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Bureau of Standards

OCT 8 1935

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JUL 3 0

COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

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^‘*‘'' A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardiization and Simplification

Photographed by Army Air Corps AIRPLANE VIEW OF BUREAU OF STANDARDS (LOOKING SOUTH)

ISSUED BY THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE UNITED

STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C., U. S. A.

Vol. 9, No. 1 JULY, 1932

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Sec page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY. S. F. Tillman, Editor

The Commercial Standardization Group

A. S. McAllister, Assistant Director

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Edwin W. Ely

The division of simplified pradlice cooperates with industrial and commercial groups to reduce wa^fe, usually through

eliminating unnecessary variety of product, method, or

pratfbice. Its function is to bring together all parties inter- ested in a projedf of this characfter, and to coordinate their

work in developing a simplified pratftice recommendation.

Such work includes surveys of current pradfice, formulation of a simplified pradtice program, and presentation of

that program for adtion by a general conference representing

all interests. The division then transmits to all concerned

a full report of the general conference, with a requeSl for written acceptance of the adtion taken. When the volume

of acceptances is sufficient to indicate initial success, the

Department ofCommerce indorses the program and publishes

the recommendation. The division thereafter cooperates

with a Standing committee appointed by the induStry concerned, in condudting periodic surveys to determine the

degree of adherence, to maintain and extend support of the

recommendation, and to secure data for reaffirmation or

revision. Simplified pradtice may be applied to any commodity or adtivity in which it will reduce

waSle. The division Stands ready to render

service in developing and making effedtive any application of simplified pradtice which

will reduce waSte, Stabilise business, or extend commerce.

BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION

J. S. Taylor

The division of building and housing,

formed in 1921, cooperates with business,

technical, and professional groups in furthering conStrudtion adtivities. It works to modernize building codes and to encourage improved Standards for the quality of building conStrudtion, and the practical application of the lateSt development in design and use of building materials.

It encourages home ownership through the development

of an enlarged. Steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating demand for dwellings—the largeSt single class of

buildings which the construction industries provide.

The division also cooperates with other governmental

agencies and with many private business and professional

groups in efforts to distribute building adtivity more evenly

throughout the year and to secure less fludtuation from

year to year. The work on city planning and zoning has the broad

objedtive of making buildings more useful through proper

location with respedt to other Strudtures, Stabilizing of land

values and property uses, well coordinated thoroughfare

systems, and well laid out public works.

STANDARDIZATION

..IS.. A CONTINUING PROCESS

(T>0 ITS AIM IS NOT FIXITY OR STAGNATION

..BUT.. TO ADD SERVICEABILITY

AS OFTEN AS THE

POTENTIAL GAIN

MAKES IT WORTH WHILE

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS

A. S. McAllister

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote

and facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so it carries on adtivities involving cooperation with

technical societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and

municipal Government specifications making and using

agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and teSling

and research laboratories. It ascertains the Standardization

and specifications promoting adtivities of the associations and societies, and brings to their attention the work being

done by the commercial Standardization group. It brings the

Federal specifications and commercial Standards to the attention of the maximum number of producers and users of commodities complying with these Standards and specifications.

It compiles and distributes liSts of sources of supply of materials guaranteed to comply with the Standards and specifi- cations. It shows both buyers and sellers the benefits from

handling nationally specified, certified, and labeled commodities. The division prepares diredtories of governmental and

nongovernmental teSting laboratories and the Diredtory of

Specifications, and is working on an encyclopedia of specifications, the firSt two volumes of which

have been issued, namely, “Standards and

Specifications in the Wood-Using Indu^ries”

and “Standards and Specifications for Nonmetallic Minerals and their Produdts.” It also

aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook.

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS

I. J. Fairchild

The division of trade standards, on requedl,

assists industrial and commercial groups in the voluntary establishment of Standards

covering grades, quality, dimensional interchangeability, or other acceptance criteria as a national

basis for marketing manufadtured commodities.

The detail criteria are seledted or determined voluntarily

by interested buyers or sellers, without any Government

didtation or domination, and adjusted at a general confer- ence of producers, distributors, and users so as to represent

the composite views of all branches. The division fundtions

chiefly as a neutral agency to see that all interested elements

are given full opportunity to be heard and satisfied; to

solicit and record acceptances; and to publish and promulgate

the Standard when a satisfadtory majority of acceptances is obtained and provided there is no adtive opposition.

Industries are encouraged to apply self-certifying labels to produdts meeting the commercial Standard requirements, as a means of protedting the consumer and the scrupulous seller from misrepresentation or unfair methods of marketing.

Provision is made for regular revision of the Standard

through the appointment of a Standing committee to consider periodically any necessity for revision of the Standard,

in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with

progress in the industry.

Address BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Washington, D. C., for further information
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume 9 WASHINGTON, D. C., JULY, 1932 Number 1 SUBJECT ANALYSIS

AGRICULTURAL

Germany adopts new standards for eggs 11 Methods of judging fruits and vegetables 15 New methods adopted in grading tobacco 12 Standard grading system announced for cottonseed 25

Nutrition standards:

1. Food elements and values in diet 3

2. Methods of food distribution 4

3. Army rations classified 5

4. Standards in food values 6

5. Certifying the nutritional value of food 8 BUILDING AND HOUSING

Concrete joist construction floors 25

Fiber insulating board 16 Home-improvement campaigns given impetus by employers’ loans 26 Improvement of slum areas seen in property reconditioning campaign 20 Recommendation on paving brick revised 26

Shovels, spades, and scoops 12 GROUP ACTIVITIES American Standards Association 22 Cooperation between leather industry and science 24 Cooperation will improve industrial conditions 20

Federal specifications 9 Group experience useful in writing specifications 14 International Electrical Congress 10 Lumbermen of Canada and New Hampshire adopt grade

marking of lumber 9 New grading rules adopted by hardwood lumbermen 17 INTERNATIONAL AND FOREIGN

British standard issued for cast-iron drain pipes 28

British standard issued for soft solders 12

British standard issued for structural channels and

beams 27 Engineers hold international conference 16 Germany adopts new standards for eggs 11 International Electrical Congress 10 Methods for export packing 19 Standards for the international ohm, ampere, and volt compared 23 PAPER

Paper wraps for apples 28 Purchase specification for paper towels 26 Recommendation for 1-pound folding boxes for coffee now' available 26 Savings from simplified printed forms 13

METALS

Page

British standard issued for cast-iron drain pipes 28

British standard issued for soft solders 12

British standard issued for structural channels and

beams 27 Diamond core drill fittings 28 Proposed simplification covers cupola refractories 27

Shovels, spades, and scoops 12

Simplified schedule on ware insect screen cloth now in published form 24

Simplified schedules for commercial laundry machinery

mailed to industr}' 14 Surgeons’ steel bone jfiates and screw's 28 PUBLICATIONS

Dental lathe grinding w'heels recommendation now

available 25 Recommendation for 1-pound folding boxes for coffee now' available 26 Recommendation on carbonated beverage bottles now

in jjrint 28

Simplified schedule on wire insect screen cloth now in published form 24

Surgeons’ steel bone plates and screws 28 QUALITY MARKS AND LABELS

Dependable labels needed w'lien purchasing household

goods 21 Labels indicate substitutions used in making candies 12 Lumbermen of Canada and New' Hampshire adopt

grade marking of lumber 9 Methods of judging fruits and vegetables 15 New methods adopted in grading tobacco 12 Standard grading system announced for cottonseed 25 TEXTILES AND RUBBER GOODS

Knit sw'eaters and bathing suits 27 Program on flax and hemp tw'ine approved bj' industry. 28

Reaffirmation of standard for men’s pajamas 27

Surgeons’ rubber gloves 28 Wool and part wool blankets 20 WOOD

Fiber insulating board 16 Lumbermen of Canada and New' Hampshire adopt grade

marking of lumber 9 New grading rules adopted by hardw'ood lumbermen 17 MISCELLANEOUS

Benefits of bureau’s w'ork to the ])ublic 24 Research in aeronautics 18

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A cordial invitation is extended to all interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories of the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Alanual may he had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of t3^])ical dis- coveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions, to radio, aviation, and other

modern arts and industries.

120035—32 1 1
GEORGE KIMBALL BURGESS

1874 - 1932

Director, Bureau of Standards

1923 - 1932

Associate Physicist, Bureau of Standards, 1903 - 1913

Physicist and Chief of Division of Metallurgy, Bureau of Standards, 1913

Director, Bureau of Standards, 1923-1932

1923

2
NUTRITION STANDARDS

A Symposium Consisting of Five Articles

Standard food rationing is of inestimable importance to the

health and well-being of mankind. Its interesting story is given in

part as a symposium in this issue of Commercial Standards Monthly.

Measured standards for food intake are based on measured bodily

needs.

We may weigh and measure the baby to control its food so that

it may grow along the well-known normal height-weight curve or growth-age rate curve. Such a curve is a reference standard.

When growth is complete, body weight is maintained by replacing

used material. This, too, is measurable.

Food supplies energy for bodily activity. The measured ration

of such energy may be determined by measuring the energy used in

each type of bodily activity. This is a regular laboratory measurement using the respiration calorimeter. The results will permit

balancing the energy need by an equal energy food ration.

Besides growth and activity, food also supplies regulatory materials such as vitamins and minerals. The rationing of these

minute essentials is entering a scientific stage of quantitative

control.

1. FOOD ELEMENTS AND VALUES IN DIET

By Dr. Stanley W. Saykr, District Health Officer, Stale of Ncio York

There is probably as much conversation regarding

diet as there is about the eighteenth amendment. To

hear some people talk one might gather that the ex- tent of the body growth and even one’s disposition is wholly determined by our food. Others go so far to the other extreme that they insist it is entirely safe

to allow custom, appetite, and pocketbook decide what

foods are required. Between these two extremes thei’e

is a sane middle course. The study of food values and

vitamins is not new. Four hundred years before

Christ, Hippocrates insisted that there was one sub- stance called an “ ailment ” which was found in many

natural foods and was necessary for groAvth and nour- ishment of the body. It was not until the beginning

of the last century that it was realized that the lack

of certain substances in foods caused scurvy and that

certain other diseases were related to diet. It is marvelous to consider what workers in medicine, chemistry, and nutrition have done to solve many of the

problems relating to necessary food elements and food

values. There are so many new discoveries that it is impossible as yet to make practical application of all of them; in fact, we may never be able to take complete advantage of them.

It is possible for a person to have in his diet all of the appropriate proportions of proteins, fats,

carbohydrates, and mineral salts, and yet not continue in growth and liealth. Certain substances nec- essary in every diet are called vitamins; without them

the proper body chemistry can not be maintained.

Vitamin C is the one which prevents scurvy, and

although its exact chemical nature is unknown, we

have learned from experiments that health and even

life is not possible without a small amount of this

food factor. Vitamin C is present in milk, oranges,

and other citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbages, and other

3
4 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932

leafy vegetables. It is partially destroyed by heating to the boiling point, and also disappears when

foods become stale. An exception to the effect of

heat seems to be in tomatoes, for when canned, either

whole or as juice, this element is retained.

Scurvy in adults, once a dread disease, especially

among soldiers and sailors, causing among other

symptoms swollen and bleeding gums, with pains in legs and blue discolorations of the skin, is now a

rarity due to the addition to the diet of fresh vegetables and fruit. During the past 25 years interest

has been taken in infantile scurvy, caused by feedingboiled coAvs’ milk alone, Avhich produces loss of

Aveight, tenderness of the arms and legs, and increases

the likelihood of infectiotis. The addition of orange

jnice or tomato jiuce to tlie diet of all bottle-fed

babies has caused almost comidete disappearance of

this disease. It is thought that this vitamin also pre- vents the decay of teeth. Vitamin D is the one Avhich preA-ents rickets and

probably aids the growth and development of bones

and teeth. This A-itamin is present in small amounts

in egg yolk and butter, but is especially abundant in

cod-liver oil. It controls in some way the deposit of

lime and phosphorus in bony structures of the body.

It has also been i-ediscovered that natural sunlight

accomplishes the same purpose as cod-liver oil. Therefore cod-liver oil is given to babies and young chil- dren; it is needed especially during the Avinter when

less sunlight reaches the skin. Although for centuries it had been observed that cod-liver oil and

sunlight prevented rickets, yet this knoAvledge failed

to become generally applied.

2. METHODS OF FOOD DISTRIBUTION

By Lewis W. AVateks, Vice President, General Foods Corporation

Two important factors, closely related to each other, serve to place the fooci industry in a unique position

in so far as standard practice is concerned.

These tAvo factors are: First, public demand for

a Avidely diversified national menu embracing hundreds of food products, and, second, resultant necessity for various methods of food treatment and packaging, as well as ditfering methods of distributing

the output of an industry that progresses by diversifying its products rather than by simplifying the choice

of its olfering.

For purposes of standardization, it might be saiil that aside from any difference in composition, finished

steel bolts are steel bolts, virtually alike save in length

and thickness. But a pound of coffee on the grocer’s

shelf is a blend, preferred by many persons to other

trade-mai'ked blends.

With millions of consumers’ tastes demanding

scores of diffei'ent coffee blends, many types of

Avheaten breakfast foods, several forms and varieties

of cakes, dozens of kinds of pickles and relishes—to mention a few comiiarisons in a list that Avoidd in- clude hundreds—it behooves food manufacturers to cater to this groAving epicurean consciousness.

True, out of approximately 1,000 natural food products in the Avorld only about 100 are of commercial

importance; but these 100 items, converted, blended,

jirocessed, and packaged, to suit the imlividual and

group tastes of 120,000,000 persons, entail a vast pro- duction and distribution system Avhich might seem to involve considerable duplication of effort. But seem- ing lack of standard practice becomes not only neces- sary but highly desirable when Ave regard pure, diversified table fare as a vitally important element in

maintaining a high standard of living.

The food industry to-day is progressing principally

through scientific research. ImproA-ed packaging,

perfected refrigeration, selective irradiation, neAV methods of dehydration, adajitation of old products

to new uses, and utilization of many other neAv practices and processes are constantly Avorking toAvard

further standardization.

In the research departments maintained by our or- ganization, 500 neAv ideas worthy of consideration are presented every year. These researches do not end

in the test tube or the laboratory oven. From 500 to

1,000 liouseAviA^es in all parts of the country furnish

the final, pragmatic test of each new pi’ocess and

product.

Packaging, Avhich came into the research scientist’s

field originally as a factor of preserA-ation or brand

identification, has remained as a Avork of merchandising. It Avas the research scientist who told the food

industry that certain foods must go into glass jars

that others could go into tin cans, that still others

Avould be best in cardboard cartons because of the

effects of sunlight on their colors or composition.

The great resources Avhich ha\"e been put into the

hands of the food scientist liaA-e come as a result of

economic researches almost as interesting and significant as his oAvn. For several years there has been a tendency for food manufacturers to consolidate in

great holding comjianies which are jiOAverful factors

in eliminating duplication of effort. The advantages

of mergers Avhich jDermit one producer to purchase,

manufacture, and sell foodstuffs to 100,000,000 people,

where 10 sold to 10,000,000 previously, are Avell recognized.

Perhajis the greate.st single factor looking toward

standardized practice in food distribution is quickfreezing. By use of loAv-temperature freezing apparatus, the original fresh qualities of meats, sea foods,

A^egetables, and fruits can be retained almost indefi- nitely Avhile the foods are kept hard frozen.

The effects of quick freezing on food distribution

are likely to be the completion of the metamorphosis

of the food store. Just as the universal adoption of

the packaged foods ])rinciple has sei'A^ed to put virtually all nonperishables and semijierishables into containers, so noAv is quick freezing extending this important standardization practice to perishables,

frozen in cartons and kept properly refrigerated

until they appear as standard qualit^L packaged foods

in the retail store.
JULY. 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 5

3. ARMY RATIONS CLASSIFIED

Average Daily Food Requirements for Men Depend Upon Occupation

By Maj. Robekt M. Littlejohn, United States Army

Nothing can destroy more quickly the efficiency of

a company than a poor mess. The best companies in

any regiment are usually those with company officers who understand the proper handling of the ration and

see that the men are properly and adequately fed.

