National Bureau of Standards

Library, N.W. Bldg

NOV 2 6 1963

luuccd ^lote 174

RESEARCH ON CRYSTAL GROWTH

AND DEFECT CHARACTERIZATION

AT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DURING THE PERIOD JULY TO DECEMBER 1962

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Functions and Activities

The functions of the National Bureau of Standards are set forth in the Act of Congress,

March 3, 1901, as amended by Congress in Public Law 619, 1950. These include the development and maintenance of the national standards of measurement and the provision of means

and methods for making measurements consistent with these standards; the determination of

physical constants and properties of materials; the development of methods and instruments

for testing materials, devices, and structures; advisory services to government agencies on

scientific and technical problems; invention and development of devices to serve special needs

of the Government; and the development of standard practices, codes, and specifications. The

work includes basic and applied research, development, engineering, instrumentation, testing,

evaluation, calibration services, and various consultation and information services. Research

projects are also performed for other government agencies when the work relates to and supplements the basic program of the Bureau or when the Bureau's unique competence is required.

The scope of activities is suggested by the listing of divisions and sections on the inside of

the back cover.

Publications

The results of the Bureau's research are published either in the Bureau's own series of

publications or in the journals of professional and scientific societies. The Bureau publishes

three periodicals available from the Government Printing Office: The Journal of Research,

published in four separate sections, presents complete scientific and technical papers; the Technical News Bulletin presents summary and preliminary reports on work in progress; and the

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory Ionospheric Predictions provides data for determining

the best frequencies to use for radio communications throughout the world. There are also

five series of nonperiodical publications: Monographs, Applied Mathematics Series, Handbooks,

Miscellaneous Publications, and Technical Notes.

A complete listing of the Bureau's publications can be found in National Bureau of Standards Circular 460, Publications of the National Bureau of Standards, 1901 to June 1947 ($1.25),

and the Supplement to National Bureau of Standards Circular 460, July 1947 to June 1957

($1.50), and Miscellaneous Publication 240, July 1957 to June 1960 (includes Titles of Papers

Published in Outside Journals 1950 to 1959) ($2.25); available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

technical ^ote 774

ISSUED MARCH 15, 1963

RESEARCH ON CRYSTAL GROWTH

AND DEFECT CHARACTERIZATION

AT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DURING THE PERIOD JULY TO DECEMBER 1962

Edited by H. Steffen Peiser

National Bureau of Standards

NBS Technical Notes are designed to supplement the Bureau's regular publications program. They provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes may be

listed or referred to in the open literature.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price 25 cents
Contents

2. Background - - -

3. Description of the Program Area

4. Crystal Growth

Page

1

2

3

4. 1. High-Temperature Crystal Growth -------------------- 3

4. 2. Crystal Growth and Structure Studies on Rutile ------------- 4

4.3. The Growth of Dislocation-Free Metal Crystals from the Melt ------ 4

4.4. Kinetics of Growth of Crystals from the Melt -------------- 4 4.5. Crystal Growth from Solution ---------------------- 5

4. 6. Polymer Crystallization from Concentrated Solutions ---------- 8

4. 7. Crystallization of Polyethylene Fractions -----------____ 8 4.8. Vapor-Phase Growth Kinetics of Potassium Crystals ----------- 8 4.9. Crystal Growth by Electrodeposition ------------------ 10

4. 10. High-Pressure Microscopy to Study Crystal Transformations and Growth - - 10

4. 11. Optical Observation of Pressure-Induced Transitions in Polymers - - - - 10

4. 12. Crystallization of Noble Gases --------------------- 11

4. 13. A Study towards the Growth of Single Crystals of Rare Gases ------ 11

4. 14. Study of Crystal Growth in Vapor Snakes ---------------- 11

4. 15. Growth Kinetics of Crystal Whiskers by Field-Emission Techniques - - - - 11

4. 16. Kinetics of Whisker Evaporation -------------------- 12

4. 17. Theoretical Studies in Whisker Crystal Growth ------------- 12

4 18. Freezing Behavior on Absorbing Surfaces ---------------- 13

4. 19. Growth of Oxide Films on Aluminum Single-Crystal Surfaces ------- 13

4. 20. A Spontaneous Martensitic Transformation ---------------- 14

4. 21. Radio Materials Synthesis ----------------------- 14

Crystal Characterization

5. 1. 5.2.

5.3.

5.4. 5.5.

5.6.

5.7.

5.8.

5.9.

5. 10.

5. 11.

5. 12.

5.13.

5. 14.

5. 15. 5.16.

5. 17. 5.18.

5. 19. 5.20.

5. 21.

5. 22.

5. 23.

5. 24. 5.25.

Thermal and Chemical Etching of Dislocations ------------

The Effect of Point Defects on Dynamic Properties of Crystals - - - Further Studies of Crystal Defects in the Inorganic Solids Division

Evaluation of Radiation Damage in Crystals by Solution Calorimetry - Studies in Solid State Theory -------------------

Improvements in the Measurement of Refractive Indices of Microscopic

Crystals ------------------------------

15

1516

16

17

171718

18

20

20

21

21

Optical-Property Studies in the Inorganic Solids Division ------

Optical-Property Studies in the Solid State Physics Section -----

Activity of the Spectrochemistry Section ---------------

Crystal-Field Studies by Matrix Spectroscopy -------------

Soft X-ray Spectroscopy of the Solid State --------------

The Precise Measurement of X-ray Diffraction Patterns of Powdered

Crystals -------------------------------

High-Voltage Laue X-ray Photography -----------------

Precision Measurement of the Fundamental Electrical Properties of Semiconductor Crystals ------------------------- 22 Electronic Transport -------------------------- 23 Hall-Effect Measurements ------------------------ 23 Dielectric Constant and Losses --------------------- 23 Dielectrimetric Cryoscopy ----------------------- 24 Magnetic-Resonance Studies in the Solid State Physics Section ----- 25 Magnetic-Resonance Studies at the Boulder Laboratories --------- 25 Dilatometric Studies of Polymers -------------------- 26 Field-Emission Studies of the Oxidation of Single-Crystal Metal

. 26

. 26

. 2727

. 27

28

Whiskers -----------------------------.

Surface Structure of Vapor-Grown Cadmium Crystals ---------

Surface Behavior of Silver Single Crystals in Fused Sodium Chloride

The Characterization of Silver Iodide Crystals -----------

6. Information on Crystal Growth and Characterization

7. Partial List of Participants -----------

Literature References ----------------------------- 31

ii
RESEARCH ON CRYSTAL GROWTH AND DEFECT CHARACTERIZATION

AT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DURING THE PERIOD JULY TO DECEMBER 1962

Edited by H. Steffen Peiser

Abstract

The National Bureau of Standards has embarked on a special

program, partly supported by the Advanced Research Projects

Agency, to unify and accelerate its research on the growth and

characterization of crystals. This work will provide theory on

the mechanism of crystal growth, experimental techniques for

growth and study of crystals, interpretive analysis of observations on crystals examined by diverse methods, and data from the

measurement of defect-sensitive properties of crystals. Just as the results of this work are to benefit research and, ultimately,

technology in chemistry, solid-state physics, metallurgy, mineralogy, electronics, and engineering, so the NBS program is most

widely based on collaborative efforts of twelve technical

divisions of the Washington and Boulder Laboratories.

This note describes principally the individual NBS research

activities during July to December 1962 coupled with statements

on the most immediate plans at the end of that period. An introductory section is followed by two other brief general sections

describing the program area and the NBS background interest in the

field of crystal growth and characterization. A list of NBS

publications appertaining to the period under review and a partial

list of participants are appended.

1. INTRODUCTION

A surprising number of major programs in research and technology have in common their

dependence upon the solution of basic material problems in the production and characterization of specific crystals. Yet, there is rather little cross-fertilization in ideas be- tween scientists investigating growth and the characterization of crystals. Many would not regard themselves as crystal specialists at all, but as chemists, physicists, mineralogists,

electronic or mechanical engineers who just happen to face a problem in crystallography

barring their own individual progress.

Aware of the benefits to be expected from a more specialized professional attitude

towards the problems of crystal growth, coupled with the establishment of recognized

channels of dissemination of research information, C. F. Yost, Assistant Director for

Materials Sciences, Advanced Research Projects Agency, has encouraged the initiation of

co-ordinated programs in this field within large research institutions having an established competence in crystal science. In particular, at NBS where the opportunity exists to build upon such competence as well as on a unique and relevant background in precise measurement, he has worked out with I. C. Schoonover, NBS Associate Director, a program for

accelerated research in those areas of crystal research that are judged to be of critical

importance to the entire field of materials research. This NBS/ARPA plan has been accepted

by the two agencies concerned and was put into operation in June 1962.

This report attempts to cover the results of all NBS work on growth and characterization of crystals from July to December 1962. The majority of this research is NBSsupported and, indeed, might have proceeded along precisely the same lines even if the

NBS/ARPA program had not been established. It is true, nevertheless, that the individual

scientists concerned may have appreciated the loose cohesion into a "Crystal Group" through

which informal colloquia have been held; distinguished guest consultants and lecturers have

visited NBS from well-known outside institutions and universities; and current research
papers, considered by R. L. Parker to be of critical significance, have been circulated.

Summaries of many new research projects are included that could not have been started or could not have proceeded at their present speed had it not been for the ARPA financial

support which is hereby acknowledged. Since it is the aim of this report to summarize the

scientific work no further reference will be made to the type of financial support received

for individual projects.

No part of the NBS/ARPA research program is classified. A central reprint file is not

kept, but in most cases reprints can be obtained from the authors. Similar Technical Notes

will be published at six-mcnthly intervals for the duration of this NBS/ARPA research

program.

The editor of this report, H. S. Peiser, besides his principal duties as Crystal

Chemistry Section Chief, acts as co-ordinator of the NBS/ARPA crystal growth and characterization research program. He is pleased at all times to give information about the program

to enquirers from within NBS and also those from outside. Above all he welcomes opportunities of arranging contacts with universities and other research institutions active in this

field, in the U. S. or abroad. Finally he hopes to encourage distinguished scientists

wishing to join our Crystal Group as guests over a period of some months in one of our active projects in which they have a special personal interest.

2. BACKGROUND

When the principal responsibility of the National Bureau of Standards to "provide the

central basis for a complete consistent system of physical measurement adequate for the ex- panding national activity in scientific research" is applied to the materials field in

general and crystals, the most perfectly atomically ordered form of matter, in particular,

there can be no doubt that the highest scientific understanding of the physics and chemistry of materials is required, coupled with an ability to measure material properties. So sensitive, however, is the technologically significant behavior of crystals to minute differences in chemical composition and to occasional departures from perfect regularity in

lattice structure that to fulfill its mission the NBS needs to be at the forefront of

crystal research.

It is no wonder therefore that throughout the technical divisions of the NBS, groups

of scientists have long been engaged in research and measurements on crystals. Perhaps the

best known group, under the leadership of H. F. McMurdie, has developed from the crucial

support it has given to ceramic and glass technologies. Outstanding, too, have been the

contributions of H. C. Vacher ' s group to metallurgical systems. Separate again has been

C. P. Saylor's team that has pursued so successfully the crystal-growth process as a means

for purification of phases. H. F. Stimson in his fundamental studies of drifts in the

triple-point water cell became of necessity interested in crystal growth. His basic aim

was to produce a reliable temperature standard, yet his requirements led him into a difficult problem in thermodynamics of the crystallization process; a problem incidentally that

remains to some extent for further study at NBS.

