collectivization of agriculture

and the cultural revolution played an important role in consolidating the

defense capacity of the USSR. Thus, the foundation of our victory over

fascism was laid during the prewar period.

In addition to consolidating the military and economic strength of the

country, the Party showed great concern over increasing the moral and

political potential of the Soviet people and educating them in the spirit of the

great ideas of Marxism-Leninism, Soviet patriotism, and constant readiness

for the defense of the socialist Motherland.

In the face ofthe growing military threat from Nazi Germany and its allies,

the reinforcement of the country's defenses and the fighting power of the

Armed Forces took priority over other matters in the Party's activities. This

was reflected in the resolutions of the XVIII Congress of the Ail-Union

Communist Party (Bolshevik), the March Plenary Meeting of the Central

Committee (1940), the XVIII Party Conference (February 1941) and other

Party documents. In fulfilling these resolutions, important steps were taken

to reorganize industry and transport, taking into account the looming military threat: an extensive program for the Armed Forces was drawn up and

implemented, which provided for their reequipment, the improvement of

their organizational structure, and their combat and political training.

On the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War, a battle of unprecedented

magnitude developed between the shock forces of imperialism and the first

socialist state. In these difficult years for our Motherland the Communist

Party, under whose leadership victory was forged, displayed unsurpassed

theoretical maturity and scientific insight. The Party worked out a program

for the mobilization of all the country's resources for repelling the enemy.

The Party roused the entire Soviet people for the just cause of defending the

socialist Fatherland and inspired our soldiers and sailors to heroic deeds.

Concern for the strengthening of the fighting power of the Armed Forces

was the central issue in the Party's military organizational and political work.

A well-balanced war economy was set up within a short period of time. The

temporary superiority of the Nazi German army in weapons and equipment

was overcome. The Party carried through on an unprecedented scale a program of measures for the war mobilization training of combat reserves and

regulars, the reorganization and consolidation of Party-political work in the

Armed Forces, the improvement of combat skills, and the deployment of a

partisan movement in the enemy's rear. The strength and endurance of our

army, which not only withstood the enemy's onslaught, but smashed it, were

greatly increased by these measures, by the love they felt for their country,

and by the concern and support of heroic workers in the rear. The Soviet

people and their Armed Forces gained a great victory, the chief source of

which was the Communist Party's firm, wise leadership of the entire life of

the country.

"During the dark and difficult years of war, our embattled nation was led

by the Communist Party. It organized, inspired and ideologically armed the

19

fe.
Soviet people for the struggle with the enemy. The Communist Party's best

sons were at the forefront of the fight against fascism. The Party produced

a remarkable galaxy of military leaders. Political officers, among whom were

prominent Party and Government figures, carried out extensive organizational and Party-political work in the Army. By the end ofthe war there were

over three million Party members at the front. The most difficult months of

1941 and 1942 saw the largest influx offighting men into the Party. Our Party

was indeed a fighting party." "

From 1 July 1941 through 1 July 1946 Party organizations of the Red

Army accepted 3,777,600 persons as candidates for membership in the AllUnion Communist Party (Bolshevik), and 2,491,426 persons as members.

The following table is a partial breakdown of these figures by years.12

Party candidates Party members

During the 2r;(J haii of 194i

1942

1943

' 1944

1945

126,625

1,072,088

1,328,359

896,500

300.034

49,981

402,264

774,837

783,883

399,452

The victory of the Soviet Union in World War II was of universal importance. It demonstrated the enormous vitality and the invincibility of the

socialist system. The authority ofthe Soviet Union and its role in the solution

ofinternational problems increased enormously as a result ofour victory over

fascism. Favorable conditions were created for the development and victory

ofsocialist revolutions in a number of European and Asian countries and the

formation of a world system of socialism.

In the postwar period, the Soviet people under the leadership of the Party,

were able, within a short time, to heal the ugly wounds of the war, to rebuild

the national economy, and to create practical prerequisites for the development of communism in the USSR. In view of the increasing activity among

the aggressive forces of imperialism and their preparations for a new world

war, the Communist Party continued to concern itself about the technical

equipment ofthe Armed Forces, the improvement oftheir combat readiness,

and the idealogical and political training of the personnel. The resolutions of

recent Party congresses, and the October 1957 and subsequent plenary meetings of the CC CPSU were of great importance for strengthening the Soviet

Armed Forces.

A detailed analysis of the processes of development in military affairs,

weaponry and equipment enabled the Central Committee of our Party to

determine the general trend in the creation and development of new weaponry. Thanks to the wise policy of the Central Committee of the Party on

" 50 let Velikoy Oktyabr'skoy sotsialislicheskoy revolyutsii. Tezisy TsK KPSS [Fifty Years of

the Great October Socialist Revolution: Theses of the CC CPSU]. Politizdat. 1967, p. 22,

" See Voprosy isiorii KPSS [Problems of the History of the CPSU], 1965. No. 5. p. 66.

20

P
the question of military equipment, Soviet economic, scientific and technical

achievements, a qualitatively new material and technical base was created for

providing the Armed Forces with up-to-date equipment and new weapons,

primarily nuclear missiles. As a result of this, the American nuclear monopoly was broken and the world socialist system obtained its own nuclear

shield.

The emergence of nuclear weapons and delivery systems, their wide introduction, together

with other political, economic, scientific and technical factors, fed to fundamental qualitative

changes in all fields of military theory and practice and to a revolution in military affairs.

Weaponry, methods of conducting military operations, troop organization, military theory, and

the military training scheme all underwent radical qualitative changes, and methcds of training

and educating personnel were improved. As a result of this, the development of the Armed

Forces of the USSR was raised to a new and higher level.

In recent years, because of the aggravation of the international situation,

the Party and the Government have passed a number of new and important

resolutions on questions of military development aimed at further improvements in the organization of the forces and their equipment with new types

of weapons and materiel, and improvements in the training of military personnel and the standard of Party-political work in the forces. The third

session of the seventh convocation of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on 12

October 1967 ratified the new Universal Military Service Law. Its implementation represents an important stage in Soviet military development, and

provides new evidence of the Party's concern over the strengthening of the

country's defenses.

Progress in the building of communism is characterized by a further

increase in the role and importance of the Communist Party as the leading

and guiding force of Soviet society. These objective laws also operate in the

military sphere. Expansion of the leading role of the CPSU in military

development follows from the peculiarities of the international situation, the

level of development in military affairs, the nature and special features of

modern warfare, and other factors of fundamental importance.

The Party's increased role in the leadership of the Armed Forces was

dictated, firstly, by the fact that their tasks in maintaining the security of the

Motherland had become greater and more complex. The Party considers that

the aggressiveness of imperialism has increased and that, as a result of this,

there is a danger of a new world war. As was noted at the 1969 International

Conference of Communist and Workers' Parties, the chief source of military

danger is American imperialism in the role o

f

world exploiter and gendarme,

the sworn enemy of liberation movements.

The ruling circles of the USA are feverishly stepping up the arms race, reinforcing aggressive

blocks by every possible means and aggravating international tension. By imp'ementing the

poliry of "local conflicts" and "small wars" elaborated in Washington, they try to hold on to

their positions in different parts of the globe and insolently interfere in the internal affairs of

sovereign slates. For several years now, the American imperialists have been conducting a

shameful, murderous war against the Vietnamese people. They have unleashed bloody military

adventures against the people of Laos and Cambodia in order to suppress the liberation move21
ment in Indochina. The American military clique directly sponsored and orchestrated the

military-fascist revolution in Greece; with the covert and overt encouragement of imperialist

circles in the USA and England, the rulers of Israel unleashed a war of conquest in the Near

East against the United Arab Republic and other Arab countries.

The scale of the military preparations of the imperialists of the USA and their allies can be

judged by the fact that, beginning in 1949, the total expenditures of the member countries of

the North Atlantic bloc for military purposes have exceeded one trillion (one thousand billion)

dollars, the United States of America accounting for two thirds of this sum.

The active partners of the USA in aggravating international tension and intensifying the arms

race are its accomplices in aggressive military blocs. The aggressive North Atlantic military bloc,

NATO, is a particularly serious threat to the peace of Europe. During the period that this bloc

has existed the miliiary expenditures of its member countries have reached the astronomical

figure of almost 1.5 trillion dollars, i.e., more than was spent on the first and second world wars.

Our Party counters the imperialist policy of military adventure and the

fanning of international tensions with its Leninist foreign policy. Guided by

the resolutions of Party congresses and plenary meetings of the CC CPSU,

it rebuifs the aggressive activities of world reaction and, jointly with fraternal socialist countries, takes the necessary steps to prevent a world nuclear

war. One of the most important factors in resolving these problems is the

steady growth in the military might of the Soviet Armed Forces, their readiness at any moment to annihilate the aggressor, whatever weapons he may

use.

In the words ofthe Resolution ofthe CC CPSU on the centenary of Lenin's

birth: "The Party will henceforth constantly concern itself with the growth

ofthe defensive capacity ofthe Soviet Homeland and will maintain the people

and the Army in a state of constant readiness to repel imperialist aggression

and defend the socialist Fatherland."

Secondly, the increase in the leading role of the Communist Party in the

Armed Forces was brought about by the scientific revolution, fundamental

changes in military affairs, and the need for Marxist-Leninist scientific foresight and the elaboration and implementation of a well-balanced policy in the

theory and practice of military development.

Thanks to the constant conc»m of the Party and Government our Armed

Forces have all the necessary means at their disposal to destroy any aggressor. But military affairs are developing rapidly. The imperialist states are

devoting enormous efforts to gaining advantages in the military field. Thus,

the CPSU's correct scientific and technical policy of developing our economy

to its fullest possible extent in order to keep the Armed Forces at the peak

of modern military technology is now of particular importance.

Thirdly, the enlarged role of the Communist Party in the leadership of the

Armed Forces is determined by the increased importance of morale in modem warfare. All the history of wars shows that the more lethal the weapons

employed, the greater the importance of the morale of the people involved

in military operations. This applies to a far greater degree in the case of a

possible nuclear war. The augmentation ofthe moral and political superiority

of the Soviet Armed Forces over the armies of the imperialist states is now

of paramount importance. By virtue of this, the Party plays an increasingly

22

i

»Jr.
important role in the communist education of forces personnel a.td in their

moral, political and psychological training.

Fourthly, the expansion of the leading role of the CPSU in military affairs

is dictated by the necessity of preparing the entire nation to repel imperialist

aggression. Modem warfare obliterates the boundary between the front and

the rear. Troops and objectives deep in the interior of the country may be

subjected to surprise nuclear strikes. Hence, the Party is playing a larger role

in ensuring the viability of our state in the event of war, in strengthening the

military and economic power of the USSR by every possible means, in the

moral, political, and military training of the population, and in the organization of civil defense.

Fifthly, the increase in the leading role ofthe CPSU in the field of military

development is dictated by the expansion of the international obligations of

the Soviet Armed Forces and the necessity of ensuring the close cooperation

and unity of action of all fraternal armies.

The conditions governing the armed defense of the socialist states have

changed radically with the formation of the world socialist system and the

growth of its political and economic power. Unlike the past, when only a

single socialist state was opposed to an imperialist attack, in any future

war imperialist aggressors will receive a rebuff from the powerful socialist

community.

POLITICAL ORGANS, PARTY AND KOMSOMOL ORGANIZATIONS OF THE

SOVIET ARMED FORCES

Party-political work is an integral part of all the organizational and ideological activities of the Communist Party in the Armed Forces, and an

important means of strengthening them. V. I. Lenin taught that "when

political work is conducted with greater care among the troops . . . there is

no laxity in the Army, its order and morale are of a higher standard and it

wins more victories." n

Political organs in the Armed Forces are the executive elements of the

Party in the field of Party-political work. Political organs and Party organizations are guided by the Program and Rules of the CPSU, the resolutions of

Party congresses and conferences and the Central Committee of the CPSU,

as well as by the Regulations for Poliücal Organs and Instructions to Organizations of the CPSU in the Soviet Armed Forces, ratified by the Central

Committee of the Party. Political organs also base their practical work on

orders and directives of the Minister of Defense and the Head of the Chief

Political Directorate of the Soviet Armed Forces. The Party exercises its

influence on all aspects of the life of the Armed Forces through political

organs and Party organizations, and the Party members serving in them.

During the very first days of the existence of the Soviet Armed Forces our

Party began to set up within them a Party-political system, in which the

l! Lenin, XXXIX. 56.

23
institution of the military commissars occupied a prominent place. The military commissars not only acted as direct representatives of the Soviet regime

in the Army, they also represented the Party's morale, discipline, fortitude

and courage. On 8 April 1918 the Ail-Russian Bureau of Military Commissars was set up to direct their activities. This formed the foundation for the

development of the central military-political system of our Armed Forces.

In July 1918 the V AU-Russiar. Congress of Soviets confirmed the institution of the military commissar. In a resolution of the Congress it was indicated that only irreproachable revolutionaries and resolute fighters for the

cause of the proletariat and the village poor could occupy positions as military commissars. As bearer

s of the Party's policy, the military commissars

organized and carried out Party-political work among the troops and exercised very strict political control of the activities of military specialists. The

commissars directed the activities of Party cells and political sections.

A system of political organs was set up by ihe autumn of 1918. The

establishment of political organs was officially recognized in a resolution of

the Central Committee of the Party on 25 October 1918. In accordance with

this resolution, the organization of political sections attached to the revolutionary military councils of the fronts and armies was announced by the

Revolutionary Military Council on 5 December 1918. Soon after this, political sections were formed in all divisions and brigades. Under Lenin's leadership special Regulations for Political Organs were worked out.

In order to reinforce the management of Party and political work in the

Armed Forces, the VIII Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik) decided to create a Political Section of the Revolutionary Military

Committee of the Republic, transferring to it all the functions of the AllRussian Bureau of Military Commissars and placing at its head a member

of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik),

exercising the rights of a member of the Revolutionary Military Council. On

the basis of this decision, the All-Russian Bureau of Military Commissars

was abolished and the Political Section ofthe Revolutionary Military Council

of the Republic was established in its place The latter was soon transformed

into the Political Directorate of the Revolutionary Military Council (PUR).

Thus the formation of the Anned Forces system of political organs was

completed.

All the experience ofthe work of ihe miiiiary commissars and the political

organs indicates that they played a tremendously important role in the development ofthe young Workers' and Peasants' Red Army and the achievement

of their historical victories over the enemies of our Homeland. M. V. Frunze,

evaluating the activities of political organs during the Civil War, wrote:

"Who introduced the elements of order and discipline into the ranks of our

young Red regiments, formed amid the thunder ofshell-fire? Who in the days

when we suffered reverses and defeats sustained the courage and boldness of

our fighters and infused new energy into their shaken ranks? Who organized

the Army's rear and established Soviet authority there, thus ensuring the

rapid and successful advance of our armies? Who, by their persistent and

24
stubborn efforts, broke the enemy's ranks and disorganized his rear, thus

paving the way for future successes?

'These things were done, and done brilliantly, by the Army's political

organs. . . .

"As agents ofthe Communist Party in the Army, the political organs acted

as direct conveyors of the morale, energy, and enthusiasm that animated the

Party and the confidence in victory possessed by the working class." 14

During the period of peaceful socialist development, by implementing the

policy and resolutions of the Party, the political organs played an extremely

important role in the strengthening and reequipping of the Soviet Armed

Forces, and in the education and political training of all personnel. The

services of the political organs in winning our historic victory in World War

II were exceptional. As in the Civil War they acted as steadfast champions

of the Party's policy and influence in the Armed Forces and as political

educators of Soviet fighting men. Together with the commanders, they led

the work of mobilizing the forces to crush a strong and treacherous enemy.

During the postwar period, with the appearance of new weapons and

equipment, changes in the methods of armed conflict, and an improvement

in the qualitative composition of the Armed Forces, improvements were

made in the form, content and methods of Party-political work. Moral,

political and psychological training tasks were greatly expanded and made

much more sophisticated. New problems arose in connection with mastering

the latest equipment, reinforcing discipline, and troop control.

A comprehensive program for reinforcing the role and influence of political organs and Party organizations, improving Party-political work and the

ideological and political education of the Armed Forces personnel is set out

in the Program and Rules of the Party, in resolutions of the XXIII Congress

of the CPSU and subsequent plenary meetings of the Central Committee, in

a resolution of the CC CPSU dated 21 January 1967 "On Measures for

Improving Party-Political Work in the Soviet Armed Forces," and in the

message of greeting to commanders and political workers on the occasion of

the 50th anniversary of the formation of the Political Directorate of the

Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic.

The institution of military councils occupies an important place in the

leadership of the forces There are military councils in the Services, in military districts, fleets and several other elements ofthe military organism. They

examine and resolve all fundamental questions relating to the life and activities of the forces; they are responsible to the Central Committee, the Government and Minister of Defense for the constant combat readiness and fighting

efficiency of the forces, their training and education. The resolutions of

military councils are adopted by majority vote and put into effect by the

orders of the respective commanders.

leadership of Party and political work in the Armed Forces of the USSR

is effected by the Central Committee of the CPSU through the ChiefPolitical

" Frunze, p. 147.

\

25

r
Directorate ofthe Soviet Armed Forces, which exercises the rights of a section

within the CC CPSU.

The Bureau of the Chief Political Directorate was created in accordance

with a resolution of the CC CPSU to ensure collectivity in resolving vital

questions relating to Party-political work and the education of cadres of

Party and political workers of the Armed Forces in the spirit of observing

Leninist rules of Party life and the principles of Party leadersnip. Resolutions

of the Bureau are adopted by a majority vote and put into effect by directives

and instructions issued by the Head of the Chief Political Directorate.

Directives on questions of Party-political work in the Armed Forces are

issued under the signriures of the Minister of Defense and the Head of the

Chief Political Directorate with the approval of the CC CPSU. Directives

and instructions on day-to-day questions of Party-political work are issued

by the Head of the Chief Political Directorate.

Corresponding political directorates and political sections have been

created to organize and direct Party and political work in all Services of the

Armed Forces, groups of forces, military districts, air defense districts, and

fleets. The political directorates of Services of the Armed Forces, groups of

forces, military and air defense districts and fleets are headed by members of

military councils—heads of the political directorates (political sections).

Political sections offormations are established directly in units and ships

for the supervision and organization of Party-political and educational work.

The head of the political section is the deputy commander for political affairs

of the formation. Political sections are also established in military training

and scientific research establishments, the central organization of the Ministry of Defense, the headquarters and directorates of districts, groups offerees

and fleets.

Party commissions, established under political organs are responsible for

considering the decisions of Party organizations on questions relating to

membership of the CPSU and cases of misdemeanors of Party and Komsomol members. Party commissions are selc "ted at appropriate Party conferences and operate under the direction of political organs. A Party commission under the Chief Political Directorate of the Soviet Armed Forces is

confirmed by the Central Committee of the CPSU.

Party organizations of the Soviet Armed Forces represent a large and

important combat force of the CPSU closely bound to its Leninist Central

Committee. More than 80% of the personnel in the Armed Forces are Party

or Komsomol members. This is their strength, the basis of the high level of

political consciousness and morale of our soldiers and sailors, and the guarantee that they will successfully fulfil the tasks of ensuring the security of our

Homeland.

Party organizations exis sd in the Red Army right from the beginning of its existence.

Together with the young Red Army they grew rapidly and gathered strength. Whereas in

October 1S18 there were 800 Party cells in subunit? of the Army, by July 1

<

)20 there were 6.337.

consisting of as many as 300 thousand Party members, who in combat exhibited personal

examples of heroism, endurance and courage.

26
After the victorious conclusion of the Civil War, the Central Committee of the Party and

V. I. Lenin carefully guarded against the possibility that mass demobilization might result in

a reduction of the numerical strength of Party members in the forces and ensured that experienced cadres of Party workers were retained. Questions relating to Party work in the Armed

Forces were discussed repeatedly at Party congresses and conferences and plenary meetings of

the Centra! Committee. As a result, the Armed Forces Party organizations grew and gathered

strength.

The following table " shows how the numerical strength of Party members in the Red Army

and Navy increased during the prewar years.

Pate

Number of cells (primary

Party organizations)

Party members in the

Armed Forces

By the end o( 1921

On 1 Jan,, 1928

On 1 Jan.

On 1 Jan,,

On 1 Jan,,

On 1 Jan,,

On 1 Oct.,

1929

1930

1931

1940

1940

By June, 1941

5,690

6,001

6,283

6,760

7,030

9.468

10,069

12.200

73,000

82,018

93,830

102.749

133.789

434.955

508.450

560.800

In the Great Patriotic War, the best forces of the Party were sent to the most dangerous and

responsible sectors of the struggle. Nearly one third of the members of the Central Committee

of our Party were at the front. Whereas during the Civil War there were 5 Party members to

every 100 fighting men, the corresponding figures at the beginning and end of World War II

were 13 and 25, respectively. In addition to this, there were 20 Komsomol members per 100

fighting men. This means that almost every other soldier in our Army was either a member of

the Party or the Komsomol.

Party work in the forces was carried out on a massive scale. Non-Party

fighting men were drawn into the battle with the enemy by the courage and

irresistible impetuosity displayed by front-line Party members, thus ensuring

victory in battles and operations.

In the postwar period, the Armed Forces Party organizations were

strengthened both ideologically and organizationally, their activity and

fighting spirit increased appreciably, as did their influence on the solution

of combat and political training tasks and the strengthening of military

discipline.

Fulfilling the demands of the Party Program and the resolutions of the

XXIII Party Congress, the Party organizations of the Soviet Armed Forces

are firmly and consistently implementing Party policy in them- all their

activities are directed at reinforcing their fighting power, rallying military

personnel around the Communist Party and educating them in the spirit of

the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, selfless devotion to the Socialist Homeland,

the friendship of our country's peoples, proletarian internationalism and

burning hatred of the imperialist aggressors. They actively promote the unity

of the Army and the people, concern themselves with the. strengthening of

" Sec KPSS i stroitel'slvo Sovetskikh Vooruzhennykh Sil [The CPSU end the Development of

the Soviet Armed Forces] Voyenizdal, I%7. p. 226; Yu. P. Pelrov. Partiynoye itroitel'itm v

Soveiskoy Armii i Hole (1918-1961) (Parly Development in the Soviet Armed Forces (1918-

l%l)]. Voyenudal, 1964. pp. 150. 281. 329,

27
military discipline, and mobilize personnel for the exemplary fulfillment

of combat and political training tasks, the mastering of new weapons and

equipment, and the maintenance of a high degree of vigilance and combat

readiness.

Primary Party organizations in the Soviet Armed Forces are created by the

respective political sections in regiments, individual units (battalion, company, battery, squadron), on ships of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd class, in divisions

ofsmall ships, in formation headquarters, in military training establishments

and institutions where there are at least *' iQ Party members.

Party organizations exercising depar uental rights for battalions, squadrons, and combat operational um- \ ships are set up within the primary

Party organizations with the auf * /ation of the political section.

In cases where there are more than 75 Party members in regiments, ships

and departments of military academies, Party committees may be set up with

the authorization of the political section of a strategic formation, district

political directorate, group of forces, or fleet, the Party organizations of

battalions, and equivalent subunits being granted the rights of a primary

Party organization. Under these conditions, and with the permission of the

political section. Party organizations exercising departmental rights may be

formed in companies and equivalent subunits where there are three or more

Party members.

With n Party organizations of subunits, as weli as within a primary Party organization. Party

groups may be set up for companies, batteries, flights, on small ships, in platoons, aircrews,

training sections, departments of institutions and plant workshops. The Party group organizer

is electtd at a Party group meeting, which includes three Party members, by a show of hands

(or, with the permission of the Party members, by secret ballot). In Party groups which include

less than three Party members and several candidates for Party membership, the Party group

organizsr is selected by the Party Committee (Bureau) of the unit.

Primary Party organizations receive new members into the Party from

among those officers, noncommissioned officers, petty officers, soldiers, sailors, workers and employees of the Soviet Armed Forces who are the mo-t

mature, active, and committed to the cause of Communism. Induct »ii into

th > Party is effected on an individual basis. Candidates who have reached the

age of 18 are accepted into the CPSU. In order to improve the qualifying

standard of personnel being accepted into the CPSU, the XXIII Congress

ruled that young persons up to and including the age of 23 will enter the Party

only through the Komsomol. New Party members are accepted from among

candidates who have passed through the probationary term established by

the Rules of the CPSU.

The Instructions to Organizations ofthe CPSU in the Soviet Armed Forces

lay specific obligations on Party organizations, require them to use their skill

to permeate and influence all aspects of life and activates of subunits, units,

ships, headquarters, military training establishments and institutions; iO reveal boldly, through criticism and self-criticism, shortcomings in the training

and education of military personnel, in Party-political work, in the activities

of Party committees (bureaus) and political organs, and in the material

28
security and welfare of personnel; to assist commanders in the timely adoption of measures to eliminate defects in the organization of the training

process and service in the forces; to combat deceit, poor management, misappropriation and wastefulness of state resources; and anything that is detrimental to the combat readiness of military units. At Party meetings. Party

members have the right to criticize any other Party member or candidate,

regardless of the position he occupies. Criticism of orders and regulations

issued by commanders and senior officers is not permitted.

Party organizations reinforce unity of command in the Armed Forces. A

commander exercising political and military authority is the champion ofthe

Communist Party's policy. Party organizations teach personnel to respect

their commanders, and strive to ensure that each order given by a commander is carried out unquestioningly, precisely and promptly.

Party organizations of units and subunits and all Party work in the forces

come under the control of political organs. The deputy commander for

political affairs together with the Party Committee (Bureau) organizes Party

work and bears direct responsibility for its state.

Komsomol organizations in the Soviet Armed Forces are active assistants

of organizations of the CPSU in implementing Party policy in, and strengthening their fighting power.

Primary Komsomol organizations are created by political sections in battalions, independent companies (batteries), squadrons and equivalent subunits, in the divisions of 1st and 2nd class ships, and on submarines, as well

as institutions, in courses or in companies of military training establishments

and military construction detachments, when there are not less than three

Komsomol members.

A bureau for carrying out routine work is elected for a period of one year

by a show of hands at i meeting of the primary Komsomol organization. A

secretary and a deputy secretary are selected from among the members ofthe

bureau at a meeting of the latter. In Komsomol organizations with less than

10 Komsomol members, a bureau is not set up: a secretary and his deputy

are elected.

Within a primary Komsomol organization, Komsomol organizations exercising departmental

rights are formed in companies, batteries and equivalent subunits. They conduct their practical

work on the basis of tasks being solved by the subunits and primary organizations of which they

are a part. A bureau is formed within these organizations if there are more than ten Komsomol

members. It is elected by a show of hands for a period of one year. In a company Komsomol

organization, Komsomol groups may be formed in platoons, crews, flights, detachments teams,

and also in groups detailed for work, detached duty, etc. They are formed in subunits or groups

in which there are not less than three Komsomol members. A Komsomol group organizer is

elected for a period of one year

Komsomol committees are elected in regiments, on 1st and 2nd class ships, and also in

independent units, where primary Komsomol organizations have been set up for subunits.

The Armed Forces Komsomol organizations are guided in all their activities by resolutions of the CPSU, the Komsomol Rules, the resolutions of

congresses and the Central Committee of the Komsomol. Their practical

29
tasks are also defined in the Instructions to Komsomol Organizations in the

Soviet Armed Forces, approved by the Komsomol Central Committee and

the Chief Political Directorate.

Komsomol organizations of the Armed Forces are called upon to educate

young soldiers and sailors in the spirit ofselfless dedication to the Communist

Party and the Soviet Motherland and the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, the

heroic traditions ofthe revolutionary struggle and self-sacrificing labor of the

Soviet people, L* train steadfast, ideologically convinced fighters for the

victory of communism, ready to give all their strength and, if need be, their

lives as well, in the defense of the socialist Motherland. A resolution of the

XVl Congress of the Komsomol points out that Komsomol organizations in

the Armed Forces are called upon to strive to ensure that Komsomol members scrupulously fulfill Lenin's precept—to study military affairs by actual

procedure, to set an example in fulfilling the requirements of the oath

and regulations and to become first-class specialists in combat and political

training.

Leadership of the activities of military Komsomol organizations is exercised by the Chief Political Directorate of the Soviet Armed Forces through

the corresponding political and Party organizations and deputy commanders

for political affairs. There are assistant heads of political sections for Komsomol work in all political organizations. The most important matters relating to Komsomol work in the Armed Forces are subject to agreement between the Chief Political Directorate and the Komsomol Central Committee.

PARTY-POLITICAL WORK IN THE ARMED FORCES

Party-political work in our Armed Forces is based on the policy and

ideology of the Communist Party, taking into account the specific tasks

which face them at each stage of their development. It does not remain

unchanged, but is being constantly improved. A change in the determining

factors, including methods of armed combat, the appearance of new equipment, an improvement in the qualitative structure of the military, is accompanied by development of the content, forms and methods of Party and

political work.

Party-political work in the Armed Forces is organized and conducted on

the basis of definite principles, such as ideological content, scientific character, concreteness, purposefulness, continuity, unity of ideological and organizational activities, its conformity to the nature of modern warfare, and the

tasks being resolved by the forces.

There has been a big improvement in Party-political work in the forces and

its effectiveness has been increased, thanks to the active and persistent activities of military councils, commanders, political bodies and Party organizations in fulfilling the requirements of the Party Program, the resolutions of

the XXIII Congress and plenary meetings of the CC CPSU, the resolution

of the CC CPSU dated 21 January 1967 "On Measures for the Improvement

of Party-Political Work in the Soviet Armed Forces."

30
The task of ensuring a high state of vigilance and constant combat readiness of the forces is of vital importance. This is due to the aggravation of the

current international situation, the increased aggressiveness of imperialism,

and the growth of the military danger for the USSR and the entire socialist

community.

Constant combat readiness is a vast subject. It incorporates such factors

as the maintenance of the fighting efficiency of the forces as a whole, their

strength, a high standard of training, their ability to wage modern warfare

according to all the rules of military art; the moral, political and psychological training of personnel in conformity with the nature and special characteristics of modem warfare. It is, in fact, the ability of subunits, units and ships

for immediate and decisive action when an alert is given, and the highest state

of organizational efficiency and discipline in all the elements of the military

organism.

The concept of the combat readiness of the forces has now been expanded and augmented

with new meaning.

The so-called "seasonal" approach to combat readiness of the forces has now been consigned

to the history books. War may now break out at any time ofthe year. Therefore, the forces must

be in a constantly high and unremitting state of combat readiness. The degree of personal

responsibility of servicemen for the combat readiness of subunits and units ^s been increased.

Now more than ever before, combat readiness depends upon the conscientiousness, discipline,

and training of every soldier at the control panel of a missile complex, in the combat detail of

a crew, etc. The importance of the time factor in ensuring combat readiness has greatly increased. All this is taken into account in the organization of Party and political work.

Qualitative changes which have taken place in military affairs have made

it essential for Party and political organizations to give priority to the task

of forming a high state of political consciousness and psychological stability

in the forces, of fostering in our soldiers a firm will for victory over a strong

and rapacious enemy, and readiness to carry out combat orders at any cost,

even to the point ofself-sacrifice. Moral and political training entails, first and

foremost, the instilling of profound ideological conviction and a welldeveloped sense of personal responsibility for the fulfillment of his combat

task in each member of the forces.

Psychological training consists in forming in personnel the psychological

qualities needed for the successful completion of combat tasks under the

difficult conditions of modern combat—lofty patriotic feelings, faithfulness

to military duty, confidence in victory over the enemy, strength of will,

courage, endurance, and discipline.

The level of psychological stability depends largely on a sound knowledge

of the nature of modern combat, the tactical and technical characteristics of

weapons, and protection against them, and on the ability of personnel to

conduct effective combat operations under any conditions.

All educational work with Armed Forces personnel is based on a profound

study of Lenin's theoretical legacy, the resolutions of Party congresses and

plenary meetings of the CC CPSU. The achievements of our country in the

building of communism, the revolutionary traditions of the Communist

31

\

;

:
Party and the Soviet people and the glorious history of the Soviet State and

its Armed Forces are publicized with force and conviction.

The entire Marxist-Leninist system oftraining officers, generals, and admirals, political work with soldiers and noncommissioned officers, political

education, propaganda, cultural and educational work with personnel are

devoted to this.

In pursuing their aggressive policy, the imperialists, primarily reactionary

circles in the USA, are striving to introduce a "war ofideas" into the socialist

countnes. They are broadening the front of ideological diversions and are

doing everything possible to corrupt the minds of our people and undermine

the foundations of socialism.

Referring to the increased aggressiveness of imperialism, and the ideological diversions directed against the USSR and the other socialist countries, the

XXIII Congress of the CPSU pointed out that the front of the ideological

struggle, the ideological training of our people, is one of the most important

sectors of the Party's activities. This was underlined with renewed force in

the April and July 1968 plenary meetings of the CC CPSU. They noted that

the present stage of historical evolution is characterized by a sharp intensification of the ideological struggle between capitalism and socialism. The

whole of the vast system of anticommunist propaganda is now aimed at

weakening the unity of the socialist countries and the international communist movement, breaking up the progressive forces of our times and undermining socialist society from within. Under these conditions the irreconcilable struggle with hostile ideologies, the resolute unmasking of imperialist

intrigues, the communist education ofmembers ofthe CPSU and all workers,

and the intensification of all ideological work acquire a special importance.

Commanders, political organs and Party organizations are channelling all

the available resources of ideological education into strengthening communist conviction, feelings of Soviet patriotism and proletarian internationalism,

ideological stability and the ability to withstand any forms of bourgeois

influence.

Another important aspect of ideological work is the unmasking of the

ideology of right and "left" revisionism.

During a period when military technology is developing rapidly and being

introduced into the forces on a large scale, it is especially important that the

technical standards of fighting men be increased by every possible means.

Hence, the task ofdeveloping military technical propaganda on a broad front.

Technical universities and lecture agencies, technology evenings, technical

proficiency schools, discussion groups, technical conferences, quizzes, special

and popular science film shows are commonplace in the forces. Engineering

and technical personnel ofthe Armed Forces, as well as soldiers and noncommissioned officers with a higher specialist education, take an active part in

military technical propaganda.

The wide development of socialist competition and the study, generalization, and dissemination of advanced knowledge are important factors in

Party and political work.

32
The Communist Party firmly associates the political education of Armed

Forces personnel with the further strengthening of military discipline, the

importance of which has increased enormously. The very concept of discipline has become much broader than it was previously. New equipment and

new types of weapons have brought into being the discipline of intensive

military labor; the discipline of competent operation and constant readiness

of combat vehicles, tools, and machinery; and the discipline of operational

duty. New weapons have made it essential to maintain discipline of unprecedented strictness in the close cooperation between both combat groups and

individual specialist-servicemen.

The discipline of firm control, promptness in carrying out instructions,

irreproachable performance, and the self-discipline of servicemen have become more important. As is known, pilots and operators, sonar operators,

drivers, and servicemen in many other specialist categories frequently and for

long periods carry out their tasks independently. Under such conditions

conscience and selfdiscipline are often their only forms of supervision.

An important task of Party-political work in the forces is the further

consolidation of unity of command. Political organs and Party organizations

look after the education of our officer personnel, help them to master Marxist-Leninist theory and the Lenin style ofleadership. They are concerned with

the training of commanders with sole military and political responsibility,

who combine an exacting nature, determination, and an officer's inflexible

will with a sincere, fatherly concern for their subordinates and who constantly depend on Party organizations and the resources of the army community in all their activities.

The Party seeks to ensure that all the activities of our commanders, political organs and Party organizations, including those engaged in Party-political work, are based on scientific principles in strict accordance with the tenets

of Marxism-Leninism and on the correct exploitation of the achievements of

science and technology.

The successful completion of the tasks of communist development is directly related to the standard of Party work and to the ability of Party

organizations to convince and organize the masses. It is very important for

political organs and Party organizations in the Armed Forces to be able to

arrange their activities with regard to the qualitative variations, peculiarities

and specific features of a given Service of the Armed Forces or of a specific

branch.

Our commanders, political organs and Party organizations have access to

a wealth of experience in the organization of Party-political work under

combat conditions accumulated during the Great Patriotic War. Modern

warfare, however, imposes new and heavier demands on this aspect of military life. Well thought-out and skillfully presented Party-political work is of

tremendous importance in this connection during tactical exercises. Under

conditions most closely resembling those of actual modem warfare, possible

variants of Party-political work are elaborated and new forms and methods

checked out. Commanders, political organs and Party organizations have

33
learned a great deal in this connection from such exercises as Dnepr, and

maneuvers as Dvina, Okean and others conducted in recent years.

. Thus, there is not one aspect in the life and activity of our Armed Forces

which does not experience the beneficial effect of the leading role of the

CPSU. The Communist Party and its Central Committee formulate our

military policy, and determine the principal trends and tasks in the work of

strengthening the country's defenses and developing the Armed Forces. Basing its leadership of the Armed Forces on the theoretical foundations of

Marxism-Leninism, an assessment of the requirements of the laws of social

development, and a detailed analysis of trends in the evolution of military

affairs, the Party ensures the maximum effective use of moral, political,

economic, scientific and technical potential for strengthening the defensive

capacity of the Soviet Homeland.

ON THE LEADING ROLE OF THE CPSU IN THE ARMED FORCES

FROM RESOLUTIONS OF PARTY CONGRESSES AND CONFERENCES,

PLENARY MEETINGS OF THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE, AND OTHER

DOCUMENTS

In view of the fact that some Party circles hold the opinion that the policy of the military

department is the product of the personal views of individuals or an independent group—and

statements of this kind even appear in the Party press—the Central Committee of the Russian

Communist Party considers it necessary to state in the most categorical terms that the most

responsible and experienced members of the Party can be in absolutely no doubt at all that the

policy of the military department, like that of all other branches and institutions, is conducted

strictly on the basis of general directives issued by the Party in the person of its Central

Committee and under its direct supervision.

(On the policy of the military department. From a resolution of the Central Committee of

the RCP* dated 25 December 1918. KPSS o Voomzhennykh Silakh Sovetskogo Soyuza [The

CPSU on the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union]. Voyenizdat, 1969, p. 35). (Note: Hereafter

cited as: KPSS o Vooruzhennykh Silakh . . .]

The military training and education of the Red Army is based on the principle of class

solidarity and socialist enlightenment. Thus, it is essential to have political commissars drawn

from reliable and dedicated Party members alongside the military commanders and communist

cells iti each unit for the establishment of internal ideological liaison and conscious discipline.

(From the Program of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik), adopted by the VIII

Congress of the RCPO».* KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh . . . (The CPSU in resolutions . . .], Part I,

p. 417).

The rapid growth in the number of communist cells is the most important guarantee that the

Army will be increasingly permeated by communist ideas and discipline. But it is precisely

because of the tremendously important role of communist cells that commissars and all the most

mature Party workers in the Army must take steps to ensure thai unstable elements in search

• RCP—the Russian Communist Party (US. Ed.].

• RCP(b)—Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik) (U. S. Ed.].

34
of illusory rights and privileges are kept out of them. Respect for communist cells will be greater

and more enduring, the more clearly each soldier understands and is convinced from experience

that membership of a communist cell does not give him any special rights, but only imposes upon

him the obligation of being an extremely selfless and courageous fighter.

(From a resolution of the VIII Congress of the RCP(b) on the military question. KPSS v

rezolyutsiyakh . . . [The CPSU in resolutions . . .], Part I, pp. 435-436).

Party members serving in the Red Army must always be in the forward posts, in the most

responsible and dangerous positions. Party members are increasing tenfold their work on the

communist education of the Army.

(From a message of greeting to the Red Army from the VIII Congress of the RCP(b).

Protokoly VIII S'yezda RKP(b) [Minutesof the VIII Congress of RCP(b)]. Gospolitizdat, 1959,

p. 443).

The experience of the victorious struggle with Kolchak showed us where the true source of

the military strength of proletarian power lies. Kolchak was beaten and took to flight because

our Party at that time threw all its best forces onto the Eastern Front, having welded them into

an iron military organization.

(From a circular letter of the CC RCP. September 1919. KPSS o Vooruzhennykh Silakh .... p. 103).

. . . For the Red Army to be truly socialist it is essential not only that it have a class

composition, but that its personnel be clearly and properly aware of their class interests. And

for this it is necessary for Party work to be carried out among them.

(From a letter of the CC RCP "On Party Work in the Red Army." KPSS o Vooruzhennykh

Silakh .... p. 106).

The conference draws the attention of the Central Committee to the need for more direct

Central Committee leadership of the organizational and Party work of communist organizations

in the ranks of the Red Army and Navy and non-toleration of further isolation of the life and

work of these organizations from general Party life and work.

(From a resolution of the IX All-Russian Conference of the RCP(b) on the organizational

report to the Central Committee. KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh . . . [The CPSU in Resolutions . . .], Part I, p. 513).

The Party decided, and the All-Russian Congress of Soviets unanimously affirmed, that the

Red Army should be maintained and that its fighting efficiency be increased . . .

But only the Party can maintain the Army. Only our considerate, solicitous, tactful, and loving

attitude towards the Army can maintain and strengthen its fighting efficiency.

(On the Red Army. To all organizations of the RCP(b). From a circular letter cf the CC

RCP(b) dated 12 January 1921. KPSS o Vooruzhennykh Silakh .... p. 148).

Para. 11. To maintain the political system of the Red Army in the form which it developed

during the three war years; to improve and consolidate its organization; to strengthen its ties

with local Party organizations, maintaining, however, full independence of the system.

(From a resolution of the X Congress of the RCP(b) on the military question (March 1921).

KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh . . . [The CPSU in Resolutions . . .], Part I. p. 570).

Availing itself ofthe current lull in the military situation, the Soviet government is now setting

itself the task of improving and strengthening the Red Army and Navy for the purpose of

self-defense. This places upon all our forces the obligation to apply themselves to fostering

conscientiousness and the further strengthening of a healthy class spirit in the ranks of the Red

Army Bearing in mind the experience of the past, it will be necessary for this to intensify, expand

and give due priority to both the political education and fostering of conscious discipline and

to the improvement of the Red Army man's lot.

(On the strengthening of the Red Army. From a letter of tha CC RCP(b) written in 1921.

KPSSo Vooruzhennykh Silakh .... p. 155).

35
. . . The exercise of unity of command entails the maximum reinforcement of political work

and the all-round consolidation of the Party's influence in military units.

The role of political agencies, like that of Party institutions in the Army, is becoming especially

important in this connection.

(On unity of command in the Red Army. From a letter of the CC RCP(b) dated 6 March 1925.

KPSS o Vooruzhennykh Silakh . . ., p. 228).

. . . The further strengthening of the Red Army as an instrument of the dictatorship of the

working class and the eradication of bureaucratic distortions in the military system and the work

of the command personnel can be achieved only when there is unshakable unity of the command

and political staff and uninterrupted growth of the leading role of the AU-Union Communist

Party (Bolshevik), for which the main requirements of Party and political organs in the Army

are skillful leadership, Party tenacity and authority.

(On the political and moral state of the Red Army. From a resolution of the CC ACP(b)*

dated 30 October 1928. KPSS o V-vruzhennykh Silakh .... p. 252).

Under the conditions prevailing during the present period, the Central Committee suggests that

political organs and Party organizations and Party chiefs of the Red Army continue with great

persistence to educate the Red Army, its officers and men in the spirit of selfless devotion to

the Soviet regime, maximum vigilance and class irreconcilability.

(On the officer and political personnel of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army. From a

resolution of the CC ACP(b) dated 25 February 1929. KPSS o Voorozhennykh Silakh . . . ,

p. 259).

52. Overall leadership of Party work in the Red Army, the Red Navy, and Air Force is effected

by the Political Directorate of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army exercising the rights of

the military department of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolshevik). The Political Directorate of the Revolutionary Military Council exercises its leadership

through political sections appointed by it, military commissars and Party commissions elected

•<t appropriate Army conferences.

Party organizations in the Red Army, Navy and Air Force operate on the basis of special

instructions approved by the CC ACP(b).

(On Party organizations in the Red Army. From the Rules of the ACP(b) approved by the

XVII Party Congress. KPSS v rezolyutsiyakh . . . [The CPSU in Resolutions . . j. Fart III,

p. 242).

The Communist Party and the Soviet government must henceforth educate Party members

and all workers in a spirit of great vigilance, and continue untiringly to strengthen our valiant

Armed Forces, effectively protecting the peaceful labor of the Soviet people and the security of

the socialist Homeland.

(From the resolution of the XX Congress of the CPSU on the Report to the CC CPSU

(February 19S6). XX s'yezd Kommunisticheskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. 14-25 fevralya 1956

goda [The XX Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. 14-25 February 1956]:

Stenographic report. Vol 2. Gospolitizdat, 1956, p. 423).

The complex international situation, the arms race in the principal capitalist countries, and

the defense interests of our Homeland make it essential for commanders, political offices and

Party organizations henceforth to improve the combat readiness of the forces, to reinforce

discipline among the personnel, to educate them in a spirit of devotion to the Homeland and

the Communist Party and to take an active interest in satisfying the spiritual and material needs

of our fighting men.

The Plenary Meeting of the CC CPSU considers that in resolving these tasks special importance attaches to the further improvement of Party-political work among the military who are

called upon in reinforcing the fighting power of our Armed Forces, rallying the personnel around

• TsK VKP(b) in Russian: Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolshevik) or CC ACP(b) [U.S. Ed.].

36

i"»
the Communist Party and Soviet government, educating servicemen in a spirit of selfless devotion to the Soviet Homeland, friendship of the peoples of the USSR and proletarian internationalism.

(On improving Party and political work in the Soviet Armed Forces. From a Resolution of

the October (1957) Plenary Meeting of the CC CPSU. KPSS o Vooruzhennykh Silakh . . ..

p. 348).

The basic principle of military development is leadership of the Armed Forces by the Communist Party and enlargement ofthe role and influence of Party organizations in the Armed Forces.

The Party devotes unremitting attention to increasing its organizational and guiding influence

on the whole of the life and activities of the Army, Air Force, and Navy, rallying the Armed

Forces personnel around the Communist Party and Soviet government, reinforcing the unity of

the Army and the people, educating our fighting men in a spirit of courage, gallantry, heroism,

and military cooperation with the armies of the socialist countries, and readiness at any moment

to defend the land of the Soviets, home of the builders of Communism.

(From the Program of the CPSU adopted at the XXII Party Congress. Progrumma Kommunisticheskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza. [Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet

Union]. Pravda Izdat., 1961, p. 112).

Under conditions in which the aggressive forces of imperialism are aggravating international

tension and creating a hotbed of war, the CPSU will from now on intensify the vigilance of the

Soviet people, reinforce the defensive power of our Homeland so that the Armed Forces of the

USSR will always be ready to defend effectively the achievements of socialism and to give a

shattering rebuff to any imperialist aggressor.

(From the resolution of the XXIII Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on

the Report to the CC CPSU. Materialy XXIH s'yezda KPSS [Materials of the XXIII Congress

of the CPSU]. Politizdat, 1966, p. 188).

65. Party organizations of the Soviet Army are guided in their activities by the Program and

Rules of the CPSU and operate on the basis of instructions approved by the Central Committee.

Party organizations of the Soviet Army ensure that Party policy is implemented in the Armed

Forces, rally the personnel around the Communist Party, educate our fighting men in the spirit

of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, selfless devotion to the socialist Homeland, and actively

promote the strengthening of the unity of the Army and the people; they are concerned with

the reinforcement of military discipline, they mobilize the military pessonnel for the fulfillment

of combat and political training tasks, the mastery of new weapons and equipment, irreproachable performance of their military duty and fulfillment of command orders and instructions.

(From the Rules of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Ratified by the XXII Congress,

partial changes introduced by the XXIII Congress of the CPSU. Materialy XXIIIs'yezda KPSS

[Materials of the XXIII Congress of the CPSU], pp. 220-221).

To raise Party-political work in the Armed Forces of the USSR to the level ofthe requirements

resulting from the resolutions of the XXIII Party Congress, taking into account the complex

international situation, radical changes in the organization and weaponry of the forces and the

nature of modem warfare. To improve political and organizational work among the masses of

servicemen, concentrating mainly on further increasing the combat readiness of the Armed

Forces.

(On measures for improving Party-political work in the Soviet Armed Forces. From a

resolution of the CC CPSU dated 21 January 1967. KPSSo Vooruzhennykh Silakh.... p. 416).

The strength of the Soviet Armed Forces is in the leadership of the Communist Party, which

works out fundamental problems related to the development and equipment of the Armed

Forces, and fosters in our soldiers boundless devotion to the Homeland and a readiness to fulfill

their duty of defending the achievements of socialism to the end with dignity and honor.

(From The Message of Greeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Presidium of

the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR to the fighting men

37
of the heroic Armed Forces of the Soviet Union on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the

Soviet Armed Forces. KPSS o Vooruzhennykh Silakh . . ., p. 454).

Whet to Read on This Section

Lenin, V. I. O zashchite sotsialisticheskogo Otechestva [On the Defense of the

Socialist Homeland]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

KPSS o Vooruzhennykh Silakh Sovetskogo Soyuza. Dokumenty 1917-1969.

[The CPSU on the Armed Forces of the Soviet Union: Documents of the

Period 1917-1969]. Voyenizdat, 1969.

KPSS istroitel'stvo Sovetskikh Vooruzhennykh Sil [The CPSU and the Development of the Soviet Armed Forces], 2nd edition, revised and enlarged.

Voyenizdat, 1967.

Partiyno-politicheskaya rabota v Sovetskikh Vooruzhennykh Silakh [PartyPolitical Work in the Soviet Armed Forces], 2nd, revised edition. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Petrov, Yu. P. Stroitel'stvo politorganov partiynykh i komsomol'skikh organizatsiy armii i flota (1918-1968) [The Development of the Political

Organs of Party and Komsomol Organizations of the Armed Forces

(1918-1968]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Yepishev, A. A. Nekotoryye voprosy partiyno-politicheskoy raboty [Some

Problems of Party-Political Work]. Voyenizdat, 1970.

38

l
Chapter 3. MARXIST-LENINIST MILITARY THEORY

The great and glorious path followed by our people after the Great October

Revolution has demonstrated the force and viability of Marxism-Leninism.

Marxist-Leninist military theory has also been vindicated by history. Guided

by the Leninist legacy of military theory and creatively developing it to

conform to the new conditions, the CPSU has elaborated a well-balanced

system of socialist military organization with a clearly expressed ideological

and theoretical basis, which includes a theory of war and the army, military

science and military doctrine. The validity of this scientific theory has been

confirmed by the entire evolution of the Soviet State and its Armed Forces,

and the victorious struggle ofthe Soviet people against imperialist aggressors.

THE THEORY OF WAR AND THE ARMY

The Marxist-Leninist theory of war and the army is a component part of

historical materialism. Its subject is the study and interpretation of the

sociological nature ofthe origin, development, character and content of wars,

and the study of war as an historical, social and political phenomenon. This

theory discloses the natural dependence of wars and armies on political,

ec nomic and other social conditions, and explains their role in the historical

process. The Marxist-Leninist theory of war and the army is not limited to

an explanation of the past: it analyzes the problems of our own times, provides a theoretical interpretation of the problem of war and peace, the development and strengthening of the armed forces of the socialist state, and

attempts to foresee the future. This theory serves as the ideological, theoretical and methodological foundation of Soviet military science and doctrine,

and all our military development.

The Marxist-Leninist theory of war and the army is our ideological

weapon for unmasking the reactionary military ideology of imperialism, for

the struggle against various bourgeois theories which justify wars and distort

their political and class nature and origin in the interests of the exploiting

classes. In exposing these pseudo-scientific theories, the Marxist-Leninist

teaching on war and the army demonstrates convincingly that, despite external differences, they are all similar in one principal respect—in the final

analysis they serve monopolistic capital and reflect the aggressive aspirations

39
of the exploiting classes, who try to justify their expansionist imperialistic

policy and prove that war is a permanent and unavoidable concomitant

phenomenon of human society.

The Marxist-Leninist teaching on war and the ;.rmy provides a truly

scientific answer on the subject of its analysis, fully revealing its essential

nature and actual content. It discloses the material and spiritual preconditions of our military victories, the superiority of socialist military organization over bourgeois military organization. These have their origin in the

Communist Party's leadership of all aspects of military development, in

socialist economy and policy and in Marxist-Leninist ideology. The invincibility ofthe socialist state and its army is an objectively natural phenomenon.

It arises from the superiority of the socialist social system over the bourgeois

social system.

The social revolution of the rising class, a consequence of historical necessity, is inevitably victorious over the armed violence of the reactionary

classes. Therefore, in the final analysis, victory will always be on the side of

the working class, since it relies on a higher social and economic organization

and the most progressive social forces. "Violence can be used without having

economic roots, but then it is doomed to destruction by history. But violence

can be used when it is based on the progressive class, on the highest principles

ofsocialist structure, order and organization. And then it can suffer a temporary reverse, but it is invincible." '

These words of Lenin provide the scientific basis of the inevitability of our

victory over imperialism, over any aggressor, since socialism ensures the

highest type ofmodern military organization, the means ofsystematic mobilization and purposeful use of the largest mass of all the resources needed for

the victorious waging of war, the highest moral and fighting qualities of the

personnel who serve in the new type of armed forces, indestructible endurance and fortitude ofthe ordinary men and women in the rear and at the front

throughout the entire war.

The practical application of the theoretical tenets of the Marxist-Leninist

doctrine of war and the army is an important condition of the solution of all

the military problems confronting the Party and the State. These arguments

contain an enormous mobilizing force. Reflecting the ideology and policy of

the CPSU on military questions, they reveal the decisive role of the popular

masses in the process of preparing for and waging war, in the achievement

of military victory; they determine ways of effecting the moral and political

mobilization of the people for war. The Party introduces ideas for the defense

of the Fatherland into the minds of the Soviet people, thus ensuring the

achievement of victory. Their familiarity with Marxist-Leninist teachings on

military questions is the most important prerequisite for the invincibility of

socialist military organization.

On the essence of war. War is inseparably linked with the political system

Lenin. XXXVIil. 369-370.

40

»
out of which it grows. Politics engenders war. War is politics throughout, its

continuation and implementation by violent means. It is impossible to un ierstand the essence of war without first studying its connections with the

politics which preceded it and the politica' relationships which were formed

long before the war. War does not alter fundamental relationships between

classes, but continues and frequently accelerates the preceding policy; it does

not abrogate, but realizes, that policy by means of armed combat.

Thus, the nature of war is politics continued by violent means.

The scientific definition of the concept of war, reflecting the attitude of

progressive social forces towards it, is of profound practical significance in

the resolution of all questions relating to war and military science. "Wars,"

wrote Lenin, "are preeminently variegated, diverse and complex things." 2

This applies, not so much to their nature as to their substance. Every war,

being a continuation of the politics of classes and states, is essentially a class

war. At the same time, every military conflict resulting from specific relationships (between nations, classes, etc.) occurs under different conditions, has

its individual characteristics, and differs in its specific content from other

wars. Therefore, the Marxist-Leninist theory of war and the army is not

limited to an abstract affirmation of the social nature of wars in general, but

requires that "the political content of each war be determined separately, in

each individual case." 3

Consequently, politics plays a decisive role in relation to war. In evaluating

the nature of war, the Marxist-Leninist theory of war and the army explains

first of all the classic character of a given war, whom it profited, the classes

that waged it, and the historical, political, social and economic conditions

which caused it.

As history teaches, preparation for war is conducted in political, diplomatic, ideological,

economic, scientific and technical, military and other resptcts, but certainly with politics playing

the decisive role. At the same time, as we know, the nature and content of politics itself are

determined in the final analysis by the economic laws of development. Thus, the aggressive

policy of the imperialist states, directed at the preparation and unleashing of predatory wars of

conquest, is determined by the basic economic law of modern capitalism, according to which

the aim of capitalistic production undf" imperialism is the acquisition of maximum profits by

the monopolists. To achieve this goal the imperialist bourgeoisie steps up the militarization of

the national economy and tries to unleash wars. It is precisely the aggressive imperialist states

that have unleashed two world wars. They are now conducting systematic and all-round preparations for world nuclear war. Imperialism was and still is the only source of military

clanger. This emphasizes with particular force the "nportance of a orrect understanding of

the essence and nature, not only of wars in general, but particularly wars of the modern age,

the scientific classification of these and their special features. V. I. Lenin taught that "it

is impossible to understand a given war without first having acquired an understanding of

the age." *

Types of wars. Marxism-Leninism determines types of wars according to

their political nature and content. V. I. Lenin observed that "there are just

! Lenin. XLIX. 369.

Lenin, XXX. 262.

' Lenin, XLIX, 287.

41
and unjust wars, progressive and reactionary wars, wars of progressive and

backward classes, wars which serve to reinforce class oppression and wars

which serve to overthrow it." 5

The determination of the nature M" a war is of decisive importance in

planning the correct line of political conduct oi the working class and all

workers in each specific war, since the political principle of classifying wars

most clearly expresses the attitude of the people to a particular war: full

support for just wars, determined action against unjust wars.

The classification of wars by types provides a fundamental description of

their dialectics. V. 1. Lenin, recognizing the possibility that one type of war

could turn into another,, for example, that a national war could become an

imperialistic war, or that an imperialistic war might turn into a civil war,

considered that it was "theoretically erroneous and harmful, from a practical

point of view, not to distinguish types of wars," 6since this would make it

difficult to choose the correct attitude of the workers to any given war. This

is what makes it so important to approach each war as a specific historic

entity, taking into consideration the circumstances and political content of

the war.

Condemning imperialistic wars of conquest, Marxist-Leninists consider

that wars to defend the achievements of peoples against imperialist aggression, wars of national liberation, and wars ofthe revolutionary classes against

the attempts of reactionary forces to hold on to, or restore their supremacy

by the use of arms are justified and, therefore, support them. A workers' war

for their own social liberation, for the consolidation and development of

socialism and communism, is the most just type of war. Thus, the term "just

wars" is understood to mean, first of all, revolutionary wars and wars

of liberation, since these are genuinely progressive and promote historical

development.

Just wars of our times include: 1) wars in defense of socialist countries

against imperialist aggressors; 2) proletarian civil wars against the bourgeoisie; 3) national liberation wars of colonial peoples, dependent and developing

countries against imperialism; 4) wars of liberation waged by peoples of

bourgeois countries who have become the victims ofimperialist invaders and

who are fighting for their state sovereignty.

Unjust wars, reactionary wars of our times, are wars of conquest, which

reflect and continue the politics ofthe imperialistic bourgeoisie. The imperialists are striving by means of armed force to enslave other countries, assert

neo-colonialism, suppress the national liberation struggle, destroy the

proletarian revolutionary movement, weaken th'. socialist camp and

strengthen the capitalist system. The monopolists of the USA want to achieve

world domination by military means.

Unjust wars include: 1) counterrevolutionary wars waged by the bourgeoisie against the proletarian revolutionary movement; 2) aggressive wars of

1 Lenin, XXXVIII. 337.

•Lenin. XL1X. 118.

42
imperialist states against socialist countries; 3) imperialist wars for the restoration ofthe colonial system; 4) imperialist wars of conquest against peaceful

bourgeois countries; 5) wars between imperialist states aimed at achieving a

redistribution of spheres of influence and world domination.

The Great October Socialist Revolution shook the capitalist world to its

foundations. It marked the beginning of the revolutionary transition from

capitalism to socialism throughout the world. During the past fifty years the

world revolutionary movement has grown irresistibly, drawing in all the new

countries and peoples. Under the conditions obtaining at the present stage

of the crisis of capitalism, the contradictions which rend the bourgeois world

are intensifying sharply: antagonism between labor and capital; contradictions between young national states and old colonial powers; contradictions

between imperialist countries. The main contradiction is that which has

developed between the opposing social systems ofsocialism and imperialism.

Present-day capitalism is not only an obsolete reactionary system which retürd« historical

progress, but a dangerous aggressive force which threatens world civilization. The struggle of

the working class and all workers against imperialism is an historical necessity. Only by taking

this objective law into consideration is it possible to take the correct approach to the interpretation of all the types of modem wars instigated by the imperialists. They unleash both world wars

and local wars aimed at the suppression of liberation movements, the conquest of foreign lands

and the enslavement of people of other countries.

Among all the types of wars of our age, wars in defense of the socialist

Fatherland, of course, occupy a special place. They are not only radically

opposed to all forms of unjust wars and wars of conquest, but diner essentially from other just wars in their nature, aims, and historical significance.

The necessity of defending the achievements of socialism is one of the common objective laws of the transition from capitalism to socialism and communism which apply to all countries undergoing this transition under the

conditions imposed by the existence of a world system of imperialism.

Marxism-Leninism considers the problem of defending the socialist Fatherland as a combination of the political, economic, military, moral, scientific and technical and other factors which determine the defense capacity and

security of our own state and other socialist countries.

In the Program of the CPSU and documents of the XXIII Party Congress

it is emphasized that the successful solution of all questions connected with

the defense of the socialist Fatherland is now determined by:

—the firm, consistently peace-loving, high-principled foreign policy of the

socialist states;

—the comprehensive strengthening of the new type of armed forces and

the regular socialist army;

—the further rapid development of the material, technical and scientific

bases of the country's defensive capacity;

—the strengthening of the union of the working class and the peasantry

as the social and political basis ofthe country's military strength—the consolidation of the Soviet State and the improvement of socialist social relationships;

43
—the education of all workers in a spirit of communist ideology, socialist patriotism, proletarian internationalism, and the friendship of peoples.

As we have already stated, the principal feature of wars in defense of the

socialist Fatherland is their absolutely just character. The principal objectives

of a socialist state in a war imposed upon it by imperialist aggressors are:

—the defense of socialism and communism, the most just social order in

history;

—the defense of the freedom and independence of the socialist nations,

their territory and culture, and the very existence of the populations of

socialist states;

—to assist other socialist states and their allies to repel aggression;

—to assist the working class a: d toiling masses of capitalist countries, and

the peoples of independent countries in their struggle for liberation from

imperialist oppression and foreign enslavement.

These noble aims are diametrically opposed to the predatory and aggressive aims pursued by the imperialists in unjust and counterrevolutionary wars

against socialist countries.

During the course of a war in defense of the socialist Fatherland the

popular masses, through experience, become even more convinced of the

justness of its aims and tasks, the correctness of the policy of the Communist

Party, and the scientific accuracy of the Marxist-Leninist theory of war and

the army. This profound conviction generates a powerful upsurge of patriotism and mass heroism on the battlefields and in labor for the cause of victory

over the enemy. The unwavering resolution of the people. Party, working

class and army of a socialist country to endure all the difficulties and trials

of modern war, and to maintain close military alliance with fraternal countries are guarantees of victory over any aggressor. Evidence ofthis is provided

by the experience of the Soviet State's two patriotic wars, and of the wars of

liberation fought by other nations.

The revolutionary and liberating nature of wars in the defense of socialist

homelands finds expression in the fact that their victorious outcome weakens

the position of international imperialism, results in the defeat of reactionary

regimes in the aggressor countries, contributes to the victory of the forces of

democracy and socialism in these countries, and leads to the separation of

new countries from the world capitalist system.

Such are the laws governing armed conflicts between socialist and imperialist states. This, of

course, does not mean that wars are essential for revolution, but they do weaken the organism

of the bourgeois system and create conditions which contribute to a still greater intensification

of its crisis. Finally, in wars in defense of the socialist Fatherland, the national and international

aims and tasks of the struggle for liberation are identical. By defending the fundamental interests

of the working class and all working people of a given country, and the national interests of the

people, a socialist state simultaneously fulfills its mission of liberation and its obligation to tiie

working class and all working people of capitalist and colonial countries.

On the nature of the army. The social nature and purpose of the army

always reflect the nature of the social order of a given country. MarxismLeninism established the absolute dependence of the character of the army

44
on the policy of the state and the degree of the country's economic and

cultural development. If a war is the realization of the policies of certain

classes by armed force, then the army under the control of these classes is

the principal instrument of force, the chief instrument of war. Consequently,

a correct understanding of the nature and peculiarities ofthe evolution ofthe

army is one of the main requirements for a deep insight into the laws governing the conduct of war and for determining one's attitude to a given army.

Unlike the apologists of capitalism, who distort the nature and purpose of

the army, Marxism-Leninism teaches that the army, as a special organization

of armed people, created by a particular class or state for the achievement

of its political and economic aims by force of arms, is, like war, not a

permanent factor, but a product of antagonistic formations. The armies of

the imperialist states are created for the defense of the exploiting system and

the suppression of the workers, for their social and national oppression by

the ruling classes, for the preparation and prosecution of aggressive wars, and

the enslavement of peoples of other countries. They are instruments for

waging wars of conquest. This is convincingly demonstrated by the first and

second world wars and by the aggressive actions of the imperialists in the

present age. Bourgeois armies always and in all circumstances bear the stamp

of the ruling class and protect its interests. The apologists of the bourgeoisie

will never succeed in proving that the army of a bourgeois state is separate

from its politics and is indifferent in its attitude to the classes. Life itselfshows

that the bourgeois army is an instrument of the imperialist state and that it

defends the rotting piles of capitalism. The bourgeois army is "the most

inveterate instrument for maintaining the old order, the strongest bulwark

of bourgeois discipline, the maintenance of capitalist domination, and the

preservation and fostering in the workers of slavish submissiveness and

subordination towards it." 7

The class character of the armies of the capitalist states does not change, even when they are

engaged in a just war of liberation. For example, the armed forces of the USA and Britain

objectively fulfilled a mission of liberation during World War II and, therefore, enjoyed the

support of their people. But, even then, they remained the instrument of the ruling imperialist

circles in their endeavor to hold on to power in their own countries and accomplish their

reactionary aims with respect to the Soviet Union and the forces of socialism and democracy

in other countries. This became especially clear in connection with the opening of a second front

in Europe and the postwar settlement. Under present-day conditions, the US Army reflects most

fully the aggressive nature of imperialism.

In order to persuade the people to go to war the imperialist forces are intensively trained in

a spirit of anticommunism and impregnated with misanthropic ideas of racism. An inhuman

attitude towards the peace-loving populace and a desire for personal gain are instilled in servicemen with particular insistence. The results of such an "upbringing" were clearly manifested in

the behavior of the American military clique in Vietnam, whose atrocities exceeded even those

of the Hitlerites.

Socialist armies are the exact opposite of imperialist armies. The former

are armies of a new type. They are copies of the socialist system, an embodi-

' Lenin. XXXVII, 295.

45
merit ofits characteristic features and historical advantages over the capitalist

system. The armies ofthe socialist and capitalist states are separated by a gulf

as wide as that which lies between socialism and capitalism. Socialist armies

are truly peoples' armies in which are realized the union of the working class

and the peasants, the moral and political unity of the society, the friendship

of peoples, their socialist patriotism and internationalism, the common aims

of the socialist countries in their struggle against imperialist aggression, and

military cooperation with fraternal armies.

Whereas the armies of the capitalist states serve as an instrument of

aggression and attack on other peoples, the armed forces of the USSR and

other countries of the socialist system threaten no one and exist only for the

purpose of ensuring the security of their states and the peaceful development

of socialism and communism. They are the most important factor for the

preservation of peace in the whole world.

The Soviet Army, born of the Great October Socialist Revolution, is a

striking example of the embodiment of these characteristics and features of

the new type of army. The heroic course of the struggle and victory of the

Soviet Armed Forces is an historical affirmation of the correctness of the

Marxist-Leninist tenet that socialism is superior to capitalism and that it

produces a higher military organization.

With the birth of the Soviet Armed Forces, there appeared in the world's

historical arena a socialist army of unprecedented features and strength. Thus

began a new phase in military history, a new and higher stage in the evolution

of military theory and practice.

V. I. Lenin in a comprehensive and concrete fashion related the MarxistLeninist doctrine ofwar and the army to military science, and military affairs,

the practice of armed combat, and the implementation of the military policy

of the Soviet State. He imbued the tenets of this doctrine in them so comprehensively and deeply that our military policy acquired an unprecedented

scope. All this provided the Party and the people with a knowledge of the

principles of organizing and waging war in defense of the socialist Fatherland, and an understanding of the most important factors of victory in this

war.

The historical superiority of the military organization of socialism over

that of capitalism consists primarily in the fact that the main, leading, controlling, and organizing force in a socialist army is the Marxist-Leninist

Party. It ensures the monoHthic unity of the army, controls its activities,

unites the personnel, and mobilizes them for the fulfillment of tasks of

strengthening the fighting power and combat readiness of the forces.

The CPSU led and directed the scientific and technical revolution in our

country, including also the revolution in military affairs. This was of tremendous importance in ensuring the military superiority of socialism over capitalism within a short historical period, and it also had a decisive influence

on the creative development of Marxist-Leninist military thought and the

evolution of military science and doctrine.

Thus, the doctrine of the army, like the doctrine of war, is a guiding

46

«

••V

•
principle L

r

action in the successful solution of modern military problems.

The Marxist-Leninist theory of war and the army, creatively developed by

our Party, provides a means of reliably forecasting trends in the field of

military affairs. It scientifically determines the possible nature of wars of the

present age, indicates the principal weapons and the means cf waging such

wars, the conditions of their course and outcome, i.e., it provides the answer

to the question, for what sort of war should we be prepared, and what

resources are needed to destroy an imperialist aggressor?

The CPSU, as the controlling force of our society, derives the fundamental

and ideological prerequisites for the elaboration of its policy in the military

field from the Marxist-Leninist theory of war and the f.rmy. On the basis of

this doctrine it works out a scientific approach to an explanation of the

political content of a given war and army. Here the Party is guided by the

Leninist principles of concreteness in determining the objective tasks and

class goals of the warring sides in an age of crumbling capitalism and transition to socialism. Thus is determined the political policy for the conduct of

the working class in all types of wars and in each of them separately, primarily in revolutionary wars and wars ofliberation of our own times, particularly

wars in defense of the socialist Fatherland.

In the just wars in defense of the socialist Fatherland during the period of

the Civil War and the foreign military intervention, and in the Great Patriotic

War as well, the great Leninist Party was the inspirer and organizer of our

victory over the enemy. The Communist Party and the Soviet State achieved

an outstanding victory because they relied on the knowledge and application

of the objective laws of the evolution of society and the laws of modern

warfare revealed by Marxism-Leninism. The Leninist policy of the CPSU

was, and still is, the vital basis of the activities of our Armed Forces and the

guarantee of their victory over any aggressor.

The Soviet people, guided by the fundamental tenets of Marxism-Leninism

on war and the army, have been victorious in all their wars against imperialist

forces. This doctrine is the ideological foundation of modern military theory

and practice. Its theses embody the incomparable experience of the political

struggle, the military policy, and the richest experience of the armed struggle

of the Soviet people under the leadership ofthe Communist Party. Our Party

devotes considerable attention to the continuing theoretical elaboration ofthe

doctrine of war and the army, to further detailed analysis and development

of Lenin's heritage of military theory as it applies to the tasks, conditions and

special features of our times, having regard to the achievements of social,

scientific and technical progress.

SOVIET MILITARY SCIENCE

Soviet military science is a unified system of knowledge about preparation

for, and waging of, war in the interests of the defense of the Soviet Union

and other socialist countries against imperialist aggression. Its functions

include:

47

MT*
—the discovery and study of objective laws of armed combat;

—the development of methods and forms of warfare for the achievement

of victory over the enemy on the basis of a knowledge of the above laws;

—the elaboration of problems and method i cf preparing the country's

territory and the Armed Forces for war, and cc mprehensive support for the

struggle in the economic, political, moral, logistic, scientific and other

sectors;

—the elaboration of principles of troop organization, training, and education in accordance with the requirements of modem warfare;

—the development of a method of military science as a whole, its general

theory, the theory ofmilitary art, the military technical sciences, and its other

parts and branches.

Thus, by Soviet military science is meant the aggregate of diverse material

and psychological phenomena of armed combat being studied and analyzed

for the purpose of elaborating practical recommendations for the achievement of victory in war. Armed combat, the chief ingredient of war, is,

therefore, the principal research subject of contemporary Soviet military

science.

Soviet military science differs fundamentally from bourgeois military science by its class and Party nature, since it was formed by the socialist social

and state system and serves the workers' interests. For the first time in

history, a military science has emerged which teaches how to utilize the

means of armed combat in the fundamental interests of workers who have

broken the shackles of the exploiting system. It is this which forms the

background of the social, economic and political principles of Soviet military

science, its Party commitment and progressive character.

The creator ofthe Soviet State and its Armed Forces, V. I. Lenin, only days

after the October victory, pointed out that "without science it is impossible

to form a modern army. .. ." 8 Calling on all our personnel to utilize all the

achievements of bourgeois military theory in the study of military science,

he emphasized at the same time that Marxists must be able to reject its

reactionary tendencies in interpreting particular factors and events. V. I.

Lenin provided a thoroughly reasoned substantiation of the most general

laws of modern armed combat, and thus laid the cornerstones of Soviet

military science.

In all its conclusions Soviet military science gives ample consideration to

those advantages which a progressive socialist social and state system affords

our Armed Forces. The high moral fiber which is characteristic of the Soviet

people and the fighting men of its Armed Forces has a direct influence on

the development of Soviet military science. ". . . For the first time in the

history of world conflict," indicated Lenin, "elements have come into the

army which are not characterized by bureaucratic knowledge, but which are

guided by the ideas of fighting for tne liberation of the exploited." ' Thanks

•Lenin. XL. 183.

' Lenin, XXXV, 270.

48
to this, Soviet military science is abie to enrich its principles and conclusions

by new data to a much greater extent than the military science of bourgeois

states.

Let us take, for example, the history of the development of Soviet military art, which is the

most important component of military science. The training by the Communist Party of new

command cadres of the Soviet Armed Forces from among the people placed its stamp upon all

spheres of Soviet military art. M. V. Frunze observed that, "the Red commanders introduced

courage, initiative and resoluteness into the army . . . these characteristics of maneuverability,

resoluteness, and offensive spirit were associated not only with the objective conditions of

military operations, which no one denies, but with the fact that there were elements at the head

of the Red Army imbued with the active ideology of the working class/'10

The command cadres, brought up by the Party on the ideas of Marxi .m-Leninism, displayed

a profoundly creative approach to the solution of complex questions related to the organization

of operations and battles during World War II. During this period Soviet military art discovered

the most expedient tactical means of breaching the enemy's deeply echeloned defense. Offensive

operations involved a variety of powerful deep strikes which, after the enemy's defense had been

broken by mobile striking forces, were rapidly developed, leading either to encirclement and

complete liquidation of large groups of enemy forces, or to their rout and pursuit in depth.

In the postwar period, the progressive, creative nature of Soviet military

science was manifested in its solution of the question of missiles as the

principal means of delivering nuclear payloads to their targets, and development and use of nuclear missiles both on a tactical and a strategic scale. The

Soviet Union was the first country in the world to produce an intercontinental

ballistic missile which could reach any region or point on the globe.

In accordance with the requirements of creative Marxism-Leninism, Soviet

military science has waged, and still continues to wage, an irreconcilable

struggle against all and every canon of subjectivism and voluntarism which

inhibits the progress of military science. It spoke out resolutely against the

generally-accepted views ofbourgeois theoreticians claiming that military art

was simply a matter of strategy and tactics, and created the theory of operational art.

DogmatiS«.!, which is manifest in a number of works by bourgeois military

experts assavlii g any kind of revision of "traditional" views on the fundamental elements of military art, particularly the principals of strategy, is absolutely foreign to Soviet military science. Unlike the bourgeois interpretation

of the principles of military art as always being immutable, regardless of the

concrete historical conditions of the conduct of armed combat, Soviet military science, in conformity with the requirements of the dialectical method,

considers that the principles of military art change as the objective conditions

of armed combat change. Moreover, the selfsame principles, which are apparently formed in a similar manner for different historical conditions, are always imbued with a specific content which corresponds to the new situation.

It would, however, be a serious error to take a negative view of all the theoretical conclusions

of bourgeois military science. Decaying capitalism still possesses certain resources. Resisting the

victorious progress of socialism, it spares no resources for the arms race and the development

10 Frunze, p. 92.

49

X

r. •
of military science. Bourgeois military theoreticians carefully analyze the experience o*" past

wars, including the combat operations of the Soviet Armed Forces.

The leading military experts of the western powers try to compensate for the weaknesses of

their military organizations which stem from the defects of the capitalist system itself, in

particular an insufficiently high level of moral potential, by stepping up the equipment of their

armies and navies with modern weaponry and equipment and by thorough military and technical

training of their forces. Therefore, in not overestimating bourgeois military science, it is, at the

same time, essential not to underestimate it. The behavior of an army which is not trained to

use all the types of weapons, all the combat resources and methods which an enemy has or may

have, is unwise or even criminal, as Lenin pointed out. "The greatest danger in war ... is

to underestimate the enemy and to reassure ourselves that we are stronger." " These statements of Lenin have always been and will continue to be fundamental to Soviet military

science.

Historical experience teaches that the most realistic criteria of the efficiency of military science and the correctness of its conclusions are the

ultimate results of the war. The victories of the Soviet Armed Forces over

the enemies of our Motherland in the Civil War and the Great Patriotic War

are convincing evidence of the advanced nature of Soviet military science.

Modern Soviet military science includes the following principal parts and

branches:

—the general theory (general principles) of military science;

—the theory of military art;

—the theory of training and education;

—the science of military history;

—military administration;12

—military geography;

—military technical sciences.

The general theory of military science. As we know, Marxism-Leninism

considers science as a complex product of knowledge and, at the same time,

as a process of knowledge, which is developing on the basis of the social

practice of people. Science recognizes, firstly, demonstrated facts, knowledge

of facts and phenomena of reality; secondly, knowledge of internal necessary

relationships ofphenomena and processes formulated as laws, arguments and

principles; thirdly, various scientific conjectures based on a combination of

many facts and previously discovered laws, which may be either confirmed

and proved, or, conversely, refuted by the future development of science.

In each science there is a general theory, conclusions and instructions

formed on the basis of known and demonstrated facts and laws, their philosophical interpretation and ideological theoretical principles, which guide the

development of a given science.

These general propositions of Marxism-Leninism, which characterize science in general and its categories, are wholly applicable to Soviet military

science and form the basis of its methodology. The fundamental importance

of these propositions for Soviet military science has been confirmed by the

" Lenin, XLI, 144.

12 More recently, this discipline has been described as the theory of the development and

organization of the armed forces and their command and control.
entire course of its formation and development, including also its general

theory, which analyzes and sets out the principal ideological and theoretical

elements of military science and interrelates all its divisions, branches and

aspects.

The general theory of Soviet military science contains conclusions and

principles derived from an analysis of known and proven facts, discovered

laws, their philosophical interpretation and theoretical principles, which

serve as the basis for the future development of military science in the light

of the requirements of modern warfare. The purpose of general theory is to

study contemporary armed combat as a whole, to substantiate scientifically

the most important, fundamental tenets of military theory in conformity with

the overall progress in science and technology and of military science, which

is developing on this basis, and to determine the development tasks and

tendencies which these present. General theory makes it possible to establish

and investigate new relationships between all the parts and branches of

military science which reflect their qualitative changes.

One of the most characteristic processes of the present-day development ofscientific knowledge

is the rapid growth of ihe sciences, the widening of their scope, and their incorporation of an

increasing number of new fields of objective reality. Another quite regular phenomenon is the

process of differentiation of the sciences, their separation into relatively independent fields of

individual branches of knowledge, retaining at the same time their connection with that basic

theory from which they separated and forming with it a single system. Sciences are also

integrating. Similar processes are observed in literally all fields of knowledge. The natural

sciences, physics, biology and chemistry, are developing especially rapidly. The social sciences,

in response to the practical requirements of the reorganization ofsociety, are also being enriched.

Military science is also undergoing a transformation, a fact which confirms the need for the

existence of a general theory, which is of gnosiological value, since it determines the possibility

of the future development of military science and the interpretation of its subject and content

under new conditions.

The development and unfolding of new branches of science takes place within the framework

of the overall system of knowledge on the basis of common leading theories, which determine

the direction of evolution of a given field of knowledge. It is from this point of view that there

is a need to reveal the content of the general theory of military science.

The general theory of Soviet military science, explaining the objective laws

of armed combat, determines the entire system of military knowledge as a

single structure of military science in which all its constituent branches and

disciplines are engaged in the investigation ofspecific, relatively independent

military fields (armed combat), retaining at the same time a clearly defined

interdependence and joint subordination. It is precisely through the totality

ofinterrelated and interdependent military disciplines that the general theory

of military knowledge studies the subject which is common to thern all—

armed combat—as the only regular process.

The rapid progress in science and technology, the intensive differentiation

and integration of knowledge associated with it, the appearance of new

scientific disciplines, the complication of the content of military science as a

whole, and the enlargement of its scope emphasize the fact that there is an

acute need to combine the conclusions and principles characteristic of differ51
ent military disciplines within the framework of a unified general theory of

armed combat, or, in other words, within the general principles of Soviet

military science. A general theory evolved in this way provides the basic

arguments which serve as guides for all the components of military science.

Forming the general theoretical basis of the entire structure of military

science, it relates all its parts and branches to a single system.

Questions related to the study of the objective laws of armed combat

occupy an important place in the general theory of military science. At the

same time, the general theory of military science proceeds from the MarxistLeninist argument that there are objective laws of armed combat which do

not depend upon human consciousness and will, and that the principles of

military science are simply the theoretical comprehension and expression of

these objective laws. This theoretical expression of the objective laws of

armed combat is also provided for in military science, primarily by its general

theory, whose function it is to reveal and study them.

In studying the nature and character of armed combat, Soviet military

science assumes that armed combat as a whole, campaigns, operations, battles and engagements are subject to scientific study and generalization and

that they are not subjects in which blind impulse and chance predominate.

Historical experience shows that the development of modes and forms of

armed combat and the processes of waging it do not occur haphazardly, but

regularly, and that they are subject to a specific order. These laws reflect the

objective processes which occur in war. They have objective causes which

arise as a result of the interaction of the various material, moral and political

conditions and circumstances of which armed combat is composed.

The laws may be of a general nature and affect all the spheres and fields

of armed combat. Thus, the laws of historical materialism show that the

development of military science depends on the social and economic conditions and the spiritual life of the society. These laws arc fundamental to

military science. At the same time, armed combat is characterized by specific

laws which arise out of its dependence on the general and material conditions

and results of the interaction of the various causes and circumstances inherent in armed combat itself. These laws are very important for military science, since it is through them that the specific features of military phenomena

are revealed.

Military science formulates in laws its most important principles and

generalizations, which are the theoretical expression of the objective laws of

armed combat. These laws express the inner, analytically established, recurring, objective, essential connections and relationships ofthe phenomena and

processes of armed combat. Let us take, for example, the law which determines the influence of politics on armed combat and its methods and forms.

This clearly reflects these essential connections and relationships which are

being constantly confirmed by military history. The same can be said about

such laws as the law determining the influence of the means of armed combat

on its course and outcome, the law determining the correlation of the forces

of the warring sides in general, and the law determining the concentration

52
of superior forces and resources at the required time in a decisive direftion,

etc.

The law determining the influence ofstrategy on operational art and tactics

presents a particular contrast in its dialectics for modern conditions. Formerly this law found expression only in the fact that the endeavors and aims

of tactics had to be commensurate with the dictates of strategy, which it

served. The achievement of specific tactical results was important not in

itself, but only to the extent that they conformed to strategy. At the same

time, a strategic result was achieved through the accumulation of definite

tactical and operational results which contributed and conformed to the

overall strategic plan. A similar regular relationship applies today, but with

one vital modification engendered by the modern development of weaponry.

Now strategy can achieve its objectives, not only through a combination of

tactical and operational results, but directly.

These and other laws of armed combat, learned during the course of historical experience,

are evidence of their major role in the formation ofspecific theses, principles and rules ofmilitary

science, including the theory of military art. New theses and principles are subsequently used

as a basis for elaborating given methods and forms of armed combat.

The laws of armed combat are not eternal and immutable; they are transformed during the

course of historical evolution. Confirmation of this is afforded by the above example of the

interdependence ofstrategy, operational art, and tactics Military science investigates the content

and manifestation of given laws in the light of history and demonstrates that, concurrently with

the more general laws inherent in armed combat, each specific age and war, like a specific

phenomenon of social life in general, is characterized by its own objective laws.

Nuclear missile warfare inevitably generates its own laws, substantially different from earlier

concepts of armed combat, even as recent as those of World War II. This applies both to the

general characteristics of armed combat, its scale and the means of conducting warfare, and to

the special features of conducting operations and fighting battles, attack and defense. The

conditions and forms of cooperation, control, combat and operational support are undergoing

qualitative changes. The significance of the time and space factor in all measurements—tactical,

operational, and strategic—is undergoing drastic changes, a fact which is reflected primarily in

the methods and forms of armed combat and, thus, finds expression in new objective laws of

armed combat.

Thus, the general theory of military science has the task of investigating

and determining both general and specific laws of armed combat, of establishing on the basis of knowledge of objective laws the factors which determine

the achievement of victory. In conformity with this, it selects the principal

trend in the elaboration of general problems of military science, the nature

of the investigation of these problems for all its components; it establishes

their interrelationship and interdependence, and formulates its general

principles.

It studies in general terms the means and possibilities of armed combat,

its conditions and special features; it examines the economic, moral and

strictly military factors which influence the character, course and outcome

of an armed struggle, and at the same time determines the general guidelines

to be followed in the investigation and utilization of economic, moral and

military potential for the purpose of achieving victory over the enemy.

Calculation of the economic potential of the warring sides is based on

53

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specific Marxist-Leninist principles of the determining role in armed combat

of objective material conditions and the methods of producing material

wealth, on the indisputable conclusion of Marxism-Leninism that in modern

warfare, all other conditions of the struggle being equal, the political and

economic organization of society and the level of their development are of

decisive importance.

By the economic potential of the country is understood the total combined

economic resources ofthe state. The level ofthe economic potential of a given

country always depends on the social and state system, the specific quantitative and qualitative indices of the achievements of industrial production and

the national economy as a whole.

The calculation of the economic poiemial of the Homeland and that of the

enemy in the interests of war and the development of military science has

many aspects. The general theory of military science is concerned primarily

with questions relating to the dependence of present-day armed combat on

the economic potential of states. However, unlike strategy, which examines

specific indices of the economic potential of one's own country and enemy

countries as they apply to the conditions and methods of waging war, general

theory reveals the most general objective laws ir. this field and formulates the

most general principles of the utilization of material resources and the influence of the economic factor on the course and OL tcome of an armed struggle.

It examines the interrelationship of economic ootential with military and

moral potential, and the general principles of determining the requirements

of the armed forces for material and technical resources.

It can be asserted that the increasing importarce of economic problems in

military science, armed combat, and war on ttv; whole, has created a need

to develop a special theory of military economics within the framework of

military science.

The strategic leadership, relying on the fundamental principles of the

general theory of military science as they affect these questions, takes specific

account of the economic potential of the home country and the enemy in the

planning, preparation and waging of a war and its campaigns.

The determining role of objective and material conditions in the course and

outcome of an armed conflict is paralleled by the important role played by

the conscientiousness, good organization of and attitude towards the war of

the popular masses, and the morale of the armed forces, i.e., by the total

combined moral resources, or that which is implicit in the term moral potential. Essentially, the study of phenomena in this field consists in revealing the

objective laws which operate here and which determine the general effect of

moral values on the fighting qualities of the armed forces, the preparation and

conduct of military operations and armed combat as a whole, also possible

ways, methods and forms of reinforcing and raising the morale of one's own

forces and of undermining the morale of the enemy forces.

Moral potential in war expresses the ability of a country, its people and

armed forces to endure and overcome, in terms of their morale, all the

distress and tension of war until complete victory is achieved. Much depends

54
on the level of a country's moral potential: whether it will win victory in war,

or whether it will endure defeat. This same level depends primarily on the

attitude of the broad working mpsses towards the existing social and state

system, the politics of the state, the aims of the war, the degree of patriotism

of the popular masses, their general culture, awareness ofsocial duty, and the

character of their historically formed traditions.

Soviet military science, guided by Marxism-Leninism, considers that the

just, liberating nature of war aims unites the people and the armed forces,

inspires them to fight heroically, and creates the most favorable conditions

for the achievement of victory.

However, even under the most favorable conditions, morale is not created

by itself. The high moral potential of our country and the high morale of the

troops who wage war depends upon the continuous systematic organizational

and political-educational work of the Party, the various mass organizations,

state bodies, and our military personnel. In the words of V. I. Lenin: "Only

... provided there is superb organization can our moral strength be converted

into material strength." "

The importance of the moral and political factor is even greater under the

conditions of modern warfare. The possible use of new weaponry, the complication of methods and forms of combat, and the increased scale of military

operations demand very high moral qualities, both on the part of the troops

directly involved in combat operations and on the part of the entire population of the country.

By correctly evaluating the importance of the moral and political factor

in war and formulating general principles which express the influence of th ^

factor on the course of an armed struggle, the general theory of militaryscience assists the strategic leadership to practicably utilize the moral potential of its country and to get to know the enemy in this connection when

planning, preparing and waging campaigns and war as a whole.

The Party-political work is the most important means of developing,

strengthening and maintaining a high standard of morale, communist awareness, tenacity and discipline in the forces. It ensures the transformation of

the moral potential of the armed forces into one of the decisive factors of

victory.

In addition to the analysis of problems relating to the role and importance

of economic and moral factors, general theory is concerned with the detailed

study of questions of war potential. By war potential is meant the military

resources of the state, its ability to maintain fully up-to-date armed forces

equipped with all that is needed for the successful prosecution of any war,

including a nuclear missile war, and the achievement of victory over a powerful enemy.

The military potential of a country in this age is determined primarily by

the firepower of its armed forces, equipped with nuclear missiles, and the

quality and combat readiness of its armed forces.

" Lenin. IX. 246.

55

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Military potential should also take into account the degree of training and

preparedness of the reserves and call-up contingents, as well as the availability of war reserves of material resources, and the time it would take to

mobilize, concentrate and prepare them for war. Other factors taken into

consideration include the number and quality of command personnel, both

active service and reserve, the stage of development and general status of

military science and technology, and several other factors associated with the

requirements of modern warfare.

It is of primary importance for the general theory of military science to

take into account and elaborate all the aspects and elements of war potential

which are directly related to the state and development of the armed forces,

future trends in military development based on the achievements of science

and technology, as well as existing progressive trends, the rapid development

and assimilation of new equipment by the armed forces, and the elaboration

of methods and forms of modern armed combat.

Considering the ratio and interdependence of economic, moral, and military potential, the general theory emphasizes that the technical-economic

and moral-political resources of a given state are undoubtedly determining

factors as regards its war resources. These resources can be correctly evaluated only ifthe economic and moral potentials ofthe country, as well as those

of the armed forces, are envisaged in detail.

The study of the various factors which influence the course and outcome

of a war occupies an important place in the general theory of military science.

Soviet military science, in its detailed study of all the factors in the aggregate,

examines with special care and attention strictly military factors, such as the

technical level of all the Services of the Armed Forces and their branches,

the military and technical background of military personnel, their operational and tactical training, the combat training and military proficiency of

the forces, the ability of military personnel to solve questions relating to the

organization and conduct of war independently and constructively, knowledge of the enemy's resources and combat methods, the ability to display

intelligent initiative, to act in accordance with the requirements of specific

circumstances, and to act positively and resolutely.

In the calculation and elaboration of military factors, the general theory

of military science proceeds from the characteristic features of present-day

armed combat. These include the following:

—the active participation ofthe entire population in wars; the mobilization

and utilization of all the economic, moral, political and strictly military

resources of the country in the interests of achieving victory;

—maximum intensity of armed combat, which is waged on a high technical level (missiles with nuclear payloads, fully motorized and mechanized

forces, extensive use of radio-electronics and other modern technology);

—resolutions of the aims, methods and forms of military operations and

the conduct of war as a whole,

—measures to combat lack of originality, sketchiness and dogmatism in

conducting military operations; continuing awareness ofthe influence of new

56
technical means of combat upon the character of operations and warfare; a

scientific approach to troop control, the selection of methods and forms

of armed combat, and a rational combination of them, depending on the

circumstances.

One of the most important tasks of the general theory of military science

is to examine the system of disciplines of which military science is made up

and to determine their interrelationships, interdependence and mutual subordination. It is general theory that makes it possible to relate all the disciplines

comprising military science into a single complex and to identify those which

are key disciplines and which determine, by their content, all the remaining

ones. Thus, general theory indicates that military 'J t occupies a key position

in the system of disciplines which comprise military science. It reflects the

ever-increasing role of the military technical sciences as fundamental to the

development of the theory of military science in general, and military art in

particular, it correctly evaluates the importance of the science of military

history under present conditions. Although still an important factor in the

development of military thinking and the disclosure of objective laws of the

most consistent phenomena of armed combat, military history today, to a

lesser degree than in the past, by virtue of the changed conditions of armed

combat, can serve as a direct source of the development of contemporary

military theory.

To a much greater extent than in all the preceding eras, the ' "vel of

industrial production, the state of, and trends in, scientific and technical

progress serve as contemporary sources for the development of military

theory. Historical experience, as well as the experience of contemporary

military conflicts of a local nature, which occur in the interval between world

wars, is also important to the extent of its value as a perpetual reference.

General theory determines the subject of military science and establishes

the classification of military knowledge of which it is composed.

The theory of military art, as the most important element of Soviet military

science, studies and elaborates actual methods and forms of armed combat.

It represents a complex of direct military disciplines, which, like all the

remaining branches of military science, is constantly changing and being

creatively enriched.

The theory of military art consists of strategy, operational art, and tactics,

each of which represents a whole field of scientific knowledge. Strategy,

operational art, and tactics are interrelated, interdependent and supplement

each other. Among these, strategy plays the predominant role.

The military art of the Services of the Armed Forces, based on a single

military strategy, common to all of the armed forces, incorporates the operational art and tactics of these Services of the Armed Forces.

Strategy is a division of military art which investigates the principles of

preparing for, and waging, war as a whole, and its campaigns. Essentially it

is a direct instrument of politics. Politics plays a leading and guiding role in

relation to strategy.

Strategy is common to and unified for all branches of the country's Ser57
vices, since war is waged, not by any one Service or branch of the Armed

Forces, but by their combined efforts. The coordination of the actions of all

Services of the Armed Forces in warfare is only possible within the framework of a unified military strategy.

Like other branches ofmilitary art and military science as a whole, strategy

has two aspects: general theoretical and applied. The subjects examined in

the general theoretical aspect, which can be called the general theoretical

principles ofstrategy, are: the principles ofstrategy; the theoretical principles

of war planning; the Services of the Armed Forces as strategic categories,

their characteristics and use in armed combat; methods and forms of armed

combat on a strategic scale; the general principles of logistical support for the

armed forces; the general principles of troop control on strategic scales; the

principles of strategic preparation of the country's territory and combat

theaters for war.

Applied strategy is concerned with the elaboration of specific questions

relating to the immediate preparation for, and carrying out of, a strategic

attack, strategic defense and other types of military operations on a strategic

scale, and the associated logistic support, specific questions relating to the

control of strategic groups of forces, and of the armed forces as a whole.

Operational art is that part of military art concerned with the fundamentals of preparing and conducting operations involving operational formations

of the armed forces on land, at sea and in the air in accordance with overall

strategic designs and plans.

The general theoretical side of operational art (the theoretical principles

of operational art) is concerned with the study of the nature, principles and

rules of preparing for, and conducting modern operations; the organization,

qualities and potential of operational formations; methods and forms of using

operational formations under different conditions and for different purposes;

methods and forms of preparing and conducting different types ofoperations;

the fundamentals of operational support; the fundamentals of troop control

in operations; and the fundamentals of logistic support of forces engaged in

operations (theory of operational rear services).

The applied side of operational art is concerned with specific questions of

preparing and conducting various operations (front and army operations, and

also, on their own scale, local operations by all the Services of the Armed

Forces). Applied operational art also elaborates in concrete form questions

relating to operational and logistic support, as well as organizational control.

The operational art ofthe Strategic Rocket Forces, the Ground Forces, the

Navy, the Air Force and the National Air Defense Forces is concerned with

questions of conducting operations in their respective spheres of action.

Tactics is that part of military art which is directly concerned with the

fundamentals of preparing for, and conducting, combat operations by subunits, units, and formations of all the branches and Services of the Armed

Forces on land, in the air and at sea.

Tactics is subdivided into general tactics and the tactics of Services of the

Armed Forces. The branches and Services also have their own tactics. There

58
are tactics for the motorized rifle troops, the artillery, the armored troops,

the engineers, the signal troops, the rear services, etc.

The general theoretical side of tactics is concerned with: the characteristic

features of modern combat operations, the principles and rules of preparing

for and fighting modern combined arms actions, and actions involving

branches and Services; the organization, qualities, and combat potential of

tactical formations, units and subunits; the fundamentals of preparing,

fighting and supporting different kinds of action.

Applied tactics deals with specific questions of preparing and conducting

offensive and defensive actions, and other combat actions at a tactical scale

under various conditions, supporting such actions and controlling the forces

involved.

The theory of training and educating the forces (military pedagogy) is a

component part of military science that is concerned with the development

of scientific methods and forms of training and educating armed forces

personnel, methods and forms of training subunits, units, and formations,

also headquarters staff and senior officers.

Military pedagogy is of particular importance under present-day conditions.'4 This is because the methods and forms of combat operations, the

organization and technical equipment of the forces have become extremely

complicated. Armed forces can be prepared for the conduct of military action

in a future war only on a strictly scientific basis, which is the theory and

education of troops.

Military pedagogy covers the training and education of personnel actually

in the forces as well as those in secondary and higher military training

establishments. In the system of military science it is related most closely to

military art.

The science of military history is a component part of Soviet military

science. Like other branches of Soviet military science it is based on MarxistLeninist methodology, which affords a genuinely scientific, dialectic-materialistic interpretation of the objective laws of military history and the development of military science.

The science of military history, being closely related to general history and

historiography, examines the history of wars, military science and, in particular, military art, the history of armed forces, questions ofmilitary historiography, and the scientific description of military source material.

The history of wars is the factual basis of military history. It is not limited

to the chronology of military events, but incorporates both a description of

wars as a whole and their campaigns and operations, and derives from their

experience the conclusions and generalizations needed for military science.

The history of military science, including the history of military art, examines the objective laws of their development in the general process of military

history, relying upon the most significant, typical phenomena and events,

which disclose important aspects of the state of military science and military

art characteristic of a given age.

" For more details about this see the following section.

59
The history of armed forces defines the objective laws of their development

as a whole and of all branches of the forces separately. It incorporates: the

history of the branches—the infantry, artillery, armored troops, special

troops, etc.; the history of military units, formations and strategic formations

—regiments, ships, divisions, corps, fleets, and armies; the history of arms

and military equipment, military communications, rear services, etc.

Military historiography, a part of the science of military history, studies the

development of military historical knowledge by individual periods and

countries, and also as problems and individual questions of military history.

The Study ofmilitary source material is concerned with the study, classification and description of various historical military documents and evidence,

materials and archives. These are used to reconstruct the history of wars,

military science, armed forces, armaments, military equipment and military

historiography.

Military administration, a branch of military science, elaborates the general scientific principles of the structure and organization of the armed forces

as a whole and questions relating to the organization of their component

parts: The Services of the Armed Forces, branches, and formations, depending on the methods and forms of armed combat and, primarily, on the

requirements of military art.

The chief problems with which military administration is concerned are:

the study of questions of armed forces organization and military administration, the fundamentals of recruitment and fulfillment of military service by

all categories ofservicemen, legal standards; the organization ofthe daily life

of the forces and service routine, mobilization and demobilization of the

army, unit administration and services, etc.

Defining the scientific principles of troop control, military administration

examines the following fundamental questions: forms of control (unity of

command, collective decision making); methods of control (centralized, decentralized and mixed) and their relationship; forms ofsubordination (direct,

immediate and operational).

Due to the increasing importance of control problems there has developed

a need to isolate and develop an independent theory of troop control within

the framework of military science.

Military geography is the branch of military science concerned with the

study of the present state of the political, economic, natural, and military

characteristics of different countries, theaters of war and individual regions

from the point of view of their influence on preparations for, and conduct of,

military operations and war as a whole.

Military geography consists of two principal sections: area studies, and the

description of theaters of war. The conclusions and generalizations of military geography are used by all the component parts of military science.

The system of knowledge comprising military science also incorporates a

large group of military technical sciences, including those connected with the

design, production and use of nuclear weapons; the military aviation sciences

concerned with aircraft construction and the exploitation of aviation equip60

, | r

4':
,

merit; the tank and motor vehicle branches concerned with the production,

operation, and repair of armored and motor transport equipment; naval

technical sciences related to naval shipbuilding and navigation, military communications, especially electrical engineering, radar and other military technical sciences based on electronics; military cybernetics, etc.

Each of these groups of military technical sciences contains a whole series

of special branches and disciplines. Thus, for example, the artillery sciences,

in addition to their other disciplines, include the fundamentals ofthe working

principles and design of equipment, internal and external ballistics, etc.

The military sciences also include military topography, which concerns

itself with the fundamentals of topography and ground features for combat

operational purposes, various methods of surveying terrain, the preparation

of maps and plans, and the fundamentals of topographical support for forces

in action. Military geodetic surveying is developing on an increasingly large

scale on account of the entry of new means of armed combat into the forces'

inventory.

As a result of the scientific and technical revolution, including the revolution in military matters, there has been an upsurge of dynamism in the

development of military science, not only because it has benefitted from the

latest technological achievements, but on account of the introduction into the

military field of mathematical methods of research and calculation,

the achievements of cybernetics, bionics and other recent developments in

modern science.

SOVIET M. TARY DOCTRINE

The leading role in the creative development of our military thinking, as

in all military development, is played by the Communist Party. It is also

clearly manifested in the elaboration and implementation of contemporary

Soviet military doctrine. This is associated primarily with the scientific determination and correct calculation of the characteristic features and singularities of the present stage of world development, which have resulted in a

radical change in the military-political and strategic positions of the USSR.

Of cardinal importance in this connection are the following vital principles

and conclusions concerning: the decisive role of the world socialist system in,

and its influence on, the course ofsocial development in the present historical

age; imperialism as a source of aggressive wars; the nature and types of wars

of the present age and the attitude of socialist countries towards them; the

social-political and class nature of a possible world nuclear missile war, and

also the factors which determine the course and outcome of a war, and the

inevitable victory of the socialist coalition in a war against the imperialist

bloc; the present-day functions of the socialist state and its armed forces on

national and international scales; revolutionary changes in military matters

based on rapid social, scientific and technical progress.

The problem of a military doctrine proper, which would conform to the

present-day conditions of development of the Soviet State, was resolved on

61

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mm
the basis of these conclusions under the leadership of the Party. And such

a doctrine was elaborated. Its importance to our military jiersonnel is truly

invaluable. Studying Soviet military doctrine and being guided by its principles in their practical work, they acquire a unified outlook on all the main

problems of modern military matters, and are guided by mandatory principles and rules which are unified for everone; they see the long-term prospects of military affairs and trends in the <_ .velopment of military theory and

practice in close unity.