A ration is the allowance of food for the subsist- ence of one person for one day. In the Army the

ration is divided into five classifications. These are, namely, (1) the garrison ration, (2) the Filipino

ration, (3) the travel ration, (4) the field ration, and

(5) the reserve ration. In explaining these classes we find that the garrison ration is that prescribed in

time of peace for all persons entitled to a ration, ex- cept under specific conditions for which other rations are prescribed. The Filipino ration is that prescribed

in time of peace for the Philippine Scouts. The travel ration is for troops traveling otherwise

than by marching and separated from cooking facilities. Idle field ration is that prescribed for all per- sons entitled to a ration in time of war and whenever

the ration-savings privilege is suspended. The re- serve ration is for use in campaign when the field ration is not available. It is an article of field equipment, and, except in emergencies, ivill be opened only

by order of a commissioned officer. The organization

commanders are responsible for the proper care and

use of reserve rations when issued to enlisted men. The first legislation fixing the components of the

Army ration was the passage of a resolution by the

Continental Congress on November 4, 1775. Bacon'

and hard bread were frequently issued to the Federal armies during the War between the States. At

the beginning of any particulai- campaign or operation, several days’ rations were issued to each soldier

and carried by him in his knapsack. In such cases they performed the functions of both field and re- serve rations. The reserve (emergency) ration of the

Spanish-American War consisted essentially of 1 pound of hard bread and 10 ounces of bacon. It con- tained also a small amount of pea meal and coffee, I'oasted and ground. A reserve ration, developed

about 1906, contained 8 ounces of sweet chocolate

packed in a hermetically sealed container. It never

passed the experimental stage, as those individuals

who tested it found that they became nauseated within

a short time when consuming other food besides this

ration. The reserve ration employed in the American

Expeditionary Forces during the World War consi.sted of canned meats, hard bread, soluble coffee, sugar, and solidified alcohol. They were not packed

as individual rations and were rather difficult to handle.

According to the nature of the several foods and re- quirements of the human body, we can readily classify

food as follows

:

A. Food as purchased.

Edible portion; for e.xample, flesh of meat and fish, yolk and white

of eggs, pulp of fruit, wheat

flour, etc.

Water.

Nutrients. Refuse; for ex- ample, skins of fruits and vegetables, bone of meat and fish, hulls, bran, etc. B. Foodstuffs oxidized in the human body

to furnish energy or used to repair waste.

(

Proteins. Fats. Carbohydrates.

Mineral matter.

Proteins. Fats. Carbohydrates.

(

Mineral matter. Water. Bulk or roughage.

Vitamins.

Very few of the common foodstuffs contain 100 per

cent of the three main constituents; that is, proteins,

fats, and carboh3ulrates, all being made up of varying

proportions or none of some of these sub.stances. Protein. —The principal function of protein is to replace muscular wastage in the adult and in the growing child, as well as to furnish the nitrogen necessary

to build up tissues during groAvth. The lesser function of protein is to serve as fuel for the bod}^ when

the diet contains insufficient quantities of fats and

carbohydrates. Inqiortant sources of protein are lean

meats, fish, egg Avhites, casein of milk, peas, beans,

gluten of wheat, etc. However, all of them are not of

equal value when utilized in the diet. About 18 per

cent of the average body weight is protein.

Fats. —These produce fuel and heat for the bod}',

and at the same time improve the flavor and texture of

the food. A certain amount of fat is necessary in foods to prevent them from being dry and unpalatable.

Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable

sources. A certain jiercentage of fat is usuallv stored

by the body as such. The amount varies according to personal idios^mcrasies, habits, occupation, etc.. l)ut in the average man it forms about 15 per cent of the total body weight.

Carhohydrates {ghcGides) . —These consist essentiall}’

of starches and sugars. Starches are obtained from

cereals, tubers, and vegetables. Sugar is obtained

mainl}! from the sugar cane, the sugar beet, and honey

;

small amounts are found in fruits, vegetables, and

milk. Carbohydrates are the pilnciple .sources of

body fuel and energy. They may be converted into

fat, are easily digested and are an important food, but

comprise less than 1 per cent of the weight of the

body. They are immediately “burned” for heat and

energjn

Mineral matter. —INIineral matter, oi’ mineral salts,

usually include the carbonates, jihosphates, sulphates,

oxides, and chlorides of calcium, jiotassium. sodium,

magnesium, iron, etc. These are found in fruits, vegetables, and cereals (whole grains). They are utilized

principally in forming the bonj' structures and the
6 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932

blood, and share in making certain intestinal juices

necessary for the digestion of food. In all the mineral

matter comprises only 5 to 6 per cent of the total body weight.

^Vater. —Water is a component part of all the

tissues and forms about 60 per cent of the total body

weight of the average individual. It is essential to

cell life, is the food solvent, and assists in the elimination of waste materials.

Bulk or roughage. —The muscles of the intestines

operate in a wavelike manner, squeezing the material

which the intestines contain. In order that fecal elimination may proceed satisfactorily, it is essential

that a certain amount of bulk or roughage be present

in the intestines. The framework of fruits and vegetables is made up of the cellulose necessary to give the

desired bulk.

Vitamins.-—These are recently discovered accessory

food substances present in minute quantities in milk,

in particular fruits, vegetables, and other products.

To maintain the body in good health they must be

present in the diet in sufficient quantities.

The proper amount of food.—To be able to make

a practical study of and compare the fuel value of the

several foods, the calorie, an arbitrary value, has been

adopted. The calorie is the amount of heat necessary

to raise 1 kilogram of water 1° C., or ajiproximately

1 pound of water 4° F. Though both in peace and

Avar a fair percentage of the enlisted and commissioned personnel perform tasks of a sedentary nature,

the bulk of the Army daily performs a moderate

amount of muscular work; bence, muscular activity

is the most important factor in determining the sol- dier’s ration. The average daily food requirements of

man are about as follows

Calories A. Without muscular work 2, 500

B. With light muscular work (sedentary) 2,700

C. With light to moderate muscular work^ 3, 000

D. With moderate muscular work 3, 500

E. With moderate to hard muscular work 4, 000

F. With very hard muscular work 5, 000 The soldier performing ordinary peace-time duties

may be classed as a man Avith moderate to hard muscular work and requiring 4,000 to 4,500 calories.

Those of us confined to offices fall into the sedentary

class Avhich requires 2,700 calories. During actual

campaigns the amount of muscular work is increased

and such work will fall betAveen hard muscular work

and very hard muscular work requiring 4,500 to 5,500

calories. Generally, when young recruits are taken

into the service, they develop enormous appetites, due

to a change of environment and increased exercise,

but Avithin a short time they fill out and then come

Avithin the same category as other soldiers.

The question as to the proper amounts of protein,

fats, and carbohydrates, etc., is one which has been

Avidely discussed, and the end is not yet in sight. The

dietary standards which have been adopted by the

Army are based largely upon exijerimental data.

Though aj)]Darently satisfactory, they can not be ac- cepted as conclusive with our present limited knowledge of nutrition. Therefore, the Army will be most

interested and watchful of the progress made in standardizing the nutrition values of food.

4. STANDARDS IN FOOD VALUES

Proper Balance Food Diets Are Resultant of Laboratory Research

By Hazel K. Stiebeling ’

With improved facilities for handling the trans- porting food materials, products from the ends of the

earth are at our doors. Manufacturers are preparing

the common food materials in an endless A^ariety of

forms, and are sparing no efforts to merchandise them

in an appealing fashion. The findings of nutritional

investigations are being popularized. The “healthconscious ” public is listening first to one and then to another expound the values of his particular Avares. A beAvildering array of foods and an endless variety of

ajjpeals confront us. What shall Ave eat ? In so far as Ave can, we tend to choose Avhat Ave like. This usually means what we are used to, although our

neAv interest in foods is fostering adventures in, and a taste for, greater variety. Food has social and psychological significance. We eat what it is style to eat, or Avhat seems to be to our advantage to use, whether

for social or personal reasons. The primary use for

food, hoAvever, is the satisfaction of physiological

needs. This article Avill deal largely with that aspect,

although it is to be hoped that while satisfying bodily

requirements we may always obtain some of the other

A'alues at the same time.

Senior food economist. Bureau of Home Economics, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture.

What shall Ave eat? The chemist of food and nutrition points out that every individual requires at- tractive, palatable, and digestible food, which Avill provide

1. Enough energy to permit the desired, or necessary, amount of activity.

2. Enough of the proteins of suitable quality to permit normal growth in children, and the mainte- nance of body tissue in adults.

3. Enough of all of the necessary minerals in suit- able proportion for constructing body tissue, and for

maintaining and regulating body processes.

4. Finally, enough of each of the essential vitamins

to promote groAvth and maintain a high level of

health.

But how much is enough? This dejjends largely on the age, size, and activity of each individual.

Many investigators have added to our knowledge of

the nutritional needs of man, and have given us in- formation regarding the extent to Avhicti our food

materials furnish the various factors. The diets of children and adults differ not only in

total quantity, but also in the proportion in which

many food materials should be used. At certain pe- riods of growth the total quantity of energy-giving
JULY, 1932 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 7

food needed by children exceeds that required by

adults at moderate muscular work. Children who are growing also need much larger amounts of certain

body-building and body-regulating substances than do

adults who are merely maintaining an organism

already built. For examjDle, the amounts of calcium

and phosphorus required for skeletal development are

relatively great, particularly in the early years of life. The foods which furnish minerals and vitamins, as well as energy, are usually more expensive than those

which furnish energy only. The adjustments which

must be made to include a higher concentration of

these nutrients in children’s diets make adequate diets

for children cost relatively more than adequate diets

for adults.

But since one does not purchase food from retail stores according to specifications stated in the chemist’s language, are there other terms in which an adequate diet can be described?

Value of various types of food in the diet.—The

common articles of food used in this country may be

classified into six main groups on the basis of their

distinctive contributions to the diet

:

1. Bread., flour., and cereal.—Refined grain products

are cheap sources of energy and protein, but are poor

in minerals and vitamins. Their proteins are not

wholly adequate, but can be advantageously supplemented, as with milk. The more highly the cereal is milled, the more necessary it is to supply minerals

and vitamins from other sources. When cost need

not be considered these other factors may be entirely

supplied by vegetables and fruits, eggs, lean meat, and

milk. The use of whole-wheat bread or flour, or one

of the dark, less highly refined wheat cereals will in- crease the iron content of the diet at little cost. Cereal

products, to which all or part of the embryo usually

removed in the milling process is restored, will also

contribute vitamins B and G to the diet.

2. Milk and cheese.—Milk contains the greatest as- sortment of nutrients of any single food material, and

together with cereals, forms the foundation upon

which an adequate diet can most safely and cheaply be

built. Milk is particularly important for its highquality proteins, for calcium, for vitamin A, and for

the pellagra-preventing factor, and in these respects

effectively supplements the cereal products. If skim

milk is used instead of whole, some extra butter should

be added to the diet to supply the vitamins A and D,

removed with the butterfat in the separation process.

3. Yegetahles and fruits.—These foods vary widely

in energy value and in minerals and vitamins. Tomatoes and citrus fruits deserve special mention as sources of vitamin C, and green leafy vegetables or others of green or yellow color, as sources of vitamin

A and of iron. Dried beans and peas contain considerable vitamin B, and small amounts are also contributed by most fresh vegetables and fruits. Care

should be taken in the preparation of these foods to conserve their mineral and vitamin values.

4. Fats.—Fats are important primarily as sources

of energy; they also help to make a high-cereal diet

palatable. Lard is usually the cheapest form of fat,

but it is deficient in some of the vitamins found in other fats, as butter. Lard may be used as the chief

fat in a family dietary, if whole milk and green vegetables are used liberally.

5. Sugar.—Pure sugar provides only energy to the

body. During the refining process the mineral ele- ments are removed. Unrefined cane molasses contains

considerable calcium and iron, elements not found in corn sirup or refined sugar sirups.

6. Lean m&ats., fish., poultinj., and eggs.—These foods

are important mainly for their proteins or excellent

quality, for their pellagra-preventing values, and for

the flavor and interest which they add to the diet. Liver and eggs are good sources of iron and some othei' minerals, and of vitamins A and D, as well as of protein. If the egg supply is limited, the children should

be considered first. Within each of these general classes of food there

are, of course, numerous kinds or forms of food materials from which to choose. With the exceptions

noted above, the foods within a group may be used more or less interchangeably. Good balances may be

kept among these various types of food if the following

food budgets are used as guides

:

Food budget for families with limited incomes.—If

there are children in the family, out of every dollar

it is well to use for

Cents Bread, flour, and cereals 15 to 20 Milk and cheese 25 Vegetables and fruits 25 Fats and sweets 20 to 15 Meat, fish, and eggs 15 If the family consists entirely of grown-ups, out of

every dollar it is well to use for

Cents Bread, flour, and cereals 15 to 20 Milk and cneese 15 Vegetables and fruit 25 to 30 Fats and sweets 20 Meats, fish, and eggs 20 Dividing the food dollar in this way will bring the

greatest return in nutritive values for the amount of

money used. The less money a family has to spend

for food the more important it is that it should be

spent approximately in this fashion.

The quantity of each type of food which can be purchased for a given amount of money will depend

upon the variety chosen, and the quality and form in which it is obtained, as well as upon the services which

the consumer demands along with his food supplies.

But the selection within each group mu.st be such that

the amount of money available will provide enough

fpod for the family group. For families of two

adults with three children, approximately the following quantities of food or their equivalent will be

needed.

Suggested weekly food supply for family of five with limited income—

20 to 24 pounds flour and cei’cals (1 pound flour counts

the same as 1% pounds l)read). 18 to 28 quarts milk. 12 to 15 pounds potatoes or sweetpotatoes.

1 to 3 pounds dried beans, peas, or nuts. 6 pounds tomatoes or citrus fruits. 4 to 5 pounds leafy or other green or yellow vegetables. 10 to 13 pounds other vegetables and fruits. 1 pound butter. 3 pounds other fats (including salt pork and bacon).

3 to 5 pounds sugar, molasses, jellies, etc. 5 to 7 pounds lean meat or poultry. 8 to 12 eggs. The most economical adequate diets include a rela- tively high proportion of grain products, and a
8 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932

relatively low projiortion of lean meats, fish, ami eggs. The former are inexpensive sources of energy and protein. The latter are usually expensive articles of food

when considered from the standpoint of their nutritive

value. The variety permitted from day to day when

families are living on this type of low-cost diet can be

indicated as follows

Food guide for families until limited incomes.

Every meal: Milk for children, bread for all. Every

day : Cereal in porridge or puddings, potatoes, tomatoes (or oranges) for children, a green or yellow vegetable, a fruit or additional vegetable, and milk for all. Two to four times a week : Tomatoes for all. Dried

beans and peas or peanuts. Eggs (especially for chil- dren). Lean meat, poultry, fish, or cheese.

Families of moderate means and those wlio can af- ford to freely choose their food will probably prefer

to use less bread and cereal, fewer clried beans and

jjeas, more vegetables and fruits, and more lean meat,

fish, and poultry than are suggested in the above lists. But free choice is not necessarily a guaranty of wise

choice as judged from the standpoint of physiological

adequac}L The following budget may be used as a guide for spending food money when the amounts

available are somewhat liberal. Food Imdget for families of moderate means.—With

an income permitting choice the family with children

might distribute its food dollar as follows

Cents Bread, flour, and cereaLs 10

IMilk and cheese 25

Ve.^etables and fruit 25

Fats and sweets 15 to 20 Lean meat, tish, and eggs 25 to 20

The choice within the food groups should be such

that the food money will purchase enough food for

the family group. For a family of two adults and

three children this will include approximately the fol- lowing quantities or their equivalent.

Suggested weekly food supply for family of five Avith a moderate income

12 to 15 iiounds flour and cereals. 28 quarts milk. 10 pounds potatoes or sweetpotatoes. 6 to 8 pounds tomatoes or citrus fruits. % to 1 pound dried lieans, peas, and nuts. 6 to 8 pounds leafy or other green or yellow colored vegetables. 15 to 25 i) 0unds other vegetables and fruits. 2 pounds butter. 2 to 4 pounds other fats. 5 to 7 pounds sugar, molasses, jellies. 10 to 15 pounds lean meat, fish, and poultry.

1% to 2 dozen eggs. These cost and quantity budgets allow more individual choice among articles of food than can be

indulged in by families Avith limited amounts of

money. The larger quantities of milk, certain vegetables and fruits, of butter, eggs, and lean meats not

only make a diet Avhich is more interesting to most

people, but one Avhich provides a greater margin of

safety in the mineral elements and vitamin factors. While the dietary suggested for families of moderate means is more liberal than that recommended

for families Avith limited incomes, the latter is probably Avholly adequate according to our present knowledge of nutritional needs.

Many combinations of food materials can be evoh'ed

to yield the chemical elements and organic substances

needed by the body for its activity and the complex

processes of building and maintaining itself. The

Aveekly food supplies here suggested to fill these needs

are not offered in a dogmatic spirit, though for the

sake of breAuty the reasons for the selection can not be

fully presented. The selections represent, however,

the results of much research on the jAi'oblem of eco- nomically satisfying nutritional needs, in terms of

food materials customarily used by the American

people.