In this way, one could cite almost thirty groups at NBS which have made significant

crystallographic contributions before the start of the NBS/ARPA program. Most of these were actively engaged in related work at the outset of this program and, evidently, their

work was justifiable under the general NBS mission. Even in the center of our present

program area R. L. Parker had developed the vapor growth technique of growing for instance

potassium single crystals to the point where his experimental results critically differentiated between rival theories of growth mechanisms. Hoffman and Lauritzen had been recognized for their chain-folding theories of polymer crystal growth; and Wachtman had laid the

foundations to his basic theories on the internal-friction effects caused by point defects

in crystals. However, to give examples is almost invidious for the many other instances

left unmentioned. The important point to make here is that under its own mission NBS had

flourishing crystallographic research activities on the successes of which it is the plan

of the NBS/ARPA program to build with the help of the existing staff as well as with new promising participants drawn to NBS by the opportunities now offered.

There is one more point that has to be made, because it is believed to be of great
importance. Much of the research published in crystallography suffers from a lack of careful characterization of samples studied and equally from inadequate accuracy in measurement.

Again, to give an example reference is made to Section 5. 14 of this report. Specific re- sistance is the basic property on which the quality of most semiconductor crystals is sup- posed to be assessed. Yet the measurement techniques used not only lack precision but there

are unexplained inconsistencies that make a uniform measuring system unavailable in a most

important area of modern technology.

If there is any feature that should - and, as we believe, does - describe above all

others research at our national standards institution, it is the interest in really careful

measurements on painstakingly identified objects. It is our aim to apply this attitude to research on crystals.

3. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROGRAM AREA

For the purpose of the NBS/ARPA program it has been helpful to define crystal growth

broadly to include nucleation processes. The size of the crystals has not been a primary

consideration in judging relevance of a project. Moreover, dissolution, the complementary

process to growth, has been included.

The characterization of crystals is defined somewhat narrowly as the detection and

definition of chemical impurities and lattice-structural defects. We tended to exclude

studies of properties characteristic of the phase as such and not sensitive to the presence

of defects or dislocations. Crystal-structure analysis thus is an example of an area which,

though strongly pursued at NBS by S. Block, his collaborators, and others, has not been

greatly concerned with the NBS/ARPA program.

Within the field of definition we place emphasis on those experimental and theoretical

projects which are relevant to the basic physics of the mechanism of crystal growth; those

that are concerned with possibly new techniques of crystal growth; on those that relate

crystal characterization to growth processes; and on those that are in the NBS areas of

special competence such as physical measurement at or near the maximum attainable precision.

In assembling this report many close decisions of inclusion and exclusion had to be

made. Some of these may even appear arbitrary, but it is hoped some logical reasons can usually be offered. For example, if some portion of a project is relevant we have encouraged the inclusion of a brief balanced description of the project, without unduly slanting it to the aims of the report as a whole.

Subdividing the projects under main headings and deciding on an order of presentation

has been equally difficult though clearly far less important. Even when it was decided to have just two simple main headings, Crystal Growth (Section 4) and Crystal Characterization

(Section 5), there were some borderline sub-sections that would have fitted either. Rather

than split descriptions into too many small fragments partial inconsistencies have been

consciously permitted. No perfect order of presentation of sub-sections could exist and no defense will be made of the order chosen. The best one can hope for is that some aspects

of that order will appear logical to the reader.

4. CRYSTAL GROWTH

4. 1. High-Temperature Crystal Growth

F. Ordway, Crystal Growth Section

Measurements of temperatures in the melt and the growing crystals during the Verneuil

process were made, using Ir-Rh thermocouples, on rutile and sapphire. Crystals of rutile were grown at a wide range of rates, and the study of their dislocation contents, as re- vealed by etch pits, was begun.

The plasma furnace for the Verneuil technique was modified to exclude outside air,

permitting complete control of the atmosphere around the growing crystal. The apparatus

was used to grow small crystals of Ti02 (rutile), Zr02 (CaO stabilized), AI2O3, and Y2O3.
Chromic oxide of suitable particle size, aggregation and purity for feed to the

Verneuil apparatus was prepared, and single crystals were grown. Crystals of YBOo

(vaterite form) were grown for structure analysis. Manganites of Ho, Er, Lu, and Y, and

small crystals of CsPbClg were grown for electrical measurements.

A supply of Th02 was purified for eventual attempts at crystallization from the melt.

This material was of such purity as to demand ultratrace analyses of higher sensitivity

than the spectrographic methods now available at NBS.

4. 2. Crystal Growth and Structure Studies on Rutile

D. E. Roberts and M. I. Cohen

Solid State Physics Section

More than half of the projects in the Solid State Physics Section are in need of pure, reduced and doped rutile, TiO„. It is the principal objective of the work here described

to satisfy this need. At the moment the work is concerned with molybdenum-doped crystals

of sufficient homogeneity for magnetic and optical studies.

One project is in need of CdTe crystals of a given conductivity. Equipment is assembled for treatment of such samples.

Recently obtained X-ray equipment is now in the testing stage. This equipment will be

used to orient samples and to measure lattice constants as a function of temperature,

especially around transition points (Curie and Neel temperatures).

4.3. The Growth of Dislocation-Free Metal Crystals

from the Melt

T. H. Orem, Metal Reactions Section

R. L. Parker, Metal Physics Section

The purpose of this project is to grow dislocation-free metal crystals by the

Kyropoulos technique.

Two recent efforts in this field, one theoretical by Jackson [Phil. Mag. 8th Ser. 17 , p. 1117 (1962)], the other experimental by Howie and Elbaum [Phil. Mag. 8th Ser. 6, p. 1227

(1961)] indicate that by proper control of size, shape, purity, orientation and pulling

speed it is possible to grow sizable metal crystals with no dislocations. In the latter

work, aluminum crystals in the form of rods 1 mm in diameter were grown with no dislocations over a small area. Jackson emphasized the need for purity of the starting material,

particularly in freedom from very small extraneous foreign particles or larger than atomic

dimensions. We are planning to set up a specially designed crystal puller with its

necessary auxiliary equipment. Our initial work will probably be on aluminum of 6-9 's purity.

4.4. Kinetics of Growth of Crystals from the Melt

R. L. Parker, Metal Physics Section

The aim of this new project is to investigate the kinetics of the growth of crystals

from the melt and in particular to study the role of interface temperature and structure.

A new and very promising experimental method for obtaining interface temperature has

just been suggested by Tiller [J. Chem. Phys. 37, 841 (1962)]. This technique should permit the temperature at the interface to be accurately determined in a wide range of systems. A bibliography of the literature in this field, including prior experimental attempts to obtain interface temperatures, has been assembled. We have been attempting to recruit a well qualified young scientist to work on this problem.
4.5. Crystal Growth from Solution

J. L. Torgesen, A. T. Horton, and

J. Strassburger, Crystal Chemistry Section

The following have been the three principal objectives:

a. ) To study the properties of single crystal specimens, both those of ultrahigh purity and those purposely contaminated, by appropriate physical and chemical methods,

correlating the properties with the nature and amount of impurities present.

b ) By development of crystallization techniques and by the growth of large

single crystals, to prepare specimens of inorganic and organic substances of extremely high

purity, thus providing basic reference materials for research.

c. ) To conduct basic research relating to the mechanisms of crystal growth and

impurity retention, especially to the circumstances that determine the extent to which

minor constituents (impurities) in a liquid system are retained or rejected during the

growth of a particular face of the solid phase of the dominant constituent.

During the period under review some improvements have been made in the crystal growth

equipment (J L Torgesen, A. T Horton and C. P. Saylor, 1963) shown in figure 1. Four

temperature controllers have been rebuilt to provide individual d-c power supplies and

compact rack-mounting of controller components (power panel, bridge, electronic relay,

etc. ) Specifications for equipment regularly to monitor and to record precise temperatures

of up to ten crystal-baths in turn with each following a predetermined temperature program

have been submitted to two commercial suppliers of recording equipment. An automatic

warning system for temperature-control failure is to be incorporated in this equipment.

The electrolytic conductance of ionic solutions has been found to be a precise and

sensitive measure of the concentration of these solutions at a given temperature in the

saturation region. The measurements are made with an immersion conductance cell of new design (shown at the extreme right in figure 1) and they provide a means to monitor with

great precision the growth conditions of supersaturation which obtain during the crystalgrowth operation. Details on the design of conductance cells, the measurement procedures,

and conductivity data for ammonium dihydrogen phosphate solutions are given in a current publication (Torgesen and Horton, 1963).

Studies on the retention of chromium in ammonium dihydrogen phosphate have continued

by growth of these crystals from purposely contaminated solutions. The retention of

chromium is strongly direction dependent, the impurity tends to concentrate in the tapered

<100> faces in amounts dependent on the impurity content of the mother solution and the rate at which the crystals are grown. However, one recently completed experiment, in

which growth was forced at extremely high supersaturations, shows chromium retained also

on flOlV faces. The quality of the specimens is poor, showing markedly irregular faces

and the inclusion of mother liquor. High voltage X-ray diffraction patterns (see Section

5.13) taken from earlier specimens, in which but minute amounts of chromium are retained

on |lOl|, show a marked increase in disorder in the chromium-contaminated portions of the

crystal.

A phase study of the system oxalic acid/acetic acid/water at 50°C has been completed

and will be submitted for publication. Anhydrous oxalic acid is shown to be the stable

solid phase in equilibrium with solutions in acetic acid/water mixtures up to 5. 2 percent

water (see figure 2). Only moderate success has been achieved in the growth of oxalic acid

dihydrate crystals from acetone-water mixtures. Recently harvested specimens await analysis and further study.

Slow growth .of single .crystal sodium chlorate (cubic class 23) produces a habit in

which |l00}-, |llO| and jlllf are in evidence. Fast growth produces a singular cube habit. A recently completed run shows marked differences in the rate at which the several specimens grew, although growth was started from cubic seeds of essentially the same size. A

study of dislocation densities in the several specimens awaits a search for a suitable
Figure 1. Crystal Growth Assembly
(C02 H)2 -2H2CM

(C02 H)2 CH3 C02 H

Figure 2. Phase Diagram. The System Oxalic Acid/Acetic Acid/Water, 50°C.
etchant and the preparation of thin specimens for diffraction microscopy by anomalous X-ray

transmission.

Limited success is being achieved at this date in the growth of potassium chloride and

potassium bromide from pure aqueous solutions. Potassium chloride seeds with a cube habit

reverted in large measure to an octahedral habit in the early stages of growth at very low

supersaturation. Subsequent growth has produced a cubic habit, but the crystal faces are

rough. Potassium bromide is growing poorly, with some specimens exhibiting polycrystalline

growth, and all specimens are milky, due apparently to the inclusion of mother solution. It

is to be hoped that alkali halide crystals of good quality may be grown without heavy metal

additives which are retained in the crystals. Comparison studies of solution-grown and

melt-grown specimens are contemplated.

Steady-state diffusion processes are presently being studied with a view to developing

techniques for the growth of crystals from solvents in which they are only sparingly soluble.