Military doctrine is a state's system of views and instructions on the

nature of war under specific historical conditions, the definition of the military tasks of the state and the armed forces and the principles of their

development, as well as the means and forms of solving all of these tasks,

including armed combat, which stem from the war aims and the socialeconomic and military-technical resources of the country.

Military doctrine is elaborated and defined by the state leadership. It

reflects the social-economic, political and historical pecularities of the state

and the nature of its internal and external policies. Each state, in creating its

armed forces, elaborates a definite system of views on military questions, in

accordance with which the armed forces are developed and improved, and

the country as a whole is prepared for war.

The military doctrine of each state is formulated under the direct influence

of political objectives and views on war, class relationships in the country,

internal and external policies, and economic and military-technical potential.

However, in the elaboration of their military doctrines, the bourgeois states

are incapable of making an objective calculation of the social structure of

their society and its class composition. They do not have any truly scientific

principles; their methodology reflects their class nature; it is unsound.

Military doctrine has two aspects: the political and the technical. The first

is concerned with the political evaluation of the military tasks of the state.

The second provides answers to questions arising in connection with already

formed or conjectured special features of armed combat in modern warfare;

it determines the military-technical tasks of the armed forces, and the means,

methods and forms of armed combat.

Each of th« bourgeois states of today has its own military doctrine, despite

the fact that many of them have common political objectives—forcible seizure of foreign territory and the enslavement of other peoples.

Soviet military doctrine determines the means, ways, and methods of

ensuring the reliable defense of the Soviet Socialist State from imperialist

aggression. It incorporates a comprehensive evaluation of the nature of future

warfare, i.e., its social and political nature, probable methods of waging

armed combat and the appropriate measures which need to be taken to

prepare the armed forces, the people, and the country as a whole to inflict

a crushing defeat upon an aggressor.

Of all the wars which are possible in these times, the most dangerous is

a world nuclear war, which is what the imperialist aggressors, primarily the

USA, are preparing against the socialist community, chiefly against the

62
Soviet Union, as the most powerful of the socialist states. Thus, arguments

pertaining to problems of preparing and waging universal nuclear war occupy

the most important place in Soviet military doctrine. Along with this, the

possibility of conducting combat operations with units and subunits and

without nuclear weapons, i.e., by conventional weapons, is also considered.

The principal determining feature of a nuclear war is its class and political

content and the political objectives of the combatants.

From the social and political content of war it follows that in connection

with the disposition of the forces in the international arena, which is already

taking shape, a new world war will be characterized on both sides by a clearly

expressed class and, coupled with that, a coalitional character. In such a war,

the aggressive imperialist bloc will be opposed by a powerful coalition of

countries of the socialist community, welded together by their unity of purpose and community of interests in defending the achievements of socialism.

Contemporary world war is characterized by its vast spatial scope. Armed

combat under conditions of nuclear warfare acquires an intercontinental

character.

From the cardinal features of a possible world war enumerated above, it

follows that changes in the character of modern war and the principal means

of armed combat inevitably entail changes both in the essential nature of

armed combat itself and in the means of waging it, which, of course, is

considered by military doctrine in the most immediate way.

Soviet military doctrine is, therefore, based on a calculation ofthe political,

economic, scientific and technical and military factors and military scientific

data. Its principal theses determine the main trend in military development,

and establish a common understanding of the nature of a possible war and

of the tasks involved in defending the state and preparing it to repel imperialist aggression.

Soviet military doctrine expresses the views and directives of the Communist Party and the Soviet government on all aspects of the vital activity of

the state in wartime.

Thus, present-day military doctrine is the political policy of the Party and

the Soviet government in the military field. This is an expression of state

military policy, a directive of political strategy—military strategy representing a true union of politics and science in the interests of the defense of the

country and the whole socialist community against imperialist aggression

Military doctrine is called upon to ensure that all military personnel share

identical views in the solution of present-day military tasks, making the

maximum use of the achievements ofscience and technology for Jhis purpose,

and that there is full agreement between military theory and practice. It

expresses the essence of military policy, has an organizing and mobilizing

effect on the evolution of military theoretical reasoning and the practical side

of military development.

Our military doctrine plays an important role in the struggle against the

reactionary military ideology of imperialism, thereby fulfilling both a national and an international role.

63

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•
Soviet military doctrine takes into consideration cooperation between the

socialist countries in the military field and, at the same time, exerts a definite

influence on the solution of common military problems. In this connection,

it is necessary to emphasize that the military doctrines of the socialist states

are united on the political side by common ideological principles, whereas on

the technical side there are some differences between them, which reflect the

different levels of development of the resources of these countries and other

special features.

Each socialist country is vitally concerned in the fight to defend the

achievements of socialism against imperialist aggression and consolidate its

defensive power, and each contributes its share to the common cause of

ensuring the security of fraternal countries.

The most powerful socialist country is the Soviet Union. Our country has

enormous economic and military strength, it has nuclear weapons, and is a

mighty shield standing in the way of imperialist aggression. "The revolutionary achievements of our own people and those of other countries would be

threatened," said the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, A.

N. Kosygin, at the XXIII Congress of the CPSU, "if they were not directly

or indirectly shielded by the enormous military strength of the countries of

the socialist community, primarily the Soviet Union. And if, from time to

time, the imperialists are fearful of acting as they would like to, it is only

because they are well aware of the risks involved." "

Soviet military doctrine interacts with military science. On its military

technical side it relies on conclusions and recommendations "selected" by

military science. In turn, doctrine evolved on the basis of military scientific

data has a tremendous organizing and mobilizing effect on the development

of the Armed Forces and aii military affairs, it contributes to the preparation

of the state and the Armed Forces to repel a possible attack by an aggressor,

and to the skillful waging of victorious armed combat.

Military science reveals the laws inherent in armed combat and in all

military aftairs, and investigates the objective conditions and possibilities of

waging armed combat. Military science covers a much wider range of military questions than does the doctrine. It examines a!! possible means, methods and forms of conducting armed combat arising out of the objective

conditions of the evolution of society and the specific historical circumstances. But, of all the different questions studied by military science, the

political leadership selects only those which contribute most to the political

aims of war arising out of the political policy being pursued by a given state,

and which also ensure the most successful solution of that state's military

tasks.

History shows that military doctrine becomes more scientifically sound,

objective and, therefore, more vital, the greater its reliance on the objective

evaluations and conclusions of military science.

" Materialy XXIII s'yezda KPSS [Materials of the XXIII Congress of the CPSU], p. 173.

64
65

There are clear-cut differences between military science and military doctrine. Military science, in its development, relies on the analysis of objective laws, which are independent of human

will, and on the practice of armed combat. Military science is the theory of military affairs.

Doctrine, on the other hand, is based on the theoretical data of military science and the political

principles of the state. Science analyzes and reveais objective laws: doctrine rests on the conclusions of science and directly determines the practical side of military development.

The difference between military science and doctrine consists in the fact that doctrine, elaborated and adopted by the state, is a unified system of views and a guide to action, free of any

kind of personal, subjective opinions and evaluations. Science, on the other hand, is characterized by controversy. In the system of theories known as military science there may be several

different points of view, diverse scientific concepts, original hypotheses which are not selected

as doctrine for practical application and thus do not acquire the character of official state views

on military questions.

There is also a difference in the effective period of their principles and conclusions, the extent

of their connection with the past and their extension into the future. Science makes a profound

study of the past, extracting from 't all that is valuable and useful for the present and the future.

Doctrine on the other hand, is not concerned with investigat.ng past experience of armed

combat. Military science does this during, and for, it. Doctrine exists primarily for the present

and the immediate future. It determines the practical tasks of military development for some

relatively limited period. But, during the course of the evolution of warfare, new conditions and

factors of armed combat emerge and acquire full force, as a result of which the old military

doctrine lags behind practice and it is necessary to replace it with a new one. The duty ofscience,

on the other hand, is to pave the way for practice and to foresee the course of events.

The interrelationship and interdependence of military science and military

doctrine is also expressed in the extent to which military science correctly

reflects the evolution of military affairs. If military science reflects objective

reality in a distorted fashion, employs faulty methodology, or lags behind

practice, it will inevitably tell on the evolution of military doctrine.

Military doctrine also interacts with strategy. Strategy as a scientific theory

elaborates the fundamental methods and forms of armed combat on a strategic scale and, at the same time, produces t

he military guiding principles of

war. The theoretical arguments ofstrategy influence military doctrine and its

scientific evolution. At the same time, strategy implements doctrine directly,

and is its instrument in the elaboration of war plans and the preparation of

the country for war. In wartime, military doctrine drops into the background

somewhat, since, in armed combat, we are guided primarily by militarypolitical and military-strategic considerations, conclusions and generalizations which stem from the conditions of the specific situation. Consequently,

war, armed combat, is governed by strategy, not doctrine.

Soviet military doctrine is offensive in character. However, the offensive

nature of our doctrine has nothing in common with the aggressiveness and

predatory tendencies of the military doctrine ofthe USA and its allies, which

reflect the criminal aims of the ruling classes of these countries. The Soviet

Union and other countries of the socialist community do not intend to attack

anyone at all; but, if they are attacked, they will wage the war imposed upon

them by their enemies in the most offensive fashion in order to bring about

the rapid defeat of those enemies.

Soviet military doctrine assigns the decisive role in modern warfare to

nuclear missiles. At the same time, it assumes that, in addition to nuclear
missile strikes of a strategic and operational-tactical nature, the armed forces

will use conventional weapons. Our doctrine is based on the fact that success

in modern armed combat is achieved not by any particular weapon or fighting

Service, but by the united efforts of all the Services and branches of the

Armed Forces with the Strategic Rocket Forces in the leading role. Only as

a result of carefully organized cooperation, taking into consideration the role,

place, and importance of each Service and branch of the Armed Forces in

a specific situation is it possible to achieve strategic objectives in a war, and

success in battles and operations.

Taking into account the features of modern large-scale armed forces and

their enormously increased fire power, Soviet military doctrine considers that

the organization of the Services and branches of the Armed Forces should

be fairly flexible, and conform to the most diverse conditions of warfare.

A new and important phenomenon in modern war is the problem of the front and rear. The

boundary between the front and the rear is being more and more obliterated and a war can now

start simultaneously at the front and deep in the rear. Targets deep in the rear will probably

be subjected to nuclear missile, chemical, and bacteriological attacks by the enemy's nuclear

missile and air forces, as well as to conventional air strikes. Airborne landings of enemy forces

may be made in the rear, when, in some cases, large groups of enemy tank and mechanized forces

could break through to the rear. Thus, the rear must be prepared to defend prospective targets

against nuclear missile strikes, to repel attacks by airborne and diversionary detachments, and

to engage enemy groups which have succeeded in breaking through.

Civil defense, which plays a very important role in this connection, is organized in plants,

factories, sovkhozes and kolkhozes in all large cities, towns and villages. Its main tasks are to

provide for the defense of the population against enemy nuclear missile strikes, to neutralize the

sfter-effects of a nuclear attack rapidly and efficiently, and to facilitate the uninterrupted operation of the administrative and supply departments of production organizations, as well as to

assist military units in repelling enemy forces which may have penetrated into the rear.

Thus, Soviet military doctrine plays an enormous role in further strengthening the defense capacity of our Motherland and that of the entire socialist

community. Its principles have legal force; they govern all the activities of

our military cadres. Doctrine, however, does not rule out vital organizational

creative work. On the contrary, it provides the essential element that gives

all the work of military cadres its purposeful character, and ensures the unity

of their views and their endeavors to contribute to the steady increase of the

fighting power of the Soviet State and the combat readiness of its Armed

Forces.

.>

What to Read on This Section

Marksizm-leninizm o voyne iarmii [Marxism-Leninism on War and Army],*

5th edition. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Metodologicheskiye problemy voyennoy teorii i praktiki [Methodological

Problems of Military Theory and Practice]. Voyenizdat, 1969, Ch.XII.

Voyennaya strategiya [Military Strategy], 3rd edition. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Istoriya voyennogo iskusstva [A History of Military Art]. Voyenizdat, 1966.

• Available in English, No. i, USAF "Soviet Military Thought" Series [U.S. Ed.].

66

;V-
Chapter 4. THE FUNDAMENTALS OF MILITARY

PSYCHOLOGY AND MILITARY PEDAGOGY

The revolution in military affairs, which has radically changed the character of modem warfare, has led to a requirement for higher moral and fighting

qualities in members of the Armed Forces, and thereby complicated the task

of teaching and training them.

Military training has now become a very complex and dynamic process.

There is a growing need for greater rapidity and thoroughness in the formation of the fighting man's character and the training of personnel ofsubunits,

units, and ships in their combat, moral-political, and psychological attitudes

toward aggressive action under conditions of modern war. All this can be

achieved only provided the training and education of military personnel is

organized on a scientific basis.

In the system of sciences concerned with ascertaining the objective laws

of training and educating Soviet servicemen, a key role is played by military

psychology and pedagogy.

MILITARY PSYCHOLOGY

Military psychology is a branch of the science of psychology, which is

concerned with the investigation of the objective laws which govern the

formation and manifestation of the fighting man's personality, as well as the

psychology of the military collective under service and combat conditions,

for the purpose of evolving practical recommendations and generalizations

to assist officers in the training, education, and management of subordinates

and subunits. It also plays a part in several other sectors of Armed Forces

development, including the design and improvement of equipment and weapons in terms of the fighting man's potential, the establishment of an optimal

system of personnel selection according to psychological potential for particularly complex types of combat activities, etc.

Unlike bourgeois military psychology, which relies on idealist points of

view and has a reactionary slant, Soviet military psychology is based on

scientific Marxist-Leninist methodology, and the sound natural science

teachings on the physiology of higher nervous activity propounded by the

great Russian scientist. Academician I. P. Pavlov. In conformity with Marx67
ist-Leninist philosophy, these view matter as primary, and mind and consciousness as secondary.

The nature of the mind as a function of the human brain consists in the

reflection of one's environment. Man is oriented in his environment on the

basis of his knowledge of reality. A mind that functions properly is a

prerequisite for man's successful activities, since, as F. Engels said, "Everything that stimulates man to act must pass through his brain."

The human mind is a product of social and historical labor. The development of an individual's mind also takes place under the influence of specific

conditions and those activities with which the subject is occupied at different

stages of his life. Military work has great educational potential. It makes a

deep impression on the fighting man's character.

The world of man's mental phenomena includes:

—mental processes, which in turn, are subdivided into cognitive processes

(sensations, perceptions, attention, mental representation, memory, thought,

speech, imagination), the senses, and the will;

—mental states, expressed as being at a normal level, in a general elevation

or depression of a man's spiritual powers;

—mental qualities, including directive tendency, temperament, character,

and ability;

—mental formations, which are the knowledge, ability, skills, and habits

acquired throughout the whole of one's life.

In every person, mental processes, qualities, and states (as well as formations) are in unison. Thus, any action or deed of a soldier is a manifestation

of the unity of all his mental processes, qualities, and states. For example,

during manual tracking of a target, the operator's sense organs, i.e., his

sensations and perceptions, his memory, thought, experience, and will, all

function under tension. Furthermore, in this situation, the specific motives

by which the soldier is stimulated to action, are expressed. Peculiarities in

the temperament of servicemen, their mental state at the moment of firing,

are also reflected in the firing results.

To study the fighting man means to obtain specific opinions about his

individual characteristics, mental processes, states and personality as a

whole, on the basis of specified facts. There are various methods of studying

the mind.

Observation and experiment are the principal methods. Observation is the

systematic, purposeful accumulation offsets about behavior, actions, interrelationships, and statements which, when appropriately analyzed, makes it

possible to draw conclusions about the mental peculiarities of a subordinate.

This method includes objective external observation of the actions of an

individual under various training, service, and combat conditions, and the

subject's own account of his thoughts, experiences, etc.

Observation of behavior, activities, and deeds is the principal method of

studying a subordinate's mind and his individual characteristics. Success is

achieved b^ him who conducts such observations puiposefully and systematically, and who draws the correct conclusions from the accumulated facts.

'

68
The experimental method. The purpose of a psychological experiment is

to make accessible for external observation those inner mental processes and

personal qualities that are not directly manifested externally. This is a fundamental method in psychology, although in military science it is more difficult

to apply to the solution of a number of problems. There are variants of this

method: first, the laboratory, artificial experiment, for which the experimenter creates the entire setting and conditions in which the subject is to be

investigated; second, the natural experiment, an intermediate form between

observation and experiment.

The laboratory experiment is conducted either by means of special technical apparatuses, or

written tests. All the serviceman's mental processes can be determined and evaluated very

precisely by this method. It permits certain inferences to be drawn about his temperament and

individual abilities. Laboratory experiments are used extensively in aviation and space psychology in the selection of candidates for flying schools, and in training for space flights.

In the natural experiment, it is the set of conditions under which the subject performs that

is influenced by the expenmenter, not the subject himself. Let us assume that a commander gives

two orders, one after the other, to a soldier: to deliver food to the firing range, to deliver mail

to the KTP.* From the soldier's response to this situation it is possible to evaluate the peculiarities of his temperament and character.

There are other means of investigation, which include the following. The

study of a soldier's mentality based on an analysis of the results of his

activities. For example, it is frequently said of a soldier or sailor, in connection with work performed, that he is either disciplined, or shows initiative.

In another case, the nature ofthe task being carried out may provide evidence

of the skill, abilities, and interests of a person, etc.

Interview. This is organized in accordance with a plan in conformity with

the research tasks. A soldier's interests, aptitudes, anxieties, difficulties and

experiences can be studied, provided the interview is not casual, but purposeful, conducted on an individual basis in an atmosphere of mutual trust, and

provided the results of the interview are correlated with other information.

The questionnaire method. This is the questioning of a group of people by

means of a prepared questionnaire. If the questionnaires are filled in anonymously, this method does not provide information about the individual: the

results, processed statistically, express average values. For example, this

method can be used to investigate the interests of users of libraries in military

units and aboard ships.

These methods make it possible for an officer to ascertain the individual

characteristics of a subordinate and to understand him. They do not require

special laboratory conditions and they can be employed during the course of

routine activities.

• Russian abbreviation for, among other things, 'lank regiment commander' and 'technical

control point' [U.S. Ed).

69
THE MENTAL PROCESSES OF A PERSON UNDER MILITARY SERVICE

CONDITIONS

The mental processes of a serviceman are his cognitive processes, his senses

and will. A serviceman studies and assimilates educational material and

orients himself in a situation on the basis of his cognitive processes. Thus,

these processes represent one ofthe psychological prerequisites for successful

training and service of the personnel. They function according to known

objective laws. A knowledge of these objective laws helps an officer to recognize the cognitive potential of his subordinates, and to take them into consideration in his practical work.

Sensation is the initial cognitive process. Essentially, it is the reflection of

individual properties and qualities of objects or phenomena which directly

influence a person. The process of sensation occurs on the basis of the

functioning of the sense organs. For example, the eye: this is an organ of

complex structure, incorporating the lens, retina, optic nerve, and occipital

lobes of the cortex. By means of the eye we sense color, light, form, and

movement. Noise and sound are sensed by the ear, the aural nerve and the

temporal regions ofthe cortex. The vestibular apparatus, located in the inner

ear, is the organ by which we sense body balance. Other sense organs are

found in the muscles, ligaments and tendons; these enable us to sense muscle

tension and posture.

The minimum perceptible force of a stimulus characterizes the lower

threshold of sensation. Maximum stimulation, beyond which there is no

sensation of any increase in the force of the imulus, is called the upper

threshold of sensation. The minimum difference which a person can detect

between two stimuli is called the differentiation threshold, or the difference

threshold.

A change of sensitivity as a result of the prolonged influence of a stimulus

on a sense organ, or as a consequence of its absence, is called adaptation. For

example, the eye adapts to darkness or strong light when a soldier leaves or

enters the guardroom at night. Complete dark adaptation of the eye takes

longer than an hour. During this time the sensitivity of the eye increases up

to 200,000 times. Partial adapfation to a working level takes 5-7 minutes.

The phenomenon of contra st in the process ofsensation consists in the fact

that weak stimuli increase sensitivity to other simultaneously acting stimuli,

while strong stimuli diminish this sensitivity. In combat, for instance, small

arms fire is not very noticeable against the background of an artillery bombardment. But even a single rifle shot in the forest silence seems deafening

and makes one jump.

The continuation of a sensation, when the action ofthe stimulus has ceased

is called the after image. It lasts for a fraction of a second. For example, in

the cinema the screen is in darkness every y^. of a second, but the viewer

does not notice this since the after-image of the preceding frame is retained

in his consciousness.

Perception. This cognitive process is essentially the reflection of objects

and phenomena as a whole, and not simply their individual qualities, as in

70

I
the case of sensation. Perception if characterized primarily by comprehension. This property of perception consists in the fact that man has a tendency

to catch significance and meaning in all that he reflects. And if it is apparent

that meaning is not manifested in the reflected object, he will arbitrarily

introduce meaning into it. Therefore, it sometimes happens that training

material incorrectly presented by an officer is understood by soldiers and

sailors in different ways.

The integrated character of perception is expressed in the fact that the

images being reflected in a person's consciousness appear in a combination

of many qualities and properties. And if a perceived familiar object influences

a person with only some of its qualities, then, thanks to the integrated nature

of perception, it is reflected in the consciousness in full. The integrated nature

of perception makes it possible to recognize objects from the most insignificant signs. Thus, an experienced pilot will recognize the specific class of an

aircraft in flight by the characteristic sound of its engines.

Perception is an active process. Its object is isolated in it at every instant;

everything else reflected by the consciousness serves as its background.

Perception depends largely on a person's past experience, skills, moods, feelings and not only

on those of the present moment It also depends upon what a person expects or wishes to see

in perceived objects. The dependence of perception on past experience and the total content of

an individual's mental life is called apperception.

Mistakes may be made in the process of perception. An incorrect or distorted perception is

called an illusion. There are various causes ofillusions. These are: preconceived notions; expectation; state of mind; lack of contrast or boundary between the perceived objects and the background with respect to shape, volume, color, illumination. Illusions also originate in cases where

the meaning of the perceived object is not understood, or, conversely where meaning is forcefully

introduced where none exists.

The phenomenon of illusion is parallelled by another peculiarity of perception—constancy,

i.e., constancy in perception. The latter is attributable to a person's knowledge of the physical

properties of objects, and to the fact that objects are usually perceived in association with, and

in an environment consisting of, other familiar objecta.

There is also distinguished and so-called intentional perception which

comes into play depending on tasks; this is associated with volitional efforts.

A soldier, during lessons, intentionally perceives the material, visual aids or

demonstration presented by the officer. Observation is the developed form of

this type of perception.

Attention is a prerequisite for the productive operation of the serviceman's

cognitive processes, both during training and in carrying out his duties. It is

expressed in the preferential directive tendency of his consciousness towards

a specific object, as a result of which it is fully reflected. Attention is characterized by a number of fundamental properties, the degree of development

of which is proportional to its quality as a whole.

Concentration of attention: this is the ability to concentrate on what really

matters. A high degree of concentration depends largely on determined

effort, interests, understanding the importance of a task, and the ability to

carry out an assignment. Radar operators, observers, snipers, etc., must be

capable of highly concentrated attention.

The scope of a person's attention is measured by the number of homoge71 irr. •
neous objects perceived simultaneously. For example, in flying an aircraft a

pilot must retain within his field of attention the air situation, the instrument

readings, the controls and, at the same time, maintain radio contact with the

ground, etc. The scope of attention is measured by the number of simultaneously perceived objects per unit of time.

Distribution of attention. This is the capability of keeping in mind several

different objects simultaneously, or of carrying out a complex activity consisting of many simultaneous operations.

Switching of attention is the intentional transition from one activity to

another. The property ofswitching is evaluated by the time of transition from

object to object, from one type of activity to another.

Stability of attention is the capacity of continuing to perceive a single

object. Stability depends on consciousness of responsibility, volitional effort,

interest in the object, and understanding of its meaning.

Fluctuation of attention. This is the involuntary switching of attention

from one object to another. In complex and sophisticated forms of activity

(for example, the apprehension of the situation on a radar screen) serious

errors may occur as a result of such fluctuations.

Distraction of attention is usually the result of insufficient or total lack of

interest in an object or activity, a negligent attitude towards one's work, or

a lack of determined effort. This is a serious obstacle to successful training

and service.

Absent-mindedness is considered as the lack of attention or the consequence of its poor development.

An idea is the image of an object (or phenomenon), which is not directly

perceived at a given moment. It can be visual, aural, gustatory, olfactory,

tactile, thermal, or motor. An idea may also be the result of the simultaneous

functioning of several sense organs, in which case it is more complete and

accurate.

Ideas are the property of an individual They differ in their nature in

individual people. 1 his difference may be expressed in terms of vividness and

rapidity in the reconstruction of ideas, depth and content, or the kind of

thoughts that predominate m a person's mind. The system of ideas which

characterize a fighting m\..i comprises the substance of his spiritual world.

Certain specific types of concepts may play an important role in the service

life ofsoldiers and sailors with various trade qualifications; for example, aural

concepts for radio operators, visual concepts for radar operators, and so on.

The more precise and complete a serviceman's concept of his trade qualifications, the more successful he is in carrying out his duties.

Memory. This cognitive process plays an exceptionally important role in

military activities. It is precisely that soldier or sailor who has a welldeveloped memory who will assimilate training material more quickly, fully,

and precisely, ar d who will use his experience, his learning, and the experience of his comrades more fully in combat activity: his memory will suggest

to him, accurately and opportunely, the necessary decision, possible variants

of actions in analogous situation, etc.

72
Memory consists in memorizing, retaining and subsequently reproducing

that which a person did, experienced, or perceived.

Memorizing is the process of impressing on the memory that which we

perceive, think, experience and do. It can be either intentional or unintentional. Intentional memorizing can be mechanical and meaningful. In mechanical memorizing, the material is imprinted on the memory by simple

repetition, without understanding its meaning. This type of mental process

is employed in cases where the material being memorized has no inner

meaning, for example, names, numerical values, addresses, etc. If, however,

we try to assimilate meaningful material by memorizing it mechanically, it

becomes cramming, which leads to a formal acquisition of knowledge, errors

in reproducing it, and inability to apply it.

Memorizing based on an understanding of the meaning of the material

being memorized is far more productive (22 times more productive than

mechanical memorizing).

Retention of the memorized material is accomplished by further comprehension and mastery of the material and by combatting forgetfulness. We

know that material is not retained in the memory if it is not repeated, and

as a consequence of excessive fatigue and emotional stress. Thus, in order to

combat forgetfulness, it is essential to organize systematic repetitions, to

distribute the training load properly, to alternate work according to complexity, and to rest normally.

Reproduction is the activization ofthe stored material in the consciousness

for its practical utilization. The passive form of reproduction is called recognition: an individual recognizes in what he is perceiving at the present moment that which he perceived at some time in the past. If reproduction is

limited to recognition, it indicates that the memorization and retention ofthe

material was incomplete and superficial, that the material was poorly assimilated, that it was not repeated correctly and not sufficiently applied in

practice.

The active form of reproduction is recollection. This entails effort, stress

and, sometimes, the use of special methods as well. Material is usually

recollected incompletely, inaccurately and slowly. Therefore, if a serviceman

reproduces previously studied material in the form of a recollection, it indicates either that he did not memorize it sufficiently or that he did not revise

it.

Finally, reproduction may also occur in the form of a memory, when the

material is reproduced rapidly, easily, accurately and completely.

Every person possesses memories of different kinds: motor, verbal-logical,

emotional, and graphic. However, they are frequently developed in varying

degrees.

Motor memory. This is a memory for motion. It comes into play during

training on combat equipment, driving lessons, etc. This type of memory is

developed in a person who systematically remembers traffic routes, not by

local features, but where and how a turn was made, where and how long he

travelled, etc.
A verbal-logical memory ensures the assimilation of the material being

memorized, formulations, and expressions with an inner meaning, strict

logic. This is the type of memory involved in studying regulations, mastering

theorems, formulas, etc.

An emotional memory preserves in our consciousness different emotions

and the events associated with them. This is a very strong type of memory.

Anything experienced once is remembered for a long time.

A graphic memory. This is the kind of memory which makes it possible to

recall a person's face, a locality, an object, or an event. A memory ofthis type

is valuable because it retains an image in detail.

In training subordinates, it is necessary to rely on those forms of memory

which they manifest more strongly. Those forms which are less pronounced

should be developed.

Memory is characterized by specific qualities: rapidity of memorizing,

completeness of retention, duration of retention, accuracy and readiness of

reproduction.

Memory is, as it were, the serviceman's arsenal of personal experience and

knowledge; and in this sense it is turned towards the past. The creative

cognitive process directed towards the future is imagination.

Imagination is the process of creating images of objects which have never

been directly perceived and which are not being perceived at any given

moment. It is based on the transformation and combination of ideas existing

in a person's mind and is intimately associated with memory and thought.

A person's imagination is stimulated by his needs, desires, interests, and his

attitude towards reality.

A well-developed imagination is essential to a fighting man. In combat, it

helps him to understand and foresee changes in the combat situation; his

training is facilitated if his imagination is developed, since he is able to

visualize what his commanding officer is talking about and that which it is

impossible to see directly.

Imagination is of an involuntary nature when new images are formed in

the consciousness without any effort. Thus, the most unusual visions of rest

may occur in the imagination of a fatigued person.

The intentional creation of images based on some kind of instructional

material: texts, drawings, maps, diagrams, etc., is called reconstructive imagination. For example, if a soldier or sailor has this type of imagination, he will

be able to visualize more clearly an officer's description of a modern battle.

The process of creating images, not from a description, but by self-initiation, is called creative imagination. It frequently produces images of objects

that do not exist in reality. This is the kind of imagination which is responsible for the creation of new machines and works of art and which produces

original solutions to problems in different fields of activity. A creative imagination is an essential condition of success in the Armed Forces. It is a

guarantee of initiative, and bold and confident action on the battlefield.

Thought is a higher cognitive process by means of which connections and

relationships between objects and phenomena in the surrounding world are

74
reflected in man's consciousness. Essentially, thought consists in the analysis

and synthesis of reality, which take place in a person's consciousness. The

instruments of analysis and synthesis are concepts, ideas and their speech

equivalents, words.

A serviceman does well in combat and training activities if his mentality

is well-developed, disciplined, and has the appropriate qualities for correctly

reflecting the complex relationships of different situations.

What is the nature of thought? First and foremost, it is the process of

solving problems. Essentially, thought is the reflection in man's consciousness of conditions, i.e., complex connections and relationships between objects and phenomena, in which he has to act in order to achieve a certain goal.

To resolve a problem means to find ways of acting in an existing situation

which will ensure success.

The solution of a combat problem includes the process of studying it, i.e.,

gaining a clear idea of the objective which must be achieved as a result of the

impending battle; an evaluation of the situation, i.e., correlation of the idea

of the task with the actual conditions in which one has to act; the adoption

of the solution itself, and its practical realization.

The success of the solution of a task depends on the correctness of the

thought processes and the variety of forms and methods of thinking involved

in arriving at the solution. Different ways of approaching a cognizable object

are expressed in the thought processes.

Psychology distinguishes the following thought processes: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, and concretization.

Analysis consists in breaking down the whole into its constituents. For

example, a commander, in summing up training results, considers in turn the

actions of each subunit upon the sounding of an alert, on the march, in the

concentration area, and in the fluidity of battle.

Synthesis is the reverse of analysis. This is the process of reintegrating the

constituents on the basis of revealed essential relationships.

The process of comparison consists in comparing objects, phenomena and

their properties, and revealing similarities or differences between them. Thus,

we can compare the technical specifications of different types of small arms.

Using the process of abstraction we can isolate any one aspect or property

of an object, or a phenomenon, and this can be studied or analyzed independently of other properties. In studying the destructive properties of nuclear

weapons, for example, such factors as flash, shock wave, and penetrating

radiation are studied in succession.

The process of generalization is simply the association of many objects or

phenomena with respect to some sort of common characteristic. For example, a commander generalizes many actions of a subordinate in order to arrive

at a conclusion about his character.

Concretization is the reflection of many or all aspects of a particular object

or phenomenon. The driver-mechanic of a tank, for example, is not only

conscious of the fuel and electrical fire-extinguishing systems in general, but

knows the layout of both systems in detail.

75

L
The process of resolving an intellectual problem may be realized in the

form of a judgment or an inference.

Judgment is a basic form of thought. It consists in the negation or affirmation of a fact. Thus, an observer's report about an object he has noticed is

a judgment.

An inference is the formation of a new judgment from one or several

judgments. A commander explains the task—a judgment; evaluates the situation—anotherjudgment; adopts a solution—a new judgment stemming from

the preceding judgments, i.e., he makes an inference.

Psychology recognizes the concept of methods of thinking. These methods

pertain primarily to the process ofinference. One of these is induction, which

takes place when an inference follows from single factors, or premises, to a

general conclusion. The process of inference using the deductive method

occurs in the reverse order.

Depending on the nature of the activity, thought is subdivided into visualactive, graphic, and abstract.

Visual-active thought signifies thought directly involved in activity. For

example, the actions of a submachine gunner attacking the enemy are inseparable from his thinking. It prompts him to be consistent in his movements

and methods of fighting the enemy.

Graphic thought arises on the basis of ideas previously apprehended by a

person. Sometimes, this form of thinking provides the most correct solution

to a problem. Thus, a commander is better prepared for combat if he is able

to visualize and "run through" forthcoming actions in the light of previous

experience.

Abstract thought is based on concepts which are not graphically representable.

We shall refer briefly to the characteristics of the process of communication between people. Language is the means by which one person makes

contact with another. The process of communication by means of language

is accomplished in several ways.

Oral speech is communication by means of the production of words and

the perception of these sounds through the sense of hearing. It may take the

form of a dialogue when there is an exchange of thoughts between two

speakers, or a monologue. Dialogue speech has great potential as a vehicle

for the transmission of thoughts: voice intonation and gestures make it possible for speakers to impart emotional content to their communication.

Monologue speech is more difficult than dialogue, primarily because the

listeners do not react directly, as in the case of dialogue, to the thoughts being

communicated. The speaker must catch this reaction by indications such as

expression or lack of attention, the nature of the response, etc.

Written language is one of the forms of communication, of which dispatches, reports, code and cipher messages, etc., are examples. It is more

difficult to convey the subject matter in written language, since it is deprived

of any supplementary means of expression, such as facial expression, gesture,

and context, etc., used in oral speech. A writer must use words and phrases

76

i
in such a way that they compensate for these deficiencies. It is also important

to consider who will read the written communication and what his reaction

to it may be.

Language in military affairs takes different forms, such as the languages of command, propaganda, communication, etc.

The language of command: this is the language of leadership. It has its own characteristics,

which have theii origin in the nature of combat activity: brevity, conciseness, the capacity to

convey the maximum amount of subject nv.tter in the shortest possible time, clarity and precision. The danger inherent in a combat situation requires that such language be energetic and

buoyant, and that it evoke in the men to whom it is addressed confidence in their powers and

an urge to act. It should also express the confidence of the commander himself in the correctness

of his order. It ;s delivered in military regula'ion style, with text-book consistency of

phraseology.

Propaganda language is aimed at communicating military and political information to servicemen and convincing them of the correctness of their knowledge. Therefore, it should be explanatory, convincing, graphic and charged with emotion, logical, and rigidly timed. The inclusion

of a polemic element makes it more convincing. A commanding tone, falsehood, attempts to

curry favor, and coarseness are not permissible in propaganda language.

The language of communication is used in conversations, in individual work with people, as

well as during off-dity periods. It has an individual character and permits the use of words of

a familiar and friendly nature, freer in its choice of intonation, gestures, and facial expressions.

The proper use of the language of communication enhances the influence of an officer on his

men, helps him to understand them, and gain their respect for his authority.

The important role played by the cognitive mental processes in military

activities makes it essential to pay close attention to them. First of all, it is

important to be able to evaluate the degree of manifestation ofthese processes

in every serviceman. The resulting information provides an expedient basis

for selecting the training methods, means, and procedures which will ensure

the fullest assimilation of the training material by each individual.

A commander is expected to take all the necessary steps to ensure that the

cognitive processes of servicemen are being constantly improved. This is

achieved by subjecting them to systematic training and including vhem in

practical activities.

Special attention should be paid to the training of the will. Modern warfare

is of an unprecedentedly fierce, decisive, fast-moving and fluid nature. The

enormous force of nuclear strikes, their suddenness—all this will have a great

effec. on servicemen's minds. Under such conditions only those whose will

is absolutely inflexible will be able to cope with any task which presents itself.

What is will? Will is the capacity of a person to control his behavior and

mobilize his resources to overcome the difficulties standing between him and

his objective.

A person's will is manifested in his acts. Conventionally, a volitional act

is made up of several stages: understanding the objective, selection of the

means, and planning the act, taking the decision, carrying it out, and analyzing the results.

To develop the will of subordinates it is necessary to train them to be

clearly aware of the purpose of impending actions, to plan them, take a

decision without hesitation, and relentlessly strive to carry it out.

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Volitional acts may be simple or complex, prolonged or of short duration,

performed on one's own initiative or in fulfilling a commander's assignment.

Volitional acts are usually performed in response to a commander's orders,

commands, or instructions. A correct understanding and spontaneous acceptance by a soldier or sailor of the task assigned to him helps him to carry

it out with comparative ease. It is also the commander's duty to form in his

subordinates the proper convictions appropriate to his obligations and position of armed defender of the Homeland.

In the process of forming and tempering the will, the qualities which are

developed first include fortitude, audacity, bravery and determination.

Sensations. Man relates to everything he sees, hears, and remembers in a

specific way. This relationship is expressed in experiences. A person's experience of his relationship with the environment and other people, to himself

and his actions is called sensation.

Man's feelings are an important psychological process. They affect all his

activities and all the other mental processes. Patriotic feelings, for example,

impel soldiers and sailors to perform heroic and noble deeds, imbue them

with aew powers. Fear, on the other hand, has a depressing effect and reduces

the fighting qualities of a soldier or sailor.

An officer will be able to exercise his leadership of subordinates in service

and in combat only if he finds a way of influencing their feelings, and to do

this he must know what they experience, what disturbs them.

Experienced feelings are divided into simple and complex.

Simple feelings arise in connection with the satisfaction or non-satisfaction

of a person's material needs (e.g., hunger) and also because of the situation

(a feeling of unrest and fear in a hazardous situation).

Complex, or higher, feelings occur with the satisfaction or nonsatisfaction

of a person's spiritual need«, fulfillment or violation by him or by other people

of accepted standards and rules. These feelings have their origin in his attitude to the Homeland, work, his duty, etc.

Man's higher feelings are divided into moral and political, intellectual, and

esthetic.

The serviceman's moral and political feelings include: love of his Homeland; hatred of the enemy; internationalism; love of work; sense of collectivism; honor; merit; and military duty. All are intimately associated with his

world outlook, moral convictions, and views of personality.

Intellectual feelings are experienced by a serviceman in connection with his

training and creative activities, particularly in the solution of new and difficult problems. Such feelings include: a feeling for the new, intellectual curiosity, astonishment, perplexity, clarity and consistency of thought, doubt. They

usually stimulate thought, and force the thinker to penetrate more deeply

into the nature of objects and phenomena.

Man's feelings are distinguished according to their strength and duration

as moods, affects and passions.

Mood is the term applied to a relatively weak but prolonged emotional

state, which envelopes a person and colors all his actions and mental pro78
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cesses. The main factors which determine mood are social conditions, people's lives and relationships, and world outlook. Moods may be determined

by official events and the current situation: by news of success or failure in

one's service career, relationships with colleagues, the conditions of everyday

life, etc. Moods of confidence, happiness, cheerfulness, etc., contribute to

progress in the serviceman's training and work, while apathy, anxiety, sorrow, and depression have the reverse effect, make it difficult for him to carry

out his duties and assimilate training material.

In his daily contacts with people, an officer should strive by personal

example and his manner of speaking to put them in a good mood. The

creation of a good, cheerful atmosphere is facilitated by concern for subordinates, satisfaction of their needs and requests, and respect for personal dignity.

A short-lived and forceful emotional reaction in the form of an outburst

is called an affect. An affect is caused by a sudden or very strong stimulus.

It occurs most often in people who, for a long time prior to such an outburst,

have been in a tense state. Externally, an affect is expressed in wild and

irrational actions, gestures, exclamations or in delayed movements. After an

ancct, a pcisou cxpeiiences uepiession, ue is worn out anu tisualty uas a poor

recollection of what he did and said. If there are people in a subunit prone

to emotional experiences in the form of affects, they should be re-educated.

Passion is a very powerful, prolonged, profound and persistent feeling

possessing great effectiveness. Directed at socially important goals, it acts as

a stimulus to the achievement of outstanding successes and great feats. Directed at superficial and especially egoistic goals, it impoverishes a person,

and urges him on to commit unethical acts.

Consideration of the Mental States of Servicemen

By mental state is m_<int that time-limited (unctional state of the human

mind which predetermines its work capacity, readiness to overcome work

loads, and its potential for rapid and accurate reaction and maximal degree

of mobilization at the required moment. A mental state expresses the temporal characteristic of a person's mind and is manifested in an elevation of the

spirits or depression, a working condition, or sluggishness, etc.

Mental states may be characterized by the depth or the superficial nature

of their influence on the working of the mind, by positive or negative action,

by their duration or brevity, as well as by the degree of awareness.

The state in which a person happens to be at a given moment influences

all his mental processes, i.e., attention, memory, reason, and speech. Under

the influence of states, a person usually experiences certain sensations, and

he is seen to be in a certain mood.

Mental states, differing in content, duration, force and quality, arise from

specific causes An officer must always keep this fact in mind. Knowing the

principal causes of mental states, he can control them with confidence and

influence his subordinates appropriately.

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A person's mental states depend on anatomical, physiological, and other

factors. Thus, the mind of a submariner is influenced by his physical condition, which in turn depends upon the living conditions on the submarine and

the peculiarities of the sailors' motor activities. The creation of optimal

working conditions, organized rest periods, and sports activities facilitate the

maintenance of a cheerful atmosphere among personnel.

The mental state of soldiers and sailors also depends on emotional experiences associated with the work being carried out, on the impressions gained

from the anticipated results of this work, etc.

The intentional influencing ofsubordinates' mental states by a commander

through an appeal, or personal example, is extremely effective. Such external

aspects as the commander's voice, intonation, mood, would also, one would

think, affect his subordinates.

The principal factors which influence a serviceman's mental state are a

healthy working atmosphere, his group, and service comrades.

The Mental Characteristics of the Serviceman's Personality

in the training and education process, an officer purposefully influences his

subordinates And since each soldier or sailor is a personality, the ability to

understand that personality is an important prerequisite for success in educational work.

Man as a personality has a social nature and an essential nature. Social

attitudes are the important elements: the total personality is revealed in these.

Therefore, for a detailed and profound study of personality it is essential to

consider its social nature.

At the same time, we can speak about the biological aspect of a person,

which is characterized primarily by the level and state of his physical development. True, this is not the principal element in personality, but it is

essential to take this into consideration as well.

Finally, personality is also characterized by the mental peculiarities of the

individual himself. The mind comprises and determines the individuality of

the personality.

The characteristics of a personality depend on the social conditions of a

person's life. It is the social environment that influences the mental characteristics, and the latter influence man's behavior, since "everything that actuates

people must pass fhrough their heads. . . ." '

On the psychological side, personality is the aggregate of the mental processes, properties and states of an individual. The principal factors which

determine the individual character of a person are his mental qualities, which

include the directive tendency, temperament, character, and faculties of the

personality.

The directive tendency of the personality. Man's life consists of his ac1 PC. Mar.\ and F, Engels. Izbranyiyye proizvedeniya v dvukh tomax [Selected Works in Two

Volumes], It. 1952. 373.

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tivities and his work. These are characterized by the fact that he consciously

sets himselfsome sort of goals and strives for their achievement. These goals

may be long- and short-term, important and unimportant, of personal and

social value. The system of goals which a man sets himself and actively

pursues, i.e., his personal singleness of purpose, expresses his directive

tendency.

In order to understand the directive tendency of a subordinate, an officer

must analyze his singleness of purpose. This is facilitated by the fact that a

person does not set himself goals haphazardly: their selection and organization follows a regular pattern. The stimulus for this is provided by certain

internal forces known as motives, which, in turn, originate as a result of an

individual's needs and are determined by those conditions under which he

lives and acts.

By need is meant a person's need of something, which, if it is not satisfied,

causes him harm, both as a member ofsociety and as an organism. There are

material and spiritual needs. Inadequate or irregular satisfaction of man's

need of food, warmth and clothing has an adverse effect on his disposition

and his working capacity.

Spiritual needs are a person's needs for correct orientation in his environment, activity, socially significant work, other people, their acknowledgment

and support. A person's behavior as a conscious worker and a member of a

group is related primarily to his spiritual needs.

Man's material and spiritual needs form a complex inner unity, in which

first one, then the other set of needs can play a dominant part, constantly or

temporarily. In educating servicemen, it is important to try to ensure that

positive spiritual needs plav a decisive and predominant role in their makeup.

Everyone has need for something constantly. When a need makes itselffelt,

it grows strong ar ^ impels a person to act. As such it appears in the form

of a motive. Each motive is an intricate combination of various spiritual and

material needs in which one or another specific need predominates.

Motives may appear in different forms. If a person is not aware of his

needs, he acts in accordance with their stimulating impulses. These we speak

of as inclinations. Motives in this form appear most frequently in young

people, who have not yet studied themselves sufficiently.

When a person is conscious of needs which do not manifest themselves as

a strong stimulus to action, we speak of his wishes. These are insufficiently

strong motives. They are frequently directed at goals which a person is not

strongly convinced he can achieve.

A form of simple motive, volition, is also recognized. Unlike a wish, a

volition is an active motive which impels a person to act.

Inclinations, wishes and volitions are simple motives and are largely associated with a person's material needs. Spiritual needs are associated w^h

more complex forms of motives, primarily interests. Essentially, these are

manifested in a person's main directive tendency towards particular objectives of his activities. The fact that a serviceman has interests is a favorable

81
condition for the development of his abilities. Interests reflect primarily a

person's need of knowledge.

An inclination is an expressed tendency towards participation in some kind

of activity. It is a strong stimulus. A person with a marked inclination

towards a particular field of activity always achieves greater successes than

other people.

An ideal expresses the principal direction of a person's personal endeavors.

It always conforms to his main personal needs, as well as to the interests of

the group and society. An ideal can be a person, an idea, or a deed. An ideal

is a very strong incentive to action. Heroic acts are usually performed by

fighting men who pursue high ideals.

World outlook is a person's system of views on his environment. As a rule,

these views correspond to his personal needs and are associated in a specific

fashion with the interests of society. If an individual's views are not in

harmony with the interests of society, they are unsound and will not be

serious incentives to action. Conversely, the association of an individual's

views with his personal needs and the interests of society transforms these

views into a true world outlook, the strongest and most consistent motive,

incentive to action, and deeds. The communist world outlook organically

combines the interests of society and all of its members. The fighting man

who possesses a formed communist world outlook is a steady, reliable and

thoroughly consistent man. His actions do not depend on outside influences,

and are not subject to blind impulses.

Such is man's system of motives. It may vary in each individual serviceman. The purposefulness of personality is formed according to motives. This

means that, having ascertained the substance of a serviceman's motives, it is

possible to judge his directive tendency.

The attribute of personality which characterizes each serviceman from the

point of view of the dynamics of his mental processes is called his temperament. Externally temperament is manifested in the strength, speed, rhythm

and tempo of a person's movements, in his speech, gait, facial expressions,

manners, etc.

The characteristics of the principal types of temperament are as follows:

Sanguine—changeable, impressionable, reacts rapidly to circumstances, little or no inclination towards introspection, given to accentuated facial expressions and gesticulations. A sanguine person carries out work assigned to him quickly. Prefers energetic work, is oppressed by

monotony. Sociable and cheerful.

Choleric—marked by intensity of thoughts and actions. A choleric person is unbalanced, since

he is dominated by a state of excitement and sometimes has difficulty in restraining himself. He

can be abrupt in his actions; is determined, rapidly grasps a situation and resolves the problem.

He b no! inclined to hesitation; displays initiative and is sociable.

Phlegmatic—characterized by sluggishness in actions and behavior. Usually well-balanced;

it is rare that a phlegmatic person is not in this state. Or being given a task, he thinks it over

for a long time, but, having made his decision, he carries it out quietly and persistently. He is

an efficient worker.

Melancholic—usually engrossed in himself, reserved, unsociable. Very vulnerable, often mistrustful. Sluggish; gestures and movements hesitant.

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In working with people it is inadmissible to adopt preconceived notions

about their temperaments. A person of any temperament may possess all the

socially significant qualities of personality. Consideration of temperament is

important insofar as it permits the correct selection of methods and ways of

developing these qualities in an individual.

Experience teaches that a person of choleric temperament must be kept

under constant supervision. A blunt manner should not be used in dealing

with him, since this may evoke an undesirable response. In addition to this,

all instances of irregular conduct on the part of a choleric person should be

subjected to a critical evaluation and be met with counteraction. In working

with a sanguine person it is necessary to stimulate in him a sense of responsibility and to check the quality of his work. A phlegmatic person needs

leadership and guidance, and he should be required to meet more exacting

standards. A blunt manner, outbursts of temper, reticence and vagueness are

wholly inadmissible in dealing with a melancholiac, since his is a particularly

vulnerable temperament.

Thus, temperament is an important quality of personality. However, it is

not a determining quality, but a dynamic prerequisite of a more essential one

—character.

Character h the pivotal quality of personality which places its stamp on

all the actions and deeds of a serviceman and expresses his specific attitude

to reality, work, other people, and himself.

To know the character of a subordinate is to know the most important

thing about him, that which determines all his actions, deeds and behavior:

the personality's line of life, as it is called.

Concerning the attitude of the serviceman to the outside world, we can

speak of principled and unprincipled characters. A principled character is

possessed by a person who has stable opinions, a stable world outlook and

who acts in accordance with them. Conversely, an unprincipled person either

has no opinions or convictions at all, or acts counter to them, subordinating

himself to his feelings, outside influence, or circumstances.

In relation to work we distinguish active and inactive characters. Active

characters may, in turn, be purposeful or unorganized. The singleness of

purpose of Soviet man makes his work organized, gives him social significance and moral value. The development of active characters goes hand in

glove with the formation of a communist world outlook. Unorganized characters are associated with a lack of purposefulness or the inability to subordinate their actions to plans.

A person's attitude to people, to the collective, is formed and manifested

in contacts with people and in joint activities. In relation to the collective,

we distinguish reserved and sociable characters. A reserved character may

be the result of a negative attitude or indifference to people. It can also

originate from a profound inner concentration of personality.

Each person also relates to himself in a specific fashion. This attitude is

dictated by the awareness of his position in society, and his obligations to it

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and to other people. Overestimation of oneself, one's potential and needs is

peculiar to people with an egoistic character.

It is also important to estimate character by its strength. The chara.ters

of people whose acts and behavior always accord with their knowledge and

convictions are called strong characters. A person with a strong character is

a reliable person.

Character is also evaluated in terms of its characterise. *s. By traits of

character we usually understand those stable qualities in a person by which

his potential acts can be judged.

We can refer to the following principal groups of character traits. First of

all there are volitional traits. These include: vigor, independence, self-possession, determination, firmness, and stubbornness. The reverse of these traits

can be used in describing a weak-willed character.

Emotional traits of character are even temper, impetuosity, passion, and

impressionability. Their opposites are indicative of an unbalanced character.

Intellectual traits are profound thought, quick-wittedness, and ingenuity.

Education in the Armed Forces has the objective of imparting to servicemen a moral character which is revealed in such character traits as communist singleness of purpose, ideological conviction and adherence to principle,

patriotism and internationalism, hatred for the enemies of the socialist

Homeland, consciousness of military duty and responsibility to the people,

collectivism, faithfulness to fighting traditions, discipline, vigilance, modesty,

honesty, truthfulness, cheerfulness, activeness, good organization, etc.

Abilities. An ability in psychology is understood as a specific, stable quality

of the human mind which engenders the possibility of successful activity of

a specific nature. The essence of this quality is not so much in the current

level of development of a given mental process, as in the possibility ofits rapid

development.

There are individual, special and general abilities. By individual abilities

is meant favorable qualities of individual organs and mental processes of a

person, irrespective of the kind of activity in question. A highly developed

sense of sight, touch, hearing—these are individual abilities.

When, however, we speak of the need for a high degree of development

of individual organs and mental processes for some specific kind of activity,

we are referring to special abilities. For example, a sniper must have keen

eyesight, a motor mechanic needs a fine sense of touch and excellent hearing.

However, the sniper, the motor mechanic and the explosives expert also rely

on general abilities, for example, a good memory, attention, alertness, etc.

The aggregate of general, special, and individual abilities inherent in a

particular person determines his endowment, his occupational suitability.

The degree of development of an ability or the degree of endowment may

vary. A very high degree of endowment, which permits a man to strive for

outstanding results in some field of activity is called talent.

Man is born with certain inherent qualities, which are biologically determined anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the nervous

system and organism. These inherent qualities form the basis of abilities; the

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qualities themselves are not synonymous, since different abilities may develop

from them. Everything depends on the conditions in which a person happens

to find himself, or the activities in which he is involved. Abilities are, therefore, social in nature, i.e., depend on social conditions. A socialist society

provides the most favorable conditions for the development of all the best

abilities in a person on the basis of his inherent qualities.

It is important for an officer to be able to ascertain and evaluate correctly

the abilities of his subordinates and to use the resulting information as the

basis for creating conditions favorable to the comprehensive development of

these abilities, and the formation of new ones.

ON THE PSYCHOLOGiCAL TRAINING OF SOVIET SERVICEMEN FOR

SUCCESSFUL OPERATIONS IN MODERN WAR

In modern warfare it is essential that every serviceman be given a high level

of moral and political training, that he possesses an excellent knowledge of

equipment, weapons and combat operational methods, a high degree of

physical endurance, the ability to find his bearings rapidly, to evaluate a

situation and make the correct decision. Provided such qualities are sufficiently developed in a serviceman, a combat situation will evoke in him a

positive reaction, positive tension and excitation, which will help him to

summon up his strength and apply it to the fulfillment of his combat task.

What is the mechanism of the effect on the mind of a dangerous situation,

a mortal threat?

The human brain is so constructed that it reacts to every unexpected

stimulus with excitation. The excitation activates the mind. Attention is

focused on the stimulus; this is accompanied by an emotional bracing and

intensification of mental activity. All this is a manifestation of a positive

working reaction, which creates a state of readiness for action. If a man is

affected by an unusual stimulus of exceptional force, or he comes under the

prolonged influence of a stimulus of steady force, the excitation in the cerebral cortex becomes correspondingly more intense. The presence of a seat of

intense excitation in some region of the brain or other can lead to inhibition

in the remaining regions. Thus, a state of depression arises: a person experiences passive feelings (terror, fear), his attention is distracted, his thinking

is paralyzed, and his actions become uncontrollable.

The human mind may be subjected to severe tests in modern warfare. A

nuclear explosion with its flash and noise, feelings of anxiety caused by

anticipation of a nuclear strike, and other emotional experiences are exhausting stimuli. All this may produce a negative effect on a soldier or a sailor and

evoke in him a passive reaction. The schooling ofservicemen's minds to react

positively to unexpected stimuli of exceptional force and to function positively in a dangerous situation constitutes the mün ingredient of psychological training.

The psychological training of a soldier or sailor for modern warfare means

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teaching him to act in a dangerous situation without losing his presence of

mind. The most important way of achieving this is to place him in a dangerous situation for a preparatory period and thus develop psychological stability. During combat training, the principle of teaching the troops that which

is necessary in modem war must be strictly adhered to. Here the objective

should be not simply to copy the external appearance of a combat situation,

but to try to reconstruct its psychological model.

The effectiveness of psychological training is increased when elements of

danger and risk are introduced during the combat training process. It should

be remembered that war and combat are permeated by danger and riskDanger is an element of war. In order not to be controlled by this element,

it is necessary to be able to endure it. The introduction ofdanger and elements

of risk into combat training truly develops such an ability. Without thif

personnel would not be able to form a true concept of combat, and they

acquire skills which can be used only in a simple, uncomplicated situation.

Naturally, danger and an element of risk must be introduced into the

training process within reasonable and controllable limits. There is a whole

system of exercises, lessons, types and forms of combat training which contain elements of danger. This makes it unnecessary to introduce any special

methods. Danger and risk are inherent in such types of training as exercises

that involve driving combat vehicles under water; driving tanks over trenches

containing personnel; combat firing exercises, particularly those involving

personnel in trenches that are under fire from infantry support weapons,

grenade throwing whilst going into the attack, etc.

It should always be remembered, however, that psychological preparedness for action under actual combat conditions is not achieved as a result of

any one-time exercises: its formation continues throughout the entire service

period, and the whole training and educational process.

The main task of moral and psychological training is the formation in our

fighting men of ideological conviction, unshakable confidence in the strength

and validity of communist ideals, and education in a spirit of dedication to

the Motherland, hatred for its enemies, and devotion to military duty. In

content it must be directed at the instilling of heroism and courage in our

fighting men, and readiness for self-sacrifice for the sake of the fulfillment of

their assigned task.

MILITARY PEDAGOGY

Soviet military pedagogy is the science of the objective laws of communist

education and training of fighting men, the training of personnel of subunits,

units and ships in the skilled conduct of modern combat. It reveals the general

pedagogical objective laws of combat and political training, forms a basis for

the principles, methods and organizational forms of the education and training of servicemen, develops means of uniting military collectives, their psychological training, and analyzes the activities of the commander as the

leader and educator of his subordinates.

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The military pedagogical sciences are defined in the methods of the various

training subjects (tactical, firing, drill, and physical training; flight training;

the training of subunits, units, ships, staffs, etc.)- Methodics is the science of

the objective laws of training and education applicable toa given educational

discipline. Military pedagogy stands out as the theoretical basis for the methodics of different educational disciplines. It provides the interconnection of

methodics anda common approach to the solution by them of pedagogical

problems. At the same time, methodics, being based on the general arguments and conclusions of military pedagogy, develops them, thus enriching

the initial theses of military pedagogical science asa whole.

The basic Concepts (categories) of military pedagogy are training, ideological education and formal education.

Training isa purposeful process, in the course of which servicemen, under

the leadership of their commander, acquire the necessary knowledge, skills

and abilities, and are psychologically prepared for combat.

Ideological education is the process of the purposeful formation ofa person's character. Under the conditions obtaining in the Soviet Armed Forces,

its purpose is the formation of communist mentality and behavior, sound

moral and fighting qualities in servicemen, and the all-round development of

the characters of each of them.

Formal education is the aggregate of systematized knowledge, skills and

abilities, views and convictions, and also the specific level of development of a person's cognitive powers and practical training, reached as a result of

teaching and educational work. Depending on the character and the directive

tendency towards training fora specific form of socially useful activity,a

distinction is made between general, polytechnical and professional education. Servicemen in military schools and academies receive a military professional education (secondary or higher).

Ideological education and training are inseparably linked and there is

constant interaction between them. The former imparts ideological direction

to training and increases its effectiveness. In turn, both formal and ideological

educational problems are resolved during the course of training.

Ideological education and training in the Armed Forces interacting in

close harmony, form the military pedagogical process. This process is also

studied by military pedagogy. Revealing its objective laws and their manifestation in the most widely varying conditions, military pedagogy evolves and

substantiates the principles, methods, and organizational forms of teaching

and educational work. In so doing, it indicates ways of applying the theoretical propositions in practice, provides military cadres with the most effective

and efficient pedagogical means and methods, and forms in them the ability

to train and educate subordinates.

Soviet military pedagogy isa Party science. It is based on genuinely scientific Marxist-Leninist methodology. It is concerned with the entire process

of combat and political training of personnel in close relationship with the

specific conditions of life and activities in the Armed Forces, and the characteristics of wars in defense of the socialist Fatherland. It analyzes pedagog87 . A. .'
ical phenomena in the process of their constant change and development.

An integral part of general pedagogy, military pedagogy is, at the same

time, included in the system of military sciences. Military theory, in revealing

the methods, forms, and objective laws of armed combat, the conditions and

character of combat operations, determines what qualities a Soviet soldier

must possess, what kind of knowledge, skills, and abilities he needs for the

achievement of victory in modern combat. In conformity with these requirements, military pedagogy is called upon to work out and substantiate the

optimum conditions for the organization and the most effective methods of

teaching and educational work, in both peace and war-time. Military science,

in turn, also considers the conclusions and resources of military pedagogy.

Military pedagogy is closely connected and interacts with general and

military psychology, the physiology of higher nervous activity. Party political

work, and numerous social sciences; it is also becoming more closely associated with mathematics, cybernetics and mathematical logic.

Research in the field of military pedagogy, which is being conducted in

accordance with the methodological requirements of dialectical materialism,

employs many methods. These include: observation, experiment, debate,

survey by questionnaire, photographing, filming, television, sound recording

and analysis of various documents. Sociological and mathematical research

methods as well are being used on an increasing scale.

The more complex military science becomes, the more varied the teaching

and educational work of officers, the more imperative the need to study

military pedagogical theory. In recent times, special attention has been devoted to the development of methods and means of processing materials

obtained in the process of investigation.

In conformity with the new Universal Military Service Law, the period of service of privates

and noncommissioned officers (petty officers) has been reduced: younger and more literate

replacements are going into the Armed Forces. Commanders and political officers are faced with

many new psychological and pedagogical problems in connection with this. In particular, there

is a need for more careful selection and distribution of young servicemen by trade qualification,

having regard to their individual peculiarities, and the need to ensure that they are put into

service in the shortest possible time; the organisation of the teaching and educational process

must achieve a higher level of efficiency and effectiveness, maximum use being made of every

minute of teaching time. Military psychology and pedagogy suggest ways of solving these

problems successfully.

The Theory of Training Soviet Servicemen

The nature of the training process. The training of «ervitcmen is a specific

pedagogical process. It is organized and conducted in accordance with the

policy of the Communist Party and the Soviet government on the basis of

present-day military doctrine, orders of the Minister of Defense, military

regulations, instructions and program.» of combat and political training.

Its main task is to ensure a high state of constant combat readiness of units,

ships and formations, and their ability to crush any aggressor who dares to

disrupt the peaceful creative labor of our people.
The mastery of his military t'-ade and the improvement of his knowledge,

skills, and abilities are the official duty of every serviceman and the basis of

all his activities. The training process extends beyond the training of individual servicemen to the coordination and unification of military collectives.

Combat training takes place primarily in the field, at sea, in the air, at

launching and firing positions, on airfields and tank ranges. Under simulated

combat conditions, the personnel of subunits, units and ships acquire proficiency in the conduct of modern mobile battles and learn how to overcome

the difficulties of field and combat conditions.

Essentially, the training offighting men is a social process governed by the

Armed Forces' requirements for well trained defenders of the Motherland,

capable of effective action in complex modern warfare. This process consists

of the activities of an instructor (commander, superior), and is known as

teaching and the activities of those being instructed (subordinates) has been

given the name of learning. In its dialectical unity teaching and learning are

directed at the acquisition by the learners of a specific system of knowledge,

skills and abilities. At the same time, it fosters the development of creative

thinking, trains the will and character, and forms moral, political and fighting

qualities, psychological stability and internal readiness for combat.

In the training process the commander accomplishes the following tasks:

—organizes and directs the educational work of his subordinates;

—sets out in a systematic form the content of the training theme and

demonstrates the most expedient methods of practical work;

—develops in servicemen an interest in their studies and a desire to learn;

—assists his students to study intelligently, and develop abilities and the

capacity to acquire and improve knowledge, skill and abilities independently;

—supervises his subordinates' progress in acquiring proficiency in their

military trade and evaluates their work.

These interrelated and interdependent tasks are resolved, taking into account the content ofthe training material, the degree oftraining and development of the trainees, and also the conditions in which they find themselves.

Here the f^mmander emerges primarily as the organizer of the activities of

his suborou.ates.

The acquisition of knowledge is a uniquely organized cognitive activity of

trainees. Soviet pedagogy reveals its specific nature, resting on the MarxistLeninist theory of knowledge and taking into consideration data on the

physiology of higher nervous activity and psychology.

Possessing knowledge, a person engages in positive activities, at the basis

of which lies his experience, and his previous training. These activities consist

of the apprehension of educational material, its comprehension, recollection,

and practical application.

The necessary skills and abilities are developed on the basis of knowledge

in the process of purposeful exercises and practical work. The depth and

soundness of the knowledge forming the basis of the skills and abilities also

determine the quality of the latter. The more well-founded the knowledge,

89
the more profound and reliable, then the more successfully skills and abilities

are formed.

Knowledge and essential skills and abilities are acquired successfully only

when trainees have sound study motives, a positive attitude to their studies,

self-control, and the ability to maintain constant attention.

The objective laws and principles oftraining Soviet servicemen. The training of servicemen is a regular, dialectically developing process. As in any

social phenomenon, it reflects the basic laws of social development, uniquely

manifests the objeclive laws of the perceptional activities of people, personality formation, social psychology, physiology, cybernetics, and modelling. The

training of servicemen has its law-governed relations v/ith various

phenomena of public life, military affairs, and with other pedagogical processes (ideological education, self-education, psychological training). Finally,

the training of servicemen has its specific pedagogical and objective laws.

They are all dialectically interrelated and supplement, amplify, or weaken

each other. This complicates training work, makes it varied and controversial.

The following principles of training are derived from the objective laws

inherent in the process of training servicemen:

—Communist Parly commitment and scientific character;

—teaching the troops what is necessary in war;

—consciousness and activity;

—use of visual methods in training;

—system and sequence in training;

—accessibility of training;

—sound mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities;

—collectivism and individual approach in training.

Soviet military pedagogy does not reduce its principles to the jm of the

rules and methods of training. It sees in them primarily the methodological

content which determines the general attitude and views of the trainee. In

conjunction with this, these principles emerge as a system of basic pedagogical requirements for the all-round training of personnel.

What is the nature of these principles?

Communist Party commitment and scientific character. This principle

requires all commanders to conduct training so that their subordinates have

a clear idea of their sacred duties as defenders of the Motherland, and

understand the lofty meaning of military service For this it is essential that

knowledge and skills be formed on the basis of a profound conviction in the

rightness of our cause, blended with personal responsibility for the defense

of the Motherland.

V. I. Lenin emphasized that the important thing in training is the ideological and political direction of teaching and consistent Party commitment in

educational work- This presupposes that the policy of the Communist Party

and its requirements of Armed Forces personnel will be presented in a

striking and detailed fashion during lessons.

Communist ideology is founded on a sound scientific basis. Hence, the

90
requirement: all knowledge which a commander imparts to his subordinates

must be authentic, methodologically sound, and based on an evaluation of

the objective laws of the development of military science.

To conduct training in accordance with the principle ofCommunist Party

commitment and scientific character means to be concerned about elevating

the ideological aspect of training, to be exacting in requirements of subordinates, and to tolerate absolutely no shortcomings in combat and military

training.

The principle of teaching troops what is necessary in war determines the

content of combat training and the conditions under which it is conducted.

It imparts practical direction to the training of servicemen, ensures that

training is related to the experience of past wars and the present-day level

of development of military science. The significance of the requirements of

this principle consists in our servicemen being trained in every respect for

successful operations in modern combat.

Soviet military doctrine and military science reveal the features and characteristic patterns of modern war. The specific actions of servicemen in

combat are determined by military regulations and instructions. Therefore,

one of the main requirements of this principle is: the commander must teach

his subordinates in strict conformity with the regulations, instructions and

orders of the Minister of Defense.

A further requirement stemming from the principle of teaching troops

what is necessary in war is: to pay the greatest attention to the field training

of ground forces, the sea and air training of Navy and Air Force personnel;

to conduct lessons directly on the equipment, in the field, at launching areas;

to make the training conditions as close as possible to those encountered in

actual combat; and not to tolerate oversimplification and leniency.

Consciousness and activity. Even in the initial period of the Soviet era, V.

I. Lenin demanded that cramming and drill be eliminated from training and

that people be taught on the basis of their consciousness and activity. In a

speech delivered at the III Komsomol Congress, Vladimir Il'ich said that in

the process of training each person must engage in the most serious and

difficult work, analyze facts and consider them critically. A person should not

singly remember any given conclusions, but fully comprehend them.

The principle of consciousness and activity assumes: the serviceman's

awareness of the tasks of the educational work; an understanding and detailed consideration of the training material; positive and resourceful actions

of trainees during the course of lessons; correct application of acquired

knowledge, skills and abilities in training work; self-testing and critical evaluation of the results of one's own work.

Consciousness and activity are developed primarily by means of a clear

presentation of the aims of a lesson, skillful explanation of why it is necessary

to act in a certain way and not otherwise, demanding independent solutions

of problems, and by encouraging initiative. In many types of lessons it is

expedient to stimulate the activities ofsubordinates by introducing a competitive element.

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The use of visual methods In training. Many training problems are resolved

more successfully by the use of visual methods. However, the main purpose

of visual aids is to form in servicemen concrete and correct ideas about the

nature of modern combat, to reveal the role of combat skill, to help them to

understand the lay-out and operational principles of fighting equipment and

learn how to make efficient use of weapons in combat.

Of the different types of visual aids used in subunits, units and ships, the principal ones are:

true or natural (combat and training weapons, combat equipment, outfits, specially equipped

training fields, firing ranges, tank training areas, etc.); graphic aids (simulation, mock-ups,

models, stands, miniature firing ranges, films, epidiascopes, transparency projectors, posters,

drawings, photographs, diagrams, tables, etc.); verbal-graphic aids (striking comparisons, examples, descriptions); practical demonstrations of how to carry out given operation0

-.

In recent years such graphic aids as films, diapositive films, color transparencies and television

have taken the lead in this field. These have considerable advantages over other means, make

it possible to demonstrate objects, phenomena and processes in motion, during development (for

example, combat operations), or which cannot be observed directly (the flight of a projectile,

metal corrosion), to show processes and phenomena in rapid or slow motion, etc.

The use of new visual aids does not mean that we should adopt a negative attitude to those

which have served for many years in the training process (diagrams, tables, graphs, etc.).

System and order in training. This principle requires that the training

material be presented in a strictly logical fashion, and that subordinates strive

to assimilate the systems of knowledge, skills and abilities accordingly.

K. D. Ushinskiy, the celebrated Russian pedagogue, laid down the basis

ofthis principle. He wrote that only a system, a rational one, of course, which

is derived from the very essence of objects, gives us complete power over our

knowledge. A head filled with fragmentary, disconnected knowledge is like

a storeroom in which everything is in disorder and in which the storekeeper

cannot find anything; a head in which there is a system and no knowledge

is like a store in which there are inscriptions on all the boxes, and the boxes

are all empty.

New material which the commander presents at a lesson must rest on,

follow from and at the same time deepen, previously assimilated knowledge.

To present training material systematically means to impart it in logically

completed parts, to isolate and emphasize the principal idea around which

different facts, examples, and illustrations are grouped, at the same time being

concerned that all the training material is apprehended as an integrated

whole.

Accessibility of training. No one can consciously assimilate material on

the strength of his previous experience and training under given concrete

conditions without a certain degree of difficulty and then, only in a certain

volume. Therefore, it is essential to organize the training of subordinates so

that, by appropriately extending their mental and physical powers, they can

assimilate fresh knowledge more thoroughly, and acquire the necessary skills

and abilities.

The accessibility oftraining principle must not be interpreted as a requirement for "easy" training. Studying without adequate stretching of the intellectual and physical powers is not only useless, but harmful, and results in

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the servicemen's adoption of a casual attitude towards their studies, selfsatisfaction, and conceit.

An officer must be fully aware of his subordinates' level of training, their

physical development, he must not overload ..heir lessons with unnecessary

details, and he must be able to talk about complex matters in clear and simple

language and demonstrate a given action graphically. A basic rule of accessibility is to switch during training from the known to the unknown, from the

less complex to the more complex, and from the less difficult to the more

difficult.

Sound mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities. Modern warfare makes

enormous and protracted demands on servicemen's morale and physical

powers, and requires them to endure unprecedented difficulties and deprivations. For our fighting men to acquit themselves honorably in any ordeal,

their knowledge, skills, and abilities must be well-founded.

Sound mastery of knowledge is achieved by the entire training process. In

this, an important role is played by clear and convincing narration, detailed

explanation, demonstration of examples, and the commander's ability to

interest trainees and organize their practical work correctly.

The consolidation of knowledge and the improvement of skills are out of

the question without the active participation of the trainees themselves. It is

essential that every soldier and sailor thoroughly understands ! he need for

well-founded knowledge and the reason why he should perform different

procedures automatically.

Systematic revision and the taking of study and lecture notes are of great

assistance in firmly establishing knowledge and skills.

Collectivism and the individual approach in training. Soviet soldiers and

sailors are trained in a collective—as members of a section, detachment,

crew, action station, etc. The solidarity and harmonious functioning of a

collective impart a truly creative character 10 training. A situation involving

complex psychological interaction, characteristic of a real collective, arouses

general interest and creates an atmosphere cf collective endeavor aimed at

finding ways of fulfilling a task as efficiently as possible.

The supervision of such a process requires an officer to have the ability to

understand group psychology, to consider general and individual opinions

and the moods and demands of trainees. One of the most important means

employed for these purposes is the setting of group study problems, and the

discussion and selection of the best solutlönä.

The creation of favorable conditions for group study work depends largely

on the officer's ability to approach each of his subordinates individually. An

individual approach indicates the commander's concern that each man works

to the full extent of his powers and potential, that he successfully assimilates

the combat and political training program, and develops his abilities.

Training is a single complete process, all aspects and elements of which are

closely interrelated. Therefore, even the requirements of the principles of

training need to be examined in close relationship and interdependence.

The commander accomplishes the training of subordinates by different

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methods, chiefly oral exposition and discussion of the training material,

demonstration, exercises, trainees' practical activities, and independent

work.

Oral exposition takes the form of description, explanation and lecturing.

Description, i.e., a brief narrative exposition of the material, is employed to

familiarize subordinates with weanon design specifications, new facts, events,

etc. In order to reveal the meaning of regulations, the natme of a given

phenomenon, process or action, the commander resorts to explanation, in the

course of which argument plays an important part. Basic theoretical questions are presented in the form of lectures.

Any oral exposition made by a commander to his subordinates must

always be convincing, well reasoned, and intimately rela,ed to the practical

tasks of his subordinates. Success in this depends largely on his ability to

select and use precise, authentic, and most typical facts, which help to reveal

the essential nature of the question being studied.

In preparing his lectures, he should carefully think out his plan, the main

points of the subject, and their interrelationship. During presentation of the

material, it is essential to adhere to the outlined plan, not to jump from one

thought to another, and to complete the analysis of factual material with

generalizations and conclusions. Brevity and clarity of exposition plus precision of expression should be aimed at in all cases.

Discussion of the problems under study deepens, consolidates, systematizes and verifies acquired knowledge. This is conducted in the form of a

discussion, a class-group lesson, or seminar. In preparing for a discussion, the

commander determines and clearly formulates the training objective, and

thinks over the subject matter, plan and questions. In order to ensure the

success ofthe discussion he also prepares the subordinates for it: recommends

literature and textbooks for study, helps them to select and analyze vital facts,

and allocates time for independent work, etc.

At the beginning of the discussion it is essential to reveal the significance

of the theme, the sequence of the impending lesson, then present a question

to the entire group and, after a slight pause (15-20 seconds), suggest that one

of the class express his opinion. The subordinate's reply should always be

listened to attentively, and he should not be interrupted, even if he makes a

mistake.

By putting new questions to the group during the discussion, the commander directs their attention to the discovery of important aspects of the theme,

and to relating the subject under discussion to specific problems. He tries to

establish contact with the class and to create a cordial atmosphere during the

lessons. After the discussion of each question, the officer briefly draws a

general conclusion from the stated opinions. Finally, the main conclusions

are formulated, questions are answered, and the performance of the participants evaluated.

Demonstration. As a rule, during the course of descriptions, explanations,

lectures, and discussions, the commander demonstrates specimens of weapons, fighting equipment and gear, demonstrates various effects and process«,

either actually or in representation (charts, pictures, graphs, etc.).

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Embarking upon a demonstration, an officer puts concrete problems to the trainees. For

example: "Now I shall demonstrate the specific features of this engine. Special attention should

be paid to the function of this or that component." Then he proceeds with the demonstration

in slow time, interjecting brief explanations as he goes. Having satisfied himself that he has been

understood, he continues his description or starts to demonstrate another object.

Training in carrying out formal drill maneuvers, and handling weapons and fighting equipment is given in the form of practical demonstrations with brief explanations. The essence of

this method may be summed up in the words: "Do as I do." Before the beginning of a

demonstration, the officer explains the purpose of the actions in question and their practical

significance; then he carries them out in the time laid down in the directions or instructions. The

first demonstration is followed by a stage by stage repetition, given in slow time and accompanied

by a brief, clear and precise explanation.

Exercises are conscious multiple repetitions of specific actions and procedures. They are organized for the purpose of developing practical skills and

abilities. An officer's primary concern is to ensure that trainees learn and

execute particular operations correctly and then, and only then, does he

gradually increase the tempo of their work and eventually bring it up to the

required standard. Training, which is one of the forms of exercise, is utilized

to maintain and develop acquired skills and abilities. Training is characterized by the gradual complication of operating conditions accompanied by an

increase in the physical and moral load.

Practical work. Military and military-technical knowledge, skills, and

abilities are perfected and consolidated in the course of practical work—in

tactical exercises, sea patrols, firing practices, flying, periodic servicing, in the

repairing of equipment, etc. As a rule these are all carried out by members

of sections, teams, crews and subunits and, therefore, play a decisive role in

welding these groups together.

In order that servicemen participate actively in practical work it is essential

to prepare them in the appropriate way: recommend that they read rules,

regulations, instructions and manuals, carry out training work, explain the

nature of the forthcoming work, and familiarize them with safety measures.

When the work is actually under way, the commander assigns each man

a specific task, organizes a competition, supervises the progress of the work,

lends assistance where necessary, summarizes the results and evaluates the

quality of the work performed, takes timely note of independent resourceful

actions and cites them as worthy examples.

Independent work. Its principal forms are: work on literary sources, independent study of equipment, independent training, independent viewing

and/or auditing of television and radio broadcasts.

The most difficult type ofindependent work is the study of literary sources.

The recipe for success in this work is to begin by a rapid reading of the text

in order to gain a general idea of it. Then | cad the text slowly, digesting every

phrase, each paragraph, and picking out the main points. During the second

reading it is advisable to make an abstract of the studied material, then

mentally reproduce it, thus consolidating the acquired kno vledge.

The growing complexity of military science increases the importance of the

independent training of servicemen.

The commander supervises the work of his subordinates, in all their stud95

,,>
ies, verifies and evaluates their knowledge, skills and abilities according to a

four-grade system: "excellent," "good," "satisfactory," and "unsatisfactory." In all cases the evaluation must be objective and just.

Forms of training. The quality of training depends largely on the organization of the military pedagogical process and the form in which it is effected.

The forms express the organizational side of training. They provide for the

composition and grouping of the trainees, the structure of the lessons (exercises), their place and duration, the role and specific nature ofthe instructor's

work.

The forms of training, like the whole military pedagogical process, are

being constantly improved. Their development depends upon the training

tasks and content, the authorized organization of the forces, the specific

nature of the combat activities and work of members of the different Services

and arms of the Services, the overall level of development of the personnel,

and the special characteristics of the fighting equipment.

The practice of combat and political training involves different forms of

training which can be arbitrarily represented under the following headings:

—theoretical studies: lectures, seminars, class-group studies, lessons in

laboratories and specially equipped classrooms, group exercises on maps,

self-training, tutorials, supplementary lessons for servicemen who are making

poor progress or who have missed lessons, etc.;

—field training: tactical and tactical-drill training, training in launching

and firing positions, on firing ranges, airfields, tank exercise areas, in depots

and garages, on the parade ground, in engineering, chemical, and sports

centers, etc.;

—training exercises: drill, small arms, staff, physical, radio, tank gunnery,

command post, and "Alert" training exercises, etc.;

—live firing and rocket launches include: all single firings; firings carried

out by detachments and crews, artillery, air and naval firing, as weli as live

rocket launches;

—drills: tactical, tactical-special, command and command post, as well as

tactical drills involving live firing;

—war games: command and command-staff games;

—periodic servicing days.

Apart from the forms of training common 'o all Services and arms of the

Services, there are also specific forms.

Considerable work is being done on the improvement of methods and forms of personnel

training in connection with the reduction in the training periods of Armed Forces rank and file,

noncommissioned and petty officers. The principal trend in these improvements is towards the

mobilization of all the cognitive-voUtional and physical resources of trainees, and the increase

of their independence and act.veness in the training process. This is accomplished through the

officer's ability to conduct lessons and drills in a lively and interesting way. by posing complicated problems which require the trainees to extend their intellectual and physical resources and

be capable of checking and evaluating their own work independently. C/cal possibilities of

improving training methods and forms have been opened up by modem technical resources:

training apparatuses, especially those with electronic and programmed attachments, electrified

stands, monitoring devices, film projectors, electric recorders, etc. Considerable attention is

96
ocing devoted to improving forms and methods of training aimed at approximating servicemen's

training conditions to those of actual combat.

In revealing the characteristic features and structure of different forms of

training, military pedagogy emphasizes tint, intelligently combined, these

forms permit both individual and group training, and steadily, consistently

improve the theoretical, practical, and psychological training of all categories

of servicemen.

The Theory of the Ideological Education of Soviet Servicemen

The nature of the process 0/ the ideological education of servicemen. This

is an exceptionally' important part of an officer's work. In accordance with

Party and Government resolutions, the requirements ofthe military oath and

military regulations, the commander forms in his subordinates a scientifically

sound philosophy oflife and ideological conviction, and educates them in the

spirit of the principles of communist morality. Soviet servicemen are educated in the spirit of boundless loyalty to the people and the communist

cause; they develop the qualities of courage, audacity, heroism, and a spirit

of comradeship in arms with the armies of socialist countries, readiness to

give all their strength and, if need be, even their lives, for the defense of the

socialist Motherland.

As is evident from what we have said previously, many educational problems are resolved during the training process—many, but by no means all.

For this reason there is a need to carry out special educational work with

subordinates. Ideological education is a broader and more complex process

than tiaining. It is the systematic and purposeful influencing of the serviceman's mind, senses and will, the guidance of his daily activities aimed at the

all-round development and the formation of high moral, political and fighting

qualities, the solidarity of military collectives, and their psychological conditioning for modern warfare.

The commander influences his subordinates by word, personal example,

the organization of their practical activities, and the creation of suitable

community views in the collective.

In the process of ideological education the commander strives to form in

his subordinates stable personal convictions and correct behavioral habits.

In addition to the development of inherent and positive qualities, the

commander's ideological education f irk also includes the re-education of

subordinates. If a soldier has incorrect opinions and negative habits, the

officer tries to eliminate them and form new, positive ones in their stead.

A person is • reed more rapidly from the survival of the past if he himself

wants this and if he has the desire for self-improvement. That is why, in the

process of ideological education, it is important to develop in each subordinate a desire for self-education and systematic, persistent work on himself.

The ideological education of personnel of the Soviet Armed Forces is

accomplished in accordance with certain principles, the most important of

97
which is the communist purposefulness and Party commitment ofideological

education. This principle expresses the natural dependence of the ideological

education of Soviet fighting men on the policy and ideology of the Communist Party.

In all his practical work, an officer is obliged to conform to the resolutions

of the CPSU on educational work, to form a clear idea of the principal aims

of ideological education, and to be constantly concerned about raising the

ideological level of the procedures in use.

A very important requirement ofthis principle is perseverance in achieving

the set educational aims. For example, an officer must not wash his hands

of undisciplined soldier, on the assumption that he cannot be influenced.

As we know, a person's character is not formed suddenly or immediately. V.

I. Lenin said: "Ideological education is a long and difficult process. Here it

is imnossihle to pet hv with a decree, one has tn annroach nafienflv and

skillfully "

2

The ideological education of servicemen during military service and military work. Socially useful labor and practical work play a decisive role in the

formation of an individual's personality and in the development of all his

qualities. V. I. Lenin repeatedly referred to the role oflabor in the communist

education of workers, especially the young. He said: "Only by working

together with the workers and peasants is it possible to become true communists." 5

Service, the combat training of Soviet servicemen, is socially useful work,

the lofty and honorable duty of every citizen of the USSR. This labor is the

best possible means of developing in servicemen the qualities that are essential to an armed defender of the socialist Motherland.

However, the educational effect of military labor depends largely on the

commander's fulfillment of a number of pedagogical requirements. What are

these requirements? Firstly, it is important that soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers understand the place and role of their service and

their military labor in the national struggle for the building of communism.

Secondly, the educational effect of military activities is increased if it is well

organized, and regulation procedures are maintained during the course of

lessons and work, ifservicemen's conduct is kept under constant supervision,

combined with an ol jective evaluation of work performed. Thirdly, a vital

factor of ideological education in the process of military labor is socialist

competition, a desire to fulfill assumed obligations. That is why it is important that all the activities of soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and p .ty

officers should be permeated with a spirit ofrivalry. Fourthly, the educational

role of labor is increased if it is intelligently combined with recreation a..'

cultural leisure.

The ideological education of servicemen in and through the collective.

Soviet society is a society of collectivists. Relationships between people in our

1 Lenin, XL. 267.

Lenin. XL1. 317.

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country are based on friendship and comradely cooperation. Collectivism

and comradely mutual assistance—one for all, all for one—is one of the basic

moral precepts of the builders of communism.

As A. S. Makarenko rightly observed, orthodox Soviet education should

be organized by creating united, strong and influential collectives. Military

activities, more than any other kind of activities, are of a collective nature.

Each serviceman lives and carries out his tasks as a member of a detachment,

team, crew, subunit, unit or ship's complement. And it is in the collective and

under its influence that a serviceman develops his political, military, moral

and cultural attitudes; he also develops and consolidates such qualities as

clear awareness of his military duty, a sense of responsibility for the assignment entrusted to him. discipline, respect for his comrades and mutual

assistance.

,;~i» «f „^.,„„t;„„ ;„ „~A .1 u »u „11». •;. I(/IV Vfl VVJUWMLIV/II 111 UIIU (IIIV'U£I1 lll\. VWIllA,!.!«

constantly concerned about uniting his subordinates into a friendly close-knit family. This is

facilitated by assigning general tasks to the personnel of the subunit, by arranging for mutual

assistance in training, support for Party and Komsomol members, discussion of training and

service achievements within the collective, the maintenance of the traditions of the collective,

opposition to sham comradeship, the development of general and self-criticism, etc. The commander himself is the senior comrade, the demanding and, at the same time, solicitous superior

of each subordinate. He values the honor of the collective, which he aspires to lead forward.

The individual approach. Every serviceman is an individual personality

with unique qualities. Thus, it is essential for a commancor to adopt an

individual approach in dealing with his subordinates. This means knowing

each man's peculiarities of character, his standard of training and other

characteristics, and dealing with him accordingly. Without knowing his

subordinates, a commander would not be able to organize and conduct their

training and education with any degree of success, nor would he be able to

lead them in battle, or even in daily life.

In discussing the study oftrainees, K. D. Ushinskiy was right when he said,

"The teacher should try to know a person, what sort of an individual he is

in reality, with all his weaknesses, all of his strengths, with all of his everyday,

petty needs, and al! his great spiritual needs. Only then will he be able to draw

out from the person's very nature his potential for learning, and this potential

is enormous!" *

In order to study the individual characteristics of his subordinates, the

commander systematically observes their conduct under different conditions,

evaluates the result of their practical work, and talks with them. Correlating

the information obtained by different methods, he arrives at a conclusion

about the personal qualities of a subordinate, and on the basis of this determines methods and procedures for conducting educational work with him.

There is no contradiction between the adoption of an individual approach

to people on the one hand and working with the collective and being con4 K. D. Ushinskiy, Sobraniye sochineniy (Collected Works], Vol. VIII. Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of (he RSFSR, 1950, pp. 35-36.

99
cerned about its cohesion on the other. Moreover, the requirements of the

individual approach principle can only be fully satisfied in a harmonious

collective.

The combination of impartial insistence on high standards from a serviceman, respect for personal merit, and concern for his welfare. In summing up

his long experience in the field of pedagogy, A. S. Makarenko said: "My basic

principle (and I assumed that this was not only my principle, but that of all

Soviet pedagogues) was always: demand as much as possible from a person,

but at the same time accord him as much respect as possible." 5 He emphasized that insistence on high standards and respect for a man were two

aspects of one and the same principle. He who does not respect a person

cannot make great demands of him. We make demands of a person, because

we want to elevate him, to make him more high-minded, a better person.

Insistence on high standards from subordinates, combined with respect for

persona! merit and concern for their welfare is an inalienable characteristic

of our commander. This is natural. The Army could not exist without strict

order, good organization and discipline: insistence on high standards is a

means of organizing people, of instilling and reinforcing discipline.

Daily insistence on high standards is apparent in the commander's ability

to establish the regime stipulated by military regulations and in his constant

supervision of the activities and conduct of his subordinates. This principle,

which applies constantly to all servicemen without exception, is incompatible

with rudeness or belittlement of personal merit.

Servicemen submit all their needs and inquiries to the commander, counting on his assistance and support. It is the plain duty of every officer to know

their needs, to intercede on their behalf with the appropriate senior

commande.'s.

Support in ideological education for the positive qualities and positive

knowledge of a serviceman. It has already been emphasized that ideological

education is the process of overcoming all the negative qualities of a person's

character and at the same time consolidating and developing his positive

qualities. It is wrong for the attention of a teacher to be directed mainly at

the weak points of a trainee's conduct. This results in ihe whole process being

reduced to combatting deficiencies and negative factors; the positive qualities

of the personality are not strengthened, do not develop, and are not used as

a basis for the formation of good moral, political and fighting qualities.

Moreover, emphasis on only the negative side of a person's behavior results

in loss of faith in himself, his abilities and potential.

Experience shows that any st Hcsman, along wi'h his negative traits and his lack of understanding of individual aspects ofservice life, has positive traits, correct views, good feelings. With

one this may be enthusiasm for technology, with another love of sport, with a third a passion

for reading, and so on. It is good to find this out; to make use of it is the direct responsibility

of the commander.

This principle requires that fuller use be made of the positive knowledge of servicemen in

1 A. S. Makarenko, Sock [Works], Vol V. Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the RSFSR,

1958. p. 229

100
ideological education. The commander, who in conversations with his men tries to demonstrate

in an interesting way the facts about positive behavior and the service achievements of outstanding performers, is acting correctly. By doing this he develops oetter character traits in his

subordinates and a lofty desire for all-round improvement.

Unity and coordination in ideological educational work. Success in ideological educational work is directly related to the degree of coordination in

the work of commanders. Party and Komsomol organizations. To strive for

such coordination means to impose unified requirements on servicemen, to

educate them through the common efforts of officers, noncommissioned and

petty officers, Party and Komsomol organizations.

Such is the nature of the principles of the ideological education of Soviet

servicemen. They embody the requirements of the Communist Party, the

military oath and regulations with respect to the maintenance, organization

and methods of communist education in our Armed Forces. Strict observeducational work in the Armed Forces.

Finally, we shall dwell briefly on the methods of ideological education of

Soviet servicemen.

In order to form good moral, political and fighting qualities in servicemen,

the commander uses such educational methods as persuasion, exercise, encouragement, compulsion, and example.

The chief method of educating Soviet servicemen is persuasion. Essentially

this is the active influencing of the mind, senses, and will of a person for the

purpose of helping him comprehend and understand the meaning ofthe ideas

and requirements in the spirit of which he is being educated, to agree inwardly with these ideas and requirements and to resolve all practical problems in accordance with them.

As socialism became consolidated in our country, the role of the persuasion method steadily increased and that of compulsion showed a corresponding decrease. There was a particularly marked increase in the role of

persuasion in the ideological education of people during the period of the

full-scale buildinf, of communism.

Persuasion involves explanation of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, the

policy of the Communist Party and the Soviet government, demonstration

of the need for strict observance of the requirements of communist morality,

the military oath and military regulations, and criticism of negative actions.

People do not suddenly and immediately renounce their views and convictions, even though

they may be erroneous. For example, a soldier or a sailor infected with religious prejudices docs

not as a rule rid himself of them after the first conversation. He needs time to think things over,

to evaluate and eliminate the doubts that beset him. The commander must take this into

consideration. His duty is to refute patiently the subordinate's incorrect views and by systematically acquainting the man with scientifically sound ideas, gradually lead him to correct

conclusions.

Exercises. By means of this method, the commander solves principally

such tasks as developing and inuring volitional character traits in subordinates and forming correct behavioral habits.

101
Exercise is inseparably linked with persuasion. These two methods supplement each other. The commander uses persuasion to form correct views in

his subordinates, and high-principled motivation in their daily activities,

whereas they are reinforced by means of exercises, and at the same time

correct behavioral habits are developed.

The skillful use of exercise in the ideological education of subordinates

implies the efficient organization of their daily life and activities and the

maintenance ofregulation procedure in every respect. Acting in an organized

fashion, consistently fulfilling all demands made ofthem, servicemen become

convinced of the correctness of those ideas which the commander has instilled into them, grow accustomed to self-restraint, the ability to consciously

subordinate their actions and intentions to the established regime, and understand the expediency and practical importance of each regulation. But for

this it is essential that the exercises are systematic and apply to all soldiers,

sailors noncommissioned and riett1' officers without excention.

Encouragement. This is a positive evaluation of certain activities of a

serviceman, or his conduct as a whole. It stimulates the development of his

character traits and behavior, provides him with the incentive to strive for

new successes. Encouragement has an educational effect, not only on the

individual who distinguishes himself, but also on his comrades.

In meting out encouragement, consideration should be given not only to

achieved successes (work results), but to the individual's motives and the

efforts which these involv«..». Frequent encouragement for easily achieved

successes may give rise to feelings of self-satisfaction, vanity and conceit.

It is sometimes expedient to encourage a soldier or sailor who has not yet

achieved any notable distinctions in his service career or conduct, but who

is striving to do so. In such a case, encouragement is interpreted as confidence

in the serviceman and faith in his abilities. Such an approach frequently

marks the beginning of a decisive change for the better in an individual's

character.

An effective form of encouragement for those who achieve success in their

training and discipline, but are under punishment, is the cancellation of the

punishment.

Compulsion. This method expresses a negative evaluation of a serviceman's

conduct and is aimed at making him feel his guilt and mend his ways; at the

same time it is intended to prevent a possible violation of military discipline,

both by the serviceman in question and by his comrades. Compulsion helps

people to recognize their mistakes, eradicate bad habits and form positive

qualities.

V. I. Lenin said that the campaign against lack of discipline, laxity, and

confusion, "cannot be conducted simply by propaganda and agitation, simply

by organizing competitions, or simply by selecting organizers—compulsion

must be used as well." ' Here he emphasized that our policy of compulsion

is based upon firm and unconditional persuasion.

' Lenin, XXXVI, 197

102

V
Compulsion in the Armed Forces takes the form of a prohibition or

disciplinary punishment. Persistent offenders against military discipline and

order, as well as servicemen guilty of military or criminal offences, are tried

by a military tribunal.

A demand or a prohibition is not a request: it is an order. Therefore, the

commander always expresses either of them in a categorical, unconditional

form. Only in certain cases (where a subordinate is not well acquainted with

service life, failure to understand certain regulations or instructions, circumstantial changes), does the commander accompany a demand with brief,

precise explanations. Demands and prohibitions issued by the commander

must be complied with, and must be commensurate with the subordinate's

actual capabilities and the existing situation.

Each punishment must be justified and in all cases must correspond to the

degree of guilt and the gravity of the offence. In determining the form and

extent of the "unishment it is essential to take into consideration the nature

of the offence, the circumstances in which it was committed, the previous

record of the offender, and the time he has served in the Armed Forces. In

addition to this, the offender's motives, character, temperament, feelings, will

and other mental characteristics must be taken into account.

The commander, having punished a subordinate, should ensure that the

offender and his comrades are fully aware of the nature of the offence, its

danger, and the justice of the punishment.

Punishment is a very powerful means of influencing a person and it should be used carefully.

Punishments cannot be handed out indiscriminately. Frequent punishments make people nervous and create a tense atmosphere in the subunit. It should also be borne in mind that soldiers

and sailors who are frequently subjected to disciplinary action get used to punishments, and,

indeed, cease to react to them. Only when all other means have been exhausted and have failed

to yield positive results, does the commander resort unhesitatingly to punishment.

Example. This is a specific method of education. Its effect is based on the

tendency of people to imitate each other. This should not be understood as

blind, mechanical copying ofthe actions and deeds of other people. Imitation

entails comprehension and selectivity. Servicemen learn from people who

serve as examples for everyone. They are especially influenced by the great

Lenin's example of devoted service to communism. The life and activities of

Il'ich's students and brothers-in-arms, the images of dispassionate revolutionaries, heroes of the two world wars, literary and film heroes provide

examples of courage and fortitude.

The effectiveness of all methods and means of ideological education is

reinforced by the personal example of the commander. If an officer always

and in all respects acts in accordance with the requirements of the military

oath and regulations, and if his deeds are as good as his words, he enjoys

auihority among his subordinates and they imitate him.

103
Concerning the Pedagogical Proficiency of the Officer

A well-developed teaching mentality, a creative approach to the utilization

of different methods and procedures of influencing subordinates, and proficiency in education and training are of great importance in the officer's

military pedagogical work.

Pedagogical proficiency—this means to possess a knowledge of the nature

of the military-pedagogical process, organically linked with developed skills

and abilit'.es in the field of teaching and educational work. Teaching skill is

made up of numerous elements and is always manifested in combination with

the teacher's personal qualities.

An important element of an officer's complement of pedagogical skills is

speech—the ability to use words effectively. "I am convinced," said A. S.

Makarenko, "that well-spoken ... practical, forceful language is of enormous

imnortance, and it may be that we still make so many mistakes in organizational forms, because we are still often unable even to speak properly. It is

absolutely essential to be able to speak so that your will, your culture and

your personality are sensed in your words. This must be learned "

7 A. S.

Makarenko himself considered that he became a real educational expert

when he learned how to say "come here" with 15-20 voice modulations and

when he had learned how to produce 20 nuances by facial expression, gesture

and voice.

Pedagogical skill is inconceivable without developed organizational abilities. In military pedagogical work it is important for the commander to be

able to rely on Party and Komsomol organizations, to direct the teaching and

training activities of noncommissioned and petty officers, and to perform any

task in a quiet, businesslike fashion. ML I. Kalinin said that all military

personnel must be excellent organizers.

The skill of an officer-educator is founded on his tact, i.e., on his ability

to maintain correct relationships with subordinates, always nd in all respects

to display a sense of moderation, and to resolve any pedagogical problems

without conflict. Pedagogical tact is impossible without a knowledge of the

psychology of servicemen, without the ability to understand their feelings,

moods, and aspirations, and without the ability to go to their assistance at

any time.

The fundamentals of an officer's pedagogical skill are taught in military

school. Abilities are developed and improved during the process of day-today work with people. The young officer is transformed into a methodologist

and a master of training and education under the guidance and with the

support of senior commanders and Party organizations, and by means of

various educational measures. It should, however, be borne in mind that the

principal means of developing pedagogical expertise is independent work.

This takes various forms. First of all, an officer studies the classics of Marx-

»A. S Makarenko. Sock (Works). V. 242.

104

v.X »
ism-Leninism, the resolutions of the Communist Party on training and education matters, military regulations and instructions, the orders and speeches

of the Minister of Defense, the directives of the Minister of Defense and the

Head of the Chief Political Directorate of the Soviet Armed Forces, the

military pedagogical works of outstanding military leaders, classical works

on pedagogy and psychology, special literature on military pedagogy and

military psychology.

It is impossible to become an expert in training and education without

thoughtful preparation of each lesson, each educational procedure. Experience shows that lesson preparation usually includes the following basic

elements:

—obtaining a clear understanding of the subject matter ofthe lessons, and

studying the appropriate regulations, directions, insfnetions, educational

material and other sources;

—formulation ofthe principal aim, and ofspecific training and educational

tasks;

—elaboration of the lesson structure, definition of basic questions relating

to the theme, and the time needed to study each question;

—selection of the appropriate factual material, which will be used in the

course of the lessons;

—selection of training methods, and personal training in carrying out

given procedures and actions;

—preparation of visual aids, technical facilities and other educational

material;

—compilation of an outline summary;

—the training of noncommissioned and petty officers for the lesson.

Each completed lesson or educational measure should be critically

analyzed to establish its strong and weak aspects, and to determine the reason

for failures, after which the officer should work independently on improving

his ability to train and educate subordinates. Of undoubted benefit in this

connection is self-exercise in the development of his powers of observation,

imagination, and techniques (diction, expression, gesticulation, the ability to

demonstrate procedures, etc.).

Every unit and every ship has real experts in training and educational

work. The young officer trying to improve his pedagogical skill can gain

much by attentively studying their experience.

Such are the problems of military psychology and pedagogy. In studying

them every officer should heed the advice of K. D. Ushinskiy: "We do not

say to pedagogues: act in such and such a way; we say: study the laws of those

mental phenomena which you wish to manipulate, and act in conformity with

these laws and the circumstances in which you wish to apply them." * This

* K. D. Ushinskiy, Sobr. soch. [Collected Works). VIIl. 55.

105
means that every officer should adopt a constructive approach to the subject,

take into consideration the specific features of the situation in which he

works, and study his subordinates constantly.

What to Read on This Section

Voyennaya psikhologiya [Military Psychology]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Psikhologiya voinskogo kollektiva [The Psychology of the Military Collective]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

Sovremennyy boy i psikhologiya voina [Modern Warfare and the Psychology

of the Fighting Man]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

Voyennaya inzhenernaya psikhologiya [Military Engineering Psychology].

Voyenizdat, 1970.

Voyennaya pedagogika [Military Pedagogy]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

Opedagogicheskom masterstve ofitsera [On the Pedagogical Proficiency ofthe

V^itlWWIJ. WJ^UILUtll, \ S\J\J.

Sovremennaya bunhuaznaya voyennaya psikhologiya [Contemporary Bourgeois Military Psychology], A collection of articles in translation. Voyenizdat, 1964.

106
Chapter 5. THE ARMED FORCES OF THE USSR

The Armed Forces of the USSR have blazed a path of glory for more than

half a century. Created by our Party under the direct leadership of V. I.

Lenin, they have honorably fulfilled their historical mission throughout the

entire history uf iheir existence. Safeguarding the achievements of the Great

October Socialist Revolution, our Armed Forces have many times engaged

the forces of international imperialism in mortal combat and in every case

emerged victorious.

During the difficult years of the Civil War and the foreign military intervention, marked by economic disorganization and a shortage ofweapons, the

Red Army wiped out the well-trained and well-equipped armies of the internal counterrevolution and the interventionist forces. Socialism won the first

decisive battle against the forces of imperialist reaction.