Many modifications could Avell be made in recognition of special needs, sectional or class dietary habits, or local food supplies. At their best, as one of our

earlier inA^estigators in this field pointed out, dietary

standards are indications, not hard and fast rules.

5. CERTIFYING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD

By IL Hertwjg ’

The Committee on Foods of the American Medical

Association is an official committee of that association

authorized to utilize the prestige and influence of the

medical profession to promote the establishment of

truthful and ijroper food advertising and the merchandising of foods of full nutritional values. The Avork

of the committee is in the interest of public health and

Avelfare. The committee is cooperating Avith the food industry

for the development of a system by Avhich the industry

may regulate and control its OAvn advertising. Claims

as to the nutritional values of manufactured and pre- pared foods are thus limited in accordance, with established scientific knoAvledge and recognized policies of

social AA'elfare. The plan of operation of the committee among

other things includes the “ acceptance ” of truthfully

1 Secretary to the Committee on Foods of the .-American Medical

.Association, No. 353 North Dearhorn Street, Chicago, 111.

and correctly advertised Avholesome foods Avhich fulfill nutritional requirements; the formulation of general rules and regulations proposed for governing

food labels and advertising; the promulgation of general committee decisions ijortraying the requirements

and policies of the committee on specific advertising

claims and nutritional Auiliies of specific foods and

offered for the guidance of food manufacturers and

advertising agencies ; and the publication of an authoritatiA^e text on foods of the American market, including information on its “ accepted ” and rejected ” foods and intended for the special use of physicians,

dietitians, hospitals, the food industry, and the public.

The committee purposes its seal of acceptance as related to or used AAdth any indiAudual food article to

haA^e the folloAving significance

[a) That the food article, its label, all related pubblished or disjilayed advertising copy of any nature,

statement of physical and chemical composition, proc-
JULY, 1932 COMMERCIALi STANDARDS MONTHLY 9

ess of manufacture, and other pertinent required information, have been submitted to the committee for its consideration.

(h) That all “health” or nutrition claims—either

specific or by inference, appearing on package label,

in any advertising copy, or published or disxilayed in

any other form—harmonize and are in accord with the

evidence submitted as to the chemical and biologic

values of the finished f)roduct on the market.

(c) That evidence has been submitted that the food

product is neither adulterated nor misbranded under

the terms and jjrovisions of the Federal food and

drugs act or other Federal statutes. (d) That claims, other than those of a “ health ” or nutritional nature, offered in the manner mentioned under (&) are not self-evidently or grossly

exaggerated, false, misleading, or decexjtive.

All foods merchandised under a label, or which are advertised in any way may come within the scox>e of

the considerations of the committee. Requisite information on the product given consideration by the committee includes

:

1. Complete manufacturing formula for mixtures

or compounds.

2. Chemical analysis to chemically define the x^roduct.

3. Statement of microscox^ic or bacteriologic examination for x^i'od'icts Avith claims of microorganism

content.

4. Definition and sx^ecifications of raAv materials

used in the x^rex^aration of the article.

5. Detailed description of manufacture.

6. Caloric value.

7. Information on the vitamin contact. Biologic

assay is required only under certain conditions.

8. Assurance that the product fulfills all food laAV requirements. The committee exx^ects and solicits the

earnest coox^eration of the entire food industry in this

service to the x^ublic. The committee alone can not

attain its objective. With the Avilling and helxjful

sux^xjort and cooxjeration of the industry its authorized

XAUi'XAOse can be achieved. Manufacturers of “ ac- cexDted ” foods are looked upon as associates and co- partners in the x^roject of the committee; they are obligated and exxjected to contribute their individual

share in their own way to this common cause of x^Rblic

Avelfare. By maintaining their “ accex^ted ” ])roducts

Avholesome and of full nutritional value and their advertising in accord Avith the rules and regulations,

announced x^olicies and decisions of the committee,

food manufacturers are rendering a genuine x^wblic seiwice.

Many manufacturers are already efficiently doing

their x^art as members of the industry which en masse

ultimately Avill demand and enforce truthful and

XJroxJer food adA^ertising and the manufacture of foods

of required and exx^ected nutritional values. The

benefits Avill accrue to the industry as Avell as to the

XAublic.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS

TAventy-one specifications were acted on by the Federal SxJecifications Board during the month of June.

Of this number 13 x^roxjosed sx^ecifications and 8 revisions were received and sent out for official comment

and criticism. Coxjies of these sxjecifications (in mimeographed form) and further information can be obtainecl from the Federal Sx^ecifications Board, Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D. C.

New desig- nation Specifications proposed Old

F. S. B. No.

CCC-C-231

Candles —

Steel, sheet, flat, terne-coated (long ternes) Pipe, water, cast-iron (bolted joint) Undershirt, men’s (ribbed kiiit, cotton-wool, high neck, long sleeve, medium)...

Undershirt, men's (flat knit, cotton, light weight, short

sleeve, pullover) Underdrawers, men’s (ribbed knit, ankle length, medium, cotton-wool) Hog brains j Calf brains Sausage, cervelat style Fat-back, dry salt-cured Gratings; steel (for flooring, landings, steps, etc.). This

specification intended for land and marine use) }lydrometers; antifreeze solutions Chambray - _ __ _ .

SPECIFICATIONS TO BE REVISED

W-F-801a UH-B-671a KK-L-I51

OQ-B-lOla

OQ-S- 675

\\'AV-U-631 ZZ-S-75I ZZ-T-721a

Fuses, cartridge, inclosed, renewable.

Brick, fire-clay W-F-801 nU-B-C71

482 QQ-B-101

316

393

383 ZZ-T-721

Leather, bag.!... Bases metal; (for) plaster and stucco construction

Steel, carbon and alloy; bars, billets, blooms, and slabs

(for) reforging Unions, malleable iron or steel, 250-pound..

Stoppers, rubber .-... Tubes, automobile and motor-cycle, inner

LUMBERMEN OF CANADA AND NEW HAMPSHIRE ADOPT TRADE MARKING OF LUMBER

As stated in the Ax^ril, 1932, Commercial Standards

Monthly, all lumber used in the city of Boston, Mass.,

for load-carrying xiurxioses must bear the official grademark stamxi of the association under whose rules the

lumber Avas manufactured or a mark of equivalent

value satisfactory to the building commissioner of

Boston. This ruling became effective Axiril 1, 1932. Since that time the Canadian Lumbermen’s Association have adoxited grade-marking rules on eastern Canadian merchantable sxiruce, and the Ncav Hamxishire Lumbermen’s Association have also adopted a similar program.

To take care of the supxily of lumber Avhich is on hand in dealers’ yards at the iiresent time and

Avhich is not grade-marked at the mills b}^ the manufacturers’ association, the Northeastern Lumber Service (Inc.), has been formed to succeed the Boston

chaxiter of the Northeastern Retail Lumbermen’s

Association.

This organization, formed by Boston lumbermen

Avith the cooxieration of the Northeastern Retail Lumbermen’s Association, Avill perform a grade-marking

service, axiplying their effort to those stocks Avhich are on hand in this area at the x^resent time and Avhich art' not grade-marked, as Avell as x^erforming other asso- ciational services. It is and has been the intention of

dealers in Boston and vicinity to x^'ii’cbase grademarked stock at the mill, officially graded according

to the rules of the association serving that ])articular

sxiecies. 129030—32-
INTERNATIONAL

ELECTRICAL CONGRESS

Notable Meeting in Paris Celebrates Semicentennial

of First International Electrical Congress

F

rom JULY 5 to 12, 1932, an international Electrical Congress at Paris

celebrated the completion of a half century (with an extra year for good

measure) since the great Electrical Congress of 1881 . That congress had a remarkable influence in promoting international uniformity and understanding in the

science of electricity and in its applications. Permanent organizations which have

grown up in the last quarter century have taken over the functions of international

standardization, so that the recent congress was devoted to reports and discussions

summarizing the present state of electrical theory and practice, without any attempt

to arrive at resolutions or decisions on any point.

So wide has the field of electricity become that the congress was organized in 13

sections. These included general theories of electricity, and electrical measurements,

as well as the diverse branches of electrical engineering. Authorities in various countries were invited by the French committee of organization to prepare reports on a

list of selected subjects. For the section on electrical measurements six reports were

invited from members of the Bureau of Standards. These were Absolute Measurement of Electric Current, and Measurements and Standards of Inductance, both by

Harvey L. Curtis; The Silver Voltameter, by George W. Vinal; Potentiometers, by

H. B. Brooks; Practical Magnetic Measurements, by R. L. Sanford; and the Velocity

of Electromagnetic Waves, by N. Ernest Dorsey.

While American authors contributed their full share of the program, attendance

from this country at the congress was very small. The chairman of the American

delegation was Prof. Arthur E. Kennelly, of Harvard University. The Bureau of

Standards was represented by Dr. Harvey L. Curtis.

The proceedings of the congress will be published entirely in French. They will be obtainable either in complete sets or in separate volumes covering the work of the

several sections.

10
JULY, 1932 COMMEECIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 11

GERMANY ADOPTS NEW STANDARDS FOR EGGS

New Classification Became Effective on April 18, 1932

Under provisions of the trade standards act of Germany, agricultural commodities are classified and

packed, as well as standardized, to conform with cer- tain standards set up by the trade. Eggs are the first agricultural commodity to fall within the provisions

of this act. No producer is allowed to use the trade-mark and

grade standards set by the Government unless he

proves that he will at all times conform to the regulations and keep his products standard under all conditions. However, producers that have less than 750

chickens and cooperative packing societies that have

a turnover of less than 2,000,000 eggs per year, are not

qualified to use these trade-marks. Apparently it is felt that producers and cooperative societies smaller

than those mentioned are not in a position to maintain a uniform standard at all times. Germanproduced eggs under the new classification will be as follows

:

G.-l. Very fresh eggs.

G.-2. Fresh eggs.

S. Extra large. A. Large.

B. Medium large.

C. Average.

D. Small.

S. Extra large. A. Large.

B. Medium large. C. Average.

D. Small. The various classifications from extra large down

to the small, are all graded according to the weight

of the egg, and so the extra large category “ S ” must

contain eggs that weigh from 65 grams upward.

Large eggs “A” must weigh from 60 to 65 grams, me- dium large eggs “ B ” must weigh from 55 to 60 grams,

average eggs “ C ” must weigh from 50 to 55 grams,

small eggs “ D ” must weigh from 45 to 50 grams

(1 gram equals 0.3215 ounce Troy weight). The condition of the two groups of eggs, namely G-1, very

fresh, and G-2, fresh, must conform to the following

regulations

:

Very fresh eggs.—The shell must be normal, clean,

washed, and not broken. There must be not more

than 5 mm air space in the egg. The egg white must

be transparent and firm. The yolk of the egg must

be clearly visible and on turning the entire egg the

yolk must remain in the middle. The germ of the

egg must not be visible and not developed. The egg

must be free of all bad or foreign odors.

Fresh eggs. —Fresh eggs have exactly the same

specifications with the exception that under the provision “there must not be more than 5 mm air space

in the egg,” there is a tolerance of 10 mm allowed for

air space in the egg instead of 5 mm as for the very

fresh eggs. All eggs that are to be sold under these new trademarks must have a minimum weight of 45 grams.

Further, cold storage eggs are not permitted to be

used. According to the new regulations, cold storage

eggs are those which have been held in rooms or liouses or ships in storage Avhere the temijerature has been

artificially held under 5° C. However, refrigerator

cars in which eggs have been shipped, are not included in this category. Preserved eggs are not al- lowed to be sold under these new trade-marks. A pre- served egg is one which has been kej)t fresh by chemical means either by the use of calcium, waterglass, etc. Dirty and broken eggs as well as those spotted Avith blood or spotted shells, and above all, partly hatched

eggs, are not alloAved to be sold under the fresh or very fresh classification. Each egg sold under the trade standards act trademark must be stamped according to regulation and

packed according to regulation. Further, eggs of Auri- ous grades must be stored together and should not be

olfered in mixed lots. Each egg must be marked ac- cording to sample. The regulations go so far as to specify that the diameter of the circle Avhich contains

the word “ Deutsch ” must be 12 mm (0.47 inch) and

that the Avord “ Deutsch ” must be at least 2 mm high.

Further, betAveen March 15 and August 31, the color

of the stencil must be in black and from September 1 to March 14, the color must be in red. If these trade-marked eggs are packed in closed

packages, such as boxes, crates, etc., they must be sealed

Avith an official seal, Avhich must be broken Avhen the

container is opened. The official seal for very fresh

eggs is Avhite, and for fresh eggs blue, and must be 42

cm long, 14 cm wide for large packages and corre- spondingly smaller for the smaller ones. On the seal must be shoAvn the name of the shipper and address,

the classification of the eggs as well as the weight

classification, and a serial number as Avell as date of

pack. All this information is filled in by the shipper.

In each box, crate, etc., that is packed, a control slip is laid Avhich contains the same serial number as the outside seal, shoAvs the name of the shipper, address, by

Avhom the eggs were candled, packed, and date of

packing, as well as classification number and weight

classification. These seals and control slips are only

obtainable from the Ministry of Agriculture after per- mission has been granted producers or large companies

to use the neAv trade-mark.

Cold storage eggs can only be brought into the

trade if each egg is plainly stenciled with black stencil

ink. This triangular stencil must be at least 15 mm

on each side and must contain the letter “ K ” in Latin script. On the outside of the package must

appear in large black blocked letters at least 3 cm

high the Avord “ cold storage.” If cold-storage eggs

are sold in the shop in bulk or othei’Avise, a sign shoAVing the price must be there and also shoAV that the eggs

are of cold storage origin. For preserved eggs the same regulations haAU been in effect, only that the

Avord “ ]Are.serAud ” must be on the eggs as AA'ell as on

the package. In the shops also, ]fiacards must be put on preseiwed eggs shoAving that they are preserved.

Eggs imported into the country must haAU on the

package printed in readable Latin letters the country

of origin. These letters must be at least 2 cm iu height, either .stenciled or burnt in. Each egg must

also cari-y a stencil shoAving the country of origin,

and this stencil must be at least 2 mm in height.

For cold-storage eggs or pre.sei'ATd eggs the coloi- of the stencil must be black in the interim of iSIarch
12 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932

15 to August 31, and from September 1 to March 14, red. Eggs imported into the country that are not marked in accordance with these new regulations will

not be allowed entry for consumption, but it is possible to have the eggs marked in accordance with the

regulations under proper supervision at a small nominal charge.

Eggs that do not or can not be sold under the new

national trade-mark must be sold under the name of

the producer and the producer must show his name

and address on the package. A penalty of three

months’ imprisonment or a monetary penalty is assessed on all violations of these regulations, which

became effective April 18, 1932.

SHOVELS, SPADES, AND SCOOPS

The standing committee of the industry in charge

of Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 48 (first

revision), entitled “ Shovels, Spades, and Scoops,” has

reaffirmed the existing schedule without change.

This simplification program, which was proposed

and formulated by the industry under the auspices

of the Bureau of Standards, recommends certain sizes,

multiples, grades, and finishes of these commodities as regular stock items. The recommendation has been

instrumental in reducing the number of sizes and

varieties of shovels, spades, and scoops from 5,136 to

2,178, or an elimination of 57 per cent in superfluous

variety.

BRITISH STANDARD ISSUED FOR SOFT

SOLDERS

Primarily, in order to make provision for the in- corporation of a further grade of solder, namely,

grade “ K,” suitable for certain classes of machine

soldering, the British Standards Institution has issued a revised edition of the specifications for soft solder. The compositions of grades “A” to “ J ” remain un- changed, though, in some instances, modifications have

been made in the references to the uses for which tlie solders are primarily intended. Some additional provisions have been made in the clause relating to the

chemical analysis of sam|jles.

A new specification for cored solder, rosin filled, has

also been issued. This provides for six standard sizes,

ranging from 8 to 16 Stubbs, wire gage, and contains

clauses regulating the composition of the solder and

the quality and projjortion of the rosin.

LABELS INDICATE SUBSTITUTIONS USED IN

MAKING CANDIES

Twenty years ago boys and girls went to the store for a bag of stick candy, gumdrops, licorice, or other

confectionery. Now they buy their sweetmeats in

boxes or in transparent wrappers, says J. W. Sale, of

the Federal Food and Drug Administration. In

those days, says Sale, there was little to be found on

confectionery labels which would aid the buyer in

making a purchase. But candy labels are more in- formative to-day.