Back-diffusion of the unwanted ions into source chambers is a problem which may be solved

by proper design of baffling in the equipment. The growth of gypsum (CaSO, . 2H 0)in crude

preliminary apparatus shows a strong tendency toward acicular habit (long, thin needles)

and the formation of spherulites.

4. 6. Polymer Crystallization from Concentrated Solutions

E. Passaglia, Polymer Physics Section

Most of the effort to date has gone into obtaining equipment and carrying out preliminary experiments. The crystallization of polypropylene from 5-107o solution in xylene on slow cooling from the boiling point to room temperature produces distinct well formed

spherulites. Most of these are type I spherulites fF. J. Padden, Jr. and H. D. Keith,

J Applied Phys 30, 1479 (1956)] although many are mixed forms. Work is now beginning on the measurement of the radial growth rate by microscopy, and on the bulk crystallization

rate by dilatometry.

4. 7. Crystallization of Polyethylene Fractions

J. Powers, F. Quinn

Macromolecules Synthesis & Structure Section

and in part R. Neuman, Dielectrics Section

Growth rates of polyethylene spherulites from melts are being measured photographically as a function of molecular-weight distribution and of crystallization temperature. The

data will be used in the calculation of surface free-energy values in a check of the

Hof fman-Lauritzen chain-folding theories (Hoffman and Weeks, 1962).

The total isothermal-crystallization rate as measured dilatometrically is being com- pared with the rates of nucleation and formation of growth steps that can be resolved by

hot-stage microscopy.

4. 8. Vapor-Phase Growth Kinetics of Potassium Crystals

R. L. Parker, Metal Physics Section

The purpose of this project is to study, by optical and other techniques, the vapor

growth kinetics of metal crystals.

A paper on this subject (Parker 1962) appeared recently, the abstract of which reads

as follows:

"Measurements of the growth rate of potassium (110) faces, for low vapor supersaturations between 3.1 and 0.11 (the lowest value studied) have given unit condensation coefficients for all supersaturations. This result is in agreement with the theory of Burton,

Cabrera, and Frank and gives the values PC = 1,0", ^ 0.046 for potassium. No evidence of
Figure 3. Transition of potassium nitrate at approximately 3 kilobars.

Crystals in high-pressure phase are smaller than in low phase.

Figure 4. Potassium nitrate showing crystal orientation due to crystal growth

along pressure gradient. Long direction of crystals parallel to pressure gradient.
two-dimensional surface nucleation was found. Careful attention to the reduction of impurities, through the use of ultra-high vacuum techniques, was shown to be necessary in studying this system. Results of earlier work by Hock and Neumann on potassium can be well

described by an application of the Cabrera-Vermilyea theory of impurity effect, with an effective partial pressure of active gases of 0. 8 x 10"H mm Hg. In the present experiments

this value is less than 1.4 x 10" " mm Hg. The unit condensation coefficients are shown to be in disagreement with a theoretical prediction of Hirth and Pound.

A second paper was presented at the International Symposium on the Condensation and

Evaporation of Solids, Sept. 12, 1962, in Dayton, Ohio, and will appear in a book of this

title (Interscience Publishers). A mass spectrometer to permit the quantitative study of

vapor phase growth rates in the presence of known amounts of dilute, active impurity gases

is being procured and measurements should begin within a few months.

4.9. Crystal Growth by Electrodeposition

F. Ogburn, Electrolysis & Metal Deposition Section

Preliminary studies indicate that electrodeposition under closely controlled conditions

may provide an additional useful method for preparing single metal crystals.

Copper dendrites electrodeposited under one set of conditions exhibited a [110] preferred orientation in the growth direction, associated with easily discernable {ill} side

faces. Electrodeposited copper sheet also showed a [110] preferred orientation that

improved with increasing thickness of deposit. The degree of double orientation seems to be very sensitive to impurities in the electrolyte. Both the dendrites and the sheet

deposits showed twinning in a substantial majority of the grains. A start has been made

with X-ray texture determinations by Buerger precession and Weissenberg methods.

4. 10. High-Pressure Microscopy to Study

Crystal Transformation and Growth

A. Van Valkenburg, Crystallography Section

In the past six months a new technique has been developed (Van Valkenburg, 1962;

Weir, Van Valkenburg, and Lippencott, 1962) to study phase transformations and crystal

growth characteristics at pressures up to 100 kilobars using microscopic techniques. The

technique involves a high pressure diamond cell and a polarizing microscope.

Studies have been conducted on several transitions that occur in the silver and copper

halides at elevated pressures. One of the important features noted in the transitions is the continued crystal growth in the high-pressure phases after the transition has occurred.

It has been noted that the rate of crystal growth appears to be greater where the pressure

gradients are steep.

Crystal-growth phenomena have been studied in the compounds of potassium and ammonium

nitrates. Under high pressures these nitrates undergo a transition and the crystals in the

high-pressure phase are much smaller in size than in the low-pressure phase (figure 3). The crystals in the low-pressure regions have a preferred orientation with their longest

directions radial to the center of the high-pressure cell (figure 4); this is also the

direction of the pressure gradient. By changing pressure, a growing crystal front that

has the appearance of a liquid interface can be produced.

4.11. Optical Observation of Pressure

Induced Transitions in Polymers

J. Powers, F. Quinn,

Macromolecules Synthesis & Structure Section

R. Neuman, Dielectrics Section

A wide variety of polymers display an abrupt decrease in thickness and change in

10
morphological appearance with slight increase in pressure when viewed by light transmitted

through a diamond pressure cell. At present, a phenomenological description is employed

in interpretation. X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopic data will be taken and

should lead to an explanation in terms of molecular theories.

4. 12. Crystallization of Noble Gases

G. L. Pollack, Crystal Growth Section

Dissolved nitric oxide in solid krypton was studied spectroscopically. Thermal

etching of argon crystals was observed, and a series of experiments to correlate the

observed grain boundaries with growth conditions was begun. Microscopic observation of

whisker growth of argon was also started. A thin-cell cryostat for the X-ray study of

these crystals was designed and built.

4. 13. A Study toward the Growth of Single Crystals

L. H. Bolz, Crystallography Section

H. P. Broida, NBS Senior Research Fellow

A special dewar for the growth and examination (by the X-ray diffraction method) of

argon crystals was built and used in a study published by L. H. Bolz, H. P. Broida and

H. S. Peiser (1962). It was found that the clear solid formed by slow cooling of liquid

argon was polycrystalline, but the grain size of individual crystallites ranged up to 4 mm. The larger grains were produced by slower cooling rates. These results encourage the view

that large crystals of argon can be grown.

4. 14. Study of Crystal Growth in Vapor Snakes

G. L. Pollack, F. Ordway, Crystal Growth Section

and H. P. Broida, Senior Research Fellow

Vapor snakes are hollow crystal cylinders filled with vapor which sometimes form in a closed vessel filled with liquid near the triple point when heat is slowly extracted.

Vapor-snake growth in argon has been observed before the reporting period and measurements of the dimensions and growth rates of vapor snakes were made from motion-picture

films. A theory treating the growth as an essentially adiabatic process gave estimates of

the ratio of diameter to thickness of the solid sheath in reasonable agreement with the

observations, (Pollack and Broida, 1963). A discussion of the process in terms of

relations between undercooling and growth rate was found to explain qualitatively the mode

of formation and growth, and to state necessary conditions for the phenomenon. Preliminary

designs were sketched for an apparatus in which vapor snakes can be produced with all

variables under direct control.

4. 15. Growth Kinetics of Crystal Whiskers

by Field-Emission Techniques

S. C. Hardy and R. L. Parker

Metal Physics Section

The purpose of this project is to study, by field-emission techniques, the vapor phase

growth kinetics of metal crystal whiskers.

A paper on this subject has recently been published (Parker and Hardy, 1962). The

abstract of this paper reads as follows:

"Using the method originated by Gomer, we have studied the growth kinetics of potassium whiskers, as they grow from the vapor phase in an electron field emission tube. To

the best of our knowledge, this represents the first use of an alkali metal as a field

emitter.

11
The results for potassium whiskers show some features similar to those previously

found for mercury, and some new features. The former include positive exponential growth,

and the attainment of terminal lengths. New features include the absence, usually, of

symmetric emission patterns, a very low activation energy for surface self-diffusion, the

fact that the whiskers cannot be pulled off but instead appear to shorten gradually if the

field is raised, and finally an interesting sensitivity of the growth processes to illumination of the whiskers with visible light.

Experimental work since this publication has concentrated on the study of the effects

of sputtering (ion bombardment) on the observations of potassium whisker growth, and on field-emission tubes designed to permit simultaneous optical and field-emission measurements.

This work has been slow due to experimental difficulties arising from the use of

potassium (effects on fluorescent screens and persistent emission patterns from substrates). A second ultra high vacuum system, to permit faster tube preparation, was designed, constructed, and put into operation. The field-emission dark-room was enlarged. Preliminary

planning and calculations on the use of W emitters to study the nucleation of K and Hg

whiskers were performed - they indicate that both qualitative and quantitative observations

of the heterogeneous nucleation process can be made in these systems.

4. 16. Kinetics of Whisker Evaporation

R. L. Parker and R. L. Anderson

Metal Physics Section

The purpose of this project is to investigate the role of crystal edges as step sources in evaporation.

Several hundred photographs have been taken of potassium whiskers during both their

growth and evaporation from the vapor phase. The evaporation experiments have covered a range of pressure ratios P/P "from 1.0 to 0.05. Over this range of pressure ratios the

whiskers evaporate from the tip only, in rather the reverse process of growth. Hence

there exists a considerable undersaturation for the nucleation of evaporation steps on potassium whisker edges, contrary to a theory by Hirth and Pound but in agreement with a recent prediction by Cabrera. More precise nucleation calculations for this case are being

made; also, there appears to be no previous solution to the surface diffusion equation in

this case and this is being studied.

4. 17. Theoretical Studies in Whisker Crystal Growth

R. E. Howard and R. L. Parker

Metal Physics Section

Previous treatments of whisker growth from the vapor phase have assumed a steady-state

diffusion process, i.e. that in the surface diffusion equation,

SC/St = DS 2C/Sx2

- C/r+N, SC/St is zero.

This, however, is clearly not a good assumption in the field-emission microscope

observations of whisker growth. Several methods for treating this moving boundary problem

have been examined and currently an integral equation incorporating the boundary conditions

has been obtained. Asymptotic solutions for simple cases are being looked for; it is expected that complete solutions of this non-linear equation will require numerical computation; in this assistance from the Applied Mathematics Division is being received.

Actual pressure divided by equilibrium vapor pressure.

12
4. 18. Freezing Behavior on Adsorbir . Surfo* c

G. S. Ross, L. J. Frolen and C. Gray

Pure Substances Section

When the purity of a sample of isopropyl alcohol was measured by the cryoscopic method,

two crystalline forms were observed. The presence of a very fine, white crystalline residue

was observed in the transferring vessels. After this powder was removed by centrifuging

only the high melting form was obtained; if the powder was present either form could be obtained primarily depending upon the rate of cooling.