After the Civil War, the Communist Party and the Soviet government,

implementing Lenin's policy of industrialization of the country and the

socialist reconstruction of agriculture, bearing in mind the military threat

posed by imperialism, did everything possible to strengthen the defensive

capacity of our state. Relying on a steadily growing economic base and a

newly created military industry, the Soviet people, led by the Communist

Party, transformed the Army and Navy into a formidable force within a very

short period. The Air Force, the Navy, the armored troops and artillery, the

Airborne Forces and the Air Defense Forces were created and equipped with

great rapidity. The organizational structure of the Armed Forces was improved, cadres of command, political and engineering-technical personnel

were trained.

The Great Patriotic War was a formidable test for the Soviet State and its

Armed Forces. Fascist Germany's treacherous attack created unfavorable

conditions for us at the beginning of the war. In fierce defensive engagements

and battles, the Soviet forces courageously repulsed the onslaught of the

shameless enemy. Moscow, Stalingrad, the Caucasus, Kursk, Leningrad,

Eastern Ukraine, Belornssia, and Moldavia were the scenes of savage battles

in which large groups of the forces of Hitlerite Germany and its satellites

were destroyed. These victories were a clear expression of the growing might

of the Soviet Armed Forces, the skill of our soldiers and airmen, and the

generalship of our commanders. In the culminating operations of 1945,

107

v
Fascist Germany was completely destroyed. Following this, our Armed

Forces inflicted a decisive defeat on the Japanese Kwangtung Army, thus

eliminating a dangerous hotbed of war in the Far East.

The defeat of Hitlerite Germany and its allies, a defeat in which our

country played a decisive role, was of world-wide historical importance: for

many peoples and countries it opened the way to freedom, independence and

social progress.

The outstanding victories of the Soviet Armed Forces in the Great Patriotic War convincingly demonstrated the superiority ofthe socialist social and

state system. Socialism created unprecedented possibilities for the political

and economic development of our Motherland and proved to be an inexhaustible source of its military might. The victories of the Soviet Armed

Forces were ensured by the monolithic unity of our people, the high state of

morale, good organization and discipline of the troops at the front and the

workers in the rear, and their selfless devotion to their Motherland and the

Communist Party.

During the past fifty years, imperialist positions have weakened considerably, but the aggressive nature of imperialism remains unchanged. The principal force of war and aggression is American imperialism. The ruling circles

of the USA, under the cover of talks on peace and cooperation, intensify

military preparations against the Soviet Union and other socialist countries,

and create dangerous seats of war in different regions of the globe. Clear

confirmation ofthis is provided by American aggression in Vietnam, continuing provocations against Cuba, and Israeli attacks on Arab countries. The

revival of militarism and revanchism in the Federal Republic of Germany is

a serious threat to the cause of peace and European security.

Taking this into consideration, the Communist Party and the Soviet government show continuing concern about the further reinforcement of our

country's defensive capacity and the strengthening of her Armed Forces. As

a result, our Armed Forces have been transformed into a formidable and

invincible force.

To quote the Minister of Defense, Marshal of the Soviet Union A. A.

Grechko: "Our Armed Forces stand unshakably and firmly on guard over

the achievements of the Great October Revolution. In ideological and political solidarity, in moral and fighting qualities, in the training of the rank and

ile and the officer corps, in the standard of technical equipment, the Soviet

Armed Forces are equal to the tasks ahead of them.

Aggressors vainly entertain illusions that they can find such a combination

of weapons and methods of using them, that would ensure victory in case of

war. The Soviet Armed Forces are capable of waging successful warfare in

any conditions—on the ground, in the air, at sea, day or night, both with and

without nuclear weapons." '

' Pyat'desyal let na sirazht- zavoyevaniy Velikogo Oktyabrya [Fifty Years on Guard for the

Achievements of the Great October Revolution] Voyenizdat. 1968, p. 25.

108
THE STRUCTURE OF THE SOVIET ARMED FORCES

The structure of the Soviet Armed Forces is not invariable. It has been

changed and improved, depending on the development of the factors of

production, the achievements of science, and technological progress. With

the emergence of new weapons, new Services and branches of the Services

were created, and the role and importance of the existing ones were modified.

The Soviet Armed Forces now consist of the following Services: the Strategic Rocket Forces, the Ground Forces, the National Air Defense Forces, the

Air Force and the Navy. Each ofthem has its own special fighting equipment,

organization, make-up and supply system as well as specific methods of using

available equipment and weaponry on a tactical, operational, or strategic

scale. In conformity with this, every Service is intended to conduct military

operations primarily in any given sphere—on land, at sea, in the air and

carries out tasks under the leadership of the commander in chief of this

Service or the immediate direction of General Headquarters.

What are the characteristics of each of the Services of the Soviet Armed

Forces?

The Strategic Rocket Forces. This is the main Service. It has first rate

fighting equipment at its disposal, ballistic missiles with powerful nuclear

payloads, the necessary launching equipment and support facilities, and is

capable of inflicting crushing blows on any aggref/ or. The supply base of the

Rocket Forces is the superb rocket-construction industry of the USSR.

Ballistic missiles have substantial advantages over other types of weapons.

They are easy to disperse and camouflage at the site. They do not require

large launch sites; they can also be mounted on mobile launchers. Such

missiles are capable of striking objects at great distances, i.e., in practically

any region of the globe. They can deliver nuclear payloads of enormous

destructive force to selected targets with the utmost precision. The quality

of our missile technology is characterized by the faultless operation of both

the missiles themselves and all the compkx mechanisms and devices involved

in combat launches.

The development and mass production of nuclear missiles, the establishment ofthe Strategic Rocket Forces as part of the Armed Forces ofthe Soviet

Union, i.e., their formation into an independent Service, put at the disposal

of the Supreme High Command a powerful means of rapidly and directly

inflicting massed nuclear strikes on an aggressor, and achieving our war aims

within the shortest possible time.

The Strategic Rocket Forces are capable of inflicting powerful retaliatory

strikes on an aggressor and destroying his vital installations: missile, air, and

naval bases, airfields of his strategic air force, nuclear arsenals, they also have

the capacity to liquidate the enemy's concentrations of ground forces, his

control centers and the country's administrative aiu. xonomic activities.

In order to be able to carry out their tasks more 'iciently, the Rocket

Forces are maintained in a constant state of combat icadiness. Strategic

missile complexes have all that is necessary to carry out their assigned tasks:

109
launching systems, fully operational missiles with live payloads, highly

skilled command and engineering personnel, and well trained combat crews.

The potential ofthe Rocket Forces is determined by the number oflaunchers, the presence on them of ready-to-launch missiles, the power o

f

the

nuclear payloads, and the accuracy of the missile flight control system. It is

necessary to take into account the fact that the damage (destruction) zone

of a single missile also depends on the target characteristics: size, configuration, degree of protection, the nature of the terrain in its vicinity, etc.

The destructive power of the nuclear missiles at the disposal of the Soviet

Armed Forces is unlimited. One missile with a powerful nuclear payload

releases more energy than all the explosives produced throughout the entire

world during World War II.

Colossal destruction 'S not the raison d'etre of the Rocket Forces, but the

unavoidable result of their operations, which, in cooperation with forces of

the other services, guarantees the achievement of complete victory over an

aggressor.

The Strategic Rocket Forces are the youngest and most formidable of the

fighting Services, they form the basis of the defensive power of our country,

and are in a constant state of combat readiness. The Soviet Union is the only

country in the world in which they are constituted as a fighting Service.

The Ground Forces. This, the oldest Service, is intended for military

operations on land. For a long time, our Ground Forces, as in other armies,

formed the basis of the Armed Forces and were the most numerous. In fact,

they decided the outcome of wars. They also bore the main burden of the

struggle with the enemy in the Great Patriotic War. In cooperation with the

Air Force, the Air Defense Forces and the Navy, the Ground Forces carried

out the most onerous combat tasks and contributed most to the enemy's

defeat. During the war, more than 8,000 infantrymen, artillerymen, tankmen,

engineers, cavalrymen, and signalmen became Heroes of the Soviet Union.

The bulk of the Ground Forces during the war was made up of rifle troops

—the heroic and durable infantry. Both in attack and defense, the artillery

provided the main fire power; the main striking and maneuvering force was

the armored troops.

After the war the (iround Forces underwent major changes. They are now

armed wifh operational-tactical missiles, new tanks, armored personnel earners, new conventional and rocket artillery systems, powerful anti-tank weapons, self-propelled anti-aircraft guns, rockets, artillery, and improved control

systems. This has greatly increased the striking power and maneuverability

ofthe Ground Forces. Now, in cooperation with the other Services, they have

the capacity to carry out missions aimed at the destruction of groups of

enemv forces in land theaters of war much more rapidly than before.

The p-ssent-day Ground Forces are made up of motorized infantry troops,

tank troops, rocket troops and artillery, air defense troops, as well as special

troops which provide support for operations of the main forces: communications, engineering, chemical defense, radiotechnical, motor transport, road

construction, and other troops.

no
Motorized infantry troops. Numerically, this is one of the largest branches

of the Soviet Army. They are armed with first-rate fighting equipment

submachine guns, carbines, machine guns, rifles and mortars, tanks and

anti-tank weapons, as well as rocket weapons capable of carrying nuclear

payloads.

A modern motorized infantry division has 16 times more tanks than a 1939

infantry division, 37 times more armored personnel carriers and armored

vehicles, 13 times more automatic weapons, 5 times more radio communications facilities, all of incomparably higher quality.

The increase in the level oftechnical equipment of a division has considerably enhanced its combat potential. For example, the weight of a single salvo

of artillery and mortar fire of a division in 1939 was 1,700 kilograms, whereas

today it is equal to 53,000 kilograms. This does not take into account nuclear

weapons, the power of which is several hundred times greater. The available

power ratio of a division, calculated on the basis of engine power per man,

was 3 hp in 1939, compared with more than 30 hp today.

The total motorization of rifle subunits, units, and formations aftbrded

them mobility and maneuverability, the capacity to operate in close cooperation with tank forces, and to attack without losing contact with them.

The availability of powerful artillery, tanks, and other mobile armored

vehicles, and especially tactical nuclear weapons, as well as subunits and

units of other branches have immeasurably increased the fire power and

striking force of the motorized infantry troops, and made it possible for

hem to conduct combat operations independently, attack, defend themselves, wage encounter battles and successfully solve a variety of combat

problems. The motorized infantry troops are the most maneuverable

branch of the Service, always ready for combat operations in any situation, day or night, summer and winter, in any theater of war, in any

weather conditions.

The tank troops. The Soviet tank troops were formed during the Civil War.

By the beginning of the Great Pacfiotic War they were already a formidable

force. Organizationally, tank units and subunits formed part of the combined-arms formations. Along with this, there were independent mechanized

formations. During the course of the war, the availability of tanks and other

fighting vehicles, the situation on the fronts, and the accumulation of combat

experience in their use, led to changes in the organization of the tank troops

as well. As early as 1942 there were independent tank and mechanized corps

and later there were tank armies. The operational and technical potential of

our tank troops became most apparent in offensive operations during the

Great Patriotic War. They were equipped with remarkable fighting vehicles:

the JS heavy tank and the T-34 medium tank, which became the basic combat

unit ofthe armored and mechanized troops. The combat qualities ofthe latter

were superior to those of all types of German and other foreign tanks

throughout the entire war.

During the post war period, the tank troops and their equipment have been

developed further, they continue to serve as the main striking force of the

111

r

•
Ground Forces, and are intended for use in the main sectors for solving the

most important problems.

Today's tank troops are based on heavily armored tanks with powerful

armaments. These provide the tank subunits, units and formations with great

striking power, a high degree of maneuverability, and greater resistance to

the effects of nuclear weapons. The tank troops also include self-propelled

guns, rocket weapons and artillery, as well as subunits of other branches of

the Service, and are thus capable of solving many combat tasks independently. Combat operations of the tank troops are characterized by lightning speed, deep penetration of the enemy's rear, and maneuverability, as

well as close cooperation with other branches and Services of the Armed

Forces.

The rocketforces and the artillery. The Ground Forces incorporate rocket

forces armed with tactical and operational-tactical missiles. The introduction

of these formidable weapons constituted a new qualitative jump in the enhancement of the fighting power of units and formations of the Ground

Forces. Their striking power increased immeasurably as well as the penetration capabilities. Whereas previously, the range of artillery and other Ground

Forces weapons was 15-25km, their rocket weapons can now hit the enemy

at much greater ranges. Artillery and other conventional weapons could only

inflict partial damage on the enemy forces, whereas nuclear missile strikes

can, in a short period, completely annihilate entire subunits and units of the

enemy, and other important objectives which form part of his groups of

forces.

Nuclear missiles have become the principal means of utterly defeating the

enemy in battles and operations of the Ground Forces.

As for the artillery, in all earlier wars it played an exceptionally important role. It acquired

enormous importance during the Great Patriotic War. The density of artillery in offensive

operations of the Sovi-t Army during 1944 and 1945 per kilometer of front reached 250-300

guns and mortars. Devastating artillery fire made it possible to solve combat tasks successfully

in all types of combat operations.

Since the Great Patiotic War the fire and maneuvering potentials of Soviet artillery have

constantly increased. Artillery and mortar units and subunits have acquired new 85mm antitank guns, 122mm, 130mm and 152mm guns, 240mm mortars, new rocket artillery models, as

well as improved artillery reconnaissance systems and artillery fire control directors. Reliable

anti-tank guns which fire hollow charge and high explosive fragmentation projectiles were

introduced. The new artillery systems have a greater firing range and annor-piercing capability,

a higher rate of fire and projectile efficiency, and maneuvering capabilities. At the same time,

the design specifications of guns and mortars previously in service were improved. Artillery

prime movers were changed, and new hi^h-speed artillery tractors were brought into service.

Organizationally the artillery is subdivided into organic artillery and the

Supreme High Command Reserve. Organic artillery includes that which

organizationally (by establishment) forms part of motorized infantry battalions, and motorized infantry, tank and airborne units and formations. The

artillery of the Supreme High Command Reserve comprises units equipped

with long-range guns and mortars of various calibers for firing shells and

bombs of great destructive force. This artillery is usually earmarked for the

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quantitative and qualitative reinforcement of combined arms units and formations, when carrying out combat missions.

The Ground Forces' artillery includes subunits, armed, not only with

anti-tank guns, but also anti-tank guided missiles, capable of piercing the

armor of any modern tank. They are the principal means of combatting

enemy tanks and other armored targets, in any forms of ground forces

combat operations.

Artillery and artillery fire control is exercised through commanders of

artillery (mortar) subunits and units, or commanders of artillery groups

formed for the period of a given action.

Even during the Great Patriotic War, extremely effective methods of conducting firing operations and cooperating with other branches of the Services

had been developed. Now improved, they conform fully to the present-day

standards of Soviet artillery and the character of modern warfare.

The Air Defense Troops. As a branch their purpose is to protect the Ground

Forces and targets in their rear from enemy air attack. The need for this

service arose as a result of the rapid development of aerial attack weapons

—airplanes, helicopters and combat missiles. The subunits and units responsible for the air defense of troops and targets in their rear are equipped with

surface-to-air missile complexes, anti-aircraft artillery, as well as radiotechnical and other means of observation, detection, and identification of aerial

targets, early warning and appropriate control facilities.

The equipping of this branch of the Ground Forces with surface-to-air

missile complexes enables it to deal successfully with enemy air attacks at

low, medium, and high altitudes.

Special Troops—engineering, chemical, signals, etc.,—are included in the

Ground Forces for the purpose of supporting the latter's combat activities.

The Engineering Troops are special subunits and units equipped with heavy-duty engineering

equipment (earth-movers, bridge trains, road machinery, etc.) and are intended to provide

combat operational support for all branches. Of the entire engineering support complex, these

ti oops perform the most complex work, necessitating special training of the personnel and very

sophisticated engineering equipment. They are subdivided into general purpose engineering

troops (sappers) and special purpose troops (crossing assault, pontoon, road engineering, engineering construction and other subunits and units).

The Engineering Troops have been in existence for centuries. In wars of the past they played

an exceptionally important role; under present-day conditions their importance has increased

still further. They are intended to prepare the lines of troop movement and maneuver routes,

to support troop crossings of water barriers, to lay and clear minefields and explosive obstacles,

to erect engineering obstacles and carry out demolition, to implement the most complex troop

camouflage measures, to participate in the provision of shelters, and to deal with the consequences of the enemy's use of nuclear weapons, etc,

The Chemical Troops. These arc special subunits equipped with vehicles and instruments for

conducting radiation and chemical reconnaissance, monitoring the radioactive exposure of

personnel, special processing of the troops, ground decontamination and disinfestation. and

carrying out other measures connected with the chemical, atomic and bacteriological defense

of troops and targets in the rear.

Organizationally, the Chemical Troops form part of all branches and consist of radiation and

chemical reconnaissance subunits, chemical defense subunits, equipment and ground decontamination and disinfestation subunits, etc.

The Signals Troops consist of subunits and units equipped with modern communication

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facilities: radio and radio relay, telephone and telegraph and other equipment needed to establish

and maintain reliable communication for the purpose of troop control in all forms of combat

activities. The Signals Troops transmit and receive orders, instructions and reports, and also

exchanges of information between staffs and the forces.

Communication with subordinates is organized and effected on the orders of the senior

commander (senior staff), and coordination communications with the facilities of the respective

forces, on instructions of the commander. To ensure uninterrupted communications, different

systems—radio, radio relay and line communications—are used on one and the same axis.

More stringent requirements in respect of communications reliability and the range and

carrying capacity of radio communication lines have led in recent years to intensive development

in long-range ultra-short wave radio and radio relay communications.

In some cases communication is effected by mobile means, specially appointed personnel on

motor-cycles, in cars, helicopters, aircraft, etc.

Motor Transportation Troops are special subunits &nd units, whose duty it is to transport

troops and various kinds of equipment by motor vehicle;. Subunits of the motor vehicle troops

consist of drivers equipped with high-performance motor vehicles and other transport vehicles.

Effective use of Motor Transportation Troops entails a developed road network, its maintenance in usable condition and a well-organized commandant service.

Road Troops. This is a special force consisting of independent road commandant, road

construction and bridge-building subunits which carry out tasks on the renewal, repair, construction, and utilization of roads and perform road commandant service.

The Airborne Forces are units and formations, specially trained for making

airborne landings in the enemy's rear to carry out combat operations there

in cooperation with missile units and aircraft, as well as with motor rifle and

tank troops attacking on the front. In operations in coastal regions, the

Airborne Forces may cooperate with the Navy.

The Airborne Forces are uniquely organized and equipped. They are

provided with first-rate weapons and fighting equipment: rapid fire artillery

and rocket launchers, armored personnel carriers, anti-tank weapons and

anti-aircraft guns, which give them the capability of successfully and rapidly

exploiting the results of nuclear strikes and completing the enemy's defeat

within a short time, acting independently of and in cooperation with, other

forces, primarily the Rocket Forces and the Air Force.

Airborne landings were first carried out by the Red Army during the Civil War. In 1927 and

1929 airborne landings were made in Central Asia to combat the basmachi.*

On 2 August 1930 during Air Force exercises in the Moscow Military District, a parachute

landing was carried out for the first time in the world in the practice of military science.

In the fall of 1934 the first large-scale landing, involving 900 parachutists, was carried out

during exercises in the Belorussian Military District.

One of the largest landings in World War II, in which over 10 thousand parachutists took

(.art, was carried out by Soviet airborne units in the rear of the Vyazma group of Nazi forces

in February 1942.

The role of the airborne forces in modern warfare has increased enormously.

The National Air Defense Forces as a Service are responsible for carrying

out the vital task ofshielding the economic and political centers and military

targets from possible enemy air attack. They are made up of well-trained

• A basmach is described by the Soviets as "a member of a counterrevolutionary robber band

in Central Asia during the Civil War" [U.S.Ed.].

114
units and subunits of surface-to-air missile troops, fighter aircraft, communication, radiotechnical troops, etc., having the most modern necessary equipment. The Air Defense Forces are capable of successfully carrying out the

task of detecting and identifying different aerial objects, determining their

character and armament, computing their coordinates, preparing the necessary data for the weapon systems, and ensuring the destruction of these

objects.

The technical basis of modern air defense consists of powerful radar stations and surface-to-air guided missile complexes designed for the destruction

of the enemy's air strike capabilities; all-weather supersonic fighter aircraft.

All these resources are organized in an orderly system. The National Air

Defense Forces can carry out their tasks both independently and in cooperation with the Air Force and air defense resources and facilities of the other

Services.

Modern aerial attack weapons may be used on a massive scale by the

enemy in simultaneous attacks on large areas encompassing the theaters of

war and deep in the country's rear. The combat operations of the air defense

troops can also be conducted over vast expanses. Under these conditions

exceptional importance is attached to the cooperation of all forms of air

defense and the clear-cut distribution between them ofstrike tasks in accordance with the combat potential of the forces engaged and the tactical and

technical specifications of the weapons being used.

Combat operations ofthe Air Defense Forces on an enormous spatial scale,

with the simultaneous involvement of large quantities of assorted weaponry

and materiel for each air defense unit and formation, possibly may not be

long-lasting. It is more likely that they will be extremely intensive rather than

systematic. A state of constant combat readiness is an obligatory and essential condition of the National Air Defense Forces.

Modern combat aircraft flying at unprecedented speeds will be in the

combat operational zones of any given air defense systems for a limited period

of time. For this reason today's air defense system with all its resources and

facilities is in a high state of combat readiness.

The history of the development of the Air Defense Forces dates back to World War 1, when

airplanes and dirigibles began to be used for reconnaissance and attack.

Between the two world wars, the fire power of air defense weaponry increased and the

performance characteristics of fighter aircraft improved.

The development of anti-aircraft artillery saw increases in gun calibers, the muzzle velocity

of shells, rate of fire, altitude and striking range, and improved anti-aircraft directors.

The qualitative improvement of aircraft entailed further development of aircraft detection

systems. Radar made its appearance in 1938; the Services began to receive experimental models

prior to the war. Later on, during World War II, radar equipment came into wide use.

The Soviet Air Defense Forces played a very important role in the Great

Patriotic War. Many thousands of enemy aircraft were destroyed by antiaircraft fire and by fighter planes in aerial battles at the front and on the

approaches to targets in the rear; they provided reliable support in the

combat operations of Soviet forces at the front and in the operation of the

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country's rear services. More than 80 thousand members of the Air Defense

Forces were awarded orders and medals, 94 were honored with the title of

Hero of the Soviet Union; 29 formations and units won the distinctive title

of "Guards," and 11 received honorary names.

The further development of fighter aviation and especially of rocket weapons, and the use of the latter for the destruction of aerial targets, greatly

increased the effectiveness of air defense. The increased potential of air defense resources and the task of defending our Motherland from encroachment on its air space by aggressive forces gave rise to the need to establish

the Air Defense Forces as a Service.

The Air Force (VVS) consists of units and formations. The availability of

aircraft with different tactical flight characteristics, designed for specific

purposes, permits the most varied combat tasks to be undertaken by the Air

Force.

The size of the air forces of the most developed countries is growing very

rapidly. In World War I they were only an auxiliary branch. In the period

between the two world wars, the air force, together with artillery and tanks,

became one of the main branches. During the course of World War II,

however, as the quantity and quality of the aircraft inventory increased, the

air force was transformed into one of the main services of the armed

forces.

The development of Soviet aviation began immediately after the Revolution. On 10 November 1917 the formation ofthe first socialist air detachment

was begun in Petrograd on the instructions of V. I. Lenin. The total number

of aircraft in service at that time did not exceed 300. The industrialization

of our country made it possible to provide the Soviet Air Force with high

quality equipment in adequate quantities.

The Air Force was transformed into a formidable force during the Gn;at Patriotic War.

During the last three years of the war. it received 40 thousand first-rate aircraft per year from

our aircraft industry. The Air Force participated in all major ope/ations conducted by the

Ground Forces, provided infantry and tank formations with direct support on the battlefield,

bombed enemy communications and important targets in the enemy's rear, desuroyed his aircraft

in aerial engagements, carried out reconnaissance missions, made airborne landings in the

enemy's rear, and carried out artillery spotting missions. During the war our aircraft flew

approximately four million sorties and shot down more than 75,000 ciiciny aiiiiafi. Ovci

200,000 airmen were awarded orders and medals; 2,420 were honored with the title of Hero of

the Soviet Union.

Modern military aircraft are jet-propelled, supersonic, missile carrying,

all-weather machines. During recent years, their combat potential has increased enormously. By equipping them with new weapons, including nuclear weapons, the fire power of each combat aircraft has been increased. A

mission which, during World War II, would have required a whole air

formation, can now be undertaken by a group of several aircraft.

The speed, range, and altitude of aircraft have increased. New aircraft

engines enable modem aircraft to reach the upper layers of the atmosphere.

116
These aircraft are capable of operating at different altitudes, thus lessening

their chances of detection by the enemy.

A display of the latest aircraft in 1967 included heavy supersonic missile

carriers, VTOL aircraft, variable wing geometry aircraft and many other

types.

The Air Force as a Service includes long-range, tactical, and military

transport aircraft

Long Range Aviation is intended for action against the Ci'^my's vitally

important strategic largest: ICBM bases, nuclear arsenals, naval bases, strategic bomber bases, and large military industrial targets which form the

enemy's military potential, as well as ground forces and ships at sea. Long

Range Aviation is equipped with modern high-speed jet-propelled bombers

capable of operating at high altitudes and spanning intercontinental distances. These bombers can carry nuclear and thermonuclear weapons in the

form of aerial bombs and remotely controlled missiles of different capacities.

Frontal Aviation. Organizationally this is part of the forces of a front and

is intended for joint combat operations with them and with other Services

cooperating with them. Frontal aviation includes various types of aircraft:

bomber, fighter, reconnaissance, spotting, liaison, etc.

The diverse composition and varied resources of Frontal Aviation enable

them to carry out a variety of tasks. As an integral part of a front's strike

forces, cooperating primarily with the Rocket Forces, they are responsible for

the destruction of the enemy's nuclear attack resources, the most important

groups of his forces and reserves, airfields, command posts, targets in the rear

and communication centers.

Fighter aircraft protect a front's troops, and targets in the rear area of a

front from possible enemy air strikes and support bomber combat operations,

reconnaissance missions, transport and other types of aviation.

Military Transport Aviation is a branch that is intended for the transportation and landing (dropping) of airborne assault troops, and for air lifting

troops. It is also used for the delivery of arms, fuel, provisions and all that

is needed to support the life and combat activities of the troops. Apart from

specially equipped transport aircraft, this branch of the Service operates

helicopters adapted for airborne assault landings and the delivery of materiel,

equipment and other freight to unprepared field sites.

The Navy of the USSR is a separate Service. One of the most important

tasks of this Service, in the event that the imperialists unleash a war against

the USSR and the other socialist countries, will be to inflict powerful nuclear

missile strikes on military targets on enemy territory and to destroy a'omic

submarines and striking forces at their bases and at sea. The Navy is also

charged with the tasks of engaging the enemy in shipping lanes for the

purpose of disrupting his supplies, and cooperating with the Ground Forces

in operations in maritime sectors.

Reasoning from the military geographical position of our Motherland, the

nature of a possible war at sea, and the interests of our State, the Soviet Union

117
is forced to maintain several fleets, which can carry out combat activities both

independently and in cooperation with formations of other services.

The Navy is one of the oldest of our fighting Services. The Soviet Navy originated in the fires

of the Great Oktober Socialist Revolution and the Civil War. The cruiser "Avrora" heralded

the beginning of the new era by firing on the Winter Palace. In March 1918 the Baltic Fleet made

its heroic Arctic voyage from Helsinki to Kronshtadt and, thus, 211 ships escaped capture by

the German imperialists. In battles during the Civil War, our sailors heroically defended the

achievements of the Revolution on land and at sea. In the period between the Civil War and

the Great Patriotic War the development of the Navy proceeded swiftly. The aging Baltic and

Black Sea fleets were reconstructed and strengthened, and the Pacific and Northern fleets were

created anew.

During the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet Navy took part in defensive

and offensive operations, protected the flanks of the Soviet Army from the

sea, and was active on sea and ocean shipping lanes. The fleets and flotillas

of the Navy carried out 114 operational and tactical assault landings of

Ground Forces troops during the war, destroyed 791 enemy troop and freight

transports and 708 warships and auxiliary vessels on shipping lanes. The

achievements of Soviet sailors are highly valued by the Motherland. More

than 350 thousand sailors, petty officers, officers and admirals were awarded

orders and medals. Five hundred and thirteen of the most outstanding navy

men were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. The Northern, Red

Banner Baltic, Black Sea, and Pacific fleets were awarded the Order of the

Red Banner in honor of the 20th Anniversary of the victory over fascist

Germany.

Following the end of the Great Patriotic War, the Central Committee of

the Communist Party and the Soviet government immediately tackled the

task of the accelerated development and renewal of the Navy. As a result,

even during the first postwar decade, our fleet was replenished with a large

number of new and up-to-date warships, including cruisers, destroyers, submarines, escort vessels, minesweepers, submarine hunters, and torpedo

boats.

The construction of new ships was parallelled by the modernization of

prewar ships: their anti-aircraft, anti-submarine and anti-mine armament was

increased, their reconaissance and fire ^cr-l.t.' systems, and other equipment,

were improved.

The creation of an ocean-going atomic submarine fleet armed with nuclear

missiles marked a new qualitative jump in the development of the Armed

Forces.

The Navy comprises submarines armed with missiles and torpedoes, naval

aviation, various classes of surface ships, auxiliary vessels for various purposes, coastal missile and artillery units, and marine infantry.

Submarines and aircraft represent the main strength of out Navy. The

power-to-displacement ratio of a modern submarine is almost 100 times

higher than that of a prewar submarine, its diving depth is over 5 times as

great, and its underwater speed 3-4 times faster.

The Navy's main striking forces, consisting of atomic powered missile118
carrying submarines and naval missile-carrying aircraft, are intended to inflict nuclear strikes on major enemy targets.

Atomic submarines are armed with long-range missiles and homing

torpedoes with nuclear payloads, and are equipped with up-to-date observation, target detection, and other radio-electronic gear. They are capable of

effectively destroying at great ranges naval targets as well as targets on the

enemy's seaboard and deep in his rear.

Capable of high speeds, possessing good maneuvering qualities and the

ability to operate at great depths, atomic submarines can successfully engage

highly mobile groups of enemy surface ships.

Diesel submarines have not lost their importance. They can carry out

reconnaissance patrols, destroy enemy convoys, and attack coastal targets

with missiles.

The naval missile-carrying air arm, which has all-weather long-range jet

aircraft armed with missiles, is capable of inflicting strikes on large, highly

mobile groups of enemy surface warships and convoys in remote regions of

seas and oceans, as well as on his ports and naval bases.

Apart from missile-carrying aircraft, the naval air arm usually includes

ASW aircraft and helicopters equipped with modern weapons for combatting

enemy submarines.

Modem weapons, especially nuclear missiles capable ofstriking the enemy

at great distances and with great effectiveness, have considerably increased

the Navy's potential, changed the forms and methods of naval warfare, and

thus made it necessary to approach the training and education of personnel

from a new angle.

Equipped with the latest technology and modern weapons, the Soviet Navy

is a formidable force which reliably guarantees the security of the sea frontiers of our Motherland.

A HIGH HONOR AND A GREAT RESPONSIBILITY

Dear comrades! It is a great honor to be a fighter in the mighty Army of the Soviet people

—the builders of communism anO the Army, a bulwark of peace on earth. But your responsibility for the security and defense of the socialist Homeland is also very great.

The interests of further strengthening the fighting power of the Soviet Armed Forces require

persistent improvement of political and military knowledge, vigilance and combat readiness,

mastery of fighting equipment and weapons, and high standards of organization and discipline

on the part of all personnel.

(From the Message of Greeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Presidium of ihe

Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR to the fighters of tht

heroic Armed Forces of the Soviet Union in connection with the 50th Anniversary of the Soviet

Army and Navy. KPSS o Vooruzhennykh Silakh Sovetskogo Soyuza [The CPSU on the Armed

Forces of the Soviet Union], p. 455.)

Soviet fighting men are conscious of their enormous responsibility for the defense of the

Motherland and its security This responsibility is particularly great at the present time, when

Ihe American imperialists are intensifying military preparations against the Soviet Union and

other socialist countries, expanding their aggression in Vietnam, encouraging the Israeli invaders, and supporting the revanchist aspirations of the ruling circles of the Federal Republic of

119
Germany. The Communist Party and the Soviet government are dealing a decisive rebuff to the

treacherous plans of the imperialists, and rendering all-round assistance and support to the

peoples struggling for their freedom and independence. We applaud this Leninist policy warmly

and wholeheartedly.

If the imperialists dare to encroach on the Soviet Union and its sacred frontiers, they will feel

the force of our arms. The Armed Forces are served by well-trained, educated and experienced

officers' cadres. The Motherland has entrusted us with first-rate weapons and equipment. We

shall spare neither strength nor labor in order to improve our moral and fighting qualities, to

tirelessly strengthen military discipline, good organization and order, to doggedly master our

modem fighting equipment, and to maintain the combat readiness of subunits, units, ships, and

formations at the highest level. Lenin's precept—learn military science the right way—was, is,

and will be the law of our combat service and training.

The number of soldiers and sailors with excellent ratings in political and military training,

the numbers of military specialists, outstanding subunits, units and ships are increasing. We are

proud of the high standard of our milita work. But we have not yet reached the limit. We

consider it our sacred duty to put into practice, precisely and steadfastly, the instructions of the

Party, always to be at our posts and in a state offull combat readiness to defend the achievements

of the Great October Revolution.

We assure the Central Committee of the Communist Party, the Presidium of the Supreme

Soviet of the USSR, and the Soviet government that the fighting men of the Armed Forces of

the Great Soviet State will always be worthy sons of the Motherland and will justify the great

confidence placed in them for the defense of the socialist state.

(From a letter to the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet

of the USSR, and the Council of Ministers of the USSR from the soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers, and officers in connection with the 50th Anniversary of the Soviet

Army and Navy).

What to Read on This Section

V. I. Lenin iSovetskiye Vooruzhennyye Sily [V. I. Lenin and the Soviet Armed

Forces]. Voyenizdat, 1969.

50 let Vooruzhennykh SU SSSR [Fifty Years of the Armed Forces of the

USSR]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Astashenkov, P. T. Sovetskiye raketnyye voyska [The Soviet Rocket Forces].

Voyenizdat, 1967.

Sovetskaya aviatsiya i kosmonavtika [Soviet Aviation and Cosmonautics].

Voyenizdat, 1968.

Vuyska protiwvozdushnoy oborony strany [The National Air Defense Forces].

Voyenizdat, 1968,

Boyevoyput' Sovetskogo Voyenno-Morskogo Flota [The Combat Record ofthe

Soviet Navy]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

DATES OF THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENTS

1917

7 November (25 October)—OMI (Xtober Swialist Rcvoluiion. Victory of the armed uprising

in Petrograd

7-15 November (25 Octobcr-2 November)—Armed uprising snd establishment of the Soviet

regime in Moscow.

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8 November (26 October)—Formation of the Military and Naval Committee (Military Collegium of People's Commissars from December, 1917).

9-14 November (26 October-1 November)—Overthrow of the counterrevolutionary uprising of

Kerenskiy and Krasnov.

8 December (25 November)—Appeal of the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) "To the

entire population calling on them to struggle against the counterrevolutionary uprisings of

General Kaledin and Ataman Dutov."

November—Formation of the Caspian Naval Flotilla and commencement of its combat activities.

December—Formation of the Chief Artillery Directorate.

1918

28 (15) January—Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the organisation of the

Workers' and Peasants' Red Army.

February (19 January)—Formation of the First Red Army Corps begun in Petrograd.

11 February (29 January)—Decree of the Council of People's Commissars on the organization

of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Fleet.

—Defeat of the counterrevolutionary advance of General Kaledin on the Don.

12 February (30 January)—Creation of the Collegium of the People's Commissariat for Naval

Affairs.

13 February (31 January)—Council of Armored Units ("Tsentrobron' ") set up by order of the

People's Commissariat for Military Affairs (Armored Directorate from 30 August, 1918).

19 February-27 February—Transfer of ships of the Baltic Fleet from Revel to Helsingfors.

23 February—Day of mass mobilization of the workers for defense of the socialist Fatherland

and ofthe first victories in the armed struggle against the enemies of the revolution. Celebrated

annually as a national holiday—Day of the Soviet Armed Forces.

3 March—Peace treaty between Soviet Russia and Germany signed at Brest.

4 March—Adoption of a decree by the Council of People's Commissars on the creation of a

Supreme Military Council to direct the defense of the country, and on the organization of the

Armed Forces.

—Formation of the Headquarters of the Suprsme Military Council to direct all military

operations (reorganized as the Headquarters of the Revolutionary Military Council of the

Republic in September 1918).

12 March-2 May—Transfer of ships of the Baltic Fleet from Helsingfors to Kronshtadt.

8 April—Adoption of a decree by the Council of People's Commissars on the setting up of a

local apparatus for the raising ofthe Red Army—volost'. uyezd. guherniya and okrug commissariats.*

—Creation of the All-Russian Bureau of Military Commissars.

22 April—Decrees of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTslK): on the compulsory military training of workers and working peasants between the ages of 18 and 40: on the

procedure for filling posts in the Red Army (abolition of the election of officers). Approval

of the text of the "Solemn promise on admission to the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army."

Apnl-July—Formation and commencement of combat activities of the Volga and Vol'^k naval

flotillas and the Simbirsk Naval Detachment.

8 May -Establishment of the All-Russian General Staff (Vserosglavshtab), subsiquenlly

brought under the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic on 6 September 1918 and

merged with the Field Headquarters of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic

(RVSR) to form the unified Red Army Staff on 10 February 192',

24 May—Creation of the Chief Directorate of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Air Force.

29 May—Decree of the AU-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTslK) on the changeover

to general mobilization of worktvs and the poorest peasants into the Red Army.

* Russian adminisiralivc-geographioil units [U.S. Ed.].

121

•'
10 July—Adoption of a resolution by the 5th All-Russian Congress of Soviets on the building

of a mass regular Workers' and Peasants' Red Army.

25 July—Commencement of the formation of the Onega Naval Flotilla (Petrozavodsk).

30 July—Decision by a Moscow City Conference of the RCP (b) to mobilize a fifth of all the

members of the Moscow Party organization for the Eastern Front within one week.

July—Formation and commencement of combat activities of the Astrakhan-Caspian Naval

Flotilla (Astrakhan).

Beginning of August—Formation of the North Dvina Naval Flotilla (Kotlas).

20 August—Soviet forces went over to the attack on the Tsahtsyn sector of the Southern Front.

End of August—The Soviet Taman Army left Gelendzhik and began the legendary campaign

to link up with the main North Caucasian forces, subsequently converted into the 11th Army.

(The army joined up with the main forces at the village of Dondukovskaya on 13 September).

August-November—Transfer of six destroyers and three minesweepers from the Baltic Sea to

the Volga and the Caspian Sea to strengthen the flotillas operating there.

2 September—The All-Russian Centra! Executive Committee (VTsIK) declared the Soviet

Republic a united military camp. Establishment of the Revolutionary Military Council of the

Republic (RVSR).

5 September—Commencement of the advance of the Red Army on the Eastern Front.

6 September—Creation of the post of Commander-in-Chief (Glavkom) of the Armed Forces of

the Republic by decree of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic (RVSR).

11 September—Creation of the Southern and Northern fronts.

—Revolutionary military councils of the fronts and armies formed by decree of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic.

September—Creation ofthe Field Directorate ofthe Red Air Force attached to the General Staff

(transformed into ihe IIQ of the Commander of the Air Force in March 1920).

— Establishment c,{ the post of Commander of Naval Forces of the Republic.

October—Opening of the General Staff Academy (renamed the Red Army Military Academy

in August 1921; the "M. V. Frunze" Military Academy since 1925).

13 November—Resolution of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) abrogating the Brest Treaty with Germany.

29 November—Approval of the Internal Service Regulations by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK).

30 November—Resolution of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) setting up

the Workers' and Peasants' Defense Council headed by V. I. Lenin (transformed into the

Council of Labor and Defense in April 1920).

5 December—Approval by the Council of People's Commissars of the Statute on the Command

er-m-Chief of all the Armed Forces of the Republic.

—Order of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic concerning the organization

of political sections in the Red Army and Navy.

K December-- Formation of the Caspian-Caucasian Froni.

10 December—Liberation of Minsk by Soviet forces.

25 December—Resolution of the Central Committee of Ihe Party "On the policy of the War

Department."

28 December—First Field Regulations of the Red Army approved {Part 1, War of Mcvemeni).

Dixcmher—Setting up of the Soviet Naval General Staff

—Formation of the Central Aero-Mydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI)—the center of Soviet

aviation science and technology.

1918—Creation, on the initiative of V. ä Lenin, of ihe Ni/hegorodskaya Laboratory, the start

of the organization of scientific rescaah in the field of radio.

—Commencement of the organization of the air defense of Moscow, Petrograd, Kronshtadt.

Tula and Saratov.

—Creation of the Defense Engineering Board under the chairmanship of military engineer

K I Vehchko.

—Organization of the Higher Small-arms School under Ihe direction of the outstanding

specialist. N. M Filatov.

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1919

I January—Setting up of a commission consisting of F. E. Dzerzhinskiy and J. V. Stalin by the

Central Committee of the RCP(b) and the Defense Council to establish the reasons for the

surrender of Perm and to take measures to restore the situation in this region.

3 January—Liberation of Riga by the Red Army.

4 January—Soviet forces on the central sector of the Southern Front went over to the counterattack against Krasnov's White Cossack Army.

—Formation of the Ukrainian front.

6 January—Liberation of Vil'no (Vil'nyus) by the Red Army.

22 January—Soviet forces on the Eastern Front liberate Orenburg and join up with the forces

of Soviet Turkestan.

IG January—Disciplinary Regulations of the Red Army confirmed by the All-Russian Central

Executive Committee (VTsIK).

5 February—Defeat of the forces of the Central Rada and entry of the Red Army into Kiev.

19 February—Formation of the Western Front.

4-6 March—Commencement of the first combined campaign of the Entente against the Soviet

Republic.

18-23 March—8th Congress of the RCP (b), at which the military situation was discussed.

20-21 March—3rd Siberian Conference of underground Bolshevik organizations of the Urals,

Siberia and the Far East, marking a new tactic in the struggle in the rear of the enemy, held

in Omsk.

March—Creation of the Dnepr Naval Flotilla.

6 April—Liberation oi Odessa from the intervening Anglo-French and White Guard forces,

10 April—Letter from V. I. Lenin to the workers of Petrograd on assistance to the Eastern

Front.

II April—Thesis c! tht CC RCP (b) in connection with the situation on the Eastern Front,

written Hy V. I. Lenin.

19 April—7. I. L-nin. M I. Kalinin and F E. Dzerzhinskiy present at the first graduation of

students from the General Staff Academy. Speech by V. I. Lenin at the meeting.

22-26 April—As a result of hard fighting around the Salmysh River (north of Orenburg), the

Red Army infiicted the first major defeat on the attacking forces of Kolchak.

23 April—Examination of measures for the defense of the Soviet Republic bv the Political

Bureau of the CC RCP(b).

28 April—Commencement of a counterattack by the forces of the Eastern Front against the

While Guard armies of Kolchak

15-19 May—Bekbey operation of the southern group oi armies of the Eastern Front resulting

in the defeat of Kappcl's Corps.

22 May—Publicaiioa of an appeal of the Central Committee of the RCP(b) "For the defense

of Petrograd!"

13-16 June—Suppression of the counterrevolutionary uprising in the Krasriya Gorka and

S«;rava Loshad' forts near Petrograd.

21 June-30 Augusi—Counterattack of the forces of the 7th and 15th Armies of 'ihe Western

Front against tht armies of Yudemch towards Narva and Pskov.

24 June 9 August—General attack of the forces of the Easiern Front against Kolchak.

3-4 July- Discussion by a plenary session of the CC RCP<b) of important questions arising in

connection with the start of the second combined campaign of the Entente.

9 July-Publication of a letter of the CC RCP{b). "Everything for the struggle with Demkm!"

written by V. 1 Lenin.

19 July—Resolution of the CC RCP(b) on the mobiüzation of Party members for the front.

10 August- Instruction by V I Lenin to the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic

to force the »ttack on the Southern Front.

11 August Order of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic on the division of the

Eastern Front into two fronts; Eastern and Turkestan.

123
28 August—Publication of the "Letter to the workers and peasants on victory over Kolchak,"

written by V. I. Lenin.

31 August—Sinking of the British destroyer "Victoria" by the Soviet submarine "Pantera" near

Seskaran Islar.d (Gulf of Finland).

21 September—Examinatic n of the situation on the Southern Front by a plenary session of the

CC RCP(b) and adoption of a resolution on its consolidation.

24 September—Adoption of a resolution by the Defense Council on preparation for the defense

of the Moscow region, Vitebsk, Chernigov, Voronezh, Tambov and Shatsk against the attacking forces of Denikin.

26 September—Examination of the views of the High Command of plans for the fight against

Denikin at a plenary session of the CC RCP(b).

27 September—Division of the Southern Front into two independent fronts: Sou'hern and

Southeastern.

9 October—Introduction of an institute of political leaders (poliiruki) of compa1s, squadrons,

batteries and equivalent subunits.

15 October—Resolution of the CC RCP(b) on the situation at the fro* d on measures to

strengthen the defense of the Republic.

20 October—Liberation of Orel by Soviet forces of the Southern Front.

21-25 October—Decisive battles of the Red Army against the forces of Yudenich around the

Pulkovo Heights. Enemy advance on Petrograd halted.

26 October-21 December—Counterattack of the 7th and 15th Armies of the Western Front

against the White Guard forces of Yudenich.

October—Creation of the Communications Directorate of the Red Army.

October- November—Counterattack of the forces of the Southern Front against the White

Guard armies of Denikin.

11 November—Creation of the First Cavalry Army.

1^ November 1919-9 January 19,':0—General attack of the armies of the Southern and Southeastern Fronts against White Guard armies of Denikin.

26 December—The forces ofthe Red Army on the Southeastern Front go over to general attack.

28 December—"Letter to the workers and peasants of the Ukraine on the victory over Denikin,"

written by V. 1. Lenin.

1919—Letter of the CC RCP(b) "On Party work in the Red Army."

—School for the training of air observers opened in Moscow.

—Entry into force of the first Combat Regulations of the Red Army Artillery.

—Creation of the government Commission on Heavy Aircraft (KOMTA).

— Publication of the draft of the Instructions on the Use of Aviation in War.

1920

8 January—Liberation of Rostov-on-Don by Soviet forces of the Southern Front.

15 January—Abolition of the Eastern Front as a result of the destruction of Kolchak's

army.

February-27 March—Kuban-Novorossiysk (Don-Manych) operation of the Caucasian

ronl. Capitulation of the forces of Denikin in the Novorrossiysk region

lo Febiuary—Khabarovsk entered by the revolutionary forces and partisans of the Maritime

Territory (Primoryc).

2i February—Liberation of Archangel by troops of the 6th Soviet Army

February—Liberation of the Ukraine from White Guard forces completed by the Red Army.

—First rrials of Soviet-deigned training aircraft,

1 March- I-arge force, of Dtrnikin's mx)ps defeated by the First Cavalry Army and troops of

the 10th Army near the village of Vegorlykskaya.

13 March—Liberal' in of Murmansk by troops of the 6th Army Completion of the defeu of

the intervemng forces and White Guards in the Soviet north.

19 March—Approval of llie short Field Regtilalions for Private Soldiers in the Red Army

124

w
24 March-5 April—9th Congress of the RCP(b), at which a resolution "On transition to tl.e

militia system" was adopted.

7 April—Liberation of the Semirech'ye completed by Soviet forces of the Turkestan Front.

25 April—Baku entered by armored trains of the 11th Soviet Army of the Caucasian Front with

the support of the Volga-Caspian Flotilla.

April—Creation of the Military-Political Institute, transformed in May 1925 into the MilitaryPolitical Academy (now the "V. 1. Lenin Academy").

23 May—Publication of a thesis of the Central Committee of the RCP(b) "The Polish Front

and Our Mission."

26 May-4 July—Counterattack of Soviet forces of the Southwestern Front against the Polish

armies in the Ukraine.

May—Creation of the Azov and Blacl-' Sea Naval Forces.

5 Ju.ie—Polish Front breached by the First Cavalry Army.

9-10 June—Breakthrough by the southern detachment of the Dnepr Flotilla at Tripol'ye.

12 June—Kiev liberated from the Polish occupying forces by forces of the Southwestern Front.

2 August—Adoption of a resolution by the Political Bureau of tne CC RCP(b) making the

Crimean sector of the Southwestern Front into the independent Southern Front.

7 August—3 September—Counterattack by forces on the Southwestern Front against Wrangel

22 August-7 September—Defeat of Wrangel's landing force in the Kuban' by forces of the

Caucasian Front in collaboration with the Naval Expeditionary Division and ships of the

Azov Flotilla.

1 September—War Department instructed by the Politburo of the CC RCP(b) to take the

Crimea before the beginning of winter.

21 September—Creation of the Southern Front against Wrangel's army.

22-25 September—Discussion on the conclusion of peace with Poland and on preparation for

the hnal defeat of Wrangel at the IX All-Russian Conference of the RCP(b).

22 October—Liberation ofChita by units of the Army of National Liberation of the Far Eastern

Republic.

23 October—Resolution of the Council of Labor and Defense on the restoration of the Baltic

Fleet,

28 October—1 November—Counterattack of the forces of the Southern Front against Wrangel

in Nonhern Crimea.

7-17 November—Perekop-Chongar operation. Completion of the defeat of Wrangel.

12-17 November—Liberation of the Crimea.

1 December—Report to V. I. Lenin by thj Munitions Council on the construction of the first

Soviestank by the Sormovskiy Plant with the assistance of the Izhorskiy Plant and the AMO

Plant (Moscow),

24 December—Adoption by the Council of Labor and Defense of a resolution noting the extreme

heroism of the men and officers of the Southern Front, who had defeated the White Guard

forces of Wrangel under adverse cenditions, and liberated the Crimea.

December—Setting up of the Military Scientific Society administered by the General Staff

Acadeny,

1920—Creation of the Jet-Propulsion Laboratory at the artillery range (Petrograd) (the Gas

Dynamics Laboratory, from 1928), the staff of which worked on the development ofsolid-fusl

jet motors and rocket shells,

—Construction of a 12 kilowatt radio-telephone transmitter (1,5 kilowatts in the United States

at this time) with an operational radius of more than 2,000km,

—Publication of the Internal Service Regulations for Naval Vessels of the RSFR,

1921

12 January—Circular letter of the CC RCP(b) "On the Red Army."

January—A commission set up by decision of the Council of Labor and Defense (STO) to

prepmc a program for me development of aviation and the aircraft industry.

125
10 February—Formation of the Red Army Staff from the Field Staff of the Revolutionary

Military Council of the Republic (RVSR) and the Ali-Russian General Staff.

25 February—Tiflis (Tbilisi) entered jointly by Soviet forces of the Caucasian Front and Gecigian revolutionary detachments.

8-16 March—X Congress of the RCP(b), at which a resolution was adopted on the military

question.

18 March—Suppression of the counterrevolutionary Kronshtadt mutiny by units of the Red

Army and delegates of the X Party Congress.

25 June—Resolution of the CC RCP(b) "On the staffing of military training establishments."

31 October—Instruction of the CC RCP(b) to Red Army and Navy branch organizadons of the

RCP(b) in the rear and at the front.

1921—Air detachments combined into naval and air force squadrons.

—Publication of the draft, Naval Disciplinary Regulations of the RSFR.

1922

12 February—Final defeat of the White Guards and the Japanese forces of intervention near

Volochayevka.

14 February—Khabarovsk entered by the Red Army and the People's Revolutionary Army of

the Far Eastern Republic (DVR).

27 March-2 April—XI Congress of the RCP(b), at which a resolution was adopted on the

strengthening of the Red Army.

1 April—Meeting of the military delegates to the XI Congress of the RCP(b). Discussion of the

theses for a unified Soviet military doctrine.

9 October—Defeat of the White Guards in the Spasskiy fortified district.

16 October—Resolution of the V All-Russian Congress of the Communist Youth League

(Komsomol) on the sponsorship of the Navy by the Komsomol.

25 October—Japanese forces of intervention expelled from Vladivostok. Liberation of the Far

East completed (except for Southern Sakhalin).

1922—First special design office for the development of new types of ammunition set up by

decision of the Soviet government.

—Construction cf the ANT-1 airplane designed by A. N. Tupolev.

—Creation of the 1-400 fighter plane by the Soviet designers N. N. Polikarpov, I. P. Kostkin

and A. A. Popov,

—Publication of a draft of the Manual on Field Military Engineering for the Instruction of

All branches of the Services of the Red Army.

1923

12 January—Decision of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic on the transfer of

the first ten regular infantry divisions to the local militia.

17-25 April—XII Congress of the RCP(b).

8 August—Decree of the Central Executive Committee (TsIK) and the Council of People's

Commissars of the USSR on the organization of local mil'tary units and the military training

of workers,

1923—Production of the M fighter plane, with a maximum speed of 264km/hr at ground level,

by the design team of N. N Polikarpov.

—Self-propelled mounting for a 45mm cannon or a 60mm howitzer designed by the Soviet

engineer P V Koroteyev.

—Construction of the 750 hp 12-cyhnder aircraft engine RAM (the Russian Aviation Motor)

under the direction of A. D. Shevtjov.

—Red Army Telegraph and Telephone Manual brought into force.

126
1924

24 Februaiy—Provisional Combat Regulations of the Red Army Artillery approved.

28 March—Order of the Revolutionary Military Committee of the Republic on reorganization

and simplification of the central organization of the People's Commissariat for Naval Affairs

(Narkomvoyenmor).

31 March-2 April- Resolution of a plenary meeting of the CC RCP(b) "On the War Department."

9 May—Provisional Red Army Garrison Duty Regulations approved.

23-31 May—XIII Congress of the RCP(b), at which work on the reorganization of the Armed

Forces was approved.

9 July-24 August—Voyage of the cruiser "Avrora" and the training ship "Komsomolets" from

Kronshtadt to Archangel and back, calling at the Swedish port of Göteborg and the Norwegian port of Bergen. The first foreign cruise of ships of the Baltic Fleet.

12 July-19 November—Transfer of the gunboat "Vorovskiy" from Archangel to Vladivostok

(around Europe and Asia).

20 July-23 October—Voyage of the gunboat "Krasnyy Oktyabr'" of the Far Eastern Naval

Flotilla from Vladivostok to Wrangel Island (Arctic Ocean) and back.

October—First separate tank regiment formed in Moscow.

19 November—Manual of Engineering and Technology for Line Officers of all branches of the

Services of the Red Army approved.

20 December—Instruction on branches of the RCP(b) in the Red Army and Navy approved

by the CC RCP(b).

1924—Directorate for the Investigation and Use of Military Experience and the Examination

of Problems of Military Science established in the Red Army General Staff.

—Flight trials of the ANT-2, the first Soviet all-metal aircraft, commenced.

—Production of the first 100-hp M-ll Soviet aircraft engine designed by A. D. Shevtsov.

—First anti-tank mine constructed by the military engineer D. M. Karbyshev.

—Entry into force of the Temporary Manual on the Military Use of the Air Forces of the

USSR (Part 1. Army Aviation).

—The first jet engine working on an air-benzine mixture constructed by the Soviet inventor

F. A. Tsander.

1925

26 January—M. V, Frunze appointed Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council and

People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs of the USSR.

6 March—Letter of guidance of the CC RCP(b) "On unity of command in the Red Army."

15 April—The Provisional Manual on the Defense of Centers of Population in the Rear,

Communications Routes, Factories and Plants against Airborne and Chemical Attack, was

put into operation.

25 April—Graduation of the first aviation engineers from the "N. Ye. Zhukovskiy" Military Ar

Academy.

22 May—All-Union meeting of the Military Science Society, Report by M. V. Frunze "Our

military construction and the tasks of the Military Science Society."

27 July—Regulations on work among members of the Komsomol in the Red Army and the Red

Navy approved by the CC RCP(b), the CC of the Komsomol, and the Political Directorate

of the Revolutionary Mi!'»ary Council (PUR),

24 August—Temporary Regulations of the Red Army Armored Forces approved.

18 September-9 October—Cruise of the destroyers "Nezamozhnik" and "Petrovskiy" in the

Mediterranean, calling at Istanbul (Turkey) and Naples (Italy)—the first foieign cruise by

ships of the Black Sea Fleet.

23 September—Adoption of the Law on Compulsory Military Service in the USSR.

127

VV5.

> JfT-

*
18-31 December—A special section "On Party Organizations in the Red Army" introduced for

the first time into the Statutes of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolshevik) (ACP(b)).

1925—The ANT-3 aircraft adopted as a reconnaissance plane (R-3) for the Air Force.

—Construction of the ANT-4 (TB-1) heavy bomber.

—Construction of the M-15 450-hp 9-cylinder radial aircraft engine designed by A. A.

Bessonov and A. P. Ostrovskiy.

—Publication of the Temporary Field Regulations of the Red Army (Part 2, Division and

Corps).

—The Temporary Combat Regulations of the Red Army Artillery became operational.

1926

23 January—Approval of the Service Regulations for a mine division on ships of the Red Navy

(submarines).

March—Introduction of the Regulations on the State Provision of Specialist Officers of the Red

Army.

—First AU-Union Congress of the Military Scientific Society.

18 June—Approval ofthe Regulations for the Artillery Department on Vessels of the Red Navy.

31 August-2 September—Flight of an ANT-3 aircraft piloicd by M. Gromov, with Ye. Rodzevich as flight mechanic, over the route Moscow-Berlin-Paris-Rome-Vienna-Warsaw-Moscow (7,000km in 34 hours flying time).

December—Adoption of a 6-year plan for naval ship-building in the USSR (1926-1932).

1926—Forces supplied with the first series of Soviet-produced medium-wave and long-wave tube

radio sets for combined forces formations and special branches.

—Production of the M-13 V-12 aircraft engine developed by A. A. Mikulin.

—Telegraph-Telephone Manual put into effect. (Part 2. Fixed Station Telephone Equipment).

1927

13 August—Implementation ofthe Combat Regulations of the Red Army Cavalry (Part 3. Field

Service).

August—Flight of the ANT-3 aircraft, with S. Shestakov as pilot and D. Fufayev as mechanic,

on route Moscow-Tokyo-Moscow (approximately 22,OOOkm in 153 hours flying).

2 November—Decree of the Central Executive Commitee (TsIK) of the USSR awarding the

Honorary Revolutionary Red Banner to the cruiser "Avrora" for the heroic deeds of the crew

during the October armed uprising in Petrograd.

1927—Adoption of V. A. Degtyarev's light machine gun—the first Soviet-produced automatic

weapon.

—A team directed by the designer N. N. Polikarpov designs the R-5 light single-engined

bomber and reconnaissance aircraft, which takes first place in an international aviation

competition.

—Creation of the Soviet-produced 1-3 fighter designed by N. N. Polikarpov (speed

280km/hr).

—Creation of the first twin-engined, metal-hulled seaplane, the ROM-1 (open sea reconnaissance aircraft), speed !65-i70km/hr, by a team headed by the designer D. P. Grigorovich.

—The first short-wave link, Moscow-Tashkent, opened in the Soviet Union. From this time

radio communication in the Armed Forces went over to short-wave.

—Implementation of the Combat Regulations of the Red Army Artillery (Part I, Book I.

Light Artillery; Book 2. Heavy Artillery. Part 2. Principles of Combat Use).

128
1928

January—Successful trials of the U-2 (Po-2) training aircraft, the best in the world, created

under the direction of N. N. Polikarpov.

20 February—Decision of the Central Executive Committee (TsIK.) of the USSR awarding the

Honorary Revolutionary Red Banner to the Baltic Fleet.

3 March—The first solid-fuel rocket projectile tested in the USSR.

30 October—Decision of the CC ACP(b) "On the political and moral state of the Red Army.'

24 November—Publication of the Statute on commissars, commanders with unified authority,

and deputy commanders for political affairs.

1928—Commencement ofserial production oftheTB-1 (ANT-4) twin-engined bomber designed

by A. N. Tupolev.

—Implementation of the Combat Regulations of the Red Army Infantry (Part 2).

1929

25 February—Decision of the CC ACP(b) "On the executive and political personnel of the Red

Army."

25 March—Implementation of the Combat Regulations of the Red Army Armored Forces (Part

1, Book 1. Tanks).

24 April—Implementation of the Combat Regulations of the Red Army Air Force (Book 1.

Fighter Aviation).

May—Design office established at the Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL) in Leningrad to

develop liquid-fuel rocket motors.

8 June—Implementation of the Manual of the Naval Navigation Branch.

15 July—Decision of the CC ACP(b) "On the state of defense of the USSR."

July-August—An ANT-9 piloted by M. M. Gromov completed a flight on the route MoscowBerlin-Paris-Rome-London-Warsaw-Moscow (9,037km in 53 flying hours, average

I77km/hr).

6 August—Order of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR setting up the Special Far

Eastern Army.

23 August-1 November—Flight from Moscow-London-Keflavik-Goose Bay-New York by the

Soviet pilots S. A. Shestakov and F. Ye. Boltov, with F. D. Fufayev as flight mechanic and

B. V. Sterligov as navigator-radio operator, in the twin-engined ANT-4 ("Land of the Soviets"). The flight lasted 70 days (21,242km covered in 142 hours).

11 Octobcr-20 November—Chinese militarists who had provoked a conflict on the ChineseEastern Railroad defeated by troops of the Special Far Eastern Army assisted bv the Amur

Naval Flotilla.

22 November 1929-18 January 1930—Transfer of the battleship "Paris Commune" and the

cruiser 'Profintern" from Kronshtadt to Sevastopol (around Europe).

November—Creation of the Red Army Motorization and Mechanization Directorate, and of

armored vehicle and tank sections in military districts.

—Flight by S. A. Shestakov, with B. V. Sterligov as navigator, in the ANT-4 (military version

TB-1) from Moscow to New York across Siberia and the Pacific Ocean, 21,242km.

1929—Creation in the USSR of the first parachute subunits (sections) in the world, which took

part in trial exercises and maneuvers.

—Red Army Field Regulations (PU-29) approved by the Revolutionary Military Council of

the USSR.

—K. E. Tsiolkovskiy conceived the idea of producing multistage rockets capable of developing the velocities for space flight.

—Publication of "The Theory of Jet Engines" by Academician B S. Stechkin—the founder

of the modem theory of jet engines.

129
—Construction of the first experimental liquid-fuel jet engine in the USSR, to the design of

F. A. Tsander.

1930

22 February—Implementation of the first Manual on the Use of Naval Aviation.

27 February—Implementation of the Combat Regulations of th; Red Army Na'/al Forces

(BU-30).

26 June-13 July—XVI Congress of the ACP(b)) at which the need to strengthen the defensive

capacity of the country was stressed in a resolution on the CC Report.

August—Parachute landing with arms and munitions at an Air Force demonstration exercise

in the Moscow Military District.

November—Commissioning of the first "D" class submarine ("Dekabrist") in the Baltic Fleet.

1930—Equipping of the Soviet Air Force with the 1-5 fighter plane.

—Adoption of V. A. Degtyarev's tank machine gun with G. S. Shpagin's ball-and-socket

mounting.

—Red Army equipped with F. V. Tokarev's 7.62mm semiautomatic pistol.

—Soviet designers create a 37mm anti-tank gun with a rate offire of up to 20 rounds a minute.

1931

i

25 January—Patronage of the Air Force of the USSR assumed by the IX Congress of the

Komsomol.

January—Creation in Moscow of f. jet engine section of the Central Council of the Society for

the Promotion of the Defense of the USSR, and the Aviation and Chemical Industry (Osoaviakhim), subsequently to become the Central Group for the Study of Jet Propulsion and

Rocket Flight (TsGIRD).

5 June—Decision of the CC ACP(b) on the executive and political personnel of the Red Army.

30 July—Decision of the CC ACP(b) on the publication of the "History of the Civil War."

1931—Commencement of serial production of the R-5 twin-engined reconnaissance plane designed by K. N. Polikarpov (ceiling 6,500m, speed 230km/hr).

—Soviet Air Force equipped with the TB-3 heavy bomber.

—Commencement of the broad development of Soviet tank construction and the supply of

new models of equipment to the forces on a mass scale.

—Adoption of F. V. Tokarev's quadruple-mount anti-aircraft gun.

—Production of the prototype of the Soviet SU-14 self-propelled 152mm howitzer.

—Red Army supplied with the 1931 model of the new 76mm anti-aircraft gun.

—Production of the first Soviet 82mm battalion trench mortar by B.I. Shavyrin's design office.

—Production by Soviet designers of the first track-mounted 203mm heavy howitzer.

—Development of a 76mm anti-aircraft gun mounted on a tank chassis (T-28 and T-26) by

Professor Khlystalov (Artillery Academy).

—Soviet designers produce a 120mm cannon with a firing range of approximately 20km.

—Commencement of the use of the RV-61 ultrashort-wave radio set designed by V. A.

Vvedenskiy. This was the first officially recorded set.

—Combat Regulations of the Red Air Force (Book II. Reconnaissance Aviation) issued.

1932

21 April—Formation of the Far Eastern Naval Forces, renamed the Pacific Fleet in 1935.

1932—Commencement of the formation of mechanized corps in the Red Army.

—Independent airborne brigsides formed in the Soviet Union.

130

.*..x
—Soviet aircraft equipped with a machine gun developed by the designers B. G. Shpital'nyy

and I. A. Komaritskiy (ShKAS), which had a higher rate of fire than foreign systems.

—Soviet designers produced a new 45mm anti-tank gun—the most powerful anti-tank

weapon of that time.

—Special training of anti-aircraft gunners commenced in the Artillery Academy.

1933

January—Basic specifications for self-propelled artillery worked out by a special commission,

including the designer, I. I. Ivanov, and Professor Khlystalov.

1 March—The testing of a Soviet jet engine produced by F. A. Tsander.

28 April—Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR establishing an annual

holiday "Air Force Day" on 18 August.

1 June—Formation of the Northern Naval Flotilla, renamed the Northern Fleet on 11 May

1937.

30 September—Ascent of the stratospheric balloon "USSR-1" to an altitude of 19,000 meters.

September—Commissioning of the first "Shch" class submarine ("Shchuka" series V) in the

Pacific Fleet.

October—Commissioning of the first "L" class submarines ("Leninets") in the Black Sea and

Baltic Fleets.

November—Creation in Moscow ofthe Jet Propulsion Research Institute, combining the Leningrad Hydrodynamic Laboratory (in existence since 1920) and the Jet Propulsion Study

Group.

1933—The Air Force equipped with the TB-4 heavy bomber.

—Soviet Forces began to receive the 6PE and 5AK short-wave radio sets, the 71TK tank

radio, the 11 AK, 11SK, 13SK and other aircraft radios.

—Testing of the RD (ANT-25) single-engined all-metal aircraft (monoplane), operational

range 15,000km.

—Construction of the 1-15 fighter plane by the design office headed by N. N. Polikarpov.

1934

26 January-10 February—XVII Congress of the ACP(b), at which the Statutes of the ACP(b),

including a special section "On Party organizations in the Red Army," was adopted.

30 January—The Soviet balloonists I. D. Usyskin, A. B. Vasenko and P. F. Fedoseyenko

ascended to an altitude of 22,066m in the stratospheric balloon "Osoaviakhim-1," establishing

a world record.

January—A Soviet rocket with a launch weight of 19kg reached an altitude of 1,500m.

16 April—Decree of the Central Executive Committee (TsIK) of the USSR "On the establishment of a high order of merit—the title "Hero of the Soviet Union."

April—The majority of Chelyushkin's expedition were taken off the ice floes in R-5 aircraft by

the military pilots M. V. Vodop'yanov, I. V. Doronin, N. P. Kamanin, S. A. Levanevskiy,

A. V. Lyapidevskiy, V. S. Molokov and M. M. Slepnev. For their life-saving feat, the pilots

were the first people in the country to receive the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.

13-18 August—First flight of a group (flight) of the AIR-6 light aircraft designed by A. S.

Yakovlcv, on the route Moscow-Irkutsk-Moscow (4,263km in 35 flying hours).

12-15 September—Non-stop flight of 12,411km over a closed circuit by M. M. Gromov (world

record).

September—Commissioning of lh- first "M" class submarines ("Malyutka," series V!) in the

Black Sea Fleet.

1934—Construction of the ANT-20 "Maksim Gor'kiy" 8-engined aircraft, the largest in the

world. Load-carrying capacity 80 passengers, maximum speed 280km/hr, flight range

2,000km.

.->

131

-
—V. A. Degtyarev's submachine gun adopted by the Soviet Army.

—Creation of the first original design of an armor piercing shell in the Red Army.

—Creation of the 1-16 fighter plane (a monoplane with retractable undercarriage) by the

designer. N. N. Polikarpov; speed 450km/hr (up to 500km/hr in later versions).

—Creation of the all-duralumin SB bomber (speed 420km/hr1 flight range 1,000km, bomb

load 500kg) under the direction of the designer, A. N. Tupolev.

—Publication of K. E. Tsiolkovskiy's work "The Energy of the Chemical Combination of

Matter and the selection of the Propellant Components for a Jet Engine."

1934-1935—Creation ofthe first liquid-fuel military rockets in the USSR, with a thrust of 100kg.

Height of ascent 9-11km, flight range 12km.

1935

27 May—Decree of the Central Executive Committee (TsIK.) and the Council of People's

Commissars (SNK) of the USSR concerning the introduction of the new naval ensigns, which

are still in use.

May—Trials of the 1-16 fighter plane designed by N. N. Polikarpov. The last modifications of

this aircraft developed a speed of up to 525km/hr.

11 July—Trials of the UT-2 (AIR-10) trainer aircraft designed by A. S. Yakovlev, which was

in serial production between 1936 and 1946.

22 September—Decree of the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) of the USSR on the

transformation of the Main Staff of the Red Army into the General Staff.

—Decree of the Central Executive Committee (TsIK) and the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) of the USSR concerning the introduction of the title of Marshal of the Soviet

Union and military ranks for the officers of the Red Army.

21 November—Pilot V. K. Kokkinaki reached an altitude of 14,575m in a serially produced

fighter plane designed by N. N. Polikarpov, and exceeded the world record.

1935—1,800 parachutists were droppea and an airborne landing of 5,700 men was made in the

Byelorussian maneuvers.

—Construction of the highspeed twin-engined SB bomber (monoplane) with a speed of

400km/hr, designed by A.A. Arkhangel'skiy and his colleagues.

—Flight test of the DB-3 twin-engined bomber, designed by S. V. Il'yushin (maximum speed

400km/hr, bomb load 1,000kg, flight range 4,000km).

—Production of a 152mm self-propelled gun in the Soviet Union.

—Implementation of the Engineering Manual for all Red Army Services (INZh-35).

1936

2 July-17 October—Transfer of 2 destroyers from Kronshtadt to Vladivostok via the White

Sea-Baltic Canal and the Northern Sea Route.

17 July—Test pilot V. K. Kokkinaki raised a commercial payload in a TsKB-2 aircraft to an

altitude of li,458m, establishing a world record.

20-22 July—The Soviet pilots, V. P. Chkalov, G. F. Baydukov and A. V. Belyakov made a

non-stop flight in a single-engined aircraft along the route Moscow-Franz Josef Land-Severnaya Zemlya-Tiksi Bay-Petropavlovsk-on-Kamchalka-Udd Island, covering 9,374km in 56 hr

20 min.

7 September—Pilot V. K. Kokkinaki raised a load of 2,000kg to an altitude of 11,005m.

28 October—Pilot A. B. Yun.ashev, flying a heavy four-engined TsAGI-6 aircraft with a

payload of 5,000kg, reached an altitude of 8,980m.

1936—Acceptance by the Red Army of the first 7.62mm automatic rifle with knife bayonet (S,

G. Simonov's system).

—Acceptance by the Red Army of a new 76mm divisional gun, the 1936 model (F-22),

produced by the design office of V. G. Grabin.

132
—Airborne landing of an entire division carried oui during the Gorokhovets maneuvers.

—Construction in the USSR of a two-stage rocket with aerodynamic stabilizing surfaces.

1937

March—Implementation of the Temporary Regulations of the Red Navy.

27 April—Decree of the CC ACP(b) "On the creation of the USSR Committee of Defense."

10 May—Decree of the Central Executive Committee (TslK) and the Council of People's

Commissars (SNK) of the USSR on the introduction of the institution of military commissars

in the Red Army.

16 May—Decree of the Central Executive Committee (TslK.) and the Council of People's

Commissars (SNK) of the USSR on the formation of military councils in the military districts,

armies and fleets.

21 May—The Soviet pilot M. V. Vodop'yanov made the first landing ever of an aircraft in the

region of the North Pole.

18-20 June—Flying a single-engined ANT-25 aircraft, V. P. Chkalov, G. F. Baydukov and A.

V. Belyakov covered the route Moscow-North Pole-Vancouver (United States) flying more

than 12,000km without landing in 63 hours and setting a world record for nonstop flight.

12 July—Flying an ANT-25 aircran (aii-mctal mcr.cplanc) If. V. Groinov, A, B. Yuniashcv

and S. A. Danilin flew from Moscow across the North Pole to San Jacinto (California, United

States).

July—Military trials in the USSR of RS-82 rocket missiles fired from aircraft.

1937—Soviet Air Force equipped with the 1-15, 1-16 and 1-153 fighter planes and the SB and

TB-7 bombers.

—RS-82 rocket missiles adopted as weapons for the Soviet 1-15 and 1-16 fighter planes.

—Red Army supplied with the 1937 model of the 152mm gun howitzer.

—Red Army equipped with ultrashort-wave radio sets. An improved 82mm battalion mortar

added to the armament of the Red Army.

—Development of a design for a jet engine by the Soviet scientist A. M. Lyul'ka.

--Commencement of the development in the USSR of several designs of inclined-launch

unguided rockets.

1938

29 July-11 August—Incursion ofJapanese troops onto Soviet territory, and their defeat by the

Red Army in the region of Lake Khasan.

24-25 September—Non-stop flight of Marina Raskova, Polina Osipenko and Valentina

Grizodubova on the Moscow-Far East route. (Women's world record).

8 December—Implementation of the Combat Regulations of the Red Army Infantry (Part l).

1938—Red Army equipped with T-35 heavy tanks.

—Rocket missiles (RS-132) adopted as armament for Soviet high-speed bombers.

—Adoption of the large-caliber 12.7mm heavy machine gun for use against armored vehicles

and aircraft. V. A. Degtyarev, G. S. Shpagin and I. N. Kolesnikov contributed to its development.

—The new 1938 model of the 76mm anti-aircraft gun received by the Red Army,

—Adoption as equipment for the Red Army of a 50mm company mortar (range 800m); a

107mm mountain-pack mortar (range 6,3(X)m) and a 120mm regimental mortar (range

5,700m).

—Adoption of the 20mm automatic cannon of B. G. Shpital'nyy and S. V. Vladimirov as

equipment for Soviet aircraft.

— Adoption of the 7.62mm semiautomatic rifle with knife bayonet (F. V Tokarev's system).

—Development by a team of Soviet designers of the RS-132 truck-mounted multiple launcher

for salvo firing.

133
—Production of the short-range BB-22 (fak-4) bomber by the design team of A. S. Yakovlev;

the speed of 560km/hr of this aircraft was far in excess of that of any other aircraft in the

world.

—Development of a 122mm howitzer by the design office of F. F. Petrov.

1939

3 January—A new text of the military oath and procedure for its administration approved by

the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

10-21 March—XVIII Congress of the ACP(b).

16 March—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On the length of active

service in the Navy."

28 May-15 September—Military operations of Soviet-Mongolian forces to defeat the JapaneseManchurian invaders in the region of Khalkhin-Gol (Mongolian People's Republic).

15 June-24 August—Movement of a floti'la of minesweepers from Kronshtadt to Vladivostok

(through the Panama Canal).

22 June—Decree of the CC ACP(b) and the Council of People's Commissars (SNK.) of

the USSR on the institution of Navy Day (on the last Sunday in July) as an annual holiday.

August—Soviet fighter planes equipped with rocket missiles (RS-82) used for the first time in

operations in the region of Khalkhin-üol.

I September—Adoption of the Universal Military Service Law by a session of the Supreme

Soviet of the USSR.

17 September—Commencement of a campaign of liberation by the Red Army with the object

of preventing the seizure of Western Byelorussia and the Western Ukraine by Fascist Germany.

II October—Decree of the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) of the USSR on the protection of the ws boundaries of the Soviet Union.

October—Commissioning of the "S" class submarine, series IX-bis, by the Baltic Fleet.

30 November 1939-12 March 1940—Soviet-Finnish War.

December—Commissioning of the first "K" class submarines, XIV series, by the Northern

Fleet.

1939—Complete changeover in the USSR from a mixed system in the development ofthe Armed

Forces to a Regular Army.

—Red Army equipped with the 1939 model of the 85mm anti-aircraft gun and the 1939 model

of the 37mm automatic anti-aircraft gun.

—Adoption of the 1939 model of the 208mm mortar (BR-5). the 1939 model of the 210mm

gun (BR-17) and the 1939 model of the 305mm howitzer (BR-18) as equipment for the Red

Army.

—V. K. Kokkinaki and M. Kh. Gordiyenko made a non-stop flight from Moscow to the

United States across the Atlantic Ocean in an aircraft designed by S. V. il'yushin (TsKB-30).

—Construction of the light high-speed fighter plane, the Vak-1, by the design office of A. S.

Yakovlev.

—Construction of the high altitude fighter plane, the MiG-1, (speed 640 km/hr) by the

designers A. I. Mikoyan and M. I. Gurevich.

—Development of the T-32 tank by the Soviet designers M. 1. Koshkin and A. A. Morozov.

—Theoretical proof of the possibility of a fission chain reaction by the Soviet physicists Ya.

B. Zel'dovich and Yu. B. Khariton.

—Commencement of the supply of RUS-l air search radar to the Soviet Forces.

—The first test in the world carried out in the USSR of t rocket powered by a jet engine

designed by I. A. Merkuiov.

134 ^

»
1940

28 February—The Soviet pilot V. P. Fedorov made the world's first flight in a rocket plane.

March—Plenary session ofthe CC ACP(b) at which the results and lessons ofthe Soviet-Finnish

War were examined.

7 May—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on the establishment of

military ranks (generals and admirals) for higher command officers of the Red Army and

Navy.

17 June—The Danube and Pina naval flotillas formed from the Dnepr Naval Flotilla.

28-30 June—Liberation of Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia by the Red Army.

7 August—Formation of the Onega Naval Flotilla.

12 August—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On the strengthening

of sole command and responsibility in the Red Army and Navy,"

2 September—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on the institution

of the "Marshal's Star," a decoration for marshals.

12 December—Commissioning of the cruiser "Maksim Gor'kiy" in the Baltic Fleet.

—Implementation of the Temporary Instructions on the Conduct of Naval Operations by the

Soviet Navy.

December—Knowledge about the start of the Second World War and the Soviet-Finnish War

was correlated at an All-Army conference of senior officers held in Moscow.

1940—Publication of draft Combat Regulations for the Red Army Infantry (Part 2).

—Commencement of serial production of 1-26 (Yak-1) fighter planes designed by A. S.

Yakovlev.

—F. V, Tokarev's automatic rifle adopted as equipment.

—Degtyarev's submachine gun approved for mass production.

—Adoption of the new T-34 medium tank (designei' M. I. Koshkin).

—The first flight in an aircraft powered by a liquid-fueled rocket motor designed by L. S.

Dushkin.

—Construction of the new K.V heavy tank by a team of designers headed by Zh. Ya. Kotin.

—Construction of the Pe-2 dive-bomber, with a maximum speed of 540km/hr at an altitude

of 5,000m, under the direction of V. M. Petlyakov.

—Cons ruction of the 11-2 attack aircraft by the design office of S. V. Il'yushin.

—Commencement of the construction in the USSR of the first prototypes of a bypass turbojet,

with a thrust of 600kg, designed by A. M. Lyul'ka.

—The Jesign^rs A. I. Mikoyan and M. I. Gurevich developed the MiG-3 high-altitude fighter

plane powered by an engine designed by A. A. Mikulin. Serial production began in 1941.

—Construction of the LaGG-1 fighter plane (modified LaGG-3) by the designers S. Lavochkin, V. Gorbunov and M. Gudkov.

1941

15-20 February—XVIII Conference of the ACP(b).

25 February—Adoption of a decree by the CC ACP(b) and the Council of People's Commissars

of the USSR "On the reorganization of the Red Air Force."

22 June—Treacherous attack of fascist Germany on the Soviet Union. The beginning of the

Great Patriotic War of the Soviet people.

—Announcement of the mobilization of reservists in 14 military districts of the USSR.

23 June—Decree of the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) of the USSR and the CC

ACP(b) setting up the General Headquarters of the Armed Forces of the USSR

—Directive of the People's Commissar of Defense on the formation of the Southern Front.

23-29 June—Tank battle in the vicinity of Lutsk, Brody and Rovno.

29 June—Publication of a directive of the Council of People's Commissars (SNK) of the USSR

and the CC ACP(b) to Party and Soviet organizations in regions near the front, setting out

a program for the mobilization of all forces and resources to repulse the enemy.

30 June—Creation of the Stale Defense Commiltee (GKO) of the USSR.

135

>
1 July—General instruction of the CC CP(b) to the Byelorussian Party, and Soviet and Komsomol organizations, on the development of partisan warfare in the enemy's rear.

2 July—Publication of a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR "On

universal compulsory training of the population for air defense."

3 July—Radio broadcast by J. V. Stalin, Chairman of the State Defense Committee.

5 July—Decree of the CC CP(b) of the Ukraine on the creation of partisan units and a Bolshevik

underground organization in occupied districts.

10 July—Decree of the GKO transforming the General Headquarters into the Headquarters of

the Supreme Command.

10 July-10 September—Battle of Soviet Forces for the defense of Smolensk.

11 July-19 September—Defense of Kiev.

14 July—The first Soviet rocket battery, commanded by Captain I. A. Flerov, fired the first salvo

on the German invaders in the Orsha rayon. *

16 July—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on the reorganization of

bodies concerned with political propaganda and the introduction of the institution of military

commissars in the Red Army (this decree was extended to cover the Navy on 20 July).

18 July—Resolution of the CC ACP(b) "On the organization of combat activities in the rear

of the German forces."

—Signing of an agreement between the governments ofthe USSR and Czechoslovakia on joint

action against Germany and the formation of Czechoslovak fighting units in the USSR.

30 July—The signing of a Soviet-Polish agreement on the establishment of diplomatic relations,

mutual assistance in war, and the formation of Polish military units in the USSR.

5 August-16 October—The heroic defense of Odessa.

8 August—J. V. Stalin appointed Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the USSR.

—First flight of aircraft of the Baltic Fleet against military targets in Berlin.

30 August-6 September—Defeat of German Fascist forces in the vicinity of Yel'nya.

8 September 1941-27 January 1944—Heroic defense of Leningrad.

17 September—Decree of the GKO on universal compulsory military training in the USSR.

18 September—First steps in the setting up of the Soviet Guards: 100th, 127th, 133rd and 161st

Infantry Divisions renamed the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Guards Divisions.

30 September 1941-7 January 1942—The great battle around Moscow.

30 October 1941-4 July 1942—The heroic defense of Sevastopol (individual subunits and groups

fought until 9 July).

7 November—Military parade in Red Square.

22 November—Opening ofthe ice route across Lake Ladoga to Leningrad (the "Road of Life").

24 November—Decree of the State Defense Committee (GKO) p. jclaiming the Air Defense

Forces an independent Service.

26 November-28 December—counterattack by Soviet Forces around Tikhvin. Liberation of

Tikhvin (9 December).

29 November—Liberation of Rostov-on-Don by Soviet Forces.

5 December 1941-7 January 1942 —counterattack by Soviet Forces around Moscow.

26 December 1941-2 January 1942—The Kerch-Feodosiya airborne landing operation.

1941—Creation of the first jet fighter in the world by a design team headed by V. F. Bolkhovitinov.

—Red Army supplied with 57mm self-propelled anti-tank guns.

—Adoption of the 14.5mm anti-tank rifle (system of V. A. Degtyarev and S. G. Simonov).

—Publication of the Red Army Field Regulations (draft).

—Adoption by the Red Army of a new model of G. S. Shpagin's 7.62 mm submachine gun

(PPSh).

—Adoption of the new TM-41 anti-tank mine with pressed metal body.

* Soviet administrative-geographical unit [U.S. Ed.].

136

'-
1942

4 January—Soviet parachute unit of 416 men dropped in the region of Bol'shoy Fat'yanov

(southeast of Vyaz'ma).

18-21 and 28 January—652 Soviet parachutists dropped near Zhelan'ye (northwest of Yukhnov). Airborne landing of a force of 1,643 men in the same region.

January-April 1942—General attack by Soviet Forces. The enemy is thrown back between 100

and 350km to the west.

On the night of 17 February—Soviet airborne landing (312 men) near Rzhev to reinforce

surrounded troops of the 29th Army of the Kalinin Front.

17-20 February—Airborne landing of the 4th Airborne Corps (6,988 men in all) to assist troops

on the Western Front to end the encirclement of the Yukhnov grouping.

February—First steps in the formation of the fiist Czechoslovak military unit in the USSR, ai

Buzuluk.

17 March—Red Army Staff Field Service Manual approved.

4 April—Award of the title of "Guards' Ship" to the eight best fighting ships, including the

"Krasnyy Krym," the flotilla leader "Minsk," and the minelayer "Marti."

—Defense boats of the Black Sea Fleet accompanying large supply ships used 82 mm rocket

missiles (naval "Katyushas") against enemy dive bombers.

8-19 May—Defensive operation of troops of the Crimean Front in the Kerch Peninsula.

10 May—First steps in the formation of the 1st Czechoslovak Brigade at Novokhopersk.

15 May—Pilot G. Ya. Bakhchivandzhi tests the first jet aircraft in the world, designed by V.

F. Bolkhovitinov.

21 May—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On the introduction of

guards' ranks in the Red Armed Forces."

30 May—Creation of the Central Headquarters of the Partisan Movement in the USSR.

2 June—Mountain Warfare Manual (Part 1) approved.

7-24 July—Defensive operation of troops of the Southwestern and Southern Fronts in the large

bend of the DOü and in the Donets Basin.

17 July-18 November—Defensive period of the battle of Stalingrad.

17 July 1942-2 February 1943—Battle of Stalingrad.

25 July-31 December—Battle for the Caucasus. Defensive period.

9 October—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On the establishment

of unified command and the abolition of the institution of military commissars in the Red

Army." (This Decree was extended to the Navy on 13 October.)

9 November—Approval of the Combat Regulations of the Red Army Infantry (Parts I and

H).

19 November 1942-2 February 1943—Counterattack by troops of th. Southwestern, Don and

Stalingrad fronts.

23 November—Completion of the encirclement by the Red Army of a grouping of 330,000

German Fascist troops near Stalingrad.

November 1942-March 1943—Attack by the Red Army in the winter campaign of l

t

)42/43.

1943

1 January-4 April—Operations of Soviet Forcti to liberate the North Caucasus.

6 January—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR instituting new insignia

of rank, epaulets, for Red Army personnel (for Naval personnel from 15 February).

10 January-2 February—Liquidation of the German troops surrounded near Stalingrad

12-18 January—Lifting of the blockade of Leningrad by troops of the Leningrad and Voikhov

Fronts, assisted by the Baltic Fleet.

16 January— Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR instituting additional

137
military ranks (marshal) for the higher officers of the Air Fcice, Artillery, and Armored

Troops.

24 January-17 February—Voronezh-Kastornoye offensive by troops of the Voronezh and

Bryansk Fronts.

29 January-18 February—Offensive by troops of the Southwestern and Southern Fronts in the

Donets Basin

January—Soviet Army equipped with the SlJ-76 and SU-122 self-propelled guns.

2 February-3 March—Offensive operations of troops cf the Voronezh Front and the left flank

of the Bryansk Front towards Kursk and Ryl'sk, and towards Kharkov and Poltava. Liberation of Kharkov (16 February) and Kursk (8 February).

19 February-?, ivfarch—Defensive operation of the Southwestern Front, south of Kharkov.

27 February—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On the institution

of the "Marshal's Star," a decoration for Marshal of Artillery, Marshal of Aviation and

Marshal of Armored Troops."

8 March—First battle of the 1st Czechoslovak Battalion at the village of Sokolovo.

9 May—Commencement of the formation of the 1st Polish Division (the "Tadeusz Kosciusko"

Division) in the USSR on the initiative of the Union of Polish Patriots.

5 July—The start of the Battle of Kursk.

12 July-23 August—Counterattack by Soviet Forces near Kursk.

5 August—Liberation of Orel and Belgorod by Red Army Troops. First artillery salute in

Moscow. Order of the Supreme High Commander awarding the battle honors "Orel" and

"Belgorod" to the units and formations that distinguished themselves.

21 August—Decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the CC ACP(b)

on the organization of the Suvorov military schools.

10 September-9 October—The Novorossiysk-Taman' offensive operation of the North Caucasus

Front and the Black Sea Fleet.

25-26 September—Commencement of the forcing of a crossing of the Dnepr by troops of the

Steppe and Southwestern Fronts.

During the night of 26 September—Airborne landing by the Red Army of 4,575 men (3rd

Airborne Brigade) and more than 1,000 men of the 5th Brigade, who operated in the enemy's

rear in the areas north and south of Kanev and in the area of Cherkassy for 50 days, assisting

the 52nd Army to force a crossing of the Dnepr

9 October—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on the institution of

the military ranks of Chief Marshal of Artillery, of the Air Force, and of Armored Troops,

and also the ranks of Marshal and Chief Marshal of Engineering Troops and Communications

Troops,

l-l 1 November—Kerch landing operations of the North Caucasus Front, the Black Sea Fleet,

and the Azov Naval Flotilla.

4-7 November—Participation by the 1st Czechoslovak Brigade as part of the 38th Army of the

Voronezh Front in the fighting for the liberation of Kiev, the capital of the Ukraine.

November—First steps in the formation of the Romanian Volunteer Division (the "Tudor

Vladimirescu" Division) in the USSR.

24 December 1943-12 May 1944—Operations for the liberation of the Right-Bank Ukraine and

the Crimea

1943—Formation in the Soviet Army of field enginrer-assaull engineer teams attached to

operational formations.

—Soviet troops equipped with the new 7.62mni heavy machine-gan designed by P. M.

Goryunov, V. Vc. Voronkov and M. M. doryunov.

—Adoption of the new 300mm high explosive rocket missile, for use against defense works

as equipment for Soviet Forces.

—Soviet Forces supplied with the 160mm mortar designed by I. ü. Teverovskiy.

—The SU-152 self-propelled gun-howitzer constructed on the basis of the KV tank.

—The SU-85 and SU-100 self-propelled guns constructed on the basis of the T-34 lank

—Commencement of mass production of the JS heavy tanks, developed by a design team

headed by Zh Ya. Kotin.

138
—Reci Army equipped with anti-tank weapons; the 1942 model 45inm gun and the 1943

model 57mm gun firing sub-caliber ammunition, and the 1942 model 76mm gun.

—A. 1. Sudayev's submachine gun adopted as standard equipment for Soviet troops.

1944

14 January-1 March—Offensive operation of troops of the Leningrad, Volkhov and Second

Baltic Fronts, assisted by aircraft of the Baltic Fleet and partisans, near Leningrad and

Novgorod.

3-17 February—Encirclement and destruction of a large grouping of enemy forces by Soviet

Forces in the Korsun'-Shevchenkovskiy region. \

20 March—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR concerning the establishment of the "Marshal's Star" as a decoration for Marshal of Engineering Troops and

Marshal of Communications Troops.

2 April—Romanian territory entered by Soviet Forces.

8 April-12 May—Crimean offensive operation of troops of the 4th Ukrainian Front, the Independent Coastal (Primorskaya) Army and the Black Sea Fleet with tiie assistance of partisans.

Expulsion of thv enemy from the Crimea.

2 May—Formation of the 128th Independent Czechoslovak Air Force Squadron completed

(transformed into the 1st Independent Czechoslovak Fighter Regiment in June 1944).

9 May—Liberation of Sevastopol by troops of the 4th Ukrainian Front in cooperation with the

Black Sea Fleet.

10 June-9 August—Offensive operation by troops of the Leningrad and Karelian Fronts, the

Baltic Fleet and the Ladoga and Onega Naval Flotillas. Liberation of the whole of Leningrad

ablast'* completed

21 June-9 August—Svirsk-Petroza"odsk operation on the Karelian Front.

23 June-29 August—Byelorussian operation b> troops of the 1st Baltic and the 3rd, 2nd and

1st Byelorussiati Fronts.

25-27 June—Encirclement and destruction of a large group of the enemy in the Vitebsk region

by troops of the 1st Baltic and 3rd Byelorussian Fronts.

27-29 June—Encirclement and destruction of a group of German fascist troops at Bobruysk by

troops of the 1st Byelorussian Front.

3 July—Liberation of Minsk by troops of the 3rd and 1st Byelorussian Fronts.

3-11 July—Encirclement and destruction of a large group of the enemy east of Minsk by troops

of the 3rd, 2nü and 1st Byelorussian Fronts.

10 July-22 October—Offensive by Soviet Forces in the Baltic region.

13 July—Liberation of Vil'nyus by troops of the 3rd Byelorussian Front.

13 July-29 August—The L'vov-Sandomirsk offensive by troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front.

17 July—Troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front cross the frontiers of the USSR and enter Poland.

18-22 July—Encirclement and destruction of a large group of the enemy west of the town of

Brody by troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front.

20 July—Troops of the 1st Byelorussian Front force the Western Bug and enter Poland.

20 August-27 September—Yassy-Kishinev operation by forces of the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian

Fronts cooperating with the Black Sea Fleet and the Danube Naval Flotilla.

24 August—Liberation of Kishinev by troops of the 3rd Ukrainian Front.

24-29 August—Encircieincnt and destruction of a large group of the enemy in the vicinity of

Kishinev by troops of the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts.

8 September—Soviet Forces enter Bulgaria.

14 September-22 October—Attack by Soviet Forces in the Baltic region by the forces of four

fronts {3rd, 2nd and 1st Baltic Fronts and the Leningrad Front) in collaboration with the

Baltic Fleet with the object of complete liberation of the Soviet Baltic region.

15 September—Sofia entered by troops of the 3rd Ukrainian Front.

• Soviet administrative-geographical unit (U.S. Ed.

139
22 September—Liberalion of Tallin by troops of the Leningrad Front in cooperation with the

Baltic Fleet

28 September-21 October—Belgrade offensive operation of the 3rd Ukrainian Front.

6 October—Troops of the 38th Army of the 1st Ukrainian Front and the 1st Czechoslovak Army

Corps occupy the Dukla Pass and enter Slovakia.

7 October-] November—Petsan'o-Kirkenes operation of the Karelian Front and the Northern

Fleet for the liberation of Soviet territory in the Arctic.

13 October—Liberation of Riga by troops of the 3rd and 2nd Baltic Fronts.

17-18 October—Soviet troops enter Eastern Prussia

20 October—Liberation of Belgrade by troops of the 3rd Ukrainian Front and units of the

People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia.

21 October—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR establishing 19

November as an annual holiday "Artillery Day,"

22 October—Troops of the Karelian Front reach the frontier between the USSR and Norway.

25 October—Liberation of the Norwegian town of Kirkenes by Soviet Forces.

29 October 1944-13 February 1945—Budapest Operation of the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts.

31 October—Liberation of Bucharest by Soviet Forces.

1944—Red Army equipped with the 1944 model of the 100mm gun.—Adoption of V. A.

Degtyarev's modernized light machine gun.

1945

12 January-3 February—Vistula-Oder operation by troops of the 1st Byelorussian and the 1st

Ukrainian Fronts assisted by armies from the left flank of the 2nd Byelorussian Front and

the right flank of the 4th Ukrainian Front.

12 January-28 February—Operations by troops of the 4th and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts in the

Western Carpathians to liberate Slovakia and southern regions of Poland.

13 January-25 April—East Prussian offensive by forces of the 3rd and 2nd Byelorussian Fronts

and the Baltic Fleet.

17 January—Liberation of Warsaw by troops of the 1st Byelorussian Front and the 1st Army

of the Polish Forces.

29 January—Troops ofthe Ist Byelorussian Front cross the German frontier west and northwest

of Poznan.

30 'anuary-9 April—Encirclement and destruction of an enemy group at Königsberg by troops

of the 3rd Byelorussian Front,

1-17 February—Encirclement and destruction of a group of German Fascist troops in the region

of Schneidermuhl (Pila) by troops of the 1st Byelorussian Front.

3 February—Troops of the 1st Byelorussian Front begin to force the crossing of the Oder.

13 February—Liberation of Budapest by troops of the 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts,

15 February ~6 May—Encirclement and destruction of an enemy group in the region of Breslau

(Wroclaw) by troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front,

5-15 March—Balaton defensive operation by troops of the 3rd Ukrainian Front,

16 March-15 April—Vienna offensive operation by the 3rd and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts.

18-20 March—Encirclement and defeat of an enemy group in the region of Oppeln (Opole) by

troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front,

4 April—Liberation of Hungary from the German Fascist invaders completed by troops of the

3rd and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts.

13 April—Vienna occupied by troops of the 3rd and 2nd Ukrainian Fronts.

16 April-8 May—Berlin operation of the 1st and 2rid Byelorussian Fronts and the 1st Ukrainian

Front.

25 April—Encirclement of Berlin completed by troops of the Ist Byelorussian and (si Ukrainian

Fronts.

—Troops of the Ist Ukrainian Front reach the river Elbe in the region of Torgau, where they

meet up with the American 1st Army,

140
2 May—Troops of the 1st Byelorussian and 1st Ukrainian Fronts complete the defeat of the

surrounded Berlin group and completely occupy the German capital.

i May—Act of unconditional capitulation of the German Armed Forces signed by representatives of the German High Command in Karlshorst (a suburb of Berlin).

9 May —The Day of Victory over Fascist Germany.

—Liberation of the capital of Czechoslovakia. Prague, by troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front

supported by detachments of armed insurgents.

24 June—Victory Parade in Moscow's Red Square.

8 August—Declaration of war on imperialist Japan by the Soviet Union.

—Representatives of the USSR, the United States, Britain and France sign an agreement

setting up the International Military Tribunal to try the main war criminals.

9 August—Commencement of Military operations by the Soviet Armed Forces against imperialist Japan.

9 August-2 September—Manchurian offensive operation by forces of the Transbaykal and the

1st and 2nd Far Eastern Fronts, the Pacific Fleet, and the Amur Flotilla.

11-25 August—Southern Sakhalin offensive operation of the 2nd Far Eastern Front and the

Pacific Fleet.

18 August-1 September—Landing on the Kuril Islands by troops of the Kamchatka Defense

Region and the Petropavlovsk Naval Base. Liberation of the Kuril Islands.

22 August—Liberation of Port Arthur and Talien (Dairen) by Soviet airborne troops.

24 August—Liberation of Pyongyang by troops of the 1st Far Eastern Front.

August—Airborne landings by the 1st Far Eastern Front in the region of Harbin (500 men),

Girin (200 men), the Yangtze (300 men), and Pyongyang (150 men).

—Airborne landings by the Transbaykal Front in the region north of Mukden (300 men), in

Changchun (300 men), Mukden (300 men), Dal'niy (500 men), and Port Arthur (500 men).

1 September—Total defeat of the Japanese Kwantung Army by Soviet Forces.

2 September—Signing of the Act of Unconditional Capitulation of Japan. End of World War

II.

3 September—The Day of Victory over Japan.

1945—Publication of the Field Service Regulations of the Red Army (draft).

1946

I June—Implementation of the Disciplinary Regulations of the Soviet Armed Forces.

II July—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR establishing the second

Sunday in September as an annual holiday, "Tank Man's Day."

24 July—Internal Service Regulations of the Soviet Armed Forces approved.

25 December—Start-up of the first uranium-graphite reactor constructed by I. V. Kurchatov

and his colleagues.

1946—Initial steps in the formation of the first rocket units in the Soviet Army.

—Introduction of a company machine gun using 7.62mm rifle cartridges.

—Commencement of trials of the Soviet MiG-9 and Yak-15 jet aircraft.

—Construction of the MiG-9 fighter. Speed 910km/hr, altitude 13,000m.

1947

17 January—Implementation of the Driii Manual of the Soviet Armed Forces.

March—Statute on the political bodies of the Soviet Armed Forces approved by the Central

Committee of the Party.

10 June—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR approving the texts of

the Military Oath and the Instructions on the Procedure for Administering the Military Oath.

24 June—G. Kondrashov catapulted from a Tu-2K aircraft; the first time this operation had

been earned out in the USSR.

18 October—Successful launching of the first ballistic missile in the Soviet Union.

141
1947—Delivery of the MiC-15, the first serially produced Soviet swept-wing jet fighter. Flight

speed l,060km/hr, altitude up to 15,200ni.

1948

23 February—30th Anniversary of the Soviet Army and Navy.

1949

20 February—Implementation of the Garrison and Guard Duty Regulations of the Soviet

Armed Forces.

August—Nuclear weapon test held in the USSR.

1949—Ascent by Soviet geophysical rockets carrying apparatus weighing more than a ton to

an altitude of more than 100km.

1950

February—A serially produced MiG-17 fighter reaches the speed of sound in level flight.

1951

21 August—The parachutist V. Kochetkov catapulted from the cockpit of a MiG-15 at a speed

of l,036km/hr.

1951—Creation ofthe first electronic computer (MESM) in the Soviet Union under the direction

of Academician S. A. Lebedev.

1952

5-14 October—XIX Party Congress.

1952—Construction of the M2 and M3 universal mini-computers in the USSR.

1953

3 August—Detonation of a thermonuclear device in the Soviet Union.

January—The staff of the Armed Forces begin to study atomic weapons and operations when

atomic weapons are used.

September—The first large military exercise involving the detonation of a real atomic bomb held

in the Soviet Union.

1954—A start was made on the elaboration of a wide variety of questions related to the conduct

of military operations in nuclear warfare.

1955

3 March—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR establishing the military

rank of Fleet Admiral of the Soviet Union.

25 May—Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on ratification of the

Warsaw Defense Pact concluded between the socialist states of Central and Southeastern

Europe on 14 May 1955.

1955—Trials of an "aerial cross-country vehicle" (the hovercraft principle) constructed in the

Soviet Union under the direction of V Kozhokhin.

142
1956

14-23 February—XX Congress of the CPSU.

November—At the request of the Hungarian Revolutionary Workers' and Peasants' Government. Soviet troops assisted the Hungarian people m crushing a counterrevolutionary uprising.

