NIST Special Publication 1601

Tracking Industry Operations Activity 

A Case Study of US Automotive Manufacturing

Douglas S. Thomas

Anand M. Kandaswamy

This publication is available free of charge from:

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1601

NIST Special Publication 1601

Tracking Industry Operations Activity

A Case Study of US Automotive Manufacturing

Douglas S. Thomas

Anand M. Kandaswamy

Applied Economics Office

Engineering Laboratory

This publication is available free of charge from:

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1601

November 2015

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Penny Pritzker, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Willie E. May, Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology and Director of NIST
Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this

document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately.

Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the

National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the

entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose. 

National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 1601

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Tech. SP 1601, 64 pages (November 2015)

CODEN: NSPUE2 

This publication is available free of charge from: 

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1601
ii

Abstract

Private firms, driven by competition, frequently achieve advances in efficiency on their 

own accord; however, there are often barriers to advancement that surpass the ability of 

any single firm. Additionally, competition, lack of communication, and other factors can 

prevent the collaborative efforts necessary to overcome such barriers. It is in these types 

of situations that publicly-funded research efforts are often necessary for advancing 

industry efficiency. Unfortunately, there are numerous factors affecting efficiency and 

only a limited number of them can be identified. The result is that researchers must 

examine areas of manufacturing that consume high levels of resources in order to identify 

change agent efforts that have a high return on investment. To identify high resource 

areas it is necessary to have an inventory and model of resource consumption. This report 

identifies data on manufacturing activity and provides a model for tracking operations 

activity. The method is then illustrated in the automotive manufacturing industry. 

There are two potential approaches to track resource consumption: a top down approach 

and a bottom up approach. Data at the broadest level is readily available, but as one 

moves towards more and more detail, data becomes scarcer. For this reason a top down 

approach is developed. Data for a bottom up approach is briefly discussed; however, this 

approach is left for future research due to data limitations. The top down method is 

applied to the automotive manufacturing industry as a case study, which includes a 

review of automotive manufacturing. This approach provides a more comprehensive 

exploration of data for tracking industry operations activity at all levels of detail. The top 

down analysis uses input-output analysis combined with other industry data to estimate 

industry operations activity. The aggregated dataset layout is a 1238 by 397 matrix 

resulting in over 490 000 information points on the US economy with over 290 000 being 

related to manufacturing. That is, the data provides over 490 000 categories of 

information covering compensation costs, taxes, gross operating surplus, labor hours, 

production time, environmental impacts, natural resource use, energy consumption by 

end use (e.g., heating/cooling and production processes), and building capital. 

Compensation and other labor related activities are broken into over 800 different 

occupations for each industry. Industry data is broken into over 300 NAICS codes 

categories for each industry. Environmental and natural resource consumption is broken 

into 12 TRACI categories. This model incorporates the resources used in US 

manufacturing and its US based supply chain.

Keywords: supply chain; value chain; manufacturing; input output; automotive 

manufacturing; manufacturing
iii
iv

Preface

This study was conducted by the Applied Economics Office in the Engineering

Laboratory at the National Institute of Standards and Technology. The study provides a 

model for tracking manufacturing industry operations activity and illustrates the use of 

the model in the automotive industry.

Disclaimer

Certain trade names and company products are mentioned in the text in order to adequately specify the 

technical procedures and equipment used. In no case does such identification imply recommendation or 

endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor does it imply that the products are 

necessarily the best available for the purpose.

Cover Photographs Credits

At the Paint Shop in Chrysler Group’s Sterling Heights (Mich.) Assembly Plant, a 2015 Chrysler 200 

moves through the Underbody Sealing and Underbody Coating station, flipping the vehicle body 

completely upside down to seal all appropriate seams and compartments. (2014). This image was used in 

accordance with Fiat Chrysler Automobile’s editorial use policy.
v
vi

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank all those who contributed so many excellent ideas and

suggestions for this report. Special appreciation is extended to Simon Frechette, 

Katherine Morris, and Dr. Vijay Srinivasan of the Engineering Laboratory’s Systems 

Integration Division for their technical guidance, suggestions, and support. Special 

appreciation is also extended to Dr. Stanley Gilbert, Dr. Robert Chapman, and Paul 

Rothfeld of the Engineering Laboratory’s Applied Economics Office for their thorough 

reviews and many insights. The authors also wish to thank Dr. Nicos Martys, of the

Materials and Structural Systems Division for his review.
vii
viii

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ II

PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...........................................................................................................................VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................................................VIII

LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................................... IX

LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................................................. IX

LIST OF ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................................... X

1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 BACKGROUND............................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 PURPOSE...................................................................................................................................................1

1.3 SCOPE AND APPROACH................................................................................................................... 2

2 CHANGE AGENT ACTIVITIES, STAKEHOLDERS, AND GEOGRAPHIC SCOPE........................................ 5

2.1 EFFICIENCY AND MARKET FAILURES................................................................................................... 5

2.2 CHANGE AGENTS........................................................................................................................... 5

2.3 STAKEHOLDERS ............................................................................................................................. 8

2.4 GEOGRAPHIC SCOPE AND IMPORTED GOODS AND SERVICES ................................................................ 10

2.5 STANDARD DATA CATEGORIZATION ................................................................................................ 11

2.5.1 The North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) ................................................ 12

2.5.2 Standard Occupational Classification System (SOC)............................................................. 13

2.5.3 Standard Classification of Transported Goods (SCTG).......................................................... 14

2.5.4 Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts 

(TRACI).................................................................................................................... 16

3 INDUSTRY OPERATIONS DATA...................................................................................................... 17

3.1 TOP DOWN DATA........................................................................................................................ 17

3.1.1 Inter-Industry Data ............................................................................................................... 17

3.1.2 Environmental and Natural Resource Data .......................................................................... 19

3.1.3 Inventory and Transportation Data ...................................................................................... 20

3.1.4 Labor Data ............................................................................................................................ 22

3.1.5 Building Data and Process Data ........................................................................................... 23

3.2 BOTTOM UP DATA....................................................................................................................... 24

4 TOP DOWN MODEL OF INDUSTRY OPERATIONS ACTIVITY............................................................ 27

4.1 INPUT OUTPUT ANALYSIS.............................................................................................................. 28

4.2 LABOR.....................................................................................................................................................28

4.3 TIME.......................................................................................................................................................29

4.3.1 Inventory Turns..................................................................................................................... 29

4.3.2 Industry Reiteration Rate...................................................................................................... 29

4.4 NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ....................................................................... 31

4.5 AGGREGATED INPUT-OUTPUT MODEL............................................................................................. 32

5 CASE STUDY IN AUTOMOTIVE MANUFACTURING......................................................................... 35

5.1 OVERVIEW OF AUTOMOTIVE MANUFACTURING ................................................................................ 35
ix

5.1.1 Computer Simulation in the Manufacturing Industry ........................................................... 36

5.1.2 Auto Manufacturing Process ................................................................................................ 37

5.1.3 The Advent of Smart Manufacturing Technologies in the Automotive Industry................... 39

5.1.4 The Role of Raw Materials and Changing Technologies....................................................... 42

5.1.5 Economic Trends for Automobile Manufacturers ...................................................................... 43

5.2 INDUSTRY OPERATIONS ACTIVITY IN AUTOMOTIVE MANUFACTURING.................................................... 46

5.2.1 Industry Costs and Labor Hours............................................................................................ 46

5.2.2 Time and Building Capital..................................................................................................... 49

5.2.3 Natural Resources and Environmental Impacts.................................................................... 52

6 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................... 59

6.1 SUMMARY...............................................................................................................................................59

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................................... 60

List of Figures

Figure 2-1: Definitions of Efficiency.................................................................................. 6

Figure 2-2: Time, Labor, and Natural Resources Needed to Produce a Manufactured 

Product .................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 2-3: US Manufacturing Supply Chain Value Added............................................. 12

Figure 3-1: Transportation of Motorized Vehicles and Parts by Truck from the Top Five 

Production Locations to Other Automotive Manufacturing Locations ................ 22

Figure 4-1: Mapping to the BEA IO NAICS Categories.................................................. 27

Figure 4-2: Illustration of Tracking a Material through an Industry ................................ 31

Figure 5-1: Domestic Vehicle Production, by Major Manufacturer................................. 44

Figure 5-2: Supply Chain Steps and Average Flow Time ................................................ 52

List of Tables

Table 2-1: Abridged List of Stakeholders........................................................................... 8

Table 2-2: Manufacturing Stakeholders.............................................................................. 9

Table 2-3: North American Industry Classification System, Two Digit Codes............... 13

Table 2-4: Standard Occupational Classification System, Two Digit Codes................... 14

Table 2-5: Standard Classification of Transported Goods................................................ 15

Table 2-6: Impact Factors................................................................................................. 16

Table 3-1: Part of a Make Table from the 2007 Benchmark Input-Output Data.............. 18

Table 3-2: Part of a Use Table from the 2007 Benchmark Input-Output Data................. 18

Table 3-3: Layout for the Environmentally Extended Input-Output Table ...................... 20

Table 3-4: Annual Survey of Manufactures and Economic Census Inventory Data Layout

............................................................................................................................... 21

Table 3-5: Data Layout for Freight Information from the Commodity Flow Survey ...... 21

Table 3-6: Illustration of the Layout for the Occupational Employment Data................. 23

Table 3-7: Illustration of the Layout for Energy use Data from the Energy Information 

Administration ...................................................................................................... 25

Table 4-1: Illustration of Final Data Layout (columns are NAICS codes)....................... 33

Table 5-1: Value Added for New Vehicles by.................................................................. 47
x

Table 5-2: Compensation for New Vehicle Production by Occupation, Broad Category 

Level ..................................................................................................................... 49

Table 5-3: Compensation for New Vehicle Production by Occupation, Top 50 (Detailed 

Category Level) .................................................................................................... 50

Table 5-4: Machinery Data for New Car Production ($millions)..................................... 51

Table 5-5: Approximated Chronological Supply Chain Steps and Corresponding NAICS 

Codes for New Vehicle Production ...................................................................... 53

Table 5-6: Building Capital for New Vehicle Production- New Construction Equivalent, 

Top 35 ................................................................................................................... 56

Table 5-7: Environmental Impact and Natural Resource use (Top 35 Industries) 

Contributing to New Car Value Added (impact per $million) ............................. 57

Reading tables: Tables frequently have colored bars (red, blue, or orange). These bars 

provide comparisons between other figures in the table that are shown in the same color.

List of Acronyms

AHP: Analytical Hierarchical Process

ASM: Annual Survey of Manufactures

BEA: Bureau of Economic Analysis

BEES: Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability

CAR: Center for Automotive Research

CTU: Comparative Toxicity Unit

CTUe: Comparative Toxicity Unit for Ecotoxicity

CTUHcan: Comparative Toxicity Unit for Human health related to Cancer

CTUHnoncan: Comparative Toxicity Unit for Human health non related to cancer

eq: Equivalent

FAF: Freight Analysis Framework

HH_can: Human Health issues related to cancer

HH_noncan: Human Health issues not related to cancer

HVAC: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

IO: Input-Output

LCA: Life Cycle Assessments

MECS: Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey

NAICS: North American Industry Classification System

NIST: National Institute of Standards and Technology

OES: Occupational Employment Statistics

QFD: Quality Function Deployment

SCTG: Standard Classification of Transported Goods

SIC: Standard Industrial Classification System

SOC: Standard Occupational Classification System

TRACI: Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts
xi
1

1 Introduction

1.1 Background

One justification for supporting economic growth through publicly-funded research is 

based on what economists call “market failures.” 1 These are instances where the market 

outcome or allocation of goods and services is not Pareto efficient. This occurs when it is 

possible to make one person better off without making another person worse off. 

Unfortunately, in a world of scarce resources, there are limited public funds for 

addressing market failures; therefore, the efforts that have the greatest impact per dollar 

of public investment are, typically, prioritized over those with a lower impact per dollar. 

Additionally, there are many market failures in the economy; however, there are limited 

funds for identifying where and why these market failures are occurring. Thus, only a 

portion of the market failures are being identified by researchers. Given that researchers 

can only identify and analyze a portion of the total market failures, it is necessary to 

search for market failures in areas that are likely to have a high return on investment. The 

focus of this report is on identifying and analyzing those factors that affect manufacturing 

efficiency. 

An inventory and model of resource consumption in manufacturing will help identify 

high resource consumption areas or hotspots. Change agents, which invest in advancing 

the current state of manufacturing, might then search for non-pareto efficient 

circumstances within these hotspots. Unfortunately, the data required for such an 

inventory and model is disjointed. Therefore, it is necessary to assemble the data and 

develop a model of resource utilization for identifying potential public investments.

NIST, a publicly-funded research organization, “promote[s] US innovation and industrial 

competitiveness by advancing measurement science, standards, and technology in ways 

that enhance economic security and improve our quality of life.”2 A significant focus for 

NIST is in advancing innovation and industrial competitiveness by improving efficiency 

in manufacturing. Few private entities have the objectives that a publicly-funded research 

organization maintains. Additionally, some firms may have a limited perspective, as each 

firm’s situation is unique from the others. The result is that there are few research reports

on the data or inventory of resources needed to identify industry-wide hotspots in 

resource consumption. 

