Children’s Bureau/ACYF/ACF/HHS

800.394.3366 | Email: info@childwelfare.gov | https://www.childwelfare.gov

ISSUE BRIEF

April 2015

Immigration and Child 

Welfare

WHAT’S INSIDE

Immigration and child 

welfare: Then and now 

Working with immigrant 

children and families 

Culturally competent 

practice 

Trauma-informed 

practice 

Conclusion 

Resources

References

The strengths and skills immigrants bring to 

the United States help weave the rich tapestry 

of a diverse and innovative society. As people 

continue to seek better lives and opportunities 

by coming to this country, topics surrounding 

immigration are increasingly becoming a 

part of the national conversation, including in 

the field of child welfare. Immigrant families 

involved with child welfare may face a number 

of particular issues. These can include legal 

barriers to accessing services; child trauma 

resulting from difficult immigration or refugee 

experiences, extended separation from 

parents, or a parent’s detention/deportation 

by immigration authorities; acculturation and 

language issues; and more. In order for child 

welfare professionals to provide the most 

useful and culturally competent services to 

immigrant families, it is important that they 

are aware of these issues and how they can 

impact service delivery. To that end, this issue 

brief addresses child welfare’s work with 

immigrant children and families; examines 

current issues related to immigration and child 

welfare; provides examples of programs and 

promising practices; and points to resources 

for professionals, families, and youth. 
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

2

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.

Immigration and Child Welfare: 

Then and Now

To gain an overall perspective of the issues involved, it 

can be helpful for child welfare and related professionals 

to know how interactions between child welfare 

and immigration have evolved over time. In order to 

best serve immigrant families today, professionals 

should be aware of how current child welfare and 

immigration issues can intersect and of key legislation 

and directives that can impact child welfare practice.

A Brief History of Child Welfare 

and Immigration

Since its inception in 1912, the U.S. Department 

of Health and Human Services’ (HHS’s) Children’s 

Bureau has worked to ensure children and families 

have the support and resources they need to better 

their lives. Often, this mission has included programs 

specifically for immigrant children. From pioneering 

activities in the 1920s that provided nutrition literature 

translated into numerous languages, to programs 

for unaccompanied children evacuated from Europe 

during World War II, to assistance for unaccompanied 

Cuban refugee children fleeing the Castro regime (HHS, 

2013) in the 1960s, the Children’s Bureau navigated the 

changing waters of child welfare to provide services 

for immigrant and refugee families and children. 

Throughout the subsequent decades, the field of social 

work and child welfare continued to work toward more 

inclusive practices and policies, with an ever-increasing 

emphasis on the importance of cultural awareness, 

the need for cultural competency training, and the 

recruitment of minorities into the field (Tannenbaum 

& Reisch, 2001). Today, child welfare workers face 

many of the same—as well as some new—challenges 

in helping immigrant children and their families.

Child Welfare and Immigration Today

The latest data released by the American Community 

Survey, an annual national survey conducted by 

the U.S. Census Bureau, estimates that there were 

40.8 million immigrants in the United States in 2012 

(Nwosu, Batalova, & Auclair, 2014). According to the 

Annie E. Casey Foundation’s Kids Count Data Center, 

approximately 17.8 million children in the United States, 

or about 24 percent of children, live in a home with at 

least one immigrant parent.1

1 Kids Count Data Center. (2013). Children by family nativity. The Annie 

E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved from http://datacenter.kidscount.org/

data/Tables/115-children-by-family-nativity?loc=1&loct=1#detailed/1/

any/true/868/any/445

 However, of the children 

living with at least one immigrant parent, approximately 

15.8 million (or 89 percent) are U.S. citizens.2

2 Kids Count Data Center. (2014). Children in immigrant families 

who are U.S. citizens. The Annie E. Casey Foundation. Retrieved 

from http://datacenter.kidscount.org/data/tables/5921-children-inimmigrant-families-who-are-us-citizens?loc=1&loct=1#detailed/1/any/

false/868,867,133,38,35/any/12547,12548

The data available about immigrant families in child 

welfare are limited because information about child 

welfare’s interactions with these families is not regularly 

collected at State or national levels. The National 

Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW), 

a nationwide longitudinal survey of children and 

families who have been investigated by Child Protective 

Services (CPS), provides some data about immigrant 

families. While the overall rate of maltreatment 

did not differ significantly between immigrant and 

nonimmigrant families, immigrant children were found 

to be more likely to suffer from emotional abuse, while 

nonimmigrant children were found more likely to suffer 

from physical neglect (Dettlaff & Earner, 2012).

The presence of certain risk and protective factors also 

differed sharply between immigrant and nonimmigrant 

families. Immigrant families tended to have a higher 

poverty rate than U.S.-born families because they 

often work low-wage jobs due to factors such as a lack 

of proficiency in English or a lower level of education 

(Lincroft & Dettlaff, 2010). However, they were also less 

likely to access services that could help alleviate some 
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

3

poverty-related stressors due to several factors (e.g., 

lack of eligibility due to immigration or legal status, 

fear that accessing services might bring a lack of legal 

status to authorities’ attention) (Finno-Velasquez, 2014). 

Immigrants are also often referred to services for which 

they may not actually be eligible (Finno-Velasquez, 2014). 

Relevant Legislation and Policies

There are several Federal laws and other policies 

that can affect immigrant families’ eligibility for and 

access to public services. Child welfare professionals 

who work with immigrant families should be aware 

of the potential impact of these laws and policies 

on their cases. Some key legislation, policies, and 

directives that child welfare professionals working with 

immigrant families should know about are below.