In order to obtain further information concerning the role of absorbing surfaces on crystallization the following study was instigated. The freezing and melting behavior of

water and benzene adsorbed on silica gel and bone char was examined using the technique of

differential thermal analysis. For these experiments the difference in temperature between

the blank and the sample was plotted against the bath temperature on an x-y recorder. When

the sample froze the energy liberated produced a difference in temperature between the blank

and the sample which was displayed as a peak on the x-y plot. A previous study 7. A. Patrick and W. A. Kemper, J. Phys. Chem. 42 , 369 (1938)] using a simple calorimeL2> had been

largely unsuccessful.

In the initial experiments for water adsorbed on silica gel, no free water was visible. Two transitions were observed, one at -11°C and one at -37°C. Repetitions of the freezingmelting cycle produced a high, sharp peak at -5°C accompanied by a noticeable change in

physical characteristics as would be explained by a wetness above this temperature. The

peak at -11°C decreased and finally disappeared as the height of the peak at -5°C increased.

This peak (-11°C) is undoubtedly due to capillary-held water and the freezing process tends

to break down the internal gel structure rendering the gel visibly wet. The peak at -37°C

is unchanged and is due to surface adsorbed water.

Water absorbed on bone char results in a peak at -39. 6°C which is roughly the same size and shape as the peak observed at -37 °C for silica gel and is probably due to surfaceadsorbed water. One additional peak, slightly below the freezing point of water, wa.« observed but its direction was reversed. This behavior is as yet unexplained. Cool

to 77°K produced no peak corresponding to capillary-held water.

The experiments on benzene are still in progress at this time, but their results

appear to be similar to those on water.

When silica gel is treated by freezing adsorbed water thereby breaking up the internal

capillaries, much sharper separations are obtained. This is thought to be due to the lack

of diffusion-controlled migration on the gel.

Further studies on heterogeneous and homogeneous nucleation are being contemplated to explain further the freezing behavior of capillary-held materials.

4. 19. Growth of Oxide Films

on Aluminum Single-Crystal Surfaces

T. H. Orem, Metal Reactions Section

The principal purpose of this project is to obtain a better understanding of the

corrosion process and its relation to crystal structure and atomic surface arrangements.

The reason for referring to this project in this report is the considerable skill developed

in the melt growth and repeated crystallization by a Bridgman technique of large pure

aluminum crystals.

A paper on the wider subject was given at the July 1962 Gordon Research Conference on Corrosion. In studying the relationship between the oxide film and the aluminum s ingle

crystal surface, it was found that certain surface markings appear on the oxide film that

are always characterized by having their boundaries parallel to faces of close-packed planes

in the underlying metal surfaces.

13
The unequivocal observation of growth twinning in aluminum is another result arising

from this work (see Orem, 1963).

4. 20. A Spontaneous Martens it ic Transformation

R. P. Reed, Properties of Materials Section

The abstract of a recent paper (Reed, 1962) reads as follows:

"On cooling, 187o Cr, 87« Ni steels transform martensitically to two products ( € and a').

Sheets representing either € (h. c. p.) or stacking fault clusters have been observed to form

prior to the formation of a' (b.c.c. ). Photographic sequences demonstrating the formation

of a

1 from these sheets are included. Transformation characteristics of both € and a' are discussed.

"The morphology of the a' has been determined. It was found that the a' formed as long, narrow plates and that these plates were bounded by {ill} sheets. The long direction

of the plates was parallel to or nearly parallel to<110>. If they were parallel to<110>

then the

rpla±es had 225 habit planes. If they deviated from <110> then the habit plane

was not 'j225f ; possible alternate habit planes are plotted.

"In addition, the -{ill?- habit plane was observed."

4. 21. Radio Materials Synthesis

P. M Gruzensky, C. Jefferson, and, in part, D. R. Winder

Radio & Microwave Materials Section

Boulder Laboratories

The Radio Materials Section has a project on Radio Materials Synthesis whose primary

objective is to synthesize chemical compounds whose composition and structure are of

primary interest because of their radio and microwave properties and to investigate fundamental aspects of such syntheses as have a bearing on the chemical, magnetic, dielectric,

or conductivity properties of these materials. Well characterized specimens of adequate

purity or properly controlled impurity as well as composition and structure are essential

to safeguard the meaning fulness of magnetic, dielectric, and conductivity measurements for

a program on Radio Standards. Only materials of adequate characterization which are not readily available elsewhere are included in this program.

Primary efforts during fiscal year 1962 have been devoted to the development of a process for growing single crystals of anhydrous sulfates of the transition metals, principally copper sulfate and cobalt sulfate. A solvent system consisting of ammonium sulfate

and sulfuric acid has shown considerable promise, yielding anhydrous copper sulfate single

crystals with edge dimensions up to 3 mm. To our knowledge, these are the first anhydrous

copper sulfate single crystals that have been produced in this country. Single crystals of

these compounds are of interest because of their antiferromagnet ic properties at low

temperatures. In addition, the same system has proved to be an excellent solvent for an- hydrous zinc sulfate. Preliminary experiments indicate that it may be possible to grow

sizable single crystals of zinc sulfate doped with a wide variety of paramagnetic ions.

Tutton salt, a hydrated form of zinc ammonium sulfate, has been used in the past as a host crystal for paramagnetic ions in the study of crystalline electrostatic fields. During

the fiscal year, several Tutton-salt specimens, doped with divalent and tetravalent vanadium, were prepared. Incorporation of the divalent form into the lattice required some special techniques to prevent oxidation.

A series of nickel ferrit • toroid specimens, with intentional additions of zinc, cobalt,

and manganese in trace amounts, /ere prepared for magnetostriction studies. Specimens of

nickel zinc ferrite, similar in composition to a commercial material which shows an anomalous resonance peak, were also prepared.

14
Samples of high-purity nickel metal powder have been melted by induction heating to produce massive metal suitable for machining to specimens of proper geometry for magnetic

measurements. Analysis of this material by emission spectroscopy indicates the presence

of total metallic impurities in the range of 50 to 100 parts per million.

During the last quarter of the fiscal year a program was initiated to investigate the

chemical and magnetic properties of magnetic ilmenites. Early results indicate that

ilmenites can be prepared with moderate magnetic moments at 25°C.

Efforts will continue to establish the optimum conditions for growth of sizable single

crystals of anhydrous transition metal sulfates. It is also anticipated that the synthesis

of calcite single crystals will be given consideration, as well as a continuation of

magnetic ceramic oxide materials preparation for high power spin-wave studies as well as other ferrite investigations.

Nickel whiskers of up to 2 cm in length have been successfully grown for studies in

dimensionality in magnetization. These whiskers contrast with 2 mm length whiskers previously reported in the literature by others.

5. CRYSTAL CHARACTERIZATION

5. 1. Thermal and Chemical Etching of Dislocations

A. W. Ruff, Jr. , Metal Physics Section

The purpose of this project is to obtain a better understanding of the relationship

between etch pits and dislocations in metal crystals.

As described in a recent paper on this subject, (A. W. Ruff, Jr., 1962) thin copper

single-crystal foils were deformed so as to introduce fresh dislocations, and then etched

in one of several solutions which had been developed to reveal dislocations intersecting

the (111) surface. Then transmission electron microscopy permitted direct study of both

etch pits and dislocations. The results indicated that dislocations vary in their ability

to nucleate etching, and that other crystal defects can be effective nucleation sites.

A further study now underway involves thermal etch-pitting (by evaporation) on •jOOOlJsurfaces of zinc crystals, iiil ultra-high vacua. The interest lies in comparing observed

and predicted critical under^aturations for nucleation of pits at dislocations, and on

the effects of impurities. Some preliminary experiments have been started showing by

surface two-beam interference microscopy quite regular pit morphologies.

5.2. The Effect of Point Defects on Dynamic Properties of Crystals

J. B. Wachtman, Jr. Physical Properties Section

Elastic and electrical properties are being studied as a function of temperature and

frequency, and the results are interpreted in terms of chemical impurities and related

point defects. Papers on the relaxation processes associated with CaO in ThO~ and with

nonstoichiometry in TiO„ (rutile) are in press. A program of measurements on magnesium

oxide, doped with various impurities is in progress. The only relevant publication which

appeared during this reporting period is a theoretical paper on symmetry conditions for

internal friction (Wachtman and Peiser, 1962). The influence of oscillatory homogeneous

strain is considered on the jump rate of unclustered point defects between sites that are symmetry related in the unstrained crystal. Only strains that can destroy the operative

symmetry can, it is held, bias the jump rate and hence cause the type of internal friction

that is here considered. A rather exhaustive study of the influence of strains in any

given orientation on crystals of any given structure is therefore being attempted.

15
5.3. Further Studies of Crystal Defects

in the Inorganic Solids Division*

F. Ordway, Crystal Growth Section

In search of experimental data on the mobility of defects an attempt is being made to determine the activation energy for diffusion of aluminum in rutile. Most of the specimens

and about half the necessary diffusion runs have been made.

Several crystals with the rutile structure were explored for possible use in the study

of dislocation arrays by transmission electron microscopy. Crystals of telluria, TeO„,

grown by vapor deposition, were too thick. Cleavage of the fluorides, CoF„ and MgF~,

yielded promising specimens. Chemical thinning by strong alkali hydroxide solutions was

found promising, and attempts to develop a dependable procedure for routine preparation of

electron-microscope specimens were begun. A supply of CoF- powder was prepared for the

growth of additional crystals.

It was found possible to reveal dislocations in the oxides, Cr_0_ and Y„0_, by etching with fused alkali hydroxide and constant-boiling hydrochloric acid respectively.

Phosphoric acid was found to be a chemical polish for Cr„0„.

Tests of the divergent-beam and reflection techniques for study of crystal texture by

X-rays were made to find suitable conditions of specimen preparation and exposure. A highintensity rotating-anode X-ray generator was installed and put into operation, to speed the

production of orientation and texture patterns.

5.4. Evaluation of Radiation Damage

by Solution Calorimetry*

E. J. Prosen, Physical Chemistry Division

and M. V. Kilday, Thermochemistry Section

An adiabatic solution calorimeter has been designed to determine the difference in

heats of solution of irradiated and non-irradiated crystals. In contrast with differential thermal analysis (DTA) , the calorimetric data will yield values of the total "stored

energy" in the crystals.

Adiabatic shielding is used so that high precision may be obtained even for sparingly

soluble materials, for which elevated temperatures will be required. The calorimetric

vessel is constructed with an inner liner of platinum, so that solvents such as HF(aq.

)

may be used.

Upon completing of the apparatus, in the spring of 1963, our first task will be a determination of the irradiation damage or stored energy in samples of quartz for the

Atomic Energy Commission. These measurements may be followed by other similar measurements

for the AEC. We also plan to make measurements on the effect of particle size on the heat

of solution.

Bomb combustion techniques have also been used in this laboratory for many years to determine the total "stored energy" in the samples of graphite and diamond. These techniques could also be applied to other materials for which a suitable combustion reaction

is available.

* These studies were made with partial support from the Atomic Energy Commission.

16
5.5. Studies in Solid State Theory

A. H. Kahn, Solid State Physics Section

a. ) A calculation of the electronic energy band structure of rutile (TiO„) is related

to the electronic transport measurements (5. 15) and to reflectivity measurements carried

out at RCA. This calculation is ready for the computer.