1.2 Purpose

This report identifies and reviews data on manufacturing activity and provides a method 

for developing a model of industry operations activity, which documents the resources 

consumed. The method is then illustrated in the automotive manufacturing industry. Data 

 

1 Tassey, Gregory. Methods for Assessing the Economic Impacts of Government R&D. Planning Report 

03-1. <http://www.nist.gov/director/planning/upload/report03-1.pdf>

2 National Institute of Standards and Technology. “NIST General Information.” 

<http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/general_information.cfm>
2

at the broadest level is readily available, but as one moves towards more and more detail, 

data becomes scarcer. For this reason, a top down approach is described and data for a 

bottom up approach is briefly explored. Additionally, there is a review of automotive 

manufacturing, specifically. The top down data model will facilitate identifying areas of 

manufacturing that have a high level of resource consumption. Future research might 

then examine these areas for non-Pareto efficient circumstances. Data for a bottom up 

approach would facilitate identifying details on resource consumption; however, the 

collection and analysis of this data is beyond the scope of this report.

1.3 Scope and Approach

This report takes principles found in operations management and applies them at the 

industry level. Operations management refers to the business practices that pursue the 

highest level of efficiency within an organization. It is concerned with converting inputs 

into outputs as efficiently as possible. Typically, it refers to management at the 

organization or firm level. This report identifies a method for tracking industry operations 

activity and illustrates this method using a case study of automotive manufacturing. 

Resource consumption is often measured in dollars, especially at the industry level; 

however, this unit can mask the source of the dollars being consumed and misdirect 

efforts to improve efficiency. For example, labor costs are a function of time, human 

effort, and rates of compensation. High labor costs may be the result of large amounts of 

labor or, alternatively, it could be high rates of compensation. The purpose of tracking 

industry operations activity in this report is to identify areas of manufacturing that have a 

high level of resource consumption so that future research might reduce this 

consumption. The report not only examines the cost of production, it also examines the

source of those costs. Negative externalities are another reason resource use needs to be 

tracked beyond dollar representations. Negative externalities, such as environmental 

impacts and natural resource consumption, are not well represented in terms of dollars. 

Manufactured goods are produced to serve some purpose. A change agent, such as NIST, 

can facilitate serving this purpose in a more efficient manner or facilitate serving new or 

improved purposes. Therefore, in examining manufacturing there are the costs or 

resources required to produce and use a product and there are the benefits or activities 

that the product facilitates. The costs and benefits of the products are distributed over a 

range of stakeholders, including the owners, employees, consumers, and even the general 

public. In a perfect world all of the costs and benefits would be assembled and 

categorized together; however, the data is disjointed and has incomplete coverage. For 

these reasons, this report reviews data on the resources used in production. More 

specifically, these include natural resources, employee hours, and environmental impacts. 

Additionally, production time, transport time, and inventory time are also examined. 

This report first discusses change agents, stakeholders, and the geographic scope of this 

report in Section 2. This section begins with a discussion on efficiency followed by a 

discussion on change agents and the stakeholders they affect. It also lays out the 

geographic scope and the standard categorization of data. Section 3 provides a discussion 

on top down and bottom up data. It presents the formats for the various top down datasets 

and discusses the scarcity of bottom up data. Section 4 presents a top down method that 
3

utilizes an input-output model combined with the various datasets on resource utilization.

Section Error! Reference source not found. illustrates the method for the automotive 

ndustry. It begins with an overview of automotive manufacturing, as represented in the 

literature and transitions to discussing a characterization of the industry with the inputoutput model presented in Section 4. The final section is a summary of the report.
4
5

2 Change Agent Activities, Stakeholders, and Geographic 

Scope 

Economic data, typically, focuses on areas encompassed by a political boundary and is 

relevant to a subset of stakeholders. This section discusses the motivation for this report 

along with its geographic scope and stakeholders applicable to this report.

2.1 Efficiency and Market Failures 

As stated previously, the justification for supporting economic growth through publicly 

funded research is what economists call “market failures.” 3 These are instances where 

the market outcome or allocation of goods and services is not Pareto efficient; that is, it is 

possible to make one person better off without making another person worse off. Pareto 

efficiency is a type of allocative efficiency, which is defined as the optimal distribution of 

goods and services. Pareto efficiency is related to both consumer and producer oriented 

efficiencies, as illustrated in Figure 2-1. Productive efficiency relates to maximizing 

output for the given inputs. It is what engineers are, typically, referring to when 

discussing efficiency. Consumer oriented efficiency issues relate to maximizing utility. It 

includes consumer choice and combinations of goods produced. A market failure can 

occur when one of the types of efficiency in Figure 2-1 is not fulfilled by the market 

interactions of consumers and producers. NIST is an entity that focuses on “measurement 

science, standards, and technology,” which, in some ways, is production oriented;

however, consumer issues are being addressed as well. The data and models in this report 

focus on issues related to productive efficiency, as it focuses on the resources consumed 

in production. Future research may move toward consumer oriented issues by tracking 

the resources used to fulfill consumer preferences.

When tracking efficiency, there are inputs and outputs being examined, but there are 

significant data challenges in tracking consumer utility and the physical items produced

(i.e., the outputs). For this reason, this report focuses on tracking inputs as this is likely to 

reveal high return-on-investment areas for addressing non-Pareto efficient circumstances. 

2.2 Change Agents 

Generally, change agents such as NIST want to maximize their impact for the amount of 

resources allotted to them; that is, they want the “biggest bang for the buck.” Investment 

in any particular change agent effort, traditionally, has decreasing returns to scale; that is, 

every additional dollar of investment has a little less impact than the previous dollar. 

Since a change agent wants to maximize their impact, it would want to allocate its 

funding in projects such that each dollar of investment has the maximum return possible. 

 

3 Tassey, Gregory. Methods for Assessing the Economic Impacts of Government R&D. Planning Report 

03-1. <http://www.nist.gov/director/planning/upload/report03-1.pdf>
6

Figure 2-1: Definitions of Efficiency

Note that this figure is not suggesting that if all the subcategories are fulfilled then the parent category is 

necessarily fulfilled.

Definitions adapted from Barr, Nicholas. 2012. Economics of the Welfare State. 5

th Edition. (Oxford 

University Press, Oxford, UK: 2012) 43-44. and Besanko, David and Ronald R. Braeutigam. 

Microeconomics. 2nd edition. (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ: 2005). And Navarro, Peter. “The Power 

of Microeconomics: Economic Principles in the Real World.” Coursera. Paul Merage School of Business, 

University of California at Irving. <https://www.coursera.org/learn/principles-of-microeconomics>

It is important to note that not all of the costs and benefits are able to be measured. 

Additionally, investments are often complex; therefore, identifying the optimal use of 

funding can be rather problematic. Due to scarcity, there are also limited funds for 

identifying where market failures are occurring; thus, all the potential efforts that would 

be examined are not able to be identified. Therefore, it is necessary to maximize the 

probability of identifying those market failures and investments that have the highest 

return. This report develops an inventory and a model of resources used in manufacturing 

that can be used to increase the probability of identifying those change agent investments 

that have a high return.

ALLOCATIVE EFFICIENCY

Pareto efficient: a state where it is impossible to make 

one person better off without making someone else 

worse off

CONSUMER ORIENTED 

EFFICIENCY ISSUES

Allocation of goods: the 

combination of goods and 

services that maximize consumer 

utility

Efficiency in the 

product mix: the 

optimal 

combination of 

goods are produced

Efficiency in 

consumption: 

consumption 

choices maximize 

utility

PRODUCER ORIENTED 

EFFICIENCY ISSUES

Productive efficiency: production 

is organized to attain the 

maximum output from the given 

inputs

Technical efficiency: 

it is impossible to 

produce, given 

current knowledge, 

more output with 

the same inputs or 

the same output 

with less inputs

Least cost 

combination of 

inputs: production 

using the quantity 

of each resource 

resulting in the 

lowest total cost
7

To track resources in manufacturing there is a need to categorize them. At the basic level, 

the factors of production are, typically, considered to be land (i.e., natural resources), 

labor, capital, and entrepreneurship; however, capital includes machinery and tools, 

which themselves are made of land and labor. Additionally, a major element in the 

production of all goods and services is time, as illustrated in many operations 

management discussions. Therefore, one might consider the most basic elements of 

production to be land, labor, human capital, entrepreneurship, and time. The human 

capital and entrepreneurship utilized in producing manufactured goods are important, but 

these are complex issues that are not a focus of this report. The remaining items land, 

labor, and time constitute the primary cost elements for production. It is important to note 

that there is a tradeoff between time and labor (measured in labor hours per hour). For 

example, it takes one hundred people less time to build a house than it takes for one 

person to build a house. It is also important to note that there is also a tradeoff between 

time/labor and land (i.e., natural resources), as illustrated in the large triangular plane in 

Figure 2-2. For example, a machine can reduce both the time and the number of people 

needed for production, but utilizes more energy and natural resources. 

The large triangular plane in Figure 2-2 represents possible combinations of land, labor, 

and time needed for producing a manufactured good. Moving anywhere along this plane 

is an alteration of resource use. This combination is, typically, determined by the least 

cost combination of inputs, as mentioned in Figure 2-1. A public change agent, however, 

might also consider the impact on natural resources and the environment, costs that are 

not borne by the producer. Replacing labor with machines, for example, increases the 

production per person but might decrease the production per unit of natural resource. A 

company can maximize profit by either altering resources (i.e., moving along the plane to 

the least cost combination of inputs) or by reducing the resources needed for production 

(i.e., moving the plane or improving technical efficiency). A public change agent that 

desires efficient and sustainable production would seek to reduce all three resources, 

pulling the triangular plane or some portion of it toward the origin as illustrated in the 

figure. Therefore, when examining the cost and benefits of a product or process from a 

societal perspective, it becomes apparent that one needs to measure land, labor, and time 

needed for production in order to understand potential areas of resource reduction.

In addition to resources consumed in production, manufactured goods are produced to 

serve a designated purpose. For example, automobiles transport objects and people; cell 

phones facilitate communication; and monitors display information. Each item produced 

is designed for some purpose. In the process of fulfilling this purpose more resources are 

often expended in the form of land, labor, and time, which are related to consumeroriented efficiencies. Additionally, a product with a short life span results in more 

resources being expended to reproduce the product and the disposal of the old product 

may also consume resources. The consumption of these resources is important, but due to 

data constraints is left as a focus of future research.
8

Figure 2-2: Time, Labor, and Natural Resources Needed to Produce a Manufactured Product

Source: Thomas, Douglas S. Costs and Cost Effectiveness of Additive Manufacturing: A Literature Review. December 2014. NIST 

Special Publication 1176. <http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.1176.pdf>

2.3 Stakeholders

Each of the costs and benefits affects different stakeholders, as seen in the brief list in 

Table 2-1. From this list, expenditures, hours, price, environment, and natural resources 

are examined directly or indirectly in this report. The other elements are important; 

however, data limitations and challenges make them targets for future research. As seen 

in Table 2-2, stakeholders may have a direct investment in manufacturing, such as 

industry owners and employees, or an indirect investment through supply chains or 

industry outputs. Each stakeholder is associated with a primary form of investment. For

Table 2-1: Abridged List of Stakeholders

Stakeholders Costs Benefits

Owners/Investors Expenditures Profit

Employees Hours/Safety/Health Compensation

Consumers Price/Cost of Use Utility

General Public Environment/Natural Resources Economic Well Being
9

Table 2-2: Manufacturing Stakeholders

Source: Adapted from Thomas, Douglas S. March 2012. The Current State and Recent Trends in Manufacturing. Special Publication 1129. 

<http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.1142.pdf>

Stakeholders Affiliation Primary Investment Expected Return

Owners Private Producers Land, Capital Goods, and Financial Capital Profit From Sales

Employees (manufacturing industry and suppliers) Laborers Labor and Safety Income

Resellers Private Distributer Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Markup

Retailers Private Distributer Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Markup

Wholesalers Private Distributer Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Markup

Standards and Codes Organizations Public/Private Interest Labor and Intellectual Property Economic Success

Transportation and Warehousing Support Service Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Fees

Air Transportation Providers Transportation Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Fees

Ground Transportation Providers Transportation Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Fees

Warehousing and Storage Providers Storage Facility Land and Capital Goods Profit From Fees

Professional Societies Public/Private Support Services Labor and Intellectual Property Economic Success and Profit from Fees

Finance Services Insurance and Finance Financial Capital Profit From Fees

Insurance Providers Insurance Financial Capital Profit From Fees

Health and Medical Insurance Providers Insurance Financial Capital Profit From Fees

Financiers Financier Financial Capital Capital Gains

Public Vested Interests Public Labor and Financial Capital Economic Success

Policy Makers Public Labor and Financial Capital Economic Success

Tax Payers/Public Public Financial Capital and Natural Resources Economic Success

Industry Suppliers Public/Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit 

Mining Material Suppliers Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Sales

Agriculture Product Suppliers Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Sales

Electric Utility Suppliers Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Sales

Water Utility Suppliers Public/Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Sales

Natural Gas Suppliers Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Sales

Facility Construction Providers Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Sales

Maintenance and Repair Providers Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Sales

Communication Services Providers Private Support Services Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Fees

Other Fuel Suppliers Private Suppliers Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Sales

Refuse Removal Service Providers Private Support Services Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Fees

Professional Services Public/Private Support Services Land, Capital Goods, Labor, and Intellectual Property Profit From Fees

Legal Service Providers Public/Private Support Services Labor Profit From Fees

Information Service Providers Private Support Services Land, Capital Goods, and Labor Profit From Fees

Research Organizations Public/Private Suppliers Labor and Intellectual Property Profit From Fees

Accounting Service Providers Private Support Services Labor Profit From Fees

Engineering Service Providers Private Support Services Labor and Intellectual Property Profit From Fees

Computer Service Providers Private Support Services Labor Profit From Fees

Scientific and Technical Service Providers Private Support Services Labor and Intellectual Property Profit From Fees

Advertisers Private Support Services Labor and Intellectual Property Profit From Fees

Other Professional Services Private Support Services Labor and Intellectual Property Profit From Fees

Consumers/End User End User Product Purchasing Price and Cost of use Final Product Utilization
10

example, employees invest their labor while owners invest land and capital. Owners may 

have significant investments of labor and/or intellectual property as well, as seen in Table 

2-2. The items shown in red in the table are items that are not directly examined in this 

report, due to data limitations. 