Federal Child Welfare Legislation

The Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) of 1997 

prioritizes the reunification of families when it is in the 

best interest of the child and requires that jurisdictions 

make reasonable efforts to promote reunification. 

Immigrant families are entitled to receive reunification 

services; however, certain provisions of the Act may create 

barriers to reunification in cases involving undocumented 

immigrant families (Wessler, 2011). For example, States 

are required to initiate termination of parental rights 

proceedings after a child has been in foster care 15 of 

the previous 22 months, with some exceptions. States 

are able to begin these proceedings before 22 months 

if it is determined that a parent is not complying with 

the family’s reunification plan (Wessler, 2011). This can 

be problematic for some immigrant parents because 

their situations may make it more difficult to comply 

with reunification plan requirements (e.g., parents who 

are not English proficient may not have ready access to 

services in their language of origin). Learn about ASFA’s 

major provisions on Information Gateway at https://www.

childwelfare.gov/topics/systemwide/laws-policies/federal/

search/?CWIGFunctionsaction=federallegislation:main.

getFedLedgDetail&id=4.

The Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing 

Adoptions Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-351) requires title 

IV-E agencies to identify and notify all adult relatives 

of a child, within 30 days of the child’s removal, of the 

relatives’ options to become a placement resource for 

the child. This should include adult relatives residing 

in the United States and in other countries (Park, 2014). 

Learn more at https://www.childwelfare.gov/topics/

systemwide/laws-policies/federal/fosteringconnections/.

The Multiethnic Placement Act of 1994 (P.L. 103-382) 

prohibits State and federally funded entities from delaying, 

denying, or otherwise discriminating when making 

a foster care or adoption placement decision on the 

basis of the parent or child’s race, color, or national 

origin. Learn more at https://www.childwelfare.

gov/topics/systemwide/laws-policies/federal/

search/?CWIGFunctionsaction=federallegislation:main.

getFedLedgDetail&id=46.

Other Policies and Directives

The Facilitating Parental Interests in the Course of 

Civil Immigration Enforcement Activities Directive 

(Parental Interests Directive). This directive was issued 

by Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) in 2013 for 

cases involving detained immigrant parents, guardians, 

or primary caretakers of minor children to encourage fair 

and humane enforcement of immigration laws while taking 

into account the rights and responsibilities of the detained 

parents and guardians. To read an overview of the directive, 

visit the ICE website at https://www.ice.gov/about/offices/

enforcement-removal-operations/parental-directive.htm.

Federal Executive Actions on Immigration. Immigration 

policies and legislation have been much debated in 

recent years, and immigration policies and procedures 

can often change. These changes can and recently 

have included Executive Actions regarding immigration 

policies and programs, such as Deferred Action for 

Childhood Arrivals, which allows deferred action from 

deportation for certain unauthorized immigrants who came 

to the United States as children. For more information 

onrecent Executive Actions, visit http://www.uscis.gov/

immigrationaction or http://www.adminrelief.org. 

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

4

Special Immigrant Juvenile Status. An immigration classification under Federal law, Special Immigrant Juvenile Status 

aims to help abused, abandoned, or neglected immigrant children who are unable to be reunited with their parents stay 

safely in the United States. To learn about eligibility and stipulations, visit http://www.uscis.gov/green-card/specialimmigrant-juveniles/special-immigrant-juveniles-sij-status.

Federal Task Force to Strengthen Communities

In November 2014, President Obama created the White House Task Force on New Americans (Task Force). The 

goal of this interagency body—representing 16 Federal departments, agencies, and White House offices— 

is to strengthen Federal efforts toward the civic, economic, and linguistic integration of refugees and immigrants 

to the United States. Learn more about the Task Force by reading the White House factsheet Strengthening 

Communities by Welcoming all Residents and Promoting Immigrant and Refugee Integration (https://www.

whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/04/15/fact-sheet-strengthening-communities-welcoming-all-residents-andpromoti) and visiting the White House’s website for the New Americans Project (https://www.whitehouse.gov/

issues/immigration/new-americans). Read the Task Force’s outline for Federal strategic goals in Strengthening 

Communities by Welcoming All Residents: A Federal Strategic Action Plan on Immigrant and Refugee Integration

(https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/final_tf_newamericans_report_4-14-15_clean.pdf). 

The Children’s Bureau published an Information Memorandum encouraging child welfare agencies and related 

professionals to work closely with immigrant families with parents who are at risk or in the process of detention 

and/or deportation to help ensure their safety, stability, and well-being. Learn more about the Children’s Bureau’s 

recommendations regarding working with detained or deported parents, the ICE Parental Interests Directive, 

Special Immigrant Juvenile Status, unaccompanied immigrant minors, workforce and provider competence 

development, and more by reading ACYF-CB-IM-15-02: Case Planning and Service Delivery for Families 

With Parents and Legal Guardians Who Are Detained or Deported by ImmigrationEnforcement, accessible 

at http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/resource/im-15-02.

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

5

Working With Immigrant Children 

and Families

The following section addresses a number of factors 

that affect how child welfare and related professionals 

work with immigrant children and families. These 

include recognizing the strengths and challenges of 

immigrant families, issues within child welfare agencies, 

issues in working with immigration enforcement, and 

available services. This section also provides some 

examples of successful programs and practices.

Strengths of Immigrant Families

The act of emigrating,3

3 To “emigrate” means to leave a country or region to live in another 

country or region; to “immigrate” means to come into a country or 

region in order to live there. 