4+

b ) A computation of the g-factors of the V ion in rutile) is an important test of

the crystal field theory, which is the basis of laser and maser applications. The expressions derived by Van Vleck do not seem to fit.

S. J. Glass, Solid State Physics Section

c. ) It is well known that spinwaves cannot be represented either by bosons or by

fermions. An intermediate description is explored in cooperation with Professor Tanaka

(Catholic University).

d. ) An investigation dealing with an expression for the melting curve (P,T) is shortly

to be ready for publication.

5. 6. Improvements in the Measurement of

Refractive Indices of Microscopic Crystals

C. P. Saylor, Analytical and

Inorganic Chemistry Division

When the immersion methods for measuring the refractive indices of crystals are employed, an accuracy within ±0.001 is ordinarily looked upon as good and within ±0.000,5

as exceptionally good. By phase- or interference-contrast procedures, however, a difference

in index between a crystal 5 microns in diameter, and an immersion fluid can be perceived

when it is as small as ±0.000,05. The preparation of liquids can be controlled and their

indices measured to an even higher accuracy.

The problem of translating such precision to the determination of the index of re- fraction of a crystal involves the steps of orienting the crystal, verifying its orientation, identifying the polarization direction, controlling the index of the liquid, while

observing the mismatch, and measuring the index of the liquid. Actually by employing two readings, one when the index of the liquid is just perceptibly above and the other when it is just perceptibly below that of the crystal - and then averaging - a precision of

refractive-index determination within about ±0.000,015 has been demonstrated to be attainable. Careful analysis fails to reveal a reason to suspect a bias in these results, so

that it may be inferred that the accuracy is the same. Notable novelties in the procedures

developed involve the methods of orienting and determining the orientation of the crystal,

controlling the index of the liquid, and the measurement of the refraction index of the

liquid. In particular a microscope differential refractometer has been developed with

which the refractive index of the liquid can be measured to within ±0.000,01 without

removing it from the slide. The greatest experimental difficulty is that of adequate

temperature control.

5. 7. Optical Property Studies

in the Inorganic Solids Division

R. W. Dickson

Physical Properties Section

A ruby laser has been set up and it is planned to use the laser beam in a study of the

clustering of chromium atoms in ruby.

17
5.8. Optical Property Studies in the Solid State Physics Section

L. H. Grabner, R. F. Blunt, H. Frederikse, and J. Becker

a. ) Semiconductors ? During the last few months the 2-6 compounds (in particular

cadmium telluride, CdTe) have become the center of attention. The aim is to study absorption, photoconductivity and luminescence simultaneously. Especially important is the possibility of stimulated electroluminescence (laser) similar to the effect observed in gallium

arsenide, GaAs, (at the General Electric Laboratories, IBM and Lincoln Laboratories,

October 1962). Efforts are concentrated on preparing p-n barriers.

b. ) Defect Studies : Defects and impurities in ionic crystals are investigated using

optical tools. Measurements of the absorption spectrum are performed on several systems.

Magnesium-aluminum spinel doped with cobalt is presently being studied. These spectra will

indicate if the Co is situated in tetrahedral or in octahedral sites. Comparison with

crystal field theory will be made. Other systems under consideration are:

Ti0

2 (:Mo) Ti02 (:W)

spinel (:Mn) LiF (:Ti) MgO (:Ti)

spinel(:Cr) MgO (:Ni) MnF (:Sm) etc.

Other aspects to be studied are: pair formation [see Linz and Newham, Phys. Rev. 123 , 500

(1961)], defect structure (reduced TiO„, SrTiO„), luminescence lines under uniaxial stress,

etc,

Correlation with electron spin resonance results (see Section 5. 19) is one of the

major aspects of this project.

5. 9. Activity of the Spectrochemistry Section

B. F. Scribner

In the Spectrochemistry Section increasing attention is being given to extending the

sensitivity and the precision of spectrographic methods of analysis to meet the severe problem in the analysis of present day materials. Of particular interest are the improvement of excitation sources and the application of higher spectral resolution; both of these

are aimed at increasing the spectral line-to-background ratio with resulting gain in sensitivity. One of the promising possibilities for spectral excitation is the application of

the laser (optical maser) and particular attention is now being given to this source. In

the proposed application the laser serves to produce a short duration pulse (100 microseconds) of high-energy coherent light which is focussed on a sample surface by means of a microscope. The energy in the beam is sufficient to volatilize a portion of the sample as

a jet which rises between two charged electrodes. The vapor jet serves to trigger a capacitor discharge between the electrodes and this excites the vapor to produce light, the

spectrum of which is photographed.

Although much needs to be learned of the utility of the laser source, its potential

advantages may be listed as follows:

a. ) It excites a very small portion of sample with a single pulse. An area 10 to 50

microns in diameter is involved at present but this may possibly be reduced to a smaller

area to provide a micro-probe source for analysis of very small samples such as portions

of a specific face of a crystal or of segregates or inclusions in samples.

b ) The sample is excited under conditions which should result in a minimum possibility

of contamination. This offers a good possibility for the analysis of high purity materials

if the sensitivity of detection proves to be adequate.

These studies were made with partial support from the Office of Naval Research.
oEOoX 6oHM

O)

T3oooo

60

COuUo

cu COH c I cu X e

•H nj P x>

4-1 c

Ct) 3 s Em

cuM

19
d. ) Almost all elements in the periodic system may be excited simultaneously, and

their spectra observed. The exceptions are the gaseous elements, but these may be capable

of observation under special conditions.

Recently a bread-board assembly of a laser excitation source was observed in operation.

Samples of zinc, zirconium, agate, and glass from our laboratory were excited by the laser

and the resultant spectra and pit patterns produced by the laser were studied. The observations appeared sufficiently promising to warrant proceeding with the procurement of

equipment to permit detailed studies to be made in our laboratory. Accordingly, the equipment was ordered and will be built by the manufacturer after consultations with our laboratory on details of the design especially relative to the sample mounting-mechanism and the

facility to choose a vacuum or a noble-gas atmosphere. The equipment is expected to be

delivered in about 3 months, after which its characteristics and applications will be

investigated.

In addition to its potential applications to elemental analysis, the laser may also be

effective for exciting fluorescence spectra and Raman spectra, particularly of small

crystals These possibilities may be investigated later.

5. 10. Crystal-Field Studies by Matrix Spectroscopy

D. E. Mann, Molecular Spectroscopy Section

The principal object of this research is the investigation of crystal field effects

through their influence on the rotation-vibration spectra of simple entrapped molecules. We have recently shown that hydrogen and deuterium chloride molecules isolated in solid

argon or krypton matrices are capable of molecular rotation over the range 4-20°K (Schoen,

Mann, Knobler, and White, 1962). Their infrared spectra are clearly perturbed by environmental influences in several different ways. First, the vibrational band centers are shifted slightly to the red. Second, the lowest rotational spacing and hence the effective

moment of inertia of the trapped species is appreciably affected. Third, the rotational

lines for higher levels are either abnormally spaced or absent altogether. Fourth, the

spectra of isotopically related species suffer quite different degrees of perturbation in

the same environment. Fifth, under certain experimental conditions the spectra of the same species in a non-rotating state also appear. While a complete and detailed understanding

of these effects is not yet at hand and must await further study, it is already quite clear

that their interpretation will convey much useful information about the nature and structure

of the host matrix.

A typical spectrum is shown in figure 5 where R(0) and P(l) refer to the rotational

transitions, and Q indicates absorption by non-rotating species.

5. 11. Soft X-Ray Spectroscopy of the Solid State

R. D. Deslattes, Crystal Chemistry Section

Activities are planned in two areas: (1) Study of certain aspects of X-ray spectra,

and (2) application of X-ray techniques to the study of imperfections in crystals.

Work began on this project in September 1962. Since that time designs for apparatus

required for both activities have been largely completed. Provisional assembly of a vacuum

two-crystal spectrometer is underway.

Initial application of the vacuum instrument will be to obtain comparable K-series

spectra of gaseous and solid neon, metallic sodium and sodium fluoride. It is planned to apply a second (air) two-crystal spectrometer to certain Borrmann-ef feet and rocking-curve

studies with a view to their use in the characterization of highly perfect crystals.

20
5. 12. The Precise Measurement of X-Ray Diffraction

Patterns of Powdered Crystals

H. E. Swanson, Crystallography Section

Standard X-ray powder diffraction patterns of pure and well characterized inorganic

solids are being produced under partial support from the Joint Committee for Chemical

Analysis by X-Ray Diffraction, American Society for Testing and Materials. The aim is to obtain very accurate X-ray diffraction data that can be used for comparison standards in

identifying crystalline materials of unknown composition. It has not been possible to obtain an adequate number of pure and well crystallized samples from commercial sources and

a chemist has been employed to synthesize, purify, and crystallize additional materials

information about the preparation, chemical purity, and crystal Unity of these samples, to- gether with optical and X-ray diffraction data, are included m bi-monthly reports and

later consolidated in NBS Monographs, twelve of which have been published to date. The

last one of these is listed in the references (Swanson et al. , 1962) During the past six

months, fifteen compounds have been processed and the results have been published in NBS

Report 7521, 7592, and 7741, the contents of which will be published in future NBS

Monographs.

Related to the above activity is a project on the precision measurement of lattice constants using powder samples. A special high-angle, focusing, back-reflection plate camera

has been built which includes features that permit control of specimen temperature to 0. 01 C

and accurate measurement of the specimen-to-plate distance. Measurements of the lattice constants of cadmium oxide and gold have been completed and the results are being compared

with those obtained at the National Physical Laboratory in England. The precision of the

measurements made with the new camera is expected to be sufficient to permit small depart- ures to be determined in the lattice constants due to vacancies or impurities.

5.13. High-Voltage Laue X-Ray Photography

B. Paretzkin, H. S. Peiser and E. P. Levine

Crystal Chemistry Section

A paper on this subject was presented to the Eleventh Annual Denver Conference on Advances in X-Ray Analysis and will be published in the proceedings of that Conference

(Peiser and Levine, 1963).

The abstract of this paper reads as follows:

"Large single crystals can be examined by conventional X-ray diffraction procedures

only at their surface or by destructive sectioning. Within the limitations inherent in

polychromatic X-ray photography, high voltage Laue pictures are shown to give some information on the internal quality of large crystals.

"Asterism in conventionalLaue photographs is contrasted with streaks due to geometric

effects in Laue patterns of large crystals. Detail within the streaks reveals sub-gram

structure. A primary extinction effect can be used as striking proof of good crystals

being capable of scattering coherently over large distances."

Since that lecture was delivered a high-voltage (up to 150kv) fine-focus X-ray

generator and a slit assembly for producing parallel X-rays have been successfully installed.

A comparison study has been started of the perfection of aluminum crystals differing

in method of growth and of ammonium dihydrogen phosphate crystals with varying degrees ot chromium contamination (see Section 4.5).

21
5. 14. Precision Measurement of the Fundamental

Electrical Properties of Semiconductor Crystals

J. C. French and L. J. Swartzendruber

Electron Devices Section

This project was established late in December 1962 to conduct research into the

methods of measuring the fundamental electrical properties of crystalline semiconductor

materials used in electron devices, in support of the development of improved theory and

techniques of measurement, and of standards for the measurement of appropriate properties.