“ Chocolate-coated candies, such as bon-bons,

creams, and fruits, generally bring the highest price

of any confection on the market,” Sale says. “And

when the word ‘ chocolate ’ appears upon the label the

purchaser may be sure that genuine chocolate was

used. Cheaper ingredients, such as hydrogenated

coconut oil, are sometimes used to adulterate chocolate coatings. When these substitutes are wholesome.

as is usually the case. Federal food officials do not

object to their use, provided the label plainly states this fact. Many kinds of nuts also go into the manufacture

of confections, and it is the duty of the Federal Food

and Drug Administration to see that only sound and

wholesome nuts are used. The adjninistration re- moves from the market every year numerous shipments of imported and domestic nuts, because the

goods have been found to be wormy, moldy, or otherwise unfit for food. The pure food law requires that

all packed foods entering into interstate trade bear a plain quantity-of-contents statement upon the label. Some boxes of candy look as though they hold 1 pound, but actually contain only 14 ounces. During the past few years there has been a marked

increase in the sale of candy bars boxed or wrapped in

cellophane. These, too, must be labeled with a quantity-of-contents statement. Any other declarations

made upon the label must be truthful. Packaged

hard candies, such as fruit drops, or jelly beans with

fruit centers, are also on sale. When the label on the

confection bears the name of a fruit, unqualified, the

flavor used must actually have been derived from

that fruit. If initation flavors are used, the name of

the fruit must be preceded by the word “ imitation.”

NEW METHODS ADOPTED IN GRADING

TOBACCO

Plans for Federal-State tobacco grading service at auction markets the coming marketing season are being

formulated by the United States Department of Agriculture. The tobacco grading service at eastern markets heretofore has been furnished only where the

grower paid a fee of 5 to 10 cents per 100 pounds to have his tobacco officially graded and certified pre- vious to sale. Change from this procedure was put

into operation as an experiment on certain markets

in Kentucky and Tennessee last December, and the

results have been so satisfactory that the new method

has been adopted in place of the old. Under this new procedure, tobacco grading service

is furnished where the warehouseman agrees to have

all tobacco graded at a flat rate per 100 pounds. Offi- cials of the Department of Agriculture believe that in

most markets tobacco grading service can be supplied

at materially less cost when all the tobacco is graded.

The advantages found in this procedure are that the

graders are kept fully occupied, thus reducing the cost per 100 pounds for grading service, and buyers more

quickly become familiar with the standard grades. It has been found that the grading service is much more

effective in serving the interests of farmers and the

tobacco trade under these conditions.
JULY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 13

SAVINGS FROM SIMPLIFIED PRINTED FORMS

Canadian National Railways Official Reviews Work Done by His Organization in Simplifying Office

Forms

By C. U. Stapleton ‘

In endeavoring to control the cost of the many

manufacturing elements necessary to produce printed

forms, and to establish a set of standards which Avould

eliminate the nonessential elements, the Canadian National Railways became convinced that the application of engineering principles were necessary for the

constructive revision of form production practices.

The first step was a survey which enabled the forms

committee to decide if the reference value of the information furnished through the form justified the ex- penditure for labor and material, and, at that time, to further facilitate judgment, forms furnishing correlated information were brought together to be compared for similarity of data. This survey disclosed:

(1) What forms were being furnished and how dis- tributed, (2) the necessity of their existence, (3) their

individual clerical and manufacturing costs, (4) possible cancellations, (5) possible consolidations, and (6)

jjossible cost reductions by revising manufacturing

specifications.

The next step was to set up a series of manufacturing specifications applicable to different requirements,

and drastically reduce the variables to the smallest

possible number, after which each form was individually studied to plan the least expensive production. A specification was then drawn up for the approval of the management of the Canadian National

Railways and a control established for the mainte- nance of the standards.

It was found that a scientific approach to tlie ju'oblem of cost reduction in form printing, which is not

commonly considered to be controllable by tbe pui‘-

chaser, resulted in an average saving of more than

one-third of the manufacturing cost for some 5,000

forms with a total annual consumption of about

250,000,000 copies. Such a reduction would seem

sufficiently important to warrant Canadian National

Railways bringing to the attention of other large

users of printed forms a few of the principal cost- I’educing methods employed in bringing this about.

If printed form requirements permitted, the acme

of standardization Avould be to set-up all forms of one size, color, weight, and texture of paper, and print

them in only one color of ink, but as this is impossible,

the next best thing that can be done is to establish the

minimum number of different sizes, colors, and

weights possible. Sizes should be multiples of one

another, and cut evenly from standard flat mill stock

sheets, as far as is practicable, otherwise there Avill be waste included in the cost of the form Avith no

advantage to the user. Sometimes it may be advisable to enlarge a form rather than reduce it. For

example, both composition and press work may often

be saved by enlarging a form to include on the front,

instructions or other composition now printed on the

back, Avhich, of course, cuts the pressAvork in tAvo and

often justifies enlarging the form accordingly.

’ Alaniicer, office services. Cnnadiaii National Railways, 407 McGill

Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Where instructions are absolutely essential, they may

be printed on the coA'er, or board back if the form i§ [ladded.

As paper in many cases amounts to half the cost of

the form, size is a very important factor in cost reduction, and it is suiqtrising hoAv many forms Avill be

found to haA'e been draAvn up originally by the author on a blank sheet 814 by 11 inches, Avitliout any regard

for the entry spaces actually needed. A number of

forms can be reduced to tAvo-thirds their present size by simply setting a standard of four lines to 1 inch for

handwriting, and applying this standard to such

forms as are not typewritten. There are some Avho

do not giA"e column spacing the same attention as line

spacing, and consideration is A^ery seldom giA^en to the

number of digits, or characters, to be entered, or Avhat

allowance should be made for these characters.

It has been the, practice of Canadian National RailAvays to alloAV one-eighth of an inch for each letter space, which provides for a slight margin at each side

of the column, and care is always taken to see that the

positions for the decimal points, or the lines between

the dollars and cents columns, are spaced apart in tenths, to provide for typewriter tabulating. The

Aveight of stock is determined by the number of copies

required at one writing, and the amount of strength

necessary. We prefer to increase a IG-pound sulphite

form to 20-pound sulphite, rather than change the sub- stance to rag, in order to obtain a firmer body, the reason being that Avhile 25 per cent more Aveight is paid for in one case, it Avould be necessary to pay

almost three times as much for quality in the other. In connection Avith colors, it seems that almost eA^ery

organization is faced with some important officer being an advocate of color schemes. In the opinion of the

Avriter, altogether too much stress is being laid on the

adA^antage of colors as a means of reducing eri'Oi-s in sorting, and identifying copies of forms with certain

departments or actiAuties. Very feAV color advocates

consider the extra cost of colored paper, or the interleaving that is necessary, in manufacturing sets of

forms—all they seem to be interested in is saA’ing the

clerical forces the trouble of thinking about Avhat they

are doing. All copies can be printed in one color, and,

if necessary, the complete distribution instructions in- cluded in the composition appearing on every form

copy, which results in all copies being the same and no

interleaving. In cases AAdiere there is need for eacli set to have an individuality, the forms can be press- numbered as they are being printed, so that there still remains no interleaving or no other additional operation, such as machine numbering.

Press perforations appear to be quite as satisfactory

as perforations that haA*e been made after the form has

been printed, and this also applies to ju'ess numbering.

Both the.se operations become extra operations if run through a perfoi’ating or numbering macliine after- Avards, and increase the manufacturing costs ju’oportionately. Some presses are noAV used tliat Avill gatliei’.
14 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932

or interleave, the forms as they are being printed, but

to set a press for a job of this kind costs so much that

unless it is distributed over a long run it is cheaper ta

interleave by hand.

It is possible to avoid interleaving by having three

forms of a set printed all on one sheet, two on the

front and one on the back, and press perforated the same time that they are printed, provided the forms

are not too wide when joined together side by side, or too long when joined together top and bottom. In

other words, the total lenglh, or width of the complete

set before folding should not be over 25 inches, and

when fan-folded, of course, the set would then become

the size of one form. Cases are also found where the

user requires one page of a book perforated, and interleaved with a page not perforated, but exactly the same in all other respects, which ordinarily requires

that half of the run be perforated and interleaved

with the other half before binding. To avoid this,

have all copies press perforated and it will be found

that there is no complaint of the original and carbon

copy both being torn out of the book, because there

is always a sheet of carbon paper in between, and

after the form is filled in, the clerk usually raises

the original to remove the sheet of carbon, and tears the original out at the same time.

Many books now center sewn with thread, can be

saddle stitched with wire, providing the wire stitching

is run through a strip of fabric in the center, Avhich

acts as a Avasher and prevents the center leaves from

tearing aAvay from the staples, thereby reducing the

cost of center stitching materially. An investigation

Avill disclose forms now being delivered folded, which

may be deliA^ered flat without any incoiwenience, be- cause the stenographer has to unfold them for the insertion of carbons before using in any case, so folding

should be eliminated unless absolutely necessary owing

to the size of the form.

So much is heard concerning the necessity of the

enA^elopes being of the same quality, color, and weight

as the letterhead that it has come to be generally

accepted as being an essential requirement. Apart

from the occasional letter under personal cover, Iioav many of the men we wish to reach ever see this container?

The cost of window envelopes is reduced by omitting the glassene coA^ering inside the opening and

specifying these to be manufactured opened window,

Avith the exception of cases where stock is not suffi- ciently strong, or the windoAV is too large, to permit

this substitution. The Canadian National Railways

have found that the majority of the window envelopes

used are subject to open-window treatment, and over

a period of several years, have not had any complaints

that the contents Avere tampered Avith in any Avay.

Certainly the open windoAV makes the name and address much more legible, as well as overcoming the

tendency for insertions to catch on the glassene edges

when filling the eiiA'elope.

The Canadian National Raihvays has found the

least expensiA’e envelope stock for interdepartmental

use to be manila, for light Aveight contents, and kraft,

for bulky contents. Kraft is also used for strength in

communications Avith the public, but otherAvise Avood

Avhite AvoA^e in 20-pound AA'eights. While occasional

complaints hav'^e been receiA^ed in connection Avith the

latter substance, these liaAm not been sufficiently nummerous to justify the use of rag Avhite woA^e, Avhich

Avould more than double the cost of our envelopes, and

so the policy of supplying the least expensive material

suitable to the requirement has been followed.

GROUP EXPERIENCE USEFUL IN WRITING

SPECIFICATIONS

Very serious and .successful specification Avriting has

had the attention of the electrical industry for some

years. The National Electric Light Association, the

American Telegraph & Telephone Co., the American

Standards Association, the Bureau of Standards, the

National Electric Manufacturers Association, and

others, have all put in valuable time on tlie problem

Avith the residt that group knoAvledge and experience

are Avell woven into the standards that now exist. In an editorial discussion of the subject the magazine, Electric Light and PoAver, recently pointed out

that despite the study behind certain accepted specifications it is not unusual to hear of individuals who are not satisfied with them and who write, for uniA’ersally

accepted equipment, specifications of their own.

“ There is no satisfaction in obtaining the thing one

Avants if the price one pays is out of proportion Avith that of the nearest suitable substitute,” the editorial

pointed out. Continuing in part, the editorial com- ment added “We haA^e heard of cases Avhere the in- diAudualized specifications could not be filled regardless of cost. The more specifications, the more standards or semistandards and the higher pidces, seems a

logical premise—it is the practical sequence.”

At best the Avriting of materials’ specifications is not an amateur’s job—far from it. In this connection

the editorial quoted above said that “ it is one employment where a number of heads and experiences can, and should, get together for conference before the

writing starts. Excepting where a specific piece of

equipment is needed for a particular installation,

specification and standards Avriting is committee work.”

SIMPLIFIED SCHEDULES FOR COMMERCIAL

LAUNDRY MACHINERY MAILED TO INDUSTRY

Four simplified practice recommendations in the

commercial laundry machinery field, namely, Avashers,

extractors, ironers, and tumblers, have been mailed by

the Bureau of Standards to all interests in the industry

for their consideration and Avritten approA^al.

The simplified schedules for washers and tumblers

are concerned with the size, the type of drive, the

number of compartments, the number of cylinder

doors, and the number of A’ertical and horizontal partitions. The tumbler program also provides for the

method of heating. Types and diameters are con- sidered in the extractor recommendation, and sizes,

types, drive, and method of heating are contained in

the flatAvork ironer program. These recommendations.

Avhich Avere proposed and deA^eloped by the industry,

Avill be effective when the required degree of support

has been accorded them by members of the industry.
JULY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 15

METHODS OF JUDGING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Suggestions to Consumers on How to Measure Quality and Conditions of Products of Farm by Specific

Characters

By I-I. W. PouLSEN ^

The average housewife or purchaser of home supplies knows comparatively little about the details of

quality in the produce which he or she is buying. By

experience they have learned that certain commodities

are satisfactory if they have a good appearance, but

many purchases depend entirely upon the integrity of

the retail grocer or vender.

In the enforcement of the California fruit, nut, and

vegetable standardization act and the California

standard apple act, the county agricultural commissioners, inspectors, and deputies, together with the

members of our bureau, come in contact with many

facts which we feel would be of interest and value to the purchaser of fruits and vegetables for home use. Recently California experienced some very severe weather, with the result that many of the oranges still on the trees were severely damaged. During the harvesting of such a crop it is very difficult for the lawenforcement officials to catch all the loads of oranges

which go from orchards directly to the cities for

distribution among the retail stores and directly to the

liouses by the peddlers. It is comparatively easy to retard the movement of frozen oranges by carloads to out-of-State markets, but much more difficult to stop

the flow which goes, as stated above, directly to the consumer. In purchasing oranges this }^ear and in any season when freezing temperatures have been experienced, it

is important that everyone be on the lookout for

oranges which are frozen on the inside. The effect on the orange from low temperatures is the bursting

of the cells and the drying of the juice, so that it has

far less juice than a normal orange. A¥hile there are

several characteristics which appear on the outside of

the orange, such as light-colored sides, irregular spotting of the color, etc., there is no definite means of

determining from the outside appearance, whether or not the oranges have been frozen or what extent of

frost damage may be jiresent.

As the drying process continues, the orange becomes

lighter because of the absence of juice, and occasionally can be recognized by this fact. The best method,

however, of determining the condition of oranges

which might have been frozen is. to cut a representative sample.

The maturity or ripeness of an orange is another

factor which often confuses many of us. One of the

important things in eating an orange or drinking the

juice of the orange is whether or not it is sweet enougli

to satisfy our taste. The amount of acid in propoi'-

tion to the soluble solids of sugar in the juice determines the sweetness. The standardization law re- ferred to above requires that this ratio be at least S parts of sugar to 1 part of acid or better when tlie color on the outside is 25 per cent at the time of picking. However, if the color is at least 70 ])er cent at the time of picking a Gi/o to 1 ratio is sutlicient. This,

1 Bureau of fruit and vegetable standardization, department of agri- culture, State of California.

of course, is a minimum standard, and to be really desirable it should be sweeter; but, of course, a law of

this kind can not have a provision which might be prohibitory to some producers.

The outside color of an orange is not a true indication of its maturity or sweetness. Oranges generally

are accelerated in color by artificial means, such as heat and various types of gases. By this means an orange which is quite sour may have a beautiful deep

color, which may indicate to you that it is very desirable, which, of course, is not true. Again, the only

real method of finding out whether or not the product

is sweet enough is to have it tested, but, of course, this can not be done in the average case, so that one must

resort to tasting.

Avocados, sometimes known as alligator pears, are now grown in large quantities in California. The

standardization act requires that this fruit contain at

least 8 per cent oil content before being sold. This is a minimum standard, and many varieties grown in California exceed this considerably. The larger the

oil content of the avocado the better the product is. Many people are confused in purchasing avocados be- cause of the fact that when they are received by the

retailer and sold to the consumer they are quite hard.

The flesh of avocados to be desirable must be almost

as soft as fairly wai’in butter. When selecting avo- cados for immediate use they should be soft; but for use in the next feiv days, it is a good policy to buy

those which are still quite firm.

Generally speaking, the appearance of our various

vegetables is a fairly good indication as to their quality and desirability. However, in the case of head

lettuce it is important to observe further. A soft head

of lettuce may have a very fine appearance, being

fresh and bright, but will not contain much in Amlume, nor will the leaves be well bleached. Soft heads of

lettuce quite often have a large ]iart of their leaves

very green in color. The liarder the head of lettuce the more desirable it will be. Irregularly shaped

heads are sometimes caused by the advanced growtli

of seed stems within the head. Oftentimes these have

developed so far that a knob appears on one side of

the head, and in most instances this type of head is bitter to the taste. California grows a very large acreage of different

kinds of melons which are shipped out of the State

and sold in our own markets. In order to ship canta- loupes for any distance they must be picked in a hard,

ripe condition, which in the trade is called ‘‘ fancy.”