—The testing in the USSR of the intercontinental ballistic rocket by means of which an

artificial earth satellite was placed in orbit in October 1957.

1957

April—All-Army Conference of holders of proficiency badges for excellence in comb?* and

political training.

May—Armed Forces Military Scientific Conference.

20 August—Delayed drop from an altitude of 15,388m by Meritorious Master of Sport N.

Nikitin.

27 August—Communique from the Soviet news agency TASS on successful trials of an intercontinental ballistic missile in the Soviet Union and on detonations of nuclear and thermonuclear

(hydrogen) weapons.

October—Adoption of a resolution by the October plenary session of the CC CPSU "On

improving Party-political work in the Soviet Armed Forces."

28 October—Address of the CC CPSU, the Council of Ministers of the USSR, and the Presidium

of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR to members of the Soviet Armed Forces on the occasion

of the 40th Anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution.

1958

17 April—Resolution of the CC CPSU and the Council of Ministers of ihe USSR "On the

Military Councils of the Soviet Armed Forces."

April—New instructions to Komsomol organizations in the Soviet Armed Forces approved

by the CC of the Komsomol and the Chief Political Directorate of the Soviet Armed

Forces.

October—New regulations governing political organizations in the Soviet Armed Forces approved by the CC CPSU.

1959

3 January—Implementation of the Drill Manual of the Soviet Armed Forces.

31 October—Test pilot G. K. Mosolo-' set up an absolute world record with a speed of 2,388

km/hr in a serially produced MiG-21F tactical fighter.

17 Decemljer—The Strategic Rocket Forces, a new Service, established by decree of the Council

of Ministers of the USSR.

1960

1 May—America». U-2 reconnaissance plane shot down over the USSR by a Soviet rocket.

May—All-Army Conference of the secretaries of primary party organizations.

18 August—Resolution of the CC CPSU on alteration of the structure of Party organizations

in the Soviet Armed Forces.

23 August—Internal Service Regulations and Disciplinary Regulations of the Soviet Armed

Forces approved by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

143
1961

17-31 October—XXII Congress of the C'PSU, adoption of the Party Program and Statutes.

1961—Creation in the USSR of a supersonic fighter with an assisted take-off u-'t, and with i

very short take-off run.

1962

1962—Piloi G. K. Mosolov sets up an absolute world record with a flying speed of 2,681km/hr.

1963

22 August—Garrison and Guard Duty Regulations of the Soviet Armed Forces approved by

the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

1963—Soviet intercontinental rockets tested for target accuracy.—Successful production in the

Soviet Union ofstable plasma of considerable density with a temperature of 40 million degrees.

1964

21 April—Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR approving the naval flags and

pennants for fighting ships, the ships of border troops, auxiliary vessels and officials of the

Ministry of Defense and the Committee of State Security (KGB)

1965

l 26 March—Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR instituting the M. V. Frunze Prize

for Outstanding Works of Military Science.

23 April—The launching in the Soviet Union of the first "Molniya-1" communications satellite

providing communications between Moscow and Vladivostok for several hours.

1965—Creation in the Soviet Union of a new and powerful rocket by means of which the

"Proton-1" space laboratory was placed in Earth orbit on 16 July. Total payload (excluding

the final carrier stage) 12.2 tons.

—Creation of the honorary titles "Meritorious Military Pilot of the USSR" and "Meritorious

Military Navigator of the USSR" by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

1966

29 March-8 April—XXIII Congress of the CPSU.

7 May—Decree of the CC CPSU and of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On the present

state as regards the work of the Volunteer Society for Cooperation with the Army, Air Force

and Navy Fleet (DOSAAF SSSR) and measures for its improvement."

21 November—First flight of the 24-seater Yak-40 jet aircraft created by a team headed by chief

designer A. S. Yakovlev. Cruising speed 50O-600km/hr, range 2,000km,

3 December—Solemn interment in the walls of the Moscow Kremlin of the remains of the

unknown soldier, one of the heroic defenders of Moscow.

1966—Creation of a new type of powerful laser by a group of scientific officers at the Institute

ofPhysics, USSR Academy ofSciences, under the direction if Academician A M. Prokhorov.

144

fe.
1967

21 January—Resolution of *he CC CPSÜ "On measures to improve Party-political work in the

Soviet Armed Forces."

10 July—In honor of the 50th Anniversary of the R volution, the CC CPSU, the Presidium of

the Supreme Soviet and the Council of Ministers of the USSR established 300 memorial

banners as a symbol of valor in battle for military formations, units, and ships.

September—Dnepr, a large-scale exercise involving forces of the Byelorussian, Carpathian

and other military districts. Military delegations from friendly armies were present at the

exercise.

12 October—Adoption of the Universal Military Service Law by the 3rd session of the Supreme

Soviet of the USSR of the seventh convocation.

2 November—Announcement in the Soviet press of the world record set up by Pilot Mikhail

Komarov. Flying a serially produced supersonic Ye-266 fighter, designed by A. I. Miko-'an,

he covered a 500 kilometer closed course at an average speed of 2,930km/hr.

1968

22 February—Awarding of the Order of Lenin to the Leningrad and Moscow Military Districts

and to the Moscow Air Defense District by decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet

of the USSR; awarding of the Order of the Red Banner to the Byelorussian, Kiev, Odessa,

North Caucasus, and Turkestan Military Districts; awarding of the Order of the October

Revolution to the cruiser "Avrora."

23 February—Greetings of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Presidium of the Supreme

Soviet of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR to the members of the heroic

Armed Forces of the Soviet Union on the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the Soviet

Armed Forces.

21 August—Together with the troops of other fraternal armies, Soviet Forces went to the

assistance of the Czechoslovak people in defense of the achievements of socialism against the

threat of internal and external counterrevolution.

1969

17 March—Approval at a meeting of the Political Consultative Committee in Budapest of the

statute on the Committee of Defense Ministers of the Warsaw Pact States, a new statute on

the Joint Armed Forces, Join Cimmand and other documents.

27 May—Greetings of the CC CISl' to the political organizations, commanders and political

workers of the Soviet Armed Forces on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the creation

of the Political Department of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic.

5 November—Institution of the Jubilee Medal by decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet

of the USSR, and celebration of the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Lenin by the

institution of two citations: "For Valiant Labor. In celebration of the 100th Anniversary of

the Birth of Lenin" and "For Military Valor. In celebration of the 100th Anniversary of the

Birth of Lenin."

26 November—All-Army conference of junior officers in Moscow.

1970

March—The Dvina maneuvers, in which all branches of the Services of a number of military

districts took part

22 April—Centenary of the birth of Lenin.

Apnl-May—Okean maneuvers of the Sovi-t Navy.

145

^
9 May—25th Anniversary of the victory of the Soviet People and its Armed Forces over Fascist

Germany.

30 July—Socialist competition begun in the Armed Forces of the USSR as a fitting preparation

for 'he XXIV Congress of the CPSU, on the initiative of the staff of the "G. I. Kotovskiy"

Proskurov Berlin Guards Tank Regiment (Orders of Lenin, the Red Banner and Kutuzov).

146
Chapter 6. THE MILITARY PROFESSION

Accomplishing the tasks of strengthening the Armed Forces of the Soviet

State the CPSU continues, as in the past, to pay great attention to the

training, education and placement of military personnel. The Party proceeds

on the basis that line, political, and technical personnel are the most important element, the backbone and cohesive force of the Armed Forces. They

play the leading role in all aspects of the life and combat activities of the

forces.

Command cadres are conveyors ofthe ideology and policy ofthe Party and

the Stale in the forces, bearers of the class spirit of the army and its fighting

traditions. They organize the combat training and education of servicemen,

imbue them with a love of military science, train them to be proficient in the

use of weapons and the fundamentals of battle tactics, instill in them sound

moral and fighting qualities and conscious military discipline, and reinforce

order and organization in the forces. Their knowledge, experience, will,

authority, and organizing abilities are important factors in ensuring a high

level offighting efficiency and combat readiness ofthe forces, and the achievement of victory in battle. All this is confirmed by the rich experience of Soviet

military development.

THE CONCERN OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY FOR THE TRAINING AND

EDUCATION OF MILITARY CADRES

The task of training military cadres from among the people faced our Party

immediately after the formation of the Red Army. The Party was convinced

that only new officers from among the people, dedicated to the Soviet regime

and capable of correctly understanding the Party's general and military

policies and steadfastly carrying them into effect, could ensure the peak

fighting efficiency of the army of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

". . . The old officer corps," said V. I. Lenin, "consisted mainly of the

spoiled and depraved sons of capitalists, who had nothing in common with

the simple soldier. Therefore, in building our new army, we must select

officers from among the people. Only Red officers will have authority among

the soldiers and be able to strengthen socialism in our army. Such an army

will be invincible." '

Lenin, XXXVII, 200.

147

t*

feS •
During the first months ir. the development of the new army, the Party appointed officers from

among Party officials and leading workers who had gained combat experience during revolutionary battles in the ranks of the Red Guards and also those members of the Party who had carried

out major work in the Red Army before the October Revolution. Revolutionary soldiers and

sailors, as well as former non-commissioned officers, were also appointed to command positions.

However, these measures alone were insufficient for the establishment of large military cadres.

It was necessary to set up an extensive network of officers' courses and military schools. The

first Moscow revolutionary machine gun school for line officers was established on Lenin's

personal instructions. By 13 December 1917 all the student quotas in the school had been filled.

On 14 February 1918 by order of the People's Commissariat for Military Atfairs the opening

of the first thirteen officers' courses in Moscow, Petrograd, Oranienbaum, Tver' and Kazan' was

announced. These were courses for training line and political officers for the infantry, cavalry,

artillery, engineering troops, machine gunnery, the communications troops, armored vehicle and

electrotechnical units, as well as armorers, medical officers, etc. The opening of these courses

marked the beginning of the development of the Red Army's system of military training

establishments.

By the end of 1918, there were 63 military training establishments in the country, by September 191^ there were 107, while in November 1920 there were as many as 153, The number of

students in them was approximately 54,000. During this period about 40,000 Red officers took

these courses.

These training establishments turned out officers of middle rank. But the Army also needed

senior and higher command officers from among the workers and peasants. To fulfill this need

the following higher military training establishments were created in 1918 and 1919: the General

Staff, Artillery, Military Engineering, Military Medical, and Military Fxonomic Academies. In

1919 the Petrograd Teachers' Institute, later the Military Political Academy, opened its doors.

At the same time, the Higher Small-arms School for Officers, the Higher Military Aviation

Institute, the Higher Artillery School, and the Higher Military Cavalry School were opened,

V. I. Lenin paid a great deal of attention to the training offuture Red Army

officers. On the first mass graduation of line officers in Petrograd, he sent

them a telegram saying: "I send greetings to 400 comrade workers who today

have completed the course for officers ofthe Red Army and who are entering

its ranks as leaders ... thousands and thousands of other workers will follow

your example, and with such administrators and officers the victory of communism will be assured." :

November 24, 1918, was proclaimed as "Red Officers' Day" throughout

the country. Lenin addressed the participants in a parade in honor of this day

from the balcony of the Mossovet* Building. In his speech, he emphasized

that the Red Army was a completely new army, that it was called upon to

defend the interests of the workers, and that it needed a new proletarian

officer corps, capable of realizing the Party's influence in the Army, and

organizing the repulse of the enemies of the Revolution.

Despite the fact that he was extremely preoccupied with state affairs,

Vladimir Il'ich often put in an appearance at officers' training centers, military schools, and academies, and spoke to the trainees. Many times he spoke

to trainees on officers' courses in the Kremlin and visited the Moscow Aviation Schoo1

, officers' heavy artillery courses, and the Military Academy of the

Workers' and Peasants' Red Army.

2Lcnin, XXXVII, 88.

* Acronym for Moscow City Soviet of Workers' Deputies [U.S. Ed ).

148
Questions relating to the training of military cadres were discussed at Party

congresses. An extremely important role in this connection was played by the

VIII Congress of the RCP(b). The "military opposition," which demanded

the election of officer personnel and collectivity of troop control, etc., opposed the Party line on questions of military development and particularly

the training of cadres. The congress rejected their demands for the election

of officers and declared that it was expedient to consolidate the principle,

already proved in practice, of the appointment of officers by the appropriate

military bodies. As the congress indicated, the main approach to the training

of command personnel must be through the training and education of our

own officers from among the workers and peasants. In addition, despite the

"military opposition," the Party deemed it necessary to enlist military specialists of the old army into the Red Army.

A resolution on the military question adopted by the X Party Congress

outlined measures for improving the training of military cadres during the

period of agricultural reorganization after the Civil War. It was pointed out

that there was a need to improve military training work and step up political

instruction activities among the command officers. The congress proposed

that measures be taken to further improve the social composition of the

officers' cadres, to make more regular and systematic use of Red officers in

command positions.

Trotskiy, who overrated the role of the old military specialists, belittled

that of the new Red officers and opposed the nomination of the latter for

responsible command positions, opposed these Party principles. The Party

dealt a decisive rebuff to Trotskiy's anti-Party views and actions.

During the period of military reform and technical reequipment of the Army and Navy, the

growth of the officers' cadres continued more rapidly than before. During the 12 years from 1925

through 1937, the military schools and colleges turned out 135,000 officers and the academies,

approximately 13,000. Among tb; command personnel the proportion of officers with technical

and specialist training continually increased.

The training of executive and political cadres was conducted with great intensity in the

pre-war years, when dozens of new schools for all Services and branches of the Services were

opened in connection with the development of the regular army. Whereas in January 1939 we

had 14 academies and six military departments attached to civilian higher educational establishments, by the beginning of the war there were 19 academies, 10 military departments and seven

higher naval schools. The number of students in these training establishments had increased by

more than one and a half times during this period.

The Communist Party carried out an enormous amount of work in the

training of command, engineering, and political officers during the Great

Patriotic War. During the war, the network of military training establishments was expanded and the student intake increased, and numerous officer

retraining and refresher courses were organized. By the beginning ofthe third

period of the war, cadres of command and engineering and technical officers

were being trained by 31 higher military training establishments, 220 military

schools, and taking more than 200 different courses for the training and

149
retraining of specialist officers, the annual graduation output being between

four hundred and five hundred thousand officers.

Nearly two million officers were trained by the entire network of military

training establishments during the war.

Many talented generals and officers were nominated for command positions during the war. The remarkable organizational abilities, political maturity, and high level of military training of our command and political officers

were vital factors in the histoncal victory of the Soviet State and its Armed

Forces over the Fascist invaders.

During the postwar period, especially in connection with the revolution in

military affairs, further demands were made on our military cadres. As

Engels indicated, when the waves of the technical revolution are raging

around us, we need younger, bolder heads. Soviet officers are required to be

experts in the handling of modem weapons and new methods and forms of

conducting battles and operations; they must significantly broaden their

military theoretical outlook, and improve their teaching qualifications.

The increased role of the officer corps is expressed primarily in the fact that there has been

a significant increase m the proportion of officers in the total number of servicemen. Whereas

during World War I there was one officer to every 15-19 soldiers and noncommissioned officers,

there is now one officer to every 7-11 other ranks in the armies of the most powerful states, while

in the air force, rocket and other special forces the proportion is even higher. The increased role

of officer peisonnel is also manifested in the fact that the most complex fighting equipment,

various typef. of assemblies and radio-electronic equipment are, in most cases, controlled directly

by officers who are either engineers or technicians.

Thanks to the Party's constant concern, our Armed Forces now have

cadres of command and specialist officers, who are wholly devoted to the

people and the cause of communism, politically mature, highly trained in

military technical skills and capable of expertly leading the troops, both in

peacetime and in war. Approximately 93% of all officers, generals, and

admirals of the Armed Forces are Party or Komsomol members. More than

30% of the officers and, in some branches ofthe Services, almost 100%, have

had a higher military or specialist education. Half of the officer personnel are

engineers and technicians. Two-thirds of the officer personnel at regimental

level are junior officers.

Tasks in the further training and education of command, political and

technical personnel of the Soviet Armed Forces, and the improvement of the

political, working and moral qualities of military personnel are formulated

in the Program of the CPSU and the resolutions of the XXOI Party Congress.

The Communist Party is ceaselessly preoccupied with the training and

education of command, political, and technical cadres, recruited from the

best representatives of the people and selflessly devoted to the cause of

communism. The Party considers it essential that command and all staff

officers should have a sound knowledge of Marxist-Leninist theory, a high

level of military technical training, satisfy all the requirements of modern

military theory and practice, and reinforce military discipline.

150
To resolve this problem, a whole complex of measures has been put into effect: many secondary military training establishments have been converted into higher military training establishments; appropriate changes have been introduced into combat and political training programs,

etc.

The decisive element in the training of officer personnel is their ideological

hardening, arming them with Marxist-Leninist theory. Only on the basis of

materialist dialectics and a profound understanding of the laws of social

development, can officer personnel correctly understand the objective laws of

modern wars, their political and technical character and features, master all

the forms and means of armed combat, and advance the cause of Soviet

military science.

The most important element in the ideological training of officers is the

study of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine on war and the army, and Party

resolutions on questions of military development and the armed defense of

socialism and communism. The study of Lenin's military writings and Party

resolutions broadens the officer's political and military outlook, helps him to

deepen his comprehension of the most important theoretical and practical

problems of military development, and to resolve more successfully specific

problems in the training and education of personnel.

Officers of the Armed Forces are required to possess an excellent knowledge of military matters, and continuously improve their own military-technical and scientific training. This is dictated by a true revolution in military

matters which was brought about by progress made in science and technologyNew technology and complex forms and methods of waging war necessitate new procedures and methods of training personnel. Therefore, officers

are called upon to work continually to improve their methods, to be more

bold in putting into practice all the new and valuable knowledge acquired in

the process of training different categories of servicemen, and to seek ways

of further increasing the fighting efficiency of subunits, units, and ships.

". . . In order to govern," said V. I. Lenin, "one must be competent

. . . and have some scientific education." ' Applied to an officer, this implies

that he must be able to meet all the requirements of contemporary military

theory and practice, study in detail such current problems as the nature and

features of modern war, changes in the methods of conducting combat operations associated with the emergence of new weapons, ways of achieving a high

level of combat readiness of the forces, improvement of troop control, etc.

Continuous improvement of one's knowledge is also necessary, because

both technology and the people going into the Armed Forces are changing.

The educational and cultural level of our young people increases year by year.

The influx into the Army of young people with secondary and higher education has increased still further as a result of the introduction of the Universal Military Service Law, passed by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. It

is a difficult matter to train and educafe such people. It requires that the

'Lenin, XL. 215.

151
officer possess a sound technical knowledge and a broad cultural outlook.

Modern war imposes unprecedented demands on the moral, psychological,

and physical qualities of command officers called upon to lead troops in

conditions which have become extremely complex. The nature of modern

war insistently dictates an urgent need to further consolidate sole command

responsibility, which the Party regards as the most important principle of

military development. Sole command responsibility is the strictest centralization of troop control, the unconditional subordination of all servicemen to

the will of the leader so as to ensure unity of action and coordination of effort

in carrying out the assigned task. It provides for the full combination of the

wide powers granted to officers with respect to subordinates, and personal

responsibility for all aspects of the life and activities of personnel.

"Since we are preparing our Army for decisive battle with strong and

formidable enemies," wrote M. V. Frunze, "our units must be led by people

possessing sufficient independence, firmness, initiative, and responsibility. We

need officers who can keep their heads in any situation, who would be able

to make the appropriate decision, bearing responsibility for all its consequences, and firmly carry it out." 4

The implementation ofsole command responsibility assumes the all-round

strengthening of military discipline, regulation procedures, and organization

in the forces. This follows from the nature and features of modern war. The

more complex and powerful the weapons, the higher the standard of military

discipline must be, the more precisely all orders, instructions and directives

on the use of the equipment must be complied with, and the greater the

degree of promptness, efficiency, and execution required of each serviceman.

The training of subordinates to be conscientious, disciplined defenders of

the Motherland is the most important duty of an officer. He is called upon

to educate servicemen in the spirit of Soviet patriotism and proletarian internationalism, conscientious fulfillment of his military duty, respect for military labor, and to develop in them an inner desire to adhere faithfully to the

principles of communist morality.

Of considerable importance in the solution of this problem is the officer's

c . sense of discipline and his ability to be self-critical, analyze his work and

conduct, and thence draw the right conclusions.

The Soviet officer is characterized by his patriotism, faithfulness to communist ideals, hatred ofthe enemies ofthe Soviet Motherland, and irreconcilability to bourgeois ideology. He is also distinguished by his Party commitment, purposefulness, steadfastness, endurance, strong will, and command

requirements in accordance with regulations.

Soviet officers learn the art of leadership from Lenin. Vladimir Il'ich

demonstrated models of wise leadership of the masses, developed a certain

style of work, the mastery of which is a vital necessity for every Soviet leader

and every officer of the Armed Forces.

Lenin's style of work is understood to be the total combination of the

' Frunze, 1965. p 480.

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methods of work concerning the building of socialism and communism, and

leadership and education of the masses. The Lenin style is a combination of

lofty ideology, commitment to Party principles, unity of word and deed,

communist enterprise, concreteness and purposefulness, a feeling for the new

and a profound analysis of reality, a creative and scientific approach to work,

reliance on the experience of the masses, and constant concern for the satisfaction of their needs and demands.

The most important condition for success in the work of the officer is his

ability to rely on the Party organization and to arrange his work in close

cooperation with political officers. To rely on the Party organization means

to maintain daily businesslike contact with it, to assign to Party and Komsomol members specific tasks which follow from combat and political training plans, to help them to play a leading role in training and service life, to

direct their activities into the strengthening of conscious military discipline

and react promptly and attentively to criticism ofshortcomings in the activities of the unit or subunit.

The endeavors of a commander, or a superior, can be considered successful

only when the entire mass ofservicemen is closely united around him, bound

by a common purpose and profound faith in the experience, knowledge and

ability of their leader. Tiis presupposes the close relationship of the officer

with the soldiers or sailors, knowledge of their moods, concern for the

satisfaction of their needs and requirements. An officer who is attentive to

his subordinates strengthens his authority and wins their confidence.

At an Ail-Army conference ofjunior officers in Moscow, the Minister of

Defense of the USSR, Marshal of the Soviet Union A. A. Grechko declared:

"The officer is the main element, the principal figure in the Armed Forces.

The Party and the Government have raised the importance of the officer to

a high level, they have entrusted him with the training and education of

people, granted him the right to give them orders, and lead them into battle,

in the fulfillment of the most difficult and complex tasks." '

The officer corps ofthe Soviet Armed Forces is called upon to rise to every

occasion and carry out its assigned tasks, its civil and military duty, in a

fitting manner.

MILITARY SERVICE REQUIREMENTS FOR OFFICER PERSONNEL OF THE

ARMED FORCES OF THE USSR (principal provisions)

In conformity with the Universal Military Service Law, officers of the

Armed Forces of the-USSR serve on the active military service list and in

the reserve until the following maximum ages:

Krasnaya zvezda [Red Star], 27 November 1969.

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Age Limits

Active category 1 category II category III

Military ranks milit3ry

service

reserve reserve reserve

Junior lieutenants, 40 40 45 50

lieutenants and

equivalent ranks

Senior lieutenants. 40 45 50 55

captains and

equivalent ranks

Maiors and 45 45 50 55

equivalent ranks

Lieutenant 45 50 55 60

colonels and

equivalent ranks

Colonels and 50 55 _ 60

their equivalents

Generals and admirals 55 60 65

up to lieutenant

general, viceadmiral and

corresponding ranks

Coionel-generals, 60 _ — 65

admirals and their

corresponding ranks, army

generals, marshals of

branches of the Services,

fleet admirals

Women officers included in the register of those obligated to military

service on account of their professional qualifications are put on the category

III reserve list, irrespective of the rank conferred upon them. The maximum

age for women officers serving in the reserve is 50 years.

Officers who have reached the maximum age for active military service are

subject to discharge from military service. In case of need, individuals who

have reached the age limit may be retained on active military service for a

period of up to five years in the manner determined by the Council of

Ministers of the USSR.

Officers who have not reached the maximum active military service age

may be discharged prematurely:

—for health reasons, in accordance with the findings of a military medical

commission;

—in connection with staff reductions, when there is no possibility of utilizing their services;

—for non-conformity to service requirements in the assessment of their

qualifications;

—for committing offenses which discredit the high rank of a Soviet officer;

—for being convicted of a criminal offense.

The officer reserve pool of the Armed Forces of the USSR is made up of:

a) officers, generals and admirals discharged from active military duty and

put on the reserve list;

b) soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers with higher or

secondary education, who have served their period of active military duty

and have been given officer's rank after passing the specified examinations on

being discharged into the reserve;

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c) individuals who have undergone military training in civilian higher or

secondary special educational establishments and having attained officer's

rank after passing the specified examinations;

d) reserve soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers who have

acquired higher or secondary specialist civilian education and a related training qualification in a corresponding military profession, after achieving

officer's rank;

e) reserve soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers with at least

grade-eight education, who have served their period of active military service

and attained officer's rank after undergoing a reserve officer's course of

instruction and passing the specified examinations.

Reserve officers undergo training and may be called up as follows:

a) category I reserve—annually for a period of up to three months;

b) category II—for two training periods of up to three months each;

c) category III—for one two-month training period.

In addition, between these training periods, reserve officers may be called

up for purposes of examinations for periods up to 10 days.

The total length of the training periods during service in the reserve may

not exceed 30 months.

The lengths of training periods for different groups and specialist categories ofofficers, generals and admirals within the limits specified by the present

clause, are determined by the Minister of Defense of the USSR.

In case of necessity, the Minister of Defense has the right to retain reserve

officers, generals, and admirals on training call-ups for a period of up to two

months in excess of the terms specified by the present law, and also to

increase the number ofreserve officer training periods, not exceeding the total

training time specified in items a), b), and c) of the present paragraph.

Between call-ups, category I reserve officers put in 30-60 study hours on

officer training courses organized by garrison commanders and military commissariats. Reserve officers are enrolled in these courses once in three years.

The courses are conducted in the officer's place of residence: for those living

in towns—without time off from work and with partial time off from work

for a period of up to two days during the entire course; for those living in

the country—with time off from work.

Reserve officers may be appointed to active military duty in peacetime to

officers' positions as follows:

a) on a voluntary basis—by decree ofthe Minister of Defense ofthe USSR;

b) by call-up for a period of two to three years for individuals up to the

age of 30 years, the number and specialization categories being determined

by the Council of Ministers of the USSR.

Officers who have reached the age limit for reserve service or have been

determined to be unqualified because of health reasons are taken off the

registration list for military service and retited.

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INTERNAL SERVICE REGULATIONS OF THE ARMED FORCES OF THE

USSR (extracts)

Chapter 1

Servicemen and Relationships between Them

General Duties of Servicemen

1. A serviceman in the Armed Forces of the USSR is a defender of his

Motherland—the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

A serviceman must observe the laws sacredly and be true to the

military oath; must be disciplined, honest, just and brave, and must spare

no resources, not even life itself, in the fulfillment of his military duty;

he must obey his commanders implicitly and defend them in battle; and

guard his unit's banner as the cherished symbol that it is.

2. A serviceman is obliged to be thoroughly conversant with, and efficiently

and conscientiously carry out, the requirements of military regulations

and his own duties; to make constant efforts to improve his military and

political knowledge; to know perfectly and to take care of the weapons

and fighting equipment entrusted to him, and also to look after military

and state property; to display intelligent initiative; to steadfastly endure

all the burdens and deprivations of military service; to value the comradeship of fellow servicemen, to help his comrades in word and deed,

to restrain them from unworthy acts and, without thought for his own

life, to extricate them from danger; to be vigilant and safeguard military

and state secrets.

3. The serviceman should cherish the honor and military glory of the

Armed Forces of the USSR and his own unit, and the honor of his

military rank.

He must fulfill his military duty to the Soviet Motherland to the end.

Nothing, not even the threat of death, must make a serviceman of the

Armed Forces of the Soviet Union surrender.

If, however, a serviceman in a helpless condition as a result of a serious

wound or shell-shock should be captured by the enemy, he must do

everything possible to free himself and his comrades from captivity, and

return to his own forces.

As a prisoner of war, the serviceman must firmly uphold the honor

and dignity of the Soviet fighting man, scrupulously maintain military

and state secrecy, display endurance and courage, friendship and mutual

support for his fellow prisoners, restrain them from assisting the enemy,

contemptuously rejecting all attempts by the enemy to use him for the

purpose of causing damage to the Armed Forces of the USSR and the

Soviet Motherland.

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4. A serviceman must show respect to commanders and superiors, cooperate with them in maintaining order and discipline, strictly observe the

rules of military etiquette and saluting, and always be properly, cleanly,

and neatly dressed.

The serviceman is obliged to report all that happens to him and all

reprimands made to him to his immediate superior.

5. In official matters the serviceman must approach his immediate superior;

only with the latter's permission may a serviceman approach the next

highest in the chain of command.

As a rule, the serviceman should also approach his immediate superior

on personal matters as well, but in case of special necessity, he may also

appeal to a senior superior.

In submitting complaints and requests, the serviceman is guided by the

instructions contained in Disciplinary Regulations.

Military Ranks

6. Each serviceman is given a military rank in accordance with Service

Regulations.

7. For especially outstanding services to the Motherland in the leadership

of all the Armed Forces of the State during wartime, the Presidium of

the Supreme Soviet of the USSR personally confers the highest military

rank of Generalissimo of the Soviet Union.

8. For outstanding services in leadership of the forces the Presidium of the

Supreme Soviet of the USSR personally confers the military rank of

Marshal of the Soviet nion.

9. For outstanding services in naval leadership the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR personally confers the military rank of Fleet

Admiral of the Soviet Union.

Superiors and Subordinates, Seniors and Juniors

10. According to their official position and military rank, some servicemen

may be superior or subordinate in relation to others.

Superiors have the right to give orders to subordinates and they must

ensure that these orders are carried out. Subordinates are obliged to obey

superiors implicitly.

11. Superiors to whom servicemen are subordinate in service matters are

direct superiors, even though only temporarily.

The direct superior closest to the subordinate is his immediate superior.

12. By reason of their military rank, the following individuals on the active

military service list are superiors:

—Marshals of the Soviet Union, Fleet Admirals of the Soviet Union,

chief marshals of branches of the Services and special forces—for all

officers, noncommissioned and petty officers, soldiers, and sailors;

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—army generals, marshals of branches of the Services and special

forces, fleet admirals, generals, admirals, colonels, and captains 1st rank

—for all junior officers, noncommissioned and pett> officers, soldiers and

sailors;

—officers—for all noncommissioned and petty officers, soldiers, and

sailors;

—noncommissioned and petty officers—for soldiers and sailors in

their own units.

13. Servicemen who by reason of :heir official positions and military ranks

(paras. 11 and 12) are not superiors or subordinates with respect to other

servicemen, may be seniors or juniors.

Seniority is determined by servicemen's military ranks.

Seniors in rank arc obliged in all cases to require juniors to observe

military discipline, public order and dress, as well as the rules of military

conduct and saluting.

Junior ranks must fulfill the requirements of seniors unquestioningly.

14. Where servicemen who are working together are not subordinate to each

other, when their service relationships have not been determined by a

superior, the superior is the one who holds the most senior position, and

where the positions are equivalent, the senior in rank.

Issuing and Carrying out Orders

15. As a rule, orders are given according to subordination.

If, in view of extreme necessity, a superior gives a subordinate an

order, by-passing the subordinate's immediate superior, the subordinate

who received the order carries it out and reports the matter to his

immediate superior.

16. A serviceman, on receiving an order, replies, "Yes, sir!" and then carries

it out.

Where it is necessary to be sure that an order given to a subordinate

has been correctly understood, the superior demands a brief repetition

of the order.

The serviceman is obliged to report that he has carried out the order

to the superior who gave it to him.

17. If a serviceman, carrying out an order, receives a second order from

another superior, senior in position, and this interferes with his fulfillment of the first order, he informs the superior who gave him the second

order and, if the latter order is confirmed, the serviceman carries it out.

The individual who gave the second order reports the facts to the

superior who gave the frst order.

Saluting

18. All servicemen on meeting (passing) are obliged to salute each other,

strictly observing the rules of the Drill Regulations.

Subordinates and juniors in rank salute first.

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19. In addition, servicemen are obliged to salute:

—the Lenin Mausoleum;

—common graves of servicemen who died in battles for the freedom

and independence of our Motherland;

—the banners of military units, and also the Naval ensign on boarding

and leaving a warship;

—funeral processions escorted by troops.

20. Military units and subunits in formation salute on command:

—the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR,

the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the Generalissimo ofthe Soviet Union, the Minister of Defense ofthe USSR, Marshals

of the Soviet Union, and Fleet Admirals of the Soviet Union;

—the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet and the

Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the union republic in which the

given unit is located;

—chief marshals, army generals and marshals of branches of the

Services and special forces, fleet admirals, colonel-generals, admirals,

and all direct superiors, as well as persons appointed to lead an inspection of a unit (subunit).

21. Military units and subunits also salute on command:

—the Lenin Mausoleum;

—common graves of servicemen who died in battles for the freedom

and independence of our Motherland;

—on meeting one another;

—the banners of military units and, aboard ships, the Naval ensign

when it is being hoisted or lowered;

—funeral processions escorted by troops.

22. When the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the

USSR, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, the

Generalissimo ofthe Soviet Union, the Minister of Defense ofthe USSR,

Marshals of the Soviet Union and Fleet Admirals of the Soviet Union

are saluted by troops in formation, bands play the "Greeting March" and

the National Anthem of the Soviet Union.

A guard of honor is formed to meet the above-mentioned persons on

arrival in a garrison.

The saluting by military units of direct superiors beginning with their

own commanders and higher, and persons appointed to carry out an

inspection, is accompanied by bands playing the "Greeting March."

23. When not in formation, both during work and off-duty periods, military

units and subunits salute on the command "Attention!" or "Stand up!

Attention!" The command to salute is given by the senior superior

present or the serviceman who first notices the arrival of a superior.

On hearing this command, all present turn their heads towards the

newly arrived superior and stand at attention, the officers with heads

covered additionally render a hand salute. They remain in this position

until given the order "At ease!" The senior superior present, while saluting, then reports to the newly arrived superior. No report is made to

15S
the latter if he is accompanied by the commander of the unit (subunit).

24. In headquarters and institutions, saluting on command is reserved for

direct superiors and persons appointed to carry out an inspection.

The command "Attention!" or "Stand up! Attention!" for saluting is

given by the first individual who notices an approaching superior.

25. The command "Attention!" or "Stand up! Attention!" and a report are

given only during a superior's first visit to a unit or subunit on a given

day. An order to a subunit (unit) to salute a junior superior is not given

in the presence of a senior superior, nor is a report made to him.

The command "Attention!" or "Stand up! Attention!" is given at thbeginning and end of each classroom lesson.

Servicemen who are not in formation, but present when a report is

given, act as indicated in paragraph 23.

The command "Attention!" or "Stand up! Attention!" before reporting to a superior officer is given only if there are other servicemen

present; if there are not, a report only is given.

26. During the playing of the National Anthem of the Soviet Union and the

anthems of union republics, servicemen who are in formation stand at

attention without the appropriate command being given, while commanders of subunits from platoons and higher salute.

Servicemen not in formation when an anthem is being played come to

attention and, if wearing a cap, salute.

27. The order to salute is not given to military units and subunits:

—during halts on a march as well as during tactical exercises;

—on the firing line and at the firing position when firing is in progress;

—on airfields when flying is in progress;

—when carrying out housekeeping work or work for educational purposes, during special lessons and operations in workshops, garages, depots, hangars, laboratories, drawing offices, in telephone and telegraph

exchanges and at radio stations;

—during sports competitions and games;

—during meals and after the sounding of "Retreat" until "Reveille";

—in sick quarters.

In the cases enumerated above, the superior or senior present simply

reports to any superior who arrives on the scene.

On being addressed by a superior, subordinates, unless they are sick,

stand at attention.

Units and subunits taking part in a funeral procession do not salute.

At general and ceremonial meetings, at shows, concerts, and the cinema,

as well as at Party and Komsomol meetings and conferences, the order

to salute is not given and no one reports to a superior.

When engaged in activities when not in formation and also at meetings

of officers, generals and admirals, the command "Comrade officers" is

given on the arrival of superior officers.

On this command all those present turn their heads in the direction

of the superior and come to attention; those wearing caps will salute.

28

29

160
The superior, having received the report, gives permission for the work

or the meeting to resume with the response "Comrade officers."

30. The response to a superior's or senior's greeting ("Good day, comrades")

given by all servicemen, whether in or out of ranks, is: "We (I) wish you

health"; if the superior or senior is taking his leave ("Goodbye, comrades"), the response is: "Goodbye."

At the end ofthe response, the word "comrade" is added together with

the short form of the superior's or senior's military rank, leaving out

reference to the arm of the Services or service and the words "engineer"

or "technician."

31. If a superior congratulates or thanks a serviceman in the course of duty,

the latter replies: "I serve the Soviet Union."

If a superior congratulates a military unit (subunit), the response is a

long drawn-out "Hurrah," and if he thanks the unit (subunit), the response is: "We serve the Soviet Union."

Order of Presentation to Superiors

32. The only person who presents himself to a senior superior on his arrival

at a unit is the commander of the unit. Other individuals present themselves only when the senior superior addresses them directly, or in case

of special instructions.

33. Servicemen present themselves to their immediate superiors:

—on being appointed to a position;

—on relinquishing a position;

—on being promoted to the next military rank;

—on receiving a government award;

—on departure for, and return from, detached duty or leave.

34. On presenting themselves to their superior, servicemen state their official

position, rank, surname, and the reason for their appearance before the

superior.

35. Officers, newly appointed to a regiment, present themselves to the regimental commander, ihen his deputies, and on being appointed to a

company, to the battalion commander and the company commander.

In addition to this, the regimental commander or his deputy present

newly appointed officers to the officers ofthe regiment at the next officers'

meeting following their arrival.

Order of Presentation for Inspection and Verification

36. If the serviceman who has come to inspect is of a rank equal to, or higher

than, that of the commander of the unit, the latter presents himself to

the former; if, on the other hand, the serviceman is of a lower rank than

that of the commander the former presents himself to the latter.

Before the beginning of the inspection, the commander of the unit

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presents the commanders of the subunits being inspected to the inspecting officer.

37. The inspecting officers visiting the subunits are met by the subunit commanders, who report to them.

If the rank of the inspecting officer who arrives in a subunit together

with the unit commander is equal to or higher than that of the unit

commander the report is made to the inspecting officer.

If a senior superior arrives during the inspection, the commander of

the unit (subunit) reports to him and the inspecting officer presents

himself.

38. On the arrival of servicemen in a unit to carry out individual service

assignments, the unit commander presents himself to the senior ranking

member of the group only. The rest present themselves to the commander and report the purpose of their visit.

39. All the instructions of the inspecting (verifying) officials or servicemen

who are carrying out a senior superior's order are transmitted through

the unit commander. The above-named individuals are obliged to inform

the commander of the unit (subunit) about the results of the inspection

(verification) or the fulfillment of the assignment given to them.

In conducting an inspection interrogation of servicemen in a unit

(subunit), inspection officials follow the instructions in paragraph 64.

On the Military Etiquette and Conduct of Servicemen

40. All servicemen in addressing one another are obliged to be courteous and

restrained. On service matters they must address each other using the

formal form of address.

In addressng a serviceman personally, the military rank is used without reference to the arm ofthe Services or service and without the words

"engineer" or "technician."

Superiors and seniors, when addressing subordinates and juniors on

service matters, use their rank and surname or simply ther rank, in the

latter case prefixing the rank with the word "comrade."

Subordinates and juniors, when addressing superiors and seniors on

service matters, use their rank prefixed with the word "comrade."

41. When addressing one another and giving and receiving orders when not

in formation, servicemen must come to attention and, when wearing

head gear, salute.

When giving or receiving a report, the serviceman remains at the

salute until the end ofthe report. Ifthe command "Attention!" was given

before reporting, the individual making the report drops his arm from

the saluting position on the command "At ease!"

42. Before addressing another serviceman in the presence of a superior or a

senior it is necessary to request the superior's (senior's) permission.

43. When a question put by a superior or senior requires an affirmative reply,

the serviceman answers: "Yes, sir," and when a negative response is

called for: "No, sir."

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44. Servicemen are obliged to be constant examples of culture, modesty, and

restraint; to observe strictly the requirements of communist morality;

and to behave with dignity in public places and in the streets.

Servicemen are obliged to salute any superior or senior they meet in

public places, on trams, trollybuses, buses, the subway, suburban trains,

etc., and, if seated and there are no unoccupied places, offer to let the

superior or senior have his.

If a serviceman meets a superior (senior) and it is not easy for them

to get by each other freely, the subordinate is obliged to make way for

the superior, and, in so doing, salute him; ifit is necessary for him to pass

ahead of the superior (senior) under such conditions, he should ask his

permission to do so.

When travelling by rail (water) or air transport, servicemen must

always be in proper uniform on leaving the cars (cabins) or aircraft.

Servicemen must be courteous to civilians, contribute to the protection

of their honor and dignity and the maintenance of public order, as well

as render them assistance in case of accident or natural disasters.

45. Servicemen are forbidden to walk about with their hands in their pockets, or to sit or smoke in the presence of a superior or senior without his

permission. Servicemen must refrain from smoking in the street or in

places not reserved for smokers.

46. Generals, admirals, and officers, noncommissioned and petty officers,

soldiers and sailors on extended service are authorized to wear civilian

clothes off duty, both away from the unit and on station, when visiting

officers' clubs, unit clubs, officers' messes, sports grounds, and stadiums.

47. The rules of military etiquette, conduct and saluting are also obligatory

for reserve and retired officers, generals and admirals when wearing

military uniform. Reserve and retired officers, generals and admirals

must adhere strictly to the established rules governing the wearing of

military uniforms.

Chapter 2

General Duties of Direct Superiors

48. The commander of a unit (subunit) has absolute and sole military and

political authority and is personally responsible to the Communist Party

and the Soviet government for the constant combat and mobilizational

readiness of the unit (subunit) entrusted to him.

He is responsible for combat and political training, ideological education, military discipline and moral and political state of the personnel;

the condition of the weapons, fighting equipment and transport, and the

provision of material, housekeeping, and medical facilities of the unit

(subunit).

The commander must have a comprehensive knowledge of the actual

state of the unit (subunit) entrusted to him and take all the steps neces163

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sary to ensure its combat and mobilizational readiness and provide for

all ils needs.

49. The commander is obliged to exercise direct control of combat and

political training, to maintain a high standard of military discipline in

the unit (subunit) entrusted to him, to study the personnel thoroughly

through personal contact with them, both on duty and in their daily lives,

and to consider subordinates' suggestions. He should know the service

and political and moral qualities of his subordinates, continuously strive

to improve their combat proficiency, personally involve himself in the

day-to-day political and military education of the personnel, relying in

his activities on Party and Komsomol organizations and exploiting their

influence to the fullest extent for the successful fulfillment of the tasks

which confront the unit (subunit).

The commander is obliged to supervise the selection, placement, and

evaluation of officers, in cooperation with his deputies and the appropriate heads of services.

50. The commander is obliged to strive constantly ^o improve his military

and political knowledge; to know his fighting equipment and weapons;

to supervise military scientific, rationalization, and invention work; to

study advanced techniques in the combat and political training of troops

and the ideological education of personnel and to pass them on to his

subordinates in the subunit.

51. The commander is obliged to establish and maintain firm internal order

in his unit (subunit), promptly eliminate any noted violations of service

routine, and resolutely bar all activities which might jeopardize the

fighting efficiency of the unit (subunit) entrusted to him.

Every commander (superior) must pay special attention to the reinforcement of conscious discipline and the prevention of misdemeanors

by subordinates by ascertaining and removing the underlying causes; he

should also make every possible use ofthe resources ofthe spirit of public

consciousness within the unit (subunit) in dealing with offenders against

military discipline and public order.

In case of an incident in the unit (subunit) the commander is obliged

to report this fact promptly to his superior commander (superior).

52. The commander must act independently within the limits of the authority granted to him, demand that subordinates precisely and promptly

fulfil the requirements of military regulations, their official duties and

orders (instructions), reward them for displaying intelligent initiative

and deeds, for outstanding performances in their work, and deal firmly

with those who are negligent.

53. The commander is obliged to develop and maintain in his subordinates

an awareness of the sacredness and inviolability of the military oath. He

must instill in them high moral and fighting qualities, boundless devotion

to the Soviet Motheiland, the Communist Party, and the Soviet government, an honest and zealous attitude towards work, courage, endurance,

resourcefulness, a high degree of political vigilance and readiness to fight

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55

the enemies of our Motherland until total victory is won, sparing neither

strength nor life itself.

The maintenance ofthe unit's traditions and the passing on ofthe most

valuable experience of those who have excelled in combat and political

training is one of the most important duties of all commanders. A Book

of Honor is kept in every unit for this purpose.

The commander must set an example in boldness and endurance, impeccable conduct, strict fulfillment of laws and the military oath, the requirements of military regulations and orders (instructions). He must be

fair to his subordinates, and refrain from rudeness and humiliation of

their personal pride.

The commander must take an active interest in raising the standard of

physical fitness, protecting and building up the health of his subordinates; he must concern himself with their daily lives and needs, see that

they are issued their full statutory state allowances and check the quality

ofthose being received; where necessary, he must assist subordinates and

intercede on their behalf with the superior commander (superior).

56. In order to be able to deal with the personal needs and requests of

servicemen on a timely basis, subunit commanders should have individual conversations with their subordinates and, in addition to this, unit

comanders should receive servicemen and members of their families at

least twice a month at a specified time.

57. The commander must ensure that the necessary safety measures are

established for marches, exercises, live firing, special lessons or work,

internal and guard duties, and that these measures are brought to the

attention ofsubordinates in good time together with a demand that they

be strictly adhered to.

The commander must always have exact and detailed information on the

officially listed and available personnel in the unit (subunit) entrusted to

him, also on the existence and state of weapons, fighting equipment,

ammunition and transport.

In case of temporary absence, the commander's duties are performed by

a deputy.

If a deputy is not indicated for the duration of the commander's

absence, and there is no official deputy, the officer with the senior position or rank assumes command and, having done so, reports the fact to

the superior commander (superior).

Newly appointed unit commanders assume command on the basis of

instructions or orders of a superior commander (superior). A unit commander announces his assumption of command in an order and reports

to his superior commander (superior).

Unit commanders take over and hand over their affairs and duties in

person in the presence of a representative of the superior commander

(si.jjerior).

Commissions are appointed by order of the superior commander (superior) for the purpose oftaking over and handing over affairs and duties.

58

59

60

61.

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These commissions verify the general state of the unit and carry out

individual checks on the existence and condition of weapons, fighting

equipment, ammunition, and transport and a separate check on unit

property, all of which are documented.

The document pertaining to the tran fer and acceptance of affairs and

duties indicates: the officially listed and present complement of the unit,

the political and moral state of the personnel, the unit's state of discipline, combat and political training, and combat and mobilizational

readiness.

The document pertaining to the transfer and acceptance of arms,

fighting equipment, ammunition and transport indicates: the quantity

listed in the documents, the actual numbers, qualitative and technical

condition of the arms, fighting equipment, ammunition, and transport,

and the conditions under which they are kept and stored.

The document pertaining to the transfer and acceptance of property

indicates: the quartering and housekeeping conditions, the existence and

state of buildings, structures, stock, and equipment; the existence, condition, records, and manner of storing provisions, material, technical, and

other property, both of the current allowance and of the reserve stock,

as well as financial resources.

The documents are signed by the accepting commander, the outgoing

commander, and members of the commission, and then presented to the

superior commander (superior).

62. The transfer and acceptance of the affairs and duties of subunit commanders is effected personally by them on the basis of a unit order.

Reports on the transfer of affairs and duties are submitted to the unit

commander.

The officer who assumes command submits, with his report, the document of acceptance of the subunit.

This document indicates: the officially listed and present complement

of the subunit; the political and moral state of the personnel, the state

of discipline, combat and political training, and the state of the subunit's

combat readiness; the condition of the arms, fighting equipment, ammunition, transport, and property which are listed in the unit's account

books for the subunit and those which are available.

The document is drawn up and signed by the officers handing over and

taking over the position.

63. The specified maximum permissible period for the transference and acceptance of the affairs and position of regimental commander is 10 days,

that of deputy regimental commander for rear services 20 days, battalion

and company commanders, 5 days.

64. Newly appointed commanders of units and subunits from company

commander and higher, on assuming command, will question the servicemen in the unit (subunit) in order to ascertain and deal with their

complaints and requests. The time and manner of the questioning is

announced 1-2 days beforehand.

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Officers conducting such interviews must familiarize themselves with

the unit's complaint and request book and the decisions pertaining to

these entries, and ensure that complaints and requests submitted during

the questioning are entered in the book.

Complaints made during an inspector's interrogation are not entered

in the complaint and request book.

DISCIPLINARY REGULATIONS OF THE ARMED FORCES OF THE USSR

(extracts)

Chapter

General Considerations

1. Military discipline is the strict and precise observance by all servicemen

of the regime and rules embodied in laws and military regulations.

2. Military discipline is based on the awareness by each serviceman of his

military duty and personal responsibility for the defense of his Motherland—the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics.

3. Military discipline obliges each serviceman:

—to observe the laws strictly and to carry out precisely the requirements of the military oath, military regulations, and the orders and

instructions of superiors;

—to steadfastly endure all the burdens and deprivations of military

service; to spare neither blood nor life itself in carrying out his military

duty;

—to maintain strict military and state secrecy;

—to be honest and just, to conscientiously study military affairs, and

take care of military and state property in every way;

—to show respect for superiors and seniors, strictly observe the rules

of military etiquette and saluting;

—to conduct himselfwith dignity and honor when away from his unit,

not to commit offenses against public order, to restrain others from such

actions, and to assist in the protection of citizens' honor and dignity.

4. Sound military discipline is achieved:

—by instilling in servicemen high moral-political, and fighting qualities and conscious submission to superiors;

—the maintenance of a strict regulation system in the unit (subunit,

ship);

—by the insistence of superiors on high standards of performance by

subordinates, and by the skillful combination and correct application of

persuasion and compulsion.

5. Every superior is bound to educate his subordinate^ in the spirit of

faithful fulfillment of ail the requirements of military discipline; to de167

te.
velop and maintain in them an awareness of military honor and duty; to

encourage those who display intelligent initiative, keenness, and outstanding achievements in their work; and to deal firmly with those who

are negligent.

Superiors must pay special attention to the timely detection of the

causes ofsubordinates' misdeameanors, the adoption of preventive measures, and the creation of an intolerant attitude towards violations of

military discipline. In addition, the commander is obliged to utilize the

resources of the spirit of public consciousness in every possible way.

A superior must always be an example to his subordinates in the strict

observance of laws, the military oath, military regulations, orders, instructions, and standards of communist morality.

6. The interests of the defense of the Motherland oblige superiors to be

resolute and firm in demanding observance of military discipline and

order, and to take action in every singie case of a misdemeanor by a

subordinate.

A superior's order is law to his subordinates. An order must be carried

out unquestioningly, precisely, and promptly.

7. In case of open insubordination or resistance on the part of a subordinate, and in order to restore order, a superior is obliged to apply all

measures of compulsion up to arresting the offender and hoiding him

legally responsible. In such a case, arms may be used only in a combat

situation, and in peacetime only in exceptional cases in which urgency

is of paramount importance, when the offender's actions are clearly

aimed at the betrayal of the Motherland, the failure of a combat assignment, or when they create a real threat to the lives of the superior, other

servicemen, or civilians.

The use of arms is an extreme measure and is permitted if all other

measures taken by the superior have proved unsuccessful, or when the

conditions of the situation do not permit other measures to be taken.

If circumstances permit, before using arms, the superior is bound to

warn the insubordinate serviceman of his intention. The use of the

weapon is immediately reported by the superior to the senior officer.

A superior who fails to take effective me "ures to restore order and

discipline bears the responsibility for this.

Every serviceman is bound to cooperate with his superior to restore

military discipline and order.

8. Only those direct superiors and superiors referred to u chapter 11 may

give award incentives or impose military punishments.

Disciplinary punishments may be revoked by a direct superior who

has disciplinary power at least equal to that of the superior who imposed

the punishments,

9. The disciplinary power granted to junior superiors always belongs to

senior superiors as well.

10. In dealing with subordinates, superiors with the rank of noncommissioned or petty officer whose positions are not referred to in the present

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Regulations exercise disciplinary power in accordance with the military

rank stipulated in tables of organization for the position occupied:

a) junior sergeant, sergeant, petty officer 2nd class, petty officer—'st

class—the authority of a squad commander;

b) senior sergeant and chief petty officer—the authority of a—deputy

platoon commander;

c) petty officer and warrant officer—the authority of a company sergeant—major (section petty officer).

11. In dealing with subordinates, superiors with the ranks of officers, generals, and admirals whose positions are not referred to in the present

Regulations, exercise disciplinary authority in accordance with the military rank stipulated in tables of organization for the position occupied:

a) junior lieutenant, lieutenant, and senior lieutenant—the authority of

a platoon (group) commander;

b) captain and captain-lieutenant—the authority of a company commander (commander of a 4th class ship);

c) major, lieutenant colonel, captain 3rd rank, and captain 2nd rank—

the authority of a battalion commander (commander of a 3rd class

ship);

d) colonel and captain 1st rank—the authority of a regimental commander (commander of a 2nd class ship);

e) major general and rear admiral—the authority of a divisional ([naval]

brigade) commander;

f) lieutenant general and vice-admiral—the authority of a corps commander (commander of a [naval] squadron);

g) colonel-general and admiral—the authority of an army (flotilla) commander;

h) marshal of a branch of the Services and special forces, army general.

Chief Marshal, Fleet Admiral ofthe Soviet Union and Marshal of the

Soviet Union—the authority of a commander of a military district,

front, fleet.

12. In dealing with subordinates, deputy (assistant) commanders ofsubunits,

units, ships, and formations, and chiefs of staff, exercise disciplinary

authority one degree lower than the rights granted to their immediate

superiors.

On ships which have an executive officer and an assistant executive

officer, the latter exercises disciplinary authority one degree below the

rights granted to the executive officer.

13. A superior who assumes the responsibilities of a position on a temporary

basis, this being announced in an order, exercises the disciplinary authority attached to the position being temporarily filled.

14. Battalion, company, and platoon commanders and personnel with corresponding positions, when serving as commanders of subunits or crews

which are on temporary duty and when carrying out a task separately

from their own unit, exercise disciplinary authority one degree higher

than the position being occupied.

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Soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers appointed as

crew commanders in the above mentioned cases exercise the disciplinary

authority of a company sergeant major (section petty officer), and those

with the rank of petty officer and warrant officer, the authority of a

platoon (group) commander.

15. Officers commanding cadet subunits in military schools exercise disciplinary authority one stage higher than the position occupied in dealing

with subordinates.

16. These Regulations apply to:

a) all servicemen in the Armed Forces of the USSR;

b) all military reservists and conscripts during training call-up periods,

maneuvers, and other military exercises;

c) officers, generals, and admirals on the reserve and retired lists when

wearing military uniform.

Chapter 2

Incentive Awards Applicable to Soldiers, Sailors, Noncommissioned and

Petty Officers

17. The following incentive awards are applicable to soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers:

a) an expression of appreciation in the presence of the assembled ranks

or in an order;

b) cancellation of a previously imposed disciplinary punishment;

c) the granting of up to 48 hours leave to soldier, sailor, noncommissioned and petty officer conscripts;

d) the granting of a short vacation leave of up to 10 days, exclusive of

travelling time, to soldier, sailor, noncommissioned and petty officer

conscripts;

e) the award of certificates, valuable gifts, or money;

0 the award of a photograph of the serviceman taken in front of the

unfurled banner of the unit;

g) an announcement to the general public or the people living in the

serviceman's former p'ace of employment, informing them of his

exemplary service and awards;

h) the award of the badge "Outstanding Serviceman";

i) the entry of the names of soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and

petty officers in the unit's Book of Honor.

18. In addition to the incentives enumerated in paragraph 17, students of

military schools who complete their training course with distinction have

their names inscribed on the Honors Board.

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Chapter 3

The Rights of Superiors to Grant Incentive Awards to Subordinate

Soldiers, Sailors, Noncommissioned and Petty Officers

19. A squad commander, a deputy platoon commander and a company sergeant major (section petty officer) have the right:

a) fo express appreciation in front of the assembled ranks;

b) cancel a disciplinary punishment previously imposed by them.

20. A platoon commander (group commander) has the right:

a) to express appreciation in front of the assembled ranks;

b) cancel a disciplinary punishment previously imposed by him;

c) authorize up to three special leave periods to soldier, sailor, noncommissioned and petty officer conscripts, the number of days and hours

of such leaves being established by the unit commander.

21. A company commander (commander of a 4th class ship) and a battalion

commander (commander of a 3rd class ship) has the right:

a) to express appreciation in front of the assembled ranks;

b) cancel disciplinary punishments previously imposed by them;

c) authorize up to 48 hours leave for soldier, sailor, noncommissioned

and petty officer conscripts;

Commanders (superiors) ofindividual units who exercise the disciplinary authority of a battalion commander (commander of a 3rd

class ship) have the righi, in addition to this, to award the incentives

indicated in paragraph 22, subparagraphs "c", "f", and "h."

22. A regimental commander (commander of a 2nd class ship), a divisional

commander ([naval] brigade commander), a corps commander (commander of a [naval] squadron), an army comrnander (fiotilla commander)

have the right:

a) to express appreciation in front ofthe assembled ranks or in an order;

b) to cancel a disciplinary punishment previously imposed Ky him;

c) to authorize short vacation leave of up to 10 days for soldiers, sailors,

noncommissioned and petty officer conscripts;

d) to award certificates, valuable gifts, or money;

e) to award a personal photograph of the serviceman taken in front of

the unfurled banner of the unit;

0 to inform the general public or the people living in the serviceman's

former place of employment about his exemplary service and awards;

g) to award the badge "Outstanding Serviceman";

h) to inscribe the serviceman's name in the Book of Honor.

23. Commanders of military districts, fronts, and fleets, in addition to the

rights enumerated in paragraph 22, have the right to inscribe on the

Honors Board the names of students of military schools who complete

their training courses with distinction.

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Chapter 4

Incentive Awards Applicable to Officers, Generals and Admirals

24. The following incentive awards are applicable to officers, generals, and

admirals!

a) an expression of appreciation, verbally or in an order;

b) cancellation of a previously imposed disciplinary punishment;

c) the award of certificates, valuable inscribed gifts, or money;

d) advanced promotion to the next military rank;

e) the award of inscribed ceremonial daggers, swords, and firearms.

25. In higher military training establishments (courses), in addition to the

incentives enumerated in paragraph 24, the commandants of these establishments also have the authority to inscribe on the Board the names of

cadets and students who graduated from their training course with gold

medals (distinction).

Chapter 5

The Rights of Superiors to Award Incentives to Subordinate Officers,

Generals, and Admirals

26. A company commander (Commander of a 4th class ship) and a battalion

commsiider (commander of a 3rd class ship) has the right:

a) to express appreciation verbally;

b) to cancel a disciplinary punishment previously imposed by him.

27. A regimental commander (commander of a 2nd class ship), divisional

commander ([naval] brigade commander), corps commander (commander of a [naval] squadron), army commander (flotilla commander), commander of a military district, front, fleet has the right

a) to express appreciation verbally or in an order;

b) to cancel a disciplinary punishment previously imposed by him;

c) to award certificates, valuable inscribed gifts, or money;

d) to recommend advanced promotion to the next military rank.

28. In addition to the rights granted to a commander of a military district,

front and fleet to award incentives to all classes of servicemen of the

Armed Forces of the USSR, Deputy Ministers of Defense of the USSR,

the Chief of the General Staff, Commanders-in-Chief of Services and the

Chief of the Rear of the Ministry of Defense have the right to award

inscribed ceremonial daggers, swords, and firearms.

29. The Minister of Defense of the USSR has the right to apoly ail the

incentive measures to the fullest extent of the present Regulations to all

classes of servicemen of the Armed Forces of the USSR.

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»MM
Chapter 6

Punishments for Breaches of Military Discipline

30. If a serviceman commits a breach of discipline or public order, a superior

must, depending on the nature of the offense, remind him of his service

obligations, or subject him to disciplinary punishment, or refer the matter for review by the public organizations.

31. For the purpose of public censure of offenders of military discipline and

public order, servicemen's offenses may be dealt with at the discretion

of commanders (superiors) as follows: soldiers and sailors—at meetings

of the personnel of companies, batteries, battalions, ships and corresponding elements; noncommissioned and petty officers—at meetings of

noncommissioned and petty officers of battali ;ns and comparable units;

officers—at meetings of the officers of regiments, separate units, and

corresponding elements.

In additioUi officers' offenses may be dealt with by officers' comradely

courts of honor. The decision as to whether to transfer officers' offenses

for examination by a court of honor rests with the commanders (superiors) of those units and formations (institutions, establishments) in which

the court is convened.

32. In cases where the law on criminal responsibility for military offenses

provides for different punishments, depending on the degree of guilt, of

which some are handed down by the court, and others are provided for

in the disciplinary system, the commander decides whether to send the

case to the military investigation authorities or to limit his action to the

imposition of a disciplinary punishment. This question and the extent of

the disciplinary penalty are decided by the commander who, by law,

decides whether or not to send the case to the military investigation

authorities.

33. A serviceman who has been disciplined for unlawful actions, subject to

punishment by court verdict, is not exempt from committal for trial.

34. Officers, generals and admirals should not be removed from their posts

except in the most extreme cases which admit of no delay.

Chapter 12

Procedure for Imposing Disciplinary Punishments

72. Each disciplinary punishment must correspond to the degree of guilt and

seriousness of the offense committed. In determining the guilt and the

disciplinary measure it is necessary to consider: the nature ofthe offense,

the circumstances in which it was committed, the defendent's former

conduct, and his length of service and knowledge of service procedure.

73. Arrest is one of the extreme measures and is used, as a rule, in cases

173
where other measures taken by a superior have proved unsuccessful.

74. In imposing a disciplinary punishment or reminding a subordinate of his

duties, a superior must not be hasty in determining the type and extent

of the punishment, must not humiliate a subordinate's personal dignity,

or be rude.

75. It is forbidden to impose several punishments for one and the same

offense or to combine one punishment with another, to inflict a punishment on all the personnel of a subunit, instead of punishing the immediate culprits; it is also forbidden to keep anyone in custody as a form of

punishment without defining the period of custody.

76. The strictness of the disciplinary punishment is increased: when the

offender has committed the offense repeatedly or participated in a collective breach of discipline and public order; when the offense was committed while carrying out official duties; or when, as a consequence, there

was a serious breach of order.

77. If a superior recognizes that the disciplinary authority granted to him

is insufficient to deal with an offense committed by a subordinate on

account of its gravity, he requests that the offender be punished by the

authority of a seniur superior.

78. A superior who exceeds the disciplinary authority granted to him bears

the responsibility for this.

79 A senior superior does not have the right to revoke or reduce a disciplinary punishment imposed by a junior superior based on the severity of

the punishment, unless the latter exceeded the authority granted to him.

If a senior superior finds that the disciplinary punishment imposed by

a junior superior does not correspond to the seriousness of the offense,

he has the right to revoke it and impose a stricter one.

80. All disciplinary punishments must be imposed within 10 days ofthe date

on which the superior became aware of the offense in question and, if an

investigation or inquiry is carried out, within 10 days of its completion.

81. Disciplinary punishments for offenses committed by personnel while on

guard duty cannot be imposed until after the guard has been changed.

82. A disciplinary punishment is not imposed on an offender in a drunken

state, nor are any kind of explanations obtained from him until he has

recovered from the effects of intoxication, for which purpose he may, if

necessary, be put under provisional arrest and kept in the guardhouse.

Chapter 13

Procedure for Carrying Out Disciplinary Punishments

83. As a rule, a disciplinary punishment is carried out immediately and, in

exceptional cases, no later than one month after its imposition. After that

time, the punishment is not carried out, but entered on the serviceman's

record. In the latter case, a punishment is imposed on the individual

whose fault it was that the above punishment was not carried out.

174
84. The performance of an imposed disciplinary punishment is not suspended on the submission of a complaint until a senior superior gives the

order to cancel it.

85. The imposition of disciplinary punishments is announced: to soldiers and

sailors—personally or before the assembled ranks; to noncommissioned

and petty officers—personally, at a noncommissioned or petty officers'

meeting, or before the assembled ranks of noncommissioned or petty

officers; to officers—personally, in an instruction, at an officers' meeting,

or in an order.

AWARDS OF THE MOTHERLAND

The orders and medals of the Soviet Union, and also the highest classes

of distinction—the titles Hero of the Soviet Union and Hero of Socialist

Labor—are instituted as an incentive to workers, collective farmers, servicemen and other Soviet citizens who have rendered special services in the

matter ofsocialist construction and ensuring the freedom and independence

of the Soviet State.

The awarding of the orders and medals of the USSR is a recognition of

the services ofthe person receiving the award to the country, and an incentive

to achieve further successes for the good and the prosperity of our Motherland—the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

Under the legislation in force, orders of the USSR may be awarded both

to individual citizens and to entire collectives—enterprises, institutions, organizations, military formations and units.

Those to whom orders and medals of the USSR are awarded may be

awarded the same orders and medals again, or new ones for subsequent new

services.

Orders and medals of the USSR are instituted by the Presidium of the

Supreme Soviet ofthe USSR. Each order has its own Statute, and each medal

a Medal Certificate ratified by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the

USSR.

Those to whom an order or medal of the USSR has been awarded may be

deprived of the award only by decision of the Presidium of the Supreme

Soviet of the USSR, on the basis of a court verdict, or of a misdemeanor

committed by the person to whom the award was made.

Citizens who wear orders and medals of the USSR without being entitled

to do so commit a criminal offense.

Highest Classes of Distinction of the USSR

"Hero of the Soviet Union" is a title awarded for personal or collective

services to the State connected with the performar.ee of an heroic deed.

Instituted by Decree of the Central Executive Committee (TsIK) of the

USSR dated 16 April 1934.

Heroes of the Soviet Union receive the highest award of the USSR—the

175
Order of Lenin, a "Gold Star" medal and a Citation from the Presidium of

the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

A Hero of the Soviet Union who performs a second heroic deed, no less

heroic than that for which others who have performed a similar deed are

awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, is awarded a second "Gold

Star" medal, and to celebrate his neroic deeds a bronze bust of the person

to whom the award is made is erected in the birthplace of the Hero, with a

suitable inscription on the base.^

For a third heroic deed similar to the deeds previously performed, a Hero

of the Soviet Union who has been awarded two "Gold Stars" and who has

been honored by the erection of a bust in his birthplace, is awarded a third

"Gold Star."

When second and third "Gold Stars" are awarded, the Hero of the Soviet

Union receives a Citation from the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the

USSR along with the medal.

Under the terms of a Decree ofthe Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the

USSR dated 6 September 1967 persons awarded the title of Hero ofthe Soviet

Union have the right to the Ail-Union personal pension instituted by the

award, and enjoy privileges in obtaining and in paying for living space, in

traveling by intercity and urban transport, and in obtaining authorizations

for sanatorium treatment; they also have the right to other privileges and

advantages laid down by USSR legislation.

"Hero of Socialist Labor" is a title awarded to individuals who by their

especially outstanding activity as innovators in industry, agriculture, transport, trade, scientific discoveries and inventions have rendered exceptional

services to the State, and have contributed to the development of the economy, culture and science, and to the growth of the might and fame of the

USSR. It was instituted by the Decree ofthe Presidium ofthe Supreme Soviet

of the USSR dated 27 December 1938.

Heroes of Socialist Labor receive the highest award of the USSR—the

Order of Lenin, the "Hammer and Sickle" gold medal and a Citation from

the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

A Hero of Socialist Labor may be awarded a second "Hammer and Sickle"

medal for outstanding services. In this case a bronze bust, with an appropriate inscription, is erected in the birthplace of the person to whom the award

is made.

Heroes of Socialist Labor enjoy the same privileges and advantages as are

laid down for Heroes of the Soviet Union.

Orders of the USSR

The Order of Lenin is the highest order of the USSR. It was instituted on

6 April 1930.

The Order of Lenin is awarded to individual citizens, collectives, institutions, enterprises and public organizations ofthe USSR for particular services

in socialist development:

176
I

a) for activity that has resulted in outstanding quantitative and qualitative

achievements in industry, agriculture, transport, commodity circulation, and

the procurement operations of state and cooperative institutions, enterprises

and organizations;

b) for particular successes in kolkhoz, sovkhoz and cooperative development;

c) for outstanding path-breaking experimental managerial work;

d) for the introduction of technical improvements of national importance

in industrial and agricultural production, in transport and for outstanding

inventions in these spheres;

e) for the outstanding fulfillment of assignments of special importance to

the state in the sphere of industry, agriculture, trade, national defense, transport and cooperation;

f) for outstanding scientific research in the sphere ofsocialist development;

g) for new urban and rural construction of outstanding artistic and social

importance.

The Order of Lenin is also awarded to individuals awarded the title of Hero

of the Soviet Union or Hero of Socialist Labor.

The Order of the October Revolution was instituted on 31 October 1967

to celebrate the 50th Anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution.

The Order of the October Revolution is awarded to citizens of the USSR,

to enterprises, institutions, organizations and other groups of workers, military units and formations, as well as to republics, krays, oblasts, * and cities;

—for active revolutionary work and for great contribution to the establishment and consolidation of the Soviet regime;

—for outstanding services in the building ofsocialism and the development

of communism;

—for outstanding achievements in the sphere of development of the national economy, science, and culture;

—for special courage and bravery shown in battle with the enemies of the

Soviet State;

—for outstanding services in strengthening the defensive capacity of the

Soviet State;

—for particularly fruitful governmental and social activity;

—for active work directed toward the development and deepening of

all-round friendly links between the peoples o* the Soviet Union and other

states, and toward the strengthening of peace between the peoples.

The Order of "Victory" is the highest military order of the USSR. It was

instituted on 8 November 1943.

The Order of "Victory" is awarded to senior command personnel of the

Soviet Army for the successful conduct of military operations on the scale

of several front-1: o: of one front, as a result of which the situation is basically

changed in favor of the Soviet Army.

* Soviet administrative-geographical units [U.S. Ed.].

177
The names of the holders of the Order of "Victory" are to be entered on

the Honor Board in the Great Kremlin Palace.

The Order of the Red Banner was the first Soviet order to be created. It

was instituted on 1 August 1924.6

The Order of the Red Banner is awarded to serving enlisted men and

officers of the Armed Forces and to other citizens who show particular

bravery, self-sacrifice, and courage in direct combat and also to military units

and groupings for particular merit in battles against the enemies of the Soviet

Union.

The Order of Suvorov is a military order. It was instituted on 29 July 1942

to reward command personnel for outstanding success in the command of

troops, for distinguished organization of combat operations, and for decisiveness and persistence in carrying them out, as a result of which victory was

achieved in battles for the Motherland in the Patriotic War.

The Order of Suvorov has three classes. The Order of Suvorov I Class, the

highest of them, is awarded to the commanders of fronts and armies, their

deputies, chiefs of staff, heads of operational directorates, operational sections, and commanders of Branches of the Services fronts and armies. The

Order of Suvorov II Class is awarded to commanders of corps, divisions, and

brigades, their deputies and chiefs of staff. The Order of Suvorov III Class

is awarded to commanders of regiments and battalions, to commanders of

regimental staffs, and also to company commanders.

The Order of Ushakov is a military order. It was instituted on 3 March

1944 for award to officers of the Navy for outstanding success in devising, conducting, and ensuring acti/e naval operations, as a result of which

victory was achieved over a numerically superior enemy in battles for the

Motherland.

The Order of Ushakov has two classes. The highest class of the order is

I Class.

The Order of Kutuzov is a military order. It was instituted on 29 July 1942

for award to commanders of the Soviet Army for a well-devised and conducted plan of operations for a front, an army, or a separate formation, as

a result of which the enemy was badly defeated, while our forces retained

their fighting capacity.

The Order of Kutuzov has three classes. The highest class of the order is

I Class. The Order of Kutuzov I Class is awarded to commanders of fronts

and armies, their deputies, and chiefs ofstaff. The Order of Kutuzov II Class

is awarded to commanders of corps, divisions, and brigades and chiefs of

staff. The Order of Kutuzov III Class is awarded to commanders of regiments, battalions and companies and to regimental chiefs of staff.

The Order of Nakhimov is a military order. It was instituted on 3 March

• Before that time only orders of the Soviet Republics existed: the Order of the Red Banner

(instituted on 16 September 1918) in the RSFSR, the Order of the Red Star and the Silver Star

in the Armenian Republic, the Order of the Red Baaner in the Georgian Republic, etc. The

awarding of orders by the Republics was discontinued when the single All-Union Order of the

Red Banner was instituted.

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1944 for award to naval officers for outstanding successes in devising, conducting, and ensuring naval operations as a result of which an offensive

operation of the enemy was repulsed or active operations of the fleet were

ensured, considerable losses were inflicted on the enemy, and our main forces

were preserved.

The Order of Nakhimov has two classes. The highest class of the Order

is I Class.

The Order of Bogdan Khmel'nitskiy was instituted on 10 October 1943 for

award to commanders and men of the Soviet Army and Navy, to leaders of

partisan detachments and partisans who showed particular decisiveness and

ability in operations to defeat the enemy, and high patriotism, bravery, and

self-sacrifice in the struggle for liberation of the Soviet land from the German

Fascist invaders.

The Order of Bogdan Khmel'nitskiy has three classes. The highest class

of the Order is I Class. The Order of Bogdan Khmel'nitskiy I Class is

awarded to commanders of fronts, fleets, armies, flotillas, their deputies,

chiefs of staff, heads of operational directorates and sections, and commanders of Branches of the Services of fronts, fleets, armies and flotillas, and

commanders of formations of partisan detachments. The Order of Bogdan

Khmel'nitskiy II Class is awarded to corps, divisional, brigade, and regimental commanders and their deputies, to chiefs of staff, commanders of formations of partisan detachments, their deputies and chiefs of staff, and commanders of partisan detachments. The Order of Bogdan Khmel'nitskiy III

Class is awarded to private soldiers, noncommissioned officers, warrant officers and officers up to battalion commander and corresponding ranks inclusive, commanders of partisan detachments, commanders ofsubunits of partisan detachments and partisans.

The Order of Aleksandr Nevskiy is a military order. It was instituted on

29 July 1942 for award to commanders in the Soviet Army who showed

personal bravery, courage, and daring in battles for the Motherland in the

Patriotic War and who, by ability in command, ensured the successful operation of their units.

The Order of Aleksandr Nevskiy is awarded to commanders of divisions

and brigades, to commanders of regiments, battalions, companies, and platoons.

The Order of the Patriotic War was instituted on 20 May 1942 for award

to enlisted men and those in command positions of the Soviet Armed Forces,

to troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and to partisan detachments

which exhibited courage, steadfastness, and valor in battles for the Soviet

Motherland during the Great Patriotic War, as well as to servicemen who

by their actions promoted the success of the military operations of Soviet

troops.

The Order of the Patriotic War has two classes. The highest class of the

Order is I Class.

The Order of the Red Banner of Labor was instituted on 7 September 1928

for award to individuals, enterprises, institutions, and groups of workers to

179
mark their exceptional services to the Soviet Union in the sphere of production, scientific activity, government or public service.

The Order of the Red Star was instituted on 6 April 1930 for award to

enlisted personnel and those in command positions in the Soviet Army and

to military units and formations, collectives, institutions, enterprises, and

public organizations who rendered outstanding service Is the defense of the

Soviet Union in time of war and of peace.

The Order "Badge of Honor" was instituted on 25 November I***** for

award to individual citizens and groups of workers for high output n^

in industry and agriculture and in transport and trade; for special achievements in scientific research, culture, and sport; for the introduction oftechnical improvements and inventions of major economic importance in all

spheres of socialist development; and for services in increasing the fighting

efficiency of the Soviet Army and the defense capability of the Soviet Union.

The Order of Glory was instituted on 8 November 1943 for award to

privates and noncommissioned officers of the Soviet Army and, in the Air

Force, to individuals having the rank ofjunior lieutenant, for personal deeds

of heroism, bravery, courage, and fearlessness by them in battles for the

Soviet Motherland.

The Order of Glory has three classes. The highest class of the Order is I

Class. The Order of Glory is awarded in classes, beginning with III Class.

Those who are awarded the Order of Glory of all three classes are promoted: privates, corporals, and sergeants to sergeant-major, sergeant-majors

to junior lieutenants, and junior lieutenants in the Air Force to lieutenant.

Under USSR legislation, individuals awarded the Order of Glory in all

three classes enjoy privileges and benefits in pensions, in the allocation of, and

payment for, living quarters, in travel by intercity and urban transport, etc.

Medals of the USSR

The medal "For Bravery" was instituted on 17 October 1938 for awarding

to enlisted, command, and staff personnel of the Soviet Army, the Navy and

Border Troops for personal courage and bravery in action against the enemies

of the aoviet Union in a theater of war, in defense of the inviolability of the

State boundaries, or in the struggle against saboteurs, spies, and other enemies of the Soviet State.

The Ushakov Medal is a military medal. It was instituted on 3 March 1944

for awarding to enlisted men, sergeants, and petty officers in the Navy for

personal courage and bravery in action against the enemies of the Soviet

Union in naval theaters.

The medal "For Combat Merit" was instituted on 17 October 1938 for

awarding to enlisted, command, and staff personnel of the Soviet Army, the

Navy and Border Troops, and also to other citizens who, by their capable,

enterprising, and bold acts involving risk to life in the struggle against the

enemies of the Soviet State, have contributed to the success of operations at

the front.

180
The medal "For Distinguished Services in Defense of the National Frontiers of the USSR" was instituted on 13 July 1950 for awarding to Border

Troops and to the civilian population for military exploits and special services

in defense of the national frontiers of the USSR.

The medd "For Outstanding Service in the Preservation of Public Order"

was instituted on 1 November 1950 for awarding to personnel of the militia,

internal security forces, and interior troops for exploits and services in the

struggle against enemies of the Soviet State, against crime, and for the preservation of public order in the country.

The Nakhimov Medal is a military medal. It was instituted on 3 March

1944 for awarding to enlisted, sergeant and pettyofficer personnel in the

Navy, and also to individuals not in the ranks of the Navy, who, by their

capable, enterprising, and bold action involving risks to lite in the struggle

against enemies of the Soviet State in naval theaters, have contributed to the

successful carrying out of the combat duties of ships, naval units, and subunits.

The medal "20th Anniversary of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army"

is an anniversary medal. It was instituted on 24 January 1938 to mark the

20th Anniversary of the Red Army and Navy for awarding to enlisted,

command, and staff personnel;

—who had served in the ranks of the Soviet Army and Navy for 20 years

by 23 February 1938 and who had served their country in the Civil War in

the ranks of the Armed Forces;

—who had been awarded the Order of the Red Banner for distinguished

services in battle during the Civil War.

The medal "For Labor Valor" was instituted on 27 December 1938 for

awarding to workers, collective farmers, employees, engineering and technical and managerial workers, transport and construction workers, workers in

trading and cooperative organizations, and in cultural and scientific institutions who are leading fighters for socialist development in their self-sacrificing working activity, who set brilliant examples in the use of technology and

give high standards of labor productivity, and who promote the development

of science, technology, and culture.

The medal "For Distinguished Labor Service" was instituted on 27 December 1938 for awarding to workers, collective farmers, employees, engineering and technical and managerial workers, transport and construction

workers, workers in trading and cooperative organizations, and workers in

cultural and scientific institutions for outstanding shock work of vita! importance, high production figures, and services to the development of science,

technology, and culture.

The Anniversary Medal Celebrating the Centenary of the Birth of Vladimir ll'ich Lenin. The medal was instituted on 5 November 1969 with two

designations: "For heroic labor. To mark the centenary of the birth of Vladimir ll'ich Lenin", and "For military v^lor. To mark thecentenary of the birth

of Vladimir ll'ich Lenin", to be awarded:

—to leading workers, collective farmers, economic specialists, workers in

181

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J

I
State institutions and public organizations, and scientific and cultural workers who have worked in an exemplary manner during preparation for the

Lenin centenary;

—to individuals who have played an active part in the struggle for the

establishment of the Soviet regime, or in defense of the Homeland or who by

their labor have made an appreciable contribution to the building ofsocialism

in the USSR, who by their personal example and public work help the Party

to educate the rising generation;

—to Red Armed Forces servicemen and troops of the Ministry of Internal

Affairs, to troops, and bodies of the Committee of State Security administered

by the Council of Ministers of the USSR who have achieved excellent results

in combat and political training, and good results in the leadership of troops

and in sustaining their combat readiness in the course of preparation for the

Lenin centenary.

Members of the civilian population are awarded the Anniversary Medal

with the inscription "For Meritorious Labor. To mark the centenary of the

birth of Vladimir H'ich Lenin"; servicemen are awarded the medal with the

inscription "For Military Valor. To mark the centenary of the birth of

Vladimir H'ich Lenin".

The Anniversary Medal is also awarded to members of the international

communist and workers' movement and to other foreign progressive public

figures.

The medal "For Bravery in Dealing with Fires" was instituted on 31

October 1957 for awarding to workers of the fire brigade, members of volunteer fire services, military personnel and other citizens for courage, bravery,

and self-sacrifice in dealing with fires and in their prevention.

The medal "For Saving from Drowning" was instituted on 16 February

1957 for awarding to lifeguards and other citizens of the USSR, and also to

foreigners for courage, bravery and self-sacrifice in lifesaving in the water, for

high vigilance and resourcefulness as a result of which drowning disasters

were prevented, and also for exemplary organization of the lifeguard service.

The medal "For a Partisan of the Patriotic War" was instituted on 2

February 1943 for awarding to ptfttttiw uf the Patriotic war who distinguished themselves in the partisan struggle in the rear of the German Fascist

aggressors.

The medal has two classes. The I Class is the higher.

The medal "For a Partisan of the Patriotic War" I Class is awarded to

partisans, leaders of partisan detachments, and organizers of the partisan

movement for special services in the organization of the partisan movement

and for courage, heroism, and outstanding successes in the partisan struggle

in the rear of the German Fascist aggressors.

The medal "For a Partisan of the Patriotic War" 11 Class is awarded to

partisans, leaders of partisan detachments, and organizers of the partisan

movement for personal distinction in battle and in carrying out orders and

assignments, and for active contribution to the partisan struggle against the

German Fascist aggressors.

182
The medal "For the Defense of Leningrad" was instituted on 22 December

1942 for awarding to all servicemen and members of the civilian population

who took a direct part in the defense of Leningrad.

The medal "For the Defense of Moscow" was instituted on 1 May 1944

for awarding to all servicemen and members of the civilian population who

took a direct part in the defense of Moscow.

The medai "For the Defense of Odessa" was instituted on 22 December

1942 for awarding to all servicemen and members of the civilian population

who took a direct part in the defense of Odessa.

The medal "For the Defense of Sevastopol" was instituted on 22 December

1942 for awarding to all servicemen and members of the civilian population

who took a direct part in the defense of Sevastopol.

The medal "For the Defense of Stalingrad" was instituted on 22 December

1942 for awarding to all servicemen and members of the civilian population

who took a direct part in the defense of Stalingrad.

The medal "For the Defense of Kiev" was instituted on 21 June 1961 for

awarding to all who took part in the defense of Kiev—servicemen and

workers who played a part in the defense of Kiev in the ranks of the Home

Guard, in the erection of defensive fortifications, by working in factories and

plants supplying the front, and members of the Kiev underground movement

and partisans who fought around Kiev.

The medal "For the Defense of the Caucasus" was instituted on 1 May

1944 for awarding to all servicemen and members of the civilian population

who took a d'rect part in the defense of the Caucasus.

The medal "For the Defense of Soviet Territory within the Arctic Circle"

was instituted on 5 December 1944 for awarding to all military personnel and

members of the civilian population who took a direct part in the defense of

Soviet territory within the Arctic Circle.

The medal "For Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War, 1941-

1945" was instituted on 9 May 1945 to mark the victory won over Fascist

Germany in the Great Patriotic War, 1941-1945, for awarding to military

personnel and civilians who were on active service during the war and also

to those who contributed to victory by their work in military districts.

The medal "20th Anniversary of Victory in the Great Patriotic War of

1941-1945" is an anniversary medal. It was instituted on 7 May 1965 to mark

the 20th anniversary of the victory over Fascist Germany, for awarding to

servicemen and civilian employees who took part in the Great Patriotic War

in the ranks of the Armed Forces from 1941-1945, to the partisans of the

Great Patriotic War, and to all personnel of the Armed Forces and other

individuals awarded the medal "For Victory over Germany in the Great

Patriotic War of 1941-1945."

The medal "For Victory over Japan" was instituted on 30 September 1945

to mark the victory won over imperialist Japan, for awarding to servicemen

and civilians who had played a direct part in operations against Japanese

forces and in supporting these operations.

The medal "For the Taking of Budapest" wa;. instituted on 9 June 1945

183
for awarding to servicemen directly involved and to the leaders of the heroic

storming and taking of Budapest.

The medal "For the Taking of Königsberg" was instituted on 9 June 1945

for awarding to servicemen directly involved and to the leaders of the heroic

storming and taking of Königsberg.

The medal "For the Taking of Vienna" was instituted on 9 June 1945 for

awarding to servicemen directly involved and to the leaders of the heroic

storming and taking of Vienna.

The medal "For the Taking of Berlin" was instituted on 9 June 1945 for

awarding to servicemen directly involved and to the leaders of the heroic

storming and taking of Berlin.

The medal "For the Liberation of Belgrade" was instituted on 9 June 1945

for awarding to servicemen directly involved and to the leaders of the heroic

storming and liberation of Belgrade.

The medal "For the Liberation of Warsaw" was instituted on 9 June 1945

for awarding to servicemen directly mvolved and to the leaders of the heroic

storming and liberation of Warsaw.

The medal "For the Liberation of Prague" was instituted on 9 June 1945

for awarding to servicemen directly involved ind to the leaders of the heroic

storii.ing and liberation of Prague.

The medal "For Valiant Labor in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945"

was instituted on 6 June 1945 for awarding to workers, engineers, technicians, and office workers in industry and transport, collective farmers and

agricultural specialists, scientific workers, technicians, artists and writers,

workers in governmental, party, trade union, and other public organizations

who, by their valiant and self-sacrificing labor, ensured victory over Fascist

Germany in the Great Patriotic War.

The medal "For the Restoration of Ferrous Metallurgy Undertakings in

the South" was instituted on 18 May 1948 for awarding to workers, employees, engineering and technical and managerial workers for outstanding

work, high output figures, and services in the restoration of the ferroas

metallurgy industry in southern districts of the USSR.

The medal "For Restoration of the Coai Mines of the Donets Basin" was

instituted on 10 September 1947 for awarding to workers employees, engineering and technical and managerial workers for outstanding work, high

output figures and services in the restoration of the coal industry of the

Donets Basin.

The medal "For the Cultivation of Virgin Lands" was instituted on 20

October 1956 for awarding to individuals who distinguished themselves in

the cultivation of virgin and fallow lands in Kazakhstan, Siberia, the Urals,

the Volga region, and the North Caucasus.

The medal "To Commemorate the 800th Anniversary of Moscow" was

instituted on 20 September 1947 to mark the 800th Anniversary of the city

of Moscow, for awarding to servicemen, workers and employees, and also to

housewives who had taken an active part in the economic and social life of

the city, provided that they had resided in Moscow or its suburbs for at least

5 years.

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1

The meda! "To Commemorate the 250th Anniversary of Leningrad" was

instituted on 16 May 1957 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the city

of Leningrad.

The medal "XXX Years of the Soviet Army and Navy" is an anniversary

medai. It was instituted on 22 February 1948 to commemorate the 30th

anniversary of the Soviet Army and Navy for awarding to servicemen in the

ranks of the Soviet Army, the Navy, the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD)

and the Ministry of State Security (MGB) on 23 February 1948.

The medal "Forty Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" is an anniversary medal. It was instituted on 18 December 1957 to commemorate the 40th

anniversary of the Soviet Army and Navy for awarding to servicemen in the

ranks of the Soviet Army and Navy, the forces of the Ministry of Internal

Affairs (MVD) and the Committee of State Security administered by the

Council of Ministers of the USSR on 23 February 1958.

The medal "Fifty Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" is an anniversary medal. It was instituted on 26 December 1967 to mark the 50th anniversary of the Armed Forces of the USSR for awarding:

—to servicemen who were, on 23 February 1968 in the ranks of the Soviet

Armed Forces, the forces ofthe Ministry for the Preservation of Public Order

(MOOP) of the USSR and the forces and agencies of the Committee of State

Secruity (KGB) administered by the Council of Ministers of the USSR;

—to generals on the reserve and retired lists, officers and reenlisted men

with 20 calendar years of service or more;

—to former Red Guards and servicemen who took part in operations for

the defense of the Soviet Motherland in the ranks of the Armed Forces, as

well as to individuals who, during their active service, were awarded orders

of the USSPv or the meda! "For Valor", the Ushakov Medal, the medals "For

Services in Battle", "For Distinguished Service in Defense of the State

Boundary of the USSR", the Nakhimov Medal, the medals "For Labor

Prowess" and "For Distinguished Labor Service".

The medal "Fifty Years of the Soviet Militia" is an anniversary medal. It

was instituted on 20 November 1967 to mark the 50th anniversary of the

Soviet Militia for awarding:

—to officers and men of the militia serving on 21 November 1967 in the

agencies, institutions, and training establishments of the Ministry for the

Preservation of Public Order (MOOP) of the USSR;

—to individuals holding special ranks in the militia, transferred from

bodies for the defense of public order to the reserve and retirement with 25

years service or more.

The medai may also be awarded to the officers and enlisted personnel of

the services and subunits of the Ministry for the Preservation of Public Order

(MOOP) of the USSR who actively assist the organs of the militia in their

duties.

The medal "For Exemplary Service" was instituted by order of the Ministry of Defense of the USSR on 25 January 1958 for awarding to servicemen

who have served for 10, 15, and 20 years in tne Armed Forces who have good

records and who successfully carry out their service duties.

185

£.
The medal has three classes. The III Class is awarded to servicemen with

10 years of service, II Class to those with 15 years, and I Class to those with

20 years of service.

The medal is awarded once a year, on 23 February, timed to coincide with

Soviet Armed Forces Day.

The Wearing of Orders and Medals, the Ribbons of Orders and Medals,

and Breast Badges on Military Uniforms

1. The wearing of orders and medals or the ribbons of orders and medals

and military chest badges on military uniforms is compulsory.

2. The "Gold Star" medal of the order Hero of the Soviet Union and the

"Hammer and Sickle" of the order Hero of Socialist Labor, and also the chest

badge "Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR" are worn on all types of military

uniforms (apart from fatigue dress).

3 The following are worn on parade dress uniform:

the "Gold Star" medal of the order Hero of the Soviet Union and the

"Hammer and Sickle" medal of the order Hero of Socialist Labor;

orders and medals;

the chest badge "Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR";

the badges for winners of the Lenin Prize and the USSR State Prize;

the chest badges for: "Meritorious Test Pilot of the USSR," "Meritorious

Test Navigator of the USSR," "Meritorious Military Pilot ofthe USSR" and

"Meritorious Military Navigator of the USSR";

deputies' chest badges;

the Komsomol badge;

the chest badge "25th Anniversary* of Victory in the G.^at Patriotic

War";

the "Pilot-Cosmonaut" chest badge;

the chest badges for class specialists among the officers, generals and

admirals of the Armed Forces of the USSR;

the submarine commander's chest badge;

the "Guards" badge;

chest badges to mark graduation from military training establishments;

badges of merit and class specialists' badges (soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned, and petty officers);

the "For Re-enlistment" chest badge.

The same decorations and badges worn on the chest are worn on dress off

duty uniform, service uniform, and field uniform, but orders and medals are

replaced by bars bearing the ribbons of the orders and medals.

4. It is permitted to wear the following chest insignia (badges) on all

uniforms (apart from fatigue dress):

—badges showing graduation from institutions of higher education;

—"Parachute Instructor";

* Listed elsewhere as "20th Anniversary , ." [U.S. Ed]

186

•A* V

' »
—"Excellent Parachutist";

—"Parachutist";

—Sports badges and medals;

—Other insignia instituted by Decrees of the Presidium of the Supreme

Soviet of the USSR and the Union Republics, by enactments of the government of the USSR and the Union Republics, and by orders of the Ministry

of Defense of the USSR.

5. The "Gold Star" medal of the order Hero of the Soviet Union and the

"Hammer and Sickle" medal of the order Hero of Socialist Labor are worn

on the left side of the chest above all orders, medals, and ribbons of orders

and medals and are fastened to the uniform by a rectangular bar covered by

the ribbon. When two or more of the medals "Gold Star" of the order Hero

of the Soviet Union and "Hammer and Sickle" of the order Hero of Socialist

L^bor are worn, they are fastened to the uniform in a single row.

The "Gold Star" medal of the order Hero of the Soviet Union and the

"Hammer and Sickle" medal of the order Hero of Socialist Labor are worn:

to the left of the lapel on an open double-breasted coat (jacket) and doublebreasted high-collared tunic, so that the upper edge of the medal bar is on

the same level as the upper corner of the lapel;

to the left of the lapel on an open single breasted coat and single-breasted

high-collared tunic so that the upper edge of the medal bar is on a level with

the projection of the lapel;

on a closed high-collared tunic so that the upper end of the star is on a

level with the center of the top button;

on flannel and uniform shirts so that the lower ends of the star are 65mm

above the lower corner of the cutaway portion of the collar.

6. Orders and medals worn on ribbons are positioned on the left side of

the chest, while orders worn without ribbons are positioned on the right side

of the chest.

7. Orders and medals worn on the left side of the chest are attached by bars

covered with ribbons of these orders and medals and are placed: on an open

coat (jacket)—beginning from the bottom and continuing upward along the

lapc!; on flannel and white uniform shirts from right to left.

Orders and medals are arranged in the following order:

The Order of Lenin;

The Order of the October Revolution;

The Order of the Red Banner;

The Order of the Red Banner of Labor;

The Order "Badge of Honor";

The Order of Glory I Class;

The Order of Glory II Class;

The Order of Glory III Class;

The medal "For Valor";

The Ushakov Medal;

The medal "For Services in Battle";

187

t
The medal "For Distinguished Service in Defense of the National Frontier

of the USSR";

The medal "For Outstanding Service in the Preservation of Public Order";

The Nakhimov Medal;

The Anniversary medal "XX Years of the Workers' and Peasants' Red

Army";

The medal "For Labor Valor";

The medal "For Distinguished Labor Service";

The medal "For Bravery in Dealing with Fire";

The medal "For Saving from Drowning";

The medal "For a Partisan of the Patriotic War" I Class;

The medal "For a Partisan of the Patriotic War" II Class;

The medal "For the Defense of Leningrad":

The medal "For the Defense of Moscow";

The medal "For the Defense of Odessa";

The medal "For the Defense of Sevastopol";

The medal "For the Defense of Stalingrad";

The medal "For the Defense of Kiev";

The medal "For the Defense of the Caucasus";

The medal "For the Defense of Soviet Territory within the Arctic Circle";

The medal "For Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War of

1941-1945";

The medal "The 20th Anniversary of Victory in the Great Patriotic War

of 1941-1945";

The medal "For Victory over Japan";

The medal "For the Taking of Budapest";

The medal "For the Taking of Königsberg";

The medal "For the Taking of Vienna";

The medal "For the Taking of Berlin";

The medal "For the Liberation of Belgrade";

The medal "For the Liberation of Warsaw";

The medal "For the Liberation of Prague";

The medal "For Valiant Labor in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945";

The medal "For the Restoration of Ferrous Metallurgy Undertakings in

the South";

The medal "For Restoration of the Coal Mines of the Donets Basin";

The medal "For the Cultivation of Virgin Lands";

The medal "To Commemorate the 800th Anniversary of Moscow";

The medal "To Commemorate the 250th Anniversary of Leningrad";

The anniversary medal "XXX Years of the Soviet Army and Navy";

The anniversary medal "40 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR";

The anniversary medal "50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR";

The anniversary medal "50 Years of the Soviet Militia";

The medal "For Exemplary Service" I Class;

The medal "For Exemplary Service" II Class;

The medal "For Exemplary Service" III Class;

188
8. Orders and medals are arranged on the same bar. Orders and medals

that do not fit into one row are carried over to a second row placed below

the first, and so on.

Placing is as follows:

on the open coat (jacket) so that the lower edge of the lapel covers two

thirds of the first row bar.

The bar of the second row is fastened beneath the orders and medals of

the first row and should extend for two thirds of its width beneath the orders

and medals of the first row, the third and subsequent rows being positioned

in the same manner;

on flannel and uniform shirts—in the middle so that the upper edges of the

orders are on a level with the lower corner of the cutaway of the collar.

Orders and medals are placed no lower than the upper buttons on a

double-breasted coal and no lower than the second button from the top on

a single-breasted coat.

9. The Order of "Victory" is worn on the left side of the chest, to the left

of the bar bearing the orders and medals.

10. The anniversary medals "For Military Valor. To mark the centenary

of the birth of Vladimir Il'ich Lenin," and "For Heroic Labor. To mark the

centenary of the birth of V'adimir Il'ich Lenin" are fastened to a rectangular

bar and placed on items of dress uniform on the left side of the chest 15mm

below the "Gold Star" medal of the order Hero of the Soviet Union and the

"Hammer and Sickle" of the order Hero of Socialist Labor, and, in the

absence of these medals, in their place.

11. Orders worn on the right side of the chest are fastened separately and

arranged in order of seniority in one or more rows:

on the open cc>M (jacket)—beginning from the bottom and continuing

upward along the Lpel;

on flannel and uniform shirts—from left to right.

Orders and medals are placed in the following sequence:

Order of Suvorov I Class;

Order of Ushakov I Class;

Order of Kutuzov I Class;

Oidci of Nakhimov I Class;

Order of Bogdan Khmelnitskiy I Class;

Order of Suvorov II Class;

Order of Ushakov II Class;

Order of Kutu/ov II Class;

Order of Nakhimov II Class;

Order of Bogdan Khmel'nitskiy II Class;

Order of Suvorov III Class;

Order of Kutu/ov III Class;

Order of Bogdan Khmel'nitskiy Ili Class;

Order of Aleksandr Nevskiy;

Order of the Patriotic War I Class;

Order of the Patriotic War II Class;

Order of the Red Star.

189
In the placing of orders on the open ceremonial coat (jacket) the orders

must be the same distance from the edge of the lapel as orders and medals

worn on the left side of the chest.

On flannel and dress uniform shirts orders must be placed 5mm apart in

a row. Orders in the second row are placed 15-20mm below the first. When

there are orders and medals on the left side of the chest, the centers of the

orders in the first row on the right side of the chest must be on the same level

as the middle of the first bar of orders and medals placed on the left side of

the chest.

In the absence of orders and medals on the left side of the chest, orders

are placed on the right side of the chest so that the lower edges of the orders

are on a level with the lower comer of the cutaway of the collar.

12. Orders and medals of foreign powers on ribbons are worn on the left

side of the chest beneath the lower row of orders and medals of the Soviet

Union. Orders worn without ribbons are placed on the right side of the chest

beneath the lower row of orders of the Soviet Union.

13. Marshals of the Soviet Union, Fleet Admirals of the Soviet Union,

Chief Marshals and Marshals of Service branches, and Fleet Admirals wear

Marshal's Stars on the tie with the ceremonial and the dress-off duty coat

(jacket).

14. The ribbons of orders and medals are worn on bars on the left side of

the chest:

—on open doable-breasted coats, jackets, and high-collared tunics approximately 20mm below the level of the lapel buttonhole of the coat or tunic;

—on open single-breasted coats and high-collared tunics approximately 30

mm below the upper edge of the lapel;

—on closed high-collared tunics (in the Navy)—5mm above the pocket;

—on closed high-collared tunics (in the Soviet Army)—in the middle of

the left front on a level with the center of the second button from the top;

—on flannel and dress uniform shirts—in the middle, so that the upper

edge of the bar is on a level with the lower corner of the cutaway of the collar.

15. The ribbons of orders and medals worn on bars are placed from right

to left in the following order:

The ribbon of the Order of Lenin;

The ribbon of the Order of the October Revolution;

The ribbon of the Order of the Red Banner;

The ribbon of the Order of Suvorov I Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Ushakov I Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Kutuzov I Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Nakhiinov I Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Bogdan Khmel'nitskiy I Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Suvorov II Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Kutuzov il Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Nakhimov II Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Bogdan Khmel'nitskiy II Class;

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»
The ribbon of the Order of Suvorov III Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Kutuzov IH Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Bogdan Khmel'n^skiy III Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Aleksandr Nhvskiy;

The ribbon of the Order of the Patriotic War I Class;

The ribbon of the Order of the Patriotic War II Class;

The ribbon of the Order of ^he Red Bar.ner of Labor;

The ribbon of the Order of the Red Star;

The ribbon of the Order "Symbol of Honor";

The ribbon of the Order of Glory I Class;

The ribbon of the Order of Glory il Class;

The ribbon of the Order oi Glory III Class;

The ribbon of the medal "For Bravery";

The ribbon of cne Ushakcv Medal;

The ribbon of the medal "For Services in Battle";

The ribbon of the medal "For Distinguished Services in Defense of the

State Boundary of the USSR";

The ribbon of the medal "For Outstanding Service in the Preservation of

Public Order";

The ribbon of the Nakhimov Medal;

The ribbon of the anniversary medal "XX Years of the Workers' and

Peasants' Red Army";

The ribbon of the medal "For Labor Prowess";

The ribbon of the medal "For Distinguished Labor Service";

The ribbon of the anniversary medal "For Heroic Labor (For Military

Valor). To mark the centenary of the birth of Vladimir Il'ich Lenin";

The nbbon of the medal "For Bravery in Dealing with Fires";

The ribbon of the medal "For Saving from Drowning";

The ribbon of the medal "For a Partisan of the Patriotic War" I Class;

The nbbon of th». medal "For a Partisan of the Patriotic War" II Class;

The ribbon of the medal "For the Defense of Leningrad";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Defense of Moscow";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Defense of Odessa";

The ribbon of the mcJai 'For the Defense of Scvaslopol";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Defense of Stalingrad";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Defense of Kiev";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Defense of the Caucasus";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Defense of Soviet Territory within the

Arctic Circle";

The ribbon ofthe medal "For Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic

War, 1941-1945";

The ribbon of the medal "20th Anniversary of Victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945";

The ribbon of the medal "For Victory over Japan";

The ribbon of the medal "For the taking of Budapest";

The ribbon of the medal "For the taking of Königsberg";

191
The ribbon of the medal "For the taking of Vienna";

The ribbon of the medal "For the taking of Berlin";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Liberation of Belgrade";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Liberation of Warsaw";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Liberation of Prague";

The ribbon of the medal "For Meritorious Labor in the Great Patriotic

War of 1941-1945";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Restoration of Ferrous Metallurgy

Undertakings in the South";

The ribbon ofthe medal "For Restoration of the Coal Mines of the Donets

Basin";

The ribbon of the medal "For the Cultivation of Virgin Lands";

The ribbon of the medal "To Commemorate the 800th Anniversary of

raOSCOft ;

The ribbon of the medal "To Commemorate the 250th Anniversary of

Leningrad";

The ribbon of the anniversary medal "XXX Years of the Soviet Army and

Navy";

The ribbon of the anniversary medal "40 Years of the Armed Forces of

the USSR";

The ribbon of the anniversary medal "50 Years of the Armed Forces of

the USSR";

The ribbon of the anniversary meda! "50 Years of the Soviet Militia";

The riobon of the medal "For Exemplary Service" I Class;

The ribbon of the medal "For Exemplary Service" 11 Class;

The ribbon of the medal "For Exemplary Service" III Class;

16. The ribbons of orders and medals of foreign powers are worn on

separate bars below the bars bearing the ribbons of orders and medals of the

USSR.