The principal short-term objectives will be the establishment of the experimental equipment

required for the measurement of the homogeneity of the resistivity of germanium and silicon

single crystals by a traveling probe method, and the determination of the uniformity of

resistivity in crystals which are grown by various methods or which are made to be more uniform by neutron irradiation. This will require the development of sample preparation

techniques and the study of the effects on probe measurements of the semiconductor surface

conditions, needle force, and other factors. It is also planned that the feasibility of

other methods of determining homogeneity of resistivity will be considered.

The importance in itself of this new project for the general aims of the NBS/ARPA

program can be readily appreciated, because no physical property is more widely used for

characterization of crystals than resistivity, yet its measurement is subject to experimental imprecisions and interpretative ambiguities which one can confidently hope to reduce

by careful experimentation such as is commonly applied in standards measurement problems.

At the same time the new project fits in remarkably well with the existing semiconductor device studies, under the leadership of J. C. French, the general objectives of which

are the investigation of semiconductor devices and the semiconductor materials used, their

specification, evaluation, and the development and standardization of methods of analysis.

This previously existing work has received partial support from the Air Force,

Cambridge Research Laboratories and is divided into several tasks :-

a. ) Establishment of device parameter measurement equipment and techniques : Facilities for measurement of a variety of characteristics of semiconductor devices have been

established. Examples are (l) voltage-current characteristics, (2) swept or pulsed families of characteristic curves, (3) small signal parameters at a variety of frequencies,

(4) thermal resistance and (5) capacitance-voltage characteristics of junctions.

b. ) Provision of measurement and advisory services to other groups and organizations : This has been primarily the determination of electrical characteristics, structural

materials, and fabrication techniques (including determination of junction types, etc. ) of

devices for another agency.

c ) Participation in the standardization activities of the Joint Electron Device

Engineering Councils, American Standards Association, and American Society for Testing

Materials : This function covers attendance at committee meetings, reports on our progress

in related work, and general liaison with the industries.

d. ) Study of the characteristics and physical processes of second breakdown in

transistors : This is research into an important but unexplained phenomenon of transistor

action (Schafft and French, 1962).

e ) Improvement and standardization of the characterization of device semiconductor

materials : This task continues in parallel with the new work. It will cover (1) the development of a new one-probe technique for measuring bulk resistivity of thin semiconductor

single-crystals, (2) microwave techniques for bulk resistivity measurements, and (3) the

application to industry standardization of the results of the research conducted under the new project.

22
Brief mention should also be made of the equally closely related electroluminescence

and contact studies (project leader G. G. Harman) to develop methods of measuring contact

phenomena, electroluminescent and thermoelectric properties of silicon carbide and other

semiconducting crystals.

Two recent publications in these fields are included in the reference list (Harman and

Higier, 1962; Harman, Higier and Meyer 1963).

5. 15 Electronic Transport*

H. Frederikse and J. Becker

Solid State Physics Section

The main topic in electron transport is the conduction mechanism in rutile (TiOp.

a ) Measurements are being made of the conductivity (cr) and the Hall effect (R^.

The emphasis is on the very low temperature end of the scale. There is an indication that

conduction in impurity levels or impurity bands is predominant below 4°K. Samples with

different amounts of aluminum, different reductions and different Frenkel defect concentrations are investigated. The purpose of this research is to obtain information about the

nature of the defects in Ti0„.

b. ) Measurements of cr and R^ in the range 10-300°K are performed on oriented samples

to study the anisotropy of the electronic band structure (see also Section 5.5-a).

c. ) Thermoelectric power studies below room temperature indicate a large phonon-drag

effect. The main problem is to separate this effect from the possible temperature dependence of the effective mass.

5. 16. Hall-Effect Measurements

S. Rubin, Engineering Electronics Section

The objectives of this project are the establishment of standardized measuring methods

and terminology for Hall-effect generators and related Hall-effect devices.

This project was begun early in 1962 with the acquisition of a suitable magnet, a sur- vey of the literature, the development of a transistorized nuclear-magnetic-resonance gauss

meter, and the development of small probes for precise measurement of high-intensity fields

(2 to'3 tesla) in small gaps (0.25 in). Other work has had to do with standards for

devices, including color codes and figures of merit, and methods of measurement of device

properties.

5.17. Dielectric Constant and Losses

J. H. Wasilik, Solid State Physics Section

Preparations are being made to explore the possibility of a dielectric loss due to excitons in Cu 0. The real part of the dielectric constant will also be measured. Due to the large size 2 of the exciton, especially in the higher states (d = 100 A for n = 2 and

2500 A for n = 10) [Gross, J. Phys. Chem. Solids 8, 173 (1959)], the contribution to €

' should be large. Exploration will take place at frequencies up to 10 Mc, temperatures

down to He-temperature and light energies 1.9 - 2.3 ev.

*This work was carried out with partial support from the Office of Naval Research.

This work was supported by the Atomic Energy Commission. **

23
5. 18. Dielectrimetric Cryoscopy

G. S. Ross and L. J. Frolen

Pure Substances Section

Cryoscopic techniques constitute one of the more accurate methods of purity analysis.

This determination of freezing-point depression is usually achieved by one of three techniques: (1) dilatometric, (2) calorimetric, or (3) thermometric (time -temperature).

While differing greatly in detail, the success of each method is dependent upon accurate

determination of a series of temperature (T) and fraction-melted (F) values as a sample

undergoes freezing or melting. As practiced, the precision of the analysis is dependent

upon the quantity of the sample which is used. This does not appear to be a serious limitation of another process currently being developed. This process, called dielectrimetric

cryoscopy, like the other methods, depends upon an accurate measurement of T versus F. However, F is determined by correlation of the change in dielectric constant which is an intensive property. The temperature which is measured is the temperature of the cryometric

vessel, and the accuracy of this measurement is likewise not dependent upon the quantity of

sample; indeed it may be advantageous to use small samples. While the apparatus and

techniques now used can be improved, the general utility of the method appears to be

proven by experiments conducted to date.

In practice the sample (solid) completely fills the space between two capacitance

plates. The outer, ground-potential electrode has the form of a cylinder with one closed

end and serves as the container for the sample. When melting occurs, excess sample resulting from the increase in volume flows over the top of the inner electrode. This cell and

a precision, variable capacitor comprise two arms of a four-armed capacitance-inductance

bridge. In these analyses it is assumed that the materials being tested, having undergone

a rather rigorous purification, contain only impurities which are similar in dielectric

properties to the bulk sample. If this is so, then any change in dielectric constant is almost exclusively the result of the change in density and orientation of the major con- stituent as the fusion takes place.

These melting experiments take place in 6 to 24 hours. Shields are maintained at a temperature just above the melting point of the sample. The heating pattern is such that

the sample melts from the outside, progressively producing a thicker cylinder of liquid as the fusion proceeds. There are large end-effects in the cell and each solid-liquid distribution produces varying results, making mathematical analysis of the system extremely

difficult. However, for the purposes of this work, it was only necessary that the change

in capacitance represent a reasonably linear dependence with the fraction melted. If this

dependence exists, then a plot of impedance (or phase angle) versus temperature should be

equivalent to plotting F versus temperature, resulting in a hyperbolic curve similar to those obtained by time -temperature methods. Assuming the capacitance change is a linear

function of the fraction melted, then the ratio of the change at any time to the total

capacitance change during the entire process should correspond to the fraction melted, and

the plot of 1/F versus T , the experimental temperature corresponding to any particular 1/F

value, should result in a straight line. The equation for the relationship between impurity and the depression of the freezing point is: T = F - N (RT /Af

) (1/F).

o o Experiments were run using three types of organic materials: (1) non-polar, non- polarizable, (2) polar, and (3) non-polar but readily polarizable. The specific samples

used were: (1) naphthalene, (2) (3-methylnaphthalene and nitrobenzene, and (3) p-dichlorobenzene. For each material a plot of 1/F versus T was linear over the 1/F range of 1. 5 to 6. 0. The calculated T and Tf values corresponding respectively to 1/F = 1 and 1/F = of at least six experiments for each sample with the exception of nitrobenzene showed standard

deviations which were smaller than those obtained by time-temperature methods on samples of

comparable purity. Preliminary work indicates that nitrobenzene will show the same degree

of precision, but work has not yet been completed upon this compound. The sample of

naphthalene used gave a calculated purity of 99. 989 mole percent with an estimated probable

error 0. 001 mole percent. This and similar values for the other materials have not been

substantiated by other methods of analysis, but comparative time-temperature analyses will

be made. If these results are substantiated by alternate procedures, and this is almost

24
assured by the linear dependence which exists between 1/F and T, the method will have

been shown to be applicable for the analysis of a large percentage of organic materials.

The basic limitation of the method would appear to be in its failure to deal adequately

with materials which have an appreciable electrical conductivity.

One obvious use for such a system other than as a method of purity analysis is the use

of a modified cell as a secondary temperature standard. Exploratory work along these lines

in addition to studies in heterogeneous equilibria and in heterogeneous and homogeneous

nucleation and crystal growth are planned using the same basic dielectrimetric techniques.

5. 19. Magnetic-Resonance Studies in the

Solid State Physics Section

T. P. Chang and A. Kahn

a. ) Electron spin resonance : This project focuses its attention at the moment on molybdenum-doped TiO„. Using the sample of rutile as its own cavity, large Q values

(20,000) are obtained at 77 and 4°K. With the magnetic field in an arbitrary direction 117 well-resolved lines are observed. These lines are due to the Mo and Ti fine-, hyperfine-,

and superhyperf ine-structure. Important conclusions conclusions concerning the crystal

field and overlap can be derived from the results.

Other systems under investigation are reduced TiO„, LiF(:Ti) and spinel(:Co).

R. A. Forman

*

b ) Quadrupole resonance : The Na- and N-nuclei in azide (NaN ) are being investigated.

Information about the structure of the N group is being sought.

5,20. Magnetic Resonance Studies at the Boulder Laboratories

L. M. Matarrese

Radio & Microwave Materials Section

The purposes of this project are to determine the magnetic energy levels, relaxation

times, and transition probabilities of paramagnetic resonance techniques.

An X band EPR spectrometer was completed and improved by addition of automatic

frequency control on the sample cavity, a 100 kc field modulation and detection system, and

a field scanning device driven by an NMR fluxmeter. A new type of plastic cavity with very

thin plated inner walls, for use with the 100 kc system, was designed and constructed. A K- band EPR spectrometer was assembled and operated to provide correlative data. Special

cavities for END0R (electron-nuclear double resonance) for both X band and K band were

designed and are being constructed. The machine calculations of energy levels of manganous

ion in calcite were completed; they satisfactorily removed the discrepancies that existed

when calculations were made by the more usual approximate methods and proved that the

initial spin Hamiltonian used to describe the energy levels was correct. Attempts to find

the EPR of ferric ion in zinc fluoride single crystals met with failure. The well-known

complex spectrum of an unwanted impurity, manganous ion, was detected in these crystals and

may have served to mask the desired spectrum. Interesting EPR spectra were discovered in

amethyst, topaz, and aragonite crystals. Attention was concentrated on the amethyst spectrum,

and a serious attempt is being made to characterize the spectrum completely and correlate

it, if possible, to other known physical phenomena which take place in amethyst. The

crystallographic nonuniformity of many specimens of amethyst has created difficulties in

this work.