Tliose intended for local markets are riper and are

called “choice.” While it is legal, as far as the

standardization law is concerned, to ship both of these

types, the_y must comply Avith the maturity standard

calling for 8 per cent soluble solids, Avhich is sugar,

in the juice of the edible })ortion. Sometimes the

fancy grade of melon reaches our local markets or

is offei-ed for sale on roadside stands to the home

purchaser.
16 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932

In order to be desiralde for immediate consumption,

a cantaloupe should have a well-developed raised net and the ground color of the skin between the net should be well colored. For most varieties this color

is of a yelloAvish golden cast. While all cantaloupes

failing to meet the maturity standard of the law

should be, and are generally, kept off the market, oc- casionally some might be offered for sale. These

melons are quite green in color, with a flat net, and

by the time they reach the consumer in most instances

will liaA^e begun to shrivel. Oftentimes cantaloupes

are held by the Avholesaler or retailer until they be- come overripe. Generally, this is shown by the fact

that they become very soft. The desirable characteristics of maturit}^ in addition to those points mentioned above, are that the cantaloupe be fairly firm.

If they yield readily to the pressure of the hand they

are usually a little bit too ripe to be desirable. This

condition should not be confused Avith a melon picked

too green, AAdiich becomes soft after being held. This

ty2)e will be green in color and soft, but, of course,

it is also undesirable.

In the buying of fresh garden iieas there are several

points of imjioi’tance Avhich Avould be of value in }mrchasing them. Peas which are too young—that is, not

Avell enough develo^ied—will aji^^ear very nice—the

jiods Avill be fresh and green—but will oftentimes contain very small This condition of a jiod is

FIBER INSULATING BOARD

In resjAonse to a request from the manufacturers of

insulating board a general conference of manufacturers, distributors, and users of the product was held

at the Palmer House, Chicago, 111., on May 16, 1932, to consider the adoption of a minimum quality standard

for the guidance of the industry. The conference Avas held under the aus^iices of the division of trade standards, Bureau of Standards.

A jiroposed standard that was tentatively drafted

by a committee of manufacturers Avas thoroughly dis- cussed and numerous constructive changes were made.

The sjiecifications finally ajiiAroved by the conference

Avill be submitted to the industry for Avritten accept- ance Avithin the very near future.

The recommended standard for fiber insidating

board is a minimum sjiecification for tAvo classes designated as “ insulating building board ” and “ roof in- sulating board.” Insulating building board is used

for sheathing, j)fii’titions, jilaster base, etc., and is governed by requirements of thermal conductivity,

Avater absorption, tensile strength, deflection, minimum

thickness, plaster adhesion, expansion, and standard

sizes. Roof insulating board is used as the name imjdies and is governed by requirements of thermal conductivity, water absoiqition, tensile strength, minimum

thickness, and standard sizes. The adojDtion and use of the standard Avill establisli definite criteria of insulating value and other iihysical

requirements that should be possessed by this material.

It Avill become a basis on which ^performance guaranties may be made by the manufacturer for the guidance

and assurance of the jirospective home OAvner, architect, or builder.

usually referred to as flat. On the other extreme the

peas in the jrod are often overmature. This condition

is shoAvn by the shriveling, yelloAving, and drying uji

appearance of the outside surface of the ^lods. Also

the peas in the ^lod will be quite large. To determine

the OA^ermaturity of peas, one should break a few open

and taste them.

Local tomatoes grown in the vicinity of the district in which they are marketed are usually quite

ripe and in fairly good condition. HoAveA'er, Avhen it is necessary during certain seasons of the year to ship them in from earlier producing sections, they

arrive in the retail stores and markets Avith considerable variation as to maturity between the individual

tomatoes in the containers. They are all jiicked and

jAacked at point of origin in a green condition, but

are supiiosed to have reached the state at Avhich they

will comjAlete their ripening process. While I realize

that most houseAviA^es desire tomatoes Avhich are comjAaratively ripened, being nice and red, one should

not be discouraged if a few of them are rather 2>ink in color or do not have sufficient dark red color to satisfy the need. These can be held over until they

ripen to the proper stage.

The California State Deiiartment of Agriculture,

through the county agricultural commissioners, is en- deavoring daily to jiatrol the shijAinents of these jirod- ucts to see that eveiything Avhich is offered for sale is suitable.

ENGINEERS HOLD INTERNATIONAL

CONFERENCE

Engineers of 18 nations met in Milan, Italy, May 30

to June 9, for a series of technical conferences on se- curing greater international uniformity in standards

for aiiqilane and automobile jiarts, cutting tools, iron

and steel, and other subjects. These conferences Avere

lield under the auspices of the International Standards Association, which includes in its membershi]3

the national standardizing bodies of 18 nations, of

which the United States is one. Ernest Wooler, chief engineer of the Timken Roller

Bearing Co. of Canton, Ohio, outlined to the confer- ence on ball and roller bearings, the American jiroposal on bearings to re^ilace the thousand different

tyf)es and sizes noAV manufactured in the United

States alone. Upon returning to the United States from the conference Mr. Wooler informed the Commercial Standards Monthly that this proposal which

is the standard of the Society of Automotive Engineers, was accejAted only by France, which adopted the

American basis using their OAvn standard millimeter

dimensions. He said that Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy accepted the SAvedish jAroposal, out- lined below, and expressed the opinion that Czechoslovakia and Russia Avould folloAv suit. Mr. Wooler stated that the SAvedish proposal of

tajAered roller bearing standardization is an entirely

neAv line and is interchangeable Avith ball bearings to metric dimensions, Avhich the American group con- sidered entirely unsuitable for use in this country.

The American pro|Aosal, he ex^ilained, was developed

from the most jAopular and satisfactory bearings at jAresent in ^Aroduction and used for the iiast 30 years.
JULY, 1932 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY 17

NEW GRADING RULES ADOPTED BY HARDWOOD LUMBERMEN

Secretary of National Hardware Lumb er Association Outlines New Grading Rules of His Association to Members of the National Association of Purchasing Agents

By L. S. Beale '

The new hardwood grading rules adopted at the

thirty-fourth annual convention of the National Hardwood Lumber Association became effective on Januarj'

1, 1932. These new rules are now the official standard

of the association and are referred to as the 1932 rules, to distinguish them from 1931 rules which were the

last issue of rules based upon former principles of

grading now given the stamp of obsolescence by the

action of the last convention.

Up to 1931 the rules of the association were based

for the most part on principles adopted 34 years ago. There had been changes and modifications in details,

but no major changes in basic principles. During this

time there were many changes in the conditions under

which hardwood lumber was produced ; many changes

in the extent and kinds of trades using hardwoods

and the purposes for which they were used. These

changes in both the producing and consuming fields have had their influence from time to time in bringing

about a desire for changes in the grades. For some

years there were serious differences of opinion among

hardwood lumbermen as to the basic principles under

which hardwoods should be graded. These differences

at one time developed factions which splits the industry and caused strife within its own ranks. At one

time there was another set of grading rules in the

field advanced by one of those factions, causing con- fusion and annoyance in the trade.

At about this time the then Secretary of Commerce

was advocating standardization of designs, sizes,

types, kinds, and processes in various lines of industry.

This movement was prompted by World War experi- ence which disclosed a lack of standardization and re- sulting waste in many lines. This movement caught

the lumber industry first in the softwood field where

apparently there was considerable difference in grades

and sizes as between the various softwood species, particularly where different s]iecies were under the control of different associations. Hardwood gradingrules at the inception of this movement had been

standardized by our association for many years. All

liardwood species having been under one association

there was not the lack of cohesion existing in soft- woods resulting from the numbers of associations.

Nevertheless, the movement for standardization in lumber brought out an examination of the hardwood

grades, raised questions as to the merits of the princi-

]ffes then applied and proponents of various schools

of lumber inspection voiced their theories in the re- sulting conferences and committee meetings.

An examination of the standards of the association

at that time was not objectionable to our association. It was felt that if a discussion should show the way

to imjH-oved grading that we should adopt the improvement. The association, however, did object to entirely scrapjnng the experience of its then 25 yeai-s

1 Abstract of paper delivered before June 7 meeting of tbe Nationai

•Association of Piircbasing Agents, Detroit, Mich., at tliei'r seventeenth annual conference. Mr. Beale is the secretary-treasurer of tbe National Hardwood Lumber .Association.

and the adoption of wholly new and radical principles

throughout and without regard to the needs and interests of the consuming trade as Avell as those of the lumber producer. Its representatives fought successfully

for the rejection of such proposals as that all grades

be determined from the best side of the board, and

that there be allowed an unlimited number of cuttings

in obtaining the required percentage of clear material

in the board. The subject was argued for several

years through meetings of the hardwood consultingcommittee, an advisory or subcommittee of the central committee on lumber standards. The matter was

eventually boiled down to three sets of basic rules

being submitted to the hardwood consulting- committee, knoAvn as proposals A, B, and C. Proimsal C Avas formulated by representatives of the association and

Avas adopted by the hardwood consulting committee

in 1927. Conferences Avith representatives of the National

Furniture Manufacturers Association and the Southern Furniture Manufacturers Association resulted in revisions and modifications of the program. The neAV proposal Avas then submitted to the membership at the

1931 coiiA^ention of the association. While these rules

have now been in effect five months it is still too early

to say Avhat experience Ave are haAdng Avith them be- cause of the fact that so little lumber has moA-ed in that time, and because lumber production since January 1 has been so Ioav most of the lumber stocks on hand Avas produced and piled according- to the former

rules. Nevertheless, a general acceptance of tliese iieAv rules is indicated by the fact that association inspections in Januar}^ Avere made under the neAv rules to the extent of CO per cent of the volume handled; February,

80 per cent, and since then about 90 per cent. The neAv rules have certain specific benefits for both consumer and producer Avhich are not at the expense of the other,

but are mutually advantageous.

For the consumer there Avill lie a more uniform

quality in each grade; less spread in quality betAveen

the high and loAv and of each grade, resuiting in a stabilization of costs Avhen a certain grade is bought

repeatedly for the same purpose. Because the present

rules force the producer to rip Avide boards to obtain

the best grade classification Avhile the proposed rules

eliminate much of this necessity, there Avill result a Avider run of Avidths in eacli grade and, therefore, more

flexibility in fabricating to the best advantage for eacli consumer. The jH’oducer Avill benclit from reduced costs by

eliminating the necessity of ripping and trimming

to raise the grade at time of shipment, resulting in

a saving of both labor and material. This is accom-

])lished in a manner Avliich maintains just as high a ])ercentage of clear material for the consumer in each

grade. The producer Avill also be able to offer belter

average Avidths from such timber as is now available.

Both consumer and producer Avill be beneliled by

the sinqjliffed Avoi-ding of (he rules and (he fact that
18 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932

they present less ambiguity as to meaning or interpretation. There will be more cleiinite dividing lines

between certain grades because of both simplified

wording and the fact that the grades are sorted entirely according to utility value. These conditions will

result in more uniform grading of the same shipment

by different inspectors and, therefore, make less differ- ences between sellers who Intend to furnish what the

order specifies, and buyers who seek no more than they

bought.

RESEARCH IN AERONAUTICS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS RESEARCH WORK DEALS WITH AIRPLANE RUDDERS AND

COMBUSTION PROCESSES IN ENGINES

The behavior of an airplane with respect to recov- ery from a spin has a most important bearing on its safety. The air commerce regulations have rather

stringent recjuirements as to the case and quickness of

recovery, requiring recovery in one and one-half turns with controls neutral. The studies of recovery from

a spin carried out in this country and abroad would

have indicated that the most useful control in stopping the spin is the rudder. Hence a knowledge of

the effectiveness of rudders as dependent on various

design factors is most desirable.

Previous studies of the effectiveness of rudders have

usually been made in connection with the design of a particular airi)lane. By the method of trial and

error, an arrangement of the vertical surfaces is found

which gives a satisfactory yawing moment for a given

angular displacement of the rudder as judged by comparison with measurements on models of airplanes

whose rudder control is known to be satisfactory.

Such measurements do not readily lend themselves

to analysis or to the determination of the influence of

the several factors, such as the area and aspect ratio

of the vertical tail surfaces, on the magnitude of the

yawing moments. An investigation recently con- ducted at the Bureau of Standards represents a beginning at least of a systematic study of the effect of the

area and the aspect ratio of the vertical surfaces, of

the angle of pitch, and of the shape of the fuselage on the yawing moments produced by rudder dis- placement.

The effectiveness of a rudder is approximately ]iro- portional to its angular displacement for angles less than 25°. The effectiveness continues to increase with

increasing rudder angle at approximately the same

rate for rudders of small aspect ratio, but for rudders

of large aspect ratio, the rate of increase falls off rapidly above rudder angles of 25°. The value of the

rudder moment, however, is never less than for cor- responding rudders of small aspect ratio. The term

“ aspect ratio ” means roughly the ratio of the Avidth

of the vertical tail surface measured perpendicular to the airplane fuselage to the length measured along the

fuselage.

The effect of increasing the angle of pitch is to de- crease greatly the control at a given rudder angle ; the

decrease being greatest for rudders of large aspect

ratio, Avhen the rudder angle is less than 25° ; but

when the rudder angle is large (44°), the decrease is greatest for rudders of small aspect ratio. The effect of the sha])e of the fuselage is quite

noticeable, being especially marked in the case of the

cabin fuselage. The shielding effects are such for the

cabin fuselage that the effectiveness at a given rudder

setting at an angle of pitch of 40° is about tAvo-thirds

of that for the open cockpit fuselage.

When the aspect ratio is maintained constant, the

effectiveness of the rudder is linearly related to the area ratio, but increases someAvhat faster than in direct

proportion. The effect of aspect ratio is sufficiently

large to be considered in design. If rudder angles

approaching 45° are permitted, the effort of increasing

the aspect ratio is small and may be ignored for practical purposes, although at high angles of pitch, large

aspect ratio is appreciably favorable. If the rudder

angle is restricted to 25° or less, an increase of rudder

control of 30 to 45 per cent may be pi'oduced by in- creasing the aspect ratio from 1 to 2. In aircraft, to secure the most horsepower per pound

of engine Aveight and maximum cruising range without refueling, it is necessary to use supercharged en- gines of high-compression ratio. Such engines Avill overheat and may suffer serious mechanical damage

if the combustion phenomena known as preignition

and detonation occur. Preignition commonly arises

from overheated spark plugs or inadequately cooled

exhaust valves and shoAvs itself by loss of power and a tendency to back-fire. Detonation is Avhat the motorist calls “ knock ” and commonly results from using

unsuitable fuel. Continued detonation Avill heat the

cylinder head until preignition sets in. Experiments on combustion in engines, made in

various laboratories for the purpose of learning more

about the nature of detonation, were discussed by H. K.

Cummings of the Bureau of Standards st|^ff, before a recent aeronautical meeting of the American Society

of Mechanical Engineers. These experiments indicate

that a narroAv combustion zone proceeds from the sparlc

plug at a rate depending on engine speed and carburetor adjustment and that detonation usually does not occur until this burning zone has nearly crossed the

combustion chamber. In the event of detonation the

remaining portion of the charge, which is already

heated and highly compressed, burns with extreme

rapidity. This rapid burning of the last portion of

the explosive charge probably is due to compression

and temperature rise and to chemical actions which

have taken place during the compression of the charge.

The only known effect that adding tetraethyl lead to a gasoline has on combustion is to prevent the ultrarapid burning of a portion of the charge and the ac- companying abrupt pressure rise which constitute the

knock. Precisely how this is accomplished, has not been established as yet.
JULY, 1932 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY 19

METHODS FOR EXPORT PACKING

Need Exists for Greater Development of Standard Containers for Export

By Paul H. Sullivan ^

“ Export packing is by no means the least important

of the new problems which face a manufacturer who

has decided to enter the export field,” says the Bureau

of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, in the introduction to its book on “Packing for Foreign Markets.”

“ Each American exporter, whether his business be

large or small, has a direct and personal interest in the

development of scientific packing methods, and the

dissemination of information on this subject,” it is pointed out. “ The millions of dollars lost annuall}^

through careless or injudicious packing, which invites

pilferage and destroys goods through breakage and

other damage, is a tax on industry which those sharing in the distributive process should join forces to eliminate.”

In domestic shipping, the packing problem has for

many years been uppermost in the minds of those

identified with it, particularly the domestic carriers,

who are most vitally interested in seeing that shippers

employ adequate packing methods. The railroad companies, for example, have formulated very definite

regulations for the construction of shipping containers,

and through a rigid inspection service, are constantly on the alert for violations.

Numerous container designing and testing laboratories have been established, patronized by shippers,

transportation agencies, and others, which function

solely for the purpose of strengthening this important

linlc between factory and destination. Those con- cerned with the problem are showing an awakened

consciousness of the benefits of good packing, and as a result domestic packing methods have been elevated

to comparatively high standards.