Each stakeholder has invested these items with the expectation of receiving compensation 

or a return on investment. Employees, for instance, expect to be compensated for their 

labor and owners expect to receive a profit. There are eight different categories of assets 

used in Table 2-2 that can be utilized in the industry: financial capital, capital goods, 

land, labor, intellectual property, safety, cost of use, and the end users purchasing price. 

In this table, stakeholders are defined by activities where a company or individual might 

be considered more than one stakeholder. For instance, a mining company might also be 

involved in identifying where raw materials are located. In this instance they would be a 

mining material supplier and a scientific and technical service provider.

The expected returns from the industry include profits from sales, markup, or fees; 

income; economic success; capital gains; and utility from the final use of the product. 

The expected returns for each stakeholder are categorized in Table 2-2.

Summary of Primary Investments

Land

Naturally-occurring goods such as water, air, soil, 

mineral, and flora used in the production of products (i.e., 

the totality of goods or services that a company makes 

available).

Labor Human effort used in production, which includes 

technical and marketing expertise.

Capital Goods Human made goods used in the production of products.

Financial Capital Funds provided by investors to purchase capital goods for 

production of products.

Intellectual 

Property

Ideas, trademarks, copyrights, trade secrets, and patents 

used to produce products

Purchasing Price Market value of products sold

Safety Safety and health that a worker sacrifices for production

Cost of Use Resources that are consumed by the use a manufactured 

product

2.4 Geographic Scope and Imported Goods and Services

Many change agents are concerned with a certain group of people or organizations. Since 

NIST is concerned with "US innovation and competitiveness," this report focuses on 

activities within the national borders. In a world of globalization, this effort is somewhat 

challenging, as some of the parts and materials being used in US manufacturing activities 

are imported. NIST Technical Note 1810 examined the proportion of the US 
11

Summary of Expected Returns

Profit from Sales The financial benefit realized when revenues exceed costs 

and taxes for a product.

Capital Gains An increase in the value of a capital asset

Income Compensation for an individual’s service or labor

Profit from Markup The difference between the cost of a product and its 

selling price.

Economic Success

A constant and suitable magnitude of production resulting 

in competitive benefits (profits, capital gains, income, and 

product utilization) for an industry’s stakeholders.

Profit from Fees The financial benefit realized when revenues exceed costs 

and taxes for a service.

Final Product Utilization The utility gained from the end user of a product.

manufacturing supply chain that is imported. The value added for the U.S. manufacturing 

industry and its supply chain is presented in Figure 2-3. The values at the top, shown in 

red, represent value added that is imported to the U.S. for use by the manufacturing

industry. The top value, shown in a lighter red, represents intermediate imported nonmanufactured goods and services, such as raw materials from mining. The second one, 

shown in a darker red, represents intermediate imported manufactured goods used by the 

U.S. manufacturing industry. Domestic U.S. manufacturing activity is shown in three 

shades of blue. The light blue represents intermediate non-manufactured goods and 

services, such as agricultural products or finance products, produced in the U.S. and used 

by the U.S. manufacturing industry. The darker blue represents intermediate 

manufactured products used by the U.S. manufacturing industry; for example, a bolt used 

to assemble a car. The bottom value, shown in a dark blue, represents final products 

manufactured in the U.S. As can be seen in the figure, the imported values are a relatively 

small percentage of the total activity. In terms of 2009 imported supply chain value added 

used by a nation’s manufacturing industry, the U.S. imported 10.8 % of its supply chain. 

These imports have environmental impacts, require natural resources, and utilize labor; 

thus, they are important in regards to a firm’s production. Since our focus is on US 

innovation and industrial competitiveness, the imported goods and services are outside of 

the scope of this report.

2.5 Standard Data Categorization

A number of datasets are used in developing an inventory and model of industry 

operations activities. Bringing these datasets together requires standard categories of 

classification. Although standard categorization seems mundane, it is critical to tracking
12

Figure 2-3: US Manufacturing Supply Chain Value Added

Source: Thomas, Douglas S. The US Manufacturing Value Chain: An International Perspective. February 2014. NIST Technical Note

1810. <http://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=914022>

resources. The standardized classification systems used in this report include 

 North American Industry Classification System (NAICS): a standard used by 

Federal statistical agencies to classify business establishments in the U.S.

 Standard Occupational Classification System (SOC): a standard used in the U.S. 

to classify workers into occupational categories for collecting and distributing 

data on employees

 Standard Classification of Transported Goods: a standard in the U.S. to classify 

transported commodities. 

 Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental 

Impacts (TRACI): a set of sustainability metrics for measuring environmental 

impacts and natural resource utilization

Each dataset incorporated into the model uses NAICS codes or is altered to fit to the 

codes, which allows the datasets to be compatible with each other. Some datasets may 

use just the NAICS codes while others use NAICS codes and another classification 

system together to form a data matrix. 

2.5.1 The North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) 

Domestic data tends to be in the North American Industry Classification System 

(NAICS). It is the standard used by Federal statistical agencies classifying business 

establishments in the U.S. NAICS was jointly developed by the U.S. Economic 

Classification Policy Committee, Statistics Canada, and Mexico’s Instituto Nacional de 

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Foreign Intermediate Non-manufacturing 111 117 124 116 129 155 140 137 150 180 206 227 235 253 181

Foreign Intermediate Manufacturing 98 97 102 103 111 118 101 100 101 124 129 133 131 118 89

U.S. Intermediate Non-manufacturing 609 635 677 686 712 726 717 696 705 691 707 692 723 657 628

U.S. Intermediate Manufacturing 883 888 939 1009 1057 1034 971 1003 980 1003 988 981 945 820 860

U.S. Final Product 664 671 711 762 758 742 705 716 722 763 780 794 807 758 742 $Billion 2009
13

Estadística y Geografía and was adopted in 1997.4 NAICS has several major categories 

each with subcategories. Historic data and some organizations continue to use the 

predecessor of NAICS, which is the Standard Industrial Classification system (SIC). 

NAICS codes are categorized at varying levels of detail. Table 2-3 presents the lowest 

level of detail, which is the two digit NAICS. There are 20 categories. Additional detail is 

added by adding additional digits; thus, three digits provides more detail than the two 

digit and the four digit provides more detail than the three digit. The maximum is six 

digits, as illustrated for automobile manufacturing (NAICS 336111) and light truck and 

utility manufacturing (NAICS 336112). Sometimes a two, three, four, or five digit code is 

followed by zeros, which do not represent categories. They are null or place holders. For 

example, the code 336000 represents NAICS 336.

2.5.2 Standard Occupational Classification System (SOC) 

Federal statistical agencies classify workers into occupational categories for collecting 

and distributing data on employees. The 2010 version has 840 occupations. These are 

which are categorized into 23 major groups. Occupations with similar job duties, skills, 

categorized into 461 broad occupations, which are categorized into 97 minor groups,

education, and/or training are grouped together. Similar to the NAICS codes, additional 

digits represent additional detail up to a maximum of six digits, as illustrated for SOC 

514011 and SOC 514012 in Table 2-4, which presents the 23 major groups. The SOC 

classifies all occupations in which work is performed for pay or profit. It was first 

published in 1980, but was rarely utilized at that time. In 2000, it was revised and then 

Table 2-3: North American Industry Classification System, Two Digit Codes

Sector Description

11 Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting

21 Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction

22 Utilities

23 Construction

31-33 Manufacturing

336 Transportation Equipment Manufacturing

3361 Motor Vehicle Manufacturing

33611 Automobile and Light Duty Motor Vehicle Manufacturing

336111 Automobile Manufacturing

336112 Light Truck and Utility Manufacturing

42 Wholesale Trade

44-45 Retail Trade

48-49 Transportation and Warehousing

51 Information

52 Finance and Insurance

53 Real Estate and Rental and Leasing

54 Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services

55 Management of Companies and Enterprises

56 Administrative and Support and Waste Management and Remediation Services

61 Educational Services

 

4 US Census Bureau. North American Industry Classification System. 

<http://www.census.gov/eos/www/naics/>
14

62 Health Care and Social Assistance

71 Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation

72 Accommodation and Food Services

81 Other Services (except Public Administration)

92 Public Administration

again revised in 2010. The Bureau of Labor Statistics now publishes occupation data 

based on this system.

2.5.3 Standard Classification of Transported Goods (SCTG)

The Census Bureau tracks the movement of goods in its Commodity Flow Survey and 

uses the Standard Classification of Transported Goods (SCTG) to group commodities 

together. In the 1990s, this system replaced its predecessor, the Standard Transportation

Commodity Codes (STCC). The new SCTG codes are similar to NAICS in that there is

varying levels of detail. The SCTG codes, however, have a maximum of only five digits, 

as illustrated for SCTG code 36101 and 36109 in Table 2-5. As seen in the table, two 

digit codes provide the broadest level of categorization. Additional digits are added for 

Table 2-4: Standard Occupational Classification System, Two Digit Codes

Occupation Code Occupation Name

11 Management Occupations

13 Business and Financial Operations Occupations

15 Computer and Mathematical Occupations

17 Architecture and Engineering Occupations

19 Life, Physical, and Social Science Occupations

21 Community and Social Service Occupations

23 Legal Occupations

25 Education, Training, and Library Occupations

27 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media Occupations

29 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical Occupations

31 Healthcare Support Occupations

33 Protective Service Occupations

35 Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations

37 Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations

39 Personal Care and Service Occupations

41 Sales and Related Occupations

43 Office and Administrative Support Occupations

45 Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations

47 Construction and Extraction Occupations

49 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations

51 Production Occupations

514 Metal Workers and Plastic Workers

5140 Metal Workers and Plastic Workers

51401 Computer Control Programmers and Operators

514011 Computer-Controlled Machine Tool Operators, Metal and Plastic

514012 Computer Numerically Controlled Machine Tool Programmers, Metal and Plastic

53 Transportation and Material Moving Occupations

55 Military Specific Occupations 
15

Table 2-5: Standard Classification of Transported Goods 

SCTG Code Commodity Description

00 All Commodities

01 Live animals and live fish

02 Cereal grains

03 Other agricultural products

04 Animal feed and products of animal origin, nec

05 Meat, fish, seafood, and their preparations

06 Milled grain products and preparations, and bakery products

07 Other prepared foodstuffs and fats and oils

08 Alcoholic beverages

09 Tobacco products

10 Monumental or building stone

11 Natural sands

12 Gravel and crushed stone

13 Nonmetallic minerals nec

14 Metallic ores and concentrates

15 Coal

17 Gasoline and aviation turbine fuel

18 Fuel oils

19 Coal and petroleum products, nec

20 Basic chemicals

21 Pharmaceutical products

22 Fertilizers

23 Chemical products and preparations, nec

24 Plastics and rubber

25 Logs and other wood in the rough

26 Wood products

27 Pulp, newsprint, paper, and paperboard

28 Paper or paperboard articles

29 Printed products

30 Textiles, leather, and articles of textiles or leather

31 Nonmetallic mineral products

32 Base metal in primary or semifinished forms and in finished basic shapes

33 Articles of base metal

34 Machinery

35 Electronic and other electrical equipment and components and office equipment

36 Motorized and other vehicles (including parts)

361 Motorized vehicles for the transport of less than 10 people

3610 Motorized vehicles for the transport of less than 10 people

36101 Automobiles and mini-vans except parts...

36109 Other except parts...

37 Transportation equipment, nec

38 Precision instruments and apparatus

39 Furniture, mattresses and mattress supports, lamps, lighting fittings, and illuminated signs

40 Miscellaneous manufactured products

41 Waste and scrap

43 Mixed freight

99 Commodity unknown
16

additional detail. There are a total of 42 two digit codes excluding the one for all 

commodities. At the four or five digit level SCTG categories contain the products of only 

one industry and, therefore can be associated with NAICS codes. Unfortunately, these 

SCTG categories are generally unpublished in the US. SCTG codes can be approximately 

connected with NAICS codes for the purpose of this report.