1

of leaving behind home, 

friends, family, and community, requires immigrant 

families to have a willingness to work through 

challenges and a determination to make a better 

life. These traits are reflected in a number of 

strengths often found in immigrant families:

 A strong work ethic 

 An emphasis on education and its importance for 

children 

 An emphasis and reliance on family (children of 

immigrant families often live near or in households with 

extended family members who can help with child care 

or offer other supports [Shields & Behrman, 2004]) 

Challenges Faced by Immigrant Families

Even with the help and support of friends and 

family, starting life in a new country can be 

daunting. Along with the everyday stresses of 

family life, immigrant families face additional 

challenges that may cause a great deal of stress:

 Many families are not able to migrate together. For 

example, one parent may come over first to find 

work and establish a situation in which bringing the 

rest of the family would be more feasible. These 

transnational families may deal with long periods of 

time, often years, in which parents and their children 

are separated. 

 If the family is able to reunite in the United States, they 

may have difficulty settling into new family dynamics 

and roles. 

 Language barriers can make it difficult for parents 

to find a job and access services and for children to 

excel in their studies. Language can also cause family 

conflict if the children learn English faster than their 

parents. 

 Some families may be fleeing dangerous or violent 

situations in their home countries, and they often face 

trauma-related issues that, if not addressed, may cause 

further stress in their daily lives. 

Issues Within Child Welfare Agencies

There are several common systemic issues agencies 

often face when working with immigrant families. The 

following describes some of the more prevalent ones.

Child welfare workers and attorneys may be 

unfamiliar with immigration issues, policy, and 

enforcement. A lack of understanding regarding 

barriers faced by immigrants can cause professionals 

to create case plans that some families may not be 

able to complete. Undocumented immigrant parents 

may find it difficult or impossible to access needed 

services due to their legal status or language barriers. If 

they have been detained or deported, undocumented 

parents may not be able to complete the requirements 

for reunification as outlined in their case plan, such 

as visiting with their children or completing required 

parenting classes. A lack of understanding regarding 

reasons a parent might be detained or deported (e.g., 

assumptions of criminal activity vs. simple immigration 

issues) can affect the way a child welfare professional 

views the detained or deported parent, which in turn 

can impact the way the case is treated (Wessler, 2011).

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

6

Child welfare agencies may be reluctant to consider 

placing a child in kinship care if the family members 

are undocumented. Agencies may not realize that it is 

indeed permissible to place a child with undocumented 

kin. The frequent result is the unnecessary placement 

of a child in nonrelative foster care, even when there are 

family members willing to care for him or her (Wessler, 

2011). Immigrant children who remain in nonrelative 

foster care for long periods of time can struggle with a 

loss of cultural identity and language of origin, which 

can bring up issues of cultural conflict within families 

and make the reunification process more difficult. To 

view examples of policies and procedures for placing 

children with undocumented kin, visit the California Child 

Welfare Indicators Project at http://cssr.berkeley.edu/ucb_

childwelfare/lpac/Resources.aspx?topic=3&subTopic=22.

Child welfare agencies may not have in place 

adequate policies or procedures for reuniting children 

with deported parents (Wessler, 2011). International 

reunification options are often not considered when 

there is no clear policy to do so because of worker and/

or agency biases against placing children, particularly 

U.S.-citizen children, abroad (Wessler, 2011). Agencies 

may cite a lack of supervisory control when reunification 

efforts and case plans must be carried out at a distance 

(Wessler, 2011). However, with the involvement of the 

foreign country’s consulate, reunification between 

deported parents and their children in the United 

States is possible. Consulates can help agencies locate 

deported parents, help parents access the necessary 

services in their country, help coordinate home studies, 

and more (Wessler, 2011). Find sample memorandums 

of understanding (MOUs) between U.S. public child 

welfare agencies and foreign consulates as well as other 

examples of State documents for working with immigrant 

and transnational families on the California Child Welfare 

Indicators Project website (http://cssr.berkeley.edu/ucb_

childwelfare/lpac/Resources.aspx?topic=3&subTopic=20) 

and via the Center on Immigration and Child Welfare, 

formerly the Migration and Child Welfare National 

Network (http://cimmcw.org/state-specific-resources/).

Unaccompanied Immigrant Minors

There has been an increase in the number of 

unaccompanied minor immigrant children (also known 

as unaccompanied alien children) fleeing situations of 

violence, poverty, and abuse in their home countries 

(mainly from Mexico and Central America). According to 

the Homeland Security Act of 2002, an unaccompanied 

alien child is a child who “has no lawful immigration 

status in the United States, has not attained 18 years 

of age, and who has no parent or legal guardian in 

the United States, or no parent or legal guardian 

in the United States available to provide care and 

physical custody.”41

4 Neal, D. L. (2007). Operating Policies and Procedures Memorandum 

07-01: Guidelines for Immigration Court Cases Involving Unaccompanied 

Alien Children. U.S. Department of Justice, Executive Office for 

Immigration Review. Retrieved from http://www.justice.gov/eoir/efoia/

ocij/oppm07/07-01.pdf

Unaccompanied children brought 

to the attention of U.S. authorities are placed in the 

custody of the HHS Office of Refugee Resettlement 

(http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/programs/ucs/

about), and they are assessed for placement according 

to their needs while their legal cases are reviewed 

(Center on Immigration and Child Welfare, n.d.). 

These children may be eligible for immigrant relief 

options such as Special Immigrant Juvenile Status, 

asylum, U visas for crime victims, or T visas for victims of 

human trafficking (Catholic Legal Immigration Network, 

Inc. [CLINIC], n.d.). However, as they are not entitled to 

receive government-funded legal assistance, many of 

these children face their immigration proceedings without 

legal representation in court. For more information, visit 

the Center on Immigration and Child Welfare at http://

cimmcw.org/unaccompanied-children/. To learn about 

finding and providing appropriate legal services to 

unaccompanied immigrant minors, see CLINIC’s online 

Toolkit for Working With Unaccompanied Children 

(https://cliniclegal.org/resources/unaccompanied-migrantchildren-toolkit) and the American Bar Association’s 

ProBAR Children’s Project (http://www.americanbar.org/

groups/public_services/immigration/projects_initiatives/

south_texas_pro_bono_asylum_representation_project_

probar/immigrant_childrensassistanceprojecticap.html).