There has also developed a rather widespread in- terest in standardization, and some industries have

made commendable progress in establishing standard

packing methods for their products, although, as an

article in a recent issue of this magazine pointed out

(Simplified Practice in Container Field, by R. L. Lockwood, appeared in the January, 1932, Commercial Standards Monthly, a tremendous amount of

work in this field remains to be done. Whatever

standardization is found to exist in export packing,

however, is largely the result of experience over a long period of years which has enabled shippers to determine which types of containers are best suited

for certain commodities, rather than the outgrowth

of any sort of progress calculated to put such methods

into effect. Certain commodities are shipped in barrels, for

example, because long years of experience have shown

that barrels will do the job satisfactorily. Likewise,

the selection of other types of containers will be found

to be more the result of tradition and precedent than

of any studied effort to discover “ the one best way ”

to pack the commodity in question.

From the j)oint of view standardization, export

packing undoubtedly offers a fertile field. However,

1 Trade promotion manager, Wirebound Box Manufacturers Association, 111 West Washington Street, Chicago, III.

little progress can be made until the indifference with

which the average export shipper regards his packing

jiroblems is broken down.

An important reason why the shipper has failed to accept a share of the responsibility for the safe delivery of liis merchandise is the fact that shipping

agencies and marine insurance com2ianies “ make

good ” on direct losses resulting from damaged or

jiilfered goods—once the consignment is accejited, the

shijifier stops worrying.

A mistake that is often made by some American exjiorters is to assume that because the containers the,y are using in domestic service iierform satisfactorily,

they may be safely ein23lo}'ed for shi^nnents overseas. In many cases, domestic jiacking methods are wholly

satisfactory for exjiort shijij^iiig, because the hazard.s

of transportation may be no greater or may even be

less, than the hazards encountered in trans]iorting the same shipment to a domestic destination. But for

every instance of this kind, there are scores in which

the use of domestic ^Jacking methods for foreign shijiments is almost certain to give trouble.

In determining the ^irojier construction of containers intended for domestic use, destination is a rela- tively unimjiortant factor. In designing containers

for exjiort service, however, destination is a factor

which must be given the utmost consideration. Since

foreign destinations differ in so many im^iortant resjiects, the character of the jiacking methods em2iloyed

to insure safe delivery must be varied accordingly.

In many overseas shi2nnents also, the 2iroblem is com2ilicated not so much by conditions at the point of de23arture, or on board ship, as by conditions which will

be encountered at the end of the voyage, such as un- loading facilities, the nature of the harbor, and the

methods of transportation utilized to carry the slu2)- ment to its final destination.

Aside from the necessity of providing adequate protection to goods in transit, two other important fac- tors are present to further com2Jlicate the export

packing problem. One is the requirement that the

exporter must keep his transportation charges as low

as possible, through reduction in displacement and the

elimination of unnecessary weight. The other is that

he must 25i‘omote economy in the cost of the goods to the foreign customer, to whom excessive bulk ami

weight may also prove a burden.

What is the shi 2iper who a 2

i

2^i'eciates the seriousness

of this pi-oblem to do ? Does the solution lie with his

own organization? The Avire-bound box manufacturers think not. Unless his requirements are most ele- mentary in character, we do not believe “ home-made ” remedies will suffice. Tliose who have tried to make

jiacking engineers out of their shi 2

) 2>ing-i‘oom 2><^i’- sonnel have soon discovered that it is an unsatisfactory

and costly ex2ieriment. Where, then, can the skill and

experience so vital to the develo]nnent of 2M‘t>25er 2 )acking methods be obtained, and what do (hey co.st ? We are firmly of the oiiinion that' careful jiacking

for export can best be arrived at in the coiitainer-de-
20 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932

signing laboratory. Ordinarly, the cost of this service

to the shipper is nothing. Usually, the economies ef- fected are so considerable that they will offset, or may

even exceed, the expense of changing over to different

methods. This frequently happens where a shipper

who has been using a heavy, old-fashioned container is induced to use a much lighter package, such as the

various types which employ thin lumber, plywood, or veneer in combination with metal straps or bindings,

and which have proved so satisfactory in export service during recent years. The location of these laboratories is no mystery.

Various progressive shipping-container manufacturers

in the United States operate designing and testing de- partments of their own ; or if they do not, are members

of a trade association which devotes a sizable portion

of its income to the maintenance of such an institution.

These manufacturers have committed themselves to a policy of offering a container engineering service,

rattier than one of being in business merely to sell

boxes and crates alone. A shipper who has come in contact with a container manufacturer of this type for

the first time will be surprised at the intimate knowledge of his packing requirements that is shown, and

the technical approach that is made to his problem.

Even though a shipper’s present methods seem to leave small room for improvement, it may pay to have

them checked, with the view to achieving economies

other than the prevention of damage. A few cents saved on each shipment, such as may result from a decrease in labor cost, elimination of unnecessary

packing materials, reducing the variety of container

sizes, etc., will in a short time represent an attractive

profit.

Finally, it should be remembered that inadequate

packing is one of the surest means of destroying the

confidence of customers. Good packing, on the other

hand, is not only one of the most effective forms of

good-will advertising, but it pays handsome dividends

as well.

IMPROVEMENT OF SLUM AREAS SEEN IN

PROPERTY RECONDITIONING CAMPAIGN

That property reconditioning campaigns afford a practical method of bettering slum areas and improving tenement districts is revealed in a report recently

received by the committee on home modernizing, which

is attached to the division of building and housing of

the Bureau of Standards. The report in question is a review of a special property improvement campaign

undertaken by the Neighborhood Association of Kips

Bay, New York City, a typical tenement district con- taining about 40,000 families.

An unusual feature of this campaign was the fact

that all the field work Avas carried on by business and

professional Avomen drawn from the ranks of the unemplo^^ed. Although lacking experience in such activity, because of their tact and understanding of the

human problems involved, most gratifying residts

Avere secured. As a result of their efforts, 1,200 workers, including carpenters, plumbers, painters, and

electricians, Avere given temporarj^ employment with

total wages amounting to approximately $100,000.

About 4,000 violations of building and sanitary ordi- nances Avere corrected in the course of the campaign.

According to the association’s report, there Avas evident as a result of the campaign a tendency on the

part of tenants to take more interest in keeping their

quarters clean and in preventing further abuse of the

property.

Property improvements iiiAmlving an expenditure of

$36,000,000 for labor and materials have been reported

to the committee as having been pledged in 49 cities throughout the country. Of this amount more than

$10,000,000 has been expended since the first of the

current year. Ten cities have reiiorted more than 11,000

men put to work on odd jobs. Cooperative assistance

is offered by the committee to any city or local group

of citizens who desire information on hoAV campaigns

have been successfully organized in other cities, as

Avell as suggestions of constructive value to property

OAvners. Communications should he addressed to the

Committee on Home Modernizing, United States Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C.

COOPERATION WILL IMPROVE INDUSTRIAL

CONDITIONS

Cites Economies Through Standardization and Simplification

By cooperative effort we liaA^e effected economies

through standardization, simplification, and the elimination of waste, said Charles F. Abbott, executiA^e

director of the American Institute of Steel Construction (Inc.), speaking before the seventeenth annual

conference of the National Association of Purchasing

Agents, June 7 to 12, at Detroit.

Obsolete plants and improper selling methods are not entirely extinct, he said, adding that “ many ex- ecutives are still ignorant of their costs.” What Ave have done so far is merely an indication of the good

Avork that can be done if these potential poAvers of

cooperative effort are extended to their logical

conclusion.

The opportunity of industry to recover awaits a cooperative plan to promote normal business and

normal profits. It is obvious that if our industries

are to progress and contribute to the Avelfare of the

country the way will be found in the creation of rea- sonable profits and not in a struggle to obtain volume

at a disregard of fair prices. It is evident that the

country must soon choose betAveen unregulated competition, destructive in the end to all interests, and a regulated competition Avhich Avill prevent excessive

prices.

WOOL AND PART-WOOL BLANKETS

Signed acceptances of the recommended commercial standard for wool and part avooI blankets have

been received from a sufficient number of manufacturers, distributors, and users to constitute a satisfactory majority, and the Bureau of Standards has therefore announced the indorsement by the industry.

The commercial standard will become effective for new production and clearance of existing stocks on December 31, 1932. Mimeographed copies of this commercial standard

may be obtained from the division of trade standards.

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
JULY. 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 21

DEPENDABLE LABELS NEEDED WHEN PURCHASING HOUSEHOLD GOODS

Survey Among Housewives Discloses Urgent Need for More Reliable Information When Purchasing

Certain Commodities for the Home

By Mrs. M. T. Nelson ^

For the past two years the home-makers sections of

the District of Columbia Home Economics Association has attempted to help solve the purchasing problems of its members. As is well known, the present

status of the woman in charge of a household is not

so much that of a jiroducer as that of a buyer, and it is, therefore, imperative for her to become an intelligent one.Our method for this : If Mrs. A was in need of a new blanket, she or another member proceeded to gather information regarding blankets and then re- ported the findings to the group of discussion and deliberation.

The sources from

which the infoi'mation

for a specific com- modity w a s sought were generally one or more of the following

;

Clerks and buyers in

the local stores ; manufacturers ; research

agencies, both private

and governmental : and

testing institutes maintained by magazines.

In addition to gathering information, the

group attem^Dted to set up for each kind of article a standard or a

set of desirable qualities pertaining to performance construction,

and expected length of

service of the article. Among t h e articles

studied were blankets,

sheets, pillows, mattresses, refrigerators, rugs, and

kitchen utensils; at the last monthly meeting of the

section foods were under consideration. It is almost

needless to sa}^ that for each commodity thus investigated plenty of literature was received, but little useful

information.

In the case of sheets, it was found that the clerks at the local .stores could give little or no information re- garding tensile strength and thread count of the fabric

u.sed : many lengths and widths were found on the

counters, instead of three widths for single, threequarter, double beds, and one length of 108 inches;

and the price was by no means a guide to wise buying

of sheets. Letters were Avritten to the manufacturers

asking for data on thread count and tensile strength

;

the replies may be roughly divided into four types

:

(1) Complete evasion of the question asked. (2) as- surance that any article sold under the manufacturer’s

trade-mark would give complete satisfaction, (3) as- surance that the sheet had been laborator}^ tested but

that information could not be giA^en, and (4) one re- spectful reply gaA’e laboratory data.

As a result of such replies, the women have become

wary of trade-marks. They also felt that any manufacturer Avho had helpful laboratory data and refused

to give them on request was a hindrance to Avise bu}'-

ing and should be aAmided.

In the case of part-wool blankets, no information

Avas obtainable regarding the percentage of wool and

cotton contained.

Furthermore, Avhen a blanket of knoAvn quality and an inferior one

Avere brought to a meeting, no one in the

group AV a s able to judge betAveen them.

In studying mattresses, it Avas discovered that the inner cot- ton padding between

the loA^ely covers may

be of the poorest qualitAL even Avhen it is neAV and u n u s e d. T h e group A’isited a local mattress plant to get some idea of what to expect to find inside of

what is considered a good mattress. In the case of a re- frigerator. it Avas dis- coA’ered tliat the prospectiA'e buyer imust

still take the manufacturer’s AA'ord that

it is AA'ell insulated, because the salesman and the local dealer knoAv A'erA^ little about it. It Avas learned that a number of interested national associations had combined their efforts in standardizing and labeling re- frigerators, but as far as could be learned, the recom- mended specifications liaA’e not been accepted by the

manufacturers.

The results of our tAvo years’ efforts are mostly uegatiA'e. Our purchasing problems are not .soh’ed. AVe

Avere not even able to establish a basis upon which Ave could judge the articles, because information Avas not made available to us. Our efforts, hoAvever. Avere not

in vain. Through our discussions. Ave learned mucli

that Avas of value to us. Some members found that an intelligent question frequently shattered a sales- man’s AA’ell-planned scheme to make a sale. And above

all. Ave have come to the conclusion that to insure Avise buying the manufacturers must ]fface on the goods

reliable labels to indicate essential factors of quality

and performance.

PUBLICATIONS OF INTEREST TO

HOUSEHOLD PURCHASERS

A mimeographed circular of publications of intere.st to household purchasers has been prepared by the Bureau of Standards, and is designated as Letter Circidar

No. 322. Copies may be had upon request to the

bureau.

The publications listed in the circular comprise those

of seA^eral of the series of the Bureau of Standards,

consisting of the regular bureau circulars, research

papers, scientific papers, technologic papers, miscellaneous publications, commercial standards, building

and housing recommendations, simplified practice rec- ommendations, and letters circulars. Included also are the specifications for household commodities promulgated b}^ the Federal Specifications Board for the use of the depai’tments and establishments of the

GoA’ernment. All of these specifications haA^e recenth"

been, or are now being, reAused. Reference is also made to certain jmblications of the National Committee

on AAMod L'tilization AAdiich are of interest to household

buyers.

' District of Columbia Home Economics Association.
22 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932 AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

Current developments of the following standardization jirojects under the auspices and procedures of the

American Standards Association have been reported

by that association.

Noise measurement 'project.—The change in the title and scope of the project on noise measurement, which was recommended to the American Standards Association bj^ the sectional committee at its organization

meeting, has been approved by the A. S. A. standards

council. The former scope restricted the work of the

committee to units, scales, terminology, and methods

of measurement in the field of noise measurement,

Avhile the new scope permits fundamental standardization in the general field of acoustics. The new title of the project is “ Acoustical Measurements and

Terminology ” and the scope is as follows : “ Preparation of standards of terminology, units, scales, and

methods of measurement in the field of acoustics.”

Two new subcommittees will be appointed as a result of the enlarged scope of the 2Ji'oject, one to cover sound

insulation and absorption, the other to cover fundamental sound measurements.

Radio standards.—Two standards for radio have

been a^Djiroved by the association. The first of these,

covering standard vacuum tube base and socket dimensions, is an extension of sjiecifications for vacuum tube

bases. The sjiecifications for vacuum tube bases cov- ered only dimensions of standard d-jiin vacuum tube

bases of the large and small type, while the new

standard covers in addition the following : Dimensions

of large 4-j)in base without bayonet pin; large 5-pin

base without bayonet j)in; large 5-pin base; terminal

cajis for receiving tubes and transmitting tubes ; 4-j)in

transmitting tube base ; large transmitting tube base

terminal cap with large transmitting tubes; 4-pin

socket for receiving tubes; 5-2iin socket for receivingtubes; and standard connections for A^acuum tube

bases. The other standard, manufacturing standards

ajiiilying to broadcast receivers, cOA-ers definitions of

certain standard manufacturing practices as Avell as certain rated voltages and dimensions for comjionent

jDarts of radio receivers. The subjects covered in the

standard are as follows: Definitions of battery operated, socket powered, electric, a. c. electric, and d. c. electric radio receivers; selector (station selector),

multijDle, master, single, direct, and close selectors; A’olume and range; on-off switches; frequency range

of radio broadcast receiA^ers; rated Amltages of socket

jiOAver devices and electric radio receiA^ers; definitions

of antenna jiarts; antenna installation instructions;

definition of solder-tests for cord terminals; dimensions and tolerances for cord tijJS of the cylindrical

and 2)in type; drilling dimensions for binding jiosts;

dimensions for sjieed tyjie terminals; dimensions and

tolerances for radio plugs and jacks; dimensions and

tolerances of radio recei\"er ^lilot lam^is of the Edison

tyjje ; and miniature size and connections for magnetic

pick-up jack.

Wires and cables.—Three standards for wires and

cables have been approved by the American Standards Association as follows: American standard definitions and general standards for Avires and cables;

American tentative standard specifications for weatherproof (weather-resisting) wires and cables; and.

American tentative standard sjDecifications for heatresisting wires and cables. The first of these, the definitions and general standards for wires and cables, include definitions and

standards of general character which are applicable to wires and cables for jjower jjurposes and comjirise a rearrangement of the American Institute of Electrical

Engineers’ standard number 30, of October, 1928;

which has been brought up to date with certain additions and the deletion of some of the tabular matter. The standard contains definitions for the various types

of wires and cables, conductivity standards, designation standards, high voltage test standards, insulation

resistance standards, capacitance or electrostatic ca- pacity standards, and maximum temperature limits.