Work on amethyst and topaz spectroscopy is continuing using specimens of quartz doped

with ferric and ferrous ions. ENDOR experiments will be carried out on manganous-calcite —

This work was supported by the Engineering Research and Development Laboratory,

Department of the Army.

25
system and topaz, which contain nuclear species that interact with the electron spins. Low

temperature experiments are planned on these systems and also on the zinc fluoride, in a further search for the iron known to be present. Preliminary investigations on antiferromagnetic copper and cobalt sulfates are planned, which may require use of the cryogenic

magnet and millimeter waves.

5. 21. Dilatometric Studies of Polymers

J. Powers and F. Quinn,

Macromolecules Synthesis & Structure Section

a ) Polymorphism in Polvbutene-1 : Studies already completed show that polybutene-1

has at least two melting points and two temperature ranges which differ in their temperature-specific volume relations. The upper range exhibits a crystallization rate-temperature

behavior similar to those of polyethylene or polypropylene. The second range is unique and

it suggested that the latter arises from either a crystal-crystal or llo helix to a 3^ helix

transformation rather than from a further increase in sample crystallinity. The nature of

the transition in the latter temperature range is being elucidated by specific volume

measurements as a function of temperature and pressure.

b. ) Polypentene-1 ; Polypentene-1 shows a maximum in its crystallization rate- temperature curve as determined dilatometrically. The only other example of a maximum

obtained dilatometrically is that of natural rubber. Further, preliminary measurements

indicate that polypentene-1 may exhibit polymorphic behavior similar to that of polybutene-1.

Measurements of the specific volume of polypentene-1 as a function of temperature and

pressure are planned.

5. 22. Field-Emission Studies of the Oxidation

of Single-Crystal Metal Whiskers

W. J. Ambs and E. Escalante,

Metal Reactions Section

The purpose of this project is to study the formation of first oxide layers on single

crystals.

Iron whiskers were grown by metal sublimation in an ultra-high-vacuum apparatus. A preliminary oxidation experiment showed a distinct cessation of field emission from the

•[ill} plane when oxygen was admitted at low pressures. During the oxidation of nickel, as observed in the field emission microscope, it was found that at temperatures of 500 to 600°C,

nickel-oxide whiskers nucleated and grew. These whiskers were substantially larger if the

substrate contained dissolved nickel oxide.

5. 23. Surface Structure of Vapor-Grown Cadmium Crystals

A. R. Verma (Department of Physics,

Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India)

R. L. Parker, Metal Physics Section

The purpose of this project is to study surface morphology in order to help determine

the growth mode of platelets.

Professor Verma' s aid in examining the 'JOOOIJ' surfaces of Cd platelets grown at low

supersaturations has been enlisted because or his authoritative skill in multiple-beam

interferometry of crystal surfaces. This cooperative effort was originated as part of the

NBS counterpart -funds program.

Of particular interest is the mechanism by which these platelets grow with no dislocations at all observable by electron transmission microscopy. Whether dislocations, present

during growth, slip out of the crystal at some stage before it is examined in the electron

microscope should be capable of being determined by optical multiple-beam methods. A number

26
of small platelets grown here have been sent to Professor Verma and are in the process of

being examined.

5. 24. Surface Behavior of Silver Single Crystals

in Fused Sodium Chloride

J. Kruger, Metal Reactions Section and

K. H. Stern, Electrochemistry Section

The purpose of this project is to investigate fundamental reactions at metal singlecrystal surfaces that influence corrosion processes.

In a recent paper J. Kruger and K. H. Stern (1962) have described a study of the

effect on a silver single crystal of immersion in fused NaCl at 900°C. In the presence of

a temperature gradient both dissolution and dendritic growth of silver occurred. Masstransfer, resulting from dissolution and deposition, occurred from the hot to the cold end

of the crystal and was accounted for by shifts of the equilibria 2 Ag + 1/2 0_ = 2 Ag +0

and Ag + Na = Ag + Na. Where the thermal gradient was small, faceted growth of silver

crystals epitaxially related to the substrate crystal was observed.

5 25. The Characterization of Silver Iodide Crystals

G. Burley, Crystallography Section

Silver iodide has been studied by means of the X-ray diffraction technique in attempts

to correlate the structure and various physical properties (Burley, 1962). The wurtzitezincblende type phase dimorphism at temperatures below 147 °C has been investigated and the

role of impurities in phase determination has been demonstrated. The photolytic decomposition in the presence of a halogen acceptor, such as n-butyl alcohol, was shown to be re- lated to the formation of a random mosaic structure from a remarkably perfect one. A

single crystal structure determination of the hexagonal wurtzite phase revealed no evidence

of a statistical displacement of silver atoms from the ideal sites, but rather only a small

anisotropic temperature motion of the atoms. All attempts to grow single crystals of the

face-centered cubic zincblende phase of silver iodide have been unsuccessful. As has been

shown by L. H. Bolz (unpublished) polycrystalline specimens of this phase revealed a primarily negative thermal expansion over the entire temperature range from 4° to 300°K.

The results from samples prepared by hydrostatic pressure and by quenching differed considerably, probably due to variation in the number of defects introduced.

6. INFORMATION ON CRYSTAL GROWTH AND CHARACTERIZATION

F. Ordway, Crystal Growth Section

A file of data on commercial sources of single crystals and ultra-pure materials was

maintained, and information therefrom was supplied to inquirers from NBS and elsewhere.

Negotiations were begun for the production, by a chemical data-processing organization, of an index to cover the technical literature for 1962 of interest to the Crystal Growth

Section. The objective definition of the range of interest, by which references will be

selected, was tested by sample hand searches.

The Oak Ridge National Laboratory of the Atomic Energy Commission has started a Materials Information Center with which close collaboration is being planned.

This work was supported by the National Science Foundation.

27
7. PARTIAL LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

There follows a partial list of scientists engaged in activities described in this

note, with indications of their research fields and organizational location within the

National Bureau of Standards. The latter may be helpful in making contact with individuals

for the purpose of obtaining reprints or further technical information.

Participants at the Washington Laboratories:

AMBS, William J . : Ph.D. Catholic University, 1961; corrosion by energetic species, oxide

mono-layer formation; Metal Reactions Section, Metallurgy Division.

ALLEN, Harry C. Jr . : Ph.D. University of Washington, 1951; crystal structure; Chief,

Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry Division.

BARBER, David J . : Ph.D. University of Bristol, Bristol, England, 1959; dislocations and

plastic flow in alkali-halide crystals; Crystal Growth Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

BECKER, James : Ph.D. Cornell University, 1957; optical and transport properties of semiconductors; Atomic Physics Section, Solid State Physics Division.

BLUNT, Robert F. : Ph.D. Rice University, 1949; optical properties of solids; Solid State

Physics Section, Atomic Physics Division.

BOLZ, Leonard H. : X-ray diffraction on frozen vapors and other solid materials; Crystallography Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

BOWMAN, Horace A. : Cartesian diver; Mass and Scale Section, Metrology Division.

BROWER, William S . : Verneuil process; Crystal Growth Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

BROWN, Walter E . : Ph.D. Harvard University, 1949; solubility and crystallography of

calcium phosphate; Dental Research Section, Polymers Division.

BURLEY, Gordon : Ph.D. Georgetown University, 1962; crystallography of silver iodide;

Crystallography Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

COHEN, Martin I . : X-ray diffraction studies of crystals grown at high temperatures; Solid

State Physics Section, Atomic Physics Division.

COOK, Richard K. : Ph.D. University of Illinois, 1935; acoustics and solid state physics;

Sound Section, Mechanics Division.

DESLATTES, Richard D . : Ph.D. Johns Hopkins University, 1959; X-ray spectroscopy; Crystal

Chemistry Section, Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry Division.

ESCALANTE, Edward : Field-emission; Metal Reactions Section, Metallurgy Division.

FARABAUGH, Edward N . : Etch pits; Crystal Growth Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

FRANKLIN, Alan D . : Ph. D Princeton University, 1949; properties of point defects in

crystals; Chief, Inorganic Solids Division.

FREDERIKSE, Hans P. R. : Ph.D. Leiden University, Netherlands, 1950; semiconductors at low

temperatures; Chief, Solid State Physics Section, Atomic Physics Division.

FRENCH, Judson C . : Electron devices; Electron Devices Section, Instrumentation Division.

FROLEN, Lois : Ph.D. Pennsylvania State College, 1963; Spectroscopy, crystallography,

microscopy; Pure Substances Section, Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry Division.

28
HARDY, Stephen C . : Vapor growth of metal crystals; Metal Physics Section, Metallurgy

Division

HIGIER, Theodore : Resistance of germanium; Electron Devices Section, Instrumentation

Division

HOFFMAN, John D . : Ph. D Princeton, 1949; dielectrics, nucleation rate of polymer crystals;

Chief, Dielectrics Section, Electricity Division.

HORTON, Avery T : Crystal growth, impurity retention; Crystal Chemistry Section, Analytical

and Inorganic. Chemistry Division.

HOWARD, Robert : Ph.D. Oxford, England, 1957; theoretical physics; Metal Physics Section,

Metallurgy Division.

KAHN, Arnold H. : Ph.D. University of California, 1955; band structure of rutile crystals,

studies of paramagnetic impurities in rutile crystals; Solid State Physics Section, Atomic

Physics Division.

KRUGER, Jerome : Ph.D. University of Virginia, 1953; corrosion reactions at metal surfaces;

Metal Reactions Section, Metallurgy Division.

MANN, David E. : Ph.D. University of Chicago, 1948; spectroscopy; Chief, Molecular

Spectroscopy Section, Physical Chemistry Division.

McMURDIE, Howard F . : Crystallography and chemical phase studies; Chief, Crystallography

Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

McNISH, Alvin G. : Precise density determinations for solid materials; Chief, Metrology

Division.

NEUMAN, Roslyn C . : Properties of polymers; Dielectrics Section, Electricity Division.

OGBURN, Fielding : Electrochemistry, electrodeposition; Electrolysis and Metal Deposition

Section, Metallurgy Division.

ORDWAY, Fred : Ph.D. California Institute of Technology, 1949; studies in X-ray crystallography; Chief, Crystal Growth Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

OREM, Theodore : Mechanisms of corrosion processes; Metal Reactions Section, Metallurgy

Division.

PARETZKIN, Boris : Study of perfection of single crystals by means of X-ray diffraction;

Crystal Chemistry Section, Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry Division.

PARKER, Robert L . : Ph.D. University of Maryland, 1960; growth of crystals; Metal Physics

Section, Metallurgy Division

PASSAGLIA, Elio : Ph.D. University of Pennsylvania, 1955; Mechanical relaxation processes

in polymers; Polymer Physics Division.

PEISER, H. Steffen : Crystallography and crystal chemistry; Chief, Crystal Chemistry

Section, Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry Division.

POLLACK, Gerald L . : Ph.D. California Institute of Technology; low temperature physics;

Crystal Growth Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

POWERS, Joseph : Ph.D. University of Massachusetts, 1961; kinetics, morphology, and

mechanism of crystallization of polymers; Macromolecules Synthesis and Structure Section,

Polymers Division.

QUINN, Fred A. : Crystallization rate of high polymers; Macromolecules Synthesis and

Structure Section, Polymers Division.