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

7

Services for Immigrant Families

Like many other families, some immigrant families may 

need health, behavioral/mental health, legal, or education 

services or even child welfare services. A number of 

Federal laws are applicable in determining what services 

are available and required. However, mandating services 

and ensuring that families receive them can be two 

different things. There are several reasons why immigrant 

families may not access the services they need.

 Eligibility for certain services, such as employment 

assistance, can vary according to jurisdiction, both for 

documented and undocumented immigrants (FinnoVelasquez, 2014). Services based on federally defined 

requirements, such as housing assistance, are much 

more restrictive (Finno-Velasquez, 2014). 

 Immigrant families may be afraid that accessing 

services will bring them to the attention of immigration 

enforcement personnel (Finno-Velasquez, 2014). 

 Language barriers also make it difficult for immigrants 

to access services. 

Just as there are many factors that may limit immigrant 

families’ ability to access the helpful services they need, 

there are also many factors that can help determine 

an immigrant family’s eligibility for services.

Child Welfare Services: What Works 

There are many ways for child welfare systems and 

programs to work toward improving immigrant families’ 

access to necessary services. Below are examples 

of State and local initiatives aimed at promoting 

immigrant child and family well-being through a 

focus on systemic improvements, family reunification 

efforts, parenting skills education, health-care access, 

and more. For more examples of promising and 

evidence-based strategies, visit the California Child 

Welfare Indicators Project at http://cssr.berkeley.edu/

ucb_childwelfare/lpac/Resources.aspx?topic=2.

California’s Reuniting Immigrant Families Act 

(SB1064) prioritizes keeping families that have been 

impacted by the immigration system together. The bill 

provides an extended family reunification period for 

detained or deported parents, prohibits the exclusion 

of kinship placements based on immigration status, 

requires child welfare agencies to determine if a 

child is eligible for any immigrant relief, and requires 

State agencies to produce guidance on creating 

MOUs with foreign consulates (Lincroft, 2013). For 

more information, visit http://www.sb1064.org/. 

Collaborative Partnerships to Enhance the WellBeing of Foreign-Born Children in New York City is 

a collaboration between New York City’s Administration 

for Children’s Services (ACS) and immigrant advocacy 

groups that seeks to promote culturally competent and 

accessible public child welfare services. The program 

focuses on creating systemic changes to improve services 

for immigrants via training for ACS staff on issues 

faced by immigrant families; instructions for finding an 

appropriate interpreter; the creation of a handbook 

covering topics such as immigration status, child welfare 

agency policy on immigrant eligibility, and resources for 

immigrant families; and improved data collection. Learn 

more via Bridging Refugee Youth and Children’s Services 

(BRYCS) at http://www.brycs.org/promisingpractices/

promising-practices-program.cfm?docnum=0036.

Intercountry Home Studies, administered by the 

International Social Service-United States of America 

Branch, Inc. (ISS-USA), uses State, county, and private 

funding to assist U.S. and foreign child welfare 

systems in making placement decisions for children in 

care. In collaboration with foreign partners, ISS-USA 

helps gather information and assess national and 

international placement options and provides the 

information to the relevant court systems to ensure 

children are placed in the best and most beneficial 

environment, wherever that may be. Learn more via 

BRYCS at http://www.brycs.org/promisingpractices/

promising-practices-program.cfm?docnum=0071. 

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

8

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ 

Office of Minority Health (OMH) funded a National 

Umbrella Cooperative Agreement grant in 2012 to 

promote collaboration between organizations and 

Federal agencies. Migrant Health Promotion, Inc., 

one of its grantees, provides training and technical 

assistance to community-based organizations and 

health departments to help improve underserved Texas 

migrant workers’ access to health care via Community 

Health Worker programs. To read about the project, 

visit OMH’s website at http://minorityhealth.hhs.

gov/omh/content.aspx?ID=9653&lvl=2&lvlid=51.

Yakima Valley Farm Workers Clinic is a local 

program in Washington State that provides Spanishlanguage parenting education classes to low-income 

migrant families. Funded by a Children’s Bureau 

discretionary grant, the classes aim to help parents 

develop nonpunitive discipline skills, improve family 

and community protective factors, promote family 

communication, and show how programs serving 

children and families can work together. Learn 

more at http://friendsnrc.org/tribal-and-migrantgrantees. Read about the clinic’s previous grantfunded activities on Information Gateway at https://

www.childwelfare.gov/topics/management/funding/

funding-sources/federal-funding/cb-funding/

cbreports/tribal/yakima/#tab=summary. 

Other Services

Health Care

Many provisions of the Patient Protection and 

Affordable Care Act (P.L. 111-148) and Health Care and 

Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-152), more 

commonly known as the Affordable Care Act (ACA), 

significantly impact immigrant children and families 

and the health-care services they are eligible to receive. 

Provisions require most U.S. citizens, legal permanent 

residents, refugees, and documented immigrants to 

have at least minimal health insurance coverage and 

stipulate that legal permanent residents and refugees 

shall have the same benefits as U.S. citizens (Dawes, 

Rider, & Lambert, 2013). However, certain immigrant 

populations (e.g., undocumented immigrants, 

undocumented immigrant children granted Deferred 

Action for Childhood Arrivals status) will not have access 

to federally funded public services or be eligible to 

purchase health-care coverage through the insurance 

exchanges (Dawes, Rider, & Lambert, 2013). For more 

information on how the ACA affects different immigrant 

populations, visit the National Immigration Law Center 

website at http://www.nilc.org/ACAfacts.html. 