17. The chest badge "Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR," the chest badges of

winners of the Lenin Prize and the State Prize of the USSR, and the chest

badges "Meritorious Test Pilot of the USSR," "Meritorious Test Navigator

of the USSR," "Meritorious Military Pilot of the USSR" and "Meritorious

Military Navigator of the USSR" arc worn on the right side of the chest,

below the place allocated for orders:

—on open double-breasted coats, jackets, and high-collared tunics—so

that the upper edge of the bar of the badges is on ihc same level as the upper

corner of the lapel;

—on open single-breasted coats and high-collared jackets—to the right of

the lapel so that the upper edge of the bar of the badges is on a level with

the projection of the lapel;

—on a closed high-collared tunic—on a level with the top but'on.

18. The chest badge of a deputy of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (or

of a Union Republic) is worn on the left side of ihe chest:

—on open double-breasted coats, jackets, and high-collared tunics—in the

middle of the lapel, on a level with the buttonhole

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—on open single-breasted coats and high-coUared tunics—in the middle

of the lapel, 10mm below the level of the end of the lapel;

—on closed high-collared tunics, dress uniform shirts, and flannel shirts

—above the orders and medals or above the bars bearing the ribbons of orders

and medals.

19. Military and other insigi.h for wearing on the chest are worn on the

right side of the chest and placed in the following order;

the badge "25th Anniversary of Victory in the Great Patriotic War";

the badge "Pilot-Cosmonaut";

badges for military specialists among the officers, generals, and admirals

of the Armed Forces of the USSR;

the badge "Submarine Commander";

the badge "Guards";

badges awarded on graduation from military training establishments;

badges for exemplary service;

badges for military specialists among noncommissioned officers and enlisted men;

the badge "Parachute Instructor";

the badge "Excellent Parachutist";

the badge "Parachutist";

the badge "For Reenlistment" and other badges listed under section 97 of

the present Regulations.

Badges to be worn on the chest are placed on the right side of the chest,

from left to right, in a row:

if orders and medals are worn—10mm below them, and if orders and

medals are not worn—in their place.

Badges to be worn on the chest that do not fit into one row are carried over

to a second row and so on.

20. When servicemen have badges to be worn on the chest, awarded on

graduation from two or more higher military training establishments, on'v

one badge is worn. A badge awarded on graduation from a civilian institution

of higher education (university, institute) may be worn along with a badge

awarded for graduation from a higher military training establishment. This

badge is worn to the right of the badge awarded for graduation from the

higher military training establishment, on the same level as it.

When there is a badge awarded for graduation from a higher military

training establishment, a badge awarded for graduation from a secondary

military training establi ment is not worn.

A chest badge awarded on graduation from a Suvorov military school is

worn on the ceremonial, the dress-off duty uniform, the service uniform, and

on the field uniform.

A badge awarded on graduation from a Nakhimov naval school is worn

on ceremonial, the off-duty dress uniform, and on the service uniform.

Badges awarded on graduation from Suvorov and Nakhimov service'

schools are worn on the right side of the chest and placed on the same level

as badges awarded on graduation from higher or secondary military training

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•••v-
establishments, to the right of them, and in the absence of these badges—in

their place.

21. The "Komsomol" badge is worn on the left side of the chest in the

middle, 15-20mm below the orders or order bars , and in the absence of

orders—in thesr p'acc.

The chest badge "25th Anniversary ofVictory in the Great Patriotic War,"

is worn on the right side of the chest below the orders, but above all other

army insignia. On service and field uniforms it is permitted to wear a bar with

the ribbon of the medal "For Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic

War of 1941-1945" in place of the badge on the right side of the chest. The

bar is placed 1cm above the badge for graduation from an educational establishment.

HIGHER MILITARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND ADVANCED

STUDIES

Regulations for Admission to Higher Military Educational Institutions

(general provisions)

The higher military educational institutions (VVUZ)* of the Armed

Forces produce highly qualified officer personnel for the Soviet Armed

Forces. They accept officers, servicemen on short service and extended service, those with a military obligation (including reserve officers), young people from Suvorov military schools, Nakhimov naval schools, and young

civilians possessing high moral and political qualities, who have completed

secondary general or technical education, whose state of health qualifies them

for instruction in a VVUZ, * and who have successfully passed competitive

entrance examinations.

Officers who received short courses of military education before 1962 and

who subsequently completed officers' retraining and advanced courses lasting

for at least eight months are admitted to the competitive entrance examinations for higher military educational institutions along with individuals who

have comp'eted the full course of military schools, if these officers satisfy all

the other conditions for admission to such institutions.

Individuals educated as engineers are not as a rule admitted to the engineering departments of higher military educational institutio i.

When officers who have taken courses at higher commano, iviation, and

naval schools enter the command and command engineering de^ rt , ts of

most military academies, they take entrance examinations only in then ^najor

field of specialization. Officers who have graduated from the enumerated

higher schools with a gold medal take the examination in only one of the

• Standing for the Russian vyssheye voyenno-uchehnoye zavedeniye. translated as above (U.S.

Ed.].

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major fields of specialization and, should they obtain an excellent grade, are

exempted from further examination.

Candidates for entry to a VVUZ who have completed courses at secondary

military educational institutions with a first-class ranking ("excellent"), or

who have graduated from civilian technical institutes with a diploma with

honors, or from secondary schools with a gold or silver medal, take the

competitive entrance examinations only in the major field of specialization.

Individuals who have completed courses at Suvorov military schools and

Nakhimov naval schools are accepted for higher command and higher naval

schools respectively, without entrance examinations. Individuals who have

completed courses at Suvorov and Nakhimov schools take competitive entrance examinations for other higher military educational institutions on a

universal basis.

Officers who have been in command of subunits that have been rated

"excellent" and "good" for military and political training, discipline, and

combat readiness for the three years preceding their entry to a VVUZ are

accepted for higher military educational institutions if they successfully pass

entrance examinations without competition.

Noncommissioned officers (petty officers), soldiers, and sailors who obtain

excellent reports for military and political training throughout their service

(but for not less than a year) are also accepted without competition.

Individuals who have graduated from technical colleges or other equivalent civilian secondary technical educational institutions, and also individuals

who since 1946 have graduated from secondary military, military technical

and special (technical) military schools with a national diploma or with a

certificate in lieu of a diploma are accepted into higher military educational

institutions on the basis of having completed secondary education.

Individuals enlisted as regular officers from among those called up for 2-3

years, and also Armed Forces volunteers who have graduated from civilian

institutions of higher education and have undertaken military training in

them, are nccepted in command academies (departments) and in the V. I.

Lenin Military-Political Academy on an equal footing with individuals who

have graduated from military schools, if they have at least two years' experience of command and political duties and satisfy the other conditions for

entry into these educationafinstiiutions.

The maximum age for individuals entering a VVUZ, their length of command or of work, and also their length of service as officers or in appropriate

posts, are established in relation to the type of military educational institution

or its department.

Servicemen wishing to enter higher military educational institutions (except for higher command, higher aviation, and higher naval schools) submit

reports to their superior officers no later than 15 September of the year

preceding the year of entry, in which they state their military rank, surname,

given name and patronymic, the post held, their year and month of birth,

their general and military education, and also the name of the VVUZ and

department which they wish to enter.

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The report must be accompanied by evidence of general secondary and

military education in the form of an appropriate document (an appropriate

certificate or diploma) or a certified copy of such a document.

Servicemen who, by decision of a unit commander (commandant of an

institution) merit being sent for training are medically examined by garrison

medical boards, after which their documents (reports, personal files, medical

records, service records etc.) are sent to the personnel department of the

district, group of forces, fleet, or formation.

The selection of candidates is carried out by commissions appointed for

this purpose on the order of commanders of military districts and air defense

districts, groups offerees, fleets. Air Force commanders of military districts

and fleets, commanders of formations, and the Commander of the Railway

Troops.

The decisions of the selection commissions, approved by those who appointed them, are conveyed to the candidates no later than 15 December.

Servicemen approved as candidates for training may be transferred only

on appointment to higher posts; they are not sent on lengthy missions and,

as a rule, are not assigned to various forms of duties on free days and

holidays.

Officers who are candidates for a VVUZ are freed of officers' duties and

have the right to use at least three free evenings a week after 1700 hours on

working days for preparation for examinations.

All servicemen allowed to take entrance examinations to a VVUZ are

given a 30 day leave (in addition to their regularly entitled leave). Candidates

who have previously taken such leave on entering a VVUZ previously are not

given a second leave.

Officers permitted to take entrance examinations to a VVUZ are allowed

to take the whole oftheir leave entitlement in the first half year, no later than

May.

Servicemen are not permitted to sit for competitive entrance examinations

to a VVUZ more than 3 times.

Thirty-day preparatory courses are held for the servicemen candidates

before the start of the entrance examinations on the basis of the additional

leave granted to the candidates. As a rule the courses are organized directly

at the VVUZ.

The competitive entrance examinations are held by the examination boards

of the VVUZ from 20 July through 20 August, or by visiting examination

boards from 10 July through 10 August.

Candidates who have received an unsatisfactory grade for one of the

disciplines are not admitted to further examinations, and are returned to their

former place of service.

It is not permitted to retake examinations when an unsatisfactory grade

has been obtained, or to retake one in order to increase a grade.

The selection of candidates for entry to a VVUZ from among those who

have passed entrance examinations is made by the admission boards of the

VVUZ (visiting admission boards).

196
When candidates have gained an equal number of passes in the examinations, consideration is given in the first instance to the grades obtained in the

disciplines most corresponding to the requirements of their future specialization.

A preferential right to admission to a VVUZ among candidates who have

successfully passed the entrance examinations and have the same grades

overall is enjoyed by Heroes of the Soviet Union, Heroes of Socialist Labor,

individuals awarded orders and medals of the Soviet Union, and also candidates who have obtained higher grades in the major field of specialization,

skilled craftsmen and Class I specialists, officers with great practical experience of service in the branch of specializaiion, and young civilians with a

longer period of practical employment relative to the course offered by the

higher military training establishment.

Training by Correspondence of Officers in Higher Military Educational

institutions

The object oftraining of officers by correspondence is to produce specialists

with higher education in the system of higher military educational institutions, with minimum disturbance to the direct performance of their service

duties by the officers.

Training by correspondence is carried out in correspondence departments

and sections of the VVUZ.

Correspondence students who have satisfied all the requirements of the

curriculum and who have defended a thesis project (paper), or passed State

examinations receive diplomas, chest badges and gold medals in the same

way as those who complete the residence courses in the corresponding

VVUZ. The qualification obtained by officers in the course of training by

correspondence is taken into consideration in their subsequent assignments

in the service.

Students are accepted for the correspondence training departments of a

VVUZ in accordance with the general regulations governing admissions to

higher military educational institutions as approved by the Ministry of Defense.

Correspondence study departments are made up in the main of officers

serving in specialties related to the courses offered by the department concerned. There is, as a rule, no age limit on the admission of officers to

correspondence departments. Competitive entrance examinations for admission to correspondence study departments are held at the same time as the

entrance examinations to residence-course departments.

Students who, for valid reasons, give up a course of study in residencecourse departments in the second year or in later years, may, by decision of

the commandant of the VVUZ, be admitted without entrance examination

to corresponding courses of correspondence study departments teaching

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V-
related subjects, with consideration given to the disciplines previously taken

by these students in the residence-course department of the VVUZ.

The study of correspondence students consists of independent work and

study under the supervision of the teaching staff of the VVUZ. Correspondence students engage chiefly in independent work.

Study under the supervision of the teaching staff is carried out at study

courses in the VVVZ and also at outlying tutorial points organized in garrisons in which there are many correspondence students.

Study courses are organized at the beginning of the first academic year

immediately after completion ofthe entrance examinations and subsequently

at the end of each academic year (the courses lasting two months). Examinations are held during the period of the study courses. A concluding and

graduating course is held at the end of the last year of study in order to

complete the course ofstudy, to take examinations and tests for the final year

ofthe course, and to work on, and defend, thesis projects (take State examinations)

The concluding and graduating course lasts 4-6 months for engineering

and technical students (depending upon the course), and 3 months for students taking other subjects.

With the object of creating favorable conditions for successful study by

officers who are correspondence students, commanders of military units

(commandants of institutions) are made responsible for verifying that correspondence students carry out the teaching assignments of the VVUZ, for

assisting them to have the necessary tutorial help for providing them with

literature, for making the prescribed time available for independent study,

etc.

An officer who is a correspondence student has the right, in his turn: to

be assigned to a VVUZ to attend training and concluding and graduating

courses; to be excused from planned officers' training, to use three full days

a month (apart from days off) and three evenings a week after 1600 hours

for study, and also to receive written and oral advice from the instructors of

the VVUZ in which he is registered.

For his part, a VVUZ correspondence student is obliged to carry out study

assignments, tests, and course projects conscientiously and on time and to

take examinations and tests at the fixed time.

Advanced Studies*

Advanced studies (postgraduate studies)' at higher military educational

and scientific research institutions of the Ministry of Defense are the form

of training for scientific instructors and scientific specialists drawn from

among generals, admirals, and officers with practical experience relating to

* Ad'yunktura in the original [U.S. Ed.].

' The term "advanced studies" is subsequently understood also to mean postgraduate studies,

which exist in some higher military training and scientific research institutions.

198
the content of a selected scientific specialty who have displayed a capacity

for teaching and scientific research.

Advanced studies are organized with leave of absence from duty (advanced

residence studies) and without leave of absence from duty (advanced correspondence studies). The time spent on advanced studies should not exceed

3 years for residence studies, and 4 years for correspondence studies.

Officers are accepted up to the age of 40 for advanced residence studies in

all VVUZ and scientific research institutions, and up to 45 for correspondence study.

Officers are accepted for advanced studies who have completed their higher

education and who have had at least two years experience in practical work

relevant to the selected scientific specialty after graduation from the VVUZ,

and who have shown ability for scientific research and teaching.

It is also permitted to enroll for advanced studies officers who have shown

especially great capacity for study and a disposition for scientific rerearch and

teaching immediately after they graduate from a higher military educational

institution.

Officers who wish to proceed to advanced studies submit a report to their

superior officer. Copies of the reports are sent directly to the commandant

of the higher military educational or scientific research institution.

Along with the report, officers submit their scientific work, whether published or unpublished, descriptions of inventions with evaluations of them

and, in their absence, scientific papers (abstracts) on the selected specialty.

Other requirements for submission are the following:

—an authenticated copy of a diploma of graduation from the higher educational institution and a transcript of his study records;

—a record of service from the last place of work;

—a Party-political (Komsomol) reference;

—a health certificate stating the feasibility of taking advanced studies;

—an extract from the minutes of the council of the higher military educational institution for officers recommended for post-graduate studies by such

councils immediately after their graduation from a higher educational institution;

—a certificate of having passed the candidacy examination laid down for

the specialty, for individuals who have passed candidacy examinations in

whole or in part.

Students are accepted for advanced studies between 1 April and 1 October,

while those who have graduated from a VVUZ and are recommended for

advanced studies in the course of the year are accepted a» times related to

the time of graduation from a VVUZ.

Individuals who satisfy the stated requirements and whose submitted

scientific work or abstracts have been judged to be satisfactory are admitted

to entrance examinations.

Within a month of receiving documents from a candidate for admission

to advanced studies the admissions board is obliged to inform him whether

he is being admitted to the competitive entrance examinations or refused.

199
Officers who are allowed to take examinations for advanced studies with

or without being excused from duty are given a month's leave (apart from

their regular leave entitlement) on full pay to prepare for and take the

examinations. Officers, accepted for advanced studies, who have partly

passed candidacy examinations and who are excused in this connection from

taking some entrance examinations, are given additional leave to take the

examinations for the remaining disciplines on a basis of 10 days for each

examination. Those who are accepted for advanced studies without having

to pass entrance examinations have no right to additional leave.

Individuals who have completely passed the candidacy examinations for

a given specialty are excused from having to take entrance examinations.

Officers who have partly passed candidacy examinations may be excused

from taking the corresponding entrance examinations. In this case they are

credited with the grades of the candidacy examinations which they have

passed.

Individuals who have passed candidacy examinations in part, and also

individuals who have produced scientific works and inventions, are permitted

to take candidacy examinations instead of entrance examinations at the same

times.

Officers who have completely or partly passed candidacy examinations

before commencing advanced studies may have the length of their advanced

studies reduced by one year.

During the time spent on advanced studies, graduate students must acquire

thorough mastery of the selected specialty and of research and teaching

methods and procedures, must pass candidacy examinations and prepare

theses within the established periods.

Correspondence students taking advanced studies are permitted four full

free days a month (apart from regular days off) and three free evenings a week

from 1700 hours. They are also allowed an annual additional leave of 30 days,

not counting time spent traveling t and from the VVUZ or scientific research institute.

Individuals who have passed candidacy examinations and who have defended or submitted a candidacy thesis within the established period during

their graduate residence, are regarded as having completed advanced studies.

Individuals who have passed candidacy examinations and who have defended a thesis are given a regular diploma, while individuals who have

submitted a candidacy thesis within the stated period are given a regular

certificate.

PRIVILEGES AND PENSIONS OF OFFICERS

Privileges for Officers

What are meant by privileges for officers are various advantages arising

from their military service or total or partial relief from certain obligations.

They cover various aspects of the life of officers and their families.

200
Privileges in the sphere of labor provide that time spent on military service

shall be included in the total length of service in qualifying for pensions and

allowances, in admission to study, etc.

The period of service in the Armed Forces is included in the unbroken

length of service provided that work is begun within three months of the day

of release from military service.

Military service is included in the total length of work irrespective of

whether or not the individual had a period of work before being called up

for military service.

For individuals who have begun to work after release from the Armed

Forces, the time spent in military service is included in the length of trade

union membership provided that they were members of a trade union before

entering the Armed Forces.

Officers released from the ranks of the Armed Forces to the reserve have

the right to work in any sector of the economy consonant with their special

training and work experience. Those released from the ranks of the Armed

Forces have a preferential right to enter schools and courses to acquire new

professions, and to employment in the enterprises and institutions of the

Ministry of Defense.

Officers released from military units stationed in remote localities and

officers who have signed agreements to work in the regions of the Far North

or in equivalent localities have the time oftheir uninterrupted military service

in these localities included in their uninterrupted length of work for the

purposes of obtaining pay increments and other benefits.

Officers' wives also have the right to labor benefits. Thus, when an officer's

wife is released from work in connection with the transfer of the husband to

another locality she retains a record of uninterrupted work irrespective of the

time of starting work elsewhere. Officers' wives who graduate from institutes

of higher education and technical colleges have the right to be sent to work

in the place where the husband is permanently stationed.

The privileges regarding accommodations are that: officers and their families are allocated State-owned accommodations in the place of service of the

head of the family, retain the right to accommodations, pay a reduced rent

for an apartment, are given assistance in individual housing construction, and

have other advantages.

Officers keep their accommodations when they are studying, on long assignments, in camp, and undergoing training if their established post is kept

for them during their absence, and also in time of war, and during service

in remote localities and outside the USSR.

Members of officers' families who go abroad la live with the head of the

family keep their accommodations.

Senior officers, released to the reserve or retired after serving for 25 years

or more, retain the right to the accommodations occupied by themselves and

their families and, should they change their place of residence, have the right

to receive new accommodations.

Serving officers pay for the accommodations occupied by them at a privileged rate (in accordance with the existing legislation on accommodations).

201
Officers released to the reserve or retired are given assistance in the allocation of plots of land, in the construction of individual dwelling houses, and

in the delivery of building materials.

Travel benefits consist of the free use of transport in the transfer of officers

and members of their families, and also in the moving of household effects.

All officers have the right to free travel on military travel orders for the

journey to and from the place of leave, and also if they are given sick leave

for a period of no less than 30 days with a change in place of residence, or

are sent to therapeutic establishments for in-patient treatment.

Members of officers' families sent for in-patient treatment to therapeutic

establishments and also to sanatoria, have the right to free travel on orders

issued by military medical authorities.

In the case of appointment to a post or transfer connected with movement

to a new place of service, enrollment as a regular, being sent to study involving removal from the unit manning document, being released to the reserve

or being retired, officers and their families have the right to free travel to the

new place of service or to the selected place of residence.

On appointment to a post, on transfer to a new place ofservice, on enlisting

as a regular, on being sent to study, and on release to the reserve, or on

retirement, movement orders are also issued for the transportation of household effects within the standard limits laid down for this purpose.

Benefits in the sphere of education provide that all officers studying in

military establishments and schools, in higher military training establishments, and also on officers' refresher and retraining courses retain all types

of allowances from their last post in the forces.

Officers who are candidates for admission to a VVUZ are given unit leave

of 30 days to prepare for and take the entrance examination.

In addition, officers have a number of advantages in entry to educational

institutions.

The benefits for service in remote localities are quite varied. When serving

in remote localities officers receive increased salaries for their posts.

Officers serving in remote localities receive the right of transfer to other

military districts at the end of the established period.

They are permitted to combine regular leaves over a period of two years

(provided that the officer should not be absent from the unit for more than

three months).

During the time spent by an officer in a remote locality, his family is

assured occupation of its living accommodations in the place of permanent

residence.

When reckoning the length of service for the purpose of fixing the length

ofservice pension, the time spent by an officer in a remote locality is reckoned

on a preferential basis (one and a half or two years for each year of service,

depending on locality).

Health service benefits ensure all officers on active military service, and

also senior and higher officers released to the reserve or retired on grounds

of age or illness after having served for 25 years or more (calculated on I

202
preferential basis), the right to receive medical assistance for themselves and

the members of their families and, in case of need, sanatorium and spa

treatment through the polyclinics, sanatoria, and rest homes of the Ministry

of Defense of the USSR.

Pensions and Allowances

Pensions are allotted to officers on discharge from the forces for length of

service or on grounds of disability.

Length of service pensions are awarded for life to officers who have served

for 20 years or more.

Pensions for service of between 20 and 25 years are awarded to officers

discharged from the ranks of the Armed Forces on grounds of reduction in

force, age, illness, or poor health, who are 40 years old by the day of discharge

and, irrespective of age, to officers discharged directly from flying duties,

suomanncs, anu minesweepers, i ne size o* ttic pension tor Ouicers tor service

of between 20 and 25 years is fixed in relation to their age: 40% of the rate

of pay for those who have reached the age of 50 years by the day of discharge,

and 30% ofthe rate of pay for those who have not reached the age of 50 years.

Pensions for service of 25 years or more are fixed at 50% of the rate of

pay, with the addition of 3% of the rate for each year of service in excess

of 25 years, but no more than 75% of the rate of pay. Officers with 25 years'

service, placed on the reserve list on grounds of age or illness, who have

reached the age of 55 years on the day of release, and also officers placed on

the retired list, are awarded a pension of 60% of the rate o

f

pay plus 3% of

the rate for each year of service, but no more than 75% of the rate of pay.

Officers who are test pilots—1st class and test navigators—1st class, who

have the honorary title "Meritorious Test Pilot of the USSR" or "Meritorious Test Navigator of the USSR," whose service amounts to 25 years or

more, including at least 12'^ years service in test flying, who are discharged

directly from the duties of test pilots or test navigators, receive an increment

to the length of service pension amounting to 10% of the pension.

Length of servic«; pensions may also be awarded with allowance for the

length of labor service:

—to officers having a total length of labor service of at least 25 calendar

years, of which not less than half are military service—amounting to 30%

of the rate of pay;

—to officers having a total length of labor service of at least 30 calendar

years, of which no less than half is military service—40% of the rate of pay.

The following are included in the term of service for a pension: military

service in »he Soviet Armed Forces, in forces of the Committee of State

Security administered by the Council of Ministers of the USSR (NKGBMGB). forces of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (NKVD-MOOP), detachments of the Red Guards, partisan detachments, units of the Home Guard

and Labor Armies; time spent in the Red Army reserve, periods of attachment to civilian ministries and bodies, and also, under certain conditions and

203
at stipulated periods, service in state security agencies, agencies of the MVD

(NKVD-MOOP), time spent on long training courses, in captivity, in encirclement, and in the territory of neutral countries as internees.

The following are calculated as preferential conditions in calculating the

term of service for a pension:

—six months for one month ofservice as a permanent member of punitive

rifle companies and battalions and assault rifle battalions of an active army

during the Great Patriotic War;

—three months for one month of service in military units forming part of

an active army, in partisan detachments and formations in a period of military operations, in the hero cities of Odessa, Leningrad, Sevastopol and

Stalingrad (during stated periods), time spent continuously on treatment in

therapeutic establishments in the case of wounds, contusions, or mutilations

received at the front, and also as a result of illnesses at the front during the

Great Patriotic War connected with military service;

—two months for one month of service in combat jet and combat turboprop aircraft in aircrew posts, and also in a number of remote localities (in

Kamchatka Oblast',* the Chukotka National Okrug,* on the Kuril Islands,

the islands in the Bering Sea, the seaboard and islands of the Arctic Ocean,

etc.);

—one and a half months for one month in aircrew posts (except crew

members of combat jet and combat turboprop aircraft); in commissioned

submarines; on minesweepers when sweeping for mines; in the control centers of formations of commissioned submarines and formations of minesweepers when sweeping for mines (in accordance with the special list of

posts); as regular divers; in frontier posts, in commandants' offices and in

equivalent sub-units of the Border Troops, in commissioned naval frontier

ships, small boats and vessels directly responsible for defense of the State

boundaries of the USSR, and also in a number of remote localities (on the

island of Sakhalin, in Murmansk, etc.)

In all instances, except for time spent in an active army and on treatment

occasioned by a war wound, periods of fixed term service arc reckoned in the

term of service for a pension only on a calendar basis.

Military officers who have become unfit for duty during military service

and who have become disabled have the right to a disability pension irrespective of the length of their military service.

Disability pensions are awarded to officers accepted for discharge from

military service by the Medical Commission for Determination of Disability

(VTEK) as disabled persons in categories I, II and III. if the disability

occurred duung the period of military service or no later than three months

from the day of discharge from military service, or later than this period, but

as a result of a wound, contusion, mutilation, or illness that occurred during

the period of military service or during a period spent in captivity.

• Soviel adminiMralivegcographical units [US. Ed.J.

204
Pensions of the following sizes (as percentages of rates of pay) are awarded,

depending on the cause and category o\ the disability:

Category of disability

I II III

a) To servicemen who have become

disabled as a result of: a wound, contusion,

or mutilation received in defense of the

USSR or in carrying out other military

duties; illness at the front; wounds,

contusion, mutilation, or illness occurring

during a period spent in captivity

b) To servicemen who have become

disabled as a result of: illness unconnected

with being at the Front, or an accident

unconnected with the carrying out of

military duties, which occurred during the

period of military service; accident or disease

which did not occur in the period of military

service, provided that the disabililv began no

later than three months from the da> of

discharge from military service

75 55 40

60 45 30

If a disability pension has been calculated from pay rates of less than 200

rubles a month, the pension is increased by 5% of the rate of pay for five

years" service and, additionally, by 1% of the rate of pay for each year of

service in excess of five years. However, the total disability pension with

increments for length of service may not exceed:

—for pensioners listed under point "a" 75% of the rate of pay for a

category I disability, 65% for a category II disability, and 45% for a category

III disability;

—for pensioners listed under point "b" 70% of the rate of pay for a

category I disability, 55% for a category II disability, and 35% for a category

III disability.

Servicemen whose disability pension is awarded from a rate of pay of 200

rubles or more are not given an increment for length of service.

Pensioners whose pension is less than 110 rubles for a disability of category

I and less than 90 rubles for a disability of category II have their pension

increased by 15%. provided that the increased pension should not exceed 110

rubles a month for disabled persons in category I, and 90 rubles a month for

disabled persons in category II.

Officers discharged from military ser 'e receive a grant amounting to 2

months* salary. In addition, officers di barged from military service on

grounds of age, sickness, reduction in force, ur poor state of health, who arc

not entitled to a pension, retain the pay of their military rank for one year.

205
OFFICERS' COMRADELY COURTS OF HONOR

Officers' comradely courts of honor are elected bodies of the officer corps

of the Armed Forces. Their purpose is to maintain the dignity and honor of

the high calling of a Soviet officer and to inculcate high moral, political and

military qualities in officers.

In accordance with the principles of unity of command and personal

responsibility of a commander for the ideological education of his subordinate officers in force in the Soviet Armed Forces, courts of honor function

under the direct leadership of commanders exercising unity of command,

who have the exclusive right to decide questions relating to the referral of

a misdemeanor by an officer to a court of honor.

Officers" comradely courts are set up:

—in regiments, on 1st class ships and in other independent units—to

examine misdemeanors and offenses by junior officers;

—in divisions, naval bases sad corresponding establishments—to consider

misdemeanors and offenses by senior officers of all units of the division or

naval base, and separately to consider misdemeanors and offenses by junior

officers of the directorate and the individual subunits of the division, naval

base, or corresponding establishments;

—in directorates of districts and fleets, in military training establishments

and military establishments, and also in chief and central directorates of the

Ministry of Defense of the USSR—to give separate consideration to misdemeanors and offenses by junior and senior officers.

The size of officers' courts of honor is related to the number of officers. The

decision as to how many officers are required is taken by the commanders

of formations, superiors of corresponding and higher ranks. The officers of

a unit without a court of honor owing to a lack of officers participate in the

election of the court of honor of one of the nearby units (establishments) or

of the next higher command. These courts of honor also examine misdemeanors and offenses by the officers of the unit concerned.

Office s' courts of honor consist of seven or nine members elected at

officers' meetings. The members of officers' courts of honor for junior officers

are elected at a general meeting of the officers of the unit. One or two senior

officers may be elected, in addition to junior officers, as members of these

courts.

An officers' court of honor is elected at a meeting ofsenior officers in order

to review misdemeanors by senior officers. The comii.ander (senior ranking

officer) of the unit, formation, or establishment in which a court of honor is

set up is not, as a rule, elected as a member of the court.

The meeting to elect an officers' court of honor is convened by the appropriate commanding officer (senior ranking officer). When n^rssary, elections

for a court of honor may be held at a delegate meeting upon the decision of

the commander of a formation (or his equivalent).

The members of the court are elected by secret ballot. Each person attending the meeting has the right to propose and reject any WrMthtt The

question of rejection is decided by a show of hands.

206
The candidates who have received the greatest number of votes, but not

less than half those taking part in the voting, are deemed to have been elected

members of the court.

The members of an officers' court of honor elect a chairman of the court,

a deputy chairman and a secretary of the court from among their own

number by show of hands.

An officers' comradely court of honor is elected for a term of two years.

The election of the court is carried out at the time laid down by the commander (senior ranking officer) of the unit, formation, or establishment, and takes

place around the start of the training year. The composition of the elected

court is announced in an order by the commander (senior ranking officer)

concerned.

One year after election, and also on the expiration of the term of office,

officers' courts of honor report on their activity at meetings of officers.

If members of a court are transferred from the unit before the expiration

of their term of office, or if they are recalled by a meeting of officers on the

grounds that they have not justified the trust placed in them, additional

elections of members of the court are arranged.

The composition of a court of honor in session is Hvo, seven, or nine

members. In the absence of the chairman of the court, his functions are

carried out by the deputy chairman or by one of the members of the court.

Should it be necessary to examine misdemeanors and offenses by commanders of formations with the rank of "Colonel," "Captain 1st Rank," of

regimental commanders, commanders of 1st and 2nd class ships and officers

of equivalent ranks, a five-man officers' court of honor is set up on each

occasion by order of the commander of the military district or fleet. In such

instances, those appointed as members of the court are commanders of

formations and their equivalents, in addition to the officer in direct command

of the officer who has committed the misdemeanor.

Officers' comradely courts of honor examine cases:

—relating to ^

:

sdemeanors unworthy ofthe rank of an officer, detrimental

to military honor and incompatible with the principles of communist morality;

—relating to infringements of military discipline and public order by an

officer;

—relating to offenses committed by officers that may legally be referred to

comradely courts;

—relating to property claims by officers against each other for a sum of

up to 100 rubles, if they agree that the case should be examined in a comradely court.

The commander (senior ranking officer) of the unit or formation in which

the court is set up decides what cases shall be examined in an officers'

comradely court of honor.

The decision to examine a case may be taken by the commander (senior

ranking officer) on his own initiative, on the basis of a resolution from a

meeting of officers, in connection with a submission by an injured party, or

on the proposal of the officers' comradely court of honor.

207
The officers" comradely court of honor examines a case within 15 days of

its submission to the court.

It is compulsory for the accused officer to attend the court session. Senior

officers are also present at a session of the court for junior officers. Junior

officers do not take part in sessions of the court of honor for senior officers.

The court hears the testimony of the accused, the injured party, and

witnesses and examines all the assembled information on the case. Officers

present at the session, and also the injured party, may put questions, with the

permission ofthe court, and speak on matters ofsubstance relating to the case

undc: consideration. The accused officer has the right to question witnesses

and the injured party.

The court reaches its decision in a separate room, in which only the

members of the court are present. Should it be necessary to clarify additional

information, the court has the right to renew the session or to transfer it to

another date.

The court arrives at its decision by a majority vote of the members of the

court by show of hands. The decision sets out the essence ofthe misdemeanor

by the officer, the judgment on it, and defines the public sanction.

An officers' comradely court of honor may decide to apply one of the

following sanctions:

—to issue a comradely warning;

—to issue a public censure;

—to issue a public reprimand;

—to initiate the process for reduction in position;

—to initiate the process for reduction in military rank by one rank;

—to initiate the process for the dismissal ofi. studying officer from a higher

training establishment;

—to initiate the process for the discharge of an officer from the ranks of

the Armed Forces.

Irrespective of which of the stated social sanctions is applied, the court of

honor may require a guilty person to compensate damage to property up to

a limit of 100 rubles.

The court of honor may also confine itself to an examination of a misdemeanor by an officer without applying the social sanctions listed above; it

may acquit the officer if his innocence is established, but may, if necessary,

petition for criminal proceedings againt him.

In determining the sanction, the court of honor considers the nature ofthe

misdemeanor or offense, the circumstances and the consequences of the act,

the officer's former conduct, and other factors which may influence the

decision of the court.

The substance of questions examined at meetings of courts of honor of

senior officers, and the decisions adopted by these courts, are not communicated to junior officers. It is also forbidden to take matters relating to

the activity of comradely courts of honor outside the officer ranks.

An appeal against a decision by an officers' comradely court of honor may

be submitted directly to the commander (senior ranking officer) of the unit

208
i

in which the court is set up, within three days of rendering the decision. An

appeal must be examined within 7 days or, should it be necessary to verify

the appeal, within 20 days. The applicant is informed of the decision adopted

on the appeal.

Decisions by an officers' comradely court of honor on the application of

social sanctions remain in force for a year. If, during the course of this period,

the officer is not disciplined and does not have sanctions applied to him for

other misdemeanors or offenses, the sanction applied to him by the comradely court is regarded as cancelled.

If the officer is of exemplary behavior and has a conscientious attitude

toward service, the comradely court of honor has the right to lift the social

sanction applied to him, but only after a minimum of 6 months.

Should an officer be sent to another unit, the officers' comradely court of

honor in the new place ofservice can lift the social sanction ahead ofschedule

on the same basis.

Officers who are reduced in position and/or military rank, or who are

removed from a training establishment, may be restored to their former rank,

appointed to higher posts, or accepted into a training establishment for

training after the social sanction applied to them has been lifted by decision

of the court of honor, or cancelled on account of the lapse of a period of a

year, on the same basis as officers to which these sanctions have been applied

without a petition of the court of honor. In relation to officers discharged

from the Armed Forces on petition by officers' comradely courts of honor,

the cancellation or renewal of this measure of social sanction does not entail

their reinstatement in the ranks of the Armed Forces, and does not entail any

change of principle in the order of discharge.

Reserve and retired officers who were reduced in rank on petition of a court

of honor during their active service, and who have proved themselves in

productive and other socially beneficial labor, may be reinstated in their

former military rank on the petition of the military commissariat by order

of the Ministry of Defense of the USSR, but not within 3 years of the

reduction in rank.

What To Read On This Section

V. I. Lenin iSovetskiye Vooruzhennyye Sily [V. I. Lenin and the Soviet Armed

Forces]. Ch. VI. Voyenizdat, 1969.

KPSS i stroitel'stvo Vooruzhennykh Sil [The CPSU and the Development of

the Armed Forces]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

50 let Vooruzhennykh SU SSSR [Fifty Years of the Armed Forces of the

USSR]. Voyenizdat. 1968.

Zakon SSSR o vseobshchey voinskoy obyazannosti [The Universal Military

Service Law of the USSR]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

Zakharov, M. V. O nauchnom podkhode k rukovodstvu voyskami [The Scientific Approach to the Command of Troops]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

209

'
•

Lashchenko, P. N. Stil' raboty komandira [The Commander's Modus Operand!]. Voyenizdat, 1969.

Kirshin, Yu. Ya. O nauchnoy organizatsii voinskogo truda [The Scientific

Organization of Military Work]. Voyenixdat, 1970.

Osnovy sovetskogo voyennogo zakonodatel'stm [Principles of Soviet Military

Legislation]. Voyenizdat, 1966.

210

- i
Chapter 7. THE ARMIES OF THE WARSAW PACT

COUNTRIES

The Great October Socialist Revolution shook the capitalist world to its

foundations when it overthrew the system of exploitation and oppression in

our country. It indicated ways and revealed forms and methods of achieving

the revolutionary transformation of society which acquired an international

character.

Now, a whole complex of European, Asian, and American countries is

developing along the lines established by the October Revolution. The victories of social revolution in these countries enlarged the boundanes of socialism. A world socialist system has been formed. A social, economic, and

political community of free sovereign nations has evolved, united by common

aims and interests and close bonds of international proletarian solidarity.

Being in the forefront of the class struggle against imperialism, for peace, and

the social progress of mankind, the socialist community is making a decisive

contribution to the cause of developing the world revolutionary process.

Taking into consideration the great historical role which the world sy'tem

of socialism plays in the destiny of mankind, our Party and government are

doing everything they can to strengthen the might and solidarity of the great

community of socialist states. The CPSU confidently follows a policy of

closer political cooperation with fraternal socialist countries, the maintenance of increasingly close and regular contacts with the leaders of the

communist parties and governments of fraternal countries, political coordination, and the development of different forms of communication and exchange between our peoples.

In the development of relationships between the USSR and other socialist

states, an important role is played by bilateral friendship, cooperation, and

mutual assistance pacts. As the XXIII Congress of the CPSU emphasized,

these agreements represent genume charters of friendship, which embody the

experience accumulated over many years, the maturity and warmth of relationships between fraternal nations, and their lofty international spirit. They

serve our common revolutionary cause well and will continue to do so.

"Under present-day conditions, the community ofsocialist states is exceptionally important in the strengthening of our defenses. This task has our

constant attention. Above all, this concerns relationships with the member

211

fe
countries of the Warsaw Pact, which is a powerful instrument of political and

defensive cooperation among the socialist countries." '

The military cooperation of the socialist countries, the further strengthening of the Warsaw Pact organization, acquires special importance in view of

the activation of aggressive imperialist forces aimed at undermining the

socialist system in individual countries and weakening the ideological ties

which unite the socialist states.

THE TRUSTWORTHY SHIELD OF SOCIALISM

On 14 May 1955 in the city of Warsaw, a Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance was concluded by Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary,

the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union, and

Czechoslovakia. Albania, by virtue of the position taken by its leaders, has

not participated in the work of the Warsaw Pact organization since 1963.

The conclusion of the Warsaw Pact was forced upon us. As is known, the imperialists of the

USA and other countries had formed themselves into the North Atlantic Bloc, NATO, as early

as 1949. In 1954 the Paris Military Agreements were signed, on the basis of which a new

military-political grouping emerged—the West European Alliance, and the Federal Republic of

Germany, whose reactionary forces follow an aggressive, revanchist policy, was brought into

NATO under US pressure in 1955. As a result of this, the threat to the security of the

peace-loving European states increased.

Thus, the military alliance of the fraternal nations originated as an objectively lawful act of self-defense, a measure to strengthen the defensive capacity and consolidate the resources of the European socialist states in response

to the military preparations of the Western Powers, primarily the American

imperialists, the formation and strengthening of aggressive military-political

blocs, and the establishment of numerous military bases around the socialist

countries. The alliance is a trustworthy shield for the achievements of the

socialist countries, the powerful protector oftheir security and independence,

and an important factor in the preservation of peace in Europe and the whole

world. The CPSU and the Marxist-Leninist parties of other fraternal socialist

countries proceed on the basis that, while the imperialists continue to increase their military might and threaten the socialist community, the Warsaw

Pact will be rnaintained and strengthened.

The Warsaw Pact is a genuinely defensive organization. In the text of the

Pact, the European socialist countries declare that they will take "the coordinated measures necessary for strengthening their defensive capacities in

order to protect the peaceful labor of their peoples, guarantee the inviolability

of their frontiers and territories, and ensure their defense against possible

aggression."

Article 4 of the Pact states: "In case of an armed attack in Europe on one

or several member states of the Pact by any state or group of states, each

1 L. I. Brezhnev, 50 lei velikikh pohed sotsializma [Fifty Years of the Great Victories of

Socialism), p. 55.

212

&
I

member state of the Pact, in exercising the right to individual or collective

self-defense, in accordance with article 51 ofthe United Nations Charter, will

render the member state or states of the Pact every assistance by whatever

means are necessary, including the use of armed force The member states

of the Pact will immediately hold consultations concerning the adoption of

the joint measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and

security."

In accordance with the Warsaw Pact and with the agreement of the governments concerned, Soviet troops are temporarily stationed on the territory

ofthe German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Czechoslovakia,

the numerical strength of these troops being determined by special agreements. Relationships between Soviet troops and state bodies of fraternal

countries are regulated by agreements on the Legal Statute of the Soviet

Forces, and are based upon the principles ofsocialist internationalism, fraternal mutual assistance, equality, respect for national integrity, state independence, sovereignty, and non-interference in each other's internal affairs.

The highest controlling body of the Warsaw Pact organization is the

Political Consultative Committee, which meets periodically to discuss various problems connected with the strengthening of the defensive capacity of

the socialist countries, and ensuring their security. In Budapest on 17 March

1969 at the meeting of the Committee of Defense Ministers of the Member

States of the Warsaw Pact, the new Regulations of the Combined Armed

Forces and Combined Command and other documents were examined in

detail and unanimously confirmed, thus further improving the efficiency of

the structure and the controlling agencies of the Warsaw Pact defensive

organization.

The Joint Armed Forces (JAF) are the common military bodies, forces,

and resources earmarked, by agreement, for joint action and headed by the

Commander-in-Chief. His deputy commanders-in-chief represent the armed

forces of the allied states. There is a JAF Military Council. JAF HQ, which

includes representatives of the armies of all Member Countries of the Pact,

comes under the Commander-in-Chief.

The Warsaw Pact countries are in the front line ofsocialism, directly facing

the imperialist states, which are hatching insane plans for liquidating the

world system of socialism. The communist and workers' parties and the

governments of the socialist countries are focusing their attention on military

development, and are constantly preoccupied with measures for increasing

the fighting power of their armies.

Like the Soviet Army, the armed forces of the Warsaw Pact countries are

of a new type. Unlike the imperialist armies, which are pillars of the capitalist

system and instruments of aggression, the armies of the socialist countries are

a military organization of workers and peasants. The root source of their

strength lies in Marxist-Leninist ideology, close and unbreakable ties with the

people, proletarian internationalism, and the leadership of the communist

and workers' parties. They are united by their knowledge of the need for joint

defense of the national independence and revolutionary achievements of each

213
country and the socialist community as a whole. Practice and the experience

of the Warsaw Pact confirm convincingly the viciousness and harmfulness of

the anti-Leninist nationalistic thesis of the "left" revisionists which espouses:

"reliance on one's own resources" in the matter of defense against imperialist

aggressors.

During the years since the people came to power a new officer corps

nurtured by Marxist-Leninist ideas has been created in the fraternal armies

under the leadership of communist and workers' parties. Line, political, and

engineering personnel are trained in military academies and schools. As in

the past, numerous officers pass through military educational institutions in

the USSR, receiving a high standard of training in all branches of modern

military affairs. The overwhelming majority of officers are Party members,

having proven through their actions their loyalty and devotion to the people

and the common aims of the socialist community.

Thanks to the successful development of the national economies of the

socialist countries, which provide the basis for their own defense industries,

together with the continuous and unselfish assistance ofthe Soviet Union, the

standard of the weapons and fighting equipment of the fraternal armies has

improved immeasurably. These armies are equipped with sufficient modern

weapons and resources for conducting armed combat on land, in the air, and

at sea. They possess rocket missiles, first-rate armor, jet aircraft, reliable air

defense facilities, and modern warships.

The armed forces of the Warsaw Pact countries share common views on

the nature and methods of waging modern war. Their development, technical

equipment, organizational structure, training, and education are organized

in accordance with the requirements of joint operations involving all the

armed forces of the Warsaw Pact, with due regard for the extremely rich

combat experiencf of the Soviet Armed Forces.

The armies of the fraternal socialist countries are kept up to strength on

the basis of universal military service laws. Military service is looked upon

as a sacred obligation and an honorable duty. Each year thai passes sees

increasingly knowledgeable replacements coming into the army. As a rule,

the period of service is 2-} j\.ais ir the Ground Forces and 3-5 years in the

Navy.

The armed forces of the socialist countries consist of ground forces, air

forces (including air defense forces), navies, and border troops.

The fraternal countries now have completely up-to-date regular armies.

Their organization, technical equipment, and personnel training are planned

with regard to the revolutionary changes in military affairs, and on the basis

of the latest achievements of socialist military science. Their troops are

trained for both nuclear and conventional warfare.

Joint exercises and maneuvers play an importani role in further strengthening the military

c<x)peration of the Warsaw Pact countries and increasing the combat readiness of the allied

armies. October Storm. Vltava, Maneuver. Rhodopes, Brotherhxxi-in-Arms. and many other

exercises carried out by the armies, air defense forces, and navies in recent years, have demonstrated the high standard of training of ai! personnel and their ability to resolve successfully any

214
combat tasks, including the most complex. The constant combat readiness of the armies of the

socialist community for victorious armed defense of the achievements of socialism and communism has also been demonstrated by joint command post exercises, Soviet, East German, and

Polish naval, and other exercises carried out recently.

The ideological and political education of personnel is a major factor in

the armies of the socialist countries. Commanders, political agencies, and

Party organizations devote considerable effort to instilling in servicemen

devotion to their country, faithfulness to their international duty, and constant combat readiness. Party members bind together the ranks of the forces;

by word and personal example they inspire servicemen to fulfill their service

duties in an exemplary fashion. Youth organizations are of great assistance

to commanders and Party organizations in the ideological education of young

soldiers and sailors.

The development, organization, and training of the armies of the socialist

states have much in common, yet each army manifests certain differences,

which have their origin in the characteristics of these countries, their traditions, and customs.

THE BULGARIAN PEOPLE'S ARMY

The fighting traditions of the Bulgarian forces originate with the glorious

revolutionary traditions of the Bulgarian Communist Party. They were born

in the National Liberation Insurgent Army formed by the Bulgarian Communist Party during the armed struggle against the Nazi occupation and the

monarchist-fascist dictatorship (1941-1944).

On 8 September 1944 Soviet troops, fulfilling their international duty,

crossed into Bulgarian territory, thus expediting the victory ofthe anti-fascist

national uprising. The monarchist-fascist regime fell on the 9th of September. The Government of the Patriotic Front, formed by the rebels under

the leadership of the Bulgarian Communist Party, declared war on Nazi

Germany.

The Bulgarian People's Army (BPA) emerged during the victorious days

of the national revolution of 9 September 1944. In addition to the revolutionary detachments and workers' and peasants' squads which had fought against

the Nazi occupation forces and internal reactionaries, the army included

reorganized units and formations of the old army.

During the final stage of the war, approximately 500,000 Bulgarian troops

took part, together with the Soviet Army, in battles against the German

Fascist invaders in the territories of Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Austria. The

capital of the Soviet Union, Moscow, thrice saluted the Bulgarian fighting

man for valor and bravery displayed in the Balaton operation and other

engagements.

The Armed Forces ofsocialist Bulgaria now consist of the Ground Forces,

the Air Force, the Air Defense Force, and the Navy.

The General Staff and the respective chief and central directorates are

incorporated in the Ministry of National Defense.

215
Thanks to the country's economic growth and the unselfish assistance of

the Soviet Union, the Bulgarian National Army is equipped with first-rate

modern weapons and fighting equipment. For example, the mechanical

power of the motorized infantry divisions of the BPA during the period of

popular rule has increased by a factor of 30, and that of the tank formations

by a factor of 50. The weight of a single salvo of a motorized infantry

formation is now six times greater than it was during World War II. Servicemen in the BPA work night and day to achieve mastery oftheir new weapons

and learn to use them with skill in the difficult conditions of a combat

situation. The army personnel are fully aware of their great responsibility in

guarding the freedom and independence of their own country and, together

with the other fraternal armi.s, in guaranteeing the security of the entire

socialist community.

Citizens are called up for service in the army on reaching the age of 19.

Volunteers who have reached the age of 18 are also accepted in units and

formations. The period of service for privates and NCO's in the Army, the

Air Force, and the Air Defense Force is 2 years, and in the Navy, 3 years.

The military ranks in the BPA are basically the same as those in the Soviet

Armed Forces.

Bulgarian People's Army Day is celebrated on 23 September, in honor of

the September armed uprising of 1923 against the monarchist-fascist dictatorship when, under the leadership of the Bulgarian Communist Party, the

first combat detachments and volunteer groups were formed.

THE HUNGARIAN PEOPLE'S ARMY

In the fall of 1944, Soviet troops, carrying out a mission of liberation,

crossed into Hungarian territory, thus promoting a new upsurge in the

struggle of the communist-led Hungarian workers against fascism. The Provisional Hungarian Government, formed on 22 December, declared war on

Nazi Germany. On the initiative of the Hungarian Communist Party it called

upon the people and the soldiers to join the new Hungarian Armed Forces

and to take up arms against the German occupation troops.

At the beginning of 1945 several Hungarian subunits fought on the side

of the Soviet Army against Nazi forces. During the struggle for the Hungarian capital, Budapest, the Buda Volunteer Regiment fought bravely together with Soviet units. Following the liberation of Budapest this regiment

was incorporated in the 1st Infantry Division of the new Hungarian Army.

Later two other divisions which were formed became part of our 3rd Ukrainian Front.

The fighting power of the Hungarian People's Army (HPA) increased

from year to year. After the defeat of the counterrevolutionary rebellion in

the fall of 1956, the Hungarian Socialist Working Party and the Revolutionary Workers' and Peasants' Government reorganized the Army, having reinforced it with command cadre dedicated to the cause of socialism. Now

approximately 90% of the officers of the Hungarian People's Army are the

216
sons of workers and peasants. The overwhelming majority of these are Party

members.

The Hungarian People's Army consists of the Ground Forces, the Air

Defense Force (which includes military aviatioa), units of river vessels, and

Border Troops. During recent years the per capita technical equipment ofthe

Army has increased several times. Formations of the HPA now have four

times as many tanks as they had in 1960; the Army's fire power has increased

by a factor of 8.

The army rank and file are recruited in accordance with the Home Defense

Law passed by the State Assembly of the Hungarian People's Republic in

December 1960. All male citizens between the ages of 18 and 50 who are fit

for service in the Army are liable for military duty. The term of active

military service is up to three years. The Minister of Defense has the right

to reduce this term.

Personnel in the HPA are subdivided into privates (honvedök), sergeants,

sub-officers,* officers, and generals. Regular service sub-officers* include

junior command personnel who have expressed a wish to serve in the Army.

The ranks of senior sergeant, sergeant-major, and chief sergeant-major have

been established for sub-officers.* They occupy the positions of sergeantmajors of subunits, armorers, and sometimes platoon commanders. Officers'

and generals' ranks in the HPA are similar to those in the Soviet Army.

Officers of all branches of the Services are trained by a combined military

training school, which accepts youths of call-up age with secondary education. The military academy is a higher military educational institution.

People's Army Day is observed on 29 September in memory of the celebrated date of the national liberation struggle of the Hungarian people. (On

29 September 1848 a revolutionary army of Hungarian honvedök led by

Kossuth gained victory over the forces of the Austrian conquerors).

THE NATIONAL PEOPLE'S ARMY (NPA) OF THE GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC (GDR)

The NPA of the GDR is one of the youngest armies in the socialist

countries. The law governing its establishment was passed by the People's

Chamber of the German Democratic Republic on 18 January 1956. Its first

units were formed on 1 March 1956. This day is observed in the GDR as

National People's Army Day. The creation of the army was necessitated by

the fact that the inclusion of the Federal Republic of Germany in the aggressive NATO bloc freed the hands of the surviving Nazi generals, who openly

began to recruit a West German army—the Bundeswehr. The National

People's Army stood on guard to protect the socialist achievements of the

workers of (he GDR.

The appelation "national" applied to the army of the GDR underlines the

fact that it expresses the fundamental interests of the whole German nation.

• Podofitsery [U.S. Ed ]

217
The word "people's" indicates that it is an army of the working people, the

army of a workers' and peasants' state.

Recruitment for the Army is based on the military service law, passed on

24 January 1962. Its command cadre consist of active members ofthe revolutionary movement, fighters against fascism. Ninety-five percent of the officers, more than 50% of the NCO's and approximately 20% of the soldiers

of the NPA are members and candidates of the Socialist Unity Party of

Germany.

The National People's Army of the GDR is prepared to repel any enemy

attack. Its fire power has been significantly increased as a result of its equipment with operational-tactical missiles, missile launchers, self-propelled

guns, modern computers, fire control apparatus, and communications facilities. Now the fully motorized ground forces of the NPA consist of motorized

infantry and tank formations. The Republic's air space is protected by the

Air Force and the Air Defense Force, which incorporate fighter aircraft,

radiotechnical troops, and air defense artillery units. The Air Force is

equipped with modern all-weather supersonic fighter interceptors. The maritime frontiers of the GDR are protected by the People's Navy, which is

equipped with modern warships and coastal artillery units. The Navy's striking force consists of high-speed missile and torpedo boats. It has dozens of

rocket launchers. The frontiers of the GDR are well protected by its Border

Troops.

The personnel of the NPA are consistently improving their fighting skill.

In a comparatively short time, the soldiers, NCO's and officers of the NPA

have succeeded in mastering many complex forms of combat training.

The rank and file serve two years in the Army, and three years in the Air

Force and Navy. The serviceman's uniform is inherited from the German

volunteers who, in 1813, fought together with Russian troops against Napoleon's army.

The military ranks in the Army are: soldier, lance-corporal, staff corporal,

Unteroffizier (junior sergeant), Unterfeldwebel (sergeant), Feldwebel. Oberfeldwebel (sergeant major), Stabsfeldwebel (in the artillery a Feldwebel has

the rank of Wachmeister), Unterleutnant (junior lieutenant), lieutenant, senior lieutenant, Hauptmann (captain), major, Oberst-leutnant* (lieutenantcolonel), Oberst (colonel), general-major, general-lieutenant, general-colonel,

general of the army.

The military ranks in the Navy are; Matrose (seaman), Obermatrose (senior seaman), Stabsmatrose, Maat (leading seaman), Ober-maat (petty officer),

Meister (chief petty officer). Ober-meister (ensign), Stabs-obermeister, junior

lieutenant, lieutenant, senior lieutenant, captain lieutenant, Korvetten-kapitän (captain 3rd rank), Fregatten-kapitän (captain 2nd rank), Kapitän zur

See (captain Ist rank), Kontr-admiral, vice admiral, admiral.

* Appears in Ihe text, erroneously, as ober-kytenant [US Ed.).

218

&r-
THE POLISH PEOPLE'S ARMY

On 12 October 1943 the Tadeusz Kosciuszko 1st Polish Division, formed

on Soviet territory, engaged the Nazi invaders near the small town of Lenino,

in the Mogilev Oblast', as part of the 33rd Army of the Soviet forces. At

Lenino, the Polish soldiers, fighting together with Soviet troops against the

common enemy, sealed the fraternal friendship and comradeship-in-arms of

the Soviet and Polish peoples with their jointly spilt blood.

The date ofthat historic battle—the 12th of October—is celebrated every

year in Poland as Polish People's Army Day.

After the formation of the 1st Division on Soviet territory, the formation

of other Polish units and formations (including tank, artillery, and air force)

was begun. These formed the basis of the 1st Polish Corps, which was

established in the USSR at the end of 1943. The 1st Polish Army was formed

in the USSR at the beginning of 1944. On 21 July 1944 the Polish Army

combined with the Ludow Partisan Army to form the Polish People's Army.

Its soldiers participated with Soviet troops in a series of combat operations

during the final period of the war against the German Fascist invaders.

The formation and development of the Polish People's Army was facilitated by all-round fraternal assistance from the Soviet Union. During the last

war, the Soviet government gave the Polish Army approximately 700,000

rifles and Sub-machine guns, more than 15,000 medium machine guns, 3,500

guns, 1,000 tanks, 1,200 aircraft, more than 11,500 motor vehicles, and other

fighting equipment.

The armed forces of Poland now consist of the Ground Forces, the Air

Force, the Air Defense Force, the Navy, and Internal Defense and Border

Troops.

Armored and mechanized divisions, provided with up-tc-date fighting

equipment, became the main types of combined arms formations. Units were

equipped with various types of rockets, supersonic multi-purpose aircraft,

radars, etc. Now, for every five Polish soldiers, there is some kind of vehicle

or complex technical equipment. The armored division of the Polish Army

now has almost twice as many medium tanks as there were in he whole of

the bourgeois Polish army.

The Polish forces are kept up to strength by the annual call-up for army

service of citizens who have reached the age of 19 years. Two- and three-year

terms of active military service are established by law. More than 70% of the

officers and 35% of the NCO's* in the Polish Army are members of the

Polish United Workers' Party. One in four o^" the officers has a higher

education.

The personnel of the Polish People's Army are subdivided into privates,

noncommissioned officers, chorazyi Humor officers), officers, generals, and

• Podoßiser m Russian (US Ed).

t Choraiy and the usher non-English *orüs in this paragraph arc the Polish words for these

ranks. The English words are translations of the Russian translations of the Polish words [U.S.

Ed).

219

t
admirals. The following military ranks have been established for privates and

NCO's (mtster-sergeants and sergeants): szeregowiec (private), starszy

szeregowiec (lance-corporal), corporal, plutonowy, (sergeant, senior sergeant), junior officers: lieutenant, senior lieutenant. Officers in the Army and

the Air Force are given the ranks of: podporucznik (second lieutenant),

porucznik (lieutenant), captain, major, lieutenant colonel, colonel. The military ranks of naval personnel are matros (seaman), mat (leading seaman),

bosmanmat (boatswain's mate), bosman (boatswain), starszy bosman (senior

boatswain), chorazy flota (naval cornet), starszy choral Jta (senior naval

cornet), podporucznik flota (naval second lieutenant), trucznik flota (naval

lieutenant), kapitan flota (naval captain), komai -' -podporucznik (second

lieutenant commander), komandor-porucznik v *nant commander), komandor (commander). The ranks established for generals are: general

brygadi (brigade general), general dywizi (divisional general), general broni

(general of the army); for admirals: kontra admiral (rear admiral), wice

admiral (vice admiral). The highest military rank is Marszalek Polski (Marshal of Poland).

THE ROMANIAN PEOPLE'S ARMY

On 25 October 1944 Soviet and Romanian troops completed the liberation

of Romania from the Ge'man Fascist forces. This date is celebrated as

Armed Forces Day in socialist Romania.

The history of the formation of the Romanian People's Army is closely

connected with the struggle of Romanian workers under the leadership of the

Communist Party against fascism. The victorious attack of the Soviet Army

during the last war led to an intensification of the dissolution of the

Romanian forces which had fought on the side of Nazi Germany. Communist-led patriotic Romanian forces, together with military units which had

gone over to the side of the people, carried out an armed insurrection on 23

August 1944. Antonescu's fascist dictatorship was overthrown and a popular

revolution began throughout the country. The Romanian Army turned

against Nazi Germany.

Shoulder to shoulder with the Soviet Army, the Romanians fought the

Nazis, throwing into the battle sixteen infantry divisions as well as a flotilla

on the Danube River, an air corps, an air defense artillery division and other

forces. A total of over 350,000 Romanian officers and men fought in the war

against Nazi Germany. The Romanian divisions advanced more than 1,000

kilometers, freeing over 3,000 popula;ed points. Over 1,500 officers and men

were awarded Soviet orders for heroism and bravery in the struggle with the

fascist invaders.

Many Romanian formations distinguished themselves in engagements

with the Nazi forces; these included the 1st Volunteer Infantry Division

named after the national hero Tudor Vladimirescu. This was formed on

Soviet soil in 1943 from Romanian anti-fascist emigres and prisoners-of-war

who had expressed a wish to take up arms against the common enemy.

220

•
The Armed Forces of the Socialist Republic of Romania consist of the

Ground Forces, the Air Defense Force (including aviation), the Navy and

the Border Troops. As a result of the successful development of the country's

heavy industry and large-scale assistance from the USSR, the Romanian

People's Army is provided with all that is necessary to carry out the tasks

entrusted to it. The Army is mechanized, equipped with tanks, rocket artillery, supersonic jet aircraft, modern warships, rocket weapons, armored

personnel carriers, and amphibious vehicles.

The Army is kept up to strength on the basis of the military service law.

NCO's and the rank and file must serve a two-year term on active service.

The personnel are improving the standards of their combat and political

training and becoming proficient in the handling and operation of new

fighting equipment.

Romanian servicemen fall into the following categories: privates, noncommissioned officers, sub-officers,* officers, generals, and admirals. On the

whole, the military ranks correspond to those of the Soviet Army.

THE CZECHOSLOVAK PEOPLE'S ARMY

The Czechoslovak People's Army (CPA) was born during the joint struggle of the Soviet and Czechoslovak peoples against the common enemy—the

German Fascist invaders. It was formed on the basis of partisan detachments

which fought against the forces of the Nazi occupation and internal reaction,

together with military formations which fought against the common enemy

with the Soviet Army

The first military unit of the CPA (the 1st Czechoslovak Independent

Battalion) was formed in February 1942 in the town of Buzuluk in the

Orenburg Oblast', and in March 1943 Czechoslovakian soldiers under the

command of Lieutenant Cr onel Ludvic Svoboda, forming part of the Soviet

25th Guards Infantry Division in the region of the village of Sokolovo near

Khar'kov, began their combat career.

During the course of the war, the battalion grew into a brigade, and then

into an army corps. The biggest battle in which the Czechoslovaks participated together with Soviet troops was the Carpathian-Duke! operation.

Having smashed the enemy's defenses, forward units of the Soviet Army and

the Czechoslovak Corps reached the Dukel Pass and crossed into Czechoslovak territory on 6 October 1944. By a ruling of the Government of the

Czechoslovak Republic in 1950, this date was proclaimed Czechoslovak

People's Army Day.

The Armed Forces of the Czechoslovak Republic consist of the Army and

the Internal and Border Troops.

In recent years, the CPA has been transformed into a modem army,

equipped with the latest weaponry and materiel. It includes the Ground

Forces, the Air Force, and the Air Defense Force. The Ground Forces are

Podofitsery in Russian [U.S. Ed.].

221
of modern structure and organization, fully motorized and equipped with

tanks, infantry, and artillery weapons. The Air Force is equipped with various types of jet fighters and bombers.

The CPA is kept up to strength in accordance with the military law.

Persons between ihe ages of 18 and 60 years are subject to military service,

the call-up age being 19. NCO's and the rank and file serve two years in the

armed forces.

The rank and file are divided into: vojin* (private), svobodnik (lancecorporal); NCO ranks are desatnik (junior sergeant), cetaf (sergeant), rotny

(senior sergeant); sub-officers' ranks are rotmistr, nadrotmistr. podpraporscik (sub-warrant officer), (warrant officer), nadpraporscik (senior warrant

officer).

The following officers' ranks are stipulated by the Officers' Service Regulations: podporucik (junior lieutenant), porucik (lieutenant), nadporucik (senior lieutenant), captain, major, podplukovnik (lieutenant colonel), plukovnik

(colonel); for generals: general major (general-major), general-porucik (general-lieutenant), general-plukovnik (general-colonel), armadni general (general of the army).

STRENGTHENING INTERNATIONAL SOLIDARITY

The armies ofthe fraternal socialist countries stand with the Armed Forces

of the USSR in a united system. Their fighting cooperation is a source of

strength and a reliable guarantee of the security of the socialist countries. It

is necessary to maintain and strengthen this great international concentration

of brothers in-arms.

(From the Message of Greeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the

Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and the Council of Ministers

of the USSR to the fighting men of the heroic Armed Forces of the Soviet

Union in connection with the 50th Anniversary of the Soviet Army and Navy.

KPSSo Voornzhennykh Silakh Sovetskogo Soyuza [The CPSU on the Armed

Forces of the Soviet Union], p. 455.)

The Soviet people, developing their national economy and increasing the

defensive capacity of the country, consider it their international duty to do

everything possible to strengthen the economic and military-political potential of the world socialist community as a whole, and each of the countries

which form it. With all its invincible might and determination to uphold the

revolutionary achievements of peoples, our community opposes the imperialist policy of exporting counterrevolution.

(From Tezisy Tsentral'nogo Komiteta Kommunisticheskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza "K 100-letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya Vladimira Il'icha I.onina"

[Theses of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet

Union "On the lOOth Anniversary of the Birth of Vladimir Il'ich Lenin"],

Pravda. 23 December 1969).

* Vojin and the other non-English words in this and the next paragraph are the Czech words

for these ranks (U.S. Ed.].

222
What to Read on This Section

Marksizm-leninizm o voyne i armii [Marxism-Leninism on War and Army].*

5th edition, Ch. V. Voyenizdat, 1968.

V. I. Lenin iSovetskiye Vwruzhennyye Sily [V. I. Lenin and the Soviet Armed

Forces], 2nd enlarged edition, Ch. X. Voyenizdat, 1969.

V yedinom stroyu [In a United System]. Voyenizdat, 1965.

Zashchita zavoyevaniy sotsializma—vysshiy internatsional'nyy dolg [The Defense of the Achievements of Socialism Is the Highest International Duty].

Politizdat, 1968.

Matyushkin, N. O. O sotsialisiicheskom internatsionalizme [On Socialist Internationalism]. Voyenizdat, 1969.

Available in English, No. 2, USAF "Soviet Military Thought" series [U.S. Ed.].

223 r .
Chapter 8= THE ARMED FORCES OF THE IMPERIALIST

STATES

Bourgeois armies have always been the principal means of asserting the

economic and political domination of the capitalists, and an instrument of

the oppression of workers within the country and the enslavement cf peoples

of other states. V. I. Lenin wrote that a permanent army in the capitalist

countries is "an instrument of reaction, the servant of capital in the struggle

against labor, the executioner of the people's freedom." '

According to historians, during the 400-year period from the 16th through

the 20th centuries the armed forces of Britain have participated in 230 wars

—predatory wars, wars of conquest. It was not for nothing that F. Engels

named the British Army the most "brutish" in the world. "Pillage, violence,

murder . . .," he wrote, "have long been the established privileges, the

acknowledged right of the British soldier." 2 British arms have been the

means of enslaving hundreds of millions of people. On the eve of World War

II, the British Empire was 140 times larger in area than its parent state.

Within this empire there lived 535,000,000 people—11 times more than in

the parent state.

The entire history of the armed forces of the USA is characterized by

robbery and coercion of other nations. From the beginning of the last century

right down to our own times the American military clique has not ceased its

aggressive actions against the Latin American countries—Cuba, Panama,

Venezuela, the Dominican Republic, and others. American troops celebrated

the capture of Hawaii and the Philippine Islands with particular cruelty and

ferocity. "Bum and kill; there is no time to take prisoners now. The more

you burn and kill the better. Kill everyone over ten years old." This was the

order given by General D. Smith, who commanded the interventionist forces

in the Philippine Islands.

In the less than 200 years of their existence, the US armed forces have

participated in 114 predatory wars. Today, more than a million American

soldiers are on the territory of 33 foreign states.

The armed forces of the USA, Britain, France, Germany, and Japan

'Lenin, XII, 113.

J F. Engels, Izbrannyye voyennyye proizvedeniya [Selected Military Works], Voyemzdat, 1956,

p. 121.

224
hroupht inexpiable shame upon themselves when they intervened against the

young Soviet Republic. They landed in the North, South, and Far East of our

country, and mounted an attack from the West. Shooting, hanging, imprisonment, robbery, atrocities—all were used by the imperialist military clique in

order to strangle the embryo socialist revolution in Russia. The American

general, Graves, boasted with cynical frankness that his soldiers "roamed

through the country like wild animals, robbing and killing the peaceful

inhabitants."

Even now, the imperialists make extensive use of their armed forces for

smothering national liberation movements and interfering in the internal

affairs of other countries. This is particularly evident from the example of the

armed intervention of the US imperialists in Vietnam. The crimes of the

American military clique on Vietnamese soil are reminiscent of the evil deeds

of the fascist monsters. The shameful path of the American interventionists

in Vietnam is marked by the murder of peace-loving inhabitants, the systematic destruction of towns and villages, the destruction of schools, hospitals,

and crops.

At the present time, the armed forces are playing an especially important

role in the politics of the imperialists, since they consider war to be the

principal means of resolving the all important contradiction—the contradiction between capitalism and socialism, as well as their own internal contradictions. For this reason, the imperialists, primarily the reactionary circles

in the USA, are directing their military power against the USSR, the world

socialist system as a whole, and national liberation and revolutionary movements.

What sort of armies do each of the principal imperialist states possess?

THE ARMED FORCES OF THE USA

In carrying out their aggressive foreign policy, the imperialists of the

United States of America look upon the armed forces as tuva principal means

of resolving international problems from a position ofstrength and of achieving their set military-political objectives, which, in the final analysis, amount

to the achievement of world domination.

The USA has the largest and best technically equipped armed forces of all

the capitalist countries in the world. The US Army is the foundation of the

military might of international imperialism.

The armid forces of the USA consist of regular armed forces and organized reserves. There an* more than 3.5 million men in the regular armed

forces, which consist of three independent services: the Ground Forces

(Army), the Air Force, and the Navy.

The reserves, numbering 950,000, are considered as the basis of the mobilization deployment of the armed forces in wartime.

The development, equipment, and training of the American armed forces

are implemented in accordance with the requirements of US military doctrine, the basis of which is the strategy of "flexible response." This covers

i

t
preparation for any kind of war: world, local, nuclear, conventional, large,

and small.

Proceeding from this, the armed forces include:

—the Strategic Attack Force, consisting of intercontinental ballistic missile formations and units, atomic submarines armed with Polaris missiles,

strategic bombers and reconnaissance aircraft, tanker aircraft, and supporting systems;

—the Strategic Defense Force consisting of air defense resources—surfaceto-air missiles, interceptor aircraft, and information and control systems;

anti-missile and space defense resources, and space detection and tracking

systems;

—the General Purpose Force—the Army, the Tactical Air Force, and the

Navy (excluding atomic missile-carrying submarines);

—Strategic Troop Transport Forces and resources, including transport

aircraft and naval transport facilities, designed for the rapid movement of

troops, arms, and supplies from the USA to probable theaters of operations;

—Armed Forces Reserves—the source of replenishment of the regular

armed forces, and the basis of their mobilization deployment.

Higher military command and control bodies. In accordance with the

constitution of the USA, the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces is

the President, who exercises military leadership through the National Security Council, the National Resources Mobilization Planning Directorate, and

the Ministry of Defense.

The National Security Council consists ofthe President (Chairman), VicePresident, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, and the Chief of the

National Resources Mobilization Planning Directorate. Sometimes it includes other leaders of government establishments. The Central Intelligence

Agency is subordinate to the Council.

The National Resources Mobilization Planning Directorate is responsible

for elaborating plans for the utilization of human and material resources in

the event of war, implements practical measures to this end, and coordinates

the activities of all institutions in the field of civil defense.

The Department of Defense exercises direct control over the Armed

Forces. The Secretary of Defense, a civilian, exercises operational control of

the Armed Forces through the Chiefs of Staff Committee and, on other

matters, through his assistants and the departments of the Army, Air Force,

and Navy and the Commandant of the Marine Corps.

The Chiefs of Staff Committee is the working body of the Secretary of

Defense in the administration of the Armed Forces. It is responsible for

elaborating and implementing plans for the development and mobilization

deployment of the Armed Forces, warfare and operations plans; it is also

responsible for their all-round support. The Committee consists of a chairman and member chiefs of staff of the Army, Air Force, and Navy.

The working authority of the Chiefs of Staff Committee is the Combined

Staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, the members of which are generals and

officers of the three services, each service being represented by an equal

number of members.

226
Three combined directorates, Nuclear Ammunition, Intelligence, and

Communications, are also subordinate to the Chiefs of Staff Committee.

The departments of the Army, Air Force, and Navy are responsible for

recruitment and mobilization deployment, the combat training of personnel,

logistics, scientific research in the field of organization, equipment, und combat utilization of formations, units and subunits.

Responsibility for the operational planning and utilization of trained formations, units, and subunits of the Services is borne by unified and special

commands, which are subordinate to the Secretary of Defense through the

Chiefs of Staff.

Commands made up of strategic formations, formations, and units of the

different Services are classified as unified commands; commands composed

of forces of one Service only are classified as specified commands. Army, Air

Force, and Naval formations and units included in the composition of unified

and special commands are headed by their own commanders, and are withdrawn from operational subordination to the departments of the Army, Air

Force and Navy.

Fundamental recruitment and training principles. At present there is a

mixed system of armed forces recruitment in the USA: by enlisting volunteers

and by calling up reservists under the military service law.

Those accepted as volunteers are "politically reliable" American subjects

and foreigners of both sexes: males between the ages of 17 and 34, females

between the ages of 18 and 34. On entering active service in regular units,

volunteers sign contracts for a period of three to six years.

Military service is obligatory for all male US citizens from ISVi to 26 years

old and, for persons who have had deferments, to 35 years old. In peacetime,

it comprises active service in the regular armed forces and the reserve. The

total period of active service is six years, of which two are spent on active

service in the regular armed forces, two in the first line reserve (including the

Army or Air National Guard) and two in the second line reserve.

The National Guard is made up of militia units, the personnel of which

occupy the status of civilians assigned to specific units and formations. Recruitment for the National Guard is accomplished by enlisting volunteers on

a territorial basis. There are National Guard troops in every state. These are

intended as reinforcements for the regular forces in wartime; in peacetime

they are used by the local authorities for suppressing revolutionary and strike

movements. In recent years they have been used extensively in the southern

states for the suppression of demonstrations by the Negro population.

The main formations of the National Guard are infantry, armored, and

mechanized divisions equipped with modern weapons. They have the same

organization as the regular army. The equipment of these formations is kept

in storage, ii special depots and armories. In the event of war National Guard

units become part of the regular forces.

Army, Air Force, and Naval reserves are kept up to strength on the basis

of a composite principle: by the enlistment of volunteers and on the basis of

the military service law.

Officers' training. The officer corps of the regular armed forces consists of

227
regular officers and reserve officers enlisted for active service for limited

periods. In peacetime regular officers are trained for the army by the US

Military Academy at West Point, for the Navy by the US Naval Academy

at Annapolis, and for the Air Force by the US Air Force Academy at

Colorado Springs. The courses of instruction last four years.

Some of the regular officers are selected from among the warrant officers

(intermediate rank between officer and sergeant), sergeants, specialists, and

privates who have graduated from officer candidate schools and passed the

requisite examination. Besides this, officer's rank may be conferred on persons who have completed an officer's training course with distinction in a

civilian higher educational establishment, and on National Guard and reserve officers.

Reserve officers are frequently enlisted for a 2-year term of service in the

regular armed forces. Some of them may be recruited for a term of three to

six years.

Officers are recruited mainly from bourgeois elements, in order to ensure

the class influence over the privates and NCO's. As a rule, the overwhelming

majority of the officers lend themselves to shameless anticommunist propaganda activities and try to educate their subordinates in the spirit ofreadiness

to defend the interests of the ruling classes.

The Ground Forces. The Ground Forces (Army) are considered to be one

of the most important services which form the general purpose forces and

they are trained for combat operations in universal nuclear and limited wars.

In conformity with this, the main focus of attention is directed at maintaining

a high degree of military preparedness in the forces stationed overseas, training the strategic reserves and maintaining them in a high state of readiness

for sea or air transfer from the continental US to the theater of operations,

improving the organizational structure of formations and units, increasing

their fire and striking power, their mobility on the battlefield, and their

capacity for resolute attack and stubborn defense.

The numerical strength of the regular Army exceeds 1,500,000 officers and

men. It consists of 19 divisions, including eight infantry, four mechanized,

four armored, two airmobile and one airborne, a large number ofindependent

brigades and regiments, rocket, artillery, and anti-aircraft divisions, units,

and subunits of the Army Air Force (with over 9,500 aircraft and helicopters), logistic support, engineer and communications units, etc.

The Army consists of branches and services. Infantry, armor, and artillery

are classified as branches.

The services are subdivided into main and special. The main services

include: engineer, communications, chemical, artillery engineering, intelligence and counierintelligence, quartermaster, transport, military police, and

other services. The special services include the medical, military legal, chaplain, and other services.

The army aviation, the engineer, communications, intelligence, and counterintelligence services carry out both combat support tasks and tasks in the

direct conduct of combat operations.
Divisions, independent brigades, and units are formed into army corps,

field armies, and army commands, which, as a rule, are incorporated in

unified commands of the US armed forces in zones, and are subordinate to

the Department of the Army only on matters concerning personnel recruitment, combat training, and logistic support.

The following come under the heading of US Army commands: the European Army Command, the army commands in the Pacific Zone, Alaska, the

South and Central American zones, and the continental US. The last-mentioned command directs the mobilization planning and deployment of the

Army, the setting up and combat training of formations and units of the

regular Army, the National Guard, and reserves on US territory, the operation of military schools and training centers.

Five army military districts and the military district of Washington are

subordinate to the Continental Army Command.

An important place in the US Army system is occupied by the Army

Organization and Utilization Research and Development Command. It is

responsible for the elaboration of views on the role and tasks of the ground

forces in different types of wars; it evolves the organizational structure of

major field forces, formations, units, and subunits, requirements with respect

to new types of weapons, combat materiel and equipment; it participates in

the conduct of exercises and maneuvers in order to check the organization

and tactics of the forces and the effectiveness of the weapons and fighting

equipment; it also prepares and publishes field regulations and instructions.

The Logistic Support Command carries out research and experimental

design work on the production of new, and the improvement of existing,

models of weapons, combat materiel, and other equipment; conducts equipment tests; organizes production, and is responsible for supplying the Army

with weapons, combat materiel, technical facilities and equipment, and their

storage, repair, and maintenance.

Operational formations and major operational field forces. The highest

major operational-strategic formation (major tactical force, according to

American views) of ground forces in a theater of operations is the army

group, which, depending on the situation and the tasks being solved, may

consist oftwo to four field armies, independent corps, and divisions. An army

group command is not usually concerned with administrative functions and

troop supply matters; these are dealt with by the theater command or special

commands of a communications zone.

A field army is a major operational and administrative field force which

incorporates a staff, two to four army corps, units of the army artillery, and

technical and administrative services.

An army corps is a tactical formation which consists of a staff, two to four

divisions (of which one or two are armored), one or two independent armored

cavalry regiments, corps artillery, engineer and communications units and,

when the corps is acting independently, logistic support units.

The basic tactical formation of the Army is the division. At the present

there are five types of divisions: infantry, mechanized, armored, airborne, and

229
airmobile. All divisions have a unified organization and consist of two main

elements: the divisional framework and combat battalions, the number of

which depends upon the type of division.

The divisional framework includes: a staff and divisional headquarters

company; three brigade staffs and headquarters companies, an intelligence

battalion, a communications battalion, an engineering battalion, divisional

artillery, a rear services command and a company of military police and, in

infantry and airborne divisions, an army aviation battalion as well.

Depending on the task being undertaken and the conditions in the theater

of operations, a division may have a varying number of battalions of branches

ofthe services, and this determines its type. For example, an infantry division

usually includes eight infantry and two tank battalions; a mechanized division, seven motorized infantry and three tank battalions; an armored division, six tank and five motorized infantry battalions; an airborne division,

nine parachute battalions and a battalion of light tanks.

The main operational-tactical principles. The main principles of combat

operations are:

—large-scale use of nuclear and other mass destruction weapons, which

makes it possible to inflict damage on numerically superior enemy forces in

short periods of time, and ensures success;

—purposefulness of action, i.e., a determined effort to defeat the opposing

enemy group of forces and to capture a specific target (line, region), thus

ensuring a rapid solution of the ultimate task with the minimum expenditure

of forces and resources;

—surprise, which is achieved by rapidity of action, deceiving the enemy

about the intentions of one's own forces, the use of weapons and methods

which the enemy does not anticipate, intelligence work, and the maintenance

of security;

—economy of forces and resources by utilizing the minimum quantity of

them in secondary sectors of operation, concentration of main efforts on the

principal (decisive) line of operation in order to ensure domination of the

enemy for his rapid defeat;

—maneuverability, which ensures the assumption of an advantageous position in relation to the enemy, and makes it possible to obtain superiority

in forces and resources in a decisive sector;

—simplicity of planning, v hich facilitates proper understanding and intelligent implementation of the plan and the assigned tasks and, in the final

analysis, the successful achievement of the set objective;

—unity of command, which ensures the unification of the efforts of all the

forces by coordinating their actions in the fulfillment of the common task;

—combat support, including measures to defend the troops from sudden

enemy attack, ensure their freedom of action, and keep their plans secret from

the enemy.

The principal types of ground forces cornbat operations are considered to

be offense and defense; parallel with these, the concentrated use of nuclear

weapons and a high degree of troop maneuverability create conditions for

230
conducting a meeting engagement, which may occur in ihe course of an

offensive or counterattacks (counterblows) in a defensive action.

An offensive may be carried out against an enemy who has hastily switched

to a defensive posture or on an enemy with a prepared defense.

An offensive against an enemy who has hurriedly switched to the defensive

is considered to be the most typical and frequently used form of combat

operation. It is characterized by preparation in the shortest possible time, and

lack of sufficient information on the disposition of enemy forces, and is

usually carried out by troops advancing in columns without occupying initial

areas and, at the start of a war, from their permanent deployment points or

the regions occupied by the troops when the combat alert is given.

An offensive against a prepared defense will be undertaken most frequently

under conditions of close contact with the enemy.

The principal forms of maneuver in an offensive are considered to be the

breakthrough, the envelopment, and the outtianking maneuver. More often

than not, the forces will combine these forms of maneuver, especially in a

nuclear war.

Defensive actions are undertaken for the purpose of breaking away from

or repelling an enemy attack, holding on to an occupied position, gaining

time, defeating attacking forces, and creating favorable conditions for a

subsequent switch to the attack. Defense is divided into two categories:

mobile defense and area defense. Depending on the situation, they can be

used either independently or in combination.

In mobile defense, the main stress is laid, not on holding the forward

defense area, but on breaking up the main enemy grouping; for this purpose,

a large number of troops is organized as a second echelon (reserve) and the

minimum requisite forces and resources are deployed in the forward area. It

is considered most expedient to conduct mobile defense on a wide front with

forces of mechanized and armored divisions. The smallest unit capable of

conducting a mobile defense is the brigade.

Area defense is undertaken for the purpose of holding a specific sector of

terrain, and is based on the maximum use of fire weapons, mainly nuclear

weapons, the engineer organization of the terrain, and the disposition of the

main forces and resources in the forward defense area.

The troops defending the forward area offer maximum resistance to the

enemy in order to direct his attack at the area most favorable to the defender,

where the enemy could be destroyed by means of nuclear weapons and

counterattacks by the second echelon (reserves).

On the march, a division usually proceeds in a 2O-30km zone along two,

three, or more routes. The troops' order of march includes reconnaissance,

security, main body, and rear services (which follow as independent columns

behind the combat units).

The average rate of progress: by day—tank and mixed columns—up to

30km/hr, motorized infantry up to 40km/hr; at night—15-20km/hr. Average distance travelled in 24 hours—200-280km.

The length of the order of march of a mechanized division moving along

two routes is 110-120km, along three routes. 6O-70km.

231

;

x

!

; -r -
Width and Depth of Combat Zone for Subunits, Units and Formations on Offense and Defense

Offense Defense

Subunits, units and zone tasks' zone depth of

formations. width Width defense

Motorized infantry section 100-150m up to 100m

Motorized infantry platoon 500m — up to 750m 200m

Motorized intan'ry company up to 1,500m — 1,500m 1,100m

Motorized mfantrK battalion 2-3,5km 3-4 km

6-8rtm

3km 2 5km

Mechanized (armored) brigade 6-1 Ohm

15-20km

10-12km 6-8km

Mechanized divisiofi 15-20km 15-20km up to 25km 30-40km

or more up to 85km or more

Armored cavalry regiment up to 10km 5-8km

up to 20kiTi

10-12km 6-8km

Armored division 20km up to iOkrr, 20km 30km

or more up to 100km or more or more

Army corps 40-50km 80-100km 50-80km up to 70-80km

(Mechanized division—2,

Armored division—I,

Armored cavalry regiment—1)

' Depth of tasks from the front line1 numerator-most immediate task, denominator—following task.

The Air Force. The US Air Force is subdivided into the regular Air Force

and the organized reserves (the National Guard and the Air Force Reserve).

The main air commands, which are the major operational field forces of the

US Air Force are: Strategic Air Command (SAC), Tactical Air Command

(TAC), Aerospace Defense Command (ASDC), Military Airlift Command

(MAC) and the USAF commands in the European, Pacific, Maskan, and

South American zones.

There are over 900,000 officers and men in the Air Force. The Air Force

has 1,054 intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM's), approximately 14,000

aircraft and helicopters, as well as a large quantity of anti-aircraft missiles.

In addition to these, 2,700 serviceable aircraft and helicopters are kept in

storage.

The Strategic Air Command (SAC) was formed in 1946 and is the largest

higher air formation in the Air Force. It combines the strategic aviation and

missile resources of the Air Force, and is intended to carry out independent

aerospace operations by inflicting nuclear strikes on the entire complex of

targets which represent an enemy's military power and military-economic

potential, in order to weaken the enemy's will to resist and continue the war.

SAC consists of three air armies (2nd, 8th and 15th) and independent

formations and units which are stationed in the continental US. The air

armies differ in their composition and organization. Normally, an air army

consists of five or six divisions, which are the main formations of strategic

aviation, and ICBM's. In terms of organization and composition, the divisions are subdivided into aerospace and aviation. An aerospace division

consists of a staffand three or four wings (missile, aerospace, aviation—heavy

bomber, medium bomber, or reconnaissance), as well as logistic support

subunits.

An aviation division consists of from two to four wings (aerospace, heavy

bombardment and refueling) as well as logistic support subunits.

232
i

A missile v ing of Minutemen ICBM's consists of a staff, three or four

missile squadrons (a squadron consists of five detachments, each with 10

launchers), a combat support group, and mobile technical maintenance

subunits.

A missile wing of Titan 2 ICBM's consists of a staff, two missile squadrons

(a squadron consists of nine detachments per launcher), a combat support

group and mobile technical maintenance subunits.

An aerospace wing consists of one or two squadrons of heavy bombers and

one or two tanker squadrons.

A heavy bomber wing consists of one or two squadrons of heavy bombers

and one or two tanker squadrons.

A medium bomber wing consists of three squadrons of medium bombers

and one or two tanker squadrons.

A SAC air reconnaissance wing consists of two or three reconnaissance

squadrons.

A tanker wing consists oftwo or three tanker squadrons. All the aerospace

and aviation wings have headquarters, airfield maintenance groups and logistic support subunits.

SAC has a total of one thousand Minuteman ICBM's, fifty-four Titan 2

ICBM's, over five hundred strategic heavy bombers and approximately

eighty medium strategic bombers.

The Tactical Air Command (TAC) was formed in 1946. Unlike the tactical

air commands in probable theaters of operation, TAC was charged with the

following specific tasks: the equipment and training of units and subunits

intended for the reinforcement of USAF tactical groupings deployed in overseas theaters of operations; the creation of mobile air strike formations and

provision of the means of transferring them to theaters of operations for use

in cooperation with the Army and the Navy, both in a limited and in a general

nuclear war; verification of the eftectiveness of the tactical air weapons systems and elaboration and verification of views on the use of the Tactical Air

Force; support of the Continental Air Defense Command; conducting exercises independently and as part of the Strike Command.

The Tactical Air Command includes tactical fighter, reconnaissance, and

airborne transport aviation which is formed into air armies, air divisions,

wings, and squadrons, operational training wings, an air diversion wing, a

tactical air intelligence center, as well as air base support wings and groups.

TAC is operationally subordinate to the Strike Command; it consists of

three air armies, special and maintenance units. The basic formation of the

Tactical Air Force is the tactical air army, which may have several aviation

wings formed into air divisions.

A TAC air division consists of a headquarters, three tactical fighter wings,

an air reconnaissance wing and logistic support subunits.

An airborne transport division consists of a headquarters, two or three

airborne transport wings, and logistic support subunits.

A tactical fighter wing consists of a headquarters and three tactical fighter

233
squadrons, each of which includes four flights an air base support group, and

technical maintenance subunits. Each wing has appr"Mmatciy 3,500 officers

and men and up to 75 tactical fighter aircraft.

The Aerospace Defense (ASD) Command is responsible for the planning

and operational direction of aii the air defense, antimissile, and space defense

forces and resources (including those of the Army and the Navy) of the

continental USA. The Command consists of regions, all the resources of

which are formed into air divisions. Approximately 20 National Guard

fighter-interceptor squadrons are also assigned to the ASD Command.

The Military Airlift Command (MAC) provides for the requirements of all

branches of the United States armed forces for air transportation to overseas

theaters of operations. MAC is made up of two air transport armies, four

independent wings and special services (rescue, meterological and cartographic).

The MAC fleet numbers approximately 1,000 aircraft of different types,

including over 400 heavy transports. In addition to these, MAC is assigned

approximately 230 Reserve and National Guard transports and over 350

transports of the Civil Air Reserve.

The Navy. The political leadership of the USA regards the Navy as one

of the principal means of unleashing and waging wai against the USSR and

other socialist states, and suppressing national liberation movements in

Asian, African, and Latin American countries. For this purpose the USA has

created, and maintains in a state of constant combat readiness, the largest

navy in the capitalist world; it is charged with the following principal tasks:

—to inflict nuclear strikes on the most important coastal and remote

targets, industrial and administrative centers ofthe enemy, and to destroy his

naval forces at sea and in their bases;

—to blockade sea areas and straits in order to deny enemy ships, especially

submarines, access to the open sea (ocean);

—to carry out seaborne assaults on a strategic and tactical scale;

—to cooperate with the ground forces by supporting them from the sea,

by carrying out seaborne landings, and by transporting troops and various

kinds of supplies;

—to defend sea and ocean lines of communication;

—to defend the territory of the USA, especially against missile strikes by

enemy submarines.

The US Navy has approximately 1,680 ships and vessels, 8,880 aircraft and

helicopters and four divisions of Marines with reinforcement and maintenance units. There are approximately 1,050,000 officers and men in the Navy,

including about 300,000 Marines.

The composition of the main types of vessels is as follows:

Atomic missile-carrying submarines—41

Strike aircraft carriers (one atomic)—16

Antisubmarine carriers—9

Assault helicopter carriers—9

Guided missile cruisers (one atomic)—11

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Atomic torpedo-carrying submarines—39

Guided missile frigates and destroyers (two atomic)—55

Cruisers—25

Frigates and destroyers—333

Submarines—127

Escort vessel (including 5 guided missile)—265

Assault ships and vessels—246

Minesweepers—180

Auxiliary vessels—370.

In both peacetime and wartime, the Navy has two parallel organizational

structures: administrative and operational. The administrative organization

provides for the administrative structure of the Navy in two main fleets by

branches ofthe service, the organization ofthe permanent basing and registry

of vessels, the combat training of homogeneous forces, personnel recruitment, the logistic support of ships and units. The administrative control of

the N ivy is the responsibility of the Chief of Naval Staff.

The operational organization provides for the organizational structure of

the Navy as part of the combined commands of the US Armed Forces, the

deployment of the Navy in the principal theaters, the training of the heterogeneous forces and the control of the Navy in the carrying out of its missions

in peacetime and wartime. The operational control of the Navy is the responsibility of the Chiefs of Staff.

The US Navy, in accordance with its administrative organization, is

formed into two main fleets (the Atlantic and the Pacific) and five naval

districts.

The Atlantic and Pacific fleets have basically similar organizational structures.

The Atlantic Fleet (the headquarters of which is located at the main naval

base, Norfolk) in terms of administrative organization incorporates homogeneous forces of the fleet: air, cruiser and minelaying, submarine, minesweeping, amphibious. Marine Corps, and maintenance; as well as the Experimental and Trainh.g Commands.

Naval Air includes seven strike carriers, five antisubmarine carriers and

approximately 2,000 naval aircraft and helicopters. The strike and antisubmarine carriers are formed into divisions (two or three to a division), the

carrier-borne aircraft into air strike wings (one wing to each strike carrier)

and air groups (one to each antisubmarine earner). Naval air also includes

formations and units of base aircraft.

The Cruiser and Minelaying Force consists of flotillas which may contain

one to three missile cruisers and two to four squadrons (each squadron

consisting of two or three divisions of three to five destroyers). The total

number of vessels in the cruiser and minelaying force exceeds 150, including

six guided missile cruisers.

The Submarine Force includes atomic missile-carrying, atomic torpedocarrying, and diesel-electric submarines. The atomic missile-carrying subma235
nines are formed into the 14th, 16th, 18th and 20th squadrons (consisting of

seven to nine vessels each).

Conventional and atomic torpedo-carrying submarines are formed into

flotillas consisting of two or three squadrons (of two or three divisions with

four to six vessels in each).

The Minesweeping Force consists of several squadrons of minesweepers of

three to five divisions each (with four to six minesweeper-destroyers or

coastal minesweepers per division).

The Amphibious Force includes two amphibious groups containing six

amphibious squadrons (of seven to twelve assault vessels and transports

each).

The Fleet Marine Force consists of ground forces (the 2nd Marine Division, reinforcement and maintenance units) and aircraft (the 2nd Wing,

which has up to 400 aircraft and helicopters).

The Fleet Maintenance Force includes four squadrons, which are formations of the mobile logistics support force at sea, as well as shor. establishments and units for repairing weapons and equipment, freight transportation,

etc. The maintenance force contains more than 250 auxiliary vessels.

In terms of operational organization, the homogeneous forces ofthe Atlantic Fleet provide units for the operational formations in the Atlantic zone,

the Central and South American, European and Mediterranean zones.

The main operational formations are the 2nd and 6th Fleets. The 2nd Fleet

does not have a fixed composition: its principal bases are, Norfolk, Newport,

Mayport and Charleston (USA). It is intended for action in the Northeastern

Atlantic, and comprises the basis ofthe NATO Atlantic Strike Fleet. The 6th

Fleet operates in the Mediterranean and serves as the basis of the NATO

Striking Force in the Southern European theater of operations. It normally

consists of two strike carriers, one or two cruisers, more than 15 destroyers,

two to four submarines, a division o. minesweepers, an amphibious squadron

(of six to eight assault vessels) with a battalion of Marines and several

auxiliary vessels.

The Pacific Fleet (the headquarters of which is located in Pearl Harbor

Naval Base). The following are administratively subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Fleet:

Naval Air, which includes nine strike carriers, four antisubmarine carriers,

and over 2,500 combat aircraft and helicopters. The shore servicing of these

forces in the Pacific theater is provided for by ten fleet air bases, three naval

bases, two fleet auxiliary and one rear base. The strike carriers are formed

into divisions (one to three in each) and the antisubmarine carriers are

formed into antisubmarine groups.

The Cruiser and Minelaying Force, consisting of more than 170 warships,

including seven missile cruisers, which are formed into flotillas, squadrons

and divisions.

The Submarine Force, which is combined into two flotillas of submarines

based a? San Diego and Pearl Harbor. Atomic submarines armed with Polaris

missiles (seven vessels in all) form the 15th Squadron, which is based at Apra

(Guam).

236
The Minesweeping Force, combined into a flotilla consisting of squadrons

and divisions, which include a total of more than 40 minesweeping destroyers, coastal and harbor minesweepers.

The Amphibious Force, consisting of two amphibious groups with three

amphibious squadrons in each (and 10-11 assault vessels in a squadron).

The Marines, including three Marine divisions (1st, 3rd, and 5th), reinforcement units (a tank battalion, three batteries of 203.2mm howitzers, three

batteries of 155mm guns, three SAM divisions of Hawks, etc.) and maintenance units, as well as the 1st and 3rd Marine Air Wings.

The Maintenance Forces, including over 100 auxiliary vessels.

The main operational formations of the Pacific Fleet are the 1st and 7th

Operational Fleets.

The 1st Fleet, its headquarters and forces, organized as operational formations, groups, and detachments, are engaged in the training ofships and units

of the Pacific Fleet for action as part of the forward dispositions in the Far

East and Southeast Asia. Its operational zone takes in the central and eastern

part of the Pacific Ocean, including the Aleutian and Hawaiian islands and

the western seaboard of the USA.

The 7th Fleet is the forward striking force of the USA in the Western

Pacific. It consists of strike carrier formations (five strike carriers) with 400

aircraft; anti-submarine carriers, destroyers, escort vessels, amphibious and

minesweeping ships and vessels, marine divisions, and other forces.

In all, the 7th Fleet has approximately 170 fighting ships and over 800

aircraft and helicopters. Three strike carriers (250-300 combat aircraft) and

approximately 70 screening vessels, amphibious and minesweeping forces, as

well as over two divisions of marines, are directly engaged in aggressive

military operations against the Vietnamese people.

The Unified Commands of the US Armed Forces in zones include major

field forces, formations, and units of different services and are the highest

major operational-strategic forces. The commander-in-chief of a unified command is directly subordinate to the Secretary of Defense through the Chiefs

of Staff Committee, and is responsible for combat readiness, the elaboration

of operational plans, and the utilization of the armed forces assigned to him.

The unified commands include the Armed Forces Commands in the European, Pacific, Atlantic and Alaskan zones, the Aerospace Defense Command

and the Strike Command.

The Armed Forces Command in the European Zone is the largest grouping

of American armed forces. Its zone of responsibility extends over the whole

of Western Europe and adjacent seas (including the Mediterranean), North

Africa, the Near and Middle East.

The Command consists of the Army Command (the 5th and 7th Army

Corps, the South European Tactical Group, reinforcement and logistic support units); the Air Force Command (the 3rd and 17th Air Armies, an air

defense division, an air transport division, independent units and logistic

support elements), and the Naval Command, the basis of which is the 6th

Operational Fleet.

The Armed Force Command in the Pacißc Zone controls a vast expanse

237
of territory in the Far East (Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and Okinawa),

Southeast Asia (South Vietnam, Thailand, and the Philippines) and other

Pacific regions. The Command consists of the Air Force Command (the 5th,

7th, and 13th Air Armies, an airborne transport division and an air division

transferred to the operational control of SAC), the Naval Command (a

formation of strategic atomic missile-carrying submarine forces, the 1st and

7th Operational Fleets, ASW forces, naval operational formations in South

Vietnam, Japan, South Korea and other regions), the Army Commands in

South Korea, South Vietnam and Japan.

The Strike Command incorporates all the combat-ready formations and

units of the Army and the Tactical Air Force in the continental USA earmarked for the reinforcement of existing, and the deployment of new, groupings in overseas theaters of operations.

The Armed Forces Commands in the Alaskan, Central and South American zones incorporate independent units and subunits of the Air Force, the

Army and the Navy.

THE ARMED FORCES OF THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY (FRG)

The reactionary forces of West Germany, encouraged by imperialistic

circles in the USA and other western countries, ignoring the lessons of two

world wars, have, from the very beginning of the existence of the FRG,

adopted a policy of militarizing the country and preparing it for a new

revanchist war. This is confirmed by the restoration of the domination of

monopolies and banks, West Germany's entry into the aggressive NATO

bloc and the formation of the Bundeswehr, the restoration of the country's

military-economic potential (the supplies and technology base of the West

German military machine), the rehabilitation of Nazi war criminals, anticommunist and anti-Soviet propaganda and subversive activity, revanchist

propaganda, and demands to reexamine the results of World War II, aspirations to acquire nuclear weapons, the passing of extraordinary laws aimed at

the further militarization of the country, and a number of other measures.

Resting on the military strategy of the NATO bloc, the West German

militarists are making increasing efforts to exert a decisive influence on the

elaboration of fundamental elements of this strategy and, in the final analysis,

to adapt it to the revanchist aims of West German imperialism. While acknowledging the fundamental arjuments of the American strategy of "flexible response," the West German military command considers that certain of

these arguments applicable to Europe, and especially to the FRG, should be

changed. In its opinion, nuclear weapons should be used at the very beginning

of a conflict, since West Germany, as part of the NATO zone, is only a

strategic battle area deprived of depth, especially as a result of the withdrawal

of France from NATO and, therefore, does not permit either loss of space

or weakening of its military potential. In this connection, it is reckoned that

the FRG together with its NATO allies, must be in a constant state of

readiness to wage:

238
—a genera! "'clear war, which from the very beginning will be of a

coalitional nature, waged on a global scale with massive, unlimited use of

nuclear weapons and other means of mass destruction directed at the entire

complex of the military might and the military-economic potential of a

probable enemy;

—a general nuclear war arising as a result of the expansion of the scale of

a limited armed conflict;

—armed conflicts in the course of which conventional weapons only, or

both conventional and tactical nuclear weapons, are used.