29
ROBBINS, Carl R. : Phase-rule equilibria of inorganic systems; Crystallography Section,

Inorganic Solids Division.

ROBERTS, D. Ellis : High-temperature crystal growth; Solid State Physics Section, Atomic

Physics Division.

ROSS, Galen S . : Nucleation, crystal growth; Pure Substances Section, Analytical and Inor- ganic Chemistry Division.

ROTH, Robert S . : Ph.D. University of Illinois, 1951; X-ray diffraction studies in

connection with phase equilibria; Crystallography Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

RUFF, Arthur W. : Dislocations and etch pits; Metal Physics Section, Metallurgy Division.

SAYLOR, Charles P . : Ph.D. Cornell University, 1928; precise physical characteristics of

compounds, accurate microscopic measurements of optical properties; Analytical and Inorganic

Chemistry Division.

SCHOOLEY, James F . : Ph.D. University of California, 1961; crystal growth for low-temperature paramagnetic studies; Cryogenics Section, Heat Division.

SCHOONOVER, Irl C . : Ph.D. Princeton University, 1933; research administration; NBS

Director's Office.

SCRIBNER, Bourdon F . : Analytical applications of optical and X-ray spectroscopy; Chief,

Spectrochemistry Section, Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry Division.

STRASSBURGER, John : Crystal growth from solution; Crystal Chemistry Section, Analytical

and Inorganic Chemistry Division.

SWANSON, Howard E . : Physical chemistry, X-ray diffraction; Crystallography Section,

Inorganic Solids Division.

SWART ZENDRUBER, Lydon J . : Solid state physics; Electron Devices Section, Instrumentation

Division.

TIGHE, Nancy : Defects by means of electron microscopy of non-metallic crystals; Physical

Properties Section, Inorganic Solids Division.

TORGESEN, John L : Ph.D. Columbia University, 1942; crystal growth, impurity retentions,

crystal properties; Crystal Chemistry Section, Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry Division.

VAN VALKENBURG, Alvin : High pressure transitions; Crystallography Section, Inorganic Solids

Division

WACHTMAN, Jack, Jr . , Ph.D. University of Maryland, 1961; mechanical and electrical

properties of crystals; Physical Properties Section, Inorganic Solids Division

Participants in the Boulder Laboratories:

DALKE , J L : The characterization of materials at radio frequencies; Chief, Radio and

Microwave Materials Section, Radio Standards Physics Division.

GRUZENSKY, Paul M. : Ph. D Oregon State College, 1959; physical chemistry and high purity

materials; Radio and Microwave Materials Section , Radio Standards Physics Division.

JEFFERSON, Clinton F . : Ph.D. University of Michigan, 1959; solid state solutions for

ferrimagnetic characteristics; Radio and Microwave Materials Section, Radio Standards

Physics Division.

MATARRESE, Lawrence M. : Ph.D. University of Chicago, 1954; solid state physics; EPR and

other resonance spectroscopy related to solid state mechanisms; Radio and Microwave

30
Materials Section, Radio Standards Physics Division.

WELLS, Joseph S . : Microwave physics; solid state physics as it relates to ENDOR and NMR; Radio and Microwave Materials Section, Radio Standards Physics Division.

8. LITERATURE REFERENCES

L. H Bolz, H. P. Broida and H. S. Peiser (1962); Some Observations on Growing Crystals of

Argon, Acta Cryst. 15_, p. 810.

G Burley (1962); A Crystallographic Study of the Polymorphism, Photolytic Activity, and

Structure of Silver Iodide. Ph.D. Dissertation Georgetown University.

G G Harman and T. Higier (1962); Some Properties of Dirty Contacts on Semiconductors and

Resistivity Measurements by a Two-Terminal Method, J. of Appl. Phys. 33 , p. 2198.

G G Harman, T. Higier and 0. L. Meyer (1963) ; Some Electrical Properties of the Porous Graphite Contact on p-Type Silicon, J. of Appl. Phys. 33 , p. 2206.

J D. Hoffman and J J Weeks (1962); Rate of Spherulitic Crystallization with Chain Folds

in Polychlorotrif luoroethylene, J. Chem. Phys. 37, p. 1723.

J Kruger and K H. Stern (1962); Surface Behavior of Silver Single Crystals in Fused

Sodium Chloride, J. Electrochem. Soc. 109, p. 889.

T. Orem (1963); Planar Twin Boundary in Aluminum, Trans. A. I.M. E. in press.

R. L. Parker (1962); Growth Rates of Potassium Crystals from the Vapor Phase, J. Chem. Phys.

37, p. 1600.

R. L. Parker and S. C. Hardy (1962); Vapor-Phase Growth Kinetics of Potassium Whiskers by

Field Emission, J. Chem. Phys. 37 , p. 1606.

H. S. Peiser and E. P. Levine (1963); The Characterization of Large Single Crystals by

High Voltage X-Ray Laue Photographs; Advances in X-Ray Analysis, Ed. W. M. Mueller 6_

G. L. Pollack and H. P. Broida (1963); Vapor Snakes in Argon; J. Chem. Phys. in press.

G. L Pollack and H. P. Broida (1963); Spectroscopic Absorption of NO in Liquid and

Crystalline Kr; J. Chem. Phys. in press.

R. P. Reed (1962); The Spontaneous Martensitic Transformations in 18% Cr, 8% Ni Steels,

Act. Metallurgica 10_, p. 865.

A W Ruff, Jr. (1962); Dislocations and Chemical Etch Pits in Copper, J. Appl. Phys. 33,

p 3392.

H A. Schafft and J C. French (1962); "Second Breakdown" in Transistors, I. R. E. Trans. ED -9, p. 129.

L J Schoen, D E. Mann, C. Knobler and D. White (1962); Rotation-Vibration Spectrum of

Matrix-Isolated Hydrogen Chloride, J. Chem. Phys. 37 , p. 1146.

H E Swanson, M. C. Morris, R. P. Stinchfield and E. H. Evans (1962); Standard X-Ray

Diffraction Powder Patterns, Nat'l. Bur. Standards Monograph 25 Section I.

J L. Torgesen and A. T Horton (1963) ; Electrolytic Conductance of Ammonium Dihydrogen

Physphate Solutions in the Saturation Region, J. Phys. Chem. 67 , p. 376.

J. L. Torgesen, A. T. Horton and C. P. Saylor (1963); Equipment for Single Crystal Growth

from Aqueous Solution, J. Research Nat'l. Bur. Standards 67C, No. 1, p. 25.

31
A. Van Valkenburg (1962); Visual Observations of High Pressure Transitions. Rev. Sci. Instr. , 33, No. 12, p. 1462.

J. B. Wachtman and H. S. Peiser (1962); Symmetry Conditions for Internal Friction caused by

Jumping of Point Defects in Crystals, Appl. Phys. Letters 1_, p. 20.

C. E. Weir, A. Van Valkenburg and E. Lippincott (1962); Optical Studies at High Pressures using Diamond Anvils, Modern Very High Pressure Techniques, Ed. Wentorf, Butterworths Ch. Ill, p. 51.

32

ft U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1963 —677642


U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Luther H. Hodges, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A. V. Astin, Director THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The scope of activities of the National Bureau of Standards at its major laboratories in Washington, D.C., and

Boulder, Colorado, is suggested in the following listing of the divisions and sections engaged in technical work.

In general, each section carries out specialized research, development, and engineering) in the field indicated by

its title. A brief description of the activities, and of the resultant publications, appears on the inside of the

front cover. WASHINGTON, D. C.

Electricity. Resistance and Reactance. Electrochemistry. Electrical Instruments. Magnetic Measurements.

Dielectrics. High Voltage.

Metrology. Photometry and Colorimetry. Refractometry. Photographic Research. Length. Engineering Metrology.

Mass and Scale. Volumetry and Densimetry.

Heat. Temperature Physics. Heat Measurements. Cryogenic Physics. Equation of State. Statistical Physics.

Radiation Physics. X-ray. Radioactivity. Radiation Theory. High Energy Radiation. Radiological Equipment.

Nucleonic Instrumentation. Neutron Physics.

Analytical and Inorganic Chemistry. Pure Substances. Spectrochemistry. Solution Chemistry. Standard Refer- ence Materials. Applied Analytical Research, Crystal Chemistry.

Mechanics. Sound. Pressure and Vacuum. Fluid Mechanics. Engineering Mechanics. Rheology. Combustion

Controls. Polymers. Macromolecules: Synthesis and Structure. Polymer Chemistry. Polymer Physics. Polymer Characterization. Polymer Evaluation and Testing. Applied Polymer Standards and Research. Dental Research.

Metallurgy. Engineering Metallurgy. Microscopy and Diffraction. Metal Reactions. Metal Physics. Electrolysis and Metal Deposition.

Inorganic Solids. Engineering Ceramics. Glass. Solid State Chemistry. Crystal Growth. Physical Properties.

Crystallography.

Building Research. Structural Engineering. Fire Research. Mechanical Systems. Organic Building Materials. Codes and Safety Standards. Heat Transfer. Inorganic Building Materials. Metallic Bunding Materials. Applied Mathematics. Numerical Analysis. Computation. Statistical Engineering. Mathematical Physics. Operations Research. Data Processing Systems. Components and Techniques. Computer Technology. Measurements Automation.

Engineering Applications. Systems Analysis.

Atomic Physics. Spectroscopy. Infrared Spectroscopy. Far Ultraviolet Physics. Solid State Physics. Electron Physics. Atomic Physics. Plasma Spectroscopy.

Instrumentation. Engineering Electronics. Electron Devices. Electronic Instrumentation. Mechanical Instru- ments. Basic Instrumentation. Physical Chemistry. Thermochemistry. Surface Chemistry. Organic Chemistry. Molecular Spectroscopy. Ele- mentary Processes. Mass Spectrometry. Photochemistry and Radiation Chemistry.

Office of Weights and Measures. BOULDER, COLO.

Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory. Cryogenic Equipment. Cryogenic Processes. Properties of Materials. Cryogenic Technical Services. CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY

Ionosphere Research and Propagation. Low Frequency and Very Low Frequency Research. Ionosphere Research. Prediction Services. Sun-Earth Relationships. Field Engineering. Radio Warning Services. Vertical Soundings Research.

Radio Propagation Engineering. Data Reduction Instrumentation. Radio Noise. Tropospheric Measurements.

Tropospheric Analysis. Propagation-Terrain Effects. Radio-Meteorology. Lower Atmosphere Physics.

Radio Systems. Applied Electromagnetic Theory. High Frequency and Very High Frequency Research. Fre- quency Utilization, modulation Research. Antenna Research. Radiodetermination.

Upper Atmosphere and Space Physics. Upper Atmosphere and Plasma Physics. High Latitude Ionosphere

Physics. Ionosphere and Exosphere Scatter. Airglow and Aurora. Ionospheric Radio Astronomy.

RADIO STANDARDS LABORATORY

Radio Physics. Radio Broadcast Service. Radio and Microwave Materials. Atomic Frequency and Time-Interval

Standards. Radio Plasma. Millimeter-Wave Research.

Circuit Standards. High Frequency Electrical Standards. High Frequency Calibration Services. High Frequency

Impedance Standards. Microwave Calibration Services. Microwave Circuit Standards. Low Frequency Calibration

Services.
NBS