Education

All children residing in the United States, regardless 

of their legal status, can receive free public education 

from kindergarten through grade 12. In 2014, the U.S. 

Department of Justice issued guidance for public 

school districts that reiterates districts’ obligation to 

ensure equal education opportunities are available to all 

children, regardless of race, national origin, citizenship, 

or legal status or that of their parents (U.S. Department 

of Justice, 2014). To access the documents (available in 

English, Spanish, and Korean) visit the Department of 

Justice website at http://www.justice.gov/crt/about/edu/

documents/plyler.php. To learn more about immigrants 

and access to education, including access and barriers to 

postsecondary education, read First Focus’ brief Access 

to Education: Challenges and Opportunities for Immigrant 

Students at http://firstfocus.net/resources/report/accesseducation-challenges-opportunities-immigrant-students/. 

Culturally Competent Practice

Differences in cultural perspectives and attitudes, both 

on the part of child welfare workers and of immigrant 

families, can significantly affect how issues are treated 

by both parties, as well as case and family outcomes. 

Therefore, it is important that child welfare systems 

and professionals work toward incorporating cultural 

competence into their practices and policies.

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

9

Agency Culture

A culturally competent agency is one that can effectively 

respond to the needs of all its clients—regardless of 

their race, ethnicity, culture, sexual orientation, faith, 

or class—while being respectful of clients’ diverse 

backgrounds, valuing their cultural experiences, and 

integrating their unique strengths into service plans. 

In order for culturally competent practices and 

policies to be effective, they must be implemented 

and supported at the organizational level. A recent 

research brief from HHS’s Office of Planning, Research 

and Evaluation (OPRE) proposes a framework that 

illustrates how a culturally competent organizational 

climate can impact the cultural competence of staff 

and service providers, programs, and services (Calzada 

& Suarez-Balcazar, 2014). The brief outlines a number 

of concrete strategies agencies can use to promote 

cultural competence, such as providing staff training, 

collaborating with organizations and stakeholders within 

cultural communities, promoting discussions about 

effective practices for working with diverse clients, and 

taking part in self-assessment procedures (Calzada & 

Suarez-Balcazar, 2014). Access the brief at http://www.

acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/resource/enhancing-culturalcompetence-in-social-service-agencies-a-promisingapproach-to-serving-diverse-children-and-families. 

Agencies’ practices can follow a similar path and 

include efforts to learn about and apply styles of 

communication that are more sensitive to cultural 

preferences. The following are examples:

 Communicate in person instead of via email because 

some families may value a face-to-face encounter over 

a more impersonal electronic message, or they may 

not have easy access to a computer or the Internet 

(Calzada & Suarez-Balcazar, 2014).

 Recruit and promote minority and bilingual staff, 

engage in community outreach efforts, provide 

educational materials in different languages and at 

appropriate reading levels, and ensure that trained 

and culturally competent translators/interpreters are 

available (Calzada & Suarez-Balcazar, 2014).

 Include members of a child’s extended family in 

meetings and discussions, as many immigrant groups 

consider family members that are outside of the 

traditional “core” family just as important to their 

family dynamics (Calzada & Suarez-Balcazar, 2014).

 Use approaches that include and center on the 

family, such as family group decision-making (FGDM). 

Find information on cultural competence in familycentered practice, including State and local examples, 

on the website for Information Gateway at https://www.

childwelfare.gov/topics/systemwide/cultural/services/

famcentered/.

Worker Biases

For child welfare professionals, cultural competence can 

mean learning to recognize and overcome attitudes and 

perceptions they as individuals may hold that could affect 

how they work with clients. It is important for workers 

to be aware of how cultural differences can affect their 

cases and the need to allow space for cultural adaptation. 

Different cultures can have widely varied beliefs about 

parenting practices and what constitutes child abuse and 

neglect. Kinship structures can also vary greatly, and it 

is important for professionals to be aware of traditional 

family structures and expectations. For example, in some 

cultures grandparents may play a larger role in family 

decisions, or parents may have different expectations 

of their children (e.g., traditionally, children may be 

expected to take on roles that are more mature than what 

is usually expected of children in the United States).

Child welfare professionals need also be aware of the 

feelings and perceptions that immigrant families may 

have toward child welfare services. Families may feel 

uncomfortable discussing personal issues with someone 

who is unfamiliar with their customs or beliefs. There 

may be a fear or mistrust of authority figures (particularly 

among refugees from violent or oppressive situations or 

undocumented immigrants), or cultural mores or taboos 

may exist that define what is and is not considered 

appropriate (e.g., regarding kinds of physical contact, such 

as handshakes, and particularly in terms of gender roles). 

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

10

Professionals who work with immigrant families can 

work toward cultural competence by learning about 

the cultures in the communities they serve and working 

with families to ensure quality services. The following 

are examples (Calzada & Suarez-Balcazar, 2014):

 Take part in awareness trainings and think about 

how personal biases may be affecting the work at 

hand. Links to courses that aim to promote cultural 

competency are provided in the Training section (page 

11) of this issue brief.

 Learn from families by asking questions about 

how to best work together in a respectful way (e.g., 

preferences for communication and how family 

members are addressed; individual family’s beliefs, 

practices, and values). 

 Adapt services to times and locations that are 

more comfortable for families and convenient to 

their schedules; find ways to alleviate barriers so that 

families can attend necessary services (e.g., childcare, 

family meals).