2.5.4 Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other 

Environmental Impacts (TRACI) 

Manufacturing generates a wide variety of impacts on the environment and makes use of 

a wide variety of natural resources. TRACI (the Tool for the Reduction and Assessment 

of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts) was developed as a set of sustainability 

metrics for a number of purposes, including life cycle assessment. The impact factors 

used in this report (see Table 2-6) are based on the 12 TRACI impact factors. The 

original version of TRACI was released in 2002 and has been updated since then. These 

12 impact factors are used to examine environmental impacts and use of natural 

resources.5

Table 2-6: Impact Factors

Items to be measured Units

Global Warming kg CO2 eq

Acidification H+ moles eq

HH Criteria Air kg PM10 eq

Eutrophication kg N eq

Ozone Depletion Air kg CFC-11 eq

Smog Air kg O3 eq

ecotox CTUe

HH_can CTUHcan

HH_noncan CTUHnoncan

Primary Energy Consumption thousand BTU

Land Use acre

Water Consumption kg

 

5 For more information on the impact factors go to http://ws680.nist.gov/Bees/Help.aspx
17

3 Industry Operations Data

Resources are broken down into three basic elements: time, labor, and natural resources, 

including environmental impacts. The following sections discuss the data available for 

tracking the use of these resources. There are two approaches to tracking industry 

activity. The first is often referred to as the top-down approach. The top down approach 

uses national economic data that tracks activity at the industry, sector, and subsector 

levels, as defined by a standard categorization. In the bottom-up approach an analyst 

collects detailed data on inputs akin to collecting data on the factory floor. The top-down 

approach provides estimates that are far more comprehensive while the bottom-up 

approach provides more detail. Using the bottom-up approach to create a comprehensive 

examination is often technically infeasible and cost prohibitive. The following sections 

outline top-down data and bottom-up data. 

3.1 Top Down Data 

Data at the broadest level is readily available, allowing for a top down approach to 

examine industry activity. The following sections describe the data for this approach.

Section Error! Reference source not found. discusses the data for looking at the interndustry interactions, which includes the purchases from one industry for production in 

another. Section 3.1.2 discusses environmental and natural resource data for tracking the 

natural resources consumed in production. Inventory data is used for tracking time and is 

discussed in Section 3.1.3. Occupational data is used to examine production activities and 

is discussed in Section 3.1.4. The last topic is building and energy data provided by the 

Energy Information Administration and is discussed in Section 3.1.5.

3.1.1 Inter-Industry Data 

Annual input-output data is available from the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) for 

the years 1997 through 2013. These tables provide data on the inter-industry relationships 

for 71 industries. Every five years the BEA computes Benchmark input-output tables, 

which tends to have over 350 industries. 6In 2007, there were 389 industries in the 

Benchmark data. This data is provided in the form of make and use tables. Make tables 

show the production of commodities (products) by industry, as illustrated in Table 3-1. 

Use tables show the components required for producing the output of each industry, as 

illustrated in Table 3-2. The codes are altered NAICS codes that represent different levels 

of aggregation. There are two types of make and use tables: “standard” and 

“supplementary.” Standard tables closely follow NAICS and are consistent with other 

economic accounts and industry statistics, which classify data based on establishment. 

Note that an “establishment” is a single physical location where business is conducted. 

This should not be confused with an “enterprise” such as a company, corporation, or 

institution. Establishments are classified into industries based on the primary activity 

within the NAICS code definitions. Establishments often have multiple activities. For 

example, a hotel with a restaurant has income from lodging, a primary activity, and from 

food sales, a secondary activity. An establishment is classified based on its primary 

 

6 Bureau of Economic Analysis. November 2014. Input-Output Accounts Data. 

<http://www.bea.gov/industry/io_annual.htm>
18

activity. Data for an industry reflects all the products made by the establishments within 

that industry; therefore, secondary products are included.

Supplementary make-use tables reassign secondary products to the industry in which 

these products are primary products. The data in this report utilizes the original make-use 

tables. The make-use tables are used for input-output analysis as developed by Wassily 

Leontief. Within this model, economies of scale are ignored; thus, it operates under 

constant returns to scale. The model also assumes that a sector uses inputs in fixed 

proportions.

Table 3-1: Part of a Make Table from the 2007 Benchmark Input-Output Data Automobile manufacturing Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing Heavy duty truck manufacturing

Code Industry Description 336111 336112 336120 ... Total Industry Output

336111 Automobile manufacturing 77 691 4 061 45 ... 87 807

336112 Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing 2 222 156 703 333 ... 160 904

336120 Heavy duty truck manufacturing 0 1 19 412 ... 20 011

336211 Motor vehicle body manufacturing 0 555 4 282 ... 12 235

⋮ ⋮ ...

T007 Total Commodity Output 80 444 161 731 24 246 ... 26 151 297

Table 3-2: Part of a Use Table from the 2007 Benchmark Input-Output Data Automobile manufacturing Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing Heavy duty truck manufacturing

Code Commodity Description 336111 336112 336120 ...

Total Final 

Uses

Total 

Commodity 

Output

336111 Automobile manufacturing 104 0 0 ... 80 339 80 444

336112 Light truck and utility vehicle 0 0 0 ... 161 716 161 731

336120 Heavy duty truck manufacturing 0 0 50 ... 20 701 24 246

336211 Motor vehicle body manufacturing 1 092 1 263 18 ... 3 292 6 834

⋮ ⋮ ...

T005 Total Intermediate 66 129 130 438 16 342 ...

V00100 Compensation of employees 13 058 6 191 2 386 ...

V00200 Taxes less subsidies 284 129 35 ...

V00300 Gross operating surplus 8 336 24 146 1 248 ...

T006 Total Value Added 21 677 30 466 3 669 ... 14 477 634

T008 Total Industry Output 87 807 160 904 20 011 ... 26 151 297

 
19

This report uses an industry-by-commodity format as outlined in Horowitz and Planting.7

This accounts for the fact that an industry may produce more than one commodity or 

product such as secondary and by-products. This calculation, however, does not take into 

account the fact that competitive imports are included in the make-use tables; therefore,

to analyze the domestic manufacturing industry’s inter industry relationships imports 

must be removed. This is done by subtracting imports proportionally throughout the use 

matrix.

When examining a sector, such as automotive manufacturing, there are two types of 

activities: the activities within that industry and the purchases from other industries that 

go into that industry. The primary measure of output in the input-output accounts is gross 

output, which is similar to shipments from the Annual Survey of Manufactures. In 

general, gross output includes the value of both intermediate product and final product 

measured using market value (revenues received) for goods and services. With much of 

the data being from the Economic Census, the basic measure used for each industry 

varies, but is often referred to as “receipts.” It is identified as shipments for mining and 

manufacturing, revenue for utilities, sales for merchant wholesale trade and retail trade, 

receipts for most services, and commissions for commodity brokerage. For the purpose of 

this report, it will simply be called output.

3.1.2 Environmental and Natural Resource Data

For environmental data, this report applies a suite of environmentally extended inputoutput databases for Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) developed under contract to NIST by 

Dr. Sangwon Suh of the Bren School of Environmental Science and Management at the 

University of California, Santa Barbara.8 This data has been utilized in a number of 

environmental efforts, including NIST’s Building for Environmental and Economic 

Sustainability (BEES) and Building Industry Reporting and Design for Sustainability 

(BIRDS) tool. This data utilizes TRACI impacts factors; therefore, there are twelve 

measures of environmental impacts: global warming, primary energy consumption, 

human health air pollutants, human health – cancer, water consumption, ecological 

toxicity9, eutrophication10, land use, human health – non-cancer, smog formation, 

acidification, and ozone depletion. The data is organized by 2002 BEA codes for the 

Benchmark Input-Output tables, as illustrated in Table 3-3.

 

7 Horowitz, Karen J. and Mark A. Planting. September 2006. Concepts and Methods of the Input-Output 

Accounts. <http://www.bea.gov/papers/pdf/IOmanual_092906.pdf>

8 This work is based on Suh, S. Developing a sectoral environmental database for input-output analysis: the 

comprehensive environmental data archive of the US, Eco. Sys. Research., 2005, 17: 4, 449-469.

9 The potential of a chemical released into the environment to harm terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

10 The addition of mineral nutrients to the soil or water, which in large quantities can result in generally 

undesirable shifts in the number of species in ecosystems and a reduction in ecological diversity
20

3.1.3 Inventory and Transportation Data

The Annual Survey of Manufactures (ASM) is conducted every year except for years 

ending in 2 or 7 when the Economic Census is conducted.11 The ASM provides statistics 

on employment, payroll, supplemental labor costs, cost of materials consumed, operating 

expenses, value of shipments, value added, fuels and energy used, and inventories. It uses

Table 3-3: Layout for the Environmentally Extended Input-Output Table

Code Description

kg CO2 eq

H+ moles eq

kg PM10 eq

kg N eq

kg CFC-11 eq

kg O3 eq

CTUe

CTUHcan

CTUHnoncan

thousand BTU

acre

kg

336111 Automobile manufacturing

336112 Light truck and utility 

vehicle manufacturing

336120 Heavy duty truck 

manufacturing

⋮ ⋮

a sample survey of approximately 50 000 establishments with new samples selected at 5-

year intervals. The ASM data allows the examination of multiple factors (value added, 

payroll, energy use, and more) of manufacturing at a detailed subsector level. The 

Economic Census, used for years ending in 2 or 7, is a survey of all employer 

establishments in the U.S. that has been taken as an integrated program at 5-year intervals 

since 1967. Both the ASM and the Economic Census use NAICS classification, as 

illustrated in Table 3-4; however, prior to NAICS the Standard Industrial Classification 

system was used. 12 The Economic Census sent out nearly 4 million forms to businesses 

representing all US locations and industries. 

The inventory data from the Economic Census and Annual Survey of Manufactures is 

broken into materials inventory, work-in-process inventory, and finished goods 

inventory. It is important to note that a finished product for an establishment in one 

industry might be reported as a raw material by an establishment in a different industry. 

For example, the finished product inventories of a steel mill might be included in the 

material inventories of a stamping plant. The inventory data does not have a breakout for 

transport time or down time; therefore, other data must be used for these purposes.

The US Department of Transportation has integrated a variety of data sources, including 

the Commodity Flow Survey, to create a wide-ranging picture of freight movement in the 

US. This data is published as the Freight Analysis Framework (FAF), which provides 

data on the tons, value, and ton-miles of freight movement in the US by commodity, as 

 

11 US Census Bureau. Annual Survey of Manufactures. 

<http://www.census.gov/manufacturing/asm/index.html>

12 Census Bureau. “Annual Survey of Manufactures.” < http://www.census.gov/manufacturing/asm/>
21

illustrated in Table 3-5. This data can be used to better understand the role of 

transportation in the production of goods and services. The inventory data from the 

Economic Census and Annual Survey of Manufactures includes items in transport; 

therefore, for this report transportation time is left for future research. Among the data for 

transportation, is the domestic flows of vehicles and parts, as illustrated in Figure 3-1. 

This information is provided for 40 commodity types by mode of transport for each 

origin/destination combination. The triangles in the figure represent one of the top five 

Table 3-4: Annual Survey of Manufactures and Economic Census Inventory Data Layout

NAICS 

Code Description

Total inventories, beginning of 

year 

Finished goods inventories, 

beginning of year 

Work-in-process inventories, 

beginning of year 

Materials and supplies 

inventories, beginning of year 

Total inventories, end of the 

year 

Finished goods inventories, end 

of year 

Work-in-process inventories, 

end of year 

Materials and supplies 

inventories, end of year 

336111 Automobile manufacturing

336112 Light truck and utility vehicle 

336120 Heavy duty truck manufacturing

336211 Motor vehicle body 

manufacturing

⋮ ⋮

Table 3-5: Data Layout for Freight Information from the Commodity Flow Survey

Truck Rail Water Air

SCTG 

Code

Commodity 

Description

Value 

Tons

Ton-miles

Avg Miles per Shipment

Value 

Tons

Ton-miles

Avg Miles per Shipment

Value 

Tons

Ton-miles

Avg Miles per Shipment

Value 

Tons

Ton-miles

Avg Miles per Shipment

00 All Commodities

01 Live animals and 

live fish

02 Cereal grains

03 Other agricultural 

products

⋮ ⋮
22

production locations. The lines are color coordinated to show movement from those 

locations. 

In order to estimate the work-in-process downtime (i.e., the time that materials are in 

work-in-process, but the plant is closed) one can employ data from the Survey of Plant 

Capacity Utilization. This data provides quarterly statistics on the rates of capacity 

utilization for the US manufacturing industry by NAICS code. It surveys 7500 

establishments selected from the Economic Census. They are selected from the Census 

Bureau’s Business Register with updated information from the Economic Census. They

Figure 3-1: Transportation of Motorized Vehicles and Parts by Truck from the Top Five Production 

Locations to Other Automotive Manufacturing Locations

Source: Freight Analysis Framework. 2007. <http://faf.ornl.gov/fafweb/Extraction2.aspx>

Note: Triangles represent one of the five production locations. The color of the triangle matches the lines that show movement from 

that location.

are selected with probabilities proportionate to their value of shipments within each 

industry. In addition to providing capacity utilization, it also provides data on the average 

plant hours per week in operation for an industry. “Simple weighted estimates of the 

plant hours are formed by applying the plant’s sample weight to its respective values and 

adding these weighted values across the reporting plants. The average is formed as the 

ratio of the plant hours weighted sum to the sum of the weights for the reporting 

plants.”