Proceeding from the strategic position of West Germany, the political

leadership came to the conclusion that in the event of war, the main ground

and air battles would develop primarily on German territory. Therefore, it

put forward to the NATO leadership the so-called "front lines" concept,

which was approved in September 1963. According to this concept, it is

proposed to deploy, in peacetime, the main groupings of NATO forces immediately on the frontiers of the socialist bloc countries. The military command of the FRG, in contrast with the views of the US leadership, not onlydoes not admit of a possible withdrawal of NATO forces from the border

area, but emphasizes the need for the front-line groupings of these forces to

develop offensive actions from the very start of a war, and to carry the ground

combat operations onto the territories of the Warsaw Fact countries.

To realize the "front lines" concept, a unique nuclear barrier in the form

of a nuclear mine belt was created along the eastern boundary of the FRG.

Relying on this, the NATO forces will be able to organize the dispositions

of their forces for attack in decisive sectors and, in the event of failure,

conduct successful defensive actions.

In the opinion of the Bundeswehr Command, the nature of modern war

and the decisive role of its initial operations necessitate the maintenance of

forces in peacetime which would be able to carry out the missions of the first

phase and, possibly, the entire initial period of a war without substantial

reinforcement.

The West German militarists consider that a dominant position in Western

Europe in peacetime and the achievement of military-strategic objectives in

the event of war, can only be achieved from a position of strength and for

this it is essential to create powerful armed forces which surpass the armies

of West Germany's NATO allies. The Bundeswehr is one of the largest

armies ofthe capitalist states of Europe. Its numerical strength, excluding the

Border Troops, has reached approximately 460,000 including: 284.000 in the

Army (approximately 63% of the total number of personnel), 98,000 in the

Air Force (21 %), 34,000 in the Navy (7%), and over 40,000 in the Territorial

Defense Forces (9%).

The higher military control bodies. In peacetime, the Commander-in-Chief

of the Armed Forces is the Minister of Defense, a civilian post held by a

member of the governing party. In wartime, the post is held by the Federal

Chancellor (the head of the Government). The right to declare war and a

state of mobilization (a so-cailed "state of defense") belongs to the Lower

239

I
Chamber of Parliament (the Bundestag), subject to subsequent confirmation

by the President, and in individual cases requiring an immediate decision, this

right is exercised by the President, but with the cons'"-".t of the Federal

Chancellor, Actually, these reservations and the extracrrnary laws passed

in May and June 1968 eliminate the West German Parliament from discussion of the question of declaration of war.

The higher military control bodies are the Defense Council and the Ministry of Defense.

The Defense Council is a higher consultative body under the Federal

Chancellor. It elaborates and takes decisions on all important questions of

military policy and the development of the Armed Forces. Included in the

composition of the Council are the Chancellor (Chairman), Vice-Chancellor

and the ministers of Defense, Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Finance,

Economic Affairs, and the Minister for Scientific Research Problems, who is

mainly concerned with atomic issues.

The Minister of Defense exercises control of the Armed Forces through

chief directorates, directorates, and departments of the Ministry. The following are subordinate to him: the Deputy Minister of Defense (Secretary of

State), three chief directorates (Military Issues, Weapons and Materiel, and

Military Administrative), two directorates (Personnel, and Budgetary and

Financial), three departments (Planning, Organization, Press and Information), and the Chancellery. The Chief Directorate of Military Issues, in fact,

fulfills the functions of a general staff and is headed by the Inspector General

of the Armed Forces, who has under his command the Inspectors (Commanders) of the Army, the Air Force and the Navy, the Territorial Troops,

the Medical Troops, and the Armed Forces Combat Training Directorate.

The Higher Military Council under the Inspector General is the consultative and coordinating body for matters relating to the control of the Armed

Forces, plans for their development, combat training, and other questions

common to all the Armed Forces. The members of the Higher Military

Council are the Inspector General (Chairman), the inspectors of the Services

and the Territorial Troops, and the Head of the Chief Directorate of Weapons and Materiel.

The main principles of recruitment and service. The FRG operates a mixed

system of recruitment for the Armed Forces: on the basis of the call-up of

reservists under the terms of the Universal Military Service Law passed in

July 1956 and by voluntary enlistment. According to the Universal Military

Service Law, in peacetime all males from 18 to 45 years of age are called up

for military service, NCO's and officers up to and including 60 years of age.

In wartime, all males up to 60 years of age are considered to be reservists.

Armed Forces personnel are divided into three categories: regular servicemen who have chosen the military profession as a career, volunteers, and

persons who are serving their obligatory term in accordance with the Universal Military Service Law.

Regular servicemen remain in the Armed Forces until they reach the age

of 60, after which they are discharged and put o/ the reserve list for a period

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•
of 5 years. Volunteers are soldiers and NCO's who, after completion of their

period of active service, remain in the Armed Forces for a further 3-15 years,

and officers on contract service. The first contract, which is for a minimum

of 3 years, can be extended for a period of up to 15 years. After this,

volunteers may be discharged into the reserve oi remain in the regular forces.

Males who have reached the age of 18 years are called up for military

service. There are two call-ups a year; from 1 April through 30 June and from

1 September through 15 December. The first three months of service are

usually devoted to basic training; the remainder of the term is served in units

and subunits, training in the specialized fields of the various branches of the

services.

NCO's are recruited from volunteers and servicemen who have expressed

a wish to remain in the Armed Forces. NCO's are eligible for selection up

to the age of 23 years. Candidates are given 16 or more months of training

in special schools for NCO's. During this period they are obliged to serve one

year in units and subunits on a general basis.

The officer corps is recruited from cadres of the former Hitler Wehrmacht

and from among short service and re-enlisted soldiers and NCO's. Officer

candidates are enlisted from persons between the ages of 17 and 25 years.

Their period oftraining lasts 38 months. Military ranks are conferred according to the post occupied, length of service, and education.

After being discharged from the Armed Forces, privates are enrolled in

educational assemblies lasting for up to 9 months, and reserve NCO's and

officers up to 18 months.

Short-term servicemen account for only 50% ofthe personnel in the Army,

less in the Air Force, and almost none in the Navy.

The Armed Forces of the FRO consist of regulars, who form part of the

Combined NATO Forces, and Territorial Defense Forces, which are at the

disposal of the National Command.

The regular Armed Forces, which represent the main source of the country's military strength, are made up of three independent services: the Army,

the Air Force, and the ^avy.

The Army is considered to be the most important of the services and

accounts for 63% of the total numerical strength of the Armed Forces.

The Army is headed by the Inspector (Commander), who has under his

command: army corps, independent units, and military training establishments for officers and NCO's.

The Army consists of 12 divisions (seven motorized, three tank, a mountain infantry and an airborne division, four battalions of Sergeant guided

missiles, as well as independent artillery, engineer and communications units,

etc., which form three army corps—the highest army commands.

An army corps includes two or three motorized infantry, one tank division,

as well as independent corps units and subunits: a battalion of Sergeant

guided missiles (four installations), a mixed artillery battalion (twelve 155mm

and six 203.2mm guns), an artillery instrument reconnaissance battalion, a

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«
sapper battalion, an ABC (atomic, biological, and chemical) defense battalion, a transport regiment, and an army air battalion.

The motorized infantry division is the main Army formation, capable of

conducting combat operations both with and without nuclear weapons. It has

up-to-date weapons and fighting equipment and is fully motorized. The

division consists of a staff and a headquarters company, two motorized and

one tank brigade, an artillery regiment, an air defense artillery battalion,

reconnaissance, sapper, army air, communications, medical, and two reserve

battalions; ABC, military police, ordnance, repair, and quartermaster companies. The division has more than 200 medium and 28 light tanks, six

Honest John ballistic missile installations, twelve 175mm self-propelled guns,

six 203.2mm and 36 155mm self-propelled howitzers and approximately 30

helicopters.

The tank division is considered to be the main tactical formation of the

Tank Force, the best adapted for conducting military operations in a nuclear

war. It has two tank and one motorized infantry brigade; the other elements

of the division are similar in organization, composition, and equipment to a

motorized infantry division. The division is equipped with approximately 300

tanks, and it has the same quantity of artillery and helicopters as a motorized

infantry division, as well as approximately 650 armored personnel carriers

and 3,000 motor vehicles of various types. The numerical strength of the

division is 16,750 officers and men.

The Mountain Infantry Division is considered as the tactical formation of

the Army intended for conducting combat operations in mountainous terrain. It consists of: a staff, a headquarters company, two mountain infantry

and one motorized infantry brigade, an artillery regiment, an air defense

artillery battalion, reconnaissance, sapper, communications, and medical

battalions; transport, pack animal transportation, ordnance, repair, military

police, and ABC companies. The numerical strength ofthis division is 17,500

officers and men; its equipment consists of approximately 200 tanks, four

Honest John ballistic missile launchers, four 203.2mm howitzers, twelve

155mm howitzers, 36 105mm howitzers, 86 mortars, 70 40mm double-barreled anti-aircraft guns, approximately 60 90mm self-propelled anti-tank

guns, up to 500 armored personnel carriers, and approximately 3,000 motor

vehicles.

The airborne division is considered to be the highest formation of the

Bundeswehr Airborne Forces, and is intended mainly for conducting military

operations in the enemy's rear and only in isolated cases for carrying out the

usual combat tasks of a motorized infantry division. The division consists of:

a staff and a headquarters company, two parachute brigades, an artillery

regiment; sapper, communications, and supply battalions; reconnaissance,

military police, and ABC companies; an army air squadron. There are approximately 11,000 men in the division.

The main types of ground forces combat operations are considered to be

offense and defense, which can be conducted by major field forces, formations, and units simultaneously or successively.

242

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Width and Depth of Combat Zone of Subunits, Units, and Formations on Offense and Defense

,

Offense Defense

Subunits. units and zone zone depth of

formations width missions' width defense

Motorized infantry section lOCMSOm _ 30-100m

Motorized mfsntry platoon 200-300m _ 250-400m 150m

Tank platoon 250m 1 5-2krrt up to 400m 15C-200m

Motorized infantry company 700-900m 1-1,5km

2-3km

1.5km approx I km

Tank company 500-7SOrn 2km

4km

1-1 5km 400-600m

Motorized infantry battalion 1 5-2km 2-3km

6-8km

2-3km 2km

Tjnk battalion 1-1 5km

6-8km

2-3km 2km

Motonzed infantry brigade 8-12km 6-Skm

r6-20km

8-12km 12km

lank brigade 5-10km 6-8km

I6-20km

8-l?km 12km

Motorized infantry division up to 25-30km ie-20km

30-40km

25-30km 50km

Tank division up to 30km 16-20km

30-40km

20-2 5km 30-4Okm

Army corps (2 mot divs. 50-60km up to 35km 80km 60-80km

! tk div) up to 80km or more

' Numerator—the most immediate task; denominator—the following task (from the front line).

I

The offensive is the chief form of combat action envisaged for the purpose

of defeating an enemy and taking imponant lines and objectives which provide favorable conditions for the development of combat operations. An

offensive must combine movement, fire, and a thrust in a selected direction.

It can be undertaken without preparation, i.e., without stopping the action

in progress, when the advantage in forces and combat readiness do not lie

with the enemy, or when it is necessary to exploit the element of surprise,

and with systematic preparation when the enemy has the advantage in combat readiness, forces, and weapons and has succeeded in creating a prepared

defense. The basic forms of maneuver on the offensive are considered to be

the frontal attack and the outflanking maneuver from one or two directions.

There are two forms of defense—static and mobile. Static defense is organized in advance in order to hold specific areas (lines) of terrain for the

purpose of wearing down and halting an advance by a superior enemy. If

there is no immediate contact with the enemy in front of the defense line, a

security zone 20-40km deep is created. Mobile defense is employed after an

unsuccessful encounter battle, when repelling a counterattack (counterstrikes) of superior enemy forces, or following unsuccessful actions in a static

defense operation. Troops engaged in mobile defense can conduct holding

actions, temporarily hold defense positions, carry out a withdrawal, or mount

an attack with a limited objective.

The most important condition for success in conducting warfare is considered to be the use of nuclear weapons.

The Air Force. In the plans of the West German command, the Air Force

is assigned the role of the Bundeswehr's main striking force. The Inspector

(Commander) exercises control of this force through the Air Force Headquarters.

243

/v.
The highest major operational field forces are the "North" and "South"

commands, which form the 2nd and 4th NATO Tactical Air Command

Formations, respectively.

The Air Command consists of three air divisions: Combat, Air Defense,

and Rear Support. The Combat Division consists of two or three F-104G

fighter-bomber squadrons, two G.9I light combat squadrons, an RF-104G

reconnaissance squadron, and a Pershing guided missile squadron (two battalions each with four launchers). The Air Defense division has a fighter

squadron of air defense F-104G aircraft, three battalions of Nike surface-toair guided missiles (each with 36 launchers), four or five battalions of Hawk

surface-to-air guided missiles (each with 24 launchers), radar units, and

others.

The Rear Support Division combines four or five communications units,

two or three supply regiments, an engineer battalion, and two or three

training regiments.

The wing is the basic tactical unit of the Air Force, which carries out

combat tasks independently or as part of a formation. F-104G wings have

two squadrons (each containing 18 aircraft) and two groups: a technical

group (in which there are 14 reserve aircraft) and an airfield maintenance

group. Light combat wings of G.91 aircraft consist of two wings: one fighterbomber and one reconnaissance, each containing 18 aircraft.

The Air Force also incorporates the Air Transport Command, which is

directly subordinate to the main staff of Air Force. It includes three air

transport wings of Noratlas and Transall aircraft (two squadrons in each).

The Air Force has a total of 600 combat and over 110 transport aircraft,

Pershing missile launchers, 216 Nike surface-to-air missile launchers and the

same number of Hawk installations.

In developing the Air Force, the main attention is directed towards maintaining it at an up-to-date technical standard by equipping it in a timely

manner with the latest types of aircraft and missiles, as well as by training

the requisite number of flying and technical personnel.

In the view of the West German Command, the main combat efforts of the

Air Force should be concentrated on carrying out the following tasks: achieving and maintaining air superiority, attacking the enemy's communications

and bases, providing direct air support for the Army and the air defense of

the territory.

The Nävy consists of the Fleet, the Fleet Air Arm, and the Marine Corps

and includes more than 200 fighting vessels (including: 22 destroyers, escort

and other similar vessels, 10 submarines, 74 minesweepers. 40 torpedo boats

and 26 assault vessels), approximately 80 auxiliary vessels, over 200 aircraft

and helicopters of various types, and a battalion of marines.

The ships and aircraft (helicopters) are formed into 23 squadrons, including three destroyer squadrons, one squadron of escort vessels, four squadrons

of torpedo boats, six squadrons of minesweepers, one squadron of minelayers,

one squadron of assault vessels, one submarine squadron, and four squadrons

of naval aircraft.

244
The squadrons are formed into five flotillas (destroyers, submarines, torpedo boats, the minesweeping force, and supply ships), the Naval Air Command, and an amphibious group.

The Navy is headed by the Inspector (Commander) of the National Navy,

who exercises operational control of the Fleet through the Commander-inChief of the Fleet (who is the Commander-in-Chief of the Baltic Fleet), and

resolves questions relating to development, personnel training, and logistic

support for the Navy through the Naval Directorate. The Commander-inChief of the North Sea Fleet is subordinate to the Commander-in-Chief of

the Baltic Fleet.

Taking into account the geographical position of the FRG and the importance of the Baltic Straits for NATO, the leadership of the Bundeswehr

considers that the main task of the West German Navy, in case of a war,.

should be to deny the socialist countries access to the North Sea, and,

consequently, an outlet to the Atlantic for their navies. This task must be

solved jointly with the Danish Fleet and with the close cooperation of air and

ground forces operating in the zone of the Baltic Straits and with the support

of American and British carrier strike forces. Additionally, the West German

Navy is responsible for assisting its own forces engaged in maritime operations with supporting fire, by providing transportation for troops and

materiel and by carrying out landing operations in coastal regions and deception operations for the purpose of distracting and misleading enemy

forces.

Approximately 75% of the naval forces belong to the Baltic Fleet and are

based at the naval bases of Kiel, Flensburg, Olpenitz, and Neustadt. The

remaining combat forces ofthe Navy are incorporated in the North Sea Fleet,

based at Wilhelmshaven, Cuxhaven, and Emden-Borkum to secure sea communications in the approaches to West German North Sea ports.

The Territorial Troops. Beginning in 1963, and especially intensively since

1965, the West German Command has been speeding up the formation of the

so-called Territorial Troops, which are under national command, calculating

thereby to use them as the basis for the deployment of a multimillion-man

army in the event of war, on the model of Fascist Germany.

The Territorial Troops do not constitute one of the Services. They are

called upon to ensure the freedom of action of NATO forces by protecting

important military and non-military targets on West German territory, repelling airborne landings and diversionary groups, protecting and restoring

essential communications, erecting and maintaining engineering structures,

providing personnel, transportation facilities, engineering supplies, and communications facilities for the regular forces, organizing civil defense, jointly

with the local civil authorities, and ensuring the uninterrupted operation of

industry, transport, communications, etc.

The Territorial Troops are headed by the Inspector (Commander-inChief), who is directly subordinate to the Inspector-General of the Bundeswehr. The main headquarters is established under him, and at NATO

245
Headquarters in the North European theater of operations, the Northern and

Central Army Groups, there are Bundeswehr representatives who coordinate

the activities of the Territorial Troops with those of the NATO forces.

The Commander-in-Chief and staft of the Territorial Troops have six

military districts under their command:

Military districts Territorial boundaries Location of district HQ

1 st Military District Schleswig-Holstein and the citv of Hamburg Kiel

2nd Military District Lower Saxony ana the city ot Bremftn Hannover

3rd Military District North Stime-Westphalia Düsseldorf

4th Military District Hessen, Rhineiand-Plalz. Saarland Mainz

5ih Military District Bad''nWurt1emburg Stuttgart

6th Military District Bav-na Munich

Each military district is divided into military provinces (in all there are ?.9

territorial provinces), and the provinces are subdivided into two or three

territorial regions. In peacetime the Territorial Troops consist solely of executive bodies and a small number of units and subunits for conducting the

combat training of reservists, and servicing equipment. The bulk ofthe forces

are maintained in the form of skeleton units and subunits of the Territorial

Reserve, and will be deployed only in the event of war.

Since 1966 the Territorial Troops system has included the so-called "Home

Defense Force" ("Heimatschutz"), consisting of infantry battalions, guard

companies, aiid military police platoons. The personnel in this force are

drawn from servicemen who have completed their period of compulsory

military service in the Bundeswehr, privates up to the age of 45 years, officers

up to the age of 60.

In May 1968 the West German Command decided to incorporate the

Territorial Troops in the Army, which should simplify the system of leadership, facilitate the mobilization deployment of the troops, improve cooperation both within the Bundeswehr and with NATO forces, as well as reduce

the cost of their maintenance.

THE ARMED FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN

Great Britain, at one time a great colonial sea power, has lost her former

independence and has been forced to follow in the wake of the politics and

strategy of the USA and NATO. Such a state of affairs came about as a result

of Great Britain's loss of her colonies and influence on the Commonwealth

countries and, consequently, the loss of military bases, human, and material

resources. This in turn led to a weakening of the country's economic position

and a reduction in its military potential. The most important factor influencing Britain's present-day policies is the incompatibility between her military

obligations to NATO, CENTO, and SEATO and her comparatively limited

economic and financial resources.

British strategy is based on the use of both nuclear strike forces in a general
war and conventional armed forces in various parts of the world: Europe, the

Near and Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Africa.

The recent change in the principles of the "East of Suez" military policy

provides evidence that Great Britain cannot maintain large-scale armed

forces on foreign soil. Her present military policy provides for the maintenance of minimal forces overseas, and at home a strong, mobile strategic

reserve and a specific quantity of air and sea transport facilities, capable of

ferrying reserves to any part of the globe in the shortest possible time, as well

as airlifting supplies for troops in combat areas.

The establishment of numerically small, but highly mobile armed forces,

capable of conducting military operations both with and without nuclear

weapons, conforms to this basic trend in Britain's military development.

The higher military control bodies. According to the constitution, the

Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces is the King (at present, the

Queen); however, in fact, the responsibility for preparing the country for war

rests with the Prime Minister, who heads the Cabinet, to which ihe Defense

Committee and the Minister of Defense are subordinate.

The Defense Committee evolves the general principles of military policy

and determines the main line to be followed in preparing the country for war

and developing the Armed Forces, and coordinates the related activities of

ministers and departments. The Defense Committee consists of the Prime

Minister (Chairman) and the ministers of Defenr,.% Foreign Affairs, Home

Affairs, Finance, Labor, and National Service; other ministers and representatives of the High Command may also be invited to attend meetings of

the Committee.

The Ministry of Defense, headed by a civilian who is a Member of Parliament belonging to the governing party, exercises direct control over the

development of the Armed Forces, military scientific work, and military

production; elaborates the fundamentals ofthe country's military policy; and,

following their approval by the Defense Committee, undertakes the appropriate practical measures.

The Minister of Defense exercises operational control of the Armed Forces

through the Chiefs of Staff" Committee. The Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff

Committee fulfills the function of Chief of the Defense Staff, being the Chief

Military Adviser of the Minister of Defense. The Committee is made up of

the Chief of the General Staff (the Army Staff), the Air Force Chief of Staff,

and the Chief of Naval Staff.

Major questions concerning leadership of the Armed Forces are resolved

by the Defense Council formed under the Minister of Defense. The members

of the Defense Council are the Minister of Defense, the Chief of the Defense

Staff, the Deputy Minister for Administration and Armament, the Chiefs of

Staff of the Services, the Parliamentary Deputy Ministers of Defense for the

Services, the Permanent Deputy Minister of Defense, and the Chief Scientific

Adviser to the Minister of Defense.

Army, Navy, and Air Force Councils, attached to the Defense Council,

247

•
gp'

are responsible for the training and logistic support of their respective

services.

Recruitment for the Armed Forces is by voluntary enlistment for periods

from6 to 22 years. The draft was abolished in 1961. Personnel enlisted for

service in the Regular Army have the right aftera six-year period of service

(after six, nine years, etc.) to withdraw from active military service, and in

this case, after six years of service, personnel are placed on the reserve list

for six years; after nine years, on the reserve list for three years. After the

expiration of their contract, servicemen may extend it to 22 years and then

for another five years.

NCO's are recruited from the mcU capable privates who have served in

the Army for at least six months. There are junior and senior NCO's: corporal (bombardier in the Artillery), junior sergeant, sergeant, and staffsergeant

are junior NCO ranks; warrant officer 1st and 2nd classes are senior NCO

ranks.

Regular Army officers are tiained at Sandhurst Military College (the

training period lasts two years) and are partially supplemented by NCO's and

graduates of higher civilian educational institutions.

Naval officers are drawn mainly from graduates of Dartmouth Naval

College and partially from naval petty officers and the ranks of the Navy.

During the course of their term of service. Army, Air Force, and Naval

officers take refresher and retraining courses lasting from six to ten months.

The main higher military training establishments of the Armed Forces are

the Army, Royal Air Force, and Naval Staff Colleges, the Combined Staff

College, and the Imperial Defense College.

The Army consists of the regular Army and reserves. The numerical

strength ofthe former (including colonial troops, enlisted volunteers from the

populations of colonies and dependent countries) is 210,000 officers and men.

The main grouping of British Forces is located in West Germany (the British

Army of the Rhine, consisting of three divisions, independent reinforcement,

combat, and logistic support units numbering 50,000 men) and, in the UK,

the Strategic Command, which incorporates all the formations and units of

the Army witha total numerical strength of over 100,000 officers and men.

Army units and subunits are also stationed in the Middle East (the Persian

Gulf area), the Far East (Hong Kong). Southeast Asia (Singapore, Malaysia),

and other regions.

The army reserves are subdivided into the Regular Army Reserve and the

Officers' Reserve. The Regular Army Reserve is the principal one in the

ground forces, including the Army Volunteer Reserve (warrant officers and

other ranks placed on the reserve list after completing their service contract)

and the Army Emergency Reserve (personnel who have completeda period

of service in the Royal Artillery, the Royal Engineers, the Royal Corps of

Signals, etc., and been placed on the reserve list), as well as civilian specialist

volunteers enlisted for two. three, or four year terms.

The Regular Army Reserve of Officers consists of regular officers and

generals serving in the reserve.

248

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The Army consists of branches of the Services (Infantry, Roya! Artillery,

Royal Engineers,* and the Royal Army Qrps of Signals) and services (Royal

Army Supply Corps, Royal Army Ordnance Corps, Royal Electrical and

Mechanical Engineers, Royal Army Medical Corps, Intelligence Corps,*

Physical Training Corps, Corps of Chaplains, Corps of Military Police, etc.).

The highest operational-strategic formation of the Army in a theater of

operations is considered to be the army group, which consists of two or three

corps, independent formations, and reserve units of the main command, as

well as logistic support units and subunits.

A corps does not have a permanent organizational structure: it may contain up to three divisions, two or three armored vehicle reconnaissance

regiments, artillery units, rear units and services; organic corps units (an

artillery survey regiment, a communications regiment and engineer regiments formed into an engineer group).

A division is a tactical formation of variable composition. Depending on

the situation and the assigned task, it can have two to four infantry or

armored brigades, a missile-howitzer regiment, an air defense artillery regiment, and other units and subunits.

The infantry brigade is the main combined forces tactical formation. This

consists of a headquarters, three infantry battalions, a tank regiment, a field

artillery regiment, a field engineer squadron, a communications squadron, an

intelligence platoon, an army air reconnaissance detachment, a platoon of

military police, and rear services subunits. An infantry brigade has a total of

more than 5,000 officers and men, 54 tanks, approximately 30 armored

reconnaissance vehicles, 18 105mm howitzers, 24 120mm recoilless guns, six

army aircraft and helicopters, approximately 750 motor vehicles, and other

equipment.

The armored brigade is the main tactical formation of armored troops. It

consists of a headquarters, three tank regiments, an infantry battalion, a

medium self-propelled artillery regiment, a squadron of armored personnel

carriers, and other subunits (as in an infantry brigade). The total number of

officers and men in an armored brigade exceeds 5,000; it has 162 tanks, 65

reconnaissance vehicles, 18 155mm self-propelled howitzers, approximately

100 armored personnel carriers, and up to 740 motor vehicles.

The parachute brigade has basically the same organization as the infantry

brigade, but no tank regiment, and parachute battalions instead of infantry

battalions.

Attack is considered the main form of combat operation. The width of the

attack T. outage and combat task depth depend on the situation, the relationship oi the forces, the assigned task and the nature of the terrain. A division,

operating in the direction of main thrust of a corps has an attack frontage

of 20km or more, a brigade, six to ten km. The immediate task of a division

* Sapernaya sluzhba—the Russian equivalent of the British "Royal Sappers and Miners,"

now the "Royal Engineers," was included in the Russian text after "Intelligence Corps" [U.S.

Ed.].

249
is usually put at a depth of up to 15km; the next one, 30-40km. The depth

of the immediate task, of a brigade is put at six to eight km and the next task

up to 15km.

Troops go over to the defensive temporarily for the purpose of holding

terrain, wearing down the enemy, inflicting losses, and gaining time to prepare a fresh attack. Defense must be active and stable. \ division in defense

occupies a frontage of 25-30km and a depth of 25km. The defense zone of

a division consists of a forward defense area security zone (10-20km in depth

where there is no contact with the enemy), battle outpost positions (l-3km

from the front line) and a main defense area, in which two positions are

established for first echelon brigades and one for a second echelon brigade.

An infantry brigade defends a zone with a 10-15km front and up to lOkm

in depth.

The Royal Air Force. In 1967 the military-political leadership of Great

Britain re-examined the former organizational structure of the Royal Air

Force and adopted a new one. In accordance with this, three main commands

were created: the Strike Command, the Air Support Command, and the Air

Training Command.

The Strike Command (headquarters at High Wycombe) consists of a

combination of Bomber and Fighter Commands. Initially its composition is

planned to consist of two air groups: the Bomber Group and the Fighter

Group. The following are the main tasks of the Command: to carry out

independent and joint (with the US Air Force SAC) strategic air operations;

carry out missions in the interests of NATO, CENTO, and SEATO armed

forces; and protect the most important military targets, industrial, administrative, and political centers of the country from air attack. It is proposed

that, initially the Command should consist ofthree wings (of three squadrons

each) of Vulcan B.2 and Victor B.2 medium strategic bombers, one wing of

Victor tankers, a squadron of reconnaissance aircraft, and five squadrons of

tactical fighters.

The Air Support Command is a major operations! field force, the functions

of which are to airlift troops to overseas theaters of operations, to support

the regrouping and supply of troops from the air within theaters of operations, as well as landing operations. It is planned that the Command should

have approximately ten squadrons of heavy VC10, Belfast, Britannia, Comet

C4 and Hercules C.MkI aircraft, three squadrons of Argosy and Andover

medium military transports, three squadrons of transport helicopters, two

squadrons of ground attack aircraft. Phantom and Harrier tactical fighters,

etc.

The Air Training Command is to be based on the Flight Training Command and the Technical Training Command.

Other commands include: Coastal Command, which it is planned to incoroorate in the Strike Command; Signals Command; and Logistic Support

Command.

In addition, there are RAF commands in theaters of operations; these are

intended for participation in combat operations involving the NATO,

250
I

CENTO, and SEATO blocs, supporting the deployment of British troops in

overseas theaters of operations, air defense, protection of air, sea, and ground

communications, and other tasks.

RAF commands in theaters of operations do not have a standard organization or permanent composition. These commands include:

—the RAF in West Germany: four squadrons ofCanberra B.8 light bombers, two squadrons of tactical reconnaissance aircraft, and two air defense

fighter squadrons;

—the RAF in the Near East (Cyprus): a wing of Canberra light bombers,

two squadrons of tactical reconnaissance aircraft, and one air defense fighter

squadron,

—the RAF in the Middle East (the Persian Gulf area): two squadrons of

ground attack aircraft, two squadrons of transport aircraft, a squadron of

helicopters and a squadron of coastal patrol aircraft;

—the RAF in the Far East: a squadron of light bombers, two air defense

squadrons, a tactical reconnaissance squadron, a squadron of ground attack

aircraft, and three squadrons of transport aircraft.

The Royal Navy. The Royal Navy comprises a force of over 280 ships,

including five strike carriers, two assault helicopter carriers, three cruisers,

six guided missile destroyers, over 80 destroyers and escort vessels, 43 submarines (including three atomic), and other vessels. It has 160 reserve vessels

and 36 under construction.

The main operational formations of the Navy are the Western and Far

Eastern fleets.

THE ARMED FORCES OF ITALY

With her entry into the aggressive NATO bloc in 1949, Italy became

involved in the arms race and began to follow a policy of close cooperation

with the countries of this bloc; control of the main structure of its armed

forces was handed over to NATO.

The total numerical strength of the Italian Armed Forces is approximateh

500,000 officers and men, including 270,000 in the Army, 60,000 in the Air

Force, 40,000 in the Navy, 80,000 in the military police force (Carabinieri),

and 40,000 Border Troops. The country has over 800,000 trained reservists.

The Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces is the President of the

Republic. The Minister of Defense exercises direct control of the Armed

Forces.

The Armed Forces are kept up to strength in conformity with the Universal Military Service Law. Males between the ages of 18 and 55 years are

subject to military service. The period of service is 15 months in the Army

and the Air Force and 24 months in the Navy.

For military administration purposes Italy is divided into six military,

three air, and six naval districts. The main Italian arrny grouping is in the

northern and northeastern regions of the country. Units of the United States

Army, Air Force, and Navy are also stationed in Italy.

251
The Army. The highest main tactical field force of the Army is the army

corps, which usually consists of one armored and two infantry divisions* (or

three infantry divisions, or three or four alpine brigades), an armored cavalry

regiment, one or two heavy artillery regiments, one or two army aviation

detachments, and corps combat and logistic support units.

The Army consists of seven divisions (two armored and five infantry),

twelve brigades (one armored cavalry, four infantry, five alpine, one parachute and one missile), as well as a large number of reinforcements and

logistic support units.

An armored division consists of a staff and a headquarters company, two

tank brigades equipped with M47 and M60 tanks, a motorized infantry

brigade (with Ml 13 armored personnel carriers), an artillery brigade; reconnaissance, engineer, and communications battalions; and maintenance subunits A tank brigade has two tank battalions (of over 100 tanks) and a

motorized infantry battalion; reconnaissance, sapper and communications

companies; and support subunits. A motorized infantry brigade differs from

a tank brigade in that it has one tank and two motorized infantry battalions.

An infantry division consists of a staff, a headquarters company, two

infantry and one infantry-tank regiment, a field artillery regiment; reconnaissance, engineer and communication battalions; an air detachment and maintenance subunits. A division has over 16,000 officers and men, approximately

130 light and medium tanks, over 100 armored personnel carriers and armored vehicles, 72 105mm and 155mm guns.

An independent infantry brigade consists of a staff and a headquarters

company, an infantry regiment (of two or three battalions), a tank battalion,

a division of field artillery, a communications company, an engineer company, a flight of army aircraft, and maintenance subunits.

An alpine brigade consists of a staff and a headquarters company, an alpine

regiment (of three or four battalions), a regiment of mountain artillery (three

or four batteries) and communications, engineer, and mechanized companies,

a flight of army aircraft, and maintenance subunits.

The organization of a parachute brigade is similar to that of an infantry

brigade, the only difference being that it has no tank battalion, while a

parachute regiment may have two or three parachute battalions.

A missile brigade is the main nuclear support formation of the Italian

Army. It contains three divisions of Honest John ballistic missiles, two

divisions of 203.2mm howitzers, an infantry battalion (for outpost tasks), and

control and logistic support subunits.

The units and subunits of the Italian Army are equipped mainly with

weapons aiid fighting equipment of foreign design (American, French, etc.).

The Air Force has about 450 aircraft. The main tactical subunit of the Air

Force is the squadron (16-25 aircraft). Three squadrons form an air brigade.

The Air Force comprises: two fighter-bomber brigades, two fighter brigades,

a reconnaissance brigade, a brigade of Nike-Ajax and Nike-Hercules surface-

* The word "divisions" was inserted by the translator [U.S. Ed.].
to-air guided missiles, as well as several independent squadrons of combat

and auxiliary aircraft, logistic support units and subunits.

The Italian Air Force is equipped mainly with American F-84s, F-86s, and

F-104s. Italian Fiat G.91s are used as fighter-bombers and reconnaissance

aircraft.

The Navy consists of the Fleet, Coastal Aviation and the Marine Corps.

The Fleet has over 200 combat and auxiliary vessels, including two guided

missile cruisers ("Giuseppe Garibaldi" and "Vittorio Veneta"), two guided

missile frigates, 10 submarines, two guided missile destroyers, four destroyers, 36 escort vessels, and a large number of other vessels.

The Naval Air arm has three air groups of patrol aircraft (40) (which

organizationally form part of the Air Force, but which are subordinate to the

Navy in matters of employment), as well as about 50 helicopters.

The Marines include independent sabotage and reconnaissance groups.

The principal naval bases are Taranto, Spezia, Naples, Ancona, Brindisi,

Messina, and Cagliari.

THE ARMED FORCES OF TURKEY

Together with Greece, Turkey, occupying a favorable military-strategic

position, forms NATO's southeastern flank—the springboard for the deployment of this aggressive bloc's armed forces directly on the frontiers of the

Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries.

According to the Turkish constitution, the Supreme Commander of the

Armed Forces is the P-^ident. He is also the Chairman of the National

Security Council, which u.oludes the Prime Minister, his deputies, the Chief

of the General Staff and the ministers of Foreign Affairs, National Defense,

Finance, Industry, Transport, Public Works, as well as the Deputy Chief of

the General Staff, commanders-in-chief of the Services, and the General

Secretary ofthe Committee of National Security. The Council determines the

government's military policy, exercises general supervision of the development of the Armed Forces, and determines measures for preparing the country for war and for the mobilization of the country's resources for military

purposes.

The Chief ofthe General Staff exercises direct control ofthe Armed Forces

through the General Staff and the commanders-in-chief of the Services.

The Armed Forces consist of the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy.

Their overall numerical strength is 480,000 officers and men.

The Army forms the basis of the Armed Forces and numbers approximately 400,000 men. The Army's combat forces comprise 17 divisions (13

infantry, one armored, and three training), 11 independent brigades (four

armored and seven military police), up to 10 independent infantry, armored

cavalry, cavalry, and frontier regiments, and other independent support,

combat, and logistic support units. The formations, independent units, and

subunits are organized into six army corps, which form three field armies:

the 1st Field Army deployed in Western Turkey, the 3rd Field Army in the

253

i
eastern regions (Eastern Anatolia), and the 2nd Field Army in the soutnern

and central regions of the country.

An army corps includes two or three divisions, one or two brigades,

independent infantry, armored cavalry, tank, artillery, and engineer units and

subunits, as well as logistic support units.

The infantry division, based on the former structure of the American

pentomic division, is the principal tactical formation of the Turkish Army.

It consists of: a staff and a headquarters company, five combat groups,

divisional artillery (direct support—three divisions of 105rnm and 155mm

towed howitzers and two divisions of 105mm and 155mm self-propelled

howitzers; general support—a missile howitzer division), tank, reconnaissance, engineer, and communication battalions, an army aviation company,

and an army aviation repair group, as well as a rear division (medical,

transport, and ordnance battalions; HQ, quartermaster, and administrative

companies). A division contains a total of approximately 13,750 officers and

men, 123 tanks, 60 i05-155mm guns, four 203.2mm howitzers, and two

Honest John ballistic missile launchers.

The Air Force, for organizational purposes, is formed into two air armies

(forces). These consist of air defense fighter-bomber and tighter units and

Nike surface-to-air guided missile divisions, reconnaissance and transport

units (subunits), and auxiliary aviation (communication, training, medical).

The Turkish Air Force has approximately 450 aircraft (more than half of

which are combat aircraft) of American manufacture: F-84, F-86 (various

modifications), F-100, F-104, F-5, C-47, and C-130.

The basic subunit of the Air Force is the squadron (18-25 aircraft, depending on the types).

The Navy has over 100 vessels of different types, provided by the US and

British fleets, and includes nine destroyers and ten submarines. The total

number of officers and men in the Navy is approximately 37,000.

The highest organizational unit of the Navy is the flotilla, which incorporates groups of destroyers, ASW vessels, submarines, minesweepers, minelaying and net-laying vessels, as well as detachments of auxiliary vessels.

The principal naval bases are: Izmir, Gelcuk, Iskenderun, Mersin, and

Trabzon.

THE IMPERIALIST AGGRESSIVE MILITARY BLOCS

THE NORTH ATLANTIC BLOC

The North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) is the largest aggressive militarypolitical bloc among all the military blocs created by the imperialist powers

after World War II. This bloc was established on the initiative of the USA.

The objectives of the USA in forming this bloc were, firstly, to unite the

countries of Western Europe into a military-political alliance for the preparation and unleashing of an aggressive war against the Soviet Union and other

254
countries which had embarked on the socialist path of development; secondly, to prevent the survival of the independent grouping of capitalist

states in Western Europe, in the form of the West European Alliance, (Great

Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxemburg), which had been

created by that time and was capable of competing with the USA; to

strengthen its influence on the solution of European problems; and, by means

of the NATO bloc, to exploit the human and material resources of capitalist

Europe in its aggressive aims.

The North Atlantic Pact was signed on 4 April 1949 by the representatives

of twelve countries: the USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, Italy and Portugal. In February 1952 Greece and Turkey were brought into NATO and, in

May 1955, West Germany

Thus, NATO combined 15 of the most developed capitalist countries of

Western Europe and North America, with a territorial area of approximately

22,000,000 square kilometers and a population of over 510,000,000, possessing enormous military-economic potential.

Special features ofthe North Atlantic bloc are its permanently functioning

combined political and military bodies, whose sphere of activities embraces

both the political and the military, and military-economic fields, and the

existence of large-scale combined armed forces with their respective organs

of control and theaters of operations, prepared in an operational sense according to a common plan.

The numerical strength of the combined armed forces of the NATO bloc

exceeds 6,500,000 men: in 1967 the direct military expenditures alone ofthese

countries amounted to approximately 100 billion dollars, exceeding by several times the corresponding expenditures for the early 1950's.

The highest political body ofthe North Atlantic bloc is the NATO Council

It meets twice a year On April-May and in December) at the foreign ministers

or heads of government level, with the participation of the ministers of

Defense, Economics, Finance, etc., depending on the nature of the questions

under discussion. Questions usually debated at NATO Council meetings are

those relating to the international situation, the political activities ofthe bloc;

reports of working bodies on the military-political problems of the bloc are

also read at these meetings. In the period bevween NATO Council sessions,

permanent representatives with ambassador's rank hold periodic meetings.

This is called the Permanent Council.

The working body of the Council is the International Staff Secretariat,

headed by the Secretary General and located in Brussels, Belgium.

Following France's withdrawal from the military organization of the bloc

and non-participation in the discussion of military problems in the NATO

Council, the NATO leadership established the so-called Military Planning

Committee, which, in fact, is the same NATO Council without the participation of French representatives. The Military Committee and the Nuclear

Defense Committee are subordinate to it.

The Military Committee is the chief executive military body of the NATO

255

m •

i
Council and the highest body of the strategic leadership of the bloc's armed

forces. Plenary meetings are usually held twice a year (ahead of the NATO

Council sessions) and are attended by the chiefs of general staffs.

The Permanent Military Committee (subordinate to the Military Committee), within the limits of the authority granted to it, exercises leadership of

the bloc's military activities in the period between sessions of the Military

Committee. It consists of representatives of the general staffs of member

countries (except France) and is located in Brussels.

The Permanent Military Committee, as the highest working military body

of NATO, is responsible for the strategic leadership of the combined armed

forces through the Supreme and Chief Commands of the respective zones.

The Nuclear Defense Committee, formed in 1966, is made up of the

defense ministers of twelve countries (France, Iceland, and Luxembourg

refused to participate in this organization). The working body ofthe Committee is the Nuclear Planning Group, consisting of the four permanent members (the USA, Great Britain, the FRG, and Italy) and three non-permanent

members elected in turn from among the other member countries of the

Committee for a term of 18 months. The Nuclear Defense Committee and

the Nuclear Planning Group are occupied with all aspects of nuclear policy

and the use of nuclear weapons by NATO.

The area covered by the North Atlantic Treaty takes in the territory of the

member countries and the Atlantic Ocean north of the Northern Tropics.

Militarily it is subdivided into four zones: the zones of the two Supreme

Commands (Europe and the Atlantic), the Channel Command, and the

US-Canadian Regional Strategic Group.

The Zone of the NATO Supreme Command in Europe embraces the

territory of the European member states (except Portugal and France, the

latter occupying a special position) and the Mediterranean Sea. The position

of Supreme Commander of the NATO Combined Forces is occupied by an

American general. In peacetime the Supreme Commander is responsible for

the organization, equipment, and training of the forces subordinate to him,

he elaborates operational plans for the utilization of the armed forces, submits recommendations to higher authorities, and supervises measures for the

operational organization of the territories and the logistic support of the

forces; in wartime he directs the combat operations of the forces in accordance with approved plans. The commanders-in-chief in the North European,

Central European, and South European theaters of operations and NATO

mobile forces are subordinate to the Supreme Commander.

The North European theater of operations includes the territories of Norway, Denmark, the West German State of Schleswig-Holstein, and the Baltic

coastal waters and straits zone.

The Central European theater of operations includes the territory and

coastal waters of the FRG (except the State of Schleswig-Holstein), Belgium,

the Netherlands, and Luxemburg, and is most important in terms of its

military-strategic position, the composition of the armed forces deployed

within it, and the operational equipment of the territory. Two army groups

256
and two combined tactical air commands, consisting of 23 divisions and

approximately 2,500 combat aircraft, respectively, are deployed in this

theater.

The Northern Army Group consists of four army corps: West German

(four divisions), British (three divisions and a Canadian brigade), Dutch (two

divisions), and Belgium (two divisions).

The Central Army Group includes the 5th and 7th US Army Corps (five

divisions and reinforcement units) and two West German army corps (seven

divisions). The 1st French Field Army, consisting of two divisions and support units, is stationed in the Army Group Zone.

The 2nd Combined Tactical Air Command, which cooperates with the

Northern Army Group, includes formations and units of the British, West

German, Belgium and Dutch air forces totalling approximately 1/00

aircraft.

The 4th Combined Tactical Air Command, which cooperates with the

Central Army Group, includes major field forces and formations of the US,

Canadian and West German air forces, totalling over 1,500 combat aircraft.

There are no combined naval forces in the theater.

The South European theater ofoperations embraces the territories of Italy,

Greece, and Turkey, and the Mediterranean Sea. The characteristic features

of the theater are its great extent (from the Resia Pass on the northern

frontier ofItaly, through Greece to the eastern frontier ofTurkey—a distance

of over 3,000km); the isolation of its land areas by the Adriatic, Ionian, and

Aegean seas and the Sea of Marmora, the Bosphorus Straits and Dardanelles,

which hinders the operational cooperation of the ground forces and obliges

the NATO Command to plan and conduct operations in independent regions

of the theater—Italy, Greece, and Western and Eastern Turkey.

Deployed within the theater are two combined army commands (in the

south, on Italian territory, and in the southeast, on Greek and Turkish

territory), combined air forces consisting of two Combined Tactical Air

Commands (5 CTAC on Italian territory, including Italian and American air

force units, and 6 CTAC on Greek and Turkish territory, including Greek,

Turkish, and American Turkish-based air force units).

The Combined Navy in this theater of operations consists of the US 6th

Fleet (the naval striking force in the theater) and British, Italian, Greek, and

Turkish naval ships.

The Zone of the NATO Atlantic Supreme Command takes in the Atlantic

Ocean and adjacent seas from the Northern Tropics to the Arctic and from

the coastal waters of Europe and Northwest Africa to the coast of the North

American continent and the territory of Portugal. The Supreme Commander,

an American admiral, and his headquarters are based in Norfolk (USA). The

NATO Atlantic forces are based on naval elements, which come under the

control of the respective NATO commanders only for the duration of exercises and maneuvers, and in the event of war.

The following are subordinate to the Supreme Commander in the Atlantic

Zone: the chief command in the Eastern Atlantic with its headquarters in

257
Northwood (Great Britain), in the Western Atlantic with its headquarters in

Norfolk (USA), in the Iberian sector of the Atlantic with its headquarters

at San Pedro de Penaferrim (Portugal), as well as the NATO Atlantic Strike

Fleet Command with its shore-based headquarters in New York.

The Zone of NATO's Channel High Command is the responsibility of a

committee of British, Belgian, and Dutch representatives. The Commanderin-Chief of the Combined Armed Forces, with headquarters in Portsmouth

(Great Britain) is subordinate to it. The main task of this command is to

ensure the safety of the shipping lanes in the English Channel wi^h the forces

allocated by the member countries of the Committee.

The US-Canadian Regional Strategic Group is concerned with the elaboration of plans for joint operations of US and Canadian armed forces on the

territories of these countries.

THE CENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION-CENTO

This military bloc was established in 1955 as tiie result of a conspiracy of

the Western imperialist states. (Until 1959, i.e., until Iraq's withdrawal, it

was called the Bagdad Pact.) Member countries are Great Britain, Turkey,

Pakistan, and Iran. Although not legally a member of CENTO, the USA, in

fact, directs its activities. In March 1959 the USA concluded bilateral military agreements with Turkey, Iran and Pakistan, under the terms of which

the Americans acquired the right to introduce their own troops into these

territories under the pretext of "guaranteeing their security," but, in fact, to

suppress anti-imperialist and democratic movements.

In creating CENTO, the USA and Great Britain were governed mainly by

their strategic and military-economic interests in the Near and Middle East.

They took into consideration the proximity of the bloc's eastern member

countries to the frontiers of the Soviet Union—an advantageous springboard

for preparing and unleashing a war against the USSR—the presence of

enormous oil reserves and the large-scale extraction of oil, needed to satisfy

the requirements of the NATO member countries, and the important human

.esources of the eastern countries of CENTO. Finally, they set themselves

the goal of using the CENTO bloc as an instrument to counter the growing

national liberation movement of the peoples in this region.

The highest executive body of this bloc is the CENTO Council, which

meets once a year (usually in April) at the foreign ministers and sometimes

heads of government level, with the participation of other officials concerned

with the questions discussed by the Council.

Leadership of the bloc between sessions of the Council is exercised by the

Council of Representatives of the member countries. The representatives

carry ambassadorial rank. The Council usually meets twice a month under

the chairmanship of the Secretary General of CENTO.

The following are subordinate to the Council: the Military Committee, the

Committee on Combating (so-called) Subversive Activities, the Economic

Committee, the Liaison Committee, the Budgetary and Administrative Com-
mittee, the Economic Control Group, several subcommittees, and the General Secretariat—the working body of the CENTO Council.

The Military Committee is the highest military body of the bloc. It elaborates and submits to the Council recommendations and suggestions relating

to the development, training, and plans for the utilization of the armed forces;

it determines the themes and programs of joint exercises and maneuvers,

directs the activities ofsubordinate bodies in charge ofstrategic planning, and

organizes cooperation with the NATO bloc on military matters. The Committee members are the chiefs of general staffs or supreme commanders of

the armed forces of the CENTO countries, as well as a representative of the

US Department of Defense.

Between sessions of the Committee the Permanent Group of Representatives, which is subordinate to the Committee, is responsible for military

matters. The Group is composed of representatives of the military departments of the USA, Great Britain, Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan. The working

body of this Group is the Combined Military Planning Staff. Since 1960 this

Staff has been headed by an American general.

The Committee on "Combating Subversive Activities" organizes and carries out, w

;

thin the framework of CENTO, anticommunist activities and

directs the subversive activities of imperialist agents in Near and Middle

Eastern countries.

The Economic Committee is concerned with matters relating to the militarization of the economics of the eastern countries of CENTO and is responsible for the elaboration and implementation of plans for the construction of

airfields, roads, naval bases and ports, communication links, and other items

of military significance.

The Numerical Strength and Combat Composition of the Armed Forces of the Eastern Countries

of CENTO

Turkey Iran Pakistan Total

Total numerical strength of the regular «n 180 280 440

armed lorces, thousands of men.

including

Army 400 161 250 814

Atr force 43 10 20 n

Navy 37 6 10 53

Numerical strength of irregular M M 45 N

forces

Combat compontion

Divisions 17 8 10 35

Independent brigades (groups) U 1 — 12

Squadrons of combat aircraft. n 7 12 42

including

light Dombers — — 3 3

tactical fighters 12 — 6 18

fighter-interceptors 8 s 2 16

reconnaissance aircraft 3 1 1 5

Total number of combat aircraft 312 165 200 in

fighting iiNfcii, 82 37 21 H0

including

light cruisers — — 1 I

destroyers 8 — 5 33

submarines 10 — 1 11

other vesjets 64 37 14 115

*u«itiary vessels 26 2 6 34

,>

259
The CENTO bloc does not have a unified command and combined armed

forces. However, the training of national armed forces and the elaboration

of plans for their utilization in war are in the hands of the bloc's controlling

bodies, the leading role in which is shared by the US and British representatives.

THE SOUTHEAST TREATY ORGANIZATION (SEATO)

This military bloc was formed in 1954. Its member countries are the USA,

Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, the Philippines

and Pakistan. The bloc was created for the purpose of combating national

liberation movements in the countries of Southeast Asia and preparing for

war against the socialist countries. The area covered by the Treaty is the

southwestern part of the Pacific Ocean south of latitude 2r30' N. Its headquarters is in Bangkok (Thailand).

The highest controlling body of SEATO is the Council, consisting of the

ministers of Foreign Affairs and War, and representatives of other ministries.

The Council meets once a year. The Committee of Military Advisers and the

Council of Representatives are subordinate to the SEATO Council.

The Committee of Military Advisers consists of military leaders of the bloc

member countries. The Military Planning Directorate—a permanent body

which represents the embryo of the future unified command of the bloc's

armed forces—has been formed under the Committee. The work of the

military advisers is directed by American generals and admirals.

Permanent machinery for conducting the current work of SEATO has

been set up, with the Secretary General at its head.

There is no central military command and the armed forces are under

national leadership. Support for the bloc members is provided by the US 7th

Fleet based in Taiwan and the Philippines, and elements of the US Air Force

based on the islands of Guam and Okinawa and in South Vietnam and

Thailand.

The Numerical Strength of the Armed Forces of the Asiatic Member Countries of SEATO

Country Population Army Navy Air Total

(ir. millions) (m Ihous 1 (m thous) Force

(in thous)

numerical

strength o!

armed lorces

(in thous)

Australia 120 434 IU 20S 80

NeWealand 2 M 29 43 12J

Philippines 32 11 55 1 30

Thailand 12 85 215 20 126 3

The air forces of the SEATO countries are equipped mainly with fighters,

bombers, and transports. The largest of these air forces is the Australian,

which inch, les foui fighter squadrons equipped with Australian Sabres

(F-86), two squadrons of Canberra bombers, two squadrons of Neptune sea

26G

•
reconnaissance aircraft, two transport squadrons, two squadrons of Iroquois

helicopters, one squadron of Bloodhound Mkl surface-to-air missiles—a

total of 220 combat aircraft.

The New Zealand Air Force has 37 combat aircraft, the Philippine Air

Force 64, and the Thai Air Force 125.

Country

The Navies of the Asiatic Member Countries of SEATO

Light

aircraft

carriers

Destroyers Frigates Minesweepers

Minelayers

uther

«essels

Australia

New Zealand

Philippines'

Thailand'

2?

1?

36

26

'The Philippine Navy has 12 escct patrol vessels, six assault vessels, six submarine hunters, and 18 patrol boats

' The Thai Navy has nine submarine hunters, 18 patrol boats and eight assault vessels

THE MAIN DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS OF WEAPONS AND COMBAT MATERIEL

The Main Design Specifications of Surface-to-Surface Missiles

Missile Range

km

Launch

weight.

tons

Length,

m

Mas.

body

diameter.

m.

Warhead

yield,

millions

of tons

Type of

control

system

Remarks

Strategic missiles

Minuteman U

Mmuteman 2

10,130

11,265

31

33

169

18,2

1,8

18

15

2.0

Self-contained

mertial

Three-stage solid-fuel

missile launched from

underground silo

Minuteman 1 was brought

into operational use in

1962, Minuteman 2 in 1966

TrtmZ over 11.000 149.6 314 3 05 10-18 T*o-stage missile with

liquid-fuel engines,

launched from underground silo In operational

use since 1963

Polaris A2

Polaris A3

2,800

4.630

l.M

158

94

95

137

137

05

10 •

Two-stage solid-fuel

missile carried by atomic

submarines (16 per vessel),

launched from underwater

position Accepted for

operational use by the Navy

Polaris A2 in 1962. Polaris

A3 in 1964

Tactical missiles

Pwshing 18S-740 45 10 5 10 up to 0 5 Sett contained

inectial

Two-stage solid fuel

missile, launched from

mobile launchers Supplied

to the US Army {from 1964)

and the West German Air

Force Launch-ready time

30 mm

Sergeant SO-140 45 10 5 08 Sell-contained

ineftill

One-stage solid-fue* missile

tor use with mobile launcher

iiMtMtta 2,100 82 134 14

Opefational in the US Army (since

1962) and the West German Army

A cruise missile with ,«t propulsion cruise engine and solidfuel Hunching booster MammuM

H<W velocity 1,000 hm/hr. «wht

•Ititud» 0 J-12km Launched from

mobile launcher or underground

shelter Warhead nuclear or

conventional Introduced into the

US An Fofrtin '959

/
THE MAIN DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS OF WEAPONS AND COMBAT MATERIEL-Continued

The Main Design Specifications of Surfaceto-Surface Missiles

Missile Range, Launch Length, Max Warhead Tvpe of

km ./eight, m body yield. control

tons diameter,

m.

millions

of tons

system

Remarks

Honest John IE

Lance

3-40

70

21

1,5

79

6.1

076

0 56

Solid fuel missile for use with

mobile launcher, mounted on the

chassis of a 5-ton truck. Warhead: nuclear or conventional

Operational m the armies of the

USA and other NATO countries

Proposed as a replacement for

the existing Hones* John and

Little John ballistic missiles.

The Main Design Specifications of Aircraft

No

in

ere*

Take-off

«ft, tons

Fligh characteristics Mam armament

Maximum oomb

load, kg

Aircraft designation

and name (country)

Max speed

km/hr

Service

ceiling,

m

Range,

km

Rocket (no,,

type, caliber.

mm)

Machine-gun

and cannon

(no.caliber,

mm)

Strategic bombers

B-52G,H, Stratolortress (USA)

6 200-230 1,000-

1,050

17,000 16,000-

19,000

? Hound Dog

guided missiles

4 20mm cannon

4.« 12.7mm

machine guns

10,000

B-58A Hustler

(USA)

3 80 2,000-

2.200

20,000 7,000 1 20mm cannon Nuclear weapon

in pod

B-47 Stratoiet

(USA)

3 100 960 14,000 10,000 1 Rascal guided

missile

1 20mm cannon 10,000

FB-111 (USA undergoing tests)

2 31 M2,5 Approx

18,000

Over

6,100

7 SRAMs 17,000 (nuclear

or conventional

Vulcan B 2

(Britain)

5 90 1.100-

1,200

18,000 Over

9,000

1 Blue Steel

guided missile

9,600

Victor B 2

(Britain)

5 80-100 1,100-

1,200

Over

18,000

11,000 1 Blue Steel

guided missile

16,000

Mirage IVA

(France)

2 30 2,000-

2,400

4,000 1 AS-30 guided

missile

Nuclear bomb

50,000 tons*

Tactical fighters and bombers

F 100 Super Sabre

(USA)

1 17-18 1,300-

1/.00

17,000 3,300 24 127mm unguided

missiles

4. Sidewinder or

2 i Bullpup guided

missiles

4 . 20mm Over 3.000

F-10J AandC

Voodoo (USA)

I 22 1,900-

2,000

18,000-

20,000

4,500 Unguided missiles

and Falcon guided

missiles

4 20mm Nuclear and

conventional

bombs

F 104C Starfighter

(USA)

1 10-12 2,250 Z^.C-O 3,000 2 < Sidewinder or

Bullpup guided

missiles'

! . 20mm 1.350

F-105Thur)derchief mi

20 2,000-

2,200

15,000 4,000 190 . 70mm unguided

missiles or

4 . Sidewinder or

2 Bullpup guided

missiles

1 . 20mm Over 4,600

F-4C Ftiantom 2

(USA)

2 23-25 ?,50O 24,000 4,500 8 Sidewinder and

Sparrow or

2 > Bulipup

guided missiles

5.500

F-5A (USA) 1 21 1,600 15,250 Over

3,000

4. guided

missiles

2 > 20mm

f-lUAWSA) 2 35-37 M25 24.000 5,000 Several SRAMs Up to 9,000

Mirage nii

(Franc»)

1 1,900 25000 2,500 2 30mm

cannon

MM "B 2 1.100 15,000 4,000 4. guided

m.ssiles, or

208 v 68mm

unguided

missiles

2 • 30mm

cannon

Tactical bumber

262
The Main Design Specifications of Aircraft—Continued

No

In

crew

Take-off

wt., tons

Flight characteristics Main armament

Aircraft designation

and name (country

Max speed,

km/hr

Service

ceiling,

m

Range,

km

Rocket (no.,

type, caliber,

mm)

Machine-gun Maximum bomb

and cannon load, kg

(no.,caliber,

mm)

Canberra (Britain) 2-3 20-22 940-1,000 18,000 4,500-

4,800

Nord AS,30

guided missile

4 x 20mm 3,600

Hunter (Britain) 1 10.7 1,160 15,000 3,000 74x50.8mm

unguided

missiles

4 x 30mm 900

Strategic and tactical recoi naissance aircraft

RB-57F (USA) i-; 21,000 1,300 30,000 8,000 Strategic reconnaissance aircraft; designed for high-altitude

photo, radiation, and electronic reconnaissance and

weather reconnaissan-.e.

SR-71 (USA) 2 3,200 30,000 8,000 Strategic reconnaissance aircraf

U-2 (USA) 1 8,000 800 24,000 8,000 Strategic reconnaissance aircraft

Canberra PR,9

(Britain)

2 20,000 1,025 Approx.

20,000

6,400-

7,200

Tactical reconnaissance aircraft

hunter FR. 10

(Britain)

i 10,700 1,160 16,000 3,000 Tactic' reconnaissance aircraft

Victor 8.2

(Britain)

5 9,300 1,100-

1,200

16,700 Approx.

10,000

Strategic reconnaissance aircraft

Mirage IHR 1 1,900- 15,000 2,500 Tactical reconnaissance aircraft

(France) 2,400

Interceptor fighters

F-1018 Voodoo

(USA)

2 22 1,900 18,000 4,500 All-weather interceptor fighter; 6 x Falcon guided missiles

or 2 x Genie unguided missiles with nuclear charges.

F-102A Delta

Dagger (USA)

1 11.3 1,500 15,000 1,000 All-weather interceptor fighter; 6 x Falcon guided missiles

and 24 x 70mm unguided missiles.

F-106A,B Delta

Dart (USA)

1 16 2,250 Up to

20,000

Up to

3,000

All-weather interceptor fighter, 4 x Super Falcon guided

missiles and 1 x Genie unguided missile with a

nuclear charge.

Javelin

(Britain)

2

1 E; 1,100 17,000 2,500 4xFlrestreak guided missiles (or 148X 50.8mm

unguided missiles) and 2 x 30mm cannons

Lightning F 2

(Britain)

1 16 2,400 20,000 - 2xFirestreak guided missiles and 2 x 30mm cannons.

Mystere IVA

(France)

1 1,120 16,500 2,300 Day fighter; 2xguided missiles and 55x68mm unguided

missiles, 900kg of bombs.

Super Mystere IVB

(France)

1 1 190 17,000 1,800 Day fighter; 2 x guided missiles or 32 x unguided

68mm unguided missiles, 900kg of bombs

Military transport aircraft

CUlAStarlifter

(USA)

5 144 920 15,000 10,000 Load: 154 soldiers with personal weapons, or 129

parachutists, or 10 loaded shock-absorbing platforms

each weighing 3,600kg, or 2 light tanks, or a

Minuteman ICBM in a container. Max mum payload

42,000kg

C-5A Galaxy

(USA) 1

5 350 920 10,700 Up to

10,000

Load: 350 soldiers with weapons or up to 120 tons

of freight.

C-130 Hercules

(USA)

« 62 580 10,000-

12,000

5,000 Load: 92 persons or 21,000kg.

C-133 Cargomaster

(USA)

4-8 130 650 1,090 8,000 Load: 288 persons or 52,OOOkg.

C135Stratolifter

(USA)

6 in 1,000 15,000 7,500 Load: 150 persons or 40,000kg

Tanker aircraft

KC-135AStratotank9r

(USA)

125 1,000 15,000 10,000 Fuel reserve transferred to aircraft in flight,

up to 40 tons.

Victor B.K1

''

80-100 1,100-

1,200

'8,000 11,000 Fuel reserve transferred to aircraft m flight,

24 tons.

* Possibly "a nuclear bomb with a warhead yield of 60,000 tons" fU.S Ed ].

t Could be read as "2 Sidewinder guided missiles or a Builpup guided missile" |U.S Ed.)

263

r
Main Design Specifications of Air-to-Ground Guided Missiles

Dimensions, n

Launch

weight, kg

Range,

km

Type of control

system

Name and

designation of

missile (country)

Length Wing-span Max.

diameter Remarks

Hound Dog

(USA)

Approx. 13 0.72 3.7 4,500 1,100 Inertial Carried by B-52G, H strategic

bombers (2 per aircraft);

max. speed Mach 2; nuclear

warhead.

Bullpup

(USA)

3.35-4.14 0.3-0.45 0.8-1.2 260-810

9-11

Radio command Carried by tactical fighters and

naval aircraft. Conventional

warhead; modification "D"

nuclear warhead.

Blue Steel

(Britain)

Approx.

10.7

1.28 Approx. 4 Approx.

7,000

320 Inertial Carried by Vulca,n B.2 and

Victor B.2 strategic bombers

(one per aircraft). Flight

velocity Mach 1.6; nuclear

warhead.

Quail

(USA)

39 Height

1.0

1.6 500 Up to

400

Self-contained,

programmed

An electronic countermeasures

missile car, ied by 8-520^

strategic bombers.

AS-30

(France)

3.9 0.34 1.0 510 Up to 11 Radio command Carried by Mirage III. Canberra

and Etendar aircraft.

Conventional warhead.

Main Design Specifications of Surface-to-Air Missiles

Name and

designation o'

missile (country)

Max.

range, km

Launch

weight, kg

Length, m Max. body

diameter, m

Max.

velocity.

Mach No.

Type of control

system

Remarks

Nike-Hercules

(USA)

Nike-Ajax

(USA)

130

40

4,700

1,100

12.7

10.3

0.8 (2nd

stage)

0.3 (2nd

stage)

M>3

M2.3

Radio command

with radar

tracking of

target and

missile

ditto

Two-stage solid-f_sl missile for

use against supersonic

targets flying at altitudes of

up to 30km Nuclear

warhead. Introduced in

1953.

Two-stage missile; second

stage powered by liquid

Hawk

(USA)

35 590 5 0.36 M2.5 Semi-active radar

homing

Bomarc

(USA)

Thunderbird

(Britain)

Mssurca

(France)

700 13.7 0.9 M28

46 1,900 6.4 0.53

40 1.850 86 0.4

Combined (radio

and active

homing head)

Semi-active radar

homing

Combination

propellant engine.

Fragmentation-high explosive

warhead. Operational in the

Army since 1963. Launch

complexes: fixed and mobile.

Single-stage solid-fuel missile

for use against supersonic

targets at low and medium

altitudes (up to 15km).

Launched from a mobile

triple ramp launcher.

Conventiona1 warhead.

Operational in the Army

since 1959.

Missile with two ramiet engines

and a solid-propellant

booster Intended for use

against supersonic aerial

targets at altitudes of up to

30km. Nuclear warhead

Designed for use against

supersonic aerial targets at

altitudes of up to 20km.

Operational in the Army

since 1960. Mobile

launcher Fragmentation-high

explosive warhead.

Two-stage solid-fuel missile for

use against aerial targets at

altitudes of up to 25km.

Conventional wsrhead.

264
Main Design Specifications of Armored Equipment

No.it Combat Thickness Max Fuel Engine Armament (number.

Name crew weight, of armor, speed distance, capacity. caliber, mm) Remarks

(country) tons mm km/hr km hp

Walker Bulldog 4 23 38/32 65 240 525 1 X 76.2mm gun Army equipped with this

M41 A3 light IX 7.62mm machine gun tank since 1953;

tank Ix 12.7mm anii-aircratt improved in 1958.

(USA) machine gun

Patton M48 4 46 178/100 45 310 850 1 x 90mm gun Introduced in 1953;

medium Ix7.62mm machine gun modified model

tank Ix 12.7mm anti-aircraft introduced in 1956.

(USA) machine gun

Sheridan light 4 16 Bullet- 65 480 350 Ix 155mm gun Designed for

tank proof Ix7.62mm machine gun reconnaissance,

(USA) armor Ix 12.7mm anti-aircraft

gun

Shillelagh missile

comba» outpost, tank

destruction.

Amphibious tankspeed in water 6.2

km/hr. The missile,

weighing 20kg, has

an infrared or radar

guidance system.

M60A1 4 46.3 178/100 48 400 750 1x105mm gun Main combat tank of

medium 1 x 7.62mm machine gun the US Army. Has a

lank Ix 12.7mm anti-aircraft vertical and

(USA) machine gun horizontal

stabilization system.

Modernized model

introduced in 1962.

M103 heavy 5 54.4 130/127 34 160 810 Ix 120mm gun

tank Ix 12.7mm anti-aircraft

(USA) machine gun

Ix7.62mm machine gun

Centurion 4 50 150/7S 34 190-200 640-650 1 x 105mm gun Introduced

MklXand IX 7.62mm machine gun 1958-1960. Has a

MkX gun stabilization

medium system in two

tank

(Britain)

planes. It can ford

water obstacles or

navigate afloat (with

special equipment).

Chieftain tank .1 45 35 320 700 Ix 120mm gun Introduced in 1963.

(Britain) 2 X 7.52mm machine gun

ix 'i2.7iTim anti-aircraft

Has a gun

stabilization system

machine gun in two planes. A

frame type flotation

device is used for

negotiating water

cb'tcic

Leopard 4 39 70 560 820 Ix 105mm gun introduced in 1963.

medium 1 x 7.62mm machine gun With special

tank (FRG) Ix 12.7mm anti-aircraft

machine gun

equipment can ford

water obstacles up to

4 m deep

Turenne 3 145 up to 40 65 400 270 1x75mm gun Introduced in 1951.

AMX-51 Ix7.5mm machine gun Reequipped with a

light tank 105mm gun. Has

(France) equipment for

launching the 5S-11

anti-tank guided

missile (4 missiles)

AMX-63 4 325 65 4SC 720 IxlOSmiTi gun introduced in 1363.

medium 1 x ?.62mm machine gun With special

tank Ix 12.7mm anti-aircraft equipment can ford

(France) machine gun water obstacles up to

!

4 m deep

Main Design Specifications of Armored Personnel Carriers and Armored Cars

Combat Seating Max Fuel Armament (number,

Name weight, (mcl. speed, distance. calibet, mm) Remarks

tons crew) km/hr km

Armored ptrsortnel carriefs

MU3»mph!bKK S 10 13 64 320 1 x 12.7mm machine A reconnaissance vehicle, a sslf-prooelled

vehicle (USA) gun flamethrower, a mobile advanced HO, and a

transporter for the Pershmg guided missile

and the Mauler anti-aircraft guided missile,

etc. have been developed from the Ml 13.

Ml 14 amphibious 6 4 64 400 1 x 12.7mnri machine Used as a reconnaissance and a staff vehicle.

vehicle (USA) gun
Main Design Specifications of Armored Personnel Carriers and Armored Cars—Continued

Combd' Seating Max. Fuel Armament (number.

Name weight, (incl. speed. distance. caliber, mm) Remarks

tons crew) km/hr km

Ix 7.62mm machine

gun

FV432 (Britain) 14 14 48 450 1 x 7 62mm machine

gun

Can be fitted out to navigate water barriers.

Amphibious

Saracen wheeled 10 12 70 2x7,62mm machine Different types of vehicles have been

vehicle (Britain) guns developed on the chassis of the armored

personnel carrier.

AMX VTT-56 14 14 65 340 Ix 12.7mm machine

(France) gun

VTT-PC (France) 135 7 60 350 1 x 7.5mm machine

gun

It is planned to equip mechanized and tank

regiments with these armored personnel

carriers

SPW (FRG) 146 8 51 270 1x20mm gun

1X 7.62mm machine

gun

Motorized infantry squads are equipped with

these.

SPIA (FRG) 8.2 5 58 350 1X 20mm gun Reconnaissance sub-units are equipped with

these.

Main Desigr Specifications of Armored Personnel Carriers and Armored Cars

Combat Max. Fuel Armament (number.

Name weight, (incl speed. distance. caliber, mm) Remarks

tons crew) km/hr km

Armored cars

Ferret Mk 2 43 2 72 300 1 K 7.62mm machine Armed with Vigilant anti-tank guided missile.

(Britain) gun

AML 245 4.5 3 100 600 i x60mm mortar Introduced into the forces in 1961

(France) 2 x 7.5mm machine

guns

Main Design Specifications of Self-Propelled Artillery

Angle of fire

No. in Combat riax. Max Fuel Eng. Vert. honz

Name (country) crew we ghf firing speec km hp Remarks

tons r nge, km/hr

km

M108 105mm

howitzer

(USA)

M109 155mm

howitzer

(USA)

M107 175mm gun

(USA)

M55 203.2mm

howitzer (USA)

Ml 10 203 2mm

how.tzer (USA)

Abbot 105mm gun

(Britain)

105mm howitzer

(France)

155mm howitzer

(France)

Jagdpanzer 90mm

anti-tank gun (FRG)

5 17.2 14 65 240 340 -10'

+ 75-

360* Introduced in 1962.

Rotating turret.

5 18.7 18.4 50 400 420 -5*

+ 75"

360* Introduced in 1963.

Can fire atomic

shells weighing less

than 1kg.

5

6

279

4 3

32

17

55

48

700

250

420

810

65'

5-

+ 65*

60'

60-

Introduced in 1962.

Corps artillery of the

USA, the FRG and

other countries is

equipped with this

gun.

Introduced in 1954.

5 26 1 17 55 720 420 (,y 60* Introduced in 1962.

4 135 185 47 450 ?20 Rotating

turret

Introduced in 1963,

adapted lor

navigating water

barriers afloat

5 16 14 60 400 270 - 5'

+ 691

40* Introduced m 1952:

mounted on the

chassis of the

AMX-51 tank

7 17 20-25 60 400 270 o-

+ 67-

50"

4 23 1 5 80 580 500 -r

+ 15*

Hull hermetically

sealed and fitted

with a filtration unit

Effective range

when firing at tanks

1,500m

266
Design Specifications of Guided Anti-tank Missiles

Name (country) Range, m Total weight

of weapon.

incl.

launchers.

kg

Launch

weight, kg

Weight of

missile

head.kg

Length, m Body

diameter,

mm

Flight

velocity,

m/sec

Armor

pene bating

capability,

mm

Moskito

(Switzerland)

360-2400 28 11.5 4 1.1 120 100 600

Kobra (FRG) 400-1600 10 10 2.7 0.95 100 85 500

Entac (France) 400-2000 17 12 39 0.83 140 85 450

SS-U (France) 500-3000 30 28,5 8.1 1.2 160 140 600

Vigilant (Britain) 230-1600 20 12 3.5 1.06 110 150 600

Malkara (Britain) 600-3200 97 97 27 2.0 200 150 500

Milan

(FRG-France)

25-2000 11 11 • 0.75 103 180 •

Hot (FRG-France) 75-4000 25 25 • 1.24 .36 280 •

Shillelagh (USA) 500-2000 • 20 6.2 1,09 152 150 500

Swmgfire

(Britain)

2000 • • 7 0,9 127 190 500

MAW (USA) 1000 • • 6.7 0.72 120 • •

TOW (USA) 3000 72 72 3.8 1,14 140 300 •

What to Read on This Section

Marksizm-leninism o voyne iarmii [Marxism-Leninism on War and Army],*

5th edition, Ch. IV. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Belashchenko, T. K., Rzheshevskiy, O. A. Armiya SShA kak ona yest' [The

US Amy as It Really Is]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Belashchenko, T. K. et al., Komu sluzhit ofitserskiy korpus SShA? [Whom

Does the US Officer Corps Serve?]. Voyenizdat, 1966.

Volkov, N. V., Makarov, L. P., Udarnaya sila NATO v Yevrope [NATO's

Striking Force in Europe]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

Organizatsiya i woruzheniye armiy i flotov kapitalisticheskikh gosudarstv

[The Organization and Armament of the Armed Forces of the Capitalist

States]., 2nd enlarged edition. Voyenizdat, 1968.

* Available in English, No. 2. USAF "Soviet Military Thought" series [U.S. Ed.].

267

»
Chapter 9. SCIENCE AND MILITARY AFFAIRS

Science is the most important element of intellectual culture, the highest

form of human knowledge. A system of developing knowledge, science is

based on facts of reality; it provides an explanation of their origin and

development, the means of gaining an insight into objective laws of the real

world, and methods of making conscious and purposeful use of them.

The main function of science is to serve the interests of mankind, to achieve happiness and

justice on earth, to save us from all that is harmful in the elemental forces of nature and society.

Thanks to science, we have been able to eliminate certain diseases in man, others we have learned

to combat successfully; our living conditions have been improved. Science has enabled us to

harness natural forces; this has considerably lightened man's work, and made it possible for a

smaller number of people to carry out a much greater volume of work. It has made us stronger

and wiser.

The natural sciences have always been associated with the development of

the productive resources of society; they have served the interests of developing production and moved it forward.

The social sciences have been used by various social forces to change social

relationships, and superstructural phenomena;* they have contributed to the

practical activities of the class struggle.

In our own times science has penetrated deeply into the life ofsociety: into

the material output, social attitudes, and spiritual lives of people, h promotes

progress and, in the final analysis, emerges as its powerful accelerator.

A comprehensive analysis of the role of science in the present age is given

in the Program of the CPSU, resolutions of the XXII and XXIII Party

Congresses, and in subsequent documents of the Central Committee. Emphasizing the world historical role of science, the Party reveals the fundamental

roles ofscience1in the capitalist and socialist systems and gives special attention to the elucidation of the increasing role of science in the building of the

communist society.

As t result of the constant concern of the Communist Party, science has

advanced at an unprecedented rate in our country. Confirmation of this is

provided by the numerous discoveries of Soviet scientists in many branches

* Nadstroyechnyye yavlcniya. 'superstructure' in Marxist philosophy refers to the political,

legal, religious, artistic, and philosophic views of society and the political, legal and other

institutions corresponding to them [U.S. Ed).

268
I

!

of human knowledge, including the social sciences, mathematics, physics, the

space sciences, radioelectronics, technology, etc. There are over 900,000

scientists in the USSR: one quarter of all the scientists in the world.

In our country science is becoming more and more a direct productive

force. It participates actively in the process of material production and in

social life. Science has achieved significant new results in the past five-year

plan. In conformity with the XXIII Party Congress Directives, both basic

theoretical research and applied science have been developed. Special attention has been given to the elaboration of theoretical problems in power

engineering, the development of new structural, building, and other materials, and production automation and control.

The role of the social sciences is becoming increasingly important. Taking

this into consideration, the CPSU CC in August 1967 adopted a special

resolution "On measures for the further development of the social sciences

and increasing their role in the building of communism." In this resolution

the Central Committee clearly defined the tasks of scientific research in all

the most important branches of the social sciences, and emphasized the need

to devote special attention to Marxist-Leninist methodology, a class-Party

and specifically historical approach to social phenomena.

A characteristic feature of modern science is its growing influence on

military affairs. This does not, of course, mean that military affairs are any

less dependent on economic conditions, politics, and other aspects of social

life. On the contrary, the qualitatively new role of science in relation to

military affairs strengthens this dependency and lends it special importance.

The special role of science in relation to military affairs is expressed in the

most concentrated form in those revolutionary changes which took place in

it after World War II, and which continue to develop at a more profound

level. The military power wielded by states today and, particularly, tomorrow

will be determined mainly by the level of scientific development and the

extent to which it penetrates the field of military affairs.

Scientific-technical progress in the imperialist countries is being utilized increasingly for

military purposes. The US Department of Defense has seized the predominant role in American science. Three quarters of the engineers and sciemists in the USA are working on military and space projects. Eighty per cent of all federal funds allocated for scientific research

is absorb i by the Pentagon's military and space programs, i.e., about 15 billion dollars per

year.

The main reason why science and military science are so closely interrelated in the imperialist

countries is the antagonistic nature of capitalism, which is based on private ownership. The

imperialist states strive to use their economic and political strength and the achievements of

science as instruments to exploit and oppress their own people and those of other countries,

particularly backward countries. It is precisely because of this that military expenditures are

continually increasing and scientific potential is being squandered to the detriment of historical

progress. If the money spent by the NATO countries in one month on military requirements

were to be diverted to peaceful purposes, it would be possible to irrigate the whole of the Sahara

Desert.

Humanity suffers greatly on account of the imperialists" policy of aggression and wars. Each

year the world spends approximately 120 billion dollars for military purposes, which is roughly

equal to the total annual income of all the poorly developed countries of the world, which have

269
a total population of 1.5 billion people. The efforts of almost 90% of today's scientists are

concentrated on problems connected in one way or another with military affairs.

In the socialist countries, science serves constructive purposes, but the

imperialist policy of continuing the arms race and building up tension

throughout the world forces the socialist countries, who are not interested

in war, to utilize the achievements ofscience to consolidate their own defensive capacity and increase the fighting power of their armed forces.

Being associated with military problems, science predetermines the development of the military affairs in a variety of ways. The greatest scientific

discoveries are, m a way, turning points in the development ofmilitary affairs.

This has already been demonstrated by World War II, a time of important

scientific discoveries and inventions in which new fields of research were

opened up During this war, Soviet scientists and designers developed many

new models of tanks, aircraft, nuclear weapons, and other means of armed

combat, which outperformed those of the German Fascist forces.

The 20th century is the century ofthe great scientific and technical revolution. Scientific potential, together with economic, moral-political and strictly

military potential, constitutes the basis of a country's military power. A high

degree of development in science and technology is the main prerequisite for

military technical supremacy and the achievement of victory over the enemy.

In the age of missiles and the atom, to lag behind in the utilization of

scientific and technical achievements in the interests of military science could

lead to irretrievable consequences.

The influence of science on military affairs is manifested primarily in the

field of military equipment and weapons. A change in the standard and

quantity of military equipment is accompanied by a change in the structure

ofthe armed forces, the ratio ofthe Services and the branches of the Services,

the nature of armed combat, the methods and forms of waging war, troop

control, and the training and education of personnel.

One of the main indications of the penetration of the military field by

science is the continuous and spasmodic growth of the power available per

man in the armed forces, the saturation ofthe armed forces with increasingly

sophisticated means of communication, control, and automation. This has

considerably increased the combat potential of formations, units, and ships.

The following figures will give an indication of the increase of the power available per man

in the Soviet Armed Forces. Whereas in 19.19 the power-weight ratio of an infantry division was

3 hp per man, the corresponding figure for a motorized infantry division today exceeds 30 hp

per man.

The power available per man in the Navy has increased even more strikingly. A modern

submarine has almost 100 times more power available per man than a prewar submarine.

The development of military affairs on the basis ofscientific and technological achievements in all the countries of significant military potential is

characterized by an enormous increase in the efficiency of weapons, and their

effective range, in very short intervals of time, and the capacity to move

troops and all their equipment with much greater speed. In other words,

270

'
science has provided the means ofsubstantially increasing all the components

of the armed forces' fighting power.

The most important role in the radical transformations which have taken

place in military affairs have been played by modern industries based on

science and technology, such as power engineering, metallurgy, electronics,

machine-building and instrument making, the chemical industry, etc. The

achievements of mathematics, physics, chemistry and cybernetics form the

military-technical basis of modern military affairs. These sciences have provided the theoretical foundations for the production and utilization of the

latest weapons and their delivery. Nuclear charges of different yields are the

progeny of modern science and technology. They can be delivered in minutes

to any point on the globe for the destruction of a wide variety of targets.

Modern science has also brought about changes in conventional weapons and in all the

equipment of the Services and branches of the Services. As a consequence the mobility of the

troops and their capacity to cover great distances, concentrate and disperse, etc., has increased

enormously. The motorization of the forces has increased their speed of movement almost

tenfold. The development of aviation and the use of helicopters make it possible to airlift entire

formations and their equipment over great distances in the shortest possible time. Troops are

now equipped with up-to-date communications and control facilities, night viewers, and can

rapidly switch from one type of action to another, etc.

The Navy and the Air Force are equipped with the most up-to-date and sophisticated equipment. Aircraft and ships are equipped with most modern radar systems. According to American

scientists, radar equipment accounts for 20% and 30%, respectively, of the cost of modern

submarines and aircraft. The submarines of today's navies are a synthesis of the data of many

sciences—astronavigation and nuclear physics, metallurgy and electronics, hydraulics and aerodynamics, radio engineering and chemistry.

Information published in the foreign press points to the conclusion that

future research work associated with military science is being channeled into

attempts to discover new materials, sources of energy, and means ofautomation.

Now, as never before, there is a need for super-strong materials. And

science is providing the answers to this extremely difficult problem. Titanium

alloys which possess a high degree of strength and heat resistance have

recently been produced. They are widely used in missile engineering and

astronautics. But the principal method of obtaining super-strong materials,

as foreign scientists emphasize, is to produce materials of monocrystalline

structure, in which all the molecules of the metal are combined into one

crystal, whereby the strength of the metal is increased many hundreds of

times. The development of mass production technology makes it possible to

produce combat equipment of greater strength and lightness—aircraft, missiles of all types, surface vessels anu submarines, etc.

At the same time, work is being carried out in the field of metal ceramics and intermetallic

compounds. Mela! ceramics, which are alloys of differen: materials (ceramic powder and metal

or metal alloys) possess great tensile strength at high temperatures. Chemical compounds of

metals, known as intermetallic compounds (titanium borides and nitrides, etc.) do not require

alloying, have a high fusing temperature, and are very resistant to chemical action.

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Space vehicle flights have shown that construction materials must meet

new and higher standards. Besides being strong and light-weight, they must

possess heat stability—withstand the heat ofthe sun and the cold ofinterstellar space, shield the crew from radiation and cosmic rays.

The achievement of supersonic speeds in aviation was accompanied by

dangerous overheating of the airframe and engine structures in the head-on

flow of air masses. The aircraft surface is subject to heating measured in

hundreds of degrees centigrade. The elimination of temperature barriers (at

M^2.7) has become a problem. At speeds in the region of M — 2.7, the

mechanical properties of titanium alloys and stainless steel deteriorate critically and the reliability ofthe structural members cannot be fully guaranteed.

The achievement of greater speeds in the atmosphere (close to the earth) and

in space flights depends on chemical research on macromolecular compounds

of great strength and lightness. The strength of polymers is provided by the

gigantic size of their molecules, which are millions oftimes larger than those

observed in nature. The first representatives ofsuch materials (organic plastics) have been produced; these can withstand temperatures of several thousand degrees. They are exceptionally resistant to mechanical action and

heavy pressures. In the future, such materials will be widely used in all

military equipment.

Semiconductors, AC rectifiers, detectors, amplifiers, radio-frequency oscillators, thermoelectric generators, thermoelements for measuring circuits,

current and voltage stabilizers, etc., occupy an important place in military

technology. The use of semiconductors greatly reduces the size and weight

of radioelectronic equipment, but increases its strength and reliability.

Nuclear energy continues to be utilized intensively both in the form of

munitions with different yields and for different purposes, and in the form

offundamentally new engines and sources of electrical power. Surface vessels

and submarines which utilize the thermal energy of nuclear reaction have

now been built.

The use of thermonuclear energy will be even more advantageous in the

construction and operation of very high power propulsion plants which will

run for a long time without fuel replenishment. Since thermonuclear reaction

involves the utilization of the hydrogen isotope deuterium, which occurs in

heavy water, the solution of the problem of isolating heavy water from light

water and obtaining deuterium will provide man with vast, practically inexhaustible reserves of raw material for nuclear reaction and the production of

cheap electrical power. In addition to this, thermonuclear reactors are practically harmless and, therefore, do not require heavy lead and concrete shields.

If it should prove possible to produce compact electric gene.ators, they can

be used to power missiles, aircraft, ships and other military and non-military

equipment.

Promising sources of energy are thermopile-junctio. ( of different elements heated by bombardment with beta rays. Radioactive isotopes may be used as sources of electron flow. In this

way it is possible to produce compact sources with a very high capacity, which would operate

for long periods without any kind of recharging or replenishment with isotopes. Some day

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J...X.
thermopiles will make it possible to run transport facilities on electric motors. This would greatly

simplify the design of transport equipment.

In the opinion of foreign scientists, the development of science may produce many fundamentally new means of delivery, such as ion rockets. The

operating principle of this rocket will obviously involve a proton accelerator,

which will eject protons through a nozzle at a very high velocity, thus

creating a jet thrust. Similar in principle to the ion rocket is the plasma

rocket. Many possible new types of engines are already known to science and

the problem of constructing them will undoubtedly be resolved.

The most important area in which science influence^ military affairs is the

management and control oftroops by means of automation. Here science also

expresses itself in a decisive fashion. After revolutionizing weapons and the

means of their delivery, it also transformed the means of their control and

made it possible to automate them.

Many of the procedures of controlling modern military equipment take

infinitesimally small intervals of time, during which it would be impossible

for a human to make a decision and carry out different operations at the

required speed. Automation of control makes it possible to remove the limitations imposed by human capabilities.

The use of nuclear weapons and other modern technology, and the increased maneuverability of the forces, may change a situation rapidly and

suddenly, and thus increase the volume of information. The main deficiency

of earlier control systems was the low productivity of staffs when receiving,

processing, and transmitting information. Automation of control eliminates

the disparity which had formed between combat potential and the means and

methods of control.

A very important contribution to the solution of this complex problem was

made by cybernetics--the science of controlling complex dynamic systems

and processes. It is concerned with developing processes from the point of

view of control principles, and makes wide use of the methods of the exact

sciences.

The most common principle of cybernetics is that control as a process always occurs in a

closed circuit in which there are controlled and controlling elements linked together by direct

and feedback coupling. Control is effected by means of control signals, and verification of the

rjtions of the object in response to the control signals is accomplished by the transmission of

feedback signals. This principle applies to all the processes of controlling mechanisms in equipment, weapons in combat, and troops in operations.

Electronic computers are used for the reception, storage, and processing

of information. They carry out these operations in accordance with a program, which is worked out specially for each control process. The basis of

the program is the algorithm, a systematic mathematical procedure for the

solution of a problem. Each complex process can be represented in the form

of elementary operations, which are carried out in a specific sequence in

accordance with strictly defined rules. Even the most complex processes can

be converted into a sequence of elementary operations and rules leading to

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the required solution with the specific current parameters of the situation.

An important role in the development of military affairs is played by the

special military technical disciplines: the artillery, military engineering, military aviation and navalsciences. These sciences are concerned with the study,

design, production, testing, combat application, and comprehensive evaluation of military equipment. Their task is to make a detailed study of the

requirements of military art and the quality of military equipment.

A discipline which has been pushed to the forefront by the militarytechnical revolution is operations research, which makes it possible for a

commander to obtain a quantitative basis for the creation and utilization of

forces and resources in s battle or an operation in order to reach a decision.

The methods of this science, which are based on the theory of probability,

mathematical statistics, queuing theory, the theory of games, linear and

dynamic programming, and statistical test methods, make it possible to

determine quantitatively: whether utilization of the available resources to

achieve a given objective will ensure the maximum effect; which dominant

factors influence the achievement of the desired results with the minimum

expenditure of time and effort; and hew a change in the situation will affect

the achievement of the most economical and rapid solution of the overall

task. All this makes it possible to determine the best methods of conducting

combat operations, and means of developing and acquiring greater mastery

of equipment.

In its turn, the theory of probability, the mathematical science concerned w'th the study of

regularities in mass random phenomena, aft'ords the means of obtaining a quantitative basis for

estimating the objective possibilities that a given event will occur. By using a numerical measure

of the degree of probability that an event will occur it is possible to arrive at a more precise

solution, or to foresee the possible outcome of events which recur on a large scale. Probability

theory forms the basis of all <he other mathematical methods used in military affairs.

Linear programming is a mathematical theory which makes it possible to reduce the solution

of planning problems and troop and equipment control to a sequence of automatically executed

operations in accordance with incoming information. This theory provides the solution of

arbitrary extremal problems in which the quality index is linearly related to the control parameters, and the limits are linear equations or inequalities.

In the field of military affairs every situation which anses in the course of combat operations

is one of conflict. The interests and activities of'he warring sides are diamemcally opposite; their

intc.action is accomv/anied by a vast number of related factors which complicate any analysis

of an evolving situation. Situations of conflict, in which the interests of two or more sides are

involved, are studied by methods used in game theory, the mathematical theory of conflict

situations.

Queuing theory is widely used for evaluating the carrying capacity and quality of different

control systems and facilities, for example, the effectiveness of air defense as a whole, and the

firepower of individual types of weapons.

In complex cases, when a given event is accompanied by numerous constantly varying factors,

the most convenient method of calculation is the statistical test method. For examjsle, it would

be extremely difficult to use analytical methods to study the repulse of a massive enemy air

attack. In this case, foreign specialists set up a model of the operational-tactical formation of

the enemy aircraft in the air and the disposition of air defense forces repelling this attack.

Successively, at set intervals of time, the dynamics of the action are played through and

274
calculations are made for each game episode (the episode is played through). The complex

process is broken down into individual episodes. The position of the opposing sides is determined

for each episode and studied. As a result, it is possible to establish a picture of the course of

combat actions and their possible results.

In addition to these theories, modeling is also used extensively. Of course,

it has been used before. For example, during World War II, far away from

the front, before an attack, a model of the enemy's defenses was constructed

and methods of breaching them were worked out. Nowadays modeling plays

a much more important role as a result of changes in combat operations and

troop control methods. Modeling is now quite different in many respects.

In addition to training, games, and exercises, military science now makes

use of mathematical modeling. It is useful for determining the effectiveness

of models of weapons, in training and improving the qualifications of personnel, and working out the best methods of conducting military operations.

Thus, having constructed a model of a battle, using mathematical methods where necessary

and possible, the development and outcome of impending operations can be gauged. The mere

battles are modeled, and the more accurately and objectively qualitative and quantitative factors

are evaluated, the more clearly apparent become ways of achieving success, or the defects in its

preparation and organization. The ultimate result of modeling is the determination of the

optimum conditions which would afford the highest probability of success.

An important factor in combat organization is the situation forecast. This

is based on foresight. Forecasting provides the answers to questions concerning the forces and resources needed to achieve a desired result at given stages

of combat operations, how certain processes (events) will develop under

specified conditions. The results of target damage (destruction), the place

(region) of the location of moving targets based on previously received data,

radiation and meteorological conditions, etc., are forecast.

As a typical example of a forecasting task, we could take the compilation

of a forecast of the radiation conditions in a combat area where a nuclear

weapon has been used. All commanders should be able to prepare such a

forecast, since subunits and units frequemly have to operate at great distances

from each other, and their higher headquarters cannot always ensure that

they have a forecast of the radiation situation. A well thought out and

substantiated forecast makes it possible to determine the optimum route and

direction of approach, and the probable contamination level.

The most important channel through which science influences military

affairs is the military-technical training ofservicemen. This training requires

mastering of weapons and equipment, increasing the fighting efficiency of the

troops, and ensuring their constant combat readiness.

Science calls for a new attitude towards \\vt fighting spirit ofthe troops, their

morale andfighting qualities, and their psychological training. Here it is not

permissible to underestimate the fighting equipment and overestimate the

morale and fighting qualities of servicemen, or vice versa.

Military-technical qualifications and high morale and fighting qualities do

not evolve by themselves, but develop in the process of training and education

based on profound ideological conviction, an understanding of the nature of

275
modern armed combat, a knowledge of the enemy's equipment and military

art, and methods of using new weapons.

Only physically fit servicemen, prepared for the trials of dynamically

developing actions can act quickly, decisively and boldly in modern combat.

Here an exceptionally important role is played by otology and medicine, and

by specialists in these fields.

The training ofservicemen is accomplished by various metho. in everyday service routine, in combat exercises, marches, flying, in the classroom

and on the firing range, in other words their entire service life. Commanders

are required to be skilled in the organization of service life, the training and

education process, and troop control, in the light of the knowledge afforded

by all the sciences.

In its most general form, scientific military management can be described

as the techniques involved in achieving, in the best possible way, the most

effective use of combat, technical, moral, and political potential of the troops

to ensure the successful fulfillment of tasks assigned to them. To achieve this

it is essential that every officer should possess thorough knowledge and have

a solid military training. Knowledge and ability are the principal conditions

for success in troop control. Whereas knowledge is expressed in a profound

understanding of military matters and the objective laws to which they are

subordinate, ability means the effective utilization of this knowledge and the

correct placement of personnel, having regard to their level of training,

knowledge, and skills. By ability is meant an officer's capacity in a combat

situation to take into account a multitude of facis and data, make calculations, analyze the sum total of this information, and select the optimum

solution of the given combat mission.

In modern war it is always essential for an officer to know his assignment

and understand the plan of his superior officer, to be able to appreciate the

situation from every angle, to calculate and correlate facts and data, and to

plan the objectives, the forces and resources, the methods of operation, and

the missions of his subordinates. A commander has the right to use his

initiative and to take risks. These will always be justified if they are based on

scientific calculation and foresight.

The philosophical training of officer personnel is of prime imporiance in

acquiring scientific methods of controlling subordinates. Familiarity with

Marxist-Leninist philosophy not only broadens the general outlook, but helps

officers to recognize trends in the development of military affairs, and facilitates the successful solution of practical problems of enhancing the combat

readiness of the forces.

THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENTISTS (the most important facts)

The material-technical basis of military affairs has been decisively influenced by many of the most important discoveries in the fields of physics,

aerodynamics and rocket dynamics, electronics, cybernetics, chemistry, biology, and other sciences. Below are given the most important facts about

scientific discoveries.

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I
# The formulation of Einstein's theory of relativity (partial in 1905 and

general in 1916) and, on the basis of this, the derivation of the mass-energy

equation (E = mc;).

# The origin (1924-1926) and development of quantum mechanics,

which led to the discovery of the internal energy of a body—nuclear energy.

The founders of this science were Max Planck (Germany) and E. Rutherford

(Britain), its creators Louis de Broglie (France), Niels Bohr (Denmark), W.

Heisenberg (Germany), and others. The most important contribution to the

future development of problems in this science were the husband and wife

team Joliot-Curie (France), the Soviet scientists A. loffe, P. Kapitsa, L.

Landau and others.

# In 1939 the German scientists Hahn and Strassman discovered the

phenomenon of the splitting of the uranium atom.

# In 1940 the Soviet scientist V. A. Fabrikant expressed the idea of the

possibility of amplifying light and radio waves. In the 1950s, the Soviet Nobel

Prize recipients P. G. Basov and A. M. Prokhorov and the Americans C.

Towns and A. Shavlov created quantum generators and amplifiers (lasers).

# In 1956 the Soviet Academician, I. V. Kurchatov published a paper on

the theory of thermonuclear reaction.

# In recent years, Soviet and foreign scientists have provided a theoretical

solution for fundamentally new physical methods for the direct conversion

of thermal energy into electrical energy in static systems, which do not have

any moving parts (thermoelectric, thermoelectronic, and ferroelectric

systems).

# The discoveries of the Russian scientists S. A. Chaplygin and N. Ye.

Zhukovskiy were of great importance in the field of aerodynamics and rocket

dynamics. In 1902 Academician S. A. Chaplygin established fundamental

relationships for the movement of gases at high subsonic and supersonic

speeds, and the "father of Russian aviation," Professor N. Ye. Zhukovskiy,

elaborated the principles of aircraft dynamics.

# Between IS^? and 1904 the Russian scientist I. V. Meshcherskiy elaborated the mathematical theory of the movement of a point of variable mass.

Meshcherskiy's works formed the basis of jet technology.

# At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century,

the great Russian scientist K. E. Tsiolkovskiy developed the rocket system

and the basic formulas of rocket dynamics.

# In the 1920s and the years immediately following, theoretical and

practical work in the field of rocket engineering was carried on under the

leadership of the Soviet scientists. Engineer F. A. Tsander and Academician

S. P. Korolev.

# The work of the Soviet Academician B S. Stechkin, The Theory of the

Air-Breathing Jet Engine.* was published in 1929. Abroad German scientists, including G. Obert, were working on the theory of jet engines.

# Teoriya vozdu\hnogo rcaktivnogo dvigaielya (U.S. Ed).

277
# During World War II (1941-1945) Academician S. A. Khristianovich

elaborated a theoretical solution of the objective laws that govern variations

in the aerodynamic characteristics of an aircraft wing during transition to

high speed flight. Academician N. Ye. Köchin worked out a practical solution to problems of the "round wing theory." Corresponding Member of the

Academy of Sciences of the USSR N. G. Chetayev proposed a method of

calculating the stability of an aircraft in motion on the ground.

A groun of scientists, headed by Academician M. V. Keldysh, worked out

the mathematical theory of flutter.

# During the 19th century Russian and foreign scientists elaborated the

principles of the theory of the electromagnetic field and the laws of radio

wave propagation (M. Faraday, J. Maxwell, H. Hertz, A. S. Popov,

K. Bjerknes and G. Marconi).

# In 1895 the Russian scientist A. S. Popov invented the radio. In 1897

Popov became the first man to accomplish wireless communication at a

distance.

# In the 1930^ Soviet and foreign scientists elaborated the theoretical

principles of radar, which is used extensively in military affairs.

The theoretical works of Soviet Academicians L. I. Mandel'shtam, N. D.

Papaleksi, V. A. Fok, B. A. Vvedenskiy and other scientists were used in the

development of various radiotechnical instruments used by fhe armed forces.

* * *

# During World War II N. Wiener (USA) founded the science of cybernetics. In the postwar years great contributions have been made to the

development of this science by the foreigi scientists K. Shannon and J.

Newman, Soviet Academicians A. N. Kolmogorov and A. I. Berg, and

others.

Technical cybernetics and the theory and application of electronic machines have been developed further in recent years.

# In the field of chemistry an important place is w,cupied by the theory

of chain reactions, elaborated in the 1930s by the Soviet Nobel Prize recipient

N. N. Sernenov.

# Research work carried out under the direction of I. I. Kitaygorodskiy

resulted ,ii the creation in 1942-1943 of armored glass ("BS"),* which is 25

times stronger than normal glass.

# Later discoveries by Soviet and foreign scientists in the field of macromolecular compounds led to the creation of new substances of exceptional

purity, new materials able to withstand the effects of extreme temperatures,

new corrosion-resisting and insulating materials, coatings, special alloys and

a variety of structural plastic materials. New materials have been produced

# Russian abbreviation for hnmesteklo 'armored glass' (U.S. Ed).

278
with predetermined properties not possessed by natural substances—glassfiber reinforced plastics, synthetic mica, asbestos, resins, ceramics, etc.

# Theoretical research in the field of biology, primarily the study of

viruses and bacteria, and the discovery by Soviet and foreign scientists of

antibiotics contribute to the protection of the population and the armed

forces from epidemic diseases, and minimize the number of unfavorable

after-effects of serious wounds.

Biology provides theoretical answers to problems connected with the development of means of protection against weapons of mass destruction.

What to Head on This Section

Marksizm-leninizm o voyne iarmii [Marxism-Leninism on War and Army].*

5th edition, Ch. VI-VII. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Pokrovskiy, G. I. Nauka i tekhnika v sovremennykh voynakh [Science and

Technology in Modern Wars]. Voyenizdat, 1959.

Matematika v boyu [Mathematics in Combat]. Voyenizdat, 1964.

Fizika v boyu [Physics in Combat]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

Available in English, No. 2, USAF "Soviet Military Thought" series [U.S. Ed.].

279

v.
Chapter 10. WEAPONS AND MILITARY TECHNOLOGY

I he scieruiiic-iecnnicai rcvüiuuon nas nau an enormous mnuence on me

development of war material. What are the characteristic features of weapons

and military technology at the present time?

Nuclear weapons. By nuclear weapons we ordinarily mean special explosive devices (charges), based on the use ofintranuclear energy released during

the chain reaction of the fission of heavy nuclei or the thermonuclear reaction

of the synthesis of light nuclei (thermonuclear weapons).