The specifications for weatherjjroof (weather-resisting) wires and cables coA^er weatherproof wiring

and cables and the materials used for coverings and

saturating compounds as applied to metallic conductors. The specifications are divided into the following headings : Covering ; saturating compound, which

includes the tests therefor ; stranded cables, which in- cludes sizes of conductors and the stranding therefor

standard weights; a table of weights and weatherproof wires and cables ; sample for tests ; tests on coj)-

per conductors ; and explanatory notes. The specifications for heat-resisting wires and cables cover the usual typ)e of heat-resisting covering com- monly known as “ slow-burning ” as applied to metallic

conductors for use in hot, dry locations where the other

tyjies of insulation would not long endure or where the

jjresence of large masses of inflammable materials

would be an objection. As explained in the standard

itself, “ There are many types of heat-resisting materials used for insulating electrical conductors, but no

attempt is made in this specification to cover anything

but the so-called ‘ slow-burning ’ insulation. The

A^arious tyjies of asbestos coA^erings and enamels are for special jiurposes and are generally put out under

trade names.” The following subjects are included in

this standard ; Number of grades, material and workmanship; thickness; adhesion; samples for test; and

explanatory note. Petroleum products and lubHcamts.—The American

Society for Testing Materials, sponsor for the project,

“ Methods of Testing Petroleum Products and Lubricants,” has recently requested a slight broadening of

the sco^ie of this project. This action, resulting from

a recommendation of the sectional committee, is taken

in order to bring the scojie into conformity Avith that

of the neAvly organized committee on nomenclature and

methods of test of petroleum jiroducts of the Internaional Standards Association. As broadened, the scope

of the sectional committee would read as follows

Methods of test of petroleum and all products derived there- from, except tests applied to such products used as road or paving materials or for Avaterproofing ; methods of tests of

lubricants, including all materials used for lubrication when

they consist either wholly or in part of petroleum products;

nomenclature of petroleum, petroleum products and lubricants except for materials excluded above. The scope of this project excludes tests applied to organic chemicals or to products

used medicinally.

Revision of National Electrical Code.—An interim

revision of the National Electrical Code, covering non-
JULY, 19.3« COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY 23

metallic surface extensions has been adopted under the

interim revision procedure of the sectional committee

having the code in charge. The new section, to be

known as section 511 (nonmetallic surface extensions),

reads as follows

:

{a) Semiportable 2-wire assemblies approved for

the purpose may be used as extensions to existing con- venience outlets on lighting and/or appliance branch

circuits only in exposed dry locations in residence or

office occupancies; {h) attachment of such extensions

to existing convenience outlets shall be by plug con- nectors a|Dproved for the purpose; (c) such extensions

shall be attached only to the surface of interior woodwork or plaster finish and shall not be installed as concealed wiring or run through floors or partitions or be installed where subject to moisture or corrosive

vapors; nor be installed in contact Avith any piping,

metal work, or other conductive material; {d) such

extensions shall not be made on circuits of more than

150 volts; (e) individual extensions shall not run more

than 20 feet in either direction from the existing outlet, and may contain a maximum of three recejjtacles,

proAuded the total outlets on the branch circuit including those on the extension are not more than 12;

if) such assemblies shall be secured between outlets to the surface wired OA^er by tacks, screws, small nails or other apjjroved means at intervals of not more than 6

inches, except that the assembly shall not be secured

within 6 inches of a connector. The heads of such

nails or screws shall not exceed in width one-half the

space between the conductors in the assembly; {g) re- ceptacles and other fittings shall be of approved type

and be secured to the surface wired over by suitable screws. The end of the assembly on such an extension

shall terminate in an approved receptacle which covers

the ends of the wires in the assemblAL All angle bands

Avhich reduce the space betAveen conductors shall be

covered by an apprOA^ed cap securely attached to the

surface wired over; and (A), such extensions shall be

made in continuous lengths without joint, splice, or

tap, or exposed bare conductors.

Sieves for testing purposes.-—Work on the establishment of national standard specifications on sieA^es for

testing purposes is now under way in the sectional

committee recently organized under the auspices of

the American Standards Association. The Bureau of

Standards and the American Society for Testing Materials are jointly directing the technical Avork of the

committee.

The need for standard specifications for testing

sieves arose from their wide use in numerous industries. Some of the products for which sieA^e testing is important are sand, stone, cement, pigments, and

paints, etc. The work of the sectional committee is based upon practically identical standards previously

issued separately by the Bureau of Standards and the

American Society for Testing Materials. While these

standards have not been as Avidely used in some industries as is desirable, it is expected that the establishment of a unified American standard will lead to its nation-wide acceptance. The sectional committee is also cooperating through the agency of its secretary.

Dr. L. V. Judson, of the Bureau of Standards, with a committee of the International Standards Association

which has been active in Europe for some years in an

effort to secure a greater degree of imiformit}^ in the

various national standards for testing sieves. (The

scope and procedure of the American Standards

Association committee were outlined in the February, 1932 (p. 233), issue of Commercial Standards

Monthly.)

STANDARDS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL OHM,

AMPERE, AND VOLT COMPARED

Through the courtesy of the Physikalisch-Technische Eeichsanstalt at Berlin extended comparisons

Avere made during 1931 of the standards for the international ohm, ampere, and volt as maintained by the

national laboratories of Germany, England, and

United States. Wire standards of resistance and

standard cells were carried by hand to the Reichsanstalt for these comparisons and, in addition, a series of 10 experiments with the silver voltameter was made

by representatives of the three laboratories to verif}^

A'alues assigned to groups of Weston normal cells. Following the measurements in Berlin, additional

measurements on A\fire resistance standards and standard cells Avere made at the Laboratoire Central d’Electricite in Paris and at the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington, near London. In some respects

the cooperative Avork done during the past summer

at the Eeichsanstalt Avas similar to the work of the

International Technical Committee at the Bureau of

Standards in 1910.

TAventy-one years have elapsed since an agreement was reached among the national laboratories for a uniform basis for the international electrical units.

Intercomparisons made in 1929 and 1930 indicated that some .significant differences existed between the standards of the national laboratories, and the principal

object of the present Avork therefore was to explain,

if possible, these discrepancies.

The maximum difference found for the ohm, as the

unit is maintained at these laboratories, amounted to seventy-three millionths. Three of the laboratories,

howeA'er, Avere in close agreement. The standards for

the A'olt, which are groups of Weston normal cells, Avere found to differ in electromotiA’e force by as much

as ninet}' millionths. The A'oltameter experiments

Avhich were used for A’erifying the A^alues for tlie Weston normal cells Avere highly concordant, the maximum

difference between the three laboratories being only 10

liarts in 1,000,000.

Since the international ampci-e used in ordinary

measurements is based on Avorking standards of elec- tromotive force and resistance, it is possible to compute

the existing differences in the international ampere for

the .seA’eral laboratories. The maximum difference is one hundred and thirtA'-six millionths. Measurements

of electric power also are usually based on standards

for the A’olt and the ohm. The maximum spread in the unit for the Avatt betAA'een the seA^eral laboratories

is nearly two hundred millionths. The results of the

present work indicate that some readjustment of the

A'alues assigned to standards for the ohm and the volt

is needed.
24 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932 BENEFITS OF BUREAU’S WORK TO THE

PUBLIC

The iinpracticability of the Bureau of Standards

setting; itself up as a clearing house through which

the public would be kept currently informed concern- ing the relative merits of competitive merchandise was pointed out to the National Association of Purchasing Agents in annual session dune 7, at Detroit,

by Dr. A. S. McAllister, assistant director for commercial standardization, of the Bureau of Standards.

There is an ever-increasing demand from the public

for information which the Bureau of Standards is supposed to possess concerning the relative merits of numerous commodities sold to contract hu3^ers and the

over-the-counter trade, according to Doctor McAllister. Such testing of commodities as is performed hy

the hureau for Federal, States, and local government

authorities is primarily to insure that merchandise

delivered on contract is in accordance with estahlished

specifications. Much other collateral testing of commodities, such as automohile tires, automobile brake

linings, shoe leathers and other commodities in com- mon use is carried on currently not onl}^ for the Government purchases, but also to assist manufacturers in the general iinjirovement of such merchaiulise.

The Bureau of Standards is not able to test a wide

range of commodities to determine their comparative

merits aud, therefore, is not in a position to advise

persons concerning the relative merits of identical

types of merchandise. Even were the bureau authorized by Congress to perform such activities, Doctor

McAllister stated that it is doulitful if the results obtained would justify the expense of maintaining such

service. Periodic issuance of ratings on comparative

commodities could only be carried out after exhaustive

and expensive laboratoiA'' tests and it could well happen

that a given commodity rated high on the basis of cur- rent tests would within a verv brief period thereafter

be unworthy of such a rating because of changes made

in either the liasis of comparisons or the commodities

produced. Such information, to be of value, would

liave to be revised from day to day and its proper

interpretation by the public Avoidd also present great

difficulties. Well-intentioned information as to tlie comparative merits of commodities juight, therefore,

readily prove to be misinformatiou.

An analysis of the many pi'oblems involved in jiassing along information of value to the public in a form

suitable for use has indicated that the Bureau of

Standards can render its most effective service by its present plan of expressing in specifications the characteristics and qualities which its research has demonstrated that satisfactory commodities should possess, and through ])romoting the use of such specifications

l)y all interested manufacturers of such commodities

and facilitating the use of these specifications by the

contract buyers of the country.

Too, by taking advantage of the so-called “ certifica- tion plan ” developed by the Bureau of Standards in

cooperation with many domestic manufacturers, tlie public and all branches of the Government—local and

States—can derive benefits from the knowledge and

experience accumulated by the Federal purchasers, Ijy

the producing industries of the country, and by numerous specification making and using agencies cooperating in this undertaking.

In outlining the bureau’s cooperation with State and

local governments in connection with the purchase of

commodities. Doctor McAllister stated that the bureau’s services have been utilized to some extent by the

government of every State in the Union during the

past few years. During this period the bureau has

been called upon to assist local governments in matters

of governmental action ranging from the preparation

of standard samples of various commodities to the

testing of materials entering into the construction of

bridges.

COOPERATION BETWEEN LEATHER INDUSTRY AND SCIENCE

Appointment of a central research committee for the

leather industry to assure cooperation between busi- ness executives and persons engaged in scientific and

research work on leather was suggested to the Tanners’ Council of America recently in session at Atlantic City, by Warren E. Emley, chief of the organic

and fibrous materials division of the Bureau of

Standards.

Left to himself without the cooperation of business

executives, the scientist by reason of his training may

bend the jirogram of scientific investigations toward

solution of jiroblenis which in his opinion will be of

the greatest value in the long-time development of the

industry—problems in fundamental research, Mr.

Emley stated. Conversely, the business executive trained to think

in terms of current trade requirements may possibly

consider such objectives to be chimerical and wish the

program developed along lines which have more

promise of tangible results of immediate benefit to the

industry. Cooperation between the two groups

should, therefore, be of material assistance in the

proper balancing of the program of research with re- gard to both present and future needs of the industry,

he said. The scientific and research woi'k on leather being

performed b_v the Bureau of Standards and tlie many

services and facilities which the bureau has available

for the leather and leather manufacturing industries

wei’e outlined by Mr. Emley.

SIMPLIFIED SCHEDULE ON WIRE INSECT

SCREEN CLOTH NOW IN PUBLISHED FORM

Simplified Practice Recommendation RI22-31, entitled “ Wire Insect Screen Cloth,” is now available in printed form, and may be had from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. The recommendation, which was proposed and developed by industry, establishes wire sizes, width, and

length of roll, mesh openings, and method of packing

steel wire, and copper and commercial bronze wire.

The program has been instrumental in reducing the

number of sizes and varieties of wire insect screen

cloth from 360 to 154. The 206 items eliminated are 20 widths each of four meshes of bright galvanized

wire insect screen cloth, 20 widths each of three

meshes of black painted wire insect screen cloth, and

6 Avidths each of all retained varieties.
JULY, 1932 COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

DENTAL LATHE GRINDING WHEELS RECOMMENDATION NOW AVAILABLE

The printed copies of Simplified Practice Recommendation R130-32, entitled “ Dental Lathe Grinding

Wheels,” are noiw available, and can be purchased

from the Superintendent of Documents, Government

Printing Office, Washingdon, D. C. This recommendation, ’which was proposed and developed by the industry, provides for the size and

tyjie of wheel, and size of arbor hole. The survey

of variety from which the program was developed

listed 91 varieties of ivheels, considering diameters,

thicknesses, hole diameters, and types of edge. The

simplified schedule retains 10 sizes, all square edge,

and all with one-forth-inch diameter of hole. The

reduction in variety is approximately 89 per cent. The American Dental Trade Association has long

been interested in the simplification of commodities

handled by its members. A simplification and standardization committee ivas appointed to make a study

of current conditions with a view to the elimination

of superfluous varieties of those commodities made

and distributed by the dental trade and used by the

dental profession. The items studied were classified as teeth, sundries, cements and plastei’s, equipment,

gold, and instruments. Each member of the committee was assigned one of these groups for his special

attention. As a result of the committee’s preliminary

work a number of items were selected for simplification, and for some of the associational recommendations were approved. Recognizing the need for the

cooperation of all concerned in order to derive the

maximum benefit from the movement, the association,

in March, 1928, requested the division of simjilified

practice. Bureau of Standards, to assist in enlisting

the support of all elements of the industry toward the

development of definite simplified xiractice recommendations which would have national ap^ilication.

The first jirogram covered dental hyxiodermic

needles. This has been accepted by the industry and

is available in printed form us Simplified Practice

Recommendation R108-29. This was followed by

Simxilified Practice Recommendation Rll(>-30, dealing Avith dental brush wheels, and RllT-30, for iJack- aging of dental xilaster, investment, and artificial stone. This xerogram for dental lathe grinding vReels

is, therefore, the fourth recommendation to be ac- cepted by tlie dental supply industry and its customej's.

STANDARD GRADING SYSTEM ANNOUNCED

FOR COTTONSEED

Standard grades for cottonseed liaA^e noAv been es- tablished by order of the Secretary of Agriculture.

The grading system makes xjossible the determination

of the quality and yield or milling value of cottonseed

and the x^^fifiication of market-xn-ice information,

thereby enabling xiroducers to knoAV Avhether they are getting a fair price for their seed. Grade 100 is the basis grade on Avhich quotations

Avill be made. From 1 ton of cottonseed of this grade

an efficient cottonseed-oil mill should be able to obtain 313 ])ounds of oil, 822 ])ounds of meal (41.13 xier cent xirotein), 125 xiounds of linters, and C40 iiounds of

hulls. Grades aboA^e 100 are XH’emium grades. These

as

grades result either from the fact that greater quantities of oil or of protein can be obtained or that the

seed is of sxiecial quality.

Grades beloAv 100 are discount grades. These grades

result from the fact that because of variety or unfavorable soil or climatic conditions the develoximent

of oil or xii'otein has been restricted or to the fact that the seed have deteriorated in quality through

exxiosure or contamination.

Cottonseed, formerly a farm waste, uoav constitutes one of the major farm x^i’oducts of the Cotton Belt.

The cash farm income from cottonseed in three States

is second only to that from cotton lint, Avhich ranks

first of all farm })roducts. In North Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, and Oklahoma cottonseed ranks

third or fourth in cash farm income.

The groAvth of the cottonseed industi’y has been so

ra-x)id that more attention has been giA’en to the

methods of x^i’ocessing and distributing cottonseed

Xoroducts than to methods of purchasing and garnering the seed. It has lieen generally assumed that the same quantity and quality of x^i'oducts could be obtained from any variety or groAvth of seed, x^roAuded

the seed had not deteriorated or been damaged. But

about 1914 some of the more jirogressiAT of the cotton- seed crushers Avho realized that different lots of cotton- seed varied Avidely in their coinjiosition initiated stejis to establish a method of grading. This Avork was

abandoned about 1919 after a inerhod of discounting

the base x^Gce, Avhich it was assumed Avould rexiresent

the A'alue of the average of the recoverable x^i'oducts,

had been adoxited. The bases of the discounts Avere immaturity of the seeds, so-called damaged seeds,

moisture, and foreign matter. By 1924 the industry

realized that these rules of x^iR’chase Avere equitable

neither to crushers nor to xiroducers, and at the annual

couA^ention of the Interstate Cottonseed Crushers Association, held May, 1924, a resolution Avas x^assed re- questing the Dexiartment of Agriculture to undertake

a study of the subject Avith a vieAv to establishing

standard grades for cottonseed.

IntensiA^e studies beginning in 1925 haA^e been car- ried on l)y G. S. Meloy, Bureau of Agriculture Economics. The gi'acles Avere finally established after two

years’ test by the cottonseed industry, during Avhich

time the grade Avere apxilied successfully to more than

2,00(),0(M) tons of seed.