 Include aspects of the family’s culture and 

values into services (e.g., family-centered programs; 

programs, classes, and materials in families’ language 

of origin).

The Hmong Child and Family Team Meetings 

program, administered by North Carolina’s 

Catawba County Social Services, Family 

and Children’s Services Division, and the 

United Hmong Association of North Carolina, 

implemented a strength-based, family- and 

community-centered approach called Child 

and Family Team (CFT) meetings to help local 

agencies work with Hmong families. Based 

on a model of FGDM, the program found that 

the values emphasized by the CFT approach 

were similar to traditional Hmong family and 

community values, which helped workers build 

a more trusting and collaborative relationship 

with the families. Learn more via BRYCS at http://

www.brycs.org/promisingpractices/promisingpractices-program.cfm?docnum=0043. 

Language Issues

Language issues can significantly impact immigrant 

families’ access to services, as well as successful 

interventions on behalf of child welfare and related 

professionals. Limited English proficient parents 

and families can have difficulty communicating 

with staff that only speak English, and vice versa. 

This can lead to miscommunications between 

families and service providers, and it can also 

impact legal proceedings and family dynamics. 

Because young children generally learn new languages 

more easily than adults, and immigrant children have 

access to full English-language immersion in schools, 

children in limited English proficient immigrant families 

tend to acculturate faster than their parents and 

are many times the first in their families to become 

proficient in English. These children are often put in 

the position of having to be their parents’ interpreter; 

this is sometimes known as “language brokering” (Hua 

& Costigan, 2012). The practice of language brokering 

can have unintended psychological effects on the child 

as well as on the parent-child relationship. Language 

brokering can cause a child to feel great pressure to 

correctly relay information, and it can sometimes upset 

traditional views of familial hierarchical structures if 

the child is placed in decision-making positions on 

behalf of his or her parents (Hua & Costigan, 2012).

The kinds of issues that can involve a family with 

child welfare are often difficult and traumatic. In 

light of this, children should never be asked to serve 

as interpreters for their parents in any type of child 

welfare setting (BRYCS, 2009). Agencies should make 

an effort to hire bilingual and bicultural staff that can 

work with families, or ensure that professional and 

knowledgeable interpreters are available for a variety of 

languages. Agencies can also make an effort to provide 

written materials for families in various languages.

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

11

Training

When staff work in an environment that actively fosters 

cultural awareness, they can develop the knowledge 

and skills to better serve a diverse client base (Calzada 

& Suarez-Balcazar, 2014). Below are some examples of 

trainings and guidance to promote cultural competency.

Child Welfare Training Curricula for Staff 

Working With Refugees and Immigrants, on 

the BRYCS website, offers a number of training 

options from various organizations and States. 

http://www.brycs.org/clearinghouse/HighlightedResources-Child-Welfare-Training-Curricula-for-StaffWorking-with-Refugees-and-Immigrants.cfm 

Culture and Parenting: A Guide for Delivering 

Parenting Curriculums to Diverse Families, from 

the University of California Cooperative Extension, 

helps practitioners evaluate the cultural sensitivity 

of their family programs and services and provides 

guidance on creating culturally sensitive parenting 

programs. http://www.joe.org/joe/2006august/tt5.php 

Culturally Competent Practice With Latino Families,

from Georgia’s Division of Family and Children’s 

Services, introduces the basic concepts of culturally 

competent practice and specific skills and knowledge 

for culturally competent practice with Latino families. 

http://dhr.state.ga.us/sites/dfcs.dhs.georgia.gov/files/

imported/DHR-DFCS/DHR_DFCS-Edu/Files/Latino%20

Module%201%20participant%20guide%204-25-07.pdf

Evidence-Based Practice in Child Welfare in 

the Context of Cultural Competence, from 

the University of Minnesota’s School of Social 

Work, offers six online training modules on issues 

related to cultural competence, child welfare, and 

evidence-based practice. http://www.cehd.umn.

edu/ssw/G-S/EBP-CC_Modules/index.html 

Expanding the Family Circle, from the School of Social 

Welfare at the University at Albany, New York State, offers 

six modules addressing the vital concepts of cultural 

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.

competence and how to integrate them into practice 

and everyday life. This training was developed through 

a Children’s Bureau Child Welfare Training grant. http://

www.albany.edu/ssw/efc/about-the-training.html

Trauma-Informed Practice 

Immigrant families may suffer from trauma-related 

issues for a number of reasons. There are aspects of 

the immigration process itself that can be very difficult 

for children and families to manage. Immigrants must 

leave behind family, social networks, and traditional 

support systems; upon arrival in the new country, 

they must learn a new language and culture. Some 

families face additional challenges during their 

immigration experiences that can cause stress and 

trauma. Sometimes, family members must immigrate 

separately. These families often face long periods of 

separation, or family members who were left behind may 

continue being exposed to the violent or dangerous 

situations that made the family want to emigrate. Family 

separation due to immigrant parent detention and/

or deportation can also be incredibly traumatic for a 

child who may already be struggling with the stresses 

of immigration (Wessler, 2011). Even when families are 

able to emigrate from harmful situations and reunite 

with separated loved ones, the impact of the traumas 

they suffered can continue to cause stress and conflict.

To help immigrant families deal with trauma, child 

welfare agencies and related professionals can familiarize 

themselves with and implement evidence-based, 

trauma-informed practices. Trauma-informed systems 

and practices focus on strategies that take the impact 

of trauma on child development into consideration and 

strive to minimize its effects without causing additional 

trauma. One evidence-based treatment approach 

that can be implemented with traumatized immigrant 

children and families is trauma-focused cognitive 

behavioral therapy (TF-CBT). This approach has been 

shown to help children, adolescents, and caregivers 

overcome trauma-related difficulties and reduce 

negative emotional and behavioral responses following 

child sexual abuse, domestic violence, traumatic loss, 
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

12

and other traumatic events. It incorporates elements 

of several therapeutic approaches and provides 

comprehensive treatment for the entire family. 