13

3.1.4 Labor Data

The Bureau of Labor Statistics maintains an Occupational Employment Statistics (OES) 

program, which produces employment and wage estimates using the Standard 

Occupational Classification System and the North American Industry Classification 

 

13 US Census Bureau. “Survey of Plant Capacity Utilization: How the Data are Collected.” 

<http://www.census.gov/manufacturing/capacity/how_the_data_are_collected/index.html> 
23

Table 3-6: Illustration of the Layout for the Occupational Employment Data

Standard Occupational Classification System

NAICS Description

514031 514032 514033 514034 ... Cutting, Punching, and Press Machine Setters, Operators, and Tenders, Metal and Plastic Drilling and Boring Machine Tool Setters, Operators, and Tenders, Metal and Plastic Grinding/Lapping/Polishing/Buff ing Machine Tool Setters, Operators, and Tenders, Metal and Plastic Lathe and Turning Machine Tool Setters, Operators, and Tenders, Metal and Plastic

...

336000 Transportation equipment 

336100 Automobile/light duty vehicles

336200 Body and trailers 

336300 Vehicle parts

⋮ ⋮

System.14 It includes over 800 occupations and over 450 industries; however, archived 

data covers fewer industries. The data is gathered through surveys and covers full-time 

and part-time wage and salary workers in nonfarm industries. The self-employed, owners 

and partners in unincorporated firms, household workers, or unpaid family workers are 

not covered in the survey. The data is available for the nation as a whole as well as by 

state, metropolitan area, and nonmetropolitan area. The OES surveys approximately 

200 000 establishments every six months on a three-year survey cycle that results in 1.2 

million establishments being surveyed. It is provided by NAICS codes and by the 

Standard Occupational Classification System, as illustrated in Table 3-6. 

3.1.5 Building Data and Process Data

The Energy Information Administration collects energy information and building 

characteristics for commercial, industrial, and residential activities. Manufacturing data is 

collected in the Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey that collects information on 

manufacturing establishments, their energy-related building characteristics, energy 

consumption, and energy expenditures.15 It is conducted on a quadrennial basis and 

samples approximately 15 500 establishments drawn from a nationally representative 

sample frame that includes 97-98 % of the manufacturing payroll. Data is categorized by 

the NAICS codes, as illustrated in Error! Reference source not found.. Not shown in 

he table is data by NAICS on the square feet of building space associated with that 

industry. 

 

14 Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Employment Statistics. <http://www.bls.gov/oes/>

15 Energy Information Administration. Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey. 

<http://www.eia.gov/consumption/manufacturing/>
24

In addition to the resources consumed in production, resources are also consumed when 

the consumer uses a manufactured product. The Energy Information Administration’s 

Residential Energy Consumption Survey provides data on the end use of consumer 

energy, as does the Commercial Energy Consumption Survey. The residential survey 

breaks energy use into appliances, televisions, computers & electronics, heating, cooling, 

and water heating. This information could be used to break out the energy consumed by 

the final products; however, this is left for future research.

3.2 Bottom up Data 

A search for bottom-up data revealed that this type of data is scarce, difficult to acquire, 

and often proprietary. Much of the proprietary data belongs, of course, to the 

manufacturers who have economic and strategic reasons for not wishing to disclose the 

information. Some of the other proprietary data is in the hands of trade groups or

membership organizations that manufacturers belong to and which generally do not 

disclose their data publicly. Some independent organizations like the Center for 

Automotive Research, CAR, have pre-existing relationships with the major automotive 

manufacturers that makes data collection relatively easier. But for the average nonconnected person or organization this data collection is very difficult. Indeed, the authors 

were unable to acquire this type of data. This makes it difficult to match generally 

available bottom-up data with top-down data. It reveals that bottom-up data will need to 

be collected and developed on an ad hoc basis. In addition to having limited availability, 

the bottom-up data that is available for manufacturing does not, typically, match up well 

with the top-down data. Environmental data, however, is somewhat of an exception. It is 

available from a number of sources but it is not directly connected to top-down 

categories, making it difficult to bring them together. One prominent example is the 

German company, Thinkstep (formerly PE International), which offers a range of 

services and products connected with environmental sustainability through its GaBi LCA 

(Life-Cycle Assessment) for the automotive industry. However, this data deals with 

greenhouse emissions and environmental flows resulting from the automotive 

manufacturing process and deals with economic questions only tangentially. 
25

Table 3-7: Illustration of the Layout for Energy use Data from the Energy Information 

Administration

NAICS 

Code Description

TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTIONIndirect Uses-Boiler Fuel

Conventional Boiler UseCHP and/or Cogeneration Process

Direct Uses-Total Process

Process HeatingProcess Cooling and RefrigerationMachine DriveElectro-Chemical ProcessesOther Process Use

Direct Uses-Total Nonprocess

Facility HVAC Facility LightingOther Facility SupportOnsite TransportationConventional Electricity GenerationOther Nonprocess Use

End Use Not Reported

336111 Automobile 

manufacturing

336112 Light truck/utility 

vehicle 

⋮ ⋮
26
27

4 Top Down Model of Industry Operations Activity

Although the majority of the datasets discussed in Section 3.1 follow the NAICS codes, 

they have varying degrees of aggregation. As discussed previously, there are differing 

levels of detail with the two digit NAICS being the least detailed and the six digit NAICS 

being the most detailed. The datasets that follow the NAICS codes have varying levels of 

detail both within and between datasets. The BEA Input-Output data has, for example, 

some data categorized by as few as three digit NAICS and other data categorized as much 

as six digit NAICS. Similar issues occur in the other datasets. Additionally, the BEA does 

not strictly follow the NAICS codes for construction. For this report, data has been 

mapped to the detail level found in the 2007 Benchmark Input-Output data, as illustrated 

in Figure 4-1. The BEA energy data is broken out by type of use from the Energy 

Information Administration. The environmental data and labor data are mapped to this 

augmented BEA NAICS categories. Inventory data is mapped to the BEA NAICS 

categories, but this data only applies to manufacturing industries. Plant hours are used to 

augment inventory data and transportation data could be used to augment inventory data; 

however, it has been left for future research and is shown in red. When the level of 

NAICS detail does not match the BEA data, it is either aggregated up to the BEA data or 

it is estimated. The transportation data does not use NAICS, but has similar categories. 

The following sections describe the calculations and aggregation methods used.

Figure 4-1: Mapping to the BEA IO NAICS Categories

2007 BEA IO NAICS 

Categories

Inventory Data: ASM 

NAICS Categories

Plant Hours: Quarterly 

Survey of Plant Capacity 

Utilization - NAICS 

Categories

Transportation Data: 

SCTG Categories

Energy Use: EIA NAICS 

Categories

Environmental Data: 

2002 BEA IO NAICS 

Categories

Labor Data: OES NAICS 

Categories
28

4.1 Input Output Analysis 

Tracking the items required for the production of a product requires not only 

understanding the resources used in the assembly of the final product, but also the 

extraction of the natural resources, refining of natural resources, assembly of parts, and 

other supply chain resources. Tracking this information requires data on the inter-industry 

interactions. The BEA input-output data provides this information in the form of make 

tables and use tables. These tables can be used to calculate a matrix that shows the interindustry interactions. This report calculates a domestic industry-by-commodity matrix 

that shows the domestic industry activity required to produce a selected commodity.16 In 

effect, the results show the dollars of national output from each industry required to 

produce each commodity for the entire US economy. 

The BEA input-output data provides estimates of energy use; however, it doesn’t provide 

the detail in how the energy is used, which is an important issue in tracking industry 

operations. In order to better understand energy use, the Manufacturing Energy 

Consumption Survey (MECS) was used to breakout the BEA data to show not only how 

much energy is used, but what it is used for. The energy use categories provided include: 

indirect uses-boiler fuel, process heating, process cooling and refrigeration, machine 

drive, electro-chemical processes, other process use, facility HVAC, facility lighting, 

facility support, onsite transportation, other non-process use, and end use not reported. 

Electric power generation, transmission, and distribution from the BEA data is broken 

into these categories by portioning out electric power by proportions calculated from the 

Energy Information Administration. It is important to note that companies sometimes

generate their own electricity. Although the data available allows for this to be broken 

out, this report leaves that for future analyses.

4.2 Labor 

The Bureau of Labor Statistics employment data from the Occupational Employment 

Statistics can be matched with the BEA IO NAICS categories, as it is categorized by 

NAICS by occupation. When the BEA data had a NAICS code at a lower level of detail 

than the occupation data, the occupation data was aggregated up to the BEA level of 

detail. If the occupation data was at a lower level of detail then the BEA levels were 

estimated by assuming the proportion of the cost of compensation in the BEA was the 

same as that for employment. This provides an estimate of occupational employment by 

industry by the NAICS level of detail. To estimate the hours of labor, these estimates are 

multiplied by the average hours per week for each occupation and, then, multiplied by the 

total weeks per year. 

When examining a specific product commodity such as automotive manufacturing, the 

input-output calculations were used to estimate the output from each industry required to 

produce the given product. The proportion of the total output needed from each industry 

was multiplied by the occupational employment for each industry to estimate the amount 

 

16 This report uses an industry-by-commodity domestic total requirements table produced using methods 

outlined in Bureau of Economic Analysis. Concepts and Methods of the US Input-Output Accounts. 

September 2006. <http://www.bea.gov/papers/pdf/IOmanual_092906.pdf>
29

of labor. The result is a matrix of the amount of labor needed, categorized by NAICS by 

occupation, to produce the relevant commodity.

4.3 Time 

Metrics in operations management often measure the time that it takes to produce a 

product. Having too many materials and goods on hand is often considered an indication 

of a problem, as inventory deteriorates over time, consumes resources to maintain it, and 

ties up capital. It is important to note that time and labor hours are not equivalent. 

Multiple people working simultaneously for an hour results in multiple labor hours per 

hour; however, the time that passes is only one hour. Additionally, processes that are 

completely automated do not require labor; therefore, an hour of a production process 

may pass with minimal or no labor. Two measures are necessary to track the industry 

time it takes to produce a product: inventory turns and an industry reiteration rate.

4.3.1 Inventory Turns 

Inventory turnover is the number of times inventory is sold or used in a time period such 

as a year. It is calculated as the cost of goods sold divided by the average inventory. The 

Annual Survey of Manufacturing has data to calculate the cost of goods sold. It is the 

sum of payroll; benefits; materials; depreciation; capital expenditures; rental payments; 

other expenses; and beginning of year inventories less end of year inventories. 

Inventories are calculated as the average of the beginning of year inventories and end of 

year inventories. The Annual Survey of Manufactures provides data on total inventories, 

material and supplies inventories, work-in-process inventories, and finished goods 

inventories by NAICS code. The days that a dollar spends in each of these inventories 

can be calculated by taking the total number of days in a year and dividing it by the 

number of inventory turns. One item that this calculation excludes is the down time for 

work-in-process; that is, the time that a good is in work-in-process but the factory is 

actually closed. To make this calculation we use data from the Quarterly Survey of Plant 

Capacity Utilization, which provides the average plant hours by NAICS code. This data 

can be used to estimate the proportion of work-in-process time that is actually down time.

4.3.2 Industry Reiteration Rate

Using the Annual Survey of Manufactures data to make the inventory calculations 

provides the average days a dollar spends in inventory for an establishment in a particular 

NAICS code; however, a material that is moving through an industry may be processed 

in more than one establishment in an industry, as illustrated in Figure 4-2. For example, a 

chemical plant could produce chemical A while another plant produces chemical B. A 

third plant might be combining chemical A and B to produce another chemical. Both

chemical A and B were processed at two plants that were both within the chemical 

manufacturing industry. That would mean that these items were in inventory 

approximately twice as long as would be calculated using the inventory data from the 

Annual Survey of Manufactures. This paper proposes a method to estimate the number of 

times a material is processed in one industry, which will be referred to as the industry 

reiteration rate. Two datasets are used to make this estimation: the BEA Benchmark 

Input-Output Use data from 2007 and the Annual Survey of Manufactures. The 

Benchmark Use table provides inter-industry purchases, including the purchases an 
30

industry makes from itself. The Annual Survey of Manufactures provides the cost of 

materials, parts, containers, and packaging used as well as the cost of resales, which is 

items purchased and resold without being altered. The inter-industry purchases is divided 

by the sum of the cost of materials, parts, containers, and packaging used and the cost of 

resales. This provides a proportion of material purchases from the same industry:

P =

Puchases an Industry Makes from Itself

Materials, Parts, Containers, and Packaging + Resales

Where P = Proportion of materials, parts, containers, packaging, and resales that are 

purchased from an entity in the same industry.