There are three types of nuclear weapons:

a) Weapons commonly called nuclear. The energy released by the explosion of a nuclear weapon is caused by the chain reaction ofthe fission of nuclei

of uranium-235, plutonium-239 or uranium-233. The charge, made of nuclear explosive (fissile) material, usually consists of several parts, the mass of

each of which is less than the critical mass. The combination of the parts of

the charge, i.e., the achievement of a super-critical ' mass is effected by a

special device and the detonation of a conventional explosive. To increase the

output coefficient of the fissile material, the charge is surrounded by neutron

reflectors.

b) Weapons commonly known as thermonuclear. The energy released by

the explosion of a thermonuclear weapon is mainly (up to 80-90%) the result

of thermonuclear reaction. The principal components of a weapon of this

type are the nuclear and thermonuclear charges. The fuel elements in a

thermonuclear charge may be a mixture of deuterium and tritium or deuterium and lithium. The release of energy during the explosion ofsuch weapons

occurs as the result of two successive reactions: the explosion of the nuclear

charge (the reaction of the fission of heavy nuclei) and the subsequent helium

fusion reaction.

c) Thermonuclear weapons. In such weapons the explosion occurs as the

result of three nuclear reactions: the detonation of the nuclear charge, which

serves as a primer; the development of thermonuclear reactions of the fusion

of light elements; the fission of nuclei of heavy elements, usually uranium238, in the form of a shell covering the entire charge. Most of the energy is

released as a result of the fission of uranium-238 nuclei by neutrons released

during thermonuclear fusion reaction.

1 The critical mass is the minimum amount of uranium-235 or plutonium-23^ required to

sustain a chain reaction.

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'
Nuclear weapons were first used by the United States of America in the

final phase of World War II in August 1945 for the destruction of the cities

of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On each of these cities the Americans dropped

one quite primitive nuclear aerial bomb. The cities were destroyed and the

total number of killed and wounded exceeded half a million.

After the war, the most industrially developed countries rapidly perfected

nuclear weapons, which became the principal means of striking an enemy.

They have been introduced into all services of the armed forces and are used

as warheads in strategic, operational-tactical, and tactical rockets, as well as

aerial bombs, artillery shells and mines, ground-to-air guided missiles and

anti-missile missiles, airborne missiles, naval torpedoes, depth charges and

special mines.

Nuclear ammunition may be exploded in the atmosphere, in water, in the

ground, and in outer space. Hence, nuclear explosions are classified as aerial,

surface, underground, above-water and under-water. An extremely high temperature ofseveral million degrees is created at the site of a nuclear explosion.

A blinding flash changes into a fire-ball; the explosion produces a powerful

shock wave and an enormous quantity of thermal energy (luminous radiation) is radiated into the environment. A nuclear explosion is accompanied

by a stream of gamma rays and neutrons, which possess great penetrating

force. Thus, the damage factors of a nuclear explosion are the following: the

shock wave, the flash, penetrating radiation, and ground contamination.

The yield of nuclear charges depends on their design, the quantity, and

quality of the given nuclear fuel, and is expressed as its TNT equivalent, i.e.,

the quantity of TNT that would be required to produce an explosion equal

in released energy to the yield of the given nuclear charge.

The diversity of potential targets and the specifications of the nuclear

delivery systems made it essential to have charges of different yields, from

several tons to several tens of millions of tons of TNT. Low-yield nuclear

charges are intended mainly for destroying various targets in battle. Their

delivery systems may be tactical guided and unguided missiles, artillery shells

and mines, ground-to-air guided missiles, and naval ioipedoes; they can also

be used as depth charges. Medium yield nuclear charges of the order of

several tens of thousands oftons (tens of kilotons) are designed to hit strategically important and distant targets. They can be delivered by operationaltactical rockets, aircraft, and naval torpedoes and can be used as mines. High

yield nuclear charges of several millions of tons (megatons) are generally

intended for the destruction of important strategic targets deep in the

enemy's rear, and can be delivered by strategic missiles, aircraft, and other

means.

Missile* technology. The development of missile technology has led to its

widespread application in military affairs.

In terms of launching location and target characteristics missiles are customarily classified as follows: "ground-to-ground," when the launcher and

* In Russian, "rakcta" is both rocket and missile. In US terminology, a missile is guided, a

rocket is not [US. Ed ].

281
the target are on the ground; "ground-to-air," when the launcher is on the

ground and the target is in the air; "air-to-air," when launched from any

aircraft at targets in the air; "air-to-ground," when launched from aircraft

at targets on the ground; "surface-to-surface" (for the Navy).

Missile technology is directly concerned with missiles and launchers. Missiles consist of rocket engines, on-board control systems and a warhead or

telemetery equipment. The launching installation may include a launcher,

transporter-erector and launcher vehicles and assemblies, fueling, monitoring

and measurement systems, guidance and control instruments.

The power of modern rocket engines makes it possible to deliver payloads

of enormous destructive force to any point on the globe.

A part of the armament of the services and branches of the Services,

missiles have already at the present stage of development become one of the

principal means of waging war.

According to their design features, types of fuel and trajectories, missiles

are customarily classified as single-stage, multi-stage, ballistic and cruise,

liquid- and solid-fueled, guided and unguided.

In terms of the aim and nature of the mission to be completed, missiles are

classified as strategic, operational-tactical, tactical, anti-aircraft, naval, and

airborne.

As a rule, strategic missiles are guided and multi-stage. They can have

liquid- or solid-fuel engines capable of sustaining flight for several thousand

kilometers and delivering nuclear payloads to selected targets. Mediumrange strategic missiles can be one- or two-stage. Strategic missiles have

warheads with yields of from several hundreds of kilotons to several tens of

megatons.

The range of a missile is the principal factor that determines the targets

against which it is v .'d.

Strategic missiles are capable of spanning vast distances; their range is

practically unlimited. Strategic missiles (MRBMs and ICBMs) can be

launched from mobile or fixed launch installations.

Operational-tactical missiles are guided ballistic missiles with ranges of

several tens to many hundreds of kilometers.

The engine of a ballistic missile is usually powered by a bi-propellant fuel

(combustible and oxidizer). The oxidizer makes it possible for the engine to

operate outside the dense layers of the earth's atmosphere, where there is

little or no oxygen to maintain combustion and create sufficient thrust.

Most "ground-to-ground" guided missiles are launched vertically. On

leaving the launcher, the control system in the rocket begins to function and

the missile is guided onto its combat course. During this stage, the engine

continues to operate and the missile goes into the ascending arm of its

trajectory. When it reaches a predetermined speed, the engine automatically

shuts off, and the missile completes its flight as a conventional artillery shell

on a ballistic trajectory.

The cruise missile, which has an aerodynamic configuration similar to that

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of an airplane, is often called a flying bomb. It is usually powered by an

air-breathing jet engine.

Operational-tactical ballistic missiles have mobile launchers and can be

used against the enemy's nuclear attack facilities: missile installations on

airfields, nuclear weapon stockpiles, command posts, groupings offorces, etc.

Tactical missiles, with ranges of several tens of kilometers, are designed to

provide direct support for ground forces on the battlefield. They can be used

for strikes against nuclear attack facilities in the combat formations of the

enemy forces; the destruction of artillery, missile, and mortar batteries, personnel and firing positions in strong points and in assembly areas; reserves

and command posts; disruption of the operation of the enemy's rear units,

and the repulse of enemy counterattacks during an offensive. There are both

guided and unguided tactical missiles, in order to increase their accuracy,

missiles of this type are equipped with on-board control systems. Tactical

missiles are launched from mobile launchers, which can move with the

troops.

Anti-tank guided missiles are also classified as tactical missiles. Their main

purpose is the destruction of tanks and other armored targets.

Air defense missiles are the most effective means of air defense. Remote

control systems or combined remote control (first stage) and homing (last

stage of flight) systems are used to guide the missiles to their targets. Air

defense missiles are capable of hitting targets at any altitudes in any meteorological conditions, day or night; with nuclear warheads they can destroy

entire groups of aircraft flying in formation.

Airborne missiles are carried by certain types of aircraft for attacking

surface (sea) or airborne targets. Bombers are usually armed with guided

cruise missiles, the range of which, after being launched from an aircraft, can

be reckoned in hundreds of kilometers. This permits aircraft to attack targets

from long distances, without entering the enemy's air defense zones. Shortrange, low dispersion air-launched missiles are carried by aircraft for attacking small targets, such as ships, bridges, launch sites, etc.

Small guided and unguided airborne missiles are carried by fighter aircraft

for attacking airborne targets: aircraft, helicopters, balloons, and dirigibles.

Tanks. These are tracked fighting machines with armored protection and

fire power; their mobility, turning, and cross-country capabilities give them

a high degree of maneuverability. The first experimental tank was built in

Russia in May 1915, but tanks were originally developed in Britain and

France. Now they are standard equipment for the armored (tank) forces of

many of the world's armies.

According to a universally accepted system of classification, tanks are

usually subdivided into three categories: light, medium, and heavy. Light

tanks (weighing up to 20 tons) are designed for reconnaissance work and, in

some cases, for example, in fording water obstacles, they are used in direct

support of infantry (motorized infantry) subunits. Medium tanks (up to 40

tons) are generally used as elements of units anr1 formations for the solution

of independent tasks. Sometimes medium tanks may be attached to infantry

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(motorized infantry) units and subunits for direct support is an attack, or for

reinforcement in a defensive action. They are designed to destroy the enemy's

weapons, his tanks, self-propelled artillery and personnel. Heavy tanks

(weighing over 40 tons) are generally used as elements of units for accomplishing independent tasks, mainly engaging enemy tanks and anti-tank

weapons. In individual cases, they can be used to destroy or neutralize his

defensive structures.

The development of anti-tank weapons during World War II, and particularly since the war, has necessitated an increase in the thickness of the

armored protection and improvements in the shape of the tank body. Tanks

can travel across country and negotiate various obstacles. Most types oftanks

are equipped with guns having calibers that range from 75 to 120mm. The

armor-piercing shells fired by these guns have a high degree of penetration

ability. In addition, tanks are armed with different types of machine guns,

including air defense machine guns for use against low-flying aircraft and

other airborne targets.

Effective firepower is ensured by the traversing turrets, guns, electric

drives, and sophisticated sighting devices, including infra-red equipment,

which are incorporated in modern tank designs.

In addition to the main types of tanks, some armies are equipped with

reconnaissance, amphibious, and airborne assault tanks.

Because oftheir design characteristics, tanks, more than any other fighting

vehicles, are suitable for action in nuclear warfare, a fact which determines

their future development.

Artillery. Artillery includes different types of weapons and equipment:

guns, howitzers, mortars, trench mortars, combat rocket launchers, artillery

ammunition, and artillery reconnaissance, observation and fire control

systems.

The design and specifications of artillery systems depend upon the purpose

for which they are intended and the tasks to be completed.

As a rule, guns are rifled and, compared to howitzers and mortars, have

longer barrels (usually 30-60 calibers), a much greater muzzle velocity ''SOO

m/sec or more), range, and armor penetrating capability. The trajectory of

a gun shell is flatter than that of howitzer and mortar shells. Gun bores vary

from 20mm to over 400mm. Guns are standard equipment for artillery

subunits, troop artillery, coastal artillery, anti-tank, and air defense units,

tanks, self-propelled artillery, and naval ships, as well as aircraft.

Howitzers, like guns, are rifled. They are used both by units and formations

of organic field artillery and the artillery of the Supreme High Command

Reserve. Howitzer calibers start at 100mm. The distinguishing characteristics of this type of weapon are that it has a much shorter barrel than the

cannon (15-30 calibers), a lower muzzle velocity (300-500 m/sec). a shorter

firing range and, therefore, an inferior armor-piercing capability. The howitzer is better adapted than the gun for firing at greater angles of elevation

(up to 63°), i.e., it has a steep trajectory, which is essential for destroying

284
targets protected by shelters, or situated on the far side of steep ridges, in

forests and built-up areas, etc.

Mortars are the least widely used of all artillery ordnance. They have short

rifled barrels (barrel lengths do not exceed 16 calibers and muzzle velocities

vary between 150 and 300 m/sec). They are designed to deliver high angle

fire at hidden targets.

Trench mortars are smootn bore artillery pieces without a recoil system.

They have been in widespread use in many of the world's armies since the

eve of, and particularly during. World War II. Trench mortars are designed

for striking enemy personnel and weapons located both in the open and in

dug-outs, trenches, and various kinds of shelters.

Trench mortars have a number of advantages over rifled guns, in particular: simplicity of design and maintenarice, lightness and, therefore, greater

battlefield maneuverability; their high trajectory and greater angles of fall of

the shells are essential for the destruction of targets protected by cover.

Drawbacks of the trench mortar are its inability to fire projectiles on flat

trajectories, its comparatively short range, and the impossibility of delivering

direct fire against tanks.

Rocket launchers are, as a rule, multi-loading, mounted on the chassis of

cross-country trucks, tracked cross-country vehicles, or tanks, and are designed for launching unguided missiles. A rocket launcher usually consists

of moving parts, guide rails, aiming mechanisms (elevation and traverse), and

electrical equipment. The number of guide rails determines the weight of a

rocket salvo fired by the launcher. In World War II, the range of rocket

artillery varied between 4 and 10km. A high density of fire, and thus increased effectiveness, is achieved by subunits employing salvo fire.

Possible targets against which rocket launchers may be used include artillery and mortar batteries, enemy nuclear attack resources, and personnel,

both in the open and under cover, etc.

Artillery ammunition is the aggregate of elements necessary to fire artillery

(mortar) rounds (to deliver fire). Artillery (mortar) rounds are stored and

issued to units as complete rounds. A complete round consists of a shell and

I charge; the shell consists of the body, the explosive and the fuse: the charge

consists of the cartridge, the propellant charge, and the primer.

The diversity of targets on the battlefield necessitates a vast array of

different types of shells. One type of gun may fire the following shells, which

differ in their purpose atH effect: fragmentation, high-explosive-fragmentation, high-explosive, armor-piercing, concrete-piercing, shrapnel, incendiary,

illuminating, smoke, propaganda, etc.

The effect of shells on a target depends on the fuse setting, which provides

for either instantaneous or delayed detonation. Shells designed for use against

armored and concrete targets have base fuses, i.e., the fuses are located in the

bottom part of the shell body; other types of shells have nose fuses.

Powder charges, depending on the caliber of the gun, are either fixed or

variable. Fixed powder charges are usually UV-MJ in ammunition for guns of

up to 100mm caliber. In this case, all the elements of the artillery round are

285
grouped together; the charge is located in the shell-case. Taken together,

these are usually referred to as a fixed round (fixed ammunition). Variable

charges are, as a rule, used in guns of calibers in excess of 100mm which have

separate loading. Variable charges consist of several pre-prepared and accurately weighed charge increments. This permits the size of the charge to be

varied so as to influence the muzzle velocity of the shell, the nature of its

trajectory and range.

The accounting and supply unit used when issuing ammunition and planning artillery fire mission is the unit of fire. The number of artillery (mortar)

rounds in a unit of fire depends on the caliber of the gun (mortar). A unit

of fire for each type and caliber of gun contains shells for different purposes

in a certain proportion.

A mortar round consists of a shell, the main propellant charge and charge

increments; the shell consists of the body and stabilizer housing, the bursting

charge, and fuse. A mortar round for certain breech-loading mortars consists

of a shell case, into which the powder charge is placed; the charge is ignited

by a screwed-in primer.

Rocket shells (unguided missiles) used in field rocket artillery fall into a

special category of artillery ammunition. The distinguishing feature of this

type ofshell is that it has a motor whicn, as a rule, burns solid fuel. The motor

has a combustion chamber and a jet nozzle through which gases are ejected,

thus creating the thrust which propels the missile. The rocket fuel is usually

ignited by means of a squib, set off by the electrical power supply system of

the launcher.

Artillery power is firepower, while firepower lies in artillery ammunition.

Shell bodies are designed to cause damage to targets and usually incorporate

an explosive, the amount of which determines the explosive force.

Observation and fire control instruments. Binoculars, battery commander's telescopes, directors, reconnaissance theodolites, range finders, all kinds

of acoustic and radar equipment, computers, and automatic power generators for laying are u„ed for battlefield observation, target reconnaissance, the

preparation of tiring data, and fire control.

I he principal artillery fire control devices are the mechanized artillery

board and coordinator, the azimuth scale and range rule; in air defense

gunnery, the air defense fire director; in naval and coastal artillery, fire

directors with computers and electrically powered drives for automatic gun

laying, similar to those used in the air defense fire director.

Small arms. Pistols; machine pistols (submachine guns); rifles; carbines;

light, heavy, and large-caliber machine guns. The main purpose ofsmall arms

is to kill enemy personnel in close combat. Small arms calibers range from

6 to 20mni.

Their rapidity of fire, adequate effective range, reliability of operation,

maneuverability, convenience and simplicity of operation, their relatively

straightforward design, which permits large-scale manufacture, have made it

possible to introduce them into all the Services and branches of the Services.

Depending on their weight, design and purpose, a distinction is made

286
between individual and team small-arm weapons. Individual weapons (officers' and soldiers' personal weapons) include: pistols, submachine guns, rifles,

and carbines, Team weapons—various types of machine guns—are usually

operated by several men.

According to the degree of automation of the operations connected with

reloading and tiring, small arms are divided into non-automatic (single-shot

and magazine), and semi-automatic, and automatic.

Individual (personal) weapons are used as a means of killing enemy personnel at distances up to 600m. Light machine guns are used against groups and

important single targets up to 800m away. Heavy machine guns are used to

deliver massive fire for the suppression and destruction of group targets and

weapons at ranges up to and in excess of 1,000m. Large-caliber machine guns

are usually used against exposed and lightly armored ground targets at ranges

of up to 3,000m, and airborne targets at altitudes of up to 2,000m.

Tanks and aircraft are equipped with special tank and aircraft machine

guns.

The development of small arms has followed a long and difficult path—

from smooth-bore, round-shot, muzzle loaded flintlocks to powerful modern

automatic weapons.

Aviation. The technical basis of modern military aviation consists of aircraft and helicopters, plus ground equipment at airfields, command posts and

repair depots, and electronic aids.

The aircraft resources ofthe present-day air forces of the developed nations

consist, as a rule, of reconnaissance aircraft, fighter bombers, bombers,

fighters, and transports.

Reconnaissance aircraft are designed to carry out tactical, operational, and

strategic reconnaissance missions. Each of these categories of reconnaissance

is carried out by aircraft of a specific type with different specifications and

equipment. Aerial cameras, radio communications, and radio navigation aids

are standard equipment for reconnaissance aircraft.

Fighter bombers are supersonic jet aircraft, the ai inament of which consists of cannons, unguided and guided missiles, and bombs in various combinations. They carry either conventional or nuclear weapons and can be used

for the destruction of aerial targets.

Depending on their role and design, bombers are classified as tactical or

long-range (strategic). They cany conventional and nuclear missiles and

bombs for attacking ground targets.

The moden bomber is an all-metal cantilever monoplane powered by two

or more jet eng.ies. Navigational and operational accuracy are ensured by

means of radio navigation systems, optical and radar sights, and computers.

Lighters arc designed for the destruction of aerodynamic flying targets—

enemy aircraft, cruise missiles, and helicopters. Fighters are the fastest type

of aircraft, capable of operating at all altitudes and in the stratosphere.

Modern fighters are usually armed with air-to-air guided missiles and carry

a crew of one or two.

Military transport aircraft are specially equipped for airborne assault land287
ings, and ferrying troops and supplies (ammunition, arms, provisions, etc.).

They are usually long range aircraft with a high load carrying capacity.

Helicopters are machines which fly by means of rotors. They take off and

land vertically, without runways, and are able to hover at a given altitude

over a given precise point on land or water. They are designed for assault

landings and freight transportation and can also be used for artillery reconnaissance and spotting. In Vietnam, the US Army Command uses helicopter?

to engage ground targets.

Engineer equipment is used in all the Services and principal branches of

the Services. The increased power of modern weapons of destruction and the

introduction of diverse fighting equipment have resulted in increased demands for large volumes of military engineering work and its accomplishment within the shortest possible time in support of troop combat operations.

This is made possible only by the extensive use of a mass of high-performance

machinery and every conceivable form of mechanization.

Engineer equipment includes: mines; engineer reconnaissance, mine, and

obstacle clearance resources; ferrying facilities, and special engineer vehicles.

Mines consist rf anti-tank and anti-personnel mines with contact and

proximity fuses. The armed forces of countries which possess nuclear weapons can also use nuclear land mines. Minefields can be laid by hand or special

minelaying vehicles.

Engineer reconnaissance and mine and obstacle clearance equipment includes mine detectors and probes, detonating cables and jet engines for

uncovering them, bangalore torpedoes, and special armored mineclearing

vehicles.

Ferrying equipment consists of assault and reconnaissance boats,

footbridges, ferries, pontoon and bridging packs, sectional bridges, bridgebuilding vehicles and assemblies, self-propelled landing craft, and other

equipment.

Bulldozers, graders, skimmers, trench diggers, loaders, and other engineering equipment are used for preparing attack areas for an offensive, supporting

troop maneuvers, creating static deployment areas, including static areas for

the Rocket Forces, and equipping airfields and sites for the Air Defense

Forces, as well as naval bases.

Transport facilities. Armed forces are supported by all the modern forms

of transportation: rail, motor vehicle, air, river, and marine, as well as

pipelines.

Transport has always played an important role in military affairs. Nowadays, armed forces could not exist without it.

Motor vehicle and air transport have now become especially important.

Air defense and anti-missile defense resources. A sophisticated complex

of various means of detecting, identifying, tracking, and destroying enemy

aircraft and missiles protects the population, industrial centers, groupings of

forces, and other objectives.

The principal means of detection, identification, and tracking is radar. In

order to detect an object (for example, an aircraft or a missile) in space, a
radar station must generate electromagnetic energy, direct it at the target,

and then receive and record the signal reflected from it.

The most important characteristics of a radar station, upon which its

detection range depends, are pulse power, receiver sensitivity, and directivity

of the antenna. The greater the value of each of these characteristics, the

greater the detection range.

The increased speed of the means of delivering an aerial attack has led to

the need to increase the distance at which they can be detected. Thus, during

recent years, the puhe power of radar stations has constantly increased.

Whereas that of the first radar stations did not exceed 100-200kw, the

outputs of modern long range stations is sometimes higher than 1,000-

:,000kw.

Radar and other electronic equipment now in use can detect aerospace

targets at any time of the year, day or night, at great d'ctances, identify them

and determine their exact position, thus providing target indications for the

air defense missile complexes and fighter aircraft.

Special radar stations, capable of detecting small-sized objects at great

distances are required to counter ballistic missiles. For example, the Americans have already built radar stations capable of detecting approaching missiles at distances of several thousand kilometers. The use of complex electronic computers in the radar system makes it possible, not only to detect a

flying object, but to determine its coordinates and calculate its flight trajectory instantaneously. The USA is developing radar equipment with even

greater detection ranges.

Modern fighter interceptors can attain very high speeds in both vertical

and level flight, have long range operational capabilities, and are equipped

with powerful cannons and rockets, electronic navigation equipment, and

automated guidance systems, which make it possible to detect and destroy

aerial targets beyond visual range, day or night, and in difficult meteorological conditions. They are a reliable means of combating all tyres of aircraft,

cruise missiles, and other targets at any altitude in the earth's atmosphere,

whether flying at subsonic or supersonic speeds. The most important advantages of fighter interceptors are their maneuverability, the fact that they can

be rapidly relocated at bases where they are most needed, and the fact that

they can be used repeatedly.

Air defense artillery is still an effective means of air defense, especially

against low-level a ial attack. The development of aviation and the associated developmciii of air defense artillery led to a need for guns of different

calibers, and air defense fire directors.

The most important combat qualities of air defense artillery are that it can

open fire rapidly and maintain a prolonged delivery of fire, destroy targets

at different altitudes in any weather conditions, and at any time of the yeer,

day or night, and fire at visually unobserved and untracked targets (barrage

fire). The use of radar permits more effective use to be made of air defense

artillery, especially in poor visibility.

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Air defense artillery is a maneuverabie air defense weapon, which can be

used for the protection of both military and non-military targets.

Depending on their purpose and design specifications, air defense guns are

classified as follows: 20-60mm—small cahber; 60-100rnm—medium caliber;

and above 100mm—large caliber.

To increase their rate of fire, small caliber air defense guns are generally

designed for use with fixed ammunition and automatic loading and firing

systems, while medium and large caliber guns have semi-automatic loading

systems. To increase the effectiveness of fire, some armies use Iwo-, three-,

and four-barreled guns on a single mounting (gun carriage).

The basic air defense artillery subunit is the battery, consisting of four to

eight guns.

Depending on the combat conditions and the nature of the target, air

defense artillery employs one of two principal methods of firing: with and

without air defense artillery fire detectors. The former is the chief method of

aerial target firing, and involves the use of data provided by gun-laying radar,

gun-laying radar and range finder, or, in some cases, range finder alone.

Firing without an air defense artillery director is used for barrage firing at

aircraft or other aerial targets and for visual firing at aerial and ground

targets. It can also be used for firing at ground targets from covered firing

positions.

Ground-to-air guided missiles are the most reliable means of air defense.

They are capable of destroying any modern aircraft or other airborne target,

whether flying at subsonic or supersonic speed, at any altitude.

The main features of ground-to-air guided missiles are their great ceilings,

accuracy and strike reliability. According to foreign sources, the probability

of a target (modern aircraft) being hit by one missile is reckoned to be more

than 65%. Different types of ground-to-air guided missiles are used against

airborne targets at different altitudes and at different distances from the

defended objects.

The use of ground-to-air guided missiles in combination with air defense

artillery and fighter aircraft ensures a reliable air defense system.

Military radioeiectronics. This is the name given to a whole complex of

independent branches of science and technology, which have developed during recent years in all the armies of the world on the basis of radio engineering

and electronics. These include all forms of electrical communication, radar,

radio navigation, radio-telecontrol, radiometeorology, television and photogrammetry, hydroacoustics, infrared, electro?1

; computer, vacuum tube,

semiconductor, and other branches of techno.o^y.

Radioelectronics is now of decisive importaiu ' i ilitary affairs. It is

difficult to imagine the possibility of conducting mode. . military operations

and combat actions without the extensive use of radio-electronic equipment.

The application of radioelectronics in military affairs has led to a major

tliange in troop control methods, improvements to the combat qualities of

existing types of arms and fighting equipment, and the creation of new types

of arms with combat qualities that have brought about a revolution in mili290
tary affairs. Radioelectronics made it possible to develop guided missiles for

various purposes. And finally, the ultra-powerful weapons of our modern

world, based on utilizing the energy of the atomic nucleus, would never have

developed without the resources and methods of radioelectronics.

Radioelectronics has been applied in military affairs mainly in the development of communications, intelligence, and troop and weapon control facilities.

It is true to say that an army's "nervous system" is its communications

network. In modern warfare, in which combat operations may spread over

vast areas and involve highly mobile troops and equipment, radio communications have become especially important. Radio is now the main form of

communication in the armed forces. Every combat airplane, tank, rocket

launcher, ground forces, subunit, and warship must have radio communications equipment.

If an army's communications represent its nervous system, reconnaissance

can be considered as its eyes and ears. The timely detection of an enemy plays

a decisive role in the outcome of combat operations and armed conflict as a

whole. Military reconnaissance involves the use of a variety of technical

facilities, widely differing in design, potential, and methods of application.

These include radioelectronic resources: radar stations, radio interception

and direction finding, television, hydroacoustic apparatus, infrared viewers,

radiation monitoring instruments, etc.

Radar observation and reconnaissance facilities are used to detect various

military objects. The operating principles of this type of equipment, which

is used on a very large scale in air defense and aviation, have already been

referred to.

Hydroacoustic apparatus is widely used in the Navy to detect submarines

and accomplish a number of other combat tasks. It can be included under

the heading of radioelectronics, although it utilizes sound waves, not radio

waves. The devices for generating, receiving, amplifying and transforming

sound waves are similar to those used in radio, and are based on electronic

circuits.

There are active and passive hydroacoustic systems. Active systems (sonar)

operate on the same principle as radar, but use sound waves and their

reflection for illuminating objects in the water. Passive systems (hydrophones) operate on the principle of the conversion of mechanical vibrations

of water particles into sound vibrations. Such vibrations are produced by a

ship's propellers, hull, etc.

Radio reconnaissance has been used by all the armies of the world almost

from the moment they first acquired radio. Intelligence is picked up by

listening in to (intercepting) the enemy's radio communications and radio

direction finding signals, i.e., by determining the direction from which the

radio waves of enemy transmissions originate. Like any other form of radio

reconnaissance, this is extremely effective and can be carried out in absolute

secrecy, since it involves only the reception of enemy radio transmissions.

Military television is used in foreign armies, air forces, and navies for

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&.
intelligence purposes and also for monitoring and observation in various

forms of controlled fire. It permits observation of areas (objects, installations,

assemblies, equipment) where direct contact is not possible, for example, on

account of a high level of radiation, total destruction, landslides, floods, fires

and so on. This also applies to areas in enemy territory. The effectiveness and

clarity of the resulting intelligence information is one of the most significant

aspects of television.

Infrared night vision devices are used for visual reconnaissance, observation and identification in darkness. These take the form of night sights on

various types of weapons, and night driving equipment. These devices are

based on the principle of converting invisible infrared radiation, used for

"illumination," into a visible image.

Special radioelectronic equipment, which functions fully automatically,

without interference in its operation and without human intervention, occupies an important place in military affairs. This category of equipment includes various radiation monitoring and measuring devices, which form the

basis of sensors of every possible type of information; for example, sensors

for the determination and transmission of data on levels of ground radiation

and chemical contamination, the state of the weather, etc.

In modern warfare, seconds make the difference between success and

failure. This is where mechanization and automation come to man's aid. The

wide use of mechanization and automation in different military fields has

been made possible solely as a result of the rapid progress in radioelectronics.

Among the sophisticated automatic devices available today an important

place is occupied by the electronic computer. It is used for the automation

of afferent calculations, weapon control, and can "think out" solutions to

operational-tactical problems, etc.

According to the foreign press, electronic computers are used in the guidance systems of anti-missile and air defense weapons, in missile and artillery

systems on naval vessels, and in ground and airborne aviation systems. These

can compute every conceivable kind of calculation to assist a commander in

reaching the optimal decision.

The extensive use of radioelectronic equipment by modern armies posed

a new problem—that of paralyzing the enemy's radioelectronic equipment,

thereby depriving him ofstability, flexibility, and uninterrupted control of his

forces and weapons.

The aggregate of measures employed to accomplish these objectives is

often referred to in the foreign press as the war in the ether, or radio warfare;

and the elements of radio warfare are considered to be radio reconnaissance,

electronic counter-measure;; (ECM), and electronic counter-counter-measMeans of communicatinn. Military communications are designed for the

transmission ofsignals, commands, orders, instructions, reports, and various

situation data required for troop control in the process of preparing for and

carrying out cornbat operations.

Radio is the most effective and reliable means of communication in modern

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X
warfare. Its chief virtue is that it permits cornmunication with mobile objects

(ships, aircraft, tanks, etc.). The first models of radio stations were constructed by our compatriot, A. S. Popov, at the end of the last century.

Radio facilities have different electromagnetic radiation frequency ranges

(wavelengths). The radio wave spectrum is divided into four bands.

I

I

Band Wave length, m Wave band, mhj Use

Long-*ave 30.00O-3.OOO 0 01-0.1 Radio communication

Medium-wave 3.000-200 0 1-15

Shon-wave 201-10 1.5-30

Ultrashortwave

meter 10-1 30-300 Radio communication and

radio

decimeters 1-0,1 300-3,000 relay links.

centimeters 01-001 3,000-30.000 television

Radio communications equipment is designated long-, medium-, short-, or

ultrashort-wave in accordance with the above table.

Long-wave radio stations are effective over long distances, their range

being little affected by seasonal variations, or the time of the day, phases of

solar activity, or ionospheric disturbances. However, much of the energy of

electromagnetic waves in the long-wave band is absorbed during reflection

from the ionosphere, and for this reason it is necessary to use high-power

transmitters and very large antennas. The band width of long-wave radio

stations is very small, and thus they are used mainly for telegraphy. Long

waves are of smaller amplitude than waves in the other bands; they are

absorbed by sea water and can penetrate to a great depth. In the foreign press,

it is noted that this property is utilized in the Navy for communication with

submarines.

The operating range of medium-wave radio stations is shorter, and depends largely on the time of the day (the range of the most powerful transmitters reaches 4,000-5,OOOkm at night time and is far less during daylight

hours). Their range is affected little by ionospheric disturbances and for this

reason they are the principal means of communication in high latitudes. The

number of operating frequencies in this band is also limited. Stations operating on medium-wave frequencies use both speech and telegraphy.

The remarkable fact that radio waves in the short-wave band are reflected

from the upper layers of the ionosphere without appreciable loss of energy

makes it possible to use them for communication over very great distances.

However, the communication range of the surface (ground) wave generated

by short-wave radio stations is limited to several dozen kilometers.

Short-wave radio is used on practically all command links and in all

branches of the Services. It is used for telephone, telegraph, phototelegraph

and data link communications. Simultaneous working on two or three channels is possible.

Ground forces ultrashort-wave (USW) radio stations operate on frequen293
cies in the metric band. Aircraft USW communications are carried on frequencies in part of the decimetric band. This is explained by the fact that

metric waves possess, in some degree, the property of diffraction (i.e., the

property of bending around irregularities in the earth's surface) and their

propagation range is somewhat greater than line-of-sight range. Decimetric

and centimetric waves do not have this property. Owing to the fact that

ultrashort waves are not reflected from the ionosphere, but penetrate right

through it, USW radio stations operate on the surface wave only. Their range

of operation, which varies from several kilometers to several tens of kilometers, is virtually unaffected by seasonal factors or the time of the day. The

large band width of the USW band makes it possible for a radio link to

include apparatuses for the transmission of all kinds of information, including television, as well as the capacity for simultaneous operation on several

channels.

According to foreign sources, radio stations of this type are widely used

for control in the lower tactical elements of the ground forces and fighter

aviation. They are carried by motor vehicles, armored personnel carriers, and

aircraft. Some sets are portable and weigh only a few kilograms.

The modern radio communications equipment of a tactical element is

characterized by a high degree of operational reliability, simplicity of maintenance, and rapidity of netting. The frequency stability of radio emissions

makes it unnecessary to adjust such equipment during operation.

Radio relay was first used as a means of troop control during World War

II. The operating principles and design of radio relay facilities incorporate

a number of the positive features of both radio and line communications. If

we say that radio communication has been established between two points,

we imply that there is a radio station at both of these points through which

information is exchanged and that the range of operation is determined by

the type of radio equipment employed. If, on the other hand, we are talking

about radio relay, we have in mind a whole chain of stations, two of which

are located at control points (terminal stations), and one or several between

them (intermediate stations). The operating range of such a radio relay

system depends mainly upon the number of intermediate stations.

Each terminal station has a radio transmitter and a receiver. Transmission

and reception are on different frequencies, thus ensuring that the transmitter

does not interfere with the receiver. Each intermediate station has a similar

set-up, which makes it possible for signals received from neighboring stations

to be retransmitted in either direction. A similar retransmission scheme is

used in line telegraphy by means of a relay. Hence the term radio relay link

for a complex of terminal and intermediate radio stations.

Radio relay stations operate in the metric, decimetric and centimetric

segments of the ultrashort-wave band. This permits the use of very small

antennas, capable of transmitting electromagnetic energy in a narrow beam,

thus eliminating the wasteful expenditure of energy and requiring hundreds

of times less radiating power for a given operating range than is necessary

with non-directional antennas. Therefore, the output of transmitters of radio

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^
relay stations is comparatively low (from several watts to several dozen

watts). The range of communication between neighboring stations of a radio relay link is 40-50km, depending on the terrain and the height of the

antennas.

By using multiplexing equipment, several telephone and telegraph channels can be received on a radio relay system (as in line communications). The

more channels a radio relay system has, the more complex its equipment.

Radio relay stations are either low-capacity or multichannel. The former are

capable of receiving no more than four channels; the latter have the capacity

for a large number of channels. There are both mobile and fixed radio relay

stations.

Under present-day conditions, radio relay, together with radio communications, is the most important means of troop control.

In recent years, it has been found possible to increase considerably the

range of USW communication without intermediate stations.

Apart from their many advantages, radio and radio relay communications

have one serious disadvantage: they can be intercepted by the enemy. Therefore, in utilizing these forms of communication, it is essential to ensure the

absolute security of the messages and transmissions.

Under present-day conditions, line communications have lost their former

importance and have been replaced by more mobile forms of communication.

However, because of the known merits of this form of communication it will

still be used under various conditions in a combat situation.

Line communications have made great strides since World War II. Overhead lines have been replaced by cables. Field cable lines, depending on their

purpose and the type of cable used, are divided into two main categories: light

and heavy.

Light cable lines are used in tactical elements. They can be single- or

two-core cables and can carry telephonic and telegraphic communications

over distances of several dozen kilometers. Simultaneous telephone and telegraph operation is also possible. Mechanized laying jf light cable lines has

considerably speeded up the establishment of communication by this means.

Motor vehicles, helicopters, etc., are used for thir. purpose.

Heavy field cable lines are used for communications on major links. These

consist of four-core cables, each core being covered by rubber insulation, all

enclosed in a single jacket of semiconducting rubber, which, in addition to

providing mechanical protection, acts as a screen. The laying of this type of

cable, either on the surface or at a specific depth below the surface, has also

been mechanized. Heavy cable lines can carry several telephone conversations and telegraphic transmissions. Modern amplifying equipment ensures

communications over distances of several hundred kilometers.

All the forms of communication enumerated above are combined into a

single system through communication centers, which are established at control points.

The terminal elements of these systems may be telephone, telegraph, teleprinter, and phototelegraph equipment, different signaling devices, as well as

295
units for recording data link information where electronic computers are

used at control points.

Mobile means of communication, which play a very important role in

troop control in modern warfare, include cross-country vehicles, armored

personnel carriers, helicopters and aircraft, and in some cases, fighting vehicles as well. The principal advantage of these is that they can deliver not only

actual graphic and textual documents, but different types of small-sized

secret equipment as well.

Communications facilities permit the rapid exchange of various kinds of

information between command elements. However, in order to increase the

operational efficiency of troop control it is essential that this information be

processed and converted very quickly into a form that will facilitate a rapid

and accurate appreciation ofthe situation and the adoption of a well-founded

solution. To this end, headquarters and other command elements are provided with technical facilities, such as equipment for information documentation and presentation, duplication of textual and graphic documents, and

various types of calculators, etc.

Naval materiel. Navy materiel is extremely diverse. It includes the entire

fleet—different classes of surface vessels and submarines, plus naval aircraft.

Until the advent of nuclear weapons, naval fighting power was based on

surface vessels. Now it is based on atomic submarines armed with nuclear

ballistic missiles, and naval aviation. According to the foreign press, the

endurance of American atomic-powered missile-carrying submarines is practically unlimited. They can carry up to 16 ballistic missiles with ranges of

2,00O-4,000km. In the opinion of foreign experts, the nuclear missiles carried

by these vessels can be used against large-scale military-industrial and administrative and political centers, strategic missile launch sites, air and naval

bases, large groups of forces, and other important strategic targets. The

displacement of American a'omic-powered missile-carrying submarines is

upwards of 3,000 tons, their ubmerged speed, 25-30 knots.

Naval missile-carrying aircraft can also inflict powerful strikes on enemy

naval and coastal targets.

Naval aircraft can be based either at coastal airfields or on aircraft carriers.

An aircraft carrier is essentially a floating aerodrome, which has all that is

necessary for the landing, accommodation, repair, and servicing of combat

aircraft. Aircraft carriers are the largest in size and displacement of all naval

surface vessels. According to the foreign press, their tonnage varies between

42 and 76 thousand tons. Their speed is between 33 and 35 knots and they

have comparatively powerful defensive armaments, usually consisting of

twelve to fourteen dual-purpose 120-127mm guns, thirty to fifty 20-40mrn

antiaircraft guns, or several surface-to-air guided missile launchers. The main

combat component on an aircraft carrier is its complement of aircraft, the

purpose of which is to attack shipping and coastal targets. The number of

aircraft on a carrier, depending on the vessel's displacement and the types

of aircraft (bombers, fighters), may be as high as 140.

Foreign navies (mainly the US Navy) have, in recent years, developed in

two clearly defined directions: naval strike forces (submarines, aircraft and

296
aircraft carriers) and anti submarine warfare (ASW) forces. Therefore, in

addition to heavy (strike) carriers, there are light and special ASW carriers.

They are of smaller displacements and somewhat different weapons complements, dictated by their purpose: surveillance of the enemy and the antisubmarine defense of fighting ships and convoys on the shipping lanes.

Submarines armed with conventional or nuclear torpedoes may be used as

ASW weapons. Submarines can inflict strikes on enemy shipping and reconnoiter his naval forces.

Despite the rapid development of the submarine fleet, surface warships

have not lost their importance.

Surface vessels used in World War II included: battleships, cruisers, destroyers, escort vessels, minesweepers, torpedo boats, landing craft, depot

ships, and several others. Different classes (types) of ships are described in

terms of their dimensions, displacement, armor protection, speed, cruising

range, and armament.

Battleships were used to shell enemy ships and destroy them at sea. They

were also used to demolish large coastal installations. The displacement of

these vessels was as high as 60 thousand tons, their speed 30-35 knots, and

cruising range 10-15 thousand miles. They were equipped with six to twelve

powerful guns of 356-406mm, in two-, three-, or four-gun armored turrets.

In addition, the battleships were equipped with dual-purpose 127-152mm

guns mounted in self-contained turrets for defense against aircraft and small

craft; battleships also have numerous small-caliber air defense guns.

Heavy cruisers, like battleships, are designed to destroy surface vessels at

sea and bombard coastal targets. According to foreign sources, the displacement of heavy cruisers varies between 18 and 34 thousand tons and their

armament consists of six to nine 203-305mm guns, eight to twelve dualpurpose guns up to 127mm in caliber, and several dozen small-caliber air

defense guns.

Since the war, battleships and heavy cruisers of some countries have been

equipped with surface-to-air guided missile launchers and helicopters.

The displacement of light cruisers varies between six and eighteen thousand tons. These warships are armed with nine to twelve 152mm guns, eight

to twelve 102-127mm dual-purpose guns, 35-50 small-caliber air defense

guns, several surface-to-air guided missile launchers, four to six torpedo

tubes, and carry one to three helicopters. Their speeds vary between 32 and

38 knots. The main purpose of light cruisers is the destruction of the enemy's

light naval forces and the disruption of sea communications.

Battleships are no longer being built by any nation and the number ofships

of this class in service is decreasing all the time. Other, more up-to-date,

forms of naval technology are being developed.

Special ships for the air defense of formations of vessels and convoys at sea

began to make their appearance in the navies of the world in the post-war

period. The displacement of these ships varies between five and eight thousand tons, their armament consists of eight to twelve 127-130mm dualpurpose guns, small-caliber (20-40mm) air defense guns and surface-to-air

missiles; their speeds vary from 30-34 knots.

297
Radar patrol vessels are designed for long-rauge aircraft detection, have

a displacement of two to three and a half thousand tons, are armed with four

to six 120-127mm dual-purpose guns, eight to twelve 40mm guns and depth

charges, they can reach 30-35 knots.

Destroyers are designed to carry out torpedo attacks on enemy ships, to

protect naval squadrons and convoys of merchant ships from aircraft, submarine, and torpedo-boat attacks. The displacement of this class of warship

varies between one and a half and three and a half thousand tons; their

armament usually consists of four to six 120-127mm dual-purpose guns,

eight to ten 40mm air defense guns, surface-to-air guided missiles, five to ten

533mm torpedo tubes, and depth charges.

Escort vessels fulfill the same functions as destroyers. Their displacement

is less (one to three thousand tons) and they carry correspondingly fewer

weapons.

ASW vessels, even small ones, are designed to detect and destroy enemy

submarines and carry out patrols. These vessels have displacements of up to

2,700 tons; their armament consists of two to six dual-purpose guns, the

calibers of which vary from 76 to 127mm, four to twelve small-caliber air

defense guns, torpedo tubes and depth charges, and their speeds range from

14-35 knots.

Minelayers have similar specifications. Their purpose is to lay mines in the

paths of enemy naval forces.

The smallest naval surface ships, both in size and displacement, are torpedo boats, the role of which is to carry out torpedo attacks on enemy ships.

The distinctive feature of torpedo boats is their speed (up to 42 knots); their

main armament consists of torpedoes.

Naval technology has developed rapidly in recent years, and naval fire

power has increased considerably. The technically highly developed maritime nations are forging ahead with the re-equipment of all classes of surface

vessels. Increasingly, ships are being equipped with various types of missiles

instead of the classical rifled guns. There is a tendency amongst a number of

the most aggressive imperialist countries (members of NATO) to equip certain merchant ships with Polaris nuclear missiles and include them in their

navies as "chameleon" ships to carry out nuclear strikes in the event of war.

What to Read on This Section

Organizatsiya i vooruzheniye armiy i ßotov kapitaiisticheskikh gosudarstv

[The Organization and Arms of the Armed Forces of the Capitalist States].

2nd. enlarged edition. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Mikhaylov, V. A., Naumenko. I. A. Yadernaya ßzika i yadernoye oruzhiye

[Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Weapons]. Voyenizdat, 1%6.

Yadernoye oruzhiye [Nuclear Weapons]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Barchenkov, S. A. Radioelektronika ohuchayet. upravlyayet i koniroliruyet

[Radioelectronics Teaches. Controls, and Monitors]. Voyenizdat, 1966.

298
Chapter 11. THE ESSENTIALS OF SANITATION AND

HYGIENE

The Communist Party and the Soviet Government, in their constant concern for the well-being of the Armed Forces, do everything possible to ensure

that Soviet servicemen are strong, healthy and hardy—which is perfectly

understandable, since the fighting efficiency and combat readiness of the

Forces depend largely on the state of health and physical fitness ofthe officers

and men. Under present-day conditions, at a time when the development of

military technology has reached an unprecedented level, ever-increasing demands are being imposed on the human body. This is why questions concerning the protection of servicemen's health have a direct bearing on the official

duties of all command personnel of the Soviet Armed Forces.

The Internal Service Regulations of the Armed Forces of the USSR oblige

all officers to concern themselves with the protection of the health of their

subordinates. In order to carry out their obligations in this respect, all officers

must be familiar with disease prevention measures, the rules governing hygiene, daily life and service, nutrition and rest, and the physiology and

hygiene of military work.

As we know, the duties of a subunit commander include the arrangement

of training for personnel on individual topics of the military medical training

program. Therefore, they should also know how to organize first aid on the

battlefield, and the rules and scope of self and mutual assistance in case of

combat injury and accidents.

The physical condition ofservicemen is recorded and assessed on the basis

of data obtained from a number of checks, including: daily medical inspections of personnel; physical and medical examination of conscripted servicemen; medical examination of soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty

officers. A., ihese measures are undertaken in close contact with subunit

commanders and representatives of the medical service.

Internal Service Regulations emphasize that it is very important for subunit commanders to be present at medical examinations made for the purpose

ofinvestigating the physical condition of personnel. These officers provide the

medical officer with information based on observations of the physical

299
capabilities of their subordinates, and the medical officer informs them of the

measures which need to be taken to improve the physical condition of soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers.

The medical inspection plan is approved by the unit commander and the

examination results are reported to him. The number ofservicemen examined

is given, together with detailed information about their condition. Reports

on personnel who require regular medical examinations, therapy, preventive

treatment, special combat and physical training, work, rest, or food routines

are submitted separately. The report should also include the results of therapeutic and preventive measures taken by the medical service in connection

with examination data, and additional measures which require the commander's approval.

The outpatient clinic. If a serviceman becomes ill he must report the fact

to his immediate superior at once and, with his permission, go for assistance

to the regimental medical aid station, which is the center for all therapeutic

and prevemive work in the forces. The unit medical aid station consists of

an outpatient clinic, an infirmary and a pharmacy. The medical assistance

provided by the outpatient clinic of a medical aid station is limited to the

treatment of diseases which do not require the attention of a doctor, complex

investigations or special equipment. Vaccinations and medical inspections

can also be carried out in outpatient clinics. Outpatients must be seen by a

medical officer. The time of attendance at the clinic is set out in unit orders.

Soldiers and noncommissioned officers proceed to the medical aid station in

the charge of a senior with the medical inspection and sick book. After

personnel on sick call have been examined and attended to, and the appropriate entries recorded in the medical books, they return to the company. It is

the duty of the subunit commander to organize the appropriate health improvement measures for soldiers and noncommissioned officers for whom the

unit medical officer has given instructions for treatment.

The commander of a unit or subunit should be aware of the number of

servicemen on the sick list and the nature of their illnesses. He authorizes

individual servicemen to be excused from duty owing to sickness on the

recommendation of the medical officer. A medical officer may recommend

that a serviceman be partially or fully excused from training or duty for a

period not exceeding three days. If necessary, a further period of relief from

duties may be granted.

Medical treatment in quarters. An officer living in a garrison, or temporarily quartered there during leave or on temporary duty assignment, receives

medical treatment in his quarters from the unit medical aid station, the

garrison hospital or a hospital polyclinic department (polyclinjc). He is

treated in quu.ters in an emergency, in the event that he is unable to visit a

medical aid center, or has to remain in bed in his quarters and hospital

treatment is not essential.

Officers of a unit which has no medical officer receive medical treatment

in their quarters from the medical station of the unit to which the garrison

commander has assigned this responsibility. Authorization for treatment in

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r

»

f
quarters is given by the medical officer of the unit (polyclinic) on the basis

of a medical examination, taking into account the relevant conditions of the

officer's quarters. If an officer being treated in his quarters happens to be on

leave or temporary duty, the unit medical officer reports this to the garrison

medical officer, who in turn informs the town military commandant.

Patients receive medication and dressings from the unit medical aid station

(hospital).

Hospital treatment. If a patient cannot be treated as an outpatient, he is

hospitalized, i.e., he is put into a\, infirmary for hospital treatment. Patients

who require hospital treatment for a period not in excess offive to seven days,

do not need nursing, special diet, or complex tests, are accommodated in the

sick bav of the unit's medical aid station.

A serviceman may be sent for hospital treatment outside his unit by order

of the commander, on the recommendation of the medical officer. In urgent

cases, he can be seni to a civilian hospital, ifspecialized treatment is indicated

and such treatment cannot be given at the nearest military hospital.

The procedure for this and the list of documents which a serviceman

requires in units are laid down in Internal Service Regulations.

Servicemen who become ill on leave, while on temporary duty or traveling,

are sent to a hospital or other medical institute by military commandants or

commissariats. In this case, they present their travel or leave orders, as well

as their identification document.

In sending a serviceman to the hospital on account of a functional disorder

of ?he nervous system (neurasthenia, hysteria, etc.), the commander of a

subunit should submit a formal description, indicating the peculiarities of the

patient's behavior. This should be accompanied by his medical record; and

in the case of epileptics and persons suffering from enuresis, documents

signed by the senior medical officer of the unit and the subunit commander

describing the observed symptoms.

Sanatorium-health resort treatment and organized rest. The hospital and

health facilities available to servicemen include sanatorium-health resort

treatment and organized rest. The therapeutic and preventive treatment

given in sanatoria include: physiotherapy, remedial physical culture, dieting,

sanatorium treatment, terrain cure (controlled walking). Depending on the

available therapeutic factors, sanatoria are classified as climatic, balneological, fangotherapeutic. etc., and, according to field of specialization, as

nervous disorders, somatic, gastrointestinal, cardiological, tubercular,

osteotubercular, etc.

Sanatorium-health resort treatment for officers and members of their families is covered by Order No. 20 of the Minister of War of the USSR dated

1952, and by "Indications and Cou; vindications for Admission to Sanatoria and Rest Homes of the MoMUj Of Defense of the USSR."

Patients are selected for admission to sanatoria by sanatorium selection

commissions attached to military units, formations, institutions and garrisons, on the basis of clinical examination data and the established indications

and counterindications for admission to sanatoria. In addition to medical

3^1
officers, these commissions include headquarters and Party organization representatives.

The following are eligible for sanatorium treatment and organized rest in

sanatoria and rest homes of the Ministry of Defense of the USSR:

—officers of the Soviet Armed Forces and members of their families;

—officers seconded in the prescribed order for work in civilian ministries

and departments while remaining regular officers of the Soviet Armed

Forces, members of their families (also extended to officers assigned to civilian ministries and departments for the military training of students of higher

educational establishments);

—extended service and conscripted soldiers, sailors and noncommissioned

and petty officers; conscripted personnel are admitted as exceptions, where

there are special medical indications (considered separately in each individual case), to central sanatoria with the permission ofthe Head ofthe Military

Medical Directorate of the Ministry of Defense, at the request of the Head

of the Military Medical Department of a military district, and to military

district sanatoria with the latter's permission.

The right to sanatorium treatment for the members of an officer's family

is limited to his wife and the children whose names are entered on his service

record as dependents. Children from 5 to 13 years of age inclusive are suit

to children's sanatoria only, and children from 14 years of age and older are

sent to sanatoria and rest homes for adults. The members of families of

extended service noncommissioned and petty officers receive sanatorium

treatment only if there are special medical indications and with the permission of the Head of the Central Military Medical Directorate in each

individual case.

Payment for treatment and organized rest in sanatoria and rest homes run

by the Ministry of Defense of the USSR is made in accordance with the

existing regulations. Thus, on arrival at the sanatorium, officers pay 25% of

the cost of their travel warrant, accommodation and treatment; members of

their families pay 50%, and Ministry of Defense employees. 30%. Conscripted so.Jiers, noncommissioned and petty officers use the services of

sanatoria and rest homes free of charge, but they are required io present a

food certificate.

A completed sanatorium form (orders), together with medical documents

(medical book) can be issued to an officer and members of his family by the

head of the medical service of the unit or establishment, on the recommendation of the Sanatorium Selection Commission, only with the permission of

the unit commander.

Not all officers are in need of sanatorium treatment. Personnel whose

health is almost normal may spend their leave for lecuperative purposes in

other health improvement establishments run by the Ministry of Defense.

Some of the military district sanatoria have guest houses where a warrant

entitles an officer to accommodation in a room for two to four persons and

three meals a day (without treatment, therapeutic procedures, c c). The

maximum length of a stay in such guest houses is 24 days.

302
Physically fit officers may be granted active recreational leave in tourist

camps 'rider military district and central administration. Tourist camps are

located on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, on the south coast of the

Crirr^a, in the Carpathians, the Baltic, near Leningrad, and other places.

They provide accommodation in buildings or tents and are set up for a 20-day

vacation. During the summer, officers may obtain warrants for the Ministry

of Defense swimming camp with a 21-day boat excursion along the Volga

River from Moscow to Astrakhan and back.

On the prevention of certain illnesses. Gastrointestinal, respiratory, and

circulatory complaints, hypertension and arteriosclerosis, neuropsychic disorder, are included among the most common diseases. Prophylactic measures

aimed at their prevention are of great importance in the maintenance of the

serviceman's health.

Gastrointestinal complaints (acute and chronic gastritis, chronic colitis,

ulcers) occur mainly as a result of nutritional defects, especially the consumption of inferior food, which occurs most frequently during the summer. The

consumption of excessive amounts of alcohol also contributes to illnesses.

The aggravation of chronic gastrointestinal complaints is usually caused

by irregular eating habits, overeating, eating too quickly, living cold, dry food

for a prolonged period, insufficient mastication of food on account of dental

defects, the consumption of very hot or very cold food, spicy dishes, etc.

Preventive measures against these illnesses include the maintenance of

exemplary sanitary conditions in the area occupied by the unit, the procurement and proper storage of good quality food products, and proper food

preparation. Of great importance for medical personnel are the early diagnosis of these diseases, particularly among new recruits, continuing observation

of servicemen found to be suffering from any of these disorders, strict adherence to the daily work schedule and feeding regimen, and timely hospitalization of patients who cannot be treated in the unit.

Of the resnvatory diseases, the most dangerous is pulmonary tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis may be brought into the army by young recruits. For this

reason, special requirements are imposed on medical selection commissions

in connection with the examination of recruits.

Early recognition of tuberculosis is ensured by regular medical and X-ray

examinations of the servicemen.

Of great importance in the prevention of tuberculosis are- toughening

exercises, physical training and sports, health instruction given by officers of

the Medical Service; strict observance of the regulations on barrack-room

hygiene and attention to personal hygiene.

Commanders at all levels should pay particular attention to the recommendations of representatives of the Medical Service concerning the need for a

careful check on the health of servicemen working under unfavorable conditions, in the presence of sharp temperature fluctuations, dust, inadequate

ventilation, toxic substances; as well as on servicemen who, having contracted tuberculosis, may become a hazard to those around them (kitchen,

dining hall and warehouse staff, etc.).

303
There may be servicemen who, while not suffering from tuberculosis, may

be predisposed to it. These are people who are physically weak, with pronounced anemia and a weakly developed rib cage, people who have suffered

with exudative pleurisy, chronic catarrh of the upper respiratory tract, prolonged elevation of temperature up to 37.2-37.8°, and individuals who

progressively lose weight. It is expedient for subunit commanders to establish

a strictly individual physical load for such people on the advice of the unit

medical officer.

Servicemen suffering from active pulmonary tuberculosis are treated in

specialized hospitals and subsequently undergo a period of convalescence in

specialized sanatoria. The treatment of such patients in sanatoria is free

under Soviet law.

In the prevention of cardiovascular ailments, particular attention is paid

to prophylactic measures against the occurrence of rheumatism, hypertension and atherosclerosis.

Rheumatism begins most frequently in childhood or adolescence: in 75%

of the cases before the age of 15, in 15% between the ages of 15 and 25, and

in 10% after the age of 25. Rheumatism develops very often after angina

(within 10-15 days) or acute inflamation of the epipharynx and upper respiratory tracts. Of critical importance in the genesis of the disease is the

condition of the body and its susceptibility to streptococci. Cooling of the

body (cold, dampness) also has a great influence on the development of the

disease. The greatest incidence occurs during the fall and winter (from October through April).

Prophylaxis of rheumatism includes the active treatment of acute and

chronic affections ofthe throat, upper respiratory tract, nasal accessory sinus,

and teeth. In order to reduce the incidence of these disorders it is essential

to subject personnel to systematic toughening exercises.

The main symptom of hypertensive disease is elevated arterial blood pressure; the chief causes are deep disturbances of the regulation of the vascular

tone brought about by changes in the nervous system, endocrine glands, and

kidneys. Hypertensive disease is a neurogenic disorder attributable to

traumatism and stress of the higher nervous activity.

The all-round physical training of servicemen is very important in the

prevention of hypertensive disease. An inactive way of life predisposes a

person to it. Other reasons for its development are: nervous overstrain,

mental trauma; situations associated with prolonged or frequently recurring

alarm, fear, lack of self-confidence; excessive consumption of meat and fat.

The earlier hypertension is detected, the easier it is to treat. People suffering from it should be aware of the great harm that can be caused by smoking,

overindulgence in alcoholic drinks, insufficient rest, negative emotions, and

physical overexertion

The most common blood disorder is anemia. It can arise from different

causes. Early detection makes it possible U begin timely and effective treatment. This is why yearly medical checkups aic JO important In a number

of disorders anemia develops as a result of defective blood founation, a sharp

304

t
reduction in the number of white corpuscles. It is essential that personnel

who come in contact with radioactive elements and ionizing radiation generators should be given special check-ups. Additional causes of anemia may be

concealed or recurring hemorrhage, certain types of chronic poisoning, stomach and duodenal ulcers, malignant growths, bleeding from piles, intestinal

worms, etc.

Neuropsychic disorder may be manifested in servicemen in the form of

neuroses (neurasthenia, hysteria and compulsion neurosis) and psychasthenia. Each of these disorders is frequently accompanied by the following:

irascibility, erratic moods, compulsive fears, lack of self-confidence, disturbed sleep, as well as impaired functions of different organs, which cause

palpitation of the heart, constipation, loss of weight, and variation of arterial

pressure.

The causes of functional neuropsychic disorders ire prolonged stressful

experiences, overstrain in performing tasks which are beyond the normal

range of a person's capabilities (particularly if they result in failure and

disappointment), insufficient and irregular rest and sleep, prolonged inner

conflict, the need to hide anger, grief, etc. The development of neuroses is

promoted by acute and chronic diseases of the internal organs, infections,

poisoning, head injuries, and irregular nutrition.

As a rule, these diseases are curable, although not always within a short

period of time. In order to prevent them, it is important that neuropsychic

insufficiency be detected n good time, especially among the rank and file

during the first year ofservice. Commanders and political officers of all levels

can be of great assistance to the medical officer by keeping a check on

individuals who make a habit of submitting complaints of a neurotic character, and those who exhibit strange traits of behavior. Subunit commanders

should bear in mind that new recruits may include persons with neuropsychic

abnormalities caused by improper upbringing or bad environmental influences. The transition from civilian to army life is a slow process for such

people. They tend to be unstable, to overreact and to lack self-control.

Commanders and political officers should be extremely careful in dealing

with emotionally disturbed individuals who easily become involved in conflicts, frequently commit disciplinary offenses, find it very difficult to endure

separation from their families, constantly isolate themselves, lag behind in

training activities, etc. Such individuals should be kept under supervision.

They should be given more time for rest and sports activities. Individuals who

manifest pronounced emotional disturbance should be sent for special psychoneurological investigation and treatment.

The incidence of skin diseases in the Armed Forces can be high in peacetime, as well as in wartime. Most of these come under the heading of boils,

carbuncles, abscesses, and phlegmons. Individual skin complaints are more

widespread in some branches of the Services than others, for example, blisters

in the infantry, folliculitis in tank units, fungus diseases in aviation units.

To minimize skin complaints it is essential to adhere strictly to the rules

and regulations of personal hygiene concerning regular bathing (at least once

30'j
a weck) with hot water and soap and a change of underwear, the requirement

for daily hot showers for personnel employed in the kitchen, dining hall, MT

dCpötS. Bad Wiir>snOpS. ;r to prevent infection, first aid kits should

always be kept in workshops for the treatment of minor cuts and abrasions

sustained by servicemen working on the repair of weapons and equipment.

Proper care of the feet and footwear, dealing with perspiration problems,

and keeping the feet clean are essential prerequisites for the prevention ofskin

complaints. Excessive perspiration may cause blistering of the feet. If daily

washing of the feet is not effective, medical assistance should be sought.

Blistering may also be caused by badly fitting footwear.

Particular attention should be paid to the prophylaxis of venereal diseases:

syphilis, gonorrhea, chancroid, and the so-called fourth venereal disease

(lymphogranuloma ver.ereum). Venereal diseases are usually contracted

through sexual intercourse, although the possibility of transmission by other

means is not excluded.

The incidence of venereal disease in the Armed Forces of the USSR is

minimal compared with the armies of the capitalist countries, thanks to a

whole series of preventive measures and the maintenance of good order and

discipline in units and on ships.

On the basis of current handbooks and regulations, officers of the Medical

Service organize their work on the prophylaxis of venereal diseases in close

collaboration with the civil health authorities. Thus, all personnel undergo

regular medical inspections, sources of infection are ascertained and steps

taken to localize them; efficient treatment is made available (both hospital

and outpatient) at the earliest possible moment.

Officers should be aware of the prophylactic facilities provided by the

medical service and ensure that they are made use of.

The prevention of injury. Injuries occur in the Soviet Armed Forces under

certain conditions and are attributable to causes, the consideration of which

makes it possible to take preventive measures.

There are combat and non-combat injuries. The former are received in

action; the latter, closed or open, are not received in action and do not involve

the use of weapons. Most cases of injury (from 30 to 53%) occur during

training (drill, physical training, sports, etc.).

A Short List of Conditions and Causes of Non-Combat Inju) .es

Conditions under wheh ncn-comb»! miuritj and «.cidents

occur

Causes of non-combat miury

Maintenance work, repau and loading work, loading and

unloading, vehicle repair aaj use ot motor transport

Violation of the safety regulations, the absence of guard rails and

protective devices on machines, faulty ladders, gangways, side rail

stanchions: lack of protective clothing, mittens, protective goggles:

badly M or cold work rooms, failure to observe the rules for handling

flammable materials, steam boilers, electrical equipment: violation of

the safety regulations when working over the ship's side, on masts

and funnefs and m the bilge

Combat training

306

Faulty weapons, equipment, permitting insufficiently trained soldiers and

sailors (especially during the« first year of service) to handle complex

fighting equipment, ship's mechanisms and machinery, etc;

msufticienl care m the fitting of clothes and footwear, the use of toot

cloths, msufficienl care of the feet, individual carelessness on the part

of servicemen m handling weapons »nd combat equipment dunng

training exercises
A Short List of Conditions and Causes of Non-Combat Injuries—Continued

Physical training and sports (during tracing exercises and

large-scale sporting events)

Badly lit sports arenas, poorly prepared sites, unsatisfactory condition of

the sports equipment, grounds, floors, swimming pool bottom; the

lack of safety precautions during gymnastic exercises; the absence of

lifesavmg equipment at bathing pools and beaches; permitting

insufficiently trained soldiers and sailors (especially during their first

year of service) to attempt difficult exercises.

in daily life, both off base and on base (unconnected with the

performance of military duties)

Breaches of established regulations and discipline by individuals.

A well thought out, systematic means of recording and analysing all cases

of injuries is of great importance in the prevention of their occurrence. For

this purpose a standard chart for recording injuries (Form No. 7) is maintained in units.

Commanders and political officers collaborate with medical officers in

studying the causes of injuries and devising measures to reduce them. In

systematically investigating individual injuries which give the impression of

being accidents, as well as frequently recurring injuries, they consider both

external and internal factors. External factors pertain to unfavorable working

conditions from the point of view of sanitation and hygiene, the immediate

causes of injuries attributable to breaches of the safety regulations and improper labor organization. Internal factors are the state of health of the

injured person and fatigue.

Participation of officers in the medical supervision of physical training.

Physical training forms part of the combat training of the Soviet Armed

Forces and is aimed at the all-round development and improvement of the

psychophysical qualities of servicemen, which are essential for carrying out

routine military duties and participating in combat activity.

In military units, physical training is organized (provided fo.) by the unit

commander and subunit commanders. The physical training activities are

directly conducted by officers and noncommissioned officers, who must

know: the level of physical training achieved by their subordinates, their state

of health and the results of their medical examinations, the effects of physical

exercises on the body, indications of fatigue and how to regulate physical

stress, the importance of observing sanitation and hygiene requirements and

injury prevention measures, and the basic rules of body hardening.

In accordance with the Instructions for Physical Training of the Armed

Forces of the USSR, medical personnel keep a check on the methods and

proper conduct of the exercises, the observance of safety precautions, the

assistance given in the performance of gymnastic exercises, the condition of

the sports equipment, and the preparation of the sites. They absolutely must

participate in the elaboration and planning of physical training measures for

the purpose of ensuring compliance with sanitation and hygiene requirements

in the organization of physical training activities and in order to ensure the

most expedient distribution of these activities in the daily routine. Here

medical supervision is pointless without close contact between the medical

officer and the commander, and the results of such collaboiation should be

systematically discussed with the officers of the unit.

307
Facilities for servicemen's children. The Ministry of Defense operates two

types of children's institutions: nursery schools and pioneer camps.

Nursery schools are intended to provide for the all-round development of

children of pre-school age (from three to seven years old); pioneer camps are

for the summer holidays of schoolchildren between the ages of seven and

fifteen. Nursery schools and pioneer camps are organized directly by military

units, establishments, and training institutions with the authorization of the

commander of the military district or fleet, and in military units and establishments under central command, with the authorization of the Central

Military Medical Directorate.

The provision of dentures. Personnel in military units are registered with

the appropriate dental prosthetic establishments for the purpose of obtaining

dentures. According to the Regulations on Dental Prosthetic Facilities in the

Soviet Armed Forces (Ministry of Defense Order No. 106 of 24 June 1955),

dental nro« that *• facilities arc available to scrvicemca in the following:

—the dental prosthetic department of a military district, fleet (flotilla), or

garrison Stomatologie polyclinic;

—the Stomatologie department of a military district, base, or garrison

hospital;

—the Stomatologie department of the Central Sanatorium of the Ministry

of Defense;

—the Stomatologie department of a sanatorium of a military district, fleet

(flotilla), or military academy;

—an unestablished (self-supporting) dental prosthetic department in any

other treatment center of the Soviet Armed Forces.

Dental prosthetic facilities may also be provided by Ministry of Health

hospitals and clinics (in remote garrisons). In such cases, servicemen who

have the right to free dentures may avail themselves of the service of these

institutions within the limits of the funds allocated by special grant for the

use of the Military Medical Service.

Individuals with the requisite medical indications are eligible for dentures.

The following are eligible for free dentures:

—conscripted soldiers, sailors and petty officers of all branches of the

Services, students in military schools, pupils of Suvorov and Nakhimov

schools;

—all servicemen, including officers who lose their teeth as a result of

iniuries received in the performance of their official duties;

—all servicemen who receive supporting, replacement, or corrective prosthetics after complex surgery on the jaws in connection with malignant

neoplasms and other diseases entailing the loss of a large piece of bone or

acute disturbance of its function.

The following are required to pay for their dentures:

—officers and extended service personnel serving in the forces, as well as

individual categories ofreserve officers, in the absence ofindications that they

are eligible for free prosthetics.

—the members of servicemen's families and employees of the Soviet

Armed Forces.

308
. •-;■■ fiji -' ;. .

Gold dentures are made only at the expense of the individuals requiring

them.

The role of sanitation and hygiene measures in health protection. In Internal Service Regulations it is stated that each serviceman must strictly observe

the rules of personal and public hygiene and perform daily toughening exercises. These rules, based on the science of health and military hygiene, are

aimed at maintaining and reinforcing the health and fighting efficiency of

servicemen.

The subdivisions of military hygiene are:

—personal hygiene;

—the influence of climatic factors on health;

—food hygiene for the troops;

—water supply hygiene for the troops;

—quartering hygiene for the troops.

Personal hygiene ernbraceä complexes of rules and methods aimed at

strengthening the serviceman's health, physical development and endurance.

Each serviceman must be clear about its importance to himself and to the

community, and strictly adhere to the established rules. First and foremost,

he must be aware of the importance of regular care of the skin in maintaining

health and hardening the body, regulation washing and bathing requirements, the role and effect on the skin of solar radiation and bathing. It is also

essential to know how to care for the hands and to be aware of the danger

of infection from dirty hands (with intestinal worms, for example). Dental

and oral hygiene is also very important for health. It is essential to clean the

teeth regularly, rinse the mouth out after eating, and have periodic dental

check-ups. The rules of hygiene also extend to the care of the hair, haircutting, and shaving; the fitting, timely cleaning and care of uniforms and

footware; the care of the feet and the prevention of perspiration of the feet.

The influence of climatic factors on health. In this section of military

hygiene it is essential to know the regulation requirements for the prevention

of overcooling and frostbite in winter, and overheating of the body, sunburn,

and heatstroke in summer.

A low temperature combined with a high degree of humidity and a strong

wind have an unfavorable effect on untrained and unconditioned persons by

creating conditions leading to overcooling of the body as a whole, or parts

oftt Overcooling may result in coldtype illnesses (acute catarrh of the upper

respiratory tract), disorders of the muscles (myositis) and peripheral nerves

(radiculitis). Cooling predisposes to influenza and angina.

Frostbite occurs when individual parts of the body become chilled. There

are four stage., of frostbite: in the first stage the skin turns white, loses its

sensitivity, the frostbitten parts become swollen, the victim experiences pain

and irritation; in the second stage the same effects are observed, but after a

while blisters filled with a light colored liquid appear; in the third stage

necrosis of the skin sets in and the blisters are filled with bloody liquid; in

the fourth stage necrosis of all the soft tissues occurs.

To prevent overcooling and frostbite, officers must ensure that personnel

are provided with warm clothing and serviceable, properly fitting footwear

309
and equipment. In collaboration with representatives of the Medical Service,

they see that soldiers, sailors, noncommissioned and petty officers observe the

rules governing personal hygiene, and the wearing of clothing and footwear.

It is important to be thoroughly conversant with the rules for rendering

first aid to frostbite victims. In the case of first degree frostbite, the affected

parts are rubbed with the hand or a handkerchief until the skin becomes

warm and begins to turn pink; they are then rubbed with cotton wool soaked

in alcohol or cologne. Victims suffering from second, third, and fourth degree

frostbite must be sent to a medical aid station, sterile dressings having been

first applied to the affected parts.

Heavy muscular work in hot, humid weather with little or no wind may

result in overheating of the body—heatstroke. Its symptoms are: headache,

dizziness, a feeling of fatigue, and unsteady gait. The victim's face turns red,

the pulse and respiratory rates increase; the body temperature increases to

38.5°-39.5°. Prolonged exposure in the sun may cause sunstroke.

To prevent overheating, personnel should be provided with freshly laundered underwear and clean uniforms. Clothing should be loose-fitting and not

hamper movements. Dirty, greasy clothing blocks the passage of air and

upsets the heat exchange between the body and the surrounding air.

First aid in case of heatstroke is as follows: the victim is placed in the shade

and his equipment removed; he is stripped to the waist, his face and chest

moistened with cold water, and he is given a drink. If all these measures are

fruitless, the assistance of a medical officer should be sought.

Climatic factors have less effect on personnel who perform daily toughening exercises. Toughening measures are provided for in the daily routine of

a unit. Exceptionally favorable conditions for this occur in the summer when

sunbathing, air baths and water procedures serve to toughen the body.

Food hygiene. Commanders and political officers must be constantly concerned to ensure that their subordinates are properly fed, and that the quality

and quantity of the food are up to standard. Rational feeding ensures the

maintenance of a high level of working efficiency.

Foodstuffs contain nutrien*.—protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins, and

mineral salts. The minimum daily requirements for the basic nutrients are as

follows:

Protein—approximately 100g per day (not less than 30% of animal origin)

Fats—50-60g per day

Carbohydrates—500g per day

Vitamin A—1.5mg or 3mg of carotene

Vitamin B, (thiamine)—2-3mg

Vitamin B, (riboflavin)—1.5-2mg

Vitamin PP (nicotinic acid)—15mg

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)—50mg

Calcium—SOOmg

Phosphorus— 1,200mg

Iron—12mg

In order to satisfy fully these requirements of tne body, it i» essential to

310
know the daily amount of energy expended by the body. The average amour,!

of energy expended by a serviceman per day is between 3,000 and 3,500 large

calories. The soldier's basic ration, set out in the relevant order of the Minister of the Armed Forces of the USSR, is fully commensurate with these

expenditures.

Indices of the food value of the basic ration and several other rations are

given in the table on the next page.

A full-value diet must be combined with a proper meal routine. In barracks

and camps there are three meals a day: breakfast, dinner, and supper. The

interval between meals should not exceed 7 hours. This ensures regularity of

meals and avoids overloading the digestive organs. Strict supervision is essential to ensure that the established routine is carried out. Half an hour should

elapse after dinner before lessons or work are resumed.

The meal routine may be changed during exercises and maneuvers and

arranged so that the soldiers' stomachs are not burdened with food at times

of maximum stress, since physical work interferes with the digestive process,

thus reducing efficiency and staying power. It is recommended that, if the

situation permits, meals should be served one to two hours before activities

involving increased stress.

Failure to observe the rules of sanitation and the absence of sanitary

supervision in the procurement, shipment, and storage of foodstuffs and the

preparation of meals may lead to an outbreak of bacterial or non-bacterial

food poisoning. The latter is encountered where chemical toxins (salts of

heavy metals) are used, poisonous fungi, or toxic products of animal origin.

Diseases of microbic origin, such as intestinal, dysenteric, and staphylococcal

infections can be transmitted in food.

In the prevention of infections from food contamination, great importance

is attached to the heat processing of foodstuffs and compliance with the

regulations on the sanitary supervision of the kitchen staff.

In a combat situation it should be borne in mind that there is a possibility

that foodstuffs will be contaminated through the enemy's use weapons of

mass destruction. Foodstuffs contaminated with radioactive material may

cause the dangerous illness known as radiation sickness. Therefore, they must

not be used in meals, and must be destroyed. Some types of provisionscanned foods, vegetables, and fruit—must be subjected to special processing

and used after the appropriate check has been carried out.

Barrack-room, camp, and field hygiene. Internal Service Regulations

oblige the respective officers, from the regimental commander to the company commander, to keep a check on the maintenance and pru^er utilization

of all living quarters and other premises, and the cleanliness of the site

occupied by the unit or subunit. This applies to military camps and field

quarters, as well as barracks.

In order to satisfy the regulation requirements fully, it is essential to know,

the personnel accommodation scheme, the layout of the barracks, barrack

cleanliness measures, the method of cleaning the premises, the rules for

drinking water storage, and the rules governing the sanitation of communal

311
Food Vatue of Basic and Other Rations

Assimilable substances Vitamins ir mg Mineral substances

Ration Protein Fats Carbohydrates Calorie content A s, e, c pp Calcium Phosphorus Iron

Soldier's basic ration

a) tor winter 112.9 62 9 609 4

b) for summer 107 3 62 3 570 1

Sailor's basic ration

a) for winter 1213 72 8 640 4

b) for summer 115 8 72.6 6011

Summer ration (tor aircraft crews) 167 5 124 4 694 8

Dry ration 83 5 88 4 494 0

3547 38 2.5 14 44 21

3357 38 24 1.3 44 20

3800 4 6 2 0 14 44 25

3610 4 6 18 1 3 44 24

4692 7 7 2.4 2 2 51 35

3190 01 20 1.1 16

670

640

2525

2375

28

26

675 2285 27

645 2135 25

1300 3115 32

380 1875 19

places. The hygiene equirements with respect to lighting, heating, and ventilation must also be observed.

In camps or under field conditions, it is essential for commanders to

maintain contact with medical personnel on matters relating to special measures for the prevention of infection.

The hygiene of mental work. The official duties of an officer entail considerable mental strain. It predominates over physical stress. Mental work in the

case of staff officers forms the basis of their activities.

Badly organized mental work combined with unsystematic work and insufficient and improper rest can result in weakening or exhaustion of the

nervous system and sometimes the development of nervous diseases. Conversely, well organized labor and observance of the rules of hygiene

strengthen the nervous system and promote good health.

The productivity of mental work depends on the alternation of labor and

active rest, and the hygienic condition of the office. Observance of these

conditions prevents fatigue.

I. P. Pavlov and other physiologists established that the fatiguability of the

organism associated with muscular and mental work is attributable to a

disturbance of the interrelation between the excitation and inhibition processes in the cerebral cortex and normal reflex activity. These disturbances

are manifested in deterioration of attention, memory, etc.

Work productivity is usually lower at the beginning of the day. This is due

to the known difficulty in concentrating attention on any one thing. To get

down tc work rapidly it is very important to suppress all extraneous stimuli

acting on our sense organs. Observance of the rules of personal hygiene,

familiar comfortable conditions, a well-lit working position, and the habit of

starting work at the same time every day, etc. facilitate rapid "entry" into

one's work, all of which makes it possible to exhibit such qualities as concentration, discipline, and attention, which are essential in brain work. A systematic start to work has a salutary effect on th« stimulation processes of the

cerebral cortex.

Fatigue is prevented by taking short breaks. The more strain the mental

work causes, the more frequent the breaks should be. In some cases five to

ten minute breaks should be taken every 45 minutes, in others every 60-90

minutes. Longer and more frequent breaks should not be taken, since they

312
do not increase, but decrease the work productivity. During these breaks it

is recommended that special hygiene exercis« a be carried1W< vyut out and the office

ventilated. Fresh air has a beneficial effect on the organism of a person

occupied with mental work. After sitting for a long period breathing becomes

shallow, metabolism slows down and hemostasis occurs in the lower parts of

the lungs, the organs ofthe abdominal cavity, and the lower extremities. This

reduces the working capacity of the body and primarily the brain.

The organization of officers' rest periods. Medical officers who carry out

medical examinations consistently note indications of good health in servicemen who participate regularly in physical culture and sports. These must

form part of the daily routine of each officer. In addition to gymnastic

exercises indoors, it is very beneficial to participate in various sports activities

in the open air. Skiing, skating, swimming, rowing, cycling, and walking are

highly recommended. Two or three one- or two-hour periods should be

devoted to these forms of sport each week.

Days off and public holidays should be spent in active recreation. 1 he

program of activities for spreading education among the masses in military

units should always include trips into the countryside, one-day walking tours

(with a night stopover in the forest), mushroom gathering, hunting, fishing,

etc.

Epidemic protection of the troops. This is the name given to the system

of anti-epidemic, sanitation, hygiene, and organizational measures for the

protection of personnel against epidemic diseases. Officers must know the

requirements of these measures and see that they are carried out.

Epidemic protection measures are usually subdivided into the following

groups:

1. General prophylactic (the rules of sanitation and hygiene, personal hygiene, food hygiene, etc.) and other measures directed at increasing the

resistance of Armed Forces personnel to individual infectious diseases.

Thus, it is compulsory for all personnel to be vaccinated annually against

highly infectious intestinal and other diseases.

2. Measures to prevent the introduction into the Forces of infectious diseases from outside. Such diseases could be brought into a unit by new

recruits or personnel returning from temporary duty or leave. In this

case, the prophylactic measures include medical examinations, vaccinations, and temporary isolation of suspected cases of infectious diseases.

i. Prophylactic measures are applied both to patients and to disease carriers within a unit. The Medical Service takes into consideration persons

who in the past have suffered from dysentery, typhoid fever, and cholera.

They are subjected to a systematic examination. Ifsuspected of infection,

they are isolated and evacuated to the infectious diseases department of

a hospital.

Servicemen who work on food serving stations and are found to be suffering from sore throat, influenza, stomach disorders, and other epidemic illnesses should be promptly removed from their work.

Early detection and isolation are very important. Commanders and politi313
cal officers of subunits have a very responsible part to play in this: they are

obliged to pay careful attention to initial complaints of indisposition from

subordinates.

Infectious cases are promptly evacuated to a hospital for infectious

diseases.

Servicemen found to be suffering from especially dangerous diseases (bubonic plague, etc.) are not evacuated. They are hospitalized on the spot, the

resources being provided by a special department of an infectious diseases

hospital.

Officers of the Quartermaster Service are obliged to assist medical personnel in the disinfection of a patient's personal belongings, bed, bedding, rooms

frequented by him, the toilet, and other articles used by him. Other measures

include disinfection of the nidus (destruction of the microbes at the seat of

the diseases), disinfestation (destruction of infection-carrying insects), rodent

control (destruction of infection-carrying rodents).

A careful check is carried out to ascertain which persons came into contact

with the patient. These can be put into strict isolation (if cholera or bubonic

plague is suspected), subjected to sanitary measures, preventive treatment,

and inoculation. If the disease becomes widespread, it may be necessary to

quarantine the entire unit. During the quarantine period, officers are required

to maintain the strictest military order, since the localization of an infectious

disease and the prevention of its further spread depend upon this.

It is most important to investigate the infection sources and transmission

routes. The initial cases are investigated with particular care. Commanders

and political officers ofsubunits can render great assistance to medical officers in this connection by giving them details about servicemen's movements

outside the unit, the people they may have come in contact with, etc.

Infectious diseases. Infectious diseases may be transmitted to humans by

rodents. Mice, rats, beavers and other rodents are sources of numerous

diseases, including the most dangerous ones. They are carriers of such diseases as bubonic plague, tularemia, encephaütis, and others. Preventive measures against the spread of these diseases ;nclude continuing checks on the

presence of rodents, their destruction, and inoculation of the population in

threatened regions. If bubonic plague docs occur among the troops, especially

strict quarantine must be enforced.

Zoonoses are infectious diseases which are transmitted from domestic

animals to man. This category of diseases includes anthrax, rabies, glanders,

and undulant fever. Anthrax bacilli may be transmitted in the process of

cutting up carcasses of bovine animals and sheep and during the handling of

animal skins. The disease may also be contracäed by eating contaminated

meat, inhaling infected dust, etc. Rabies occurs as the result of a bite from

an infected animal or as the result ofits saliva getting into a scratch. Zoonoses

may be used by an enemy as bacteriological weapons.

The prophylaxis of these diseases consists of mass inoculation of domestic

animals. Animals infected by zoonoses are isolated, the sanitary condition of

314
1

slaughterhouses should be carefully watched, and the carcasses of animals

that die from zoonotic diseases should be burnt.

Persons infected by zoonotic diseases are isolated and hospitalized; everyone who may have come into contact with them is kept under observation for eight days. Rooms which had been frequented by the patients are

disinfected.

Typhus and relapsing fever are transmitted by body lice, which become

infected five to seven days after sucking the blood ofa typhus patient. The

most effective preventive treatment of this disease is to subject personnel to

sanitation measures: close-cropping of the hair,a tub bath and change of

underwear and bed linen, disinfestaticn of the uniforms and bedding accessories. These measures are carried out in bath-houses and in decontamination

stations with disinfestation rooms. In case typhus or relapsing fever is diagnosed, subunit commanders under the supervision of medical personnel carry

outa body lice inspection. Those found to have body lice are subjected to

sanitation processing. In case ofa major outbreak of typhus ina unit or

garrison,a 14-day quarantine period is declared by order of headquarters.

During this period no one is allowed out of the unit, transfers from one

subunit to another are forbidden, long leave is cancelled, and discharge of

personnel into the reserve and induction of new recruits are discontinued.

The causative agents of tick-borne spring and summer encephalitis, relapsing and typhus fevers are filterable viruses found in the blood of animals

(moles, hedgehogs, chipmunks), while the carriers are the ticks. Preventive

measures against these diseases take the form of individual protection: tucking the tunic into the trousers, buttoning up the tunic cuffs and collar.

Personnel are inspected at least two to three times per day for the presence

of ticks and, before going to bed, soldiers ipust inspect each other to see

whether they have any ticks on them. Ifa tick is found attached to the skin,

its body should be carefully manipulated from side to side, taking care not

to separate it from the proboscis. The wound which remains after the removal

of the tick is cleansed with alcohol. The ticks should be collected together

and burned; the hands should then be thoroughly washed with soap and

water and rubbed witha solution of chloride of lime. Gauze or triangular

bandages soaked for 24 hours ina mixture of water, turpentine and lyso! are

used as repellents.

Malaria and Japanese encephalitis are transmitted by mosquitoes. Asa

result of the unremitting fight against mosquitoes (anopheles) and the draining of swamps, malaria has become an extremely rare disease in the Soviet

Union. Japanese encephalitis is encountered in isolated regions of the Far

East and is distinguished by its seasonal nature; it starts at the end of August

and finishes in October. Specific inoculations are given asa means of protection against this disease; Pavlov mosquito ness impregnated with dimethylph-

(haiate are used to provide protection from mosquito bites.

Mosquito fever and leishmaniosis are transmitted by mosquitoes. The

insects are destroyed by soap emulsions. DDT, etc. The development of the

315

L
larval stages of the mosquito is prevented by carefully treating the surrounding terrain and premises.

Typhoid fever and dysentery are infectious gastrointestinal diseases. Their

causative agents enter the body through the mouth, affecting the body generally and the intestines in particular. Excreted from the body of a patient or

a bacterial agent, they contaminate the surrounding soil and water and

promote the spread of infection..

One of the main symptoms of dysentery is the frenuent passage of watery

stools (diarrhea) with an admixture of blood a

T mucus. All this occurs

against a background of general malaise, he' pains and elevated body

temperature.

Typhoid fever symptoms develop slowl. ii le form of headaches, malaise,

sometimes diarrhea, and a slow elevation of temperature. A serious condition

is frequently accompanied by loss of consciousness and delirium. The illness

continues for about three weeks and then, if there are no complications, the

patient begins to make a slow recovery.

The prophylaxis of these diseases amounts to the prompt evacuation of

diagnosed cases to the infectious diseases department of a hospital. The

personnel in the victim's subunit are given specific treatment (bacteriophage

in the case of dysei.tery). All those who came into direct contact with the

patient are kept under observation for 10 days. Of great importance are the

strict observance of sanitation rules and requirement« for the maintenance of

hygienic conditions of living quarters, toilets, grouids, food Utensils and

sources of water. Strict personal hygiene is also extremely important.

The damaging effect of attacks involving bacterial weapons and troop

protection measures. Bacterial weapons include bubonic plague, cholera,

smallpox, anthrax and typhus agents. Bubonic plague, cholera, and smallpox

are extremely dangerous diseases. Transmitted directly from victims to

healthy persons, they spread rapidly and can cause large-scale outbreaks.

The characteristic features or bacterial agents are persistence and the

capacity of being retained in the environment for long periods. Their effect

is not immediately apparent, but only after a certain interval (the incubation

period). The diseases are difficult to diagnose.

Bacterial agents may be spread by an enemy by means of aircraft, artillery,

special ground equipment for air and ground contaminatio.., and by saboteurs cairying portable equipment and vials for the contamination of various

objects.

On detonation, bacteria' bombs, shells and mines (bacterial ammunition)

form bacterial clouds of minute suspended droplets of liquid or solid particles. These clouds are dispersed by the wind and contaminate the air. People

in such an environment are contaminated by inhaling microbial particles or

toxins.

Protection against the effects of bacterial agents is afforded by use of

available individual and collective chemical defense equipment. For example,

gas masks give full protection against penetration of the organism by bacterial agents and protection of the facial skin, scalp and hair. Protective suits

or capes, stockings and gloves prevent contamination of the exposed parts of

316 .

.
the body, uniforms and equipment. Collective defense is afforded by specially

equipped dugouts a.id shelters.

Another means of defense against bacterial agents is to increase the resistance and immunity of the organism to infectious diseases. Measures to this

end include the strict observance of the rules of personal hygiene, regular

participation in sports and physical culture, consistent body toughening

exercises, as well as means of increasing immunity—vaccines, serums, bacteriophages.

During lessons in sanitary procedures, it is essential to try to ensure that

subordinates carefully study measures directed at eliminating the effects of

a bacterial attack. In addition to this, it is necessary to know the system and

rules of carrying out partial sanitation processing, disinfection of weapons,

equipment, and defense structures. It is also necessary to know where and

how full sanitary processing is carried out, the rules of behavior at a nidus

of infection, and methods of self and mutual assistance.

Self and mutual assistance in case of combat injuries and accidents. In

future wars, new types of injuries may occur as a result of penetrating

radiation, radioactive and fast-acting toxic agents. It would be very difficult

for the Medical Service alone to render first aid to large numbers of victims.

Thus, it is most important for servicemen to receive timely instruction for the

purpose of acquiring practical skills in self and mutual assistance.

The Medical Service, in organizing sanitation training and health education measures, gives special consideration to consolidation of theoretical and

practical knowledge of the rules of self and mutual assistance. Medical officers make the maximum use of the summer training period to carry out

systematic exercises and improve practical skills during field training and

firing exercises.

An important element of this work is the health education of officers, who

are expected to have a full Knowledge of the health education program for

privates and NCO's. Ratings awarded in this aspect oftraining during inspection checks may be included in the overall rating of the unit.

Here we have confined ourselves to basic information concerning the

health of Soviet Armed Forces personnel, which is important for every officer

to know. In practice he may be confronted with questions which are not dealt

vrith in this book, in which case he should seek the advice of a medical officer

and coisult the appropriate medical literature.

What to Read on This Section

Spasskiy, V. A., Arkayev, V. A. Voyennaya gigiyena [Military Hygiene].

Voyenizdat, 1962.

Uchebnik dlya sanitarnykh instruktorov [Handbook for Medical Instructors].

Voyenizdat, 1964.

Fedotov, N. Ye. Kogda chelovek v bede [When Man Is in Trouble]. Voyenizdat, 1966.

Egolinskiy, Ya. A. Fizicheskaya vynoslivost' cheloveka i puti yeye razvitiya

[Human Endurance and Ways of Developing It]. Voyenizdat, 1966.

317
Chapter 12. GENERAL REFERENCE DATA

Basic Information about the Countries of the World

Country Area (thoussq.km)

Australia

Austria

Albania (People's

Republic of Albania)

Algeria

Angola

Andorra

Argentina

Afghanistan

Barbados

Basutoland (Lesoto)

Bahrein Islands (Banrem)

Belgium

Ivory Coast

Burma

Bulgaria (People s

Republic of Bulgaria)

Bolivia

Botswana

Brazil

Brunei

Burundi

Butan

Vatican

Great Britain (United

Kingdom of Great

Britain and Northern

Ireland)

Hungary (Hungarian

People's Republic)

Venezuela

Upper Volta

Vietnam (Democratic

Republic of Vietnam)

Gabon

Haiti

Guyana (Guinea)

Gambia

318

7,704

83,85

287

2,38!

1.247

455 sq.km

2,777«

655

430 sq.km

30.3

598 sq.km

30 5

322.4

678

111

1,098

712

8,513

58

27 8

56

0.44 sq km

244 1

93

912

274

158

267

27.8

215

105

Ghana 237 8

Guadeloupe 178

Guatemala 108 9

Dutch Guiana (Surinam) 1428

Population, millions

(Date of info, given in

brackets).

Capital (adm center) Form of government

10316(1970)

9 686(1961)

5.155(1967)

19 5(1967)

12.3(1969)

7.361 (1968)

2 0(1968)

12,102(1968)

5.3(1967)

approx 15.000 people

(!968)

24 (1967)

15,5(1968)

246,000 people (1966)

approx 1,0 (1967)

193,000 people (1966)

9631910(1968)

approx 4 0(1968)

27.0(1969)

8.472(1970)

4 45(1968)

611,000 oeople (1968)

89 8(1968)

27,000 people (1968)

3,3(1967)

800,000 people

1,000 people (1969)

54 7(1967)

Canberra

Vienna

Tirane

Algiers

Luanda

Andorra

Buenos Aires

Kabul

Bridgetown

Maseru

Manama

Brussels

Abidjan

Rangoon

Sofia

Sucre (* f3cto La Paz)

Gaborone

Brasilia

Brunei

Buiumbura

Thimphu

Located m Rome

London

Budapest

Caracas

Ouagadougou

Hanoi

473,000 people (1967) Libreville

4.7(1968) Port-au-Prince

700.000 people (19Ö6) Georgetown

360,000 |.--aple (1958! Bathurst

8 158(1969) Accra

300,000 people (1955) BasseTerre

4 717(1967) Guatemala

355,000 people (1965) Paramaribo

Independent state.

Member of the British

Commonwealth

Federal republic

People's republic

People's democratic

republic

Portuguese colony

Republic

Federal republic

Constitutional monarchy

independent state

Constitutional monarchy

Sheikdom

Constitutional monarchy

Republic

Federal republic

Socialist republic

Republic

Republic

Federal republic

British protectorate

Republic

Principality

Absolute theocratic

monarchy

Constitutional monarchy

Socialist republic

Federal republic

Socialist republic

Republic

Republic

Independent stai«.

Member of the British

Commonweafth

Independent state.

Member of the British

Commonwealth

Republic

French possession

Republic

Dutch colony
Basic Information about the Countries of the World—Continued

'".ountry Area (thous sq km) Population, millions

(Date ot info given in

brackets)

Capital (adm center) Form of government

French Guiana 91 35,000 people (1963) Cayenne French possession

Guinea 246 3 7(1967) Conakry Republic

Guinea (Portuguese) 36 527,000 people (1966) Bissau Portuguese colony

German Democratic 1083 17 090(ln67) Berlin Socialist republic

Republic

Honduras 112,1 2 445(1967) Tegucigalpa Republic

British Honduras 23 115,000 people (1967) Belize British colony

Hong Kong 1012 3 790(1967) Hong Kong British colony

(Hsiangchiang)

Greece 13! 9 8 6(1966) Athens Constitutional monarchy

Dahomey 112 2,6(1969) Porto Novo Republic

Denmark 43 4.87(1969) Copenhagen Constitutional monarchy

Dominican Republic 487 4 17(196t) Santo Domingo Republic

Zambia 752 4.14(1968) Lusaka Republic Member of the

British Commonwealth

Cape Verde Islands 4.0 231.500 people (1966) Praia Portuguese colony

Israel 14 0(1947) 2 6(1966) Tel Aviv Republic

India 3.281.1 532.7(1969) Delhi Republic

Indonesia 1.904 115(1968) Ojakarla Republic

Jordan 96.6 2,5(1968» Amman Constitutional monarchy

Iraq 444 4 86(1968) Baghdad Republic

Iran 1,648 26.7 (1968) Teheran Constitutional monarchy

Ireland 70 2,881 (1966) Dublin Republic

Iceland 103 202.000 people (1968) Reykjavik Republic

Spam 5035 33.3(1969) Madrid Monarchy, At present,

fascist dictatorship

Italy 301.2 54.0(1969) Rome Republic

llm 1,5 60.000 people (1968) Sidi lfm Spanish colony

Yemen (Yemeni Arab 195 5(1967) Sana Republic

Republic)

Cambodia 181 6 32(1967) Phnom-Penh Constitutional monarchy

Cameroon 475 5,47(1967) Yaound« Federal republic

Canada 9974 20.940(1969) Ottawa Member of the British

Commonwealth

Quatar 22 80.000 people (1968) Doha Sheikdom British

protectorate

Kenya 582 6 10.890(1969) Nairobi Republic Member of the

British Commonwealth

Cyprus 9.3 614,000 people (1968) Nicosia Republic

China (Chinese People s 9.597 733,1(1967) Peking Socialist state

Republic)

Colombia 1 1384 20,7(1968) Bogota Republic

Comoro Islands 2.171 240,000 people (1967) Moroni French possession

Congo 2.3455 16.0(1966) Kinshasa Democratic republic

Congo 342 appro» 1.0(1967) Brazzaville Republic

Kwean People s 127,2 12,7(1967) Pyongyang Republic

Democratic Republic

Costa Rica 50 9 1488(1966) San Jcse Republic

Cuba 110 992 8,236(1970) Havana Socialist Republic

Kuwait 227 516,000 pejple (1967) El Kuwait Constitutional monarchy

Laos 237 2,7(1967) Vientiane Constitutional monarchy

Liberia 111.4 1090(1965) Monrovia Republic

Lebanon 104 2 46(1967) Beirut Republic

Libya 1750 18(1968) Tripoli, Benghazi Beida Republic

LiecMenstein 157 sqkm 20.000 peopM 1967) Vaduz Constitutional monarchy

(pnnciptlity). In

customs union with

Switzerland

Lunembourg 26 336,000 people (1965) Luxembourg Constitutional monarchy

Mauritius 2.1 775,000 people Port Luis Republic

Mauritania 1,086 15(1966) Nouakchott Republic

Malawi 1193 4 130(1967) 7omba Republic Member of the

British Commonwealth

Malagasy Repubiic 596 6,777(1967) Tananarive Republic

(Madagascar)

Malaysia 3326 10,1(1967) Kuala Lumpur Federal state Member of

the British

Commonwealth

Mali 1.204 4 740(1967) Baniako Republic

319

ft»

I
Basic Information about the Countries of the World—Continued

Country Area (Ihous.sq.km) Population, millions Capital (adm center)

(Date of info given in

brackets)

form of government

Maldive Islands 300 sq.km

Malta 315 sqkm

Morocco 445

Martinique 1 1

Memco 1.972.5

Mozambique 753

Monaco ! Ssqkrr.

Mongolian Peoples 1,555

Republic

Peoples Republic of 202

Southern Yemen

Nepal 1408

Niger 1.189

Nigeria 924

Netherlands 32 5

Nicaragua US

New Zealand 2687

New Caledonia 187

Norway 324,2

United Arab Republic appro« 1.000

(UAR)

United Republic of 9416

Tanzania

Oman 212.4

Trucial Oman 85 3

Pakistan 947 7

Panama 75.474

Paraguay 407

Peru 1.285

Polish People's Republic 312.5

Portugal 92

Puerto Rico 8896

Reunion 25

Rwanda 26,4

Romania (Socialist 2375

Republic of Romania)

El Salvador 24 1

Western Samoa 29

San Marino 51 sqkm

Saudi Arabia 1,600-2,500

Spanish Saharal ?6fe

Swaziland 174

Seychelles Island 405 sq.km

Senegal 1972

S-''ii" 73

Sir.gs.xire v'?public of 581 5 sqkm

Singapore)

Syrian Arab Republic 184

United States sj America 9,363

Somali 637

French Somaliland 23

Union of Soviet Socialist 22,4022

Republics

Sudan 2,506

Sierra Leone 72 3

Thailand 514

Timer 189

104,000 people (1967)

314,000 people (1967)

appro« 15 0(1969)

327,000 people (1968)

45571 (1967)

7 3(1969)

22,700 people (1968)

1 2(1967)

appro«, 10(1967)

10 3(1967)

3 43(1966)

61 (1968)

12.8(1/1/196

1.7(1966)

2 750(1958)

12,23(1957)

750.000 people (1964)

appro« 110.000 people

121 7(1968)

1287(1966)

2.1 (1966)

12(1966)

32.7(1959)

9.52(1967)

3 3(1958)

0 135(1968)

18.000 people (1966)

appro«. 8.0(1967)

48.000 c-npie (1967)

395.000 people (1956)

48.700 people (1967)

3 78(1968)

200,000 people

2.0(1968)

Male

Valetta

Rabat

Fort-de-France

Mexico City

Loureni;o Marques

Monaco

Ulan Bator

Esh Shaab

Katmandu

Niamey

Lagos

Amsterdam

Hague)

Managua

Wellington

86.500 people (1953) Noumea

3 835(1969) Oslo

32.0(1958) Cairo

Independent state

independent state.

Member of the British

Commonwealth

Constitutional monarchy

French possession

Federal republic

Portuguese colony

Constitutional monarchy

(principality)

Socialist republic

Republic

Constitutional monarchy

Republic

Federal republic Member

of the British

Commonwealth

de laclo The Constitutional monarchy

Republic

Member of the British

Commonwealth

French possession

Constitutional monarchy

Republic

Dar es Salaam

Muscat!

Dubai

Rawalpindi

Panama

Asuncion

Lima

Warsaw

Lisbon

2 746(1968) San Juan

418.000 people (1968) Saint-Denis

3.380(1958) Kigali

20 0(1969) Bucharest

San Salvador

Apia

San Marino

Riyadh

El Aiun

Mbabane

Victoria

Dakar

Gangtok

Singapore

6,0(1967) Damascus

202(1969) Washington

2,8(1968) Mogadiscio

125,000 people (19G8) Jibuti

237.0 Moscow

14 5(1969)

2.5(1968)

33.75(1968)

570.000 people

Khartoum

Freetown

Bangkok

Dili

Republic

British colony

British protectorate

Republic

Republic

Republic

Republic

Socialist republic

Republic At present, a

fascist dictatorship

US possession

French possession

Republic

Socialist republic

Republic

Republic External links

with New Zealand

Republic

Monarchy

Spanish possession

Constitutional monarchy

British possession

Republic

Principality

Republic Member of the

British Commonwealth

Republic

Federal republic

Republic

French possession

Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics

Republic

Independent state.

Member of the British

Commonwealth

Constitutional monarchy

Portugese coiopy

320

"
Basic Information about the Countries of the World—Continued

Country Area (thous.sqkmV Population, millions.

(Date of info given in

brackets).