A flexible approach that can be modified to fit families’ 

needs, TF-CBT has successfully been adapted and used 

to help manage symptoms such posttraumatic stress 

disorder in children from diverse cultures (National 

Child Traumatic Stress Network, 2004). For more 

information on TF-CBT, see Information Gateway’s 

issue brief Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral 

Therapy for Children Affected by Sexual Abuse or 

Trauma (https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/trauma/). 

An approach that has roots in TF-CBT is Culturally 

Modified Trauma-Focused Treatment (CM-TFT). 

Developed for use with Latino children, this approach 

incorporates aspects of Latino cultural concepts into 

its treatment practices. For more information, see the 

National Child Traumatic Stress Network’s factsheet 

on CM-TFT at http://www.nctsnet.org/nctsn_assets/

pdfs/promising_practices/CMTFT_General.pdf. 

Conclusion

Immigrant families possess many strengths and skills that 

have made them an integral part of the United States’ 

social fabric. They have the bravery and dedication to 

leave their countries for the dream of a better life. Like 

all families, however, immigrant families face stresses 

and challenges and sometimes may need child welfare 

services. It is important for child welfare professionals 

to be aware of the particular challenges immigrant 

families can face. These include barriers to services due 

to limited English proficiency, legal status, and other 

cultural factors; a lack of culturally accessible services; 

and issues related to immigration and trauma. With a 

growing national focus on immigration issues such as 

unaccompanied immigrant minors and mixed legal status 

immigrant families, child welfare continues to respond to 

the changing landscape of its field. By focusing on cultural 

competency training, working with immigrant family 

strengths and helping families work through challenges, 

exploring promising practices, and collaborating with 

systems that affect immigrant children and families, child 

welfare systems can help ensure that the health and 

well-being of all children and families remain a priority.

Resources

For Professionals

About Unaccompanied Refugee Minors (Office 

of Refugee Resettlement, HHS) http://www.acf.

hhs.gov/programs/orr/programs/urm/about

Barriers to Immigrants’ Access to Health and Human 

Services Programs (Office of the Assistant Secretary 

for Planning and Evaluation, HHS) http://aspe.hhs.

gov/hsp/11/ImmigrantAccess/Barriers/rb.shtml

Language Access: Translation and Interpretation 

Policies and Practices (Migration Policy Institute) http://

www.migrationpolicy.org/programs/language-accesstranslation-and-interpretation-policies-and-practices 

Noncitizen Youth in the Juvenile Justice System: 

A Guide to Juvenile Detention Reform (Annie E. 

Casey Foundation) http://www.aecf.org/resources/

noncitizen-youth-in-the-juvenile-justice-system/

Resources in Spanish (Child Welfare Information Gateway 

https://www.childwelfare.gov/spanish/#tab=general

Resources on ICE’s Parental Interests Directive (Center 

on Immigration and Child Welfare) http://cimmcw.

org/resources/policy/parental-interest-directive/ 

Self-Assessments (National Center for Cultural 

Competence) http://nccc.georgetown.

edu/resources/assessments.html 

Practice Toolkits for Working With Immigrant Families 

(Center on Immigration and Child Welfare) http://

cimmcw.org/resources/practice/practice-toolkits/ 

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

13

State Policies and Examples (Center on Immigration and 

Child Welfare) http://cimmcw.org/state-specific-resources/ 

For Families and Foster Parents

Niños: A Guide to Help You Protect Your US-Born 

Child in the Event You Are Detained or Deported 

(J. Brent Helms and Legal Services Alabama 

http://www.jdsupra.com/post/documentViewer.

aspx?fid=f929927d-244c-459c-9f8f-bd39cf516f60 

Questions & Answers for States, School Districts, and 

Parents and Community Members (U.S. Department of 

Justice) available in English, Spanish, and Korean: http://

www.justice.gov/crt/about/edu/documents/plyler.php 

Resumen de la Directiva de los Intereses de Padres 

(Overview of the Parental Interests Directive) (Immigration 

and Customs Enforcement [ICE]) 

English: https://www.ice.gov/about/offices/enforcementremoval-operations/parental-directive.htm 

Spanish: https://www.ice.gov/espanol/parentalInterest.htm

What Immigrants and Refugees Need to Know About 

the Affordable Care Act (ACA) (Substance Abuse 

and Mental Health Services Administration) http://

beta.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/immigrantsrefugees-affordable-care-act-with-notes.pdf

For Youth

¡Gradúate! A Financial Aid Guide to Success (¡Gradúate! 