This is an average proportion of materials purchased from an entity within the same 

industry; thus, if P equals 0.3 for industry X, then, on average, an establishment in 

industry X purchases 30 % of its materials from another establishment in that industry. If 

it is assumed that each establishment in an industry maintains this proportion of 

purchases, then we can estimate how many establishments a material goes through before 

it is diminished below a certain level. In the example of P equaling 0.3 or 30 %, after 

two establishments 9 % of the material has gone through two establishments (30 % 

multiplied by 30 %). After three establishments, 2.7 % of the material has been through 

three establishments (30 % multiplied by 30 % multiplied by 30 % or 0.03 to the power 

of 3). With the assumption that each establishment in an industry maintains this 

proportion of purchases, then, one can calculate the number of establishments a dollar 

goes through before it is diminished below a certain threshold. Without a threshold, the 

material would be calculated as going through the industry indefinitely. In our example, 

no matter what power we raise 0.03 to, it will never reach 0. One can calculate the 

number of establishments a dollar goes through before it is diminished below a certain 

threshold using a logarithmic function with base P, which is the industry reiteration rate:

Industry Reiteration Rate = logpT

Where

T = The selected threshold, which is between 0 and 1

P = Proportion of materials, parts, containers, packaging, and resales that are purchased 

from an entity in the same industry.

For example, let’s say that industry x has a proportion P of 0.50 and one selects a 

threshold of 0.125. The industry reiteration rate would be:

log0.50.125 = 3

This suggests that, given this threshold, a material is likely to go through around three 

establishments in industry x, on average. For those industries that are below the 

threshold, the reiteration rate is simply 1. The threshold represents the level at which it is 

believed materials would only go through one establishment in that industry; therefore, 

for values of P that are less than T the industry reiteration rate is 1. A threshold can be 
31

Figure 4-2: Illustration of Tracking a Material through an Industry

selected by examining P values from industries where a product only goes through one 

establishment in that industry. The threshold would then either be equal to one of those P

values or based on them (e.g., average or maximum value). For this report a threshold of 

0.03 was selected. Industries that would be expected to go through only 1 establishment 

tended to have a P value of 0.03 or less. For example, printing is likely to go through 

only one establishment and had a P value of 0.028. Another example with a value of 

0.002 is automobile manufacturing (i.e., assembly), which is an industry that is separate 

from auto parts production and, therefore, would likely only go through one 

establishment. As the threshold is lowered the reiteration rate increases; therefore, a 

higher threshold moves toward assuming that a material moves through fewer 

establishments while a lower threshold moves toward assuming it moves through more 

establishments.

The reiteration rate provides a rate that can be compared between industries and 

represents the number of establishments a material would go through in a particular 

industry. It must be noted, that this is not a perfect measure. In order to know the average 

number of establishments a material travels through, it would be necessary to map the 

interactions of the hundreds, thousands, and even tens of thousands of establishments in 

each industry. Such an effort would be technically infeasible; therefore, we must rely on 

imperfect metrics. 

4.4 Natural Resources and Environmental Impacts 

The current data available to track environmental impacts is categorized by NAICS codes 

at the detail level specified in the 2002 BEA Benchmark Input-Output data. The process 

of Contribution Analysis is used to identify and quantify the sustainability impacts of 

manufacturing activities. This process evaluates the contribution that each industry makes 

to life-cycle environmental impacts, which are derived from 6 204 environmental inputs 

and outputs throughout the production supply chain. The environmental data represents 

the per dollar environmental impact; however, it is in terms of 2002 dollars. Therefore, 

Industry NAICS Code

Establishment

•Material and 

supplies inventories

•Work-in-process

•Finished goods 

inventories

Establishment

•Material and 

supplies inventories

•Work-in-process

•Finished goods 

inventories

Establishment

•Material and 

supplies inventories

•Work-in-process

•Finished goods 

inventories
32

the environmental data is adjusted to the 2007 BEA data using the Consumer Price Index 

from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. These values are then multiplied by the per industry 

dollars of output needed for automotive manufacturing for each industry.

4.5 Aggregated Input-Output Model

The final analysis uses input-output analysis combined with the previously discussed 

industry data to estimate industry operations activity. Using input-output analysis, the 

proportion of each industry that is purchased by the industry being studied (the 

automotive manufacturing industry in this example), is used to estimate the labor and 

other resources that are dedicated to that industry production. The aggregated dataset 

layout is shown in Table 4-1. This is a 1238 by 397 matrix resulting in over 490 000 

information points on the US economy with over 290 000 being related to manufacturing.
33

Table 4-1: Illustration of Final Data Layout (columns are NAICS codes)

BEA 2007 

Benchmark IO 

NAICS CODES

Energy Data

Data 

type 

Description/Units

336111 Automobiles

336112 Light trucks

336120 Heavy duty trucks 

...

Indirect Uses-Boiler Fuel

Process Heating

Process Cooling/Refridg.

Machine Drive

Electro-Chem. Processes

Other Process Use

Facility HVAC (g)

Facility Lighting

Other Facility Support

Onsite Transportation

Other Nonprocess Use

End Use Not Reported

Environmental Data

Global Warming

Acidification

HH Criteria Air

Eutrophication

Ozone Depletion Air 

Smog Air

ecotox 

HH_can

HH_noncan 

Primary Energy Consumption 

Land Use

Water Consumption 

Transport and 

Inventory Data

Days in transport

Days in material inventory

Days in work-in-process

Days in final goods inventory

Industry reiteration rate

Energy Data

Indirect Uses-Boiler Fuel

Process Heating

Process Cooling and 

Refrigeration

Machine Drive

Electro-Chemical Processes

Other Process Use

Facility HVAC (g)

Facility Lighting

Other Facility Support

Onsite Transportation

Other Nonprocess Use

End Use Not Reported

Occupation

514031 Cutting and Punching...

514032 Drilling and Boring...

514033 Grinding/Lapping ...

514034 Lathe and Turning...

⋮

BEA 2007 

Benchmark IO 

NAICS CODES

336111 Automobiles

336112 Light trucks

336120 Heavy duty trucks 

⋮
34
35

5 Case Study in Automotive Manufacturing

This report identifies data and develops a model for tracking industry operations activity. 

This section applies that model to the automotive manufacturing industry. The first 

section provides an overview of the industry. This overview provides a qualitative 

summary of automotive manufacturing. These details provide context for the top down 

model and also provide context that would be necessary for identifying areas of high 

resource consumption.

5.1 Overview of Automotive Manufacturing

The automotive industry dates back to the late nineteenth century. More than a century 

has elapsed since the days when Henry Ford somewhat facetiously said in 1909 that his 

customers could have any color car “so long as it is black.” What characterizes the 

automotive industry today is variety and a constant state of churn. The changing nature 

of global consumer preferences is responsible for the sheer breadth of vehicles available, 

as a Boston Consulting Group publication reports that 30% of all global sales come from 

the BRIC nations – Brazil, Russia, India, and China.17The automotive industry has been 

characterized by a level of competition in recent years that harkens back to the early days 

of the industry in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. A domestic market 

once dominated by the Big Three – General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler -- yielded to a 

world where fourteen auto manufacturers have a physical presence in the United States. 

The production process for automobiles relies on a number of complex inputs. While 

each step of the production process is discrete and unique, the steps in the production 

process also have similar characteristics and work more as an interlocking system with 

changeable parts than as a series of fully autonomous systems. By isolating each stage of 

the automotive production process and considering it in the context of the larger whole, 

certain patterns begin to emerge. Direct examination of these interlocking parts yields a 

number of interesting insights which can be drawn out in the context of field studies and 

which also impact the economics of the manufacturing model. 

This report focuses on internal combustion engine vehicles; however, it is important to 

note that electric automobiles have captured the interest of the public and media in a 

substantial manner. Many do not realize that electric cars were actually the dominant 

norm in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century until the successful 

development of a cost-saving internal combustion engine made electric vehicles of the 

time seem slow and obsolete. Nevertheless, they are back in the news in a major way. 

However, this should not obscure the fact that in 2014, electric cars were less than half of 

one percent of new global vehicle sales.18 

 

17 Lang, Nikolaus, Stefan Mauerer, Marcos Aguiar, Ewald Kreid, Arindam Bhattacharya, and Christoph 

Nettesheim. January 2010. Winning the BRIC Auto Markets: Achieving Deep Localization in Brazil, 

Russia, India, and China. 

<https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/automotive_globalization_winning_the_bric_auto_mar

kets/>

18 Young, Angelo. “Global Electric Car Market: About 43% of All Electric Passenger Cars Were Bought in 

2014, Say German Clean Energy Researchers.” July 15, 2015. International Business Times. 
36

Electric vehicles have some fundamental differences with the standard combustion 

engine production models. Electric vehicle manufacturers like Tesla face a different 

calculus in terms of cost and labor than the standard vehicle manufacturers do. They also 

face challenges in building up an infrastructure of charging stations that their traditional 

competitors do not face. For that reason, the focus of this section will be on the standard 

internal combustion-powered motor vehicles and not electric vehicles. However, it 

should be noted that most of the advancements in automation have been adopted and 

sometimes modified for the production of electric vehicles. 

The following sections discuss the use of computer simulations in auto manufacturing 

(Section 5.1.1), the processes used in auto manufacturing (Section 5.1.2), and trends in 

auto manufacturing (Section 0).

5.1.1 Computer Simulation in the Manufacturing Industry 

The use of computer-based simulation in the auto manufacturing industry goes back to 

the 1970s.19 Since then, the automotive industry has advanced to a stage where it can 

have “multiple computers running multiple manufacturing simulations in an integrated 

fashion, combining layout optimization with layout simulation, off-line programming of 

welding robots.”20 The running of these simulations necessitated the creation of 

databases (where they did not already exist) to provide the necessary information, which 

was a positive spillover effect that had a long-term beneficial impact on the availability of 

reliable information about the auto manufacturing process.

Onur Ulgen and Ali Gunal identified the key categories in the manufacturing industry 

where simulation is used. There are four basic categories – equipment and layout, 

variation management, product mix sequencing, and detailed operational issues. It is 

useful to look at each of the categories to understand just how comprehensive the use of 

simulation is in the automotive industry, a trend replicated in other manufacturing 

industries. 

“Equipment and layout” refers to simulation designed to sequence issues dealing with 

manufacturing machines, conveyor length issues, and identification of buffer storage 

issues. “Variation management” deals with scrap analysis and paint scheduling. 

“Product mix sequencing” concerns shift scheduling and work on the trim and body lines. 

“Detailed operational issues” refers to traffic priority management and assembly 

sequencing. 

A more comprehensive treatment of these categories can be found in the chapter by 

Ulgen and Gunal. But what this overview of the simulation process shows is that the 

manufacturers are not relying on only one process of simulation to cover the range of 

 

19 Society for Computer Simulation. GENTLE: Generalized Transfer Line Emulation. Proceedings of the 

Conference on Simulation in Inventory and Production Control. San Diego, CA: 25-30.

20 Ulgen, O. and Gunal, A. (1998) Simulation in the Automobile Industry, in Handbook of Simulation: 

Principles, Methodology, Advances, Applications, and Practice. ed J. Banks. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 

Hoboken, NJ, USA: 1998): 547
37

activities that takes place in a manufacturing plant. There is no “one size fits all” 

mentality in the auto manufacturing industry

Rather, over a period of years, the manufacturers have done what all producers usually 

end up doing, as Adam Smith noted in The Wealth of Nations – specializing. They have 

developed the ability to create simulation processes for each activity in a manufacturing 

process. These tailored simulation processes emerged through a combination of research, 

trial-and-error, and a value in process improvement. 

For example, a simulation design for product mix sequencing deals with issues of full 

operation and launch, but not conceptual design. Equipment and layout deals with 

conceptual design and launch issues but not full operation issues. The specialization of 

each simulation program necessitates specialization of the skill sets and thus places a 

premium on workers with specialized knowledge. Thus it is important to realize that 

automation in the auto manufacturing industry has taken place not only on the processes 

of the assembly line, but also on the computer programs that guide those manufacturing 

processes.

5.1.2 Auto Manufacturing Process

As noted earlier, competition from foreign companies as well as the changing tastes of 

American consumers has dramatically increased the range of automobiles available 

today. Yet at the same time, automobile manufacturing has retained certain key features 

over the years. Before discussing the changes that have occurred in automotive 

manufacturing, it is beneficial to step back and take a bird’s eye view of the entire 

manufacturing process. Looking at the auto manufacturing process in detail reveals a 

number of lessons that can be applied to the manufacturing industry at large – namely, 

the waxing and waning of certain raw materials and the parallel processing of different 

components in separate manufacturing processes. 

The auto manufacturing process is usually depicted as having either four or five steps, 

depending on where in the manufacturing chain one wishes to start. Here, the 

manufacturing process will be depicted as having five steps, using a comprehensive 

framework laid out by experts Graeme P. Maxton and John Wormald.21 The following 

discussion is indebted to their conceptual framework. 

First, the raw materials that go into the making of the car, like steel and aluminum, come 

in from suppliers. Most of the major auto manufacturers have longstanding relations with 

certain key suppliers and usually procure their materials from a specialized dealer who 

often deals only exclusively with that manufacturer. As the economy has been 

globalized, manufacturers have shown a willingness to break out of their longstanding 

supply arrangements in pursuit of the lowest cost. 

 

21 Maxton, Graeme P, John Wormald. Time for a Model Change: Re-engineering the Global Automotive 

Industry. (Cambridge University Press, New York, NY: 2004): 143.