CONCRETE JOIST CONSTRUCTION FLOORS

The revised Simxjlified Practice Recommendation

R8T-32, entitled “ Forms for Concrete Joist Construction Floors,” has been accorded the required degree of

Avritten accejAtance by all interests, and is to be con- sidered as in effect on May 1, 1932, the Bureau of

Standards has officiall}^ announced.

This simxjlification program provides for Avidths

and dex)ths, in inches, of standard and filler forms.

It also establishes Avidths, lengths, and tai)er, in inches,

for standard end taxier forms.

Imx)ortant clianges made in the revised ivcommendation ai'e the elimination of the 12 and IG inch

filler forms, and the insertion of a table coA’eidng

standard end taper forms. It is expected that as a result of tliis action Avidei’ use of tlie recommendation

Avill be made by sxiecifying authorities.
26 COMMERCIAL, STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932 RECOMMENDATION FOR 1-POUND FOLDING

BOXES FOR COFFEE NOW AVAILABLE

Simplified Practice Recommendation R6d-30, cov- ing 1-pound folding boxes for coffee, is now available

in printed form, and may be had fi'om the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C.

This recommendation provides for the dimensions,

in inches, and capacities, in cubic inches, of two sizes of folding boxes. Formerly more than 100 sizes of

this type box were in use. Upon the joint request of the National Coffee Roasters’ Association and the Paperboard Industries Association, a general conference of representatives of the

manufacturers, distributors, and users of 1-pound

folding boxes for coffee was held in New York, March

28, 1930. under the auspices of the Bureau of Standards. The results of the variety survey and the developments leading up to the general conference were

reviewed, and attention directed to the fact that the

two recommended sizes were determined upon after

careful study of the several hundred different sizes and types of folding boxes which had been submitted

from various sources in different sections of the

country.

Careful consideration was given to the relative

merits of the different sizes of 1-pound folding boxes

in use, as well as to other suggested sizes. The two

sizes in the recommendation were unanimously approved and, in the opinion of the conferees, would adequately meet all normal requirements fo” this type of

container.

HOME-IMPROVEMENT CAMPAIGNS GIVEN

IMPETUS BY EMPLOYERS’ LOANS

That certain jirogressive firms have established

home-loan improvement funds for their employees

with gratifying results is revealed by the committee on home modernizing which is attached to the division of building and housing. Bureau of Standards,

Commerce Department. These home-improvement

loans carry a nomhial interest charge and are, as a

rule, repaid over a 1-year period. In numerous cases they have permitted home-owners to keep their property in good repair, which they woidd have been unable to do otherwise because of inability to borrow else- where. Lack of available cash, the committee points

out, has been the principal handicap encountered in

many cities throughout the country where home-imju'ovement campaigns have been conducted.

These improvement campaigns, which are designed

primarily to maintain property values as well as stimulate local business, have proved most successful, ac- cording to the committee, in the medium-sized and

smaller cities where the so-called community spirit

is stronger than in the larger cities. The size of a metropolis makes it more difficult to carry on a houseto-house campaign and results in cities of this class are being secured largely through newspaper advertising and other forms of publicity rather than by

volunteer workers.

As examples of cities which have obtained outstanding results from home-improvement campaigns, the

committee points to Portland, Oreg., where more than

$10,000,000 has been pledged for home construction

and repairs; Omaha, Nebr., which has obtained pledges

amounting to $5,000,000; and Spokane, Wash., with

pledges of $4,100,000. Among the smaller cities, Lincoln, Nebr., has pledged $800,000; Taunton, Mass.,

$550,000; Ashville, N. C., $266,000; and San Jose,

Calif., $200,000. Other cities report pledges ranging

from $50,000 to $100,000. The ultimate total will approximate $40,000,000 worth of work in 1932 through

organized campaigns.

The committee on home modernizing was established

to assist home owners, local organizations, and others

interested in home imiirovements through educational

work. It acts as a clearing house for information on home-improvement campaigns being conducted

throughout the country. Reports received by the committee to date indicate that approximately $35,000,000

will be expended for labor and rej>airs by the end of summer as a result of these campaigns.

PURCHASE SPECIFICATION FOR PAPER

TOWELS

A report of further study of paper towels has been

submitted by the Bureau of Standards to manufacturers and others interested, for their consideration of

a purchase specification for this commodity, which is being developed with their cooperation. Revision of

a specification, developed in a similar way several

years ago for use of some of the Government departments, was found necessary, because it did not guard

against decrease in absorptiveness, which occasionally

occurred during prolonged storage.

A preliminary study of 17 samples, representative

of the different types, resulted in the development of

the following testing procedure, which was used for

a second lot of 13 samples, all of which were received

shortly after they were manufactured. The towels were tested for weight, bursting strength, tensile

breaking strength, fiber composition, absorptiveness,

acidity, and resin content. The test for absorptiveness was repeated after heating at 100° C. for periods

of %, 1, 2, and 3 hours, and after storage under nor- mal conditions for periods of 1, 2, 4, and 6 months

from date of manufacture.

It was found that the 1-hour heat treatment approximated the 6-month storage period as regards increase

in time of absorption of water ; therefore this appears

to be a vei’y definite and convenient way of testing

the stability of towels in this respect. As the pre- vious tests had shown that the strength did not de- crease appreciably in 6 months’ storage, no further

tests of this kind were made.

The tensile breaking strength appears to be a better

strength criterion than the bursting strength, as the

latter gives much more erratic results with this type

of material. No constant relation between the desirable qualities of towels and their components was

found, but in general the better qualities were asso- ciated with long, clean fibers, and minimum resin and

acid contents.

It seems from the test results obtained that weight,

tensile breaking strength, and rate of absorption after

heating the towels one hour at 100° C., are sufficient test requirements for quality, and limits in these resjDects, defining two grades of towels, were suggested
JULY, 1932 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY 27

RECOMMENDATION ON PAVING BRICK

REVISED

The eleventh annual meeting of the permanent committee on the simplification of varieties and sizes of

vitrified paving brick was held in Washington on

April 14. The committee considered in detail the

data collected by the National Paving Brick Association, covering the industry’s 1931 shipments of paving

brick. For the benefit of the other members, G. F.

Schlesinger, chief engineer and managing director

of the association, analyzed the report and commented

on the significance of the various sections.

After thorough discussion it was unanimously decided to propose to the industry the following re- visions to Simplified Practice Recommendation Rl-29,

vitrified paving brick, drafted and adopted by the in- dustry, and published by the Bureau of Standards

:

First, that the 4 by 3 by 8% inch vertical fiber lug

brick should be included in Simplified Practice

Recommendation Rl-29 as a recognized variety;

second, that the 4 by 3^/2 by 8% inch vertical fiber

lugless brick should be dropj)ed from the list of

recognized varieties.

The former represents 22.6 per cent of the 1931

shipments, while the latter averaged, during the last four years, less than 3 per cent. With these changes,

the new list of six recognized varieties will cover

76.9 per cent of the total shipments, as compared with

56.1 per cent for the previous list. Before the Bureau of Standards can incorporate

these proposed changes in the new edition of the

printed recommendation, it is necessary that they be

indorsed by the present accej)tors. In accordance

with the request of the standing committee, therefore,

the bureau’s division of simplified practice is circularizing all acceptors of record, in order to secure their

approval of the proposed revision.

Idle committee unanimously reelected George F.

Fisk, consulting engineer, Buffalo, N. Y., chairman of

the standing committee for the ensuing year.

REAFFIRMATION OF STANDARD FOR MEN’S

PAJAMAS

After consideration of a report of survey of adherence to the commercial standard for men’s pajamas,

the standing committee has recommended the reaffii'm- ation of the standard without change for another

year, or until authorized revisions are duly indorsed

by the industry. Announcement has therefore been

issued to this effect. Production of men’s pajamas conforming to the re- quirements of the Commercial Standard CS15-29 was

reported as averaging 66 per cent of individual production. (An average from 19 replies not weighted

according to production.)

Some excerpts from the comments follow

:

“ Consumers have no knowledge of standard sizes and will take anything offered by dealers. Dealers

(in most cases) do not take any interest in standard

sizes; they seldom speak of it when buying. They

are apparently buying price merchandise and do not

inquire too closely as to how it is made. This apj)lies to all department stores and most men’s specialty

stores.”

“ Standard correct, but promoted principally on

]iopular price merchandise.”

“ The standard requirements have aided in the sale of better grade pajamas.”

Actual direct benefits from the establishment of the

commercial standard were reported by 10 manufacturers.

PROPOSED SIMPLIFICATION COVERS CUPOLA

REFRACTORIES

A simplified practice recommendation covering

cupola refractories was approved by the general con- ference of representatives of the industry, held May

3, 1932, at Detroit, Mich., under the auspices of the

division of simplified practice of the Bureau of

Standards. The industrj^ will shortly be circularized

for formal approval and adoption of the recommendation, which will become effective one month after the

receipt of the required degree of support.

This recommendation is concerned with the sizes and varieties of cupola lining, one and two hold tap

out, and slag-hole blocks. In the development of this

recommendation, consideration has been given by the

industry to the present trend toward the use of smaller

cupolas. In view of this, cupola refractories were

listed that were of smaller sizes than heretofore in general use.

BRITISH STANDARD ISSUED FOR STRUCTURAL CHANNELS AND BEAMS

A new list of British standard channels and beams

has been issued by the British Standards Institution.

The original lists were issued in 1903, the geometrical

dimensions and properties being published in the sec- tion book (No. 6-1904).

A revision of the lists was subsequently undertaken,

and a new edition of the Section Book appeared in 1924. Later, it ivas found that many of the original

sections were still being ordered, and a further revision of the lists was decided upon, with a view to in- corporate those of the original and revised sections

most in demand and eliminating those whicli experi- ence had shown to be little used.

There are now 41 standard channels; two new sizes have been introduced, namely, 11 by inches, and

13 by 4 inches. The standard beams now comprise 40

sections, and include a new 24 by 7^4 ii^ch section,

weighing 95 pounds ])er foot, which takes the place of

the 1904 and 1924 sections weighing 100 and 90 pounds

per foot, respectively. Particulars of the profiles and

weights per foot are given in the lists, together with

moments of inertia, section moduli, and other properties. KNIT SWEATERS AND BATHING SUITS

On May 24 the National Knitted Outerwear Association requested the cooperation of the Bureau of

Standards in establishing on a national basis a commercial standard covering measurements, methods of

measuring, and tolerances for men’s, women’s, and

boys’ 1 and 2 piece knit bathing suits and men’s, women’s, misses’ and boys’ knit sweaters and sweater

coats.
28 COMMERCIAL. STANDARDS MONTHLY JULY, 1932 RECOMMENDATION ON CARBONATEDBEVERAGE BOTTLES NOW IN PRINT

Simplified Practice Recommendation R123-30, entitled “ Carbonated Beverage Bottles,” is now available in printed form, and may be had from the Superintendent of Docnments, Government Printing Office,

Washington, D. C., for 10 cents. This simplification program, which was proposed

and developed by the industry, provides for capacities, heights, diamieters, and weights of glass for

stock varieties of carbonated-beverage bottles.

PROGRAM ON FLAX AND HEMP TWINE

APPROVED BY INDUSTRY

Simplified practice recommendation R136-32, cover- ing flax and hemp twine has been accorded the re- quired degree of acceptance by the industry. The rec- ommendation may be considered as in etfect as of June

15, 1932. Provision is made in this simplification program,

which was suggested and developed by members of tlie industry, for the number, yardage, breaking strength,

and put-ups of ditferent grades of fine finished hem]i

twine ; ancl for the ply,yardage, breaking strength, and

put-ups of the various grades of fine finished hemp

twine.

BRITISH STANDARD ISSUED FOR CAST-IRON

DRAIN PIPES

The British Standards Institution has issued a s]ieci- fication for cast-iron spigot and socket drain pipes,

Avhich is the fifth specification of a series dealing with

cast-iron pipes.

This neiv specification proiddes for straight pipes

only, these being specified in standard lengths of 9 feet,

exclusive of the depth of the socket. The standard

Aveights, liOAvever, are inclusive, and satisfy the requirements of the London County council drainage b_y-laAA’s. It is anticipated that the matter of drain fittings AAdll be taken care of in a futui'e revision of the s])ecification.

PAPER WRAPS FOR APPLES

With the deA^elopment of longer cold-storage periods

for apples, increasing intei-est has been indicated in the

development of oiled and plain paper AAU'apjiers to minimize the damage to the fruit caused by a condition

known as apple scald. Losses from this source have been felt vei-y lieavily

by the large apple-packing federations, especially Avhen

the fruit is closely packed in the hold of a shiji for

export trade. The Bureau of Plant Industry of the

Department of Agriculture has made some scientific and practical studies of the problem, as a result of

AAdiich they have made definite recommendations for

oiled paper AvrajApers to jirevent the development of

apple scald. The apple packers in their desire to get high-grade

AAU’appers sought the cooperation of the diAusion of

trade standards. Bureau of Standards, in the establishment of a commercial standard specification for

this commodity.

A conference of the largest users of apple Avrappers,

together Avith the chief manufacturers, Avas held in

Seattle on May 19 to discuss this problem. Intense

interest was indicated by the manufacturers present in

bettering the quality of apple Avraps and definitely

describing the requisites of a satisfactory AAU’apper in the form of a commercial standard specification.

The specification Avhich embraces the suggestions of

the Bureau of Plant Industry Avas unanimously approved l)y the conference, and Avas recommended foi' the general acceptance of those interested in the manufacture, distribution, and use of this product.

DIAMOND CORE DRILL FITTINGS

Announcement that the industry has accepted the

first revision of the Commercial Standard for Diamond

Core Drill Fittings was circulated on May II. The revision includes minor refinements Avhich have

developed as a result of exiierience with the standards

and Avhich do not change the important nominal di- mensions as set forth in the first edition of this commercial standard.

Mimeographed copies may be obtained, Avithout

charge, from the di\dsion of trade standards. Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D. C.

SURGEONS’ RUBBER GLOVES

The establishment of tAvo commercial standards re- quested by the American Hospital Association for sur- geons’ rubber gloves, CSlO-32, and surgeons’ latex

gloves, CSll-32, Avere announced June 6 by the Bureau of Standards.

These specifications coAnr material and Avorkmanship, sizes and dimensions, tensile strength, elongation,

and resistance to steam sterilization. The requirements for latex gloves include aging tests in the Geer

oven. Purchasers are to be protected by a guaranty

of confoi'inance issued by the manufacturer or su])-

plier.

The Rubber Manufacturers’ Association cooperated

Avith the American Hospital Association in drafting

the specifications. Both commercial standards became

effectiAT July G, 1932.

SURGEONS’ STEEL BONE PLATES AND

SCREWS

A printed pamphlet on Steel Bone Plates and

ScreAvs, Commercial Standard CS37-31 is now available and for sale by the Superintendent of Documents

at 10 cents jier copy. The standard describes steel bone plates and screAvs for surgical use of the Sherman design with requirements for Avorkmanship and

material, together Avith a test for hardness on the

Rockwell hardness tester. Each ])late sold is to be

tested for hardness and is sealed in a transparent

envelope carrying the manufacturers guarantee.

The standard became effective November 16, 1931. o
To determine whether an applicable specification exists for any

commodity—consult—

National Directory of

Commodity Specifications, 1932

which indexes the standards and specifications of trade associations, technical societies,

and other organizations nationally representative of some branch of American industry,

as well as those of governmental agencies that represent the Federal Government.

Uses the decimal system. Cross-references related specifcations. Defines uses of commodities, if known, when not self-evident from the title. Contains

comprehensive index.

The direct purpose of any wise cooperative effort in the adoption of specifications is to secure constructive application of scientific knowledge to service requirements; to co- ordinate similar demands and eliminate unessential differences; to balance increases

in cost against probable service improvements, taking full advantage of existing commercial varieties; and to formulate adequate test or inspection methods—all this result- ing in the development of greatly improved products, vital support to the national

movement toward simplification of lines, processes, and business practices, and marked

lowering of costs and prices. —Herbert Hoover.

Compiled by Bureau of Standards

Miscellaneous Publication No. 130

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Price $1.75

Cloth bound

554 pages
THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

‘ * * * this department * * + is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our p>eople * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field.” —President Hoover, at the laying of the corner stone of the new building

of the U. S. Det>artment of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuart, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines, and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products.

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

F. M. Feiker, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, the monthly Survey of Current Business, and district and

cooperative offices in 65 cities. The maintenance of commodity,

technical, and regional divisions to afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and processes; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins reporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Turner, Director. Technical investigations in the mining, preparation, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards, and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation of plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish, in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods,

improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and the

protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam,

Commissioner.

Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic

surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Arthur J. Tyrer, Commissioner.

Superintendence of commercial marine and merchant seamen.

Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover,

Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certifi- cation of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents, and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1932