Una guía de ayuda financiera para el éxito) (White House 

Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanics) 

English: http://www.ed.gov/edblogs/hispanic-initiative/

files/2014/04/English_-%C2%A1Grad%C3%BAateFinancial-Aid-Guide-to-Success.pdf 

Spanish: http://www.ed.gov/edblogs/hispanicinitiative/files/2014/04/Spanish.pdf

Keeping Safe: A Teen Bilingual Guide (Cuídense! Una guía 

bilingüe para jóvenes) (BRYCS and HHS) http://www.brycs.

org/documents/upload/teens-bilingual-safety-guide.pdf

Living in the United States: A Guide for Immigrant Youth 

(Vivir en los Estados Unidos: Una guía para jóvenes 

inmigrantes) (Immigrant Legal Resource Center) 

English: http://www.ilrc.org/for-immigrantspara-inmigrantes/living-in-the-us-guide

Spanish: http://www.ilrc.org/para-inmigrantes/

vivir-en-los-estados-unidos-una-gu-a 

United We Dream, DREAM Educational 

Empowerment Program http://unitedwedream.

org/about/projects/education-deep/

References

Bridging Refugee Youth and Children’s Services 

(BRYCS). (2009). Suggestions for interviewing 

immigrant children and families. Retrieved 

from http://www.brycs.org/documents/upload/

BRYCSBrief-Interviewing-Winter2009.pdf

Calzada, E., & Suarez-Balcazar, Y. (2014). Enhancing 

cultural competence in social services agencies: A 

promising approach to serving diverse children and 

families (OPRE Report #2014-31). Washington, DC: 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 

Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/

opre/resource/enhancing-cultural-competencein-social-service-agencies-a-promising-approachto-serving-diverse-children-and-families 

Catholic Legal Immigration Network, Inc. (CLINIC). 

(n.d.). The Impact of Unaccompanied Children 

on Local Communities: Frequently Asked 

Questions. Retrieved from https://cliniclegal.

org/resources/impact-unaccompanied-childrenlocal-communities-frequently-asked-questions

Center on Immigration and Child Welfare. (n.d.). 

Unaccompanied Immigrant Children. Retrieved from 

http://cimmcw.org/unaccompanied-children/

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

14

Dawes, D., Rider, F., & Lambert, L. (2013). Health 

reform and immigrant children, youth, and 

families: Opportunities and challenges for 

advancing behavioral health. Technical Assistance 

Partnership for Child and Family Mental Health. 

Retrieved from http://www.tapartnership.org/

docs/Health_Reform_Immigrant_Children.pdf

Dettlaff, A. J., & Earner, I. (2012). Children of immigrants 

in the child welfare system: Characteristics, risk, 

and maltreatment. Families in Society: The Journal 

of Contemporary Social Services, 93(4), 295–303. 

Finno-Velasquez, M. (2014). Barriers to support service 

use for Latino immigrant families reported to child 

welfare: Implications and practice. Migration and 

Child Welfare National Network & State Policy 

Advocacy and Reform Center. Retrieved from http://

childwelfaresparc.org/brief-barriers-to-supportservice-use-for-latino-immigrant-families-reported-tochild-welfare-implications-for-policy-and-practice/

Hua, J.M., & Costigan, C.L. (2012). The familial 

context of adolescent language brokering 

within immigrant Chinese families in Canada. 

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(7), 

894–906. doi: 10.1007/s10964-011-9682-2

Lincroft, Y. (2013). ‘The Reuniting Immigrant 

Families Act’: A case study on California’s Senate 

Bill 1064. State Policy Advocacy and Reform 

Center. Retrieved from http://cssr.berkeley.

edu/cwscmsreports/LatinoPracticeAdvisory/

LEGAL_State/The%20reuniting%20immigrant%20

families%20act_A%20case%20study.pdf

Lincroft, Y., & Dettlaff, A. (2010). Children of 

immigrants in the U.S. child welfare system.

First Focus. Retrieved from http://cssr.berkeley.

edu/cwscmsreports/LatinoPracticeAdvisory/

Children%20of%20Immigrants%20in%20the%20

US%20Child%20Welfare%20System.pdf

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. (2004). How 

to implement trauma-focused cognitive behavioral 

therapy. Durham, NC and Los Angeles, CA: Author. 

Retrieved from http://www.nctsnet.org/nctsn_assets/

pdfs/TF-CBT_Implementation_Manual.pdf

Nwosu, C., Batalova, J., & Auclair, G. (2014). Frequently 

Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration 

in the United States. Migration Policy Institute. 

Retrieved from http://www.migrationpolicy.

org/article/frequently-requested-statisticsimmigrants-and-immigration-united-states

Park, A. (2014). Keeping immigrant families in 

the child protection system together. ABA 

Child Law Practice, 33(4), 50–51; 54–58.

Shields, M.K., & Behrman, R. E. (2004). Children of 

immigrant families: Analysis and recommendations. 

The Future of Children, 14(2). Retrieved from 

http://www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/

publications/journals/article/index.

xml?journalid=39&articleid=123§ionid=807

Tannenbaum, N., & Reisch, M. (2001). From charitable 

volunteers to architects of social welfare: A brief 

history of social work. Ongoing Magazine, Fall 

2001 Issue, 6–11. Retrieved from http://ssw.umich.

edu/about/history/brief-history-of-social-work 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 

Administration for Children and Families, 

Administration on Children, Youth and Families, 

Children’s Bureau. (2013). The Children’s Bureau 

legacy: Ensuring the right to childhood. Retrieved 

from http://cb100.acf.hhs.gov/CB_ebook 

U.S. Department of Justice. (2014). Dear Colleague 

Letter on the Rights of All Children to Enroll in 

Public Schools. Retrieved from http://www.justice.

gov/crt/about/edu/documents/plyler.php

This material may be freely reproduced and distributed. However, when doing so, please credit Child Welfare Information 

Gateway. This publication is available online at https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/issue-briefs/immigration/.
Immigration and Child Welfare https://www.childwelfare.gov

Wessler, S.F. (2011). Shattered families: The perilous 

intersection of immigration enforcement and 

the child welfare system. Applied Research 

Center. Retrieved from https://www.raceforward.

org/research/reports/shattered-families

Suggested citation: 

Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2015). Immigration 

and child welfare. Washington, DC: U.S. Department 

of Health and Human Services, Children’s Bureau.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services 

Administration for Children and Families 

Administration on Children, Youth and Families 

Children’s Bureau