OICA. 2014 Production Statistics. <http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/>
38

The press shop is the first basic step of the internal manufacturing process. Here the steel 

and aluminum are converted into panels. The automation that has taken place over the 

past few decades in the car industry becomes apparent even in this initial stage of the 

manufacturing process where some of the work that was once performed by human 

laborers is now carried out by machines. Depending on how well the automated 

components of the press shop can communicate with each other, the time required for the 

stamping of panels can vary. 

The panels are then transferred to the body shop where they are put together so that the 

“bodyshell” of the car becomes visible. Generally, all of the non-moveable parts of the 

car are fixed at this point in time. Parts like the hood and car doors will be installed at a 

later stage of the process. The trim (seats and glass and the car’s electronics) are also 

installed at a later step. All the welding of the main components has been carried out by 

the end of this step. The work product is dipped in an anti-rust formula. The bodyshell 

that comes out of this process is often referred to as the “body in white.” This is a 

somewhat antiquated term that is still widely used in the car industry. It refers to the days 

when the shell was given a white coat of primer as it exited this step of the manufacturing 

process. 

The body in white proceeds to the paint shop where it is cleaned up, given a coat of 

primer and then painted in the desired color. It then goes to what is usually the final 

location, the assembly plant, where a number of processes happen in a precise sequential 

order. The trim process takes place first in the assembly plant and is more cosmetic in 

nature, although important functional parts of the automobile are also installed here like 

the dashboard and seats. After the trim line, the car proceeds to the final assembly.

But a discerning observer would notice that there has been no discussion yet of some of 

the crucial components of the car – namely, the engine and the transmission. The engine 

and transmission are among two of the most important parts of what is usually referred to 

as the “powertrain,” which links the engine of an automobile to its axel and thus makes 

movement possible. The manufacturing of the engine and transmission are important, not 

only because the automobile cannot function without them but also because they 

highlight what may be the crucial characteristic of the auto manufacturing process. 

That characteristic is the existence of parallel processes. Like other kinds of 

manufacturers, automotive companies are subject to constraints of time and money. The 

component parts of a car are diverse in the extreme and it does not make much sense, for

example, for the car seat maker to also be the entity that also builds the engine. What 

was true in Adam Smith’s day is true today and specialization is the norm in the auto 

industry, not the outlier. 

Outside of the body in white, none of the most common parts of the car have been created 

in the account above. What actually happens is that while the body in white is being 

constructed, primed, and painted, there is a parallel track where everything from the fuel 

pump to the rear view mirrors is being put together. The major manufacturers have 

sophisticated supply chains that economists like Dr. Sue Helper and Dr. Mari Sako have 
39

argued are based on principles articulated by the late Dr. Alfred Chandler.22 Helper and 

Sako have written about how vertically integrated supply chains need to be managed to 

prevent “information overload.”23 In theory, the sequencing of the manufacturing 

process should guarantee that half-built automobiles do not languish while they wait on 

the assembly line for their component parts. If planned correctly, the component parts 

will arrive from the parallel track at the moment they are needed. This, and the 

development of welding robots, also explains a nearly omnipresent fact about the modern 

auto manufacturing plant – different types of vehicles can be sent down the very same 

assembly line, which is a truly remarkable innovation.

The foundry and the forge are where the engine and transmission emerge from. In the 

foundry, the engine block is made and then conveyed to a specialized engine plant where 

it is machined and tested before being sent to the assembly plant. In the forge, the 

transmission is created to be durable and then sent to a transmission plant where it is also 

machined and tested before being sent to the assembly plant. In the traditional sequence 

in which these events play out, the engine needs to be ready before the transmission. 

Typically, the engine is installed during the trim phase in the assembly plant and the 

transmission is installed afterwards during the final assembly phase. After the body in 

white has been supplemented with all of the necessary parts, it is given one final test for 

defects or performance related issues before being sent out to the distribution network.

5.1.3 The Advent of Smart Manufacturing Technologies in the 

Automotive Industry

One of the major drivers for these efficiency gains has been the development of what are 

known as “smart manufacturing” techniques. Smart manufacturing can refer to a variety 

of practices. In this context, it will refer to the adoption of simulation modeling 

techniques when modifying the existing manufacturing process at an automotive plant. 

In a comprehensive piece on the topic, Onur Ulgen and Ali Gunal note that every major 

auto manufacturer relies on simulation before changing the manufacturing process.24 

Simulations are run for changes above a certain threshold cost. Changes in the auto 

manufacturing process are meticulously laid out in computer programs where they are 

analyzed for every change they make over the existing process. 

The single biggest change to the manufacturing process over the past few decades has 

been the advent of robotics and automation, with much of the fundamental change 

beginning in the 1980s. While the sequencing of automotive manufacturing has 

remained essentially the same, with cars moving from the body shop to the assembly 

floor, simulation plays a bigger role than ever before in the automotive manufacturing 

process with all major manufacturers requiring it before undertaking capital expenditures 

 

22 Helper, Susan and Mari Sako. 2010 "Management Innovation in Supply Chain: Appreciating Chandler in 

the Twenty-First Century." Industrial and Corporate Change. Vol 19(issue 2): 399-429.

23 Ibid

24 Ulgen, O. and Gunal, A. (1998) Simulation in the Automobile Industry, in Handbook of Simulation: 

Principles, Methodology, Advances, Applications, and Practice. ed J. Banks. (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 

Hoboken, NJ, USA: 1998): 547
40

or changes to the assembly line process.25 The automation of the motor vehicle industry 

is what people refer to, in part, when they discuss “lean manufacturing.” 

Automation is the single most important transformation that has happened to the steel 

industry in recent years. As the twentieth century drew to a close, more and more tasks 

were automated by the development and growth in sophistication of cobots, or 

collaborative robots, have drastically changed the level and participation of human inputs 

in the manufacturing process. 

The automation of much of the manufacturing process and cobots have also had longstanding impacts on auto manufacturing. Cobots have become prominent in the last 

decade and a half. Despite all of this change, however, certain key elements of the 

manufacturing process have remained unchanged. Automobiles are still produced in the 

same basic order that they have been produced for decades. What has changed is the time 

required for manufacturing various automotive parts and components has been 

dramatically reduced through efficiency gains.

This has inevitably meant job losses at some stages of the auto manufacturing process, 

like welding and painting.26 Professor Erik Brynjolfsson of MIT has argued that we are 

at a moment in time when job losses due to automation are outpacing the creation of new 

occupations and that gains in productivity do not necessarily translate into better 

employment prospects.27 This view, widely held, has led to complaints and attempts to 

reverse the trend towards automation in the manufacturing process. But like King Canute 

and the waves, the forces leading to greater automation are very difficult to resist.

Nevertheless, automotive industry experts like Graeme P. Maxton and John Wormald 

have pointed out that it is impossible to completely do away with human beings in the 

automotive manufacturing process.

28

 The manufacturing method is extremely 

complicated, with inputs coming in at all stages of production. Even with advances in 

artificial intelligence, the fabrication of a car requires human beings at certain stages of 

the process to ensure the smooth functioning of the assembly line. 

Maxton and Wormald argue that automation and lean manufacturing have actually 

increased the quality of work that human assembly workers are called upon to perform.29 

Before the full advent of automation, they point to the example of a well-known foreign 

car manufacturer who advertised the fact that they hired more quality control personnel 

 

25 Ibid

26 Rotman, David. June 12, 2013. “How Technology is Destroying Jobs.” 

<http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/515926/how-technology-is-destroying-jobs/>

27 Charting technology’s new directions: A conversation with MIT’s Erik Brynjolfsson at 

McKinsey&Company Insights & Publications at 

<http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_tech_telecoms_internet/charting_technologys_new_directions_a

_conversation_with_mits_erik_brynjolfsson>

28 Maxton, Graeme P, John Wormald. Time for a Model Change: Re-engineering the Global Automotive 

Industry. (Cambridge University Press, New York, NY: 2004): 143.

OICA. 2014 Production Statistics. <http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/>

29 Ibid
41

than floor workers. Although the manufacturer was trying to make a statement about 

how much care it took to ensure that its cars were defect-free, what it was actually 

implying was that numerous mistakes and errors had already resulted on the assembly 

line and that quality care professionals were required to correct the problems that had not 

already been fixed in the manufacturing process.

That is a situation that would not occur in the modern automated car assembly process, at 

least in theory. “Lean manufacturing” emphasizes the principle that every known defect 

should be corrected at the stage it occurs at and not be caught at a later stage of the 

production process.30 Although some of this error checking can be done by an automated 

process, there is an active need for engaged human participation at every stage. These 

human workers need to be trained to spot a range of errors, which requires a great deal of 

knowledge about the totality of the manufacturing process.31 In this respect, automation 

makes greater demands on the knowledge base of human workers than the older 

manufacturing processes did a few decades ago. It also ensures that workers are given 

jobs that require greater mental dexterity. 

It is thus fair to refer to the auto manufacturing process as a knowledge-intensive industry 

where improvements in critical thinking about the sequential stages of the process can 

easily translate into efficiency gains, as demonstrated by Helper and Mako. During past 

economic downturns, there has been a temptation in the auto industry to cut back on 

research into the manufacturing process to save money. This is particularly misguided in 

the modern context, which delivers better results and more meaningful work to 

employees through the deployment of smart management techniques. A number of 

mathematical practices and quantitative techniques have gone into building the 

automation revolution that swept the automobile industry some thirty-five years ago.

One of them was Analytic Hierarchical Process, or AHP, an organized methodology for 

sorting through criteria and sub-criteria to rank order preferences. For example, AHP 

could be used to look at the various characteristics of a car and then rank order them 

based on the preferences of the manufacturer. For example, a manufacturer might prefer 

reliability to durability or maneuverability, based on a preference order of its criteria and 

sub-criteria using geometric means. AHP has been deployed to study technological 

diversification in the auto industry.32 Its insights have also been brought to bear on 

automotive spare parts, an important topic often neglected in studies of auto 

manufacturing.33

Another technique that has had a larger impact on the automotive manufacturing process 

is the use of Taguchi Methods. Taguchi Methods are statistical methods developed by 

the Japanese engineer Dr. Genichi Taguchi with the specific aim of improving the quality 

 

30 Ibid

31 Ibid

32 Wu, Hsin-Hung and Ya-Ning Tsai. January 2012. "Using AHP to evaluate the criteria of auto spare parts 

industry." Quality &Quantity. Vol 46(issue 1): 359-364.

33 Ibid 
42

of manufactured products. According to an article by Lawrence P. Sullivan, Taguchi 

Methods first came to the U.S. automotive industry in March 1982.34

Sullivan emphasizes the point that Taguchi Methods and its related concept, Quality 

Function Deployment (QFD), are part of a larger mindset called Total Quality Control or 

TQC.35 Through the use of loss functions and a belief that externalities should not be 

ignored by manufacturers, Taguchi methods focus on the manufacturing process and tries 

to reduce the variation in quality. The Taguchi Loss Function shows that the loss in 

value of a manufactured good comes not from a singular mistake that deviates from a 

planned prototype but from an increase in the variation of the product, with emphasis 

being on the customer’s perspective.

Although Sullivan notes that Taguchi Methods were originally controversial to U.S. 

statisticians, Ford adopted the methodology early on and had success with it, which led 

the other auto manufacturers to also adopt it.36 

5.1.4 The Role of Raw Materials and Changing Technologies

When discussing the manufacturing process, it does not make sense to just focus on the 

mechanics of the assembly line. Manufactured goods are combinations of their 

constituent parts and that is even truer for automobiles. The raw materials that go into 

the assembly line press shop are thus of vital importance to the manufacturing process. A 

spike in the price of one of those raw materials or a disruption in its supply chain has 

massive implications for the automotive manufacturing process. 

By weight, the most commonly used component in the modern automobile is steel. 

Between 60 and 65 percent of an automobile’s weight can be attributed to steel.37 

Although aluminum has become increasingly popular in recent years, steel is still favored 

for two primary reasons – its relatively cheap cost and its malleability, which allows it to 

be shaped in a variety of fashions with relative ease. Thus the automobile industry which 

is (correctly) portrayed as being responsive to oil prices, is also impacted by fluctuations 

in the price of steel. However while steel is being used in the automotive industry as it 

always was, the steel is of a fundamentally different caliber than it once was. Nowadays, 

the steel is much stronger, as manufacturers try to move away from their heavy reliance 

on low-carbon steel, which has between .05 and .25% carbon content.

38

 

Safety requirements and changing technology also mean that the body in white is now 

made up of different kinds of steel, based on their malleability. Computer simulations of 

crashes help to determine the quality and type of steel being used. The steel used in an 

automobile can be broken down into two general categories – high/medium strength steel 

 

34 Sullivan, L.P. 1987 "The Power of Taguchi Methods to Impact Change in US Companies." 22. 

<http://www.ame.org/sites/default/files/documents/87Q2A4.pdf>

35 Ibid 19

36 Ibid 18

37 Thomas G.P. "The Future of Steel in the Automotive Industry - An interview with Cees ten Broek." 

<http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=10538> 

38 Blain, Patrick. Steel Perspectives for the Automotive Industry. Presentation on May 31st, 2012. 

<http://www.oecd.org/industry/ind/50498824.pdf>
43

and low-carbon steel. A great deal more low-carbon steel is used because high-carbon 

steel is difficult to shape and mold. High-carbon steel is also costly because its very 

nature necessitates that the steel is usually produced in slab form due to it being alloyed 

and made stronger. 