Capital (adm center) Form of government

Togo 56 6 1 76(1968) Lom^ Republic

Tonga 697 73,200 people Nukualofa Kingdom. British

protectorate

Tnmdad and Tobago 5.1 Appro« 10(1966) Port of Spam independent state.

Member of the British

Commonwealth

"unisia 164 1 4 6(1967) Tunis Republic

Turkey 757 1 33.5(1968) Ankara Republic

Uganda 243 8.13(1968) Kampala Unitary republic Member

of the British

Commonwealth

Uruguay (Eastern 186^ 2 745(1967) Montevideo Republic

Republic ol Uruguay)

Federal Republic of 248 60.46(1968) Bonn Federal republic

Germany

Philippines 299 7 34 7(1967) Quezon City (de facto

Manila)

Republic

fi|i 18.3 478.000 people (1966) Suva Bhiish colony

nnland 337 4.71 (1969) Helsinki Republic

france 552 50.105(1969) Pans Republic

Ceylon 656 11 74(1967) Colomoo Member of the British

Commonwealth

Central African Republic 617 2.556§(I969) Bangui Republic

Chad 1,284 3.5(1967) Fort Lamy Republic

Czechoslovakian Socicl.s' 1279 14.389(1968) Prague Socialist federal republic

Republic

Chile 7418 9.4 (1968) Santiago Republic

Switzerland 413 6 1 (1969) Bern(e) Republic (coniederation)

Sweden 450 7.942(1969) Stockholm Constitutional monarchy

Ecuador 2707 5J (19673 Quito Republic

Equatorial Guinea 282 282,000 people (1968) Santa Isabel Independent state

Ethiopia 1,200 23.67(1968) Addis Ababa Constitutional monarchy

Southwest Africa 824 594,000 people (1967) Windhoek Illegally included in the

(NamitKa) Union of South Africa

by the racist

government of that

state

Vugoslavia (Socialist

federal Republic of

2558 22.057(1968) Belgrade Socialist federal republic

Yugoslavia)

South Korea 99.6 29 8(1967) Seoul (adm. center) Republic Puppet regime

under the cu-trol of

the USA

Southern Rhodesia 3844 50(1968) Salisbury Self-governing British

colony

Republic of South Africa 1,223 19.618(1969) Pretoria Republic

South Vietnam 1717 16.5(1967) Saigon Republic. Puppet regime

under the control of

the USA

Jamaica 115 1843(1967) Kingston Indepe-ident state.

Member of the British

Commonwealth

Japan 372 15 101.510(1968) Tokyo Constitutional monarchy

• Given in the Russian text as 2,777 sq km (U S. Ed 1

• Appears m the Russian tent as Maksat Nizva [U S Ed.j.

t Given as "Western Sahara" m the Russian text [US. Eft]

4 Appears in Russian text as 2556 [US Ed]

321
PRINCIPAL INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

The United Nations Organization (UN)

The United Nations Organization was created in the summer of 1945, in

San Francisco, at a conference of the states which participated in the war

against Hitlerite Germany and imperialist Japan. The Charter, adopted at the

conference, came into force on 24 October 1945.

According to the Charter, the United Nations Organization is an international organization created by a free association of sovereign states for the

purpose of maintaining peace, security and the development of peaceful

cooperation between states in the economic, social, cultural, and other fields.

The UN is founded on the principle of the sovereign equality of all the

members, who have accepted the obligation to resolve all international problems by peaceful means, and in international affairs to refrain from the threat

or use offorce against the territorial integrity or political independence of any

state.

The United Nations Headquarters is located in New York City (USA).

The permanant organs of the UN are the General Assembly, the Security

Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the

International Court of Justice, and the Secretariat.

Membership of, and expulsion from, the UN are effected by a General

Assembly resolution on the recommendation of the Security Council. In

November 1968 there were 126 member states of the UN.

The General Assembly consists of all the member states of the UN. It can

debate all questions within the scope of the Charter relating to the authority

and functions of any organ, except questions on the agenda of the Security

Council. The Assembly meets in regular session once a year. The delegation

of each nation, which consists of a maximum of 5 persons, has the right to

one vote. Decisions on important questions, listed in the Charter, require the

support of a majority of two thirds of those present, and on other questions,

a simple majority.

The General Assembly has six committees, which deal with matters cofr:

cerning: 1) politics and disarmament, 2) economy and finance, 3) social,

humanitarian and cultural questions, 4) trustee!.hip, 5) administration and

budgeting, and 6) legal questions. In addition to these, there are two procedural committees: a genera! committee, which is occupied with organizational

matters, agenda and work regime, and a committee for checking plenary

powers.

The Security Council, which is the most important permanentlv acting

organ of the UN, bears the responsibility for maintaining international peace

and security. All its members take it in turns to preside for a period of one

month at a time. Its decisions are binding on all UN members. The Security

Council consists of 15 members, of which 5 are permanent (the USSR, the

322
USA. the UK, France, and China) and 10 non-permanent members, which

are selected by the General Assembly for a period of 2 years. The most

important principle of the UN is the principle of the unanimity of the five

great powers in the Security Council. All resolutions (except procedural

questions) are considered adopted if the votes of the five permanent members

are included in 9 votes of a simple majority. The Chinese People's Republic

is not yet represented on the Security Council. Its place is illegally occupied

by a representative of Chiang Kai-shek's government.

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) studies international economic, social and cultural problems, and presents reports and recommendations to the General Assembly and individual UN members, and provides

information and assistance required by the Security Council. The Economic

and Social Council is a 27-member body elected by the General Assembly

for a term of 3 years.

The Council has a number ofsubsidiary bodies (the Economic Commission

for Europe (ECE), the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East

(ECAFE), etc.).

The Trusteeship Council was established to manage the territories under

UN trusteeship and to examine questions concerning all other non-selfgoverning territories. The Council acts under the control of the General

Assembly.

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the

UN. Located at The Hague (Netherlands), it consists of 15 judges elected by

the General Assembly and the Security Council for a term of 9 years. Recourse to the Court is not mandatory for UN members involved in a dispute,

but if they do put a case before the Court, its rulings are binding on all

disputing countries. The Court makes its advisory conclusions available at

the request of the General Assembly or other UN organs.

The Secretariat consists of the Secretary General, who is elected for a term

of 5 years by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security

Council, and his staff (consisting of approximately 4,500 people).

The UN has 11 specialized institutions or organizations: the International

Labor Organization, the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and

Agricultural Organization (FAO), and others.

The World Federation of UN Aid Associations, which has been in existence since August 1946, is a non-government organization, the purpose of

which is to organize support for the UN, to encourage feelings of solidarity

and international cooperation throughout the world, and to assist in solving

problems of peace and international order.

A UN Aid Association was established in the USSR in March 1956.

323

fc.
The Interparliamentary Union

Founded in 1889, this is an international organization consisting of members of parliaments of different countries who participate on a voluntary basis

and are combined into national parliamentary groups. The Charter now in

force was adopted in 1922 at a conference in Vienna.

The Interparliamentary Union encourages personal contacts between the

members of all parliaments and coordinates them for activities aimed at

strengthening peace between peoples and cooperation between governments.

The Interparliamentary Union states its opinions on all international problems, the solution of which can be expedited by parliamentary means, and

puts forward suggestions for improving the effectiveness of parliaments and

increasing their authority.

The Interparliamentary Union meets for annual conferences. The representative body of the Union between conferences is the Interparliamentary

Council, which consists of two members of each national parliamentary

group. The administrative body of the Union is the Executive Committee,

which is elected for a three-year term. The Interparliamentary Bureau,

headed by the General Secretary, implements the decisions adopted by the

Conference or the Council.

A Soviet parliamentary group was formed at the end of June 1955.

The World Cound! of Peace

This is an international social organization which stands at the head of a

world movement for peace and security, and against the preparation of a new

world war. It was founded at the second World Congress of Peace Supporters

held in Warsaw in 1950. Its predecessor was the Permanent Committee of

the World Congress of Peace Supporters, which was formed in 1949 at the

first World Congress (Paris and Prague, 1949).

The World Council of Peace includes representatives of the most diverse

strata of society, people of different political convictions and parties and

different religious beliefs from practically every country in the world. The

operative work between Council meetings is carried out by a bureau and a

secretariat.

The Peace Supporters movement in the USSR is represented by the Soviet

Committee for the Protection of Peace (set up in August 1949 at the first

All-Union Conference of Peace Supporters).

The World Fr ieration of Trade Unions

The World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) was founded at the first

World Congress ofTrade Unions held in Paris in October 1945. The principal

task of the WFTU is to strengthen the unity of workers in the fight for peace

and the improvement of the living and working conditions of the peoples of

all countries.

324
The governing bodies of the WFTU are the World Congress of Trade

Unions, the General Council, the Executive Committee, the Executive Bureau, and the Secretariat.

The WFTU is officially recognized by the UN and actively participates in

the work of the UN Economic and Social Council.

Eleven Trade Union Internationals (industrial divisions of the WFTU

organized on the branch principle) are associated with the WFTU. These

include independent branch trade unions of countries (the USA, Canada,

Australia, Belgium, etc.) whose labor federations are not members of the

WFTU. The aim of the Trade Union Internationals is to coordinate the

struggle of the trade union organizations to achieve satisfaction of the political, economic and social demands of the workers.

Soviet trade unions are members of the WFTU.

The Women's International Democratic Federation

The Women's International Democratic Federation was founded at the I

International Women's Congress held in Paris in November and December

1945. It is a wor'd-wide popular democratic organization, the purpose of

which is to ensure the active participation of women in the fight to achieve

stable world peace, full equal rights for women, better living conditions for

children, and democratic education. The WIDE unites women, regardless of

their political or religious convictions, nationality or social position.

The senior body of the WIDE is the International Women's Congress,

which is held once every three years. It elects a Council, an Executive

Committee and Executive Bureau. The day-to-day work of the organization

is conducted by the Secretariat of the Executive Committee.

Soviet women are represented in the WIDE by the Committee of Soviet

Women, which was established in 1941.

The Permanent Committee for Asian Solidarity

This committee was established at a conference of politically active workers of 15 Asian countries for easing international tensio« (Delhi, 1955), The

aim of the Permanent Committee is to achieve further expansion of fruitful

collaboration among the peoples of Asia in the interests oftheir economic and

cultural progress, relaxation of international tension, and the development of

peaceful relationships between all peoples.

A Soviet Committee for Asian solidarity was established in May 1956, by

socially active workers' organizations of the USSR, and the Kazakh, Tadjik,

Turkmen, Uzbek, Kirghiz, Armenian, Georgian, and Azerbaydzhan SSRs.

325
The international Organization of Journalists

This organization was established at the International Congress ofJournalists held in Copenhagen in June 1946. The purpose of the International

Organization ofJournalists is to strive for the preservation of peace and the

strengthening of international friendship and cooperation of peoples by the

free, truthful, and honest informing of public opinion. It thus combats the

dissemination of national and racial hatred and all kinds of falsehood and

calumny aimed at the creation of international tension.

The Union of Soviet Journalists (formed in 1956) participates in the work

of the International Organization of Journalists.

The international Association of Democratic Lawyers

Originating in 1946, this is an association of progressive lawyers of different countries. Its aims are to strive for peace and the observance and development of democratic principles in international relations, the protection and

development of the democratic freedoms and rights of man, and the protection of colonial peoples from oppression and tyranny.

The Association includes lawyers from most of the countries of the world.

Soviet lawyers play an active part in its activities.

The World Federation of Democratic Youth

The World Federation o

r

Democratic Youth is an international association

of national and international youth and student organizations, drawn from

all races, colors, and creeds. It was founded at the World Youth Conference

(I World Congress, held in London in November 1945). The aims and tasks

of the WFDY are expressed in the slogan: "Young people, unite! Forward

to a stable peace, democracy, the national independence of peoples, and a

better future for youth!"

Soviet young men and women participate in the work of the WFDY and

the International Union of Students (IUS) through the Committee of Soviet

Youth organizations, set up in 1956 (its predecessor, since 1941, was the

Antifascist Committee of Soviet Youth). It maintains connections with more

than 200 youth and studer' organizations in 70 countries.

The international Union of Students

The International Union of Students (IUS) is an international association

of student organizations, formed at the World Congress of Students in

Prague in August 1946. According to the Charter of the IUS, its aims are

"to protect the rights and interests of students, to promote their well-being

and level of education, and to prepare them to carry out the tasks ahead of

them as democratic citizens."

The governing body of the IUS is its Congress, which is held once every

326

;.
two years; its executive body is the IUS Executive Committee. The Secretariat of the IUS is permanently located in Prague.

The IUS promotes the developrnent of friendship and cooperation among

students throughout the world, assists student organizations in their fight to

ensure that all young people have the right to an education, supports students" efforts aimed at the achievement of world peace, and actively supports

students of colonial and dependent countries which are struggling against the

colonial system.

Soviet students have been members of the IUS ever since it was formed and

take an active part in its work.

ASTRONOMICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE SUN

(approximate figures)

Apparent diameter of the Sun, degrees 0.5

Mean distance of the Sun from the Earth,

km 149,500,000

Speed of motion (together with the solar

system), km/sec 20

The Sun's mass, tons 1,985 X 1027

The Sun's mass is greater than the Earth's

mass by a factor of 332,400

The Sun's radius, km 693,000

The Sun's surface, sq km 6,080,109

The Sun's volume, cu km

(almost 12,000* times greater than the

volume of the Earth) 14,101,015

Surface temperature, degrees 6,000

The force of gravity on the Sun is 28 times

greater than on Earth

Meridian altitude of the Sun with respect to

Earth observations:

Maximum Minimum

at the equator 90° 66.5°

in the tropics 90° 43°

in Moscow 57.5° 10.5°

in Leningrad 53.5° 6.5°

in Murmansk 44.5° 0°

at the North Pole 23.5° 0°

number of stars visible to the naked eye

on the celestial sphere approx. 6.000

temperature of stars 30,000° 3,000°

• An obvious error for 1,200,000 (U.S. Ed).

327 *
BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE EARTH

Earth as a planet

Earth is the third planet from the Sun

The Earth's mass

Mean density

Maximum distance from the Earth to the

Sun (aphelion, 5 July)

Minimum distance from the Earth to the

Sun (perihelion, 3 January)

Mean distance from the Earth to the Sun

Period of rotation

Period of revolution about the Sun (year)

Length of the Earth's orbit

The Earth's mean speed of motion in its

orbit

Inclination of ecliptic (plane of orbit) to the

Equator (1958)

5.975 x 102lt

5.52 g/cu cm

152,000,000 km

147,000,000 km

149,500,000 km

23h 5'jm 4.09s

365.2564 mean solar days

939,120,000 km

29.76 km/sec

23o26'41".09

Dimensions of the Earth's ellipsoid (according to Krasovskiy)

Major semiaxis (equatorial radius)

Minor semiaxis (polar radius)

Mean radius of the Earth, taken as a globe

Length of meridian

Length of equator

Earth's surface

Area of land

(29.2%)

Area of water

(70.8%)

Earth's volume

BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE MOON

Apparent diameter of the Moon

Mass (approximately 81 times less than that

of the Earth)

Mean density (assuming the density of water

as unity)

The force of gravity on the Moon (attractive

force on the surface) is approximately 6.5

times less than it is on Earth

6,378,245 m

6,356,863 m

6,371,117.7 m

40,008,548 m

40,075,704 m

510,083.000 sq ktn

148,628,000 sq km

361.455,000 sq km

1,083,320,000,000 cu km

0.5°

70 X 1016 t

3.3g/cii cm

328

'•

i—
The average distance from the Earth to the

Moon (the minimum distance is 357,000

and the maximum distance 407,000 km)

Diameter of the Moon

Surface of the Moon (one fourteenth of the

Earth's surface)

Volume of the Moon (approximately 50

times less than the volume of the Earth)

Sidereal month, one revolution round the

Earth

(During this time the Moon completes one

revolution around its own axis)

Synodic month (the period of time required

by the moon to complete all its phases)

Average speed at which the Moon travels

round the Earth—a little over 1 km/sec

Velocity required by a body to escape the

Moon's gravitational neld—criticai

velocity

384,404 km

3,473 km

approx. 40,000,000 sq km

over 21,109 cu km

27d7h43m 11.5s

29d 12h 44m 2.78s

2.38 km/sec

The Planetary System

Dimensions. Mass. Density. Satellites.

Mean diameter

Volume

(Earth

Density

Name of apparent

in

tru* Mass Earth

(Earth 1

Water

- 1

No. of

planet in km Earth satellites

••jconds =- 1 = 1 = 1

Mercufy li-4 7 4.800 0.38 0 055 0037 0 68 386 _

sr 64-10 12.200 o,9e 0.876 0 826 0 94 486 —

12,757 i 1 1 1 552 s

Mars 25-3 5 6,770 o.s: 015 0 108 071 384 2

tt0m 50-30 5 1*2,700 11.2 ,112 3184 024 130 11

Saturn 20 5-15 120.800 95 763 952 012 069 9

Uranus 4 2-3 4 49 700 39 59 14 6 021 1.10 5

Neptune 2.4-22 53.000 42 72 17 3 029 162 1

Huto 0.2' 7 > j 1? '

j 7

The Planetary System

Distance. Revolution. Rotation. Gravity

In miilions Qf Krn Tim« Mean Rotation Inclm- Force

Nameoi from the from trt«n Oftot- lime ation of of

pM E»rth (mtii »t» to mg equator gravity m Sun •evolve vetocity to plane (Earth

|4iMl sroureJ

the Sun

m Earth

»ears

m

km/sec

of

Earths

ortxt

- 1)

Umtvrf 217/82 S78 0.24 478 88ttyt ? 026

Venus 259/40 iOSl 062 35 9& > 090

E*th —/— 149 5 1 29 76 23h S6m 23*27' 1

ifcr. 400/56 2277 188 24 2<h 37m 23-30 020

J*ur 965 591 rm 1186 13 9h55m 37 2 64

Saturn 1653 1199 14256 29«€ 98 10h 14m 26-45 113

Uranus 3158 ?586 2868 1 84 02 68 l«45m 98- 096

feplune 4682'4309 4494 1 164 8 54 15h43m 29-36 100

.•: — 58% 9 248 4 48 1 » »

I

329
General Information About the Parts of the World

Pari o( the world Area (mcl. Coordinates of extreme points of continents Max Mm. Population in

islands) in absolute absolute millions

thous sg km altitude in m altitude in rti (1956)

As.a 43,883 N—C. Chelyuskin 77,44'N .04'18£ 8,848 -392 1,535

S—Taniong Piai' 1 17 N 103 30 E Mt. Dead Sea

W—C Baba 39 27 N 26 03 E Chomo- (Jordan,

E—C Dezhnev 66 05 U 169 40 W lungma

(Everest)

Israel)

Atnca 30,284 H-Cap(e) Blanc 37' 20' N 9" 50' E 5,895 -150 224

S-C. Agulhas 34 'it S 20 02 E Mt Kili- Lake

W-C Verde 14 45 N 17 33 W manjaro Assal ft.

E—Ras Hafun 10 27 N 51 24 E Somali)

North America 24,228 N—C Murchison Jl'Sffl 94-26'W 6,194 -85 244

S—Punta Manato 7 12 N 80 53 W Mt, Death

W-C Prince of Wales 65 37 N 168 05 W McKinley Valley

t—C Charles 52 13 N 55 39 W (USA)

Sojfr A-nenca 17,850 N—Punta Gallmas ITttfi 71'40'W 7,035 -35 127

S—C, Froward 53 54 S 71 18 W Mt, Lake

VV—Pannas Point 4 41 S 81 20 W Aconcagua Salinas

E—Cabo Branco 7 OS S 34 46 W Chicas

(Argentina)

Europe 10,498 N—C Nordkyn 7ril -28 ,N 27-40'E 5,633 569

S—Pt. Marroquit 36 00 N 5 36 W Mt, Elbrus Caspian

W—C. Roca 38 4? N 9 31 W S«a

E—Polyarnyy Ural 67 IS N 67 20 E

Australia 3,557 N—C. York lOMt'S 142'31'E 2,234 -12 15

and Oceania S—Southsast Cape 39 08 S 146 25 E Mt, Lake Eyre

W—itee;, Point 26 10 S 1:3 09 E Kosciusko (Australia)

E-C, Byron 28 38 SU3 39 E

Antarctica 13,328t N—Northern tip of Tnn

Peninsula (Graham

Land)

ty

srors 57-low

6,100

unnamed

(Mane

Byrd Land)

TOTAL 148,528 2,714

' Also known as Taniong Buius [U.S. Ed.].

t Also known as Tanfa Point [U S. Ed]

: Omitted from Russian text, inserted by translator (U.S. td.)

Geographical Data

The largest continent

The largest ocean

The largest sea

The largest lake

The largest island

The longest river in the workj

The m^M river m the USSR

The highest waterlail in the world

The higfrest peak in the world

The highest peak m the USSR

The lowest point on earth

The lowest point m the USSR

The greatest depth of the world s oceans

The deepest lake

The largest desert in the wortd

Tne largest desert in th* USSR

i he region with the greatest number of •ciiv« volcanoes in th*

world

The regen with the greate-l number of active volcanoes m the

USSR

The largest continental glacier in the world

Th« largest mountain glacier m the work)

The largest mountain glacier m the USSR

The northernmost point of land i.. ;^ world

The nwlhemmost point of land m tr« USSR

The E»rth'5 mignetit poles

The highet' temperature m me wortd

The höhest tempMlur» m me USSR

Eurasia—54.4 million sq km

Tho Pacific Ocean—179 7 million sq km

The Coral Sea—4 8 million sq km

The Caspian Sea—371 8 thousand sq km

Greenland—2 2 million sq km

The Nile and Kager?-6,450 km

The Ob' ano irtysh-5,570 km

Angel fa." (Venezuela) 979 m

Mt Chomolungma (Everest)—8,848 m

Communism Peak—7,495 M

The Dead Sea Depression (- 392m)

The Karagiye Depression, east coast of th* Caspian Sea (- 132m)

11,084 M

Baykai-1,74! m

The Sahara (AfncaUpproximately 7 million sq km

Karakum (Turtim SSR)—300 thousanu IQ km

Tie Sunda Islands—95 volcanoes

The Ku'ile Islands—39 volcanoes

Antarctic»— 13 million sq km

Nabesn« (AlaskaMength 90 km

fadchenko (ParmrsMength 72 km

Cape Moms Jesup (Gr«enlanä)-83,391» 34*15t

Cap« Fliger (Rudolf Island. Fram Josef M^fltM 5900t

Prmc« ot Wales island {Canadian ArcKWJ'OO'N WiOt

King George V Land (Antarctic*)-^«« 145'30-E

58' (m ttw sh»d*>-fl An/ia region (Libya)

SO* (m th« ih»de>~T«me/ region (Urt SSt)

330

i
Geographical Data—Continued

The lowest temperature in the world

("cold pole")

The highest mean annual temperature in the world

The highest mean annual temperature in the USSR

The lowest mean annual temperature in the world

The lowest mean annual temperature in the USSR

The highest annual temperature range m the world

The lowest annual temperature range % the world

The lowest annual temperature range i the USSR

the highest mean annual precipation in the world

The highest mean annual precipation m the USSR

The lowest mean annual precipation in the world

The lowe-.t mean annual precipation in the USSR

The highest sea water temperature in the world (in the upper layer)

The lowest sea water temperature in the world (in the upper layer)

The highest ocean tides in the world

The highest tides on the coasts of the USSR

-73-—m July in Antarctica 72,ö8'S %'35'i (Southern

Hemisphere);—71' m February in the Oymyakon region. Yakut

ASSR (Northern Hemisphere)

30 2'—region of Massawa (Ethopia)

18-—region of Termez (Uzb SSR)

-30.2-—central Greenland

-17.4'—region of Delyankyr (Khabarovsk Kratf

102'—region of Oymyakon (USSR) {from -71' in winter to 31' in

summer)

0.4'—the Marshall Islands (Pacific Ocean) and in the region of

Quito (Ecuador).

15.9'—region of Batumi

12.565 mm—region of Cherrapunia (India. State of Assam)

2,700 mm—region o

1 Batumi

1 mm in 3 years—region of Wadi Haifa (Sudan)

27 mm—hollow of Lake KaraKul' (Tadzh. SSR)

35.6'—Persian Gulf

-2.8' (in winter)—the seas of the Arctic Ocean

15-18 m—Fundy Ba»1 and Frobisher Bay (Atlantic coast of Canada)

13 m—Pervhmskaya Guba (Sea of Okhotsk)

Oceans and Most Important Seas

Area,

thous.

sq km

Depth. m Salinity.

V«

Prevailing

height

of tides,

m

Surface

temperature,

Ocean/Sea prevailing max. deg. Brief description

PACIFIC

OCEAN

179,679 3,500-6,000 10.863 34-36 2.0-3.5 Mam currents: Trade Wind and Kuro

Shiwo currents, speed 0.5 to 1.5

Coral Sea

South China

Sea

Bering Sea

4781 2.300-4.800 9,140 34-35

3,447 500-3,000 5,420 31-33

2,304 100-3,300 4773 20-33

2.1-5.4 26-28

throughout

the year

1 1-5.0 K 29

throughout

the year

0 9-3 7 Winter 1,5

summer 7-10

Sea of

Okhotsk

1,590 200-1.200 3.657 30-33 0.9-4 2 Winter 1 8

Summer

8-12

Sea of Japan 978 3,100-3,700 4,036 32-34 02-06 Winter 2-9

Summer

14-25

East China 752 150-200 2,717 32-34 30-45 Winter 8-15

Summer

25-27

Java Sea 480 20-65 89 30-32 10-2 9 25-28

throughout

the year

m/sec. Highest tides lÜ-13m

(Penzhmskaya Guba, Sea of Okhotsk

Cook Bay on the south coast of

Alaska). In the northern part (as far as

a line connecting Hokkaido Island and

the Aleutian Islands) drift-ice is

encountered during mos' of the year;

bays freeze over from January to

March In the southern hemisphere

drltt-ice and icebergs are encountered

as far as latitude 57'S.

Washes the northeast coast of Australia.

Abounds in coral islands and reefs The

highest tide (7 2m) occurs m Broad

Sound. The stormy season extends

from January to June.

Numerous nz'z. dangerous to shipping

Tides m the Gulf of Tonkin reach a

heignt of 5 9m Typhoons occur from

April through September

Northeastern part shallow (depths down

to 100m), Southwestern part deep.

From October through July the

northern part freezes over; the

southern part is ice-free the year

round.

Highest tides 13m (Penzhmskaya Guba)

Northern part freezes over from

November through June, the southern

part from December through March

Highest 'ides 3m (in southern part) The

northern part freezes along the coasts

from December to March Storms

occur frequently m winter, dense togs

m spring Typhoons occur from April to

September

Many shallows (5-10m) and rocks

dangerous to shipping Highest tides

10m (Bay of Hang-hwa-man). From

May through September typhoons

occur (3-4).

Situated between the islands of Borneo

and Java Numerous reefs, dangerous

to shipping

331
Oceans and Most Important Seas—Continued

Area,

thous

sq km

Depth. m Salinity.

Prevailing

height

of tides,

m

Surface

temperature.

Ocean-Sea prevaiHg max. deg. Brief description

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

93.363 3.400-5,300 9,218 35-37 1,5-8.0 In the central part of the ocean there is a

submarine ndse, the depth above

Caribbean Sea

Mediterranean

Sea

North Sea

Black Sea

2,754 3,200-4,500

2,505 2,400-3,600

544 35-140

7,238 34-36

4,594 36-39

433 31-35

423 1,000-2,000 2,245 17-18

Baltic Sea 386 60-150 459 6-8

0,5-13 27-29

throughout

the year

0.1-1.8 Winter 12-16

Summer

25-27

0.6-6.3 Winter 3-7

Summer

13-15

0.1 Winter 7-9

Summer

22-27

0.1-0.5 Winter down

to-1.

Summer

13-17

Sea of Azov 38 7-U 13 10-12 0,1

INDIAN

OCEAN

74,917 2,000-4,500 7,450 34-36 1.0-2 5

Arabian Sea

Red Sea

ARCTIC

OCEAN

3.683 1.900-3.400

450 600-1,500

5,203 35-38

2,604 37-41

13,100 1,000-4,000 5,220 29-35

332

Winter down

to -i.

Summer

25-28

0 1-12 22-26

throughout

the year

0 6-16 Winter

21-26.

Summer

28-35

01-0,5

which varies from 900 to 2,700m.

Main currents: Trade Wind and Gulf

Stream, speed 0.2-0.75 m/sec.

Highest tides 1 l-18m (east coast of

Canada, Fundy Bay and Frobisher Bay)

icebergs occur above latitude 42" north

and below latitude 40" south.

Has a steady east-to-west current, speed

0.6-1 m/sec. Hurricanes occur trom

June through October

Steady currents flow from the Atlantic

and the Sea of Marmora. Storms occur

in the fall and are particularly heavy

along the west coast of Italy,

Numerous shallows (5 to 15m). Tides m

Firth of Forth up to 10m. Water level

increases by is much as 3m in high

wnds. Freezes over along coasts

(December-March); ice does not

mterfete with shipping.

35-100m deep in northwestern part.

Water level rises by 2-2 5m in high

winds. It has a steady anticlockwise

circular current. At depths of over

200m the water is contaminated with

hydrogen sulfide. Freezes over along

northwest coastline from December to

March

Many sectors with depths of 2-20m., as

well as rocks and islands which are a

hazard to shipping along the coasts of

Sweden and Finland. In high winds the

water level rises by 3-4m Freezes

over in northern part ss far south as

Liepaya; the ice, which persists from

November through May, is 5-20cm

thick.

The salinity of the water near river

mouths is as low as 3

0

/M, In high

winds the water level rises by 2m. The

sea freezes over along the coastline

from December to April, thickness of

the ice up to 10cm, In severe winters

the sea freezes over completely, the

thickness of the ice reaching 60cm, ice

hummocks are encountered

In the western and southern parts there

are many sectors where the depth

does not exceed 500m. Mam currents:

equatorial and monsoon: speed

0,5-2 S m/sec. Hignest tides 10-12m

(on the west coasts of Hindustan and

Australia) Icebergs are frequently

encountered up to the latitude of the

southern tip of New Zealand

Hurricanes lasting 15-20 days occur

from April to November

In coastal areas there are many sectors

where the depth is less than 30m

Mirages occur during the summer

At d.itances of 200-1,000m from the

coast the depth of the water varws

between 50 and 200m. Th«

Lomonosov submarine ridge extends

from the («jvOiibirsk Islands to

Greenland Depths above the ridge vary

between 950 and 2.000m Another

lesser elevation is situated parallel to

the Lomonosov Ridge. The mam

current flows from the coast of North

America through the region of the Pole

along th< east coast of Greenland The

highest tides (7-9m) jccur in the

White Sea The central part of the

ocean is covered with thick dnft-ice

^
Oceans and Most Important Seas—Continued

Area,

thous

SQ km

Depth, m Salm- Prevailing

height

of tides.

m

Surface

temperature,

Ocean/Sea prevailing max. deg. fine) description

Barents Sea 1,405 100-350 600 32-35 2 5-4 7 Winter - 1

Summer 5-7

throughout the year (hummock ice can

be up to 5m thick).

The warm (4-12*) North Cape current

flows along the north coast of Norway.

Greenland Sea 1,205 600-1,000 4,846 32-35 13-44 Winter -0.8

Summer 6

East Siberian

Sea

901 40-92 155 16-30 0.2-1.3 Winter -1.8

Summer 5

Kara Sea 883 30-100 620 30-34 0.3-12 Winter - 1

Summer 6

Laptev Sea 650 30-80 2,980 25-30 0.3 Winter -1.5

Summer 5-/

Chukchee Sea 582 35-60 160 24-32 0.1-0,9 Winter -1,8

Summfcr 3-6

Beaufort Sea 746 600-2,000 4,683 25-32 0,2-0.6 Winter -1.8

Summer 5

White Sea 90 50-150 330 14-30 1.4-3,5 Winter -1

Summer

10-12

The highest tides {6.7m) occur in

Svyatonsskiy Bay. The southwestern

part of the sea (in the zone

400-500km from the coast of the

Kola Peninsula) does not freeze over:

the remainder of the sea is covered

with thick ice from November through

April.

In the eastern part of the sea the warm

Spitzbergen current flows to the north,

in the western part the cold Greenland

current flows south. Throughout the

entire year pack ice is encountered m

the western part of the sea, and

elsewhere icebergs.

Under the action of the wind the water

level rises 2,5-3m, The sea freezes

over from October to July.

The southern part is shallow Covered

with drift-ice for almost the entire year.

Deep in the extreme north. The water

level increases by 2-3m under the

action of winds. Covered with thick ice

from October through July.

Freezes over from October to July.

Hummock ice up to 2m thick.

Washes the north coast of Alaska and

Canada. Covered with pack ice. 2-5m

thick, from September through July.

Highest tides reach 10m (Mezenskaya

Guba). Pack ice from November

through May; solid ice m bays.

Most Important Straits

Nam» Basins connected

by the strait

Length,

km

Width,

km

Depth,

m

Salinity.Height

o* tides,

m

Hydrologe cycle

Bab-el-Mandeb Red Sea and

Indian Ocean

50 17-25 182-323 36-38 06 Southeasterly current, speed

0.2 m/sec.

Bering Strwt Bering and

Chukchee

Seas

bO 35-86 42-70 32 0 2-0 8 Northerly current, speed 0 3

m/$ec Pack ice from October

through July

Great Belt Baltic and North

Seas

115 15-25 12-58 ifi 02 Westerly current, speed 1.5

m/sec. Under wind action ine

water level rises by up to 3m

Pack ice from December

through March

Bosphorus Black Sea and

Sea of

Marmora

296 0 6-3 7 33-121 17 04 Southerly current, speed 0.1

m/sec

Vilkitskiy

Strait

Laptev Sea and

Kara Sea

Approx

130

56 92-210 30 03 Pack ice the year round.

Gibraltar Meditertänean

Sea and

Atlantic Ocean

90 14-21 300-1.181 36 13-38 Easterly current, speed 0 3 m/sec

Hudson Strait Hudson Bay and

Atlantx Ocean

Approx

800

100-2O0 233-704 32 54-89 Southeasterly current, speed 0.2

m/sec. Pack ice from October

through August

Dardandtes Sea of Marmora

and Aegean s

63 13-7.5 53-106 29 04 Southerly current, speed 1.2

m/sec.

Denmarit

Str«

Greenland Sea

and Arctic

Ocean

approx

520

260 220-1.600 33 3 6-4 0 Southwesterly current, speed 0 5

m/sec. Peck ** fwr. Qctobtr

through August

333
Most Important Straits—Continued

Name Basins connected

by the strait

Length,

km

Width,

km

Depth,

m

Salmity.

V«

Height

of tides,

m

Hydrologie cycle

Drake Strait F-acific and

Atlantic

oceans

approx

900

900-950 2,800-5,248 34 20-36 Easterly current, speed 0,5 m/sec.

Violent storms in summer. Pack

ice throughout the year

Sunda Strait Java Sea and

Indian Ocean

1203 30-105 50-1,080 34 0.6-1,0 Frequent submarine eruptions.

Kara Straits Barents and Kara

seas

approx

45

wprox 50 100-20Ö 31 !,2 PacH ice from October through

August.

Kattegat Baltic and North

seas

approx

200

60-122 26-124 18 0,5 Westerly current, speed 0,2

m/sec. Pack ice from December

through March.

Kerch Strait Black Sea and

Sea of Azov

approx

«!

4-15 5-15 17 0.1 Freezes ovef only during very

severe winters.

Korea Strait East China Sea

and Sea of

Japan

390 180-220 115-230 34 1 2-3.0 Northeasterly current, speed 0.5

m/sec Typhoons in July and

September.

Cook Strait Tasmaman Sea

and Pacific

Ocean

205 25-150 100-325 35 15-4 2 Southeasterly current, speed

0.1-0.2 m/sec. Hurricanes

occur in June.

English

Channel

North Sea and

Atlantic Ocean

850 32-)80 35-172 34 7.2-12,0 Southeasterly current, speed 0,2

m/sec. Fogs are frequent in the

fall

La Perouse

Strait

Sea of Okhotsk

and Sea of

Japan

101 42 50-118 34 1.4 Easterly current. Ice-covered from

December through April.

Typhoons occur in September.

Strait of

Magellan

Atlantic and

Pacific oceans

550 4-33 34-1,170 32 2.0 Tides from 8 to 12m in the

eastern part.

Strait of

Malacca

Andaman and

South China

Seas

800 mm, 40 25-151 31 2.5-50 Many shallows and reefs

hazardous to shipping.

Little Belt Baltic and North

seas

approx.

125

mm, 0,6 13-80 17 0.2 Westerly current, speed up to 1.5

m/sec. Pack ice from December

to March. Freezes in severe

winters.

Strait o<

Messina

Ionian and

Tyrrhenian

seas

approx

40

35-22 115-1,240 38 0.5 North and south tidal currents

(speed 0 2-0 5 m/sec).

whirlpools Adjoins region of

Mozambique Madagascar and 1,670 400-1,200 2,100-3,520 35 4 6-5,2

Channel African

mainland

Strait of Persian Gulf and 85 56-125 70-219 37 3 5-4,4

Hormuz Gulf of Oman

Strait of Ionian and 120 Mm, 75 548-1,247 38 0.4

Otranto Adriatic Seas

Strait ot Dover North Sea and

Atlantic Ocean

56 Mm 33 27-64 34 5,5-12,

Palk Strait Bay of Bengal

and Indian

Ocean

approx

150

Up to 60 6-1! 34 06-0.9

Singapore South Chins Sea approx 4-16 22-157 32 3 0-3 5

Straii and Indian

Ocean

110

Skagerrak Baltic and North

CM

300 110-130 100-809 22-25 0.5

Taiwan Strait East China Sea

and South

China Sea

380 130 60-1,680 34 2 0-7 5

Tatarsk Strait Sea of Okhotsk

and Se« of

Japan

633 40-342 30-230 32 02-27

Straits of Gulf of Mexico 300 80-180 200-2,084 32 0.8-13

Florida and Atlantic

Ocean

Tsuuru Strait

(Sangarskiy

Sea ot Japan and 110 18-75 130-521 34 05-1-«

Pacific Ocean

Proliv)

Tsushima F.asl China Sea appro« 46-60 100-120 34 20-35

Strait and Sea of

Japan

160

Oresund (The Baltic and North 110 3-4 8-38 10 05

Sound) Sea

334

submarine eruptions to the

north.

Southerly current, speed 1 m/sec.

Hurricane season

December-March.

Flows into the Persian Gulf, speed

0 2 m/sec.

Currents northwest along the

Albanian coast, south along the

Italian coast; speed

0.2-1 m/sec.

Easterly current, speed 0,3-1

m/sec. Fog occurs frequently m

the tall

Hurricanes occur in January.

Strong tidal currents, speed

0 2-0,7 m/sec.

Pack ice m the strait from

December through March

Northeasterly current, speed 0 5

m/sec Typhoons occur in

September,

Ice-covered from November

through April

Northeasterly current, speed 0 5

m/sec Height of tide 1 3m,

Hurricanes occur from April

through October

Easterly current, speed 1-2

m/sec. Typhoons occur in

August and September

Northeasterly current, speed 0 2

m/sac. Typhoons occur in

August and September

Pack ice from December through

March Freezes over m severe

winters

V-
Most Important Straits—Continued

Name Basms connected

by the strait

Length. Width. Depth. Saimkm km m ity.

7«

Height

of tides.

m

Hydrologie cycle

Yugorskiy

Shar

Barents and Kara

Seas

46 appro* 3 '■■)-66 33 09 ice-covered from October through

March Pack ice in the strait all

through the summer.

Table of Rail Distances Between Some Cities in the USSR/(in km)

|

o

S

1

C

1

t

oM

TO

1

1

I

-C

TO a ft fl

3E

o 1

|

c

1

B

s

>

|

I

s 1 1

Moscow

Leningrad 650

Kiev 856 1506

Khar'kov 779 1429 47^

Sverdlovsk 1754 2404 2610 2533

Tashkent 3367 4017 4223 4146 isi;

Irkutsk 5183 5833 603! 5962 3335 8550

Riga 918 528 177' 1697 2672 4235 610!

Chita 6240 6890 7096 7019 4517 9607 1142 7158

Sochi 1887 2703 1522 1048 3807 5420 7236 2971 829;i

Mineral'nyye

Vody 1927 2577 1310 836 368] 5294 7110 2845 8167 449

Vladivostok 9330 9980 10 186 10 109 740< 12 597 4074 10 248 2932 11383 11257

Odessa 1515 2065 709 730 3269 4382 669£ 2433 7755 177J 1566 10 845

Rostov 1241 1891 901 427 2995 4608 6414 2159 /481 621 409 10571 1157

Baku 2556 3206 2216 1742 4240 5923 7729 3474 8796 1322 906 11886 2472 1315

IMW 2411 3861 2810 2330 4965 6567 8394 4118 M51 539 1561 12541 3066 1909 549

The measurement of time

Zone time is the time equal to the local civil time of a given time zone's

central meridian.

The earth's circumference is divided into 24 time zones of 15° (1 hour)

each, the zero (Greenwich) meridian being in the center ofthe zero time zone.

In the USSR the time is advanced one hour and is called decreed time. For

example, Moscow is in the second time zone, but clocks and watches are set

for the third time zone.

A table of zone time corrections is used to determine the zone time from

the known time of another time zone.

Using this table to determine the zone time of a given pi:;re from the known

Moscow time, first consult the chart to find the number of the zone in which

the place is located, then find the corresponding correction and add it algebraically to Moscow time.

If the time zone number of a place in a foreign country falls within the

range 2 to 12, the correction for it should be reduced by one. For example,

Tokyo is in zone 9, which means that the appropriate correction would be

+ 6.

In some Western and Central European countries, as well as in the USA,

335

rr-
Distances Between the Mo »t Important Points by Air

(in km on a great circle route)

Name of city

Berlin

Washington

Honolulu

Cairo

Calcutta

London

Manila

Moscow

Novosibirsk

New Vork

Panama

Pans

Peking

Rio de Janeiro

San Francisco

Sydney

Singapore

Istanbul

Stockholm

Tokyo

Fairbanks

Khabarovsk

Shanghai

X

6709

11 750

2900

7030

932

9869

1616

4382

6381

9400

877

7350

10010

9111

16 103

9925

P35

811

8916

6900

7509

8398

a

6709

11 760

9350

130'0

5895

13 779

7818

9391

330

3350

6162

11 100

7718

3930

15 704

15541

8393

6635

10 899

5250

9667

11986

11 750

11760

14210

11 340

11600

8540

11310

9760

7960

8440

11950

8160

13 340

3840

8130

10 830

13 040

11010

6210

4900

6590

7970

2900

9350

14210

5700

3500

9200

2900

.^900

9050

11 460

3250

7550

9900

12 000

14 400

8250

1250

3400

9550

9500

8450

8350

7030

13 010

11 140

5700

x

7961

3545

5345

3644

12743

16 250

7858

3300

15091

12 575

9150

2898

5855

6751

5140

9200

5005

3407

932

5895

11600

3500

7961

y

10 738

2503

5200

5565

8480

343

8150

9177

8621

17 001

10 855

2498

1432

9560

6800

8111

9197

9869

13 779

8540

9200

3545

10 738

8258

5562

13676

16 560

10 746

2850

18 120

11212

6347

2393

9115

9329

3003

8600

3879

1851

1616

7818

11310

2900

5345

2503

8258

x

2803

7508

10 800

2485

5800

11547

9448

14 503

8430

1756

1226

7479

6600

6140

6816

4382

9391

9760

4900

3644

5200

5562

2808

9138

12710

5248

3000

14 352

9415

11830

6273

4181

3777

4767

6000

3512

4015

6381

330

7960

9050

12 743

5565

13 676

7508

9138

x

3570

5832

10 950

7752

4138

15 986

15337

8007

6315

10847

5250

9695

11863

clocks are advanced one hour by government order during the summer

(approximately from April through September). This is called summer time

and should be taken into account by adding one hour to the time zone

correction for the country in question.

Zone No Name of zone time

7

i!

IS

13

14

IS

17

II

19

20

21

22

23

Correction m hours

tor Moscow time.

Greenwich (West European, London. Universal)

Central European

Moscow

Volga

Ural (Sverdlovsk)

West Siberian (Omsk)

Yenisey (Krasnoyarsk)

Irkutsk

Amur (Chita)

Maritime (Khabarovsk)

Okhotsk (Magadan)

Kamchatka

Chukotka (Anadyr')

13th zone

Fairbanks

Vukon

Pacific

Mountain

Central

Eastern (Washington)

Atlantic

21st zone

22nd zone

Icelandic

336

h
it)

E mC

1to

i

O

I

n

1 S

3

JO

E

|

£ 1a

i

1

s

f

a i 1

o

QC 1 t 1 (75 1

JE 1

Berlin 9400 877 7350 10010 9111 16 103 9925 1735 811 8916 6900 7509 8398

Washington 335C 6162 11 IOC 771J! 393( 15 70- 1554 839; '.035 10 899 5250 9667 11986

Honolulu 8440 11950 8160 13 340 3840 8130 10 830 13 040 11010 6210 4900 6590 7970

Cairo 11460 3250 7550 9900 12 00( 14 400 8250 1250 3400 9550 9500 8450 8350

Calcutta 16 250 7858 3300 1509 12 575 9150 2891 5855 6751 5140 9200 5005 3407

London 8480 34:1 815(i 9177 862: 17 00 10855 249i 1432 9560 6800 8111 9197

Manila 16 560 10 746 285( 18 120 11212 6347 239;i 9115 932V 300; 8600 3879 1851

Moscow 10 800 2485 580( 11547 944S 14 503 8431 1756 1226 7479 6600 6140 6816

Novosibirsk 12 710 5241 3000 14 352 9415 lit» 627; 4181 3777 4767 6000 3512 4015

New York 3570 5832 10 950 7752 4138 15 986 15 337 8007 6315 10 847 5250 9695 11863

Panama K 8670 14 35( 5300 535( 14 150 188!(' 10 8SC 9570 13 580 8070 12 800 15 030

Pans 8670 x 8250 9172 8945 16 969 10 736 2253 1542 9711 715C' 8278 9260

Peking 14 350 8250 X 17 300 950( 8950 4500 7050 6750 ; 10C 630Ci 1750 1100

Rio de Janeiro 5300 9172 17 30C X 10656 13 367 15 730 10 282 10 704 18 551 13 000 17 167 18 244

San Francisco 5350 8945 9500 10656 x 11935 13 580 10 787 8628 826< 3400 7762 9881

Sydney 14 150 16 969 8950 13367 11935 X 6309 14 957 15 604 7831 12 150 9318 7884

Singapore 18810 10 736 4500 15 730 13 583 6309 X 8650 9645 5322 10 750 6037 3806

Istanbul 10 860 2253 705Ci 10 282 10 787 14 957 8650 X 2169 8948 8250 7712 7986

Stockholm 9570 1542 6750 10 704 8628 15 60' 9645 2169 X 8129 6200 6721 7765

Tokyo 13 580 9711 2100 18 561 826' 7831 5322 894f; 8129 X 5650 1469 1765

Fairbanks 8070 7150 6300 13 000 3400 12 15(i 10 750 8250 6200 5650 X 4700 6950

Khabarovsk 12 300 8278 1750 17 167 7762 9318 6037 7712 6721 1469 4700 X 2237

Shanghai 15 030 9260 1100 18 244 9881 7884 3806 7986 7765 1765 6950 2237 X

Coordinates, Time Zone, Altitude and Distance from Moscow of Certain Points

Point Latitude Longitude Zone Alt Approx

m distance

from

Moscow,

km

Addis Ababa yor N 38-46' 3 2,540 5,180

Aktyubinsk 50 17 N 57 14 4 225 1,400

Alma-Ata 43 16 N 75 55 5 840 3,100

Amderma 69 46 N 61 38 4 _ 1,950

Anadyr' 64 44 N 177 28 12 17 6,150

Ankara 39 57 N 32 51 2 850 1,800

Antwerp 51 13 N 04 25 0 10 2,150

Archangel 64 33 N 40 32 3 6 1,000

Astrakhan 46 2! N 48 02 3 26 1.250

Atlantic City 39 23 N 74 25 19 15 7,700

Athens 37 59 N 23 44 2 240 2,250

Ashkhabad 37 57 N 58 24 4 218 2,500

Baghdad 33 21 N 44 24 1

34 2,550

Baku 40 23 N 49 52 -10 1,920

Baltimore 30 18 N 75 37 19 120 7,800

Bangkok 13 45 N 100 30 7 50 7,070

Barentsburg 78 05 N 14 13 _ 2,550

Barcelona 41 24 N 02 10 0 5 3,000

Basra 30 30 N 47 49 3 20 2,900

Batavia 06 10 S 106 50 3 50 9,300

Batumi 41 30 N 41 39 3 3 1.520

Belgrade 44 49 N 20 28 80 1,650

Beirut 33 54 N 35 30 60 2,450

Berlin (Tempslhof) . 52 29 N 13 24 1 SO 1,600

Bermuda 32 18 N 64 45 20 _ 7,800

Bizerta 37 17 N 09 52 1 ;o 2,900

Birmmghsm 52 29 N 01 54 0 •75 2.550

Bombay 18 55 N 72 45 6 — 5.050

Bordeaui 44 50 N 00 53 0 50 2.930

Boston 42 21 N 71 03 19 _ 7,200

Bremen 53 05 N 08 50 1 s 1.800

Brussels 50 51 N 04 21 0 35 2,150

Bucharest 44 25 N 26 07 2 80 1,450

Bukhta Provideniya 54 30 N 173 10 12 — 5,350

Bukhta Tiksi 71 34 N 129 03 I10 4,300

Bukhta Tikhaya 80 19 N 52 48 — 2,850

Buenos Aires 34 37 s 58 27 20 — 13,500

Warsaw 52 13 N 21 10 1 10O 1,150

Vienna 48 13 N 16 23 I 155 1,700

Washington 38 53 N 77 00 19 85 7,800

Vilnyus 54 41 N 25 18 2 180 800

Vladivostok 43 07 N 131 54 I130 6,400

Thf Hague 52 05 N 04 18 5 2.150

337
Coordinates, Time Zone, Altitude and Distance from Moscow of Certain Points—Continued

Point Latitude Longitude Zone AH. Appro«

rn distance

from

Moscow.

km

Hamburg 53 33 N 10 01 E 1 10 1.750

Gibraltar 36 08 N 05 20 E 0 150 3.850

Hong Kong 22 12 N 114 30 E 8 _ 7.150

Honolulu 02 19 N 157 52 E 14 — 11.350

Delhi 28 40 N 77 13 E

2

5 — 4350

Cape of Good Hope 34 21 S 18 30 E _ 10.150

Dresden 51 03 N 13 46 E 1 150 1,650

Dover 51 08 N 01 19 E 0 _ 2.300

Geneva 46 12 N 06 08 E 1 420 2.420

Jerusalem 31 45 N 35 14 E 2 320 2.600

Johannesburg 26 12 S 28 02 E 2 _ 9,100

K'.;an' 55 47 N 49 08 E 3 120 700

Cairo 30 03 N 31 15 E 2 2u5 2,900

Calcutta 22 35 N 88 22 E 6 2 5,550

Kansas 39 08 N 94 38 W 18 275 8,550

Canton 40 47 N 81 24 E 19 345 7,000

Karachi 24 52 N 67 02 E 5 -_ 4,200

Capetown 33 55 S 18 27 E 2 _ 10,100

Cologne 50 57 N 06 56 E I 50 2,080

Kiev 50 27 N 30 30 E

5

185 740

Kiel

Colombo

54 20

06 55

N

N

10 08 E

79 51 E 1

1,750

6,550

Kuybyshev 53 12 N 50 06 E 3 60 850

Leipzig 51 20 N 12 24 E 1 130 1,700

Leningrad 59 56 N 30 20 E 2 5 630

London (Croydon) 51 21 N 00 07 i 0 75 2,480

Los Angeles 34 03 N 118 17 W 16 150 9.750

Luxembourg 49 37 N 06 08 E, V 0 _ 2.150

Madras 13 07 N 80 18 E ' 5 25 6.000

Malta 35 54 H 14 26^ E 1 2,830

Melbourne 37 50 s 144 58 E 10 70 14450

Mexico City 19 26 N 99 08 i 18 _ 10,700

Minsk 53 54 M 27 33 E 2 210 660

Montevideo 34 53 S 56 11 W 8 _ 13,400

Moscow 55 45 N 37 37 E 2 160 0

Murmansk 68 58 N 33 05 E 2 20 1.480

Nagasaki 32 45 N 129 53 E 9 !35 7,120

Nanking 32 03 N 118 48 E

if _ 6,600

New York 40 40 N 73 53 W — 7,500

Odessa 46 28 N 30 44 E 2 5 1.140

•Omsk 55 00 N 73 23 E 5 120 2.260

Ottawa 45 25 N 75 43 W 19 ;oo 7,160

Pans (Le Bourget) 48 57 N 02 26 E 0 45 2,460

Peking 39 54 N 116 28 E 8 _ 5,700

Petropavlovsk Kamchatka 53 00 N 158 40 E 11 7 6,800

Prague 50 05 N 14 25 E 1 280 1,670

Reykiavik 64 09 N 21 57 W 23 50 3.3UU

Riga 56 59 N 24 09 E 2 6 850

Rio de Janeiro 22 55 S 43 12 i 21 90 11,550

Rostov-on-Don 47 14 N 39 42 E 3 6 950

Saigon 10 50 N 106 40 E 7 30 7,720

San Francisco 37 45 N 122 26 W 16 ?50 9,500

Sverdlovsk 56 50 N 60 36 E 4 235 1,400

Sevastopol' 44 37 N 33 32 E 2 8 1,300

Seoul 37 36 N 126 58 E 9 80 6,650

Simferopol' 44 58 M 34 07 E 2 250 1,200

Singapore 01 18 N 103 51 E 7 50 8,400

Sofia 42 42 N 23 19 E 2 560 1,780

Stockholm 59 20 N 18 04 E 45 1,240

Tananarive 18 55 S 47 31 E _ 8.340

Tashkent 41 19 N 69 20 E 480 2,800

Tbilisi 41 43 N 44 49 E 430 1,650

Teheran 35 40 N 51 26 E 1.155 2,500

T

okyo 35 42 N 139 46 E 6 7,500

Trieste 45 30 N 13 47 E 15 2,000

Tien-tsin 39 08 N 117 10 E _ 5,900

Ulan-Bator 47 55 N 106 54 E _ 4,650

Ulan-Ude 51 49 N 107 36 E 530 4.400

Fairbanks 64 50 N 147 43 i I

ibS 6,600

Khabarovsk 48 28 N 135 05 E M 6,140

Helsinki 60 10 N 24 58 E 7 920

Cape Chelyuskin 77 43 N 104 15 E 5 3,420

Chicago 41 50 N 87 40 i 1 185 8,000

Chita 52 03 N 113 30 E 675 4.750

Shanghai 31 10 N 121 27 E — 6,850

Cape RnM 68 52 N 179 30 V» 1 7 5,900

Yakutsk 62 03 N 129 43 E S 110 4,900

338
International Standard Atmosphere

Altitude Pressure at

H. m altitude PH,

mm Hg

0 750,0

100 751,0

500 7)6,0

1000 674,0

2000 596.1

3000 525,7

4000 462,2

5000 404,8

5000 353,7

7000 307,8

8000 266,8

9000 230,4

10000 198,1

15000 90,2

20000 40,9

Temperature at

altitude H,

e

Air density

by weight, kg/m'

fl5,0

+ 14,4

+ 11,8

+ 8,5

+ 2,0

-4,5

-11,0

-17,5

^24,0

-30,5

-37,0

-43,5

-50,0

-56,0

-56,5

1,2255

1,2137

1,1677

1,1120

1,0067

0,9093

0,8192

0,7361

0,6596

0,5894

0,5250

0,4662

0,4125

0,1935

0,0880

CORRELATION BETWEEN CENTIGRADE (C°), REAUMUR (R°) AND

FAHRENHEIT (P) TEMPERATURE SCALES

rC=4/5 R=9/5F

rR= 5/4C= 9/4F

rF=5/9C=4/9R

To convert to degrees Fahrenheit multiply degrees Centigrade by 9/5 and

degrees Reaumur by 9/4.

For Centigrade and Reaumur readings above 0°, add 32° to product, for

Centigrade and Reaumur readings below zero, subtract the product from 32°.

Examples:

1. 150C=150.9/5 + 320=59

0

F.

2. -40oR = 32o-40

o

.9/4--58T.

3. 104T=(104o-32

o

).5/9=40°C.

4. -40T--(32o+40

o

).5/9=-40oC.

Comparative Table of Degrees Centigrade Reaumur and Fahrenheit

c R F C R F

-60 -48,0 -76,0 + 12 + 9,6 + 53,6

-44,0 -67,0 + 14 + 11,2 + 57,6

-50 -40,0 -58,0 + 16 + 12,8 + 60,8

-45 - 36,0 -49,0 + 18 + 14,4 + 64,4

-40 -32,0 - 40,0 + 20 + 16,0 + 68.0

-35 -28,0 -31,0 + 22 + 17,6 + 71,6

-30 -24,0 -22,0 + 24 + 19,2 + 75,2

-28 -22,0 -18,4 tu + 20,8 + 78,8

-26 -20,8 -14,0 + 22,4 + 82,4

-24 -19,2 -11,2 + 30 + 24,8 + 86,0

-22 -17,6 - 7,6 + 32 + 25,6 + 89,6

-2 -16,0 - 4,0 + 34 + 27,2 + 93,0

_1 -14,4 - 0,4 + 28,0 + 99.5

-1 -12,8 + 3,2 + 40 + 32,0 + 104.2

-1 -11,2 + 6,8 tso + 36,0 + 113,0

-1 - 9,6 f 10,4 + 40,0 + 122,0

+ 1" - 8,0 + 14,0 +55 + 44,0 + 131,0

- - 6,4 + 17,6 +60 +48,0 + 140,0

- 6 - 4,8 + 21,2 +65 + 52,0 + 149,0

- 4 - 3,2 + 24,8 + 70 + 56.0 + 158,0

- 2 - 1,6 + 28,4 + 75 + 60,0 + 167,0

0 0,0 + 32,0 + 80 + 64,0 + 176,0

+ 2 + 1,6 + 35,6 + 85 + 68,0 + 185,0

+ « + 3,2 + 39,2 + 90 + 72,0 + 194,0

+ 6 + 4.8 + 42,8 + 95 + 76,0 + 203,0

+ 8 + 6,4 + 46,4 + 100 + 80,0 + 212.0

+ 10 + 8,0 + 50,0

339
Visibility Range of Certain Objects

Factory chimneys

Churcn or castle (in winter)

Sails ot a windmill

Large tree standing on its own

Ordinary (2-3 storey) house

Wagons, vehicle«, horses

Signpost, trontier post

Leg movements of people proceeding in formation

Horses' legs, shape of a man

Man's head

Window sash,* shape of man's face

Facial features

Set of a person's eyes

A person's eyes

Individual shingles or boards on the roofs of buildings

Uncamouflaged steel helmet (against a background of snow)

Helmet covered with white fabric

A moving or standing soldier in service uniform on a clear winter's day

Uncamouflaged soldier, lying (in the snow)

Appro» 6 km

15 km

11 km

2 km

4 km

1.500 m

1,200 m

850 m

700 m

400 m

300 m

200 m

150 m

70 m

50 m

1,500 m

200 m

2,000 m

1,000 m

Note Distances seem short: on a uniform surface (water, meadowland, sand, etc), where there are deep depressions in the terrain, and against

a light background.

Distances appear to be greater in hilly terrain, in terrain covered with vegetation, against a dark background, on In^g narrow sectors (of roads

or valleys), m the glare of the sun, at sunset, and in fog.

• The most likely meaning of pereplety rim [U.S.Ed.).

Visibility Range of Different Objects From the Air in Daylight, Depending on the Flying Altitude

visibility range, km

Landmarks low

altitudes

medium

altitudes

high

altitudes

Large built-up areas

Medium-sized and small built-up

areas

Large rivers

Medium-sized and small nvers

Railways

Highways

Dirt roads

Lakes

Forests

Appears m the Russian text as 80-70 (U.S. Ed]

30-40

10-15

15-20

7-10

8-15

10-20

5-10

10-20

10-15

70-80

40-50

40-50

30-35

20-25

30-40

15-20

40-50

30-40

Visibility Range of the Horizon at Sea

(calculated)

90-120

70-80'

70-100

40-50

30-40

50-70

up to 20

;o-ioo

50-70

Eye level,

m

0,00

0,25

0,50

0,75

12.0

14.0

16.0

18.0

20.0

22.0

340

Visibility range

m nautical miles,

(km)

0,0

1,0(1.85)

1,5(2.8)

1,8(3,3)

2.1 (3,9)

2,6 (4,8)

2,9 (5,2)

3,3(6,1)

3.6 (6,7)

3,9 (7.2)

4.2 (7,8)

4,4 (8.1)

4.7 (8,7)

5,1 (5,4)

5,5(10,2)

5,9(10,9)

6,6(12,2)

7,2(13,3)

7,8(14,4)

8.3(15.4)

8,8(16.3)

9,3(17,2)

9.8(18.1)

Eye level

m

Visibility range

m nautical miles,

(km)

11,8(21.8)

12.3(22.8)

13.2 (24.4)

14,0(25.9)

14,7(27,2)

16,1(29.8)

17,4(32.2)

18,6(34,4)

19,7(36,5)

20.8 (38.9)

25.5 (47.2)

29,4 (54.5)

32.9 (60.9)

36,0(66,7)

41.6(77,0)

46,5(86.1)

51.0(94.9)

55,0(101.9)

58,9(108.9)

62.4(115.6)

65,8(121,9)

80 6(149.2)

93.0(172,2)
Visibility Range of the Horizon at Sea—Continued

(calculated)

Eye level,

m

Visibility range

m nauticai miles.

(km)

tye level

m

Visibility range

in nautical miles.

(km)

24,0

26,0

28,0

30,0

10,2(18.9)

10.6(19,6)

11,0(20,4)

11,4(21,1)

3000

3900

4500

113,9(211,0)

129,9 (240,0)

139,5(297,7)

Weather forecasting from instrument readings

When the absolute humidity increases by more than 2 mm for 6-8 hours,

heavy rain can be expected the following day.

A continuous drop in pressure during the course of the day heralds the

approach of a cyclone and, consequently, precipitation and wind.

A rapid fall in pressure in middle and low latitudes is a sign of an approaching storm.

A slow continuous increase in pressure over a period of several days is a

sign of a prolonged spell of clear weather.

If the pressure is falling and the barometer reading curves up in a convex

curve, heavy winds and a deterioration of the weather can be expected. If on

the other hanf* the pressure is falling and the barometer reading curves

downwards, a change for the better can be expected.

If a rise in pressure is accompanied by an upward curve of the barometer

reading, abatement of the wind and calm weather can be expected, a downward curve is an indication that the force of the wind will increase.

An undulating barometer curve signifies the approach of the next cyclone

(the normal period between cyclones being 2-3 days).

A slow drop in pressure starting in the morning, accompanied by a rise

in temperature and absolute humidity, is a sign of possible rain or snow and,

in the summer, storms.

A drop in the relative humidity in the morning and a rise towards evening

is a sign of clear weather.

Weather forecasting by observations at sea

Signs of deterioration in the weather

The absence of breezes in areas where they usually occur.

Small amounts of low cloud in the morning.

The higher clouds move in a counterclockwise direction in relation to the

lower clouds.

In the winter cumulonimbus clouds bring extremely heavy brief snowstorms with large snowflakes. In spring these clouds bring violent hailstorms,

341
sometimes accompanied by snow or rain, in the summer they bring showers

or heavy downpours of rain.

Towards evening and at night a squally wind moderates, or wind ceases

altogether.

At sunset the sky is frequently pallid or yellowish (gold) with a pale

rose-colored high patch. If there are stratocumulus or storm clouds on the

horizon, the lower side ofthe clouds and the part ofthe sky under them may

be tinged with red. This coloration rapidly disappears and does not extend

to the part of the sky above the clouds.

If the wind drops there is a possibility of night fog.

Electrical discharges are fairly heavy, especially during the day.

Signs of the approach of bad weather

A red afterglow at sunset.

The appearance of fast-moving cirrus clouds in increasing amounts. If the

shapes ofthe cirrus clouds approaching from the west are consistent, precipitation can be expected within 10-12 hours. Ifthe cirrus formations are slowly

replaced by lower clouds and there are sharp variations at the initial point

of the horizon,* precipitation may occur within 1-3 days.

Clouds moving in opposite directions are indicative ofthe approach of rain

or snow.

A rising wind towards evening is a sign of prolonged precipitation and the

approach of a storm.

If the wind does not abate towards evening and turns with the sun, this

is a sign of an approaching cyclone and bad weather.

A temperature rise in winter and a temperature drop in summer.

The appearance of small halos around the sun or moon.

The wind abates and slowly turns against the sun. If the wind blows from

the opposite direction, the rain can be expected to abate.

If cumulus clouds do not disperse by the evening, a deterioration in the

weather, or rain can be expected.

Very clear air is a sign of approaching rain.

Clear audibility of distant sounds is a sign of impending rain or snow.

Brightly twinkling stars towards morning also herald the approach of rain

or snow.

A sharp change in the direction of the wind after blowing for several days

from another quarter indicates a change in the weather and precipitation.

After one cyclone high and fast moving cirrus clouds appearing above

fractocumulus clouds signify the approach of a new cyclone, even though

there is no fall in pressure. The wind can be expected to change from the

northwest to the southeast.

• V nachal'noy punkte gorizoma [U.S. Ed.].

342
PHYSICOMATHEMATICAL DATA

Table of Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots

•"K

m

1?

14

15

16

17

\l

20

21i

24

32

33

34IS

!?

i49

16

25

36

49

64

81

100

121

144

169

196

225

256

289

324

361

400

441

484

529

576

525

676

729

784

841

900

961

1024

1089

1156

1225

1296

1369

1444

1521

1600

1681

1764

1849

1936

2025

2116

2209

2304

2401

2500

2601

2704

2809

2916

3025

3136

3249

3354

3481

3600

3'21

3844

3969

4096

4225

4356

4489

4624

476i

4900

5041

5184

5329

5476

5625

57?')

5929

6084

6241

6400

6561

6724

6889

7056

18

27

64

125

216

343

512

729

1000

1331

1728

2197

2744

3375

4096

;913

5832

6859

8000

9261

10 648

12 167

13 824

15625

17 576

19683

21952

24 389

27 000

29 791

32 758

35937

39 304

42 875

46 656

50 653

54 872

59 319

64 000

58 921

74 088

79 507

85 184

91 125

97 336

103 823

110 592

117 649

125 000

132651

140 608

148877

157 464

166 375

175616

185 193

195112

205 379

216000

226 981

238 328

250 047

262144

274 625

287 496

300 763

314 432

328 509

343 000

357 911

373 248

389 017

405 224

421 87S

438976

456 533

474 552

493 On

512000

531441

551 368

571 787

592 704

1,00

1,26

1,44

1,59

1,71

1,82

1,91

2,00

2.08

2,15

2,22

2,29

2,35

2,41

2.47

2.52

2.5/

2.62

2.67

2,71

2,76

2,80

2,84

2.88

2.92

2.96

3,00

3,04

3,07

3,11

3.14

3.17

3.21

3,24

3,27

3,30

3,33

3,36 3 39

3.42

MS

.48

3,50

3.53

3.56

3,b8

3,61

3,63

3,66

3,68

3.71

3.73

3.76

378

3,80

383

3.85

3,87

389

3.91

3,94

3,96

3,98

4.00

4.02

4,04 4 06

408

4,10

4.12

4.14

4.16

4.18

4.20

4,22

4.24

4,25

4.27

4,:»

4.31

4.33

4.34

436 4 38

3A3
PKYSICOMATHEMATICALDATA-Cortinued

Table of Sauares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots

85

91

99

100

7225

7396

7569

7744

7921

8100

8281

8464

8649

8836

9025

9216

9409

9604

9801

10 000

614 125

636 056

558 503

581472

704 9C9

729 000

753571

778 688

804 357

830 584

857 375

884 736

912673

941 192

970 299

1 000 000

9.22

9,27

9,54

9,85

9.90

9,95

10.00

*-

4,40

4,41

4,43

4,45

4.46

4,48

4,50

4,51

4,53

4.55

4,56

4,58

4,59

4^4

AREAS OF PLANE FIGURES

, d

2

SQUARE, a - side, d - diagonal: S = a

2=—.

2

RECTANGLE. a.b - sides: S = ab.

RHOMBUS, a - side; d^dz - diagonals; a - one of the angles (acute or

obtuse):

c, didi 2

S— =a sina.

PARALLELOGRAM, a.b • sides; a - one of the angles (acute or obtuse);

h - altitude: S = ah=abs\Tia.

TRAPEZOID. a.b - base; h - altitude; c - median: S

a+b-h=ch.

ANY QUADRANGLE. dud, - diagonals; a - angle between them:

5 = —aiOjSina.

2

A quadrangle, which can be inscribed in a circle, a.b.c.d are its sides:

a+b+c+d

S = V\p-ayj>-b){p-c){p-d).

RIGHT-ANGLE TRIANGLE, a.b are the legs of the triangle: 5-= .O/J.

ISOSCELES TRIANGLE, a is the base; b one of its sides:

S-\.fZ

344
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE, a - side:

S=iaV3. 4

ANY TRIANGLE. a,b.c are its sides; a the base; h the altitude; ^, B, C the

angles opposite to sides a,b,c:

a + b + c

1 1 c^siniSsinC

S=~ah =—c6sinC=—-—.—-—=

2 2 2 sin/1

A* sin/1

Vp{p-a){p-b){p-c). 2 sin5sinC

To find the area of a POLYGON, divide it into triangles (for example, by

diagonals). It is convenient to divide a polygon inscribed about a circle by

straight lines drawn from the center ofthe circle to the apexes ofthe polygon.

From this we obtain: S=rp, where r is the radius of the circle, and p the

semiperimeter. ,

REGULAR HEXAGON, a is one side: S=-V^-a2.

iTr2n

CIRCLE, d is the diameter; r the radius; C the length of the circumference:

1 2 yd2,

S=-Cr = 7r/-i(^3,142r2)=7r-—(~0,785rf2).

SECTOR, r is the radius; n the central angle in degrees; pno the length of

the arc:

c

1

o

RING. R,r are the external and internal radii; D,d the external and internal

diameters; r the mean radius; k the width of the ring:

S = 'iT(R2-r

2

)=—(D2-d2) = 27rrk.

4

SEGMENT. The area of a segment is found as the difference between the

areas of a sector of a circle, constructed with a segment, and a triangle, two

sides of which are radii of the circle, the third side forming the segment

chord.

VOLUMES AND SURFACES OF BODIES

Symbols: T- volume. 5 - area ofbase; Siat - lateral surface; P - total surft.ee;

h - ?' itude; a.b.c • dimensions of a rectangular solid; A - apothem of a regi lar

pyramid and a regular truncated pyramid; / - generatrix of a cone; p -

perimeter or circumference of base; r - radius of base; d - diameter of base;

R - radius of sphere; D - diameter of sphere.

PRISM, rectangular and oblique; parallelepipid: V=Sh.

Regular prism: Sia!=ph.

345

^
Rectangular solid: V=abc; P = 2 (ab + bc + ac).

Cube: V=a\ P = 6a2.

PYRAMID, regular and irregular: V=~Sh.

Regular pyramid: Siat—~pA.

1 Truncated pyramid, regular and irregular: V=—{S\ + y

r

S\Si \-32)hTruncated regular pyramid: Sia,=~{p\-\-p2)A.

CYLINDER, circular (right and oblique): V^Sk^irrH^-ird h.

Round cylinder: Sia,=27rrh=Trdh.

CONE, circular (round and oblique): V =—Sh=—7rr2h=~—TTd h.

Round cone: Sia,=—pl = 7rrl=-irdl.

Truncated circular cone (round and oblique):

1 I

Truncated round cone: S/a, =7r(ri +r2)/=—77(^1 + ^/2)/

SPHERE: r=~7r/?3=^7rZ)3, P=4'rrR:= ITD2.

2 1 1

HEMISPHERE: V^TTR^—T.D3, S = 'ITR2=-TTD2

J 3

Slal=2TrR2=-~TTD2, P = 3TrR2=-TTD2.

SPHERICAL SEGMENT: V=7rh2(R- -A)=^- (/i2-f 3r2),

3 6

Sla! = 2'nRh = TT{r2 + A

2

), P = 7r(2r2+ h

2

).

SPHERICAL SEGMENT OF TWO BASES:

K=luA3+|7r(r? + r2

2)A, Slal=2nRh.

SPHERICAL SECTOR: 2 2,,

3

(A' is the altitude of the segment contained in the sector)

346
HOLLOW SPHERE: v=*-7TiR]-Rl) =-AD]-Dl);

3 6

P=47TiR2

l + R')-7:UT

y

1

i + Dl).

(R, and Ri are the radii of the exterior and interior spherical surfaces).

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ACUTE ANGLES

In the final analysis, the solution of all triangles is reduced to the solution

of right-angled triangles. In a right-angled triangle ABC the ratio of two of

its sides, for example side a and hypotenuse c, depends entirely on the

magnitude of one of the acute angles, A, for example. The ratios of different

pairs ofsides of a right-angled triangle are called the trigonometric functions

of its acute angle. Depending on angle A, these functions are given the

following names and symbols:

.. „. . a opposite side 1) Sine: sin A =— {-— )

c hypotenuse

b adjacem side 2) Cosine: cos A=— ( )

c hypotenuse

fl opposite side 3) Tangent: tg A=-- (-£ ^^)

b adjacent side

b adjacent side

4) Cotangent: ctg A.=— (— —r——)

5) Secant: sc A

6) Cosecant: esc A

a opposite side

c hypotenuse

b adjacent side

c , hypotenuse

a opposite side

For angle B (the "complement" of angle A) the designations change respectively:

. - *

n

a

„

b

sin 5= ; cos 5— ~; tg B—~;

a

ctg B=-

ace

r

\ sc B = ~\ esc 5=-—;

347
The exact expressions oftrigonometrical values for certain angles are given

in the following table:

A sin A cos A tg A ctg A sc A csc A

0° 0 1 0 00 1 00

1

2 2

1

V 3

2

30° V 3 V 3

2

45° 2

V~2

2 1 1 •"1 vi.

2

1

2 A/~3

1

2

2

60° V 3 A/ 3

90° 1 0 00 0 00 1

Specific Gravity of Certain Substances

SuOstance Specific

gravity

Substance specific

gravity

Sneet asbestos

Alabaster

Diamond

Aluminum, alloys

Asphalt

Apatite

Babbitt

Concrete

Gasoline

8onc acid

Coal bnckets

Bronze

Paper

Fresh water (at O

Salt water

Wolfram

Gypsum

Dry gravel

Granite

Wood

Duralumin

Iron, Steel

fat

Sand, rock

Plastic

Powder, tree-flowing

Powder, compressed

Cork

Bulk wheat

Rubber articles

Mercury (»t 0')

Sugar

Lead

Sulfur

Sulfunc seid

Silver

Mica

i,2-2.5

2,3-28

352

2.6-2,75

1,1-1.5

3.2

75-10,5

1,8-2 45

0,7

29-3,0

1,3

74-89

07-12

1,0

1,02-103

139-14 9

2.3

18-2 0

25-27

05-07

28

72-78

09

2.2

145-1 55

09

17

025

07-08

I T-2 0

is'e

1.6

1134

19-2 1

18

10,4

28-32

Soil

Gold

Lime

Rock salt

Coal (pieces)

Potatoes

Kerosene

Brick

Cobalt

Leather

Ice

Manganese

Linseed oil

Copper wire

Chalk

Marble

Bulk flour

Compressed flour

Oil (crude)

Nickel

Tin

Paraffin

Resm

Steel

Glass

Talc

Uranium

Plywood

Porcelain

Cotton

Zinc

Cement

White iron

Woo)

Bulk barley

1.3-2,0

19,25

2,5

23

1,2-1,5

1,0-1,1

0,8

18-2,0

8,6

0,86-1 02

0 88-0 92

7,15-7,39

0,9

88-9,0

18-2 6

2.7

0 4-0 5

0 7-0 8

08

875-92

73

0,85-0,92

10-1,1

78

245-27

2.7

187

0,54-0,8

18-24

0,35

69-713

2 5-3 2

72-74

132

0 69

348
SYSTEMS OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC UNITS

International electrical units

1. The unit of electrical resistance, the international ohm (Ü) is the resistance of a mercury column (at a steady current and a temperature of 0°)

103.6cm long, with a uniform cross-section along its entire length, and a mass

of 14.4521g.

2. The unit of electric current, the international ampere (A, amp) is the

unvarying electric current that will deposit 0.000118g of silver per second

when passing through a solution of silver nitrate.

3. The unit of electric tension and electromotive force (emf), the international volt (V) is the electric tension or emf, which in a conductor having a

resistance of 1 ohm produces a current of 1 amp.

4. The electrical unit of quantity, the international coulomb (C) or amperesecond, is the quantity of electricity flowing through i cross-section of a

conductor in one second at a current of 1 amp.

5. The unit of electrical power, the international watt (W), is the power

of an unvarying curren» of 1 amp under a voltage of IV.

6. The unit of work of an electric current, the international watt-second

(Ws) or international joule (J), is the work accomplished by an electric

current in one second at a power of 1W.

7. The unit of electrical capacitance, the international farad (F), is the

capacity of a condenser, charged to a potential of IV with 1C of electricity.

8. T: unit ofinductance and mutual inductance is the international henry

(H).

Inductance is the property of an electric circuit by virtue of which an emf

of IV is induced in the same circuit by a uniform change of current of 1 amp

per sec.

Mutual inductance is the property of two electrical circuits, by virtue of

which an emf of IV is induced in one circuit by a uniform change of current

of 1 amp per sec in the other circuit.

9. The unit of conductance. ^^ or Siemens (S), is the conductance of a

conductor having a resistance of 1Ü.

Absolute magnetic units of the electromognetic system of units

1. The unit of magnetic flux is the maxwell (Mx)

2. The unit of magnetic induction is the gauss (Gs)

3. The unit of magnetomotive force is the gilbert (Gb)

4. The unit of magnetizing force is the oersted (Oe)

349
Measures of the work of an electric current

The work accomplished by a source of energy with an output of 1W in one

hour is called a watt-hour (Wh)

1 watt-hour = 3,600 joules

1 hectowatt-hour = 100 watt-hours

1 kilowatt-hour = 1,000 watt-hours

Measures of electrical capacity

1 farad (F) = 106 microfarads (/xF) = 9 X 10" centimeters (cm)

absolute electromagnetic units.

1 microfarad (jnF) = 10-6F = 9 X 105cm.

1 picofarad (pF) = 10~6JLAF = 0.9 cm

= ioSOME FACTS ABOUT THE PHYSICS OF THE ATOM

Basic units and definitions

1. The unit of mass is taken as 1/16th ofthe mass of an atom of the oxygen

isotope O

16

, the mass of which in the scale of atomic masses is equal to exactly

16 units.

One atomic mass unit is equal to 1.66 X lO^g.

2. The unit of charge is taken as being equal to the electron charge.

One elementary charge is equal to 1.6 X 10_" coulombs.

3. The unit of energy is taken as one electron-volt (1 ev), which is equal

to the energy acquired by an electron when passing through a potential rise

of 1 volt.

One electron-volt is equal to 1.6 X 10 12 ergs.

4. The mass number (A) is the integer which is rounded nearest to the

atomic mass of the nucleus of an atom.

5. The nuclear charge, expressed in elementary charges, is equal to the

number of protons in the nucleus, or the number of electrons in the electron

shells of the atom. This number is equal to the serial number of the element

in Mendeleyev's periodic table of the elements.

6. Nuclear forces are short-range forces which hold the particles in the

nucleus. Nuclear forces are effective at distances no greater than 10 " cm.

These forces are not of an electromagnetic nature.

7. The mass defect of a nucleus Am is a measure of the quantity of energy

released in forming a given nucleus from elementary particles. The mass ^f

a nucleus is less than the mass of the particles which form it by

Am = AE.

c

8. Radioactive nuclei are unstable nuclei undergoing spontaneous disintegration. Radioactive nuclei emit either alpha-particles (alpha decay), or electrons or positrons (beta decay).

350

fe.
The half-life (T) is the time during which the number of radioactive nuclei

is reduced to half the original number.

There are three radioactive families:

1. The uranium^U2'

8

family. The half-life (T) of this element is 4.51 X 10q

years. This family includes radium with a half-life of 1,590 years and radon

with a half-life of 3.825 days.

The second parent of this family is curium,,. Cm242 with a half-life of 150

days. Uranium, radium, radon, and curium emit alpha-particles. Certain

members of this family emit beta-particles. The end product of all the radioactive transformations, lead, is non-radioactive.

2. The actinium family. The parent of this family is plutoniun^Pu239 with

a half-life of 2.41 X 104years. The second member is actinouranium AcU715

with a half-life of 8.52 X 108years. Actinium AcA has the shortest half-life

in this family: 1.83 X I0~3seconds. The decay end product is lead.

3. The thorium9oTh232 family. Half-life: 1.39 X 1010 years; decay end product: lead.

Potassium, rubidium, samarium, cassiopeium (or lutetium) and rhenium

are also naturally radioactive. However, these elements do not belong to any

one of the three families.

In addition to the indicated families, there is also a family of artificially

radioactive elements. Its parent is plutonium^Fu241, which emits beta-particles and has a very long half-life.

The displacement laws. If a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha-particle, it

loses 4 units of mass and 2 units of charge, i.e., a new element occurs in

Mendeleyev's periodic table two cells ahead of the one in question.

If a radioactive nucleus emits a beta-particle, the mass of the nucleus is

virtually unchanged, while the charge is increased by one, i.e., a new element

occurs in Mendeleyev's periodic table one cell after the one in question.

If a positron is emitted there is a shift of one cell to the left.

Brief data on elementary particles

The electron is a light particle. The rest mass of an electron m — 9.1 X

10 28g. The electron has an elementary negative charge q of 1.6 X 10""

coulombs. Electrons emitted by atoms during radioactive disentegration are

called beta-particles.

The proton (hydrogen atomic nucleus) is a heavy particle. Its mass (M)

of 1.67 X 10_24gis l,836.5timesgreaterthan that of the electron. The proton

carries a positive charge, equal in magnitude to that of the electron.

The positron is a light particle. The mass of this particle is equal to that

of the electron, and tht positive charge is equal in magnitude to that of the

electron.

It is emitted by the nuclei of some atoms during artificial* radioactivity.

The neutron is a heavy particle without a charge. The mass of the neutron

is slightly greater than that of the proton and 1,839 times greater than that

• Or induced [U.S. Ed).

351
of the electron. A free neutron is radioactive; it is transformed into a proton,

an electron, and a neutrino.*

The neutrino is a particle without a charge, the mass of which is considerably less than that of the electron. Neutrinos accompany beta-decay. To all

intents and purposes they do not interact with matter.

Mesons arc particles whose mass is over 200 times greater than that of the

electron. These particles carry one positive or negative elementary charge.

There are also neutral mesons, which are called neutrettos.f Mesons are very

short-lived. They decay into electrons, positrons, neutrinos and gamma photons. There are also heavy mesons, the mass of which is almost 1,000 times

greater than that of the electron.

The dcuteron is the nucleus of a "heavy" atom of hydrogen—deuterium

iD?or iH*. It consists oftwo particles—a neutron and a proton, firmly bonded

together. Disintegration of the deuteron occurs under the action of gamma

rays of sufficiently high frequency.

Tritium iT3or ,H3is "superheavy" hydrogen, the nucleus of which consists

of two neutrons and one proton. The charge of this nucleus is equal to one

and its mass number 3.

An alpha-particle is the nucleus of an atom of helium 2H4, consisting of

two neutrons and two protons. The charge is equal to two and its mass

number 4.

Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves, emitted during alpha- and betadecay. Gamma-ray wavelengths fall within the range 10"' to lO-

" cm. The

nuclei of all atoms consist only of neutrons and protons.

Radioactivity and X-ray units

1. The unit of activity of radon is called a curie (Cu). This is the radiation

intensity of radon in a state of equilibrium with one gram of radium.

One gram of radium emits 3.7 X 1010 alpha-particles per second, i.e., this

quantity of radium atoms decays in one second.

One curie of alpha-radioactive matter is that quantity of a substance which

emits the same number of alpha-particles per second as lg of radium, i.e., 3.7

X 1010.

2. The unit of measurement of the activity of alpha- or beta-emitters is the

rutherford. One rutherford is one million disintegrations per second.

3. The X-ray physical dose unit is the roentgen (r). This is the physical dose

of X-rays at which, as a result of full ionizing action m air at 0

oC and normal

atmospheric pressure, charges are generated, each of one electrostatic unit

per 1 cm1of illuminated space.

The unit of X-ray energy is the roentgen per cubic centimeter (r per cm').

This is the amount of X-radiation which, being absorbed in 1 cm', creates

in any element of this volume a physical dose equal to one roentgen.

* The ö««-neulrino is emitted with negative electrons (eg., in neutron decay) (U.S. Ed.],

t Neytretto. Perhaps K-mesons [U.S. Ed.].

352
4. Alpha-particles emitted by heavy radioactive nuclei have a velocity of

the order of 1—2 X 10" cm/sec; the number of ions produced by an alphaparticle throughout its entire life is of the order of 10'.

5. Beta-particles are emitted in varying intensities, beginning from a certain

upper limit, and they have a very long life in air. Their initial velocity may

reach 99% of the velocity of light.

The International System of Measures

The International System of Measures of Length and Area

Measure Abbreviations Definition

Russian Latin

Ratio to basic unit

Units of length

Meter

Kilometer km km

Decimeter dm dm

Centimeter sm cm

Millimeter mm mm

Micron _ m

Millimicron — mm

Square meter m

In m or m'

Square kilometer km

Kv km or km'

Hectare ga ha

Are t a

Square decimeter dm

k. dn or dm'

Sqi '.are centimeter cm

kv sm or sm1

Square millimeter mm

kv. r\rr or mm'

The fundamental unit of length is the meter The standard meter in

the USSR is a copy of the international meter made of

platinum-indium alloy, bearing the mark No.28. which is kept in

the All-Union Institute of Met'ology

One thousand meters 10'

One tenth of a meter 10''

One hundredth of a meter 10'1

One thousandth of a meter lO"'

One millionth of a meter 10'*

One billionth of a meter 10''

Units of area

A square meter is the area of a square, each side of which has a 1

length equal to one meter

One million square meters 10'

Ten thousand square meters 10*

One hundred square meters 10'

One hundredth of a square meter 10''

One ten titousandth of a square meter 10'*

One millionth of a square meter IC

1 International Units of Weight and Volume

Measure , Abbreviate Definition Ratio to Jasic unit

knssian Latin

Units of mass (weigtit)

Kilogram kg kg The unit of mass (weight) The standard kilogram in the USSR is a

copy of the international kilogram made of platmum-iridium

alloy, bearing the mark No 12, which is kept in the All-Umon

:

Institute of Metrology

Ton t t One thousand kilograms 10'

Centner ts Q One hundred kilograms 10'

Decagram dkg dkg One hundredth of a kilogram io->

Gram g g One thousandth of a kilogram 10-'

Decigram P dg One ten tl ousandth of a kilogram 10'

Centigram ig eg One hundred thousandth of a kilogram 10>

Milligram mg mg One millionth of a kilogram 10'

Units of volume

CubK meter kub, m

or m*

m' A cubic meter is the volume of a cube, each edge of which has a

length equal to one meter

1

Cubic kilometer kub km

or km1

km' One billion cubic meters 10-

Cubic decimeter kub. dm

or dm'

dm' One thousandth of a cubic meter 10'

Cubic centimeter kub sm

or sm1

cm' On« millionth of a cubic meter 10-'

Cubic millimeter kub mm

or mm*

mm' One billionth of a cubic meter lO"'

1

353
International Units of Weight and Volume—Continued

Measure Abbreviations Definition Ratio to basic unit

Russian Latin

Units of capacity

Law 1 1 A liter is a volume of one kilogram of water at its maximum

density and at normal atmospheric pressure (760mm). A liter is

taken to be equal to Idm'.

1

Kiloliter kl kl One thousand liters 10'

Hectoliter gl hi One hundred liters 10'

Decaliter dkl dkl Ten liters 10

Deciliter dl dl One tenth of a liter lO"1

Centiliter si cl One hundredth of a liter lO"'

Milliliter ml ml One thousandth of a liter lO"'

Note1 For measurements accurate to within 0.01 %, a liter is assumed to be equal to a cubic decimeter, a krloliter a itubic meter, and a milliliter

a cubic centimeter.

SOME NON-METRIC UNITS OF LENGTH AND AREA (OBSOLETE)

In some countries, in addition to the official metric units, old national

measures are used in commerce, industry, and everyday practice.

Russian measures m use before the introduction of the metric system Value in metric units

Units of length (or linear measures)

Mile = 7 msts

Verst = 500 sa/hens

Sazher - 3 arshms 7 feet

Arshm = 16 vershki 28 inches

foot « 12 inches

Versholi = 1 75 inches

Inch =10 lines

Line = 20 points

Point

Units of area (or squire measures)

Square ver$t 250,000 square sazhens

Desyatma 2.400 square sazhens

Square saihen 9 square arshms = 49 square feet

7 4676 km

1.066Bkm

2.1336 m

0,7112 m

0,3048 m

44,45 mm

25.4 mm

2,54 mm

254 microns

1 1381 sqlm

1,0925 ha

4,5522 sq m

English measures in use before the introduction of the metric system, into Britain and

the USA

Value in the metric system

Units of length

Nautical mile

Statute mile

Yard

Foot

inch

1 853 km

1 609 km

9144 cm

30,48 cm

2,54 cm

English measures in us« before the introduction of the metric system into BnUm and

the USA

Value in metric system

Units of area

Square mile

Acre

Square yard

259 ha

0 4047 ha

0 836 sq m

354
National Units of Length and Area of Certain Countries

Country, ear of introduction of

metn' system

National units

1 of length

2 of area

Conversion into metric Relationship of metric to national

units unit

Bulgaria (1888) lio*r(ell)

2.Dyulyum (uvrat)

65 cm

0.09 ha 1

m = l.bilok'tya

ha = 11.11 dyulyuma

Britain. Austra13. Canada, New

Zealand, Union of South

Africa, USA (1897)

1 Nautical mile

Statute mile

Yard > 3 feet

Foot = 12 inches

Inch

2 Sq mile = 640 acres

Acre

Sq yard = 9 sq feet

Sqfoot 144 sq inches

Sq inch

1.852 km

1 609 km

0.914 m

30 479 cm

2.539 cm

2.59 sq km

0 404 ha

0,836 sq m

0,093 sq m

6,451 sq cm

km 0.54 mile

km = 0,621 mile

m 1,094 yards

m = 3,281 feet

cm = 0,394 inches

sq km = 0,386 sq mile

ha = 2 471 acres

sq m = 1,196 sq yards

sq m = 10,754 sq feet

sq cm = 0,155 sq inches

Hungary (1874) \.Mertfotd(maiiord. mile)

2 Cadastral khol'd

small khol'd

8,35 km

0 58 ha

0,43 ha

km = 0,12 mertfol'd

ha = 1,72 cadastral khol'd

ha = 2,33 cadastral khol'd

Germany(1871) 1 Mile (geographical

Faden (fathom)

2 Morgen quadrat

7,42 km

1,83 m

0 25 ha

14,18 sq m

km = 0,13 mile

m = 0,55 faden

ha = 3,91 morgen

sq m = 0,07 quadra*

Egypt (1951) \ Farsakh Kassabah

Ifeddin

1,74 km

3,55 m

0,42 ha

km = 0,58 farsakh

m = 0,28 kassabah

ha = 2,38 leddän

India (1956) l.Coss(kos)äu.-*

2 Cawme Big#

183 km

0,69 m

0,54 ha

0,13 ha

km = 0,55 cess

m = Xß&fH

ha = 1,85 cawnie

ha = 7.47 btga

Indonesia (1938) [Pal

ZBshoe (bau)

1,85 km

0,71 ha

km = 0,54 pal

ha = 1.41 bahoe

Iran (1935) \ Farsang (Parasang)

2Jerib

6,24 km

0,11 ha

km = 0.16 farsang

ha = 9.09 ieribs

China Mi

2.Tsm = 100 mu

0,50 km

6,67 ha

km = 2.0 11

ha = 0,15 tsm

Korea (1945) Hi

2 Chen = 10 Tanam

3,93 km

0.99 ha

km = 0,25 1

ha = 1.01 chen

Mongolia (1924) 1 Gots/ar

2Gubiyar= 100 Ure

0,58 km

9,22 ha

km = i'llgotsiar

ha O.Wgubiyar

Poland (1919) IPost mile

2Vluka

8,35 km

16 80 ha

km = 0,12 post mile

ha 0.06 vlukt

Romania (1884) IMile

2Falcha

7,85 km

1,43 ha

km = 0.13 mile

ha = 0.70 falcha

France (1837) I League Toise

1 Hectare

4 44 km

195 m

km = 0 22 league

m = 0.51 loise

Czechoslovakia (1876) 1.Post mile SA^

2 Lan Square shag

7,59 km

190 km

17 26 ha

3 60sqn,

km = 0.13 post mile

I km = Obi shag

ha 0.06 lan

sq m = 0 28 sq shag

rug05lavia(1883) \KhvatArshin

2Un»ts

190 m

71,20 cm

0.72 ha

I m 0.53 khvät

I cm = 0 014 arshm

i ha 1 40/,3Ajfs

Japan (1952) 1ft 3 93 km

0.99 h«

I km = 0.26 n

i ha 1.01 11

" Gui 0 686 m m Bengal, 0 838 m in Bombay, and 1,039 m in Madras |U,S, td.],

I Biga 1,338 m' in Bengal, 3,293 m' in Bombay, and 2.592 m

1

in NW prov (US, Ed,]

• The English transliteration of this and other underlined nonmetnc units in this list may differ from those given in other sources Te could

be rendered Tyo. Tytw Cho. Tcho. etc [US Ed |

Ratios of Different Units of Length

Naut Cables

mile length Knot Meter Yard Foot Incn

Nautical mile _ 10 120 1852 2026,66 6080 72960

English land mile 0.869 8,687 109,98 1609 1760 5280 63346

Kilometer 0,54 5,4 64,8 1000 1093,61 3280.83 39370,08

Cable's length 0,1 — 12 185,2 202,66 608 7296

Knot« 0.00834 0.0834 _ 15,43 16,874 30,66 607,92

Fathom (7 feet) 0,00116 0,0116 0,138 2,1336 2,3331 7 84

Fathom (6 feet) 000098 0.0098 0,1182 1,8288 2 6 72

MMtr 000054 0,0054 0.0648 _ 1.094 3,28 39,37

vart 0.000493 0,0049 0,0« 0,9144 _ 3 36

F00( 0 000164 0,00164 0,0197 0,3048 0,333 _ 12

Inch 0,0000137 0.000137 0,00164 0.0254 0.0277 0,0833

Centimeter 0,0000054 0.000054 0,000648 0,01 0,01093 0,032808 0,3937

Millimeter 000000054 0.0000054 000000648 0,001 0,00109 0,00328 0,03937

Mi The Bntish round off the catKt $ length, taking it as equal to 200 yards (600 fee') Of 100 fathoms (1 fathom = 6 leet)

355

* '
FOREIGN EXCHANGE RATES

November 1970

Currency Equivalent

in rubles

Australian dollars

Austrian shillings (per 100)

Albanian leks (per 100)

Algerian (People's Democratic Republic) dinars (per 100)

British pounds sterling

Argentine (new) pesos (per 100)

Afghan afghams (per 100)

Belgian francs (per 100)

Burmese kyats (per 100)

Bulgarian levs (per 100)

Hungarian fonnts (per 100)

North Vietnamese dongs (per ! 00)

Ghanaian cedi

Gumean francs (per 1,000)

East German Mrta (per 100)

West German mtia (per 100)

Dutch gulden (per 100)

Greek drachma (pe? 100)

Danish kroner (per 100)

Egyptian pounds

Indian rupees (per 100)

Indonesian rupees (per 1.000)

Iranian rials (per 100)

Italian lira (per 1.000)

Cambodian nels (per 100)

Canadian dollars

Chinese yuans (per 100)

North Korean wons (per 100)

Cuban pesos

Lebanese pounds (per IOC)

Mali francs (per 1.000)

Moroccan dirhams (per 100)

Mexican pesos (per 100)

Mongolian tughnks (per 100)

Norwegian kroner (per 100)

Pakistani rupees (per 100)

Polish zlotys (per 100)

Romanian lei (per 100)

Syrian pounds (per 100)

US dollars

Sudanese pounds

Turkish lira (per 100)

Uruguayan pesos (per 100)

Finnish marks (per 100)

Frencii francs (per 100)

Czechoslovakian crowns (per 100)

Swedish crowns (frer 100)

Swiss francs (per 100)

Jugoslav (new) dinars (per 100)

Japanese yen (per l.OOO)

1.01

349

18,00

18.23

2.15

22 50

2.01

1,81

18 90

7692

7,67

30,60

088

365

4050

24,78

2502

3,01

1200

207

1200

238

1.19

14453

162

0.8838

45 00

09

2776

162

1778

721

2250

1260

1878

22.50

15.00

2368

090

259

600

0 36

2143

1629

1250

17.37

20 80

720

252

REFERENCE BOOKS ON GENERAL AND SPECIAL TOPICS

Strany mira. Kratkiy politiko-ekonomichesk'y spravochnik [The Countries of

the World: A Concise Political-Economic Handbook]. Politizdat, 1967.

Strany mira. Voyenno-poliiicheskiy i ekonomicheskiy obzor [The Countries of

the World: A Military-Political and Economic Survey]. Voyenizdat, 1969.

Spravochnik propagandista-mezhdunarodnika [Handbook for the Specialist

in International Propaganda]. Voyenizdat, 1969.

Sputnik partiynogo aktivista [The Party Activist's Companion]. Voyenizdat,

1969.

Politicheskaya karta mira. Spravochnik [A Political Map of the World:

Handbook]. Politizdat, 1966.

Strana Sovetov za 50 let. Sbormk statisticheskikh materialov [The Land of the

Soviets alter 50 Years: A Collection of Statistical Material). Statistika,

1967.

356

;V-
Atlas mira [Atlas of the World]. Voyenizdat, 1958.

Voyenno-morskoy mezhdunarodno-pravovoy spravochnik [A Handbook of

Naval International Law]. Voyenizdat, 1966.

Mezhdunarodno-pravovoy rezhim vazhneyshikh prolivov i kanalov [International Laws Relating to the Most Important Straits and Channels]. Gosyurizdat, 1965.

Vygodskiy, M. Ya. Spravochnik po elementarnoy matematike [Handbook of

Elementary Mathematics]. Nauka, 1967.

Kamkov, I. A. Dlya tekh, kto khochet uchit'sya v voyennykh uchilishchakh

i akademiyakh [For Those Who Want to Study in Military Schools and

Academies]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Kratkiy slovar'po radioelektronike [A Concise Radioelectronics Dictionary].

Voyenizdat, 1964.

Provila dvizhcniya po ulitsam gorodov, naselennykh punktov i dorogam SSSR

[Soviet Urban and Rural Traffic Rules] (Effective 1 January 1965). Stroyizdat, 1965.

Pravila preduprezhdeniya stolknoveniya sudov v more [Rules for the Prevention of Collisions of Ships at Sea]. Published by the Directorate of the

Hydrographie Service, 1963.

Pravila perevozki radioaktivnykh veshchestv [Regulations Governing the

Transportation of Radioactive Materials]. Atomizdat, 1961. T

Pravila shturmanskoy sluzhby VMS [Rules of the Naval Navigation Service].

Published by the Hydrographie Directorate of the Navy (in separate issues

dealing with specific questions).

Slovar' osnovnykh voyennykh terminov [Dictionary of Basic Military Terms].

(The Officer's Library). Voyenizdat, 1965.

Spravochnik aviatsionnogo lekhnika [Air Technician's Manual]. Voyenizdat,

1961.

Spravochnik aviatsionnogo shturmana [Air Navigator's Manual]. Voyenizdat, 1957.

Yepikhin, N. P. et al. Spravochnik po morskoy praktike [Manual of Seamanship]. Voyenizdat, 1969.

Spravochnik vakhtennogo ofitsera [The Watch Officer's Handbook]. Voyenizdat, 1967.

Spravochnik propagandista i agitatora armii i floia [Handbook of the Armed

Forces Propagandist and Agitator]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Spravochnik po inostrannymßotam [Handbook of Foreign Navies]. Voyenizdat. 1966.

Spravochnik mcr [Handbook of Weights and Measures]. Vneshtorgizdat,

1960.

Spravochnik ofitsera sluzhby snabzheniya goryuchim [Handbook for Officers

of the Fuel Supply Service]. Voyenizdat, 1955.

Spravochnik ofitsera po voyskovomu khozyaystvu [The Officer's Handbook of

Troop Administration]. Voyenizdat, 1968.

Spravochnik po dozimetricheskim. radiometricheskim i elektrofizicheskim

priboram. schetchikam-stsintillyatoram ifotoumnozhitelyam [Handbook of

357
Radiation Monitoring, Radiometrie, and Electrophysical Instruments,

Scintillation Counters, and Photomultipliers]. Voyenizdat, 1959.

Spravochnik po kosmonax'ike [Cosmonautics Handbook]. Voyenizdat, 1966.

Spravochnik pv zakonodatel'stvu dlya ofitserov Sovetskoy Armii i Flota [Manual of Legislation for Officers of the Soviet Armed Forces]. Voyenizdat,

1970.

Spravochnik po yadernoy fizike [Handbook of Nuclear Physics]. Fizmatgiz,

1963.

Spravochnik radiolyubitelya [Radio Amateur's Handbook]. Gosenergoizdat,

1961.

Spravochnik prakticheskogo vracha [The Practicing Physician's Handbook].

Vols. I and II. Medgiz, 1956.

ft US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1 977 0—226-880

358
^^K-i-x::^^^::^:-:-*^:

•>* > • ÜB «^a ■■■■■• > V • «• ".'.'- ."r

SOVIET MILITARY THOUGHT Series

1.

2.

3.

4.

().

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

The Offensive

Marxism-Leninism on War and Army

Scientific-Technical Progress and

The Revolution in Military Affairs

The Basic Principles of Operational Art and

Tactics

The Philosophical Heritage of V. I. Lenin and

Problems of Contemporary War

Concept, Algorithm, Decision

Military Pedagogy

Military Psychology

Dictionary of Basic Military Terms

Civil Defense

Selected Soviet Military Writings: 1970-1975

The Armed Forces of the Soviet State

SOVIET.

MILITÄR

THOUGHi

No. i: