LJSDA United Stales 

Dcpnrtmcn1 or 

- Agrlcufture 

PENNSt..A.T.:..:E=------­

Cooperati\ie faien<>ion ·~a/-~tIIs.--"l'J 

 


 

This publication is a combined effort among partners at the USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, Penn State University Extension, Capital Resource
 

Conservation & Development, and Clinton County Conservation District
 

Desktop publishing by Molly McDonough, USDA NRCS 
Contents 


lmp1oving Soil I foalth in Field and Foragt• Crop Prodm·tion .................................... 1 


Soil Biology ..........................................................................................................................3 


Con ti nuous No till to1 Soil Health .................................................................................. 4 


No l1l1 5oils ............................................... , .............................................................. 4 


No lill 1-lnd Cover Crops inPermsyJvnnin .......................................................... 6 


M Cl nagemc11I Principles and Techniques to improve C)oiJ I fenllh ...............................8 


l. )iV('t~ity Crop RotatiollS ................................................................................ 9 


2. J>Jant Co,·er Crops .......................................................................................... 10 


3. Di\' •1 if • Cover CroJ>S ................................................................................... 12 


1. Maxint1ze Ll,•ing Roots ..................................................................................13 


5. Cr O\V Livutg Plants ....................................................................................... 1-1 


6. 1'.-1rut.tge CaJbon ............................................................................................. 15 


7. Use lntcrseeding............................................................................................. 16 


8. Pl.1nt Crlll(>n ..................................................................................................... 17 


9 Eitlu,11ce c:ic:>il Armor ........_................................................................................... 18 


10 Mctnngl' Nutrients .......................................................................................... 19 


11. Moat.lg<' Mru1ure ............................................................................................. 20 


12. Mn lll18l' Pcsls .................................................................................................. 21 


13. Avoid 1n lion ........................................................................................ 21 


14. IJ1lt'gi·c1te C1·ops and Livestock ....................................................................n22 


Additional B(•st Managen1ent Practices tor Em ion Conh ol .....................................23 


Con("lusion ........................................................................................................................ 24 


Glossary ol Ternts ..................... --~··········· ..·············•····••····················· ........................... 25 


r:tilt atiOl\cll lJlC>l tu1Uties ···---·------···---··································-·······································--·- -- .26 


Improving Soil Health in Field and Forage Crop Production I 

Improving Soil Health in Field and 

Forage Crop Production 

S

oil health is the continued capacity of soil to 

function as a living ecosystem that sustains 

plants, animals, and humans. Viewing soil 

as a living ecosystem that has 'health' reflects a 

fundamental shift in the way we think about soil. 

Soil isn't an inert growing medium that needs to be 

filled up with water and nutrients when it nms out. 

Rather, if the soil is healthy, it is teeming with large 

and small organisms that live together in a dynamic, 

complex web of relationships. Farm crops and 

animals become part of this unique 'cycle of life.' 

A healthy soil enables a cropping system to run 

smoothly, just like the well-oiled hub of a wheel. 

In contrast, a 'sick' soil has an ecosystem that is out 

of balance, lacks certain key organisms, or lacks 

the food these organisms need. This results in 

problems such as low yield, increased runoff, soil 

moisture deficits, pest and disease problems, and 

nuh'ient deficiencies. In the past, it was common 

to h'eat the symptoms of poor soil health with 

temporary patches. For example, runoff problems 

might be dealt with by tilling the soil to increase 

pore space, not realizing that the fundamental 

problems were lack of soil armor (i.e., cover) to 

protect the soil from raindrop impact, absence 

of continuous living vegetation to capture solar 

energy to feed soil organisms which create 

Soil fiea£t1i ~ Wie, tire 

fiuD, 4 a w11reel, wJlii& 

na-till ~ 

tire Wn. 

spongy soil structure, and a living root system that 

stimulates aggregation! 

Lack of soil health is usually the reason farmers, 

researchers, and policy makers struggle with no-till. 

Ifsoil is healthy, success with no-till is achievable 

and problems such as the excessive use of pesticides 

or nutrient runoff are avoided. Considering the 

negative impacts of tillage on soil health, this 

publication takes the view that continuous no-till 

is needed to achieve soil health. Continuous no-till 

is the planting of all crops without the use of any 

prior tillage. 

This publication emphasizes the natural principles 

of the no-till system. Soil health is like the hub of a 

wheel, while continuous no-till is the rim (Figure 1, 

page 2). We will discuss 14 spokes co1mecting the 

hub and rim. 
2 I Improving Soil Health in Field and Forage Crop Production 

These 14 spokes are management principles and techniques to improve soil health: 

1. Diversify Crop Rotations 8. Plant Green 

2. Plant Cover Crops 9. Enhance Soil Armor 

3. Diversify Cover Crops 10.Manage Nutrients 

4. Maximize Living Roots 11.Manage Manure 

5. Grow Living Plants 12.Manage Pests 

6. Manage Carbon 13.Avoid Compaction 

7. Use Interseeding 14.Integrate Crops and Livestock 

Figure 1. Soil health is like the hub of a wheel. There are 14 spokes, or management principles and 

techniques that improve soil health. 

When spokes are missing, the wheel starts to malfunction, but when they are present, the system is highly 

productive, profitable, and environmentally sustainable. This publication explains how to build soil health, 

increase profit from a diversity of enterprises, reduce risk by weather-proofing crops against extremes in 

rainfall and temperature, protect crops from pests and diseases, and utilize animals as an integral part of 

the farm. 
Soil Biology I 3 

Soil Biology 


While not exactly microbes 

since they can be seen with the 

Photo: Soll and naked eye, worms P.lay an important Water Conser­ role in asricultural fields and should be vation Society (SWCS). 2000. included w soil biology discussions. There 

Soll Biology Primer. Rev. are three main ed. Ankeny, IA. groups ofworms: 


surface residue 


Nematodes are ofteu known as pests to feeders (redwig­


agricultural crops, but most nematodes glers), soil feeders 


do not cause crop damage. Nematodes 


eat bacteria, fungi, protozoa, pest (earthworms), residue feeders and "' ~-i~~~~I~

nematodes, andinsect larva.Like the that live in vertical burrows (nig t craw ers). protozoa, they also excrete nitrogen The last two groups play a critical role in water 

and micro nutrients in a infiltration 6ecause their channels and burform that is plant rows allow water to soak into the ground available. Plant roots also tend to grow into these open 

channels. The slimy worm excretions help 

build soil aggresates and contain plant 

availablenutnents. Night crawlers are 

long lived and are typically rare in 

tilled fields. 

These single-cell organisms are 

the grazers of the microbe world. They move freely in the water 

around plant roots and soil aggregates. They feed on bacteria, 

fungi, and algae. As they eat These are the smallestof the other microbes, they excrete There are two main microbes and the most abundant. nitrogen and micro nutrients roups ofsoil fungi: They utilize simple sugars from the in a form that is immedi­ oue group breaks down plants and digest food sources like ately plant available. organic material and dead plant cells and cellulose. Some he other group (M}'­ bacteria have the ability to turn atmo­ t! orrhizae) forms a large spheric nitrogen into tock Photo underground networlC plant-available forms. ,_mlijiiliim•that connects to plant Rhizobia bacteria associ­ roots and scavenges nutrients andwater atedwith le~es are the for the plants. Both types are important best known of these bac­ for bw1ding humus and breaking down teria, but there are other complex plant materials like corn ~es of free-living soil stalks. Fungi also produce a biotic bacteria that can also glue (called glomalin) that is critical fix nitrogen. Bacteria are a food source for to forming soil aggregates and creat­ the other microbes. Plowed fields and ing good soil structure. Continuous 

grass systems tend to have higher popu­ no-tillsoil will have larger fungal " lations of bacteria than fungL populations than plowed soil 
4 I Continuous No-Till for Soil Health 

Continuous No-Till for Soil Health 


No-till is a powerful tool to combat erosion. 

It increases residue cover and creates 

firmer soil and better soil structure. No-till 

reduces erosion by more than 80 percent versus 

chisel plowing in a com-soybean rotation where 

crop residue is left after harvest. Even ifsome crop 

residues are removed in this rotation, soil erosion is 

still reduced more than 70 percent by using no-till. 

In continuous silage corn, the addition of a cover 

crop can decrease erosion by as much as 70 percent, 

whereas the removal of soybean residue can 

increase erosion by as much as 25 percent. 

Instead of addressing soil erosion and soil 

degradation, there is a need to focus on building 

soils. Keeping growing crops on the landscape 

tlu·oughout the year, including cover crops with 

continuous no-till, can reduce soil erosion to very 

low levels. TI1e soil building process becomes 

possible when soil loss is reduced to levels not 

reflected in current erosion prediction models. 

Because ittakes years to improve soil health, it is 

important that no-till is practiced continuously. 

Even one year of tillage can have a dramatic 

negative impact on soil health. A research study 

in central Pennsylvania showed the positive effect 

continuous no-till has on soil tilth. Soil aggregate 

stability in the soil surface of continuous no-till 

was 100 percent greater than in 

No-Till Soils 

Soil aggregate stability is a measure of soil structure. 

Soil structure is the marmer in which soil particles 

(sand, silt, and clay) are arranged and connected. 

Sometimes it is called soil tilth. In a healthy soil, the 

sand, silt, and clay particles are loosely connected, 

with plenty of pore spaces between 

moldboard plow, 61 percent greater them for water moven1ent, aeration, 9Jecaa6e it tafre6 ta than in chisel/disk, and 25 percent root penetration, and biological 

greater than in short-term no-till imp'UW-e 6ail fiealtli, it ~ activity to take place. Important 

(Figure 2). impoJttant tliat na-till ~ substances that hold the particles 

together are glues produced by Continuous no-till is defined as the p'iadiced cant~""· mycorrhi.zal fungi and bacteria, planting of all crops without the 

use of any prior tillage. The no-till 

planter or drill accurately places the desiJ:ed crop 

seed at the proper depth while providing good 

seed-to-soil contact. Planters and drills may or may 

not use coulters. They may be equipped with disk 

fertilizer openers to properly place plant nutrients. 

Shallow disk injection of manure or fertilizer is also 

considered to be consistent with continuous no-till 

planting. However, a focus on equipment would be 

self-defeating, no matter how important it is. This 

publication emphasizes the natural principles of the 

no-till system. 

the fungal hairs made by different 

kinds of fungi, worm excretions and fine roots. If 

these are lacking, aggregate stability will be low. It 

is extremely important to have stable soil structure 

at the soil surface. This results in mellow (friable or 

loose) surface soil: the major reason planting gets 

easier allowing farmers to remove coulters and 

reduce down pressure on the plar1ters after a few 

years in no-till. The stable surface soil structux:e also 

helps absorb and hold water in the root zone tor 

improved water ar1d nuh·ient uptake ar1d retention 

and eventually, increased yields. 

ioo ...-~~~~~~~~~~~~-.==========. 

•Long-term NT 

90 -1---------------1 • short-term NT 

llChiseVdisk 

;e 80 ~ 

~ 

Ii 70 

_g 

<II 

2 60 CJ) "' !!! 

CJ) 50 ~ 

40 

30 

0-2" 2-6" 5-1 0" 

Sampling depth 

Figure 2. Building soil structure with no-till takes time. 

Aggregate stability in a long-term study was much higher in 

continuous no-til l than in short-term no-till, chisel/disk, or 

moldboard plowed plots. (Courtesy ofSjoerd Duiker) 
Continuous No-Till for Soil Health I 5 

A recent review of different studies shows that the 

longer no-till is practiced, the larger the microbial 

biomass becomes (Figure 3). These microbes are an 

important indicator of soil health. Some of these 

microbes, especially fungi, are highly sensitive 

to tillage. Tillage is like buming down the house, 

it disrupts the microbial biomass and the soil 

biological conununity has to rebuild. 

Soil improvement with continuous no-till is not 

limited to the surface. Armually plowed soil will 

usually show a dense plow pan just below the 

depth of tillage, the absence of deep burrowing 

earthworms, and weak surface soil sh·ucture. This 

contrasts with the soil profile of a high-quality, 

continuous no-till soil that has granular surface 

structure, blocky structure below the surface layer, 

absence of a tillage pan, and continuous macropores 

created by decomposing roots and earthworms 

which go from the surface deep into the subsoil. 

Therefore, continuous no-till modifies the entire soil 

profile (Figure 4). Over time, continuous no-till soil 

begins to resemble a natural prairie soil. 

Because of the firm but porous nature of longterm no-till soil, the soil supports weight without 

detrimental effects. This is very important for field 

work or when grazing animals. One study found 

that soil with poor stiucture was not trafficable 

for 25 days out of a wet, cold month, 

while the same soil with good 

structure was not trafficable for only 

seven days. This explains why grazing 

no-till cover crops seldom causes 

excessive compaction ifinanaged 

properly. In a compaction study 

in Pennsylvania, rutting caused by 

manure spreader traffic decreased 

the longer no-till had been practiced 

(Figure 5, page 6). 

Ratio microbial biomass in NT: conventional till 

2.0-----------------­

i=' 

~ 1.8 

z 

0 

~ 1.6 

0 

~ ftl 

~ 1.4 

:a 

Ri 

:aE 1.2 u 

::E 

1.0 

Short-term Medium-term Long-term 

No-till No-till No-till 

Figure 3. The ratio of microbial biomass carbon of no-till 

(NT) and conventional tillage (CT) for short term (0-2 yrs.), 

medium term (3-7 yrs.) and long-term (8-18 yrs.) no-till. It 

shows that microbial biomass increases the longer no-till is 

practiced. The samples were drawn from depths ranging from 

the top one to eight inches of soil and came from 40 different 

studies. Source: Diva Souza Andrade, Arnaldo Colozzi-Filho 

and Ken E. Giller. 2003. The soil microbial community and 

soil tillage. Pages 51- 81 in Adel El Titi (Editor). Soil Tillage in 

Agroecosystems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. 

Figure 4. The entire soil profile will 

be modified when you use continuous 

no-till. The surface will be covered 

by mulch, granular aggregates, and 

earthworm middens. The topsoil will 

have a granular structure that gradually 

turns into a blocky structure with depth. 

The soil matrix is firm and yet the soil 

is perforated with thousands of pores 

created by roots, fungal hyphae, surface 

and deep-dwelling earthworms, and 

many other types of organisms. Old 

root channels and earthworm burrows 

leave pores that are continuous from the 

surface deep into the subsoil. 

Crop 

residue

No-till Ecosystem Tilled Ecosystem

Crust

'

.. 

. " 
6 I Continuous No-Till for Soil Health 

Figure 5. A compaction study showed the 

difference In rut formation In a moist soil with 

a 30-ton manure truck with road tires In no-till 

of different duration. Long-term no-till had the 

least amount of rut formation, and ruts became 

increasingly deeper the shorter the time span 

became since the last tillage pass (tillage was done 

with a subsoiler to a depth of 17 inches). (Courtesy 

ofSjoerd Duiker) 

No-till and Cover Crops in 

Pennsylvania 

Since 2002, no-till adoption in Pe1msylvania has 

increased, from just over 20 percent of planted 

acres to more than 60 percent today (Figure 6). The 

statistics do not show whether no-till was used 

continuously, but presents a snapshot of no-till 

use in a particular year. H owever, an increase of 

continuous no-till is to be expected ifmore than 

60 percent of the planted acres are planted using 

no-till. Unfortunately, the county transect surveys 

also show that 13-25 percent of the no-till acres do 

not meet minimum residue standards for erosion 

control. In addition, only half of the no-till acres 

had more than 50 percent crop residue cover after 

plan tin g. This level of residue cover is considered 

minimum to maintain or increase soil health. 

There is still a lot of room for increased adoption 

of continuous no-till and better management to 

increase residue levels for soil health improvement. 

Cover crops improve soil health. Cover crops are 

crops grown between two economic crops with the 

primary aim to protect and improve the soil. Cover 

crops reduce runoff, build soil organic matter, retain 

nutrients, fix atmospheric nitrogen, reduce and 

alleviate compaction, provide weed control, an d 

improve soil health (Figure 7). 

No-Till in Pennsylvania 


80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

~ 

-

~ - --­ / 

J 

/ 

2002 2004 2008 2009 2010 2011 2011 2013 2014 

Figure 6. Percentage no-till of all planted acres in Pennsylvania 

over time as reported by USDA-National Agricultural Statistics 

Service in its annual tillage practices survey. The 2002 and 

2004 data were published by the Conservation Technology 

I nformation Center and come from transect surveys performed 

by conservation professionals, while the other data are 

derived from a self-reported survey filled out by a sample of 

Pennsylvania farmers. It shows that no-till has been growing 

and is now the predominant crop establishment practice today. 
Continuous No-Till for Soil Health I 7 

Figure 7. Mixing cover crops from different groups in the cover crop periodic 

table provides multiple benefits for soil health and beneficials. This is a mixture of 

warm season non-legume broadleaves (buckwheat and sunflower), cool season 

legumes (austrian peas), cool season non-legume broadleaves (brassicas), and 

warm season grass (corn). (Courtesy of Lisa Blazure) 

Cover crops can be used for livestock feed which 

may provide an economic benefit to farmers. This 

is an important consideration for Pennsylvania 

farmers. Cover crops can be grazed or harvested 

as forage, reducing the purchase of imported 

feed. This results in more nutrients cycled on the 

farm and reduced nutrient build-up in the soil. 

Although above-ground growth is removed when 

the cover crop is harvested, the root system stays 

in the soil. Root systems have been shown to be 

more important than surface residue to increase soil

organic matter. Overall, using cover crops for feed is

considered to be a win-win situation for farmers and

the envirorunent. 

Cover crop statistics have been collected in the 

last two years in selected counties but are not 

yet gathered as part of a state-wide effort. In a 

2014 transect survey in five counties, cover crop 

use varied from 22-37 percent of crop acres. This 

is a major increase over earlier estimates that 

suggested only 10 percent of crop acres were 

followed by cover crops. In a study done by the 

U.S. Geological Smvey and Pe1mState University 

in south-cenh·al Pennsylvania, cover crop use after 

coin was estimated using satellite images. The 

images selected enabled the researchers to estimate 

cover crop use after coin crops in four counties by 

analyzing how green the fields appeared. The data 

suggest that cover crop use after corn increased 

from 40-66 percent over the years 2009-2013 (Figure 

8). Much of this cover crop acreage followed 

corn silage. 

Corn acres in Berks, Lancaster, Lebanon and 

York followed by cover crop 

c. 

2 

u

.. 

QI 

70 

> - 0 60 u

,.. 

.a 

"Cl 

QI 

3 

50 

40 __,,,­ ~ 

.2

:g 30 

.. 

QI

.. 20 u

.,, 10 c 

0 

u 0 

2009 2010 2011 2012 

Figure 8. Percent corn acres followed by cover crop in Berks, 

Lancaster, Lebanon, and York as measured using remote 

sensing (based on planted corn acres in 2012, from W. Dean 

Hively, Greg McCarthy and Sjoerd W. Duiker. Remote Sensing 

to monitor cover crop adoption in southeastern Pennsylvania. 

To be published in Journal of Soil and Water Conservation in 

December 2015) 
8 I Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

Management Principles and 

Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

N(

o-till works best when every spoke of the wheel is present. This section discusses each of the 14 spokes 

of the wheel that make up the hub of soil health, around which the rim of continuous no-till turns 

Figure 9). The spokes support the system and make it turn smoothly and able to sustain the load. 

Figure 9. There are 14 spokes, or practices, of the wheel that make up the hub of soil 

health, around which the rim of continuous no-till turns. 
Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health I 9 

1. Diversify Crop Rotations 

The first spoke is crop rotation 

diversity. Crop rotation is the 

'repetitive growing of an ordered 

succession of crops on the Sa.Ille 

land over multiple years.' The first 

reason diverse crop rotations are important is that 

yields improve. Research from a long-term crop 

rotation h'ial in cenh·al Pennsylvania showed that, 

compared with continuous corn, com yields were 

improved 7 percent when grown in rotation with 

soybeans, 15 percent in the first year after alfalfa/ 

grass hay and 16 percent in a corn-oat-wheat-red 

clover hay rotation (Figure 10). Interestingly, yield 

improvement of com after alfalfa/grass hay was 

still present four years after termination of the hay. 

The rotation effect on crop yield is well established 

agronomically (though not well understood) and 

confirmed in many different hfals. Yet, it seems 

to be neglected. Why? It may be that agricultural 

systems have become focused on one or two crops 

due to high infrash·ucture and machinery costs. But, 

perhaps it is time to rethink this approach. Here are 

a few reasons why more diverse crop rotations are 

more beneficial: 

Legumes in rotations fix atmospheric nitrogen 

tluough their symbiotic relationship with rhizobium 

bacteria and reduce the need for nitrogen fertilizer 

in the rotation. Part of the legume nitrogen can 

be counted as a credit towards the next, nonleguminous crop. Some legumes, such as peas, have 

been observed to have a very beneficial effect on 

following grass-type crops while terminated alfalfa 

sod supplies almost all the nih·ogen required for a 

following com crop. 

Crop rotation is an important pest management 

tool. For example, corn rootworm is not an issue 

if corn is rotated with other crops. Weeds are also 

easier to control in a diverse crop rotation because of 

a range of practices to control them, such as narrow 

and wide row crops, winter and sununer aru1uals, 

biennials and perennials, fertilizer placement 

(versus broadcast applications), different herbicide 

programs and application timings in the different 

crops, mowing, grazing, and harvesting at different 

times of the year. All these practices together work 

to reduce weed populations. By using diverse crop 

rotations in continuous no-till, herbicide use was 

reduced 50 percent compared with simple crop 

rotations on farms in the Great Plains. 

Rotation Effect on Corn Yields - Penn State Hunter Plots 

1990-2006 

175 

16% 15% 170 

- 165 ~ s. 160 

'O 

Qi 155 ·:;. 

c:

... 150 0 

0 

145 

140 

135 

Continuous corn Corn/soybean 1st yr. corn after 2nd yr. corn after 3rd yr. corn after 4th yr. corn after Corn after 

4 yrs. alfalfa 4 yrs. alfalfa 4 yrs. alfalfa 4 yrs. alfalfa oat/wheat/red 

clover hay 

Figure 10. Crop rotation diversity increases crop yields as was shown in a long-term crop rotation 

trial on a Hagerstown silt loam soil in Centre County, PA. Percentages above the second to last bar 

indicate the percentage of corn yield increase over that in continuous corn (first bar). (Courtesy of 

Scott Harkcom) 
10 I Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

Soil health is improved. Greater crop diversity 

above ground will also result in a more varied 

microbe food source and diverse microbial 

conununity below ground. Crops rotated with 

different root architectures, will impact soil 

structure in a variety of ways. Using massive, 

fibrous root systems will help improve aggregation, 

especially near the surface. The deep taproots of 

certain peremuals can penetrate up to ten-feet deep. 

Old root channels will be available for subsequent 

crops, allowing for deep rooting and water 

percolation. In a long-term crop rotation trial in 

central Pe1msylva11ia, aggregate stability was hlgher 

the more diverse the crop rotation (Figure 11). 

Machinery is used more efficiently. In simple 

rotations or monocultures, equipment is used only 

a few months in the year. With a diversity of crops 

that are planted and harvested at different times of 

the year, the combine, planter, and drill can be used 

more months of the year. It is also possible to use 

smaller, more affordable equipment. 

There are fewer labor peaks. Labor needs 

are spread out over the year. Therefore, more 

diverse crop rotations also increase employment 

opportunities in rural areas. 

2. Plant Cover Crops 

1 The second spoke is cover 

crops. Primarily grown for nonconunercial purposes at times 

when soil would othe1wise 

be without living vegetation, cover crops are 

used to: 

Provide soil erosion protection. Tills is especially 

important if crop residue cover is minimal after 

harvest of the main crop. 

Absorb, retain, and recycle nutrients. Some 

nutrients, such as 11itrate, are soluble and can 

easily leach below the root zone. Cover crops 

take up soluble nutrients, protecting them from 

lea.cling. In a survey of cover crop biomass on 

working farms in different parts of Pennsylvania, 

every ton of dry matter (mostly rye) contained 

on average 57 pounds of rutrogen. Without 

cover crops, much of tills 11itrogen would have 

leached to groundwater and been lost to streams 

and rivers. 

Maryland research confirmed that rutrate 

concentrations in soil water decreased 

remarkably when a cover crop of rye was used 

(Figure 12). 

Soil aggregate stability in corn in different

crop rotations 

UI 

...

Q) 

~ a

g> 30 ... 

Cl 

Cl 

~ b

~ 20 .Q 

s

UI 

...

! 10

~ 

0

Continuous Com/Saybmn 1!tyr. corn Corn lifter orlb/ 

C 

com after alfalfa wheat/red

clover hay 

Cropping System 

Figure 11. Aggregate stability was higher in diverse 

crop rotations in a long-term crop rotation trial in central 

Pennsylvania. (K. K. Grover. 2008. Long-term cropping 

systems effects on soil aggregate stability, corn grain 

yields, and yield stability. A dissertation in agronomy. 

The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA) 

35 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 

-+- Rye cover 90·91 

-e- W inter fallow 90-91 
 Corn --..- Rye cover 91-92 


-...-- Winter fallow 91-92 ..--.. 30 

Figure 12. Nitrate-N concentrations in leachate decreased 

dramatically in Maryland when a rye cover crop was used. The rye 

effectively reduced nitrate losses to ground water and preserved 

N for future crops. (K. W. Staver and R.B. Brinsfield. 1998. Using 

cereal and grain winter cover crops to reduce groundwater nitrate 

contamination in the mid-Atlantic coastal plain. Journal of Soil and 

Water Conservation 53(3): 230-240) 

_I

-­0>E 25 '-'" 

z 

Q, 20

-

~ ~ 

c 15 

Q)

-ro -5 10 

ro 

Q) 

_I 

5 

-+- Rye cover 92-93 

-e- Winter fallow 92-93 

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May 
Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health I 11 

Cover crops can make nuh·ients available from 

soil and release them to following crops upon 

decomposition. Some cover crops release organic 

acids that solubilize nutrients from soil particles. 

Research in Maryland showed that phosphorus 

was concentrated in the taproots of forage radish. 

Available phosphorus concentrations were 

increased where the root had decomposed in the 

spring (Figure 13). 

Fix atmospheric nitrogen. Leguminous cover crops 

fix large amounts of nitrogen from the atmosphere 

because of a unique bacterial infection in their roots 

that is beneficial to the legume and the bacterium. 

Because of this symbiotic relationship, no nitrogen 

has to be applied to these crops. The bacteria 

are called rhizobium, and different legumes are 

adapted to different rhizobium species. These 

bacteria can survive for many years in the soil. 

However, when the legume has not been grown 

in a field for a long period, it may be necessaiy to 

re-introduce the bacterium by mixing it with the 

seed prior to planting. Examples of legumes ai·e 

alfalfa, soybeans, snap beans, haity vetch, peas, 

red, white and crimson 

clover, cowpea, sunn 

hemp, and fava beai"t. 

While direct transfer of 

nitrogen from the living 

legume to companion 

crop has been shown to 

be small, when part or 

all of the legumes dies, 

the proteins in their 

cells decompose, releasing nitrogen that can be 

absorbed by another crop. A hairy vetch cover crop 

can supply all the nitrogen needed by a following 

corn crop, while a crin"tSon clover cover crop can 

supply roughly 80-100 pounds per acre of nitrogenequivalent to the following crop. 

Provide weed control. There is no practice that 

provides complete weed conh·ol - even herbicides 

provide weed control only for a short period of 

time, after which the growing crop provides weed 

con trol by out-competing them. Cover crops 

also provide weed contrnl by competit"lg with 

weeds when they grow. Some cover crops release 

chemicals that inhibit germination and eai·ly growth 

of ce1tain weeds, and the mulch left behind supplies 

a physical barrier ai"ld light control mechanism that: 

inhibits weed emergence. 

Provide forage. Although cover crops ai·e not 

grown primarily for commercial purposes, they 

can be used for grazing, green chop, silage, or 

hay if needed. The use of cover crops for forage is 

beneficial because more feed is produced on the 

farm and fewer nutrients are imported in purchased 

feeds. This helps address the nuhient imbalance 

in Pennsylvania (nuti·ient importation in feed). 

Another important benefit of using cover crops 

for forage is that farmers are motivated to plant 

ai"ld manage the cover crops carefully to grow feed 

while providing environmental benefits at the 

same time. When cover crops are used for feed, it 

is recommended to leave a portion standing and 

provide enough time for regrowth to help feed soil 

microbes ai"td provide soil armor. 

P, ppm 

150 

139 

129 

Figure 13. Available phosphorus was much higher in 

the vicinity of the holes of the decomposed taproots 

of forage radish in the spring. These cover crops can 

act like banded fertilizer by absorbing, retaining, and 

releasing phosphorus in available forms. (From White 

and Weil, 2011). 
12 I Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

3. Diversify Cover Crops 

The third spoke is cover crop 

diversity. Mixing different cover 

crops and planting them together 

allows better use of water, light, and 

nuh'ients, often resulting in greater 

biomass production and better resource utilization 

(Figure 14). Ecologists call this 'over-yielding.' This 

means plants compete less with plants from other 

species than with plants of the same species. 

The different plant species use different resow·ces, 

resulting in more efficient utilization. For example, 

plants with upright leaves catch a different 

spech·um of light than plants with horizontal leaves; 

legumes use atmospheric nih·ogen while grasses 

and forbs use soil nitrogen; cool season grasses 

don't compete much with warm season grasses 

due to different temperature requirement, etc. The 

periodic table of cover crops can help you select 

cover crops with different characteristics when 

mixing species (Table 1). Above and below-ground 

diversity also provides varied microbe food sources. 

0.35 

e 

~ 0.30 

Ci 

~ 0.25 VI 


VI 


ns 

E 0.20 0

:a 

'C 

c 0.15 ::I 

0 

..... 

Cl 

41 0.10 >

0 

.c 

c( 0.05

0.00 

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 

Species number 

Figure 14. By increasing the number of species, the 

productivity of grassland plots increased. This is called 

'overyielding' which means plants from the same species 

compete more with themselves than with plants from 

another species. By mixing cover crops greater benefits 

can be expected. 

Table 1. Periodic table of cover crops showing cool season and warm season 

cover crops, grasses, broadleaves, and legumes to put together diverse 

cover crop mixtures. 

Cover Crop Periodic Table 

Cool Season Plants II Warm Season Plants 

I II 

-Grass- Grass

Barley Broadleaf Plants Pearl Millet 

(wk) 

Oat(wk) Arugula Safflower Foxtail Millet 

(wk) (wk) 

Ryegrass Flax (wk) I Legumes Buckwheat Proso Millet I (wk) (wk) 

Wheat Rape Turnip (wk) Winter Field Chickling vetch Medic Chickpea Sunflower Sudan grass 

Pea (wk) (wk) (wk) (wk) 

Cereal rye Phacelia Radish (wk) Lentil Red clover Ladino clover Cowpea Amaranth Teff (wk) (wk) (wk) 

Canola I Spring Pea Bean Soybean Grain 

Triticale Beet Crimson clover Chicory Sorghum Mustards (wk) (wk) (wk) (wk) 

Forage Oat Ethiopian Tyfon Vetch Sweet clover Alfalfa Sun Hemp Flower mix Com (wk) 

(wk) Cabbage (wk) (wk) 

(wk) =winter killed (USDA NRCS) 
Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 113 

4. Maximize Living Roots 

The principle of maximizing 

living roots in soil year-round is 

the fourth spoke. Roots nourish 

microbes by providing a food 

source or by releasing nuh·itious 

compounds into the soil. It is estimated that plants 

release from 10-40 percent of the carbon fixed by 

photosynthesis through the roots. This carbon 

increases soil organic matter. Five different types 

of organic compounds released tluough roots are: 

1. Cells are continually falling off root tips as 

roots grow; 

2. 	 Root tips produce an insoluble lubricating 

gel that helps the root penetrate small pores 

and provides the root tip protection against 

drying, helps gather nutrients, and binds 

soil particles together into aggregates that 

allow for better soil aeration and water 

percolation; 

3. 	Soluble compounds called exudates are 

produced and leach from the root surface. 

These leacheates include organic acids, 

amino acids, proteins, sugars, phenolics, 

and other substances easily decomposed by 

microorganisms. The exudates have many 

functions; for example, they can solubilize 

plant nutrients such as phosphate from the 

soil particles, change the redox state on the 

root surface making iron more available, 

desorb nuh'ients from clay surfaces, or 

chelate zinc; 

4. 	 Sugars are fed directly by roots to fungi and 

bacteria that live in symbiosis with roots. 

Most well-known examples are 

rhizobia that fix atmospheric nih'ogen 

in legume roots, and arbuscular 

mycorrhizal fungi that form bushy 

structures inside root cells connected 

to hyphae that extend the reach of the 

root into surrounding soil (Figure 15). 

5. 	Dead cells are being lost from the root 

surface continuously as the roots develop. 

Subsequently, decomposer fungi and bacteria 

feed upon these dead cells located away from 

root tips. 

The importance of living roots for soil structure 

improvement was evident in a Penn State study in 

which aggregate stability was measured at different 

times of the year in different crop rotations (Figure 

16). The study showed that aggregate stability 

increased during the period of active root growth 

and subsequently decreased when the root system 

declined. In the rotations with perennials, aggregate 

stability was always greater than in annual crop 

rotations due to prolonged presence of living roots. 

Figure 15. Schematic 

of the surface of 

a plant root with 

mycorrhizal fungi 

growing inside the 

root cells. Small 

bushy fungal 

structures called 

arbuscules grow 

inside root cortical 

cells. Water and 

nutrients are 

absorbed through the 

fine fungal hairs that 

extend into the soil 

and then passed on to 

the plant. Mycorrhizae 

release glomalin, 

an important glue 

that improves soil 

structure. (From 

mycorrhizaes.info/ 

vam.html) 

Figure 16. The dynamics of aggregate 

stability in a long-term crop rotation trial 

in central Pennsylvania. Aggregate stability 

increased with period of active root growth, 

peaked when root systems were at their top, 

and declined with root system decline. (K. K. 

Grover. 2008. Long-term cropping systems 

effects on soil aggregate stability, corn grain 

yields, and yield stability. A dissertation 

in agronomy. The Pennsylvania State 

University, University Park, PA) 

40 

"' 	 35 ~ 

~ 30 Cl

Cl 

~ 25 

:c 

~ 20 ....

QI 

~ 15 

10 

5 

Small grains (oats, wheat) In 
 rotation with perennial red clover hay 


_..., 

•"-- ' ..., ""..,." -Corn" in rotation with perennials ., " alfalfa or red clover hay ' "'

_.--	

' '' 

--­ -	 ' ..., ... __ 

May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 


Month 

14 I Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

5. Grow Living Plants 

The filth spoke is to have living 

plants in the field year-round. 

Living plants harvest sunlight and 

fix carbon dioxide from the air, 

producing different carbohydrates, 

and release oxygen. These carbohydrates include 

sugars, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and 

many more. The carbohydrates are used to make 

plant cells and tissue. Because plants stand at the 

foundation of the soil food web, providing the 

energy source for most living organisms that ca1mot 

capture sun light, it is beneficial to have them 

growing in the field continually to keep the soil food 

web active (Figure 17). 

Cover crops are important because they keep living 

plants on the field during fallow periods. Cover 

crops should be planted as soon as the prima1y 

crop is harvested. Having a plan of how 

the cover crop will be established and 

the seed on hand prior to the planting 

window is very important. An exception

to this may be when planting following 

small grain harvest because some cover 

crops, when planted too early, may be 

subject to winter kill. In this case it is 

justified to plant the cover crop a few 

weeks after small grain harvest. 

It can be a challenge to plant cover 

crops early in the fall to produce 

enough growth to survive the winter 

and provide adequate cover. Cover 

crops should be selected that are 

adapted to fall and winter temperatures.

Unfortunately, the harvest of summer 

crops such as corn or soybeans may 

be so late that cover crops produce 

little fall growth. Early-maturing corn 

hybrids and soybean varieties that 

can be harvested a week or two earlier 

than normal enable cover crops to 

produce better growth in the fall. Check 

variety trials to determine which shortseason varieties can produce similar 

yields as long-season varieties in your 

geographic area. 

Another opportunity for fall growth 

from a cover crop after corn grain or 

soybean harvest is to use interseeding 

(see next section). Late in the fall, a 

cover crop of rye or wheat can still 

be planted using 'dormant seeding.' 

Dormant seeding 

means that the 

seeds are in the 

soil but may not 

germinate or 

emerge until early 

spring. However, 

by planting time 

these cereals may 

be 6 to 12 inches 

tall. Dormant 

seedings are encouraged especially when some crop 

residues are present to help protect soil over the 

winter. 

Manure may be applied on a dormant seeding in 

the spring. If a recommended fall deadline for cover 

crop planting is not met, dormant seeding still may 

be a good choice, although planting cover crops 

earlier for living cover in the winter is preferable. 

Carbon Dioxide 

- Soil Food Web 

Figure 17. Plants stand at the beginning of the soil food web. Through 

photosynthesis they are able to capture the energy of sunlight and 

manufacture organic molecules that supply the energy for all other organisms. 

This dynamic system works best if living plants occupy the field year-long. 

(Courtesy of www.landscapeforlife.org) 
Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health I 1s 

6. Manage Carbon 

The sixth spoke is carbon 

management. Carbon is not 

considered to be a plant nutrient and 

yet more than 40 percent of a plant 

is carbon (on a dry matter basis). 

Compare this with typical macronutrient contents 

of 1.5 percent nitrogen, 1 percent potassium, and 

0.2 percent phospho1us. Fanners are really 'carbon 

managers'- they use plants to absorb carbon dioxide 

from the atmosphere and convert it into many 

different compounds, some of which are harvested 

(Figure 18). A large portion of the carbon absorbed 

is used to feed soil organisms through the living 

roots. This carbon in the soil is of particular interest 

because it has such a profound effect on soil health. 

A soil with high organic matter content is a good 

indicator of soil productivity. In the past this was 

called 'humus.' It is now recognized that humus is 

the highly stable form of carbon, and plants feed soil 

organisms with non-stable carbon compounds that 

are quickly consumed but contribute to the growth 

and activity of the entire soil food web. The belowground part of the plant is probably more important 

than the above-ground part for increasing humus 

content. Therefore, it is important to have living 

roots in the soil year-round and return organic 

materials such as crop residues and manure to the 

soil. It is also important to limit soil disturbance 

because research has shown that large amounts 

of carbon dioxide are released when the soil is 

disturbed. The greater the volume of soil disturbed, 

the greater the carbon lost from the soil. 

Maintaining a 

proper balance 

of carbon and 

nitrogen in the soil 

is very important 

in a healthy soil. As 

carbon is produced, 

a sow·ce of nitrogen 

needs to be 

available to provide 

the nutrients that 

microbes need to 

break down plant materials high in carbon, such 

as com stalks or small grain sh·aw. Rotations need 

to include legumes and soil organic matter content 

needs to be increased so that the soil has a larger 

source of nitrogen that can be made available when 

organisms and crops most need it. Using cover crop 

mixtures of both legumes and grasses is another 

way of providing microbes with both carbon and a 

nitrogen source to break down the carbohydrates 

and increase the level of organic matter in the soil. 

CO. CapbJred by planlS 

(Phol0$ynU1esls) 

Plant Carbon 

Carbon from plants gets 

transferred to lhe soil via 

roots & decomposition. 

Soll Carbon 

Soll Organisms 

CO. Released by animals 

(Respiration) 

Carbon Bank 

Soil acts much like a bank storing 

carbon and filling its vauh as carbon 

deposits ara made from plants & animals. 
16 I Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

7. Use lnterseeding 

1 The seventh spoke is interseeding, 

sometimes referred to as 'relay 

cropping' - the establislunent of 

a (cover) crop in a primary crop 

that is aheady growing. Examples 

of interseeding into annual crops are broadcast 

frost seeding red clover or yellow sweet clover in 

February/March into established winter wheat 

or barley. The practice of frost seeding has been 

quite successful because freeze-thaw cycles create 

some honey-combing of the soil surface which 

improves seed-to-soil contact. Seed predators are 

not yet very active and there usually is moisture at 

the soil surface to guarantee germination and early 

growth of the cover crop. The cover crop rarely 

compromises the yield of the main crop except that 

it may sometimes interfere with straw harvesting 

if the cover crop grows tall. The larger challenge 

is the competition of the main crop with the cover 

crop, which may cause the cover crop to struggle 

to establish. In most cases, however, there is a 

stand of clover visible after the small grain harvest 

that can be grazed, harvested, or terminated the 

following spring. 

Broadcasting cover crops into sununer crops is 

usually done in mid-June. This practice is relevant 

in com for grain or soybeans because their harvest is 

late in the season for cover crop establishment. If a 

cover crop can be established prior to harvest it will 

be very beneficial. A high-boy type seeder which 

drops seeds between the rows can be used, or seeds 

can be broadcast using airplane or helicopter in 

corn or soybeans. These practices have not been as 

successful as frost seeding for the following reasons: 

(1) herbicide residues; (2) lack of honeycombing; 

(3) seed predation; and (4) lack of moisture for 

germination and early growth. Interseeders have 

been developed to overcome these challenges. 

One unique interseeder can establish cover crops 

between rows of corn or soybeans planted on 

30-inch spacing in no-till soils (Figure 19). This 

interseeder guarantees good distribution of the 

seed which allows for lower seeding rates than in 

broadcasting, good seed-to-soil contact is achieved 

by using double disk openers, and there is greater 

protection of the seed from predators. Herbicide 

residues can still be a problem. Guidance on corn 

herbicides that can be used without hurting the 

cover crop is published in the Pe1mState Agronomy 

Guide Cover Crop Chapter. 

Interseeding can also be practiced in perennial 

forages. Since most above-ground biomass of forage 

crops is removed it is common for forage fields to 

lack soil armor (cover) over winter. Such is the case 

with pure alfalfa stands. Planting a winter grain or 

other forage crop into the alfalfa in early to midAugust will provide soil armor, diversity, increased 

Figure 19. Interseeding at 4-6-leaf stage 

(around the middle of June) enables 

establishment of cover crop if primary crop 

harvest is too late for cover crop establishment. 

New machinery has been developed that not 

only seeds the cover crop, but also applies sidedress nitrogen, and post-emergence 

herbicides, saving on operator time. 

(Courtesy of Chris Houser) 
-

v

n

p

Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health I 17 

forage production, as well as possibly improved 

forage quality. In addition to winter grains, other 

cover crops such as oats, tillage radish, and some 

other small seeded cover crops can also be planted 

into alfalfa. There are many cover crops that make 

excellent forage, especially in mixtures. More 

diversity for soil microbes improves soil health. 

When planting into recently harvested forage crops, 

there is little above-ground biomass and planter 

adjustment and the planting process should not 

be difficult. 

8. Plant Green 

The eighth spoke is planting 

green. This practice refers to no-till 

planting prima1y crops into actively 

growing cover crops. This practice 

can be used when planting a crop 

such as com or soybeans into a cover ------

crop. It contrasts with planting into file6eaJteii fi

a cover crop that was killed one or tJiat P, 1111 p

two weeks before planting. Research 

has shown that by planting green, ~' c.a

cover crop biomass can easily be 6.i<J.ma66 ca

doubled because cover crop growth is do.uD.led 

at its peak. Some important potential 

benefits of this practice include: c.aveJt., CJUJP 

at il6 

• Greater above- and below-ground 

cover crop biomass. This helps to 


increase water infilh'ation and reduce 


surface runoff and soil erosion. 


• 	 Legume covers will fix more atmospheric 

nitrogen when growing an extra week or two. 

• 	 The cover crop scavenges more nutrients 

that might othe1wise be lost by leaching to 

groundwater. 

• 	 The cover crop will take up soil moisture and 

help the soil to dry out and warm up quicker in 

periods of excess soil moisture. 

• 	 The cover crops will harvest more solar energy 

and increase total soil carbon important to 

increase the soil's water-holding capacity and 

nutrient pool. 

• 	 The living cover crop root system produces 

easily digestible organic compounds that feed 

living soil organisms in the rhizosphere (the zone 

close to roots). These organisms play important 

roles in building soil sh·ucture and nuh·ient 

recycling. 

• 	 Hairpinning problems of cover crop residue 

being pushed into the seed slot should be 

eliminated or greatly reduced because of better 

cutting of the green standing cover crop than 

that of dying crop residue that has been sprayed 

with herbicide but is not yet crisp and dry. 

• 	 Potentially fewer problems with slug and 

cutworm pests that move to the seedlings of the 

main crop when the cover crop is dead. 

• 	 Potentially less soil or residue-borne disease 

because of reduced splash from previous crop 

residue and soil onto the young seedlings of the 

primary crop. 

• 	 Greater amounts of mulch in the crop reduce 

weed pressure and result in cooler mid-summer 

soil temperatures. 

-----­

a6 Planting green is a new practice that 6fww.n f) is still under evaluation. Both the 

rwul:un planter and attachments need to be "'"""'""Y' in good condition and down pressure eJt., C!ilf.P ea6lltj properly adjusted. It is important f,.e ~e to account for thickness of standing

or rolled plant cover when planting

<J!«U1dfi i6 green. Down pressure on closing

wheels needs to be set properly and eali. seed openers need to be in good 

condition. Some fanners reduce the

seeding rate of the cover crop so it is easier to plant 

in the spring. Shading of the primary crop seedlings 

by a tall cover crop can be undesirable, especially 

with corn. Cover crop rollers are available to mount 

on planters that flatten the cover crop onto the soil 

surface and part the cover crop so the double disk 

openers have less plant material to cut (Figure 20, 

page 18). 

Soil fertility needs to be optimized when planting 

green in a cover crop that has a lot of carbon in 

relationship to nitrogen. In this case, microbes 

may absorb nitrogen from the soil to decompose 

the cover crop residue and may cause a nih'ogen 

shortage for the primary crop. This can be 

addressed by applying extra manure or nitrogen 

fertilizer, preferably placed close to the new 

seedling. Pest and disease benefits of planting green 

need more research, although preliminary results 

look promising. 
18 I Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

Figure 20. A cover crop roller/row cleaner system 

designed by a Pennsylvania farmer/engineer from 

Perry County. It can be attached to a corn planter. 

It parts the cover crop in front of the double disk. 

(Courtesy ofSjoerd Duiker) 

9. Enhance Soil Armor 

The ninth spoke is soil armor. It may 

be broken down into two separate 

categories (Figure 21). First is passive 

armor; this is the dead plant residue 

that remains on the soil surface 

following crop harvest or crop termination. Second 

is active armor; typically represented by an actively 

growing economic or cover crop. 

Maximizing soil armor will weatherize cropping 

systems against the effects of drought, excess 

rainfall, and exn·emes in temperature. Maximizing 

soil armor is accomplished by leaving all crop 

residue remaining after grain harvest. The residue 

needs to be either left standing or be spread evenly 

over the surface of the field for success. If residue 

is clumped or concenh'ated in swaths, it will 

compromise establishment of the following crop, 

create non-uniform soil temperature and moisture 

conditions, and provide non-uniformity in food 

sources for biological life. 

It is best to leave as much residue standing as 

possible during harvest so that there will not be 

a thick blanket of loose residue through which 

to plant. When residue is left standing, the soil 

warms up quicker in the spring and dries out faster 

than if the residue remained on the soil surface as 

mulch. The standing residue will be anchored in 

the soil, which facilitates planting of the next crop. 

Eventually, the dead stalks will fall and decompose 

on the soil surface. In situations where crop residues 

must be removed to meet the operation's objectives, 

it is essential to plant cover crops in a timely 

manner to compensate for the removed residue. 

Individuals who provide the best overall soil armor 

have learned how to combine both passive and 

active armor. 

Some no-tillers experience problems with heavy 

residues, especially com stalks. Issues include 

wet soils that delay spring planting and difficulty 

achieving adequate seed placement and slot 

closure. Some techniques to manage heavy corn 

stalks include: 

• 	 Let com stalks stand after harvest. 

• 	 Apply manure to help soil microbes speed up 

residue decomposition. 

• 	 Plant cover crops into the residue; the drill 

cuts up the crop residue in smaller pieces 

and the increased biological activity and 

microclimate created by the cover crop favors 

residue decomposition. 

• 	 Use planter attaclunents to move residue 

from the row. 

Figure 21. Soil armor includes passive armor, which is the 

crop residue from the previous crop, and active armor, which 

is the living cover crop. Both provide food sources for soil 

biological organisms and 'weatherize' your cropping system. 

(Courtesy ofSjoerd Duiker) 
Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 19 

In-espective of the management, having a healthy 

biologically active soil is key to the breakdown of 

residues, especially those with a high carbon to 

nitrogen (C:N) ratio and high lignin content (Table 

2). Fungi specialize in breaking down lignin so highfungal populations found in long-term no-till soils 

will be beneficial. Long-term no-till is beneficial for 

earthworms that assist in the breakdown of crop 

residues. A readily available source of nitrogen 

to complete decomposition is important. A soil 

with high organic matter content will have more 

nitrogen available for microbes to decompose high 

C:N residue. 

Table 2. Typical C:N ratios of organic 

materials 

ll•Jr::-. 1;-r:Ii ~mtlrn 

Soil bacteria 5 

Actinomycetes 6 

Soil Fungi 10 

Hairy vetch cover crop 11 

Alfalfa, young 13 

Finished compost 15 

Rotted manure 20 

Alfalfa, mature 25 

Rye, vegetative 26 

Rye at flowering 37 

Corn stover 57 

Small grain straw 80 

Hardwood sawdust 400 

N.C. Brady and R.R. Weil. 1999. The 

nature and properties of soils, 12th Ed. 

Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA. 

I

On the other hand, residues higher in nitrogen, for 

example those from legume crops like soybeans, 

break down rapidly and leave very low levels of soil 

armor. Cover crops with higher C:N ratio should be 

used to improve soil armor. By knowing the carbon 

to nitrogen ratio of crop residues and cover crops 

it is possible to maintain adequate and manageable 

levels of soil armor. 

Fifty percent soil armor is considered acceptable, 

but higher levels provide more soil erosion 

protection, help conserve soil moisture and reduce 

soil temperature dw·ing the sununer months, and 

help protect and feed soil organisms. This is very 

different from the older reconunendations when 30 

percent residue was considered adequate. 

Managing soil armor in forage cropping systems 

is challenging since minimal amounts of residues 

remain after harvest. This 

is especially true in pure 

stands of legumes such 

as alfalfa. One way to 

address this is to grow 

perennial grass/ alfalfa 

mixtures instead of 

pme alfalfa. If this is not 

desirable, it is possible to 

interseed annuals, such 

as small grains, into pure alfalfa in early to midAugust following a forage harvest. To add more 

diversity, other low-growing species may be added. 

This provides active soil armor, increases forage 

production, and usually improves forage quality 

as well. It is also a good practice to leave the last 

cutting of the year standing to feed the microbes 

and protect the soil. However, if the last cutting is to 

be removed, then interseeding a winter small grain 

in August following a harvest will assme that some 

additional growing cover will remain as soil armor 

during the winter months and into the early spring. 

10. Manage Nutrients 

The tenth spoke is nuh·ient 

management. Adequate soil fertility 

is important to manage soil health 

for optimal crop production and 

environmental protection. Both 

nutrient excesses and nutrient deficiencies can have 

a negative impact on soil microbes and in tum on 

plant health and crop yield. A deficiency in one 

nutrient causes imbalances and can significantly 

impact both plants and biological processes. More 

diverse cropping systems and diverse cover crops 

increase the availability of nutrients from the soil 

and must be accounted for when considering the 

purchase of additional plant nuh·ients. The impact 

of plant roots and soil biology on the availability of 

nutrients for plant growth is discussed in several 

other sections of this publication. CwTently, 

scientists and others are still learning how to best 

evaluate the impact of plant roots and soil biology 

on plant nutrition. Carlos Crovetto, long-term notill pioneer from Chile, emphasizes: "Feed the soil 

and the soil will feed the plant." When soil health 

is improved it may be possible to use less fertilizer 

than generalized reconunendations. To adjust 

rates it will become increasingly important to use 

the services of a Certified Crop Advisor (CCA) 

to help effectively manage nuh·ients in crop and 

forage production. 

- Ccvd,a., &o.w,tt.o.., na-till pi<JJUW(. 
20 Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

While it has long been acknowledged that organic 

matter and soil biology are a source of nitrogen 

for agricultural crops, laboratories had difficulty 

measuring this nitrogen in quick, inexpensive ' 

tests. As a result, for the last 50 years, soil tests 

have only measured the inorganic forms of 

nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium) and 

nitrogen recommendations may be based on these 

measures or are simply estimated based on yield 

goal. New tests are being evaluated that give 

measures of soil biological activity and predict the 

available nitrogen from organic matter. One test 

measures the carbon dioxide (C0 ) respiration 2

of soil microbes. The more microbes in the soil 

sample and the more food sources they have, 

the more C02 produced. The test is a critical 

component of another laboratory test called the 

Soil Health Tool. This test uses water and mild 

organic acids (like those produced by plant 

roots) to measure available carbon, nitrogen, and 

other nuh'ients. The combined result of the new 

tests and lab analysis will generate improved 

understanding of soil health effects on plant 

nutrition. By using soil health analysis farmers 

can measure their progress as they implement 

management practices to improve soil health. 

11. Manage Manure 

The eleventh spoke is manw·e 

management. Manure is a source 

of nutrients and organic matter 

and helps to feed soil microbes and 

increase soil organic matter content (Table 3). 

Solid, semi-solid, or slurry manure contains 

significant amounts of organic matter and is more 

beneficial to the soil than liquid manure. Some 

guidelines in managing manure to optimize its 

value and minimize any negative impacts to the 

enviromnent include: 

• 	 Apply manure when temperatw·es are low to 

limit volatilization of anunonia. 

• 	 Apply manure when moderate precipitation is 

predicted so the urea infiltrates the soil instead of 

being volatilized. 

• 	 Use shallow disk injectors to reduce nitrogen 

losses and minimize odors. 

• 	 Always apply manw·e on a growing crop 

whether it be a forage or cover crop so nuh·ients 

are absorbed by the living plants. 

Solid Manure Application Rate 

(Tons/Acre/Year) 

, 
 None 10 Tons 
 20 Tons 30 Tons 


Organic Matter 4.3 4.8 5.2 5.5 

CEC (me/100 g) 15.8 17.0 17.8 18.9 

pH 6.0 6.2 6.3 6.4 

p (ppm) 6.0 7.0 14.0 17.0 

K (ppm) 121.0 159.0 191.0 232.0 

Total pore space (%) 44 45 47 50 

Table 3. Effects of 11 years of annual solid dairy 

manure on soil properties 

I 

Since manme is not normally applied to a growing 

grain crop, it is best to apply it to the preceding 

cover crop or use it on forages. Increasing numbers 

of producers apply manure to pere1mial hay and 

cover crops and use purchased nitrogen on the grain 

crop (typically com) that can be sidedressed at the 

time of high crop nuh·ient demand. 

In order to use manure most efficiently, and to 

meet state regulations, soil tests, manure analyses, 

and other information relevant to producing crops 

with manure should become part of a manure 

management plan. It is important to follow this plan 

and document the application of manme by field. 

A Certified Crop Adviser can assist in managing 

manure and nutrients in general. 

Another way to manage manure application on 

the land is to use a separator to separate manure 

into liquids and solids, which are subsequently 

applied separately. The liquid portion contains 

more urea and soaks in the soil quickly where it is 

protected from volatilization, whereas the solids 

containing more of the phosphorus can be applied 

on soils most lacking in phosphorus. Manure 

digesters generate energy from methane gas while 

they separate liquids and solids and improve the 

stability of manme nitrogen. When liquids are 

separated from solids, the liquids can be applied 

either by irrigation or by using a drag hose to speed 

up application and reduce the potential for soil 
Management Principles and 'fc,hni<1ue:-. to Improve SoifHealth I 21 

compaction. Drag hoses have more applicability 

than once believed a11d can speed up manure 

application and reduce compaction when soils 

are too wet to carry the weight of manure trucks 

or spreaders. 

12. Manage Pests 

1 The twelfth spoke is Integrated Pest 

Management. Managing pests is 

a challe11ging part of continuous 

no-till systentS. Crop diversity and 

soil health improvement increases 

the number of beneficial organisms and helps keep 

pe ~ in check. Insecticides couunonly used in crop 

and forage production can also harm populations 

of natural enemies. For example, it has been shown 

that seed-applied systemic ll.tSecticides can be 

taken up by slugs eating young seedlings without 

harming them, but the ground beetles that prey on 

these slugs are killed (Fig11re 22). Another example is 

the use of broadcast insecticide sprays applied after 

planting that kill pests as well as many beneficial 

insects. It is important to use insecticides and 

seed b:eatments only when they are needed using 

economic threshold populations as indicators and 

not just for the sake of 'insurance· against potential 

problems. In the long tem1 it is more economical 

and effective to build populations of beneficial 

insects who keep pest populations in check. A 

Certified Crop Advisor can offer guidance with pest 

management. Ensure that the advisor you select is 

one who is familiar with methods of building soil 

health and working with nature to manage pests. 

By using methods of integrated pest management, 

soil health in continuous no-till is improved, making 

cropping systems more profitable. 

13. Avoid Compaction 

The thirteenth spoke is to avoid 

soil compaction. One of the great 

benefits of using continuous notill is that the soil supports weight 

better and is less sensitive to 

compaction. This is due to high organic matter 

content near the soil stu·face, high microbial and 

eai·thwom1 activity, and a firm soil matrix that 

is perforated by biopores for water infilrration 

and percolation, gaseous exchange, and habitat 

provision for soil organisms and roots. 

However, once compaction is caused the no-tiller 

may experience its aftermath for several yeai·s. It is 

important to llllderstand what causes compaction 

and to avoid it as much as possible. Soil compaction 

Figure 22. Pesticide applications can have unintended 

consequences. They can kill insects such as these firefly 

larvae that are a predator of slugs, while leaving the slug 

unaffected. Pesticides should therefore only be applied when 

needed, using crop scouting and economic thresholds. (http:// 

backyardsfornature.org/wp-contentjuploads/2013/07/fireflr. 

eats_ s/ug-image-by-Phi//ip-SITNAM7-in-Climax-Michigan.jpiJ 

is primarily of concern when tl1e soil is wet. Soil 

moisture acts as the lubricant that allows soil 

particles to slide over each other and be packed to 

higher density. Continuous no-till soil is beneficial 

because the soil drains excess water more readilv 

than tilled soil that lacks continuous macropor~, 

but it is important to stay off soil that is too wet. 

Shallow compaction is caused by the pressure 

exerted on the soil sw·face. The weight ai1d 

footprint of equipment or animals determine how 

much surface compaction is caused. Tire inflation 

pressure is important - the lower the tire pressure, 

the larger the footprint and less the opportunity 

for compaction. Equipment using tracks increase 

footprint and therefore reduce surface pressure 

too. Massive, living root systems in the soil help 

the soil resist compaction and bounce back from 

its causation. Fibrous co,·er crop root systems are 

effective to achieve reduced compaction. 

Shallow compaction or tightness near the soil 

surface can be associated with the b:ansition to 

continuous no-till without cover crops and soil 

aI'tllor and can cause increased soil erosion due to 

increased swface runoff. Even in long-term no-till, 

without soil armor or crop canopy or both, soils 

cai1 become tight near the soil surface and lose their 

ability to infiltrate rainfall. This happens when the 

soil sm·face is not protected from the pounding of 

raindrops, especially dwing intense storms. It is 
22 I Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health 

therefore important to provide continuous cover 

but also to make use of different root systems. 

Besides the fibrous root systems tap root systems 

are beneficial to create macropores and maintain 

soil porosity. Forage radishes, turnips, red clover, 

alfalfa, and sunflower are examples of (cover) crops 

with taproots. 

Soil compaction at intermediate depth (two- to 

four- inches deep) may be a problem in no-till. 

Compaction by heavy equipment may cause platy 

soil structure at this depth. This layer is more 

sensitive to compaction than the surface because its 

organic matter content is not as high, root density 

is lower, and the soil moisture content is high many 

days of the year due to the conservation of moisture 

by crop residue. Compaction of this layer may easily 

become a problem 

where farmers do not 

make use of living 

cover year-round. The 

living root system 

reduces moisture 

content and acts as a 

'geotextile' that makes 

soil resist compaction 

and reduces platy soil 

structure. Compaction at intermediate depths can 

also be the renmant of tillage with a disk or vertical 

tillage tool that was operated at the same depth year 

after year when soil moisture content was too high 

resulting in massive soil structure. 

Deep compaction can be associated with prior 

plow pans or the use of heavy equipment when 

soil moisture content is too high. When evaluating 

soil compaction the first step is to check the soil 

type to see if that soil mapping unit natmally has 

a restrictive feature such as a fragipan. Natural 

compaction is difficult to remedy but can be 

somewhat alleviated by using cover crops and 

primary crops with deep roots that can penetrnte 

these layers. Deep bun-owing animals such as 

earthworms help alleviate deep compaction 

and are enhanced by the soil health practices in 

this publication. 

Soil damage by prior tillage resulting in compaction 

is not easily alleviated. Using a subsoiler may be 

called for if soil compaction is very serious. It is 

important to use a subsoiler that does not invert 

the soil but fractmes it. Unless subsoiling is done 

when the soil is dry, the impact will be minimal 

and sometimes causes new compaction. Normally, 

the only time the soil is dry enough to consider 

subsoiling is in mid-summer or in early fall, 

following harvest of a crop such as a small grain. In 

a com-soybean rotation, there are limited periods of 

time when the soil moisture content is optimal for 

successful subsoiling. It is better to 

avoid tillage and rely on nature to 

alleviate compaction. 

14. Integrate Crops and 

Livestock 

The fowteenth spoke is crop and livestock 

integration. The trend in agriculture has been to 

separate crop and livestock production. Farmers 

who include animals as part of the farm operation 

are more likely to adopt cover crops for manw·e and 

compaction management, and as a possible feed 

for ruminant animals (Figure 23). Further, manure 

from ruminant animals is a great soil amendment 

to improve soil health in cropland. More intensive 

crop rotations are possible with livestock on the 

farm because crops can be grazed or harvested early 

for green chop, silage, or hay. Some Pe1msylvania 

farmers can triple crop yield in one year by 

integrating crops and animals. Crop diversity 

tends to be greater on animal farms because of the 

nutritional needs of the animals. However, the 

animal and crop enterprises are usually separated, 

even if present on the same farm. 

Farmers from different parts of the world, including 

some innovators in Pennsylvania, have shown that 

integrating grazing ruminant livestock and crop 

production can have advantages: 

• 	 Increased profits due to reduced costs and 

increased revenue. For example, grazing animals 

on crop residue and cover crops results in a new 

income sh·eam and better land utilization. 

Figure 23. Reintegrating livestock with crop production can 

contribute to improved soil health in continuous no-till 

systems. (Alan Franzluebbers) 
Management Principles and Techniques to Improve Soil Health I 23 

• 	 Reduced risk tluough diversification of 

enterprises. The farm becomes less sensitive 

to price fluctuations in one conunodity and to 

weather variability because crops are not all 

grown at the same time of the year. 

• 	 Easier pasture renovation after annual crops. By 

rotating to an arumal (cover) crop it is possible to 

completely eradicate the old unproductive stand 

so that a clean, improved perennial pasture can 

be established. 

• 	 Increased whole herd-carrying capacity for 

graziers. Some pereruual forages produce little 

during the summer heat. By including summer 

crops or sununer aru1ual forage nlixes such as 

sorghum, sudangrass, or their hybrids, grazing 

corn, sunflower, SUIUl he1np, cowpea, forage 

soybeans, buckwheat, and others, the farmer will 

have rugher productivity. Some winter arumals 

start growth early in the spring, providing 

pasture at a time when pereruual forages are not 

yet productive. 

• 	 Decreased fertilizer needs due to the effective 

use of manure and urine in intensive grazing 

operations and integration of legumes in the 

crop rotations. 

• 	 Decreased crop disease, weed and pest pressure 

tluough the increased diversity. 

• 	 Improved soil health because of the rotations of 

aru1uals and pereruuals, grasses, legumes, and 

forbs; the manuring, urinating, and salivating of 

the animals; and trampling of part of the crop 

residue into the soil when ultra-rugh density 

grazing is used. The diversity of root systems 

and symbiotic relationships of crops, bacteria, 

and fungi stimulate soil nlicrobial activity and 

aggregate stability. 

Additional Best Management 


Practices for Erosion Control 


Wrule improved soil health can alleviate most erosion issues, there can still be some problems of 

concentrated surface water flow. One common scenario is where springs or seeps exit the rullside 

or where runoff from another area flows into a field. In these situations, producers may need to 

utilize grassed waterways and structural practices to manage concentrated flow. These practices may also be 

needed in larger drainage areas with potential concentrated flow erosion witllin cropland areas. Some notillers address areas that have been gullied by filling them with appropriately sized rock and field stones to 

stabilize the area and retain the ability for some water to flow through the stones. Another scenario is when 

the soil is frozen and begins to thaw at the surface. Snow melt or heavy rainfall at trus time can be devastating 

since infiltration is almost zero, no matter how healthy the soil, resulting in near 100 percent runoff. This is 

where living cover and heavy residues may need to be coupled with surface water management practices. In 

continuous no-till, concen trated flow erosion is not rudden as it is where gullies can be covered up by tillage 

every year. In continuous no-till, visible erosion can be the culnlination of a number of years. It may be for 

tllis reason that some individuals have associated no-till planting with soil erosion. In reality, however, soil 

erosion with tillage is much rugher but rills and small gullies are covered up every year. Nonetheless, if there 

are problems with concentrated flow erosion they need to be addressed quickly to avoid gully fonnation in 

continuous no-till. 
24 I Conclusion 

Conclusion 


This publication emphasizes the natural principles 

of the no-till system. Soil health is like the hub of 

a wheel and continuous no-till is the rim. When 

all 14 spokes c01mecting hub and rim are present, 

the system is highly productive, profitable, and 

enviromnentally sustainable. 

Soil health and continuous no-till systems are closely 

c01mected. Soil biology is the core of the continuous notill production system. The 14 principles will reduce pesticide and chemical fertilizer use, reduce soil erosion, 

and increase organic matter so that the focus will become building soils instead of trying to minimize their 

degradation. The management teclmiques described in this publication such as soil armor, cover cropping, and 

maximizing the amount of time a growing crop is present on the land over the entire year, will reduce sheet 

and rill erosion to much less than T (tolerable soil loss as defined by NRCS) and concentrated flow erosion will 

be minimized because of high infiltration. 

The new system is more management intensive, as there is an increased need for plamung and keeping abreast 

of the latest research to accomplish the promise of improved soil health. It is necessary to plan a crop rotation 

and evaluate cover crop mixtures, order seed in advance of the main crop harvest, keep planting equipment in 

working order, and plant cover crops inunediately after harvest. Because soil health and managing for biology 

is still a new concept, it is important to keep up-to-date with new research. There are many opportunities 

to learn about new teclmologies and ideas at meetings, conferences, field days, on websites, and in farmer 

groups. Some educational opportmuties available in Pennsylvania are identified at the end of this publication. 

Figure 24. By using the 14 spokes with continuous no-till, soil health can be dramatically 

improved. (Courtesy ofSjoerd Duiker) ~~~~.----,:w;:::'W'l..r-:-~~~~:;:-;-:-=::-:-:W'll':r-...,.-~'!'Mr-~-.:::--~....-~~~-, 

.Nci-till lie6t wfren all tire

6p~ wre ~6ed! 
Glossary I 25 

Glossary of Terms 

Aggregation - The process whereby sand, silt, and 

clay particles are bound together, usually by natural 

forces and substances derived from root exudates 

and microbial activity. 

Concentrated flow erosion - Refers to rill and 

gully erosion. 

Continuous no-till - The planting of all crops in 

the rotation without the use of any prior tillage. The 

no-till planter or drill accurately places the desired 

crop seed at the proper depth while providing good 

seed-to-soil contact. Planters and drills may or may 

not use coulters. They may be equipped with disk 

fertilizer openers to properly place plant nutrients. 

Shallow disk injection of manure or fertilizer is also 

considered to be consistent with continuous no-till 

planting. 

Crop residue - Dead plant material from previous 

crops. In no-till crop residue is left at the soil 

surface. Also called 'passive armor.' 

Exudates - Low molecular weight organic 

substances that enter the soil from plant roots. 

Gully erosion - The removal of soil through 

the cutting of few large cha1mels where runoff 

concentrates. Cannot be easily obliterated by tillage 

and obstructs movement of fann equipment. 

Hairpinning - Pushing crop residue into the seed 

slot and planting the seed on top, resulting in poor 

seed-to-soil contact. 

Intercropping - A form of polyculture where 

several crops are grown in a field at the same time 

in alte1nating rows. 

Infiltration - The entry of water into the soil. 

Interseeding - Planting or drilling a crop or cover 

crop into an already established crop. 

Macro pores - Large pores responsible for rapid 

percolation of water into and through the soil 

profile. 

Micro pores - Small pores holding water for plant 

roots to extract as well as water that is unavailable 

to roots in the smallest pores. 

Percolation - Downward movement of water 

through soil. 

Polycultures - Growing multiple crops or cover 

crops in the same space at the same time; also called 

mixtures. 

Rill erosion - The removal of soil through the 

cutting of many small, but conspicuous, parallel 

channels where runoff concentrates. The cha1mels 

are usually less than four inches deep and can be 

crossed easily by farm equipment. 

Rotational tillage - Alternating tillage and notillage for the establishment of subsequent crops. 

RUSLE - Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation used 

to predict erosion by USDA-NRCS 

Rhizosphere - The naffow region of the soil 

around roots that is influenced by root excretions 

and associated microbes. 

Sheet erosion - The more or less uniform removal 

of soil from an area without the development of 

conspicuous water channels. 

Soil loss tolerance (T) - Denotes the maximum 

rate of soil erosion in tons per acre per year that 

can occur and still permit crop productivity to 

be sustained economically as determined by soil 

scientists. It typically ranges from 1-5 T /A/yr., 

depending on soil type. 

Vertical tillage - Tillage that does fracture but 

does not invert the soil or move it laterally as occurs 

when concave blades are used. Vertical tillage tools 

have flat blades (not curved) as opposed to concave 

blades similar to those on disks. 
26 I Educational Opportunities 

Educational Opportunities 


S

uccess with continuous no-till systems is 

knowledge intensive. New information is 

coming out continuously and it is very 

important to keep up-to-date with new 

developments in the field and implement changes to 

improve the system on your farm (Figure 25). Here 

are a few educational opportunities available to 

farmers, crop consultants, agri-business personnel, 

educators, and researchers. 

Meetings, conferences, and 

field days 

Conferences and field days held 

outside Pennsylvania: 

The National No-Till Conference. This conference 

is organized by No-Till Farmer, an organization 

primarily active in the Mid-West. It is held in 

different locations eve1y year in January. Additional 

information: www.no-tillfarmer.com/nntc ' 

No-Till on the Plains winter conference and 

Agriculture's Innovative Minds Symposium. This 

conference is organized by No-Till on the Plains and 

is focused on farmers in the Plains regions of the 

U.S. and Canada. It is held in a location in the Great 

Plains, usually in January. Additional information: 

www.notill.org/events/ 

Conservation Tillage and Technology Conference. 


This conference is organized by The Ohio State 


University, Conservation Districts, USDA-NRCS, 


USDA Farm Service Agency, and The Ohio No-


Till Council. It is usually held in March in Ada, 


northwestern Ohio and geared to Ohio agriculture. 


Additional information: fabe.osu.edu,/CTCon 


Cover Crop Tours at Big Flats Plant Material Center 

in New York. Many different cover crops are tested 

every year at this center which can be visited at 

open days which usually also include a conference 

with renown no-till and soil health speakers. 

Additional information: www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/ 

portal/nrcs/main/plantmaterials/pmc/north.east/ntrpmc/ 

Figure 25. Success 

with no-till is knowledge 

intensive. Farmer 

organizations such as 

The Pennsylvania No-Till 

Alliance, Conservation 

Districts, Penn State 

Cooperative Extension, and 

USDA-NRCS organize many 

field days to promote the 

successful application of 

no-till through shared ideas 

and experiences. 
Educational Opportunities 27 

Conferences and field days in 

Pennsylvania: 

Southwest PA Regional No-Till Conference. This 

conference is organized by a group of Conservation 

District, RC&D Council, NRCS, Penn State 

Cooperative Extension, and agribusinesses and 

is usually held in January in Latrobe. For more 

information contact Westmoreland Conservation 

District at (724) 837-5271. 

Cover Crop Solutions Fall Field Day. This field 

day is organized by Cover Crop Solutions at Cedar 

Meadows Farm in Holtwood, Lancaster County. It 

is usually held in October or November. Additional 

information: www.covercropsolutions.com/events/ 

There are many other conferences and field days 

held in Pennsylvania organized on an ad-hoc 

basis by the Pennsylvania No-Till Alliance, USDA 

NRCS, County Conservation Districts, Penn State 

Cooperative Extension, Agricultural Suppliers, and 

others. The best contact for more information is your 

local Penn State Cooperative Extension Office and 

the Pennsylvania No-Till Alliance web site -

www.panotill.org. 

Web sites and other media sources 

USDA-NRCS Soil Health Campaign: 

www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/soils/health 

No-Till Farmer: www.no-tillfarmer.com 

No-Till on the Plains: www.notill.org 

Pennsylvania No-Till Alliance: www.panotill.org 

Penn State Cooperative Extension: www.extension. 

psu.edu/plants/crops/soil-management 

Farmer-to-Farmer Networking: 

Members of the PA No-Till Alliance and affiliates/ 

Sponsors of the PA No-Till Alliance. Their contact 

information may be found at www.panotill.org. 

Soil Health Champions are producers who are 

successfully implementing advanced systems of 

continuous no-till, cover cropping, and improved 

soil health. Their contact information may be found 

at http://notillsoil.org. 

A note on sorting through no-till 

articles, research, and other published 

information: 

A wealth of information is available today, from the 

internet to farm publications and the research sector. 

This availability is a good thing, but it is common to 

hear or read conflicting information. It is up to the 

reader to sort through these apparent conflicts and 

decide what information is most pertinent for their 

own crop production system. Some rules of thumb 

to help interpret information might include: 

• Seek out information from local sources, folks 

you know and can talk to. 

• Look for information from an independent or 

other well qualified and experienced source. 

Today, some crop scouts specialize in helping 

producers with continuous no-till. 

• Attend field days where you can see farmers 

implement or test the practices. On- farm 

research, especially in your locality, may be 

the most appropriate source of 

sound information. 

With reference to information coming from 

university and on-farm research about continuous 

no-till planting: 

• Were yield data and other relevant results 

taken from land that has been no-tilled for at 

least three years? 

• Were management techniques to improve soil 

health a part of this system? 

• Was planting equipment adjusted, 

maintained, and equipped with attachments 

needed to plant under continuous no-till 

conditions? 

• Were the timing of planting and management 

appropriate for continuous no-till systems? 

Some research studies do not pass the testof the 

four items listed above. Therefore, many 

successful continuous no-till producers evaluate 

published research by doing on-farm research 

or by splitting fields and trying different 

management techniques on their own farm. 

By doing some of this on their own farm, and 

keeping in touch with others who do so, farmers 

can continue to improve their no-till system. 
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