Outside of steel, no auto manufacturing component has shown more growth over the past 

thirty years than aluminum. Aluminum is lighter than steel and more malleable. 

European automobiles have made greater progress towards replacing steel with aluminum 

than their American counterparts have. The move towards greater aluminum use and the 

requirements for greater fuel economy standards is why OICA ( Organisation 

Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles, a Paris-based automobile manufacturers 

group) predicts that average vehicle mass peaked in 2009 and has been on a steady 

downward trend ever since.39 Nevertheless, the demand for steel in the automotive 

process is still projected to be higher by 20% over 2000. There is also talk of developing 

polymers, but more research needs to be done on this topic. 

5.1.5 Economic Trends for Automobile Manufacturers 

For most of the twentieth century, the United States was the leading producer of 

automobiles in absolute numbers in the world until 1980 when Japan took the number

one spot. Since, then the number one spot has seesawed between the United States, 

China, and Japan, with China currently in the lead and producing nearly two times the 

number of vehicles manufactured in the U.S. In 2014 alone, 89.75 million cars and 

commercial vehicles were produced globally according to statistics kept by OICA, a 

Paris-based auto manufacturing group.40 Out of that 2014 total, 11.66 million 

automobiles, around 13% of the cars, were produced in the United States.41 

For all of the talk about the decline of manufacturing in the United States over the past few 

decades, the automotive industry continues to play a vital role in not only the U.S. 

manufacturing sector, but in the wider national economy. Although vehicle production 

among some auto manufacturers has decreased, it has increased among others, as seen in 

Figure 5-1. CAR, the independent nonprofit Center for Automotive Research based out of 

Ann Arbor, Michigan, issued a comprehensive report in January 2015 estimating that 

322,000 people are directly employed by automakers and 805,000 people are employed in 

an intermediate capacity in the United States for a total of 1,127,000 people.42 If one is to 

include all motor vehicle-related manufacturing and auto dealerships, the number of people 

directly employed swells to 1,553,000 and the number of intermediate employees is 

2,316,000 for a total of 3,869,000 people employed by the auto industry.43 

These numbers from CAR show the impact of the auto manufacturing industry on 

economies, both local and national. Although a relatively small number of people are 

 

39 Ibid

40 OICA. 2014 Production Statistics. <http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/>

41 Ibid

42 Contribution of the Automotive Industry to the Economies of All Fifty States and the United States, 

Center for Automotive Research, January 2015, p.30

43 Id. 
44

Figure 5-1: Domestic Vehicle Production, by Major Manufacturer

LCV: Light Commercial Vehicles

HCV: Heavy Commercial Vehicles

Note that 1998 and 1999 includes production in both North America and South America.

0.00

500,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

2,000,000.00

2,500,000.00

3,000,000.00

3,500,000.00

19982000200220042006200820102012

Vehicles Produced

Time (Year)

Daimler-Benz (including Chrysler 1998 - 2007) 

Vehicle Production Over Time

Cars

LCV

HCV

Total

0.00

1,000,000.00

2,000,000.00

3,000,000.00

4,000,000.00

19982000200220042006200820102012

Vehicles Produced

Time (Year)

Chrysler (including Daimler (1998 - 2007) and 

Fiat (2013)) Vehicle Production Over Time

0.00

1,000,000.00

2,000,000.00

3,000,000.00

4,000,000.00

5,000,000.00

19982000200220042006200820102012

Vehicles Produced

Time (Year)

Ford Vehicle Production Over Time

Cars

LCV

HCV

Total 0.00

1,000,000.00

2,000,000.00

3,000,000.00

4,000,000.00

5,000,000.00

6,000,000.00

19982000200220042006200820102012

Vehicles Produced

Time (Years)

General Motors Vehicle Production Over 

Time
45

LCV: Light Commercial Vehicles

HCV: Heavy Commercial Vehicles

Note that 1998 and 1999 includes production in both North America and South America.

Data source: OICA. Production Statistics. <http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2013-statistics>

0.00

200,000.00

400,000.00

600,000.00

800,000.00

1,000,000.00

19982000200220042006200820102012

Vehicles Produced

Time (Years)

Nissan Vehicle Production Over Time

Cars

LCV

HCV

Total 0.00

500,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

19982000200220042006200820102012

Vehicles Produced

Time (Years)

Honda Vehicle Production Over Time

Note: Honda only produces 

passenger cars in the US

0.00

500,000.00

1,000,000.00

1,500,000.00

19982000200220042006200820102012

Vehicles Produced

Time (Years)

Toyota Vehicle Production Over Time

Cars

LCV

HCV

Total
46

directly employed by the automotive industry, a large network of people develops around 

them to provide support services. Think of the doctor or school teacher in a town with an 

auto manufacturing plant. If that plant shuts down or moves to another location, the 

support personnel in that town are also in danger of losing their jobs, which has a deadly 

ripple effect through the local economy. 

5.2 Industry Operations Activity in Automotive Manufacturing

Section 5.1 provided an overview of the automotive manufacturing industry. The 

following sections use the top-down approach discussed in Section 4 to track and discuss 

automotive manufacturing and its supply chain.

5.2.1 Industry Costs and Labor Hours

The revenue received from the sale of new vehicles is divided between three primary 

entities: employees, government, and owners/investors. As seen in Table 5-1, the total 

value added for new vehicles, calculated from the 2007 BEA IO data, associated with the 

production of new vehicles was $186.3 billion. The values in this table facilitate 

identifying high resource consumption areas of automobile manufacturing and its supply 

chain in terms of dollar values. On the far left are industry categories, which for the 

purpose of this table are aggregated into the 34 categories. The numbers on the left 

indicate the aggregated NAICS codes used by the BEA. These 34 categories break out 

into 397 BEA NAICS codes. In the columns labeled A through L are occupation 

categories. For the purpose of this table, these categories have been aggregated from 

over 800 to the 12 categories seen in the table. The data in these columns is compensation 

for that occupation/industry combination contributing to new car production. For 

example, examining the row with BEA NAICS code 333: machinery manufacturing and 

the column labeled J: Production Occupations, one can see that $837 million in 

production occupations in the machinery manufacturing industry contributed to new car 

production. Column M is the sum of all the compensation costs for that BEA NAICS 

code. Column N and O are taxes (note that this only includes taxes on imports and 

production less subsidies) and gross operating surplus. The sum of columns M, N, and O 

equals value added, as shown in the last column, labeled P. Table 5-1 as a whole breaks 

out the total value added into various components for the entire US economy that is 

related to the production of new automobiles, including light trucks, utility vehicles, and 

heavy duty trucks. The length of the colored bars relate to the value being represented. As 

the value increases relative to others, the bar lengthens. The bars are compared only to 

those of the same color. 

As seen in Table 5-1 at the bottom right, there is $186.3 billion in value added associated 

with the production of new automobiles. Approximately 53.6 % of the value added went 

to compensation of employees, 41.4 % went toward owners/investors, and 5.0 % went to 

the government in the form of taxes (note that this only includes taxes on imports and 

production less subsidies). Unsurprisingly, the most costly labor category is production 

occupations for manufacturing vehicle parts and assembly at $24.3 billion or 13 % of the 

total value added. The second costliest is management and business occupations for 

vehicle parts and assembly at $4.9 billion or 2.6 % of the total value added. It is 
47 BEA NAICS Description management and business Computer and Mathematical, and Engineering Occupations Life, Physical, and Social Science Occupations Community, legal, education, arts, health, food, and other Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations Sales and Related Occupations Office and Administrative Support Occupations Construction and Extraction Occupations Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations Production Occupations Transportation and Material Moving Occupations Other and Unallocated Compensation of employees Taxes on production and imports, less subsidies Gross operating surplus Value Added 

1 1 Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting 7 0 1 8 4 1 1 7 1 5 3 2 1 5 1 180 -2 233 412

2 1 Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction (materials) 1 3 9 4 1 0 1 5 3 7 2 3 1 5 1 8 0 125 3 4 363 522

2 1 Mining, Quarrying, and Oil and Gas Extraction (non-materials) 6 9 5 1 1 7 6 0 3 1 4 131 3 5 1 9 5 1 0 397 280 1466 2143

221100-A Indirect Uses-Boiler Fuel 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 5 5 1 0 2 1

221100-B Process Heating 7 6 1 1 0 0 3 1 1 0 6 0 0 3 5 3 4 6 6 136

221100-C Process Cooling and Refrigeration 3 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 2 0 0 1 4 1 4 2 6 5 4

221100-D Machine Drive 1 9 1 5 2 2 0 1 9 3 2 8 1 5 1 0 9 6 9 3 181 370

221100-E Electro-Chemical Processes 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 2 0 0 1 3 1 2 2 4 4 9

221100-F Other Process Use 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 6 6 1 1 2 3

221100-G Facility HVAC 6 5 1 1 0 0 3 1 9 5 0 0 2 9 2 8 5 5 113

221100-H Facility Lighting 4 3 0 0 0 0 2 1 6 3 0 0 2 0 1 9 3 8 7 7

221100-I Other Facility Support 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 5 5 1 0 2 0

221100-J Onsite Transportation 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 7 7 1 4 2 8

221100-K Other Nonprocess Use 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 2 4 9

221100-L End Use Not Reported 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 6 5 1 1 2 2

2 2 Energy (non-manufacturing uses) and Utilities 8 1 4 9 5 6 1 8 4 9 2 5 8 5 4 8 6 0 363 277 675 1315

2 3 Construction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 433 433 1 0 271 713

336 Manufacturing: Vehicle parts and Assembly 4936 4118 2 4 172 3 6 412 1361 1112 2707 24306 1539 0 40722 1154 40278 82153

331 Primary Metal Manufacturing 474 231 1 0 2 1 8 7 3 179 9 0 427 1790 199 0 3503 241 2832 6576

332 Fabricated Metal Product Manufacturing 955 300 6 1 2 1 5 169 407 100 190 2749 173 0 5076 144 2950 8170

333 Machinery Manufacturing 463 385 2 1 3 4 7 7 136 2 5 9 6 837 4 1 0 2080 5 3 1157 3290

334-335 Computer and Electronics Manufacturing 565 726 7 1 7 3 8 1 110 4 4 9 455 3 0 0 2047 113 1600 3760

324-325 Petroleum and Chemical Manufacturing 248 125 8 6 1 0 2 4 3 7 4 1 2 7 9 412 4 3 0 1136 147 2974 4258

326 Plastic and Rubber Manufacturing 448 178 1 1 1 1 7 8 9 192 1 9 204 1441 181 0 2782 152 1163 4097

31-33 Manufacturing: Other 573 152 1 0 5 5 1 0 151 302 7 5 248 1747 335 0 3658 155 1527 5340

42-45 Wholesale and Retail Trade 2738 688 3 3 249 2 5 3748 1672 3 3 725 382 1467 0 11762 4791 6921 23473

4 8 Transportation 314 4 5 1 2 2 4 5 1 342 4 7 239 4 3 1951 0 3058 179 1682 4918

4 9 Warehousing 5 5 6 0 4 4 9 7 9 1 1 7 1 5 227 0 415 8 125 549

518200 Data Processing and Hosting Services 4 7 8 1 0 3 0 1 2 2 5 0 1 1 0 0 170 8 141 319

51-53 Information, Real Estate, and Finance 1805 397 2 240 2 2 817 864 9 188 2 0 4 3 0 4407 535 5280 10222

5 4 Professional, Scientific, and Technical Services 1524 1020 8 2 820 5 195 512 2 5 2 0 3 7 1 8 0 4258 223 2384 6865

5 5 Management of Companies 4733 1134 6 9 444 1 2 328 1047 3 4 117 5 7 9 6 0 8074 347 1129 9550

5 6 Admin. And Support and Waste Management and Remediation 462 148 1 1 307 371 179 525 7 4 9 0 158 214 0 2538 7 7 933 3548

57-92 Other 212 2 6 2 472 4 1 5 8 106 1 2 234 6 9 4 6 1148 2427 105 663 3194

TOTAL 20769 9906 389 2973 573 6510 8031 1874 5851 34640 6702 1632 99851 9262 77195 186307

Table 5-1: Value Added for New Vehicles by 

 Occupation by Industry

 ($millions)
48

interesting to note that transportation and material moving occupations for all industries 

is $6.7 billion or 3.6 % of the total value added. Energy is represented by all of the 

industries on the left starting with 2211. The total value added of process energy (i.e., the 

sum of NAICS 221100-A through 221100-F), which represents the energy for 

manufacturing processes associated with automobile manufacturing, was $652 million or 

0.3 % of the total value added. Facility heating, cooling, lighting, and other facility 

support was $210 million or 0.1 % of the total value added. It is important to note that 

manufacturing facilities sometimes produce their own electricity. The data that is 

available facilitates examining this issue, but it has been left for future research. 

A key concept of lean manufacturing is the identification of waste, which is classified 

into seven categories: 

1) Overproduction: occurs when more is produced than is currently required by 

customers

2) Transportation: transportation does not make any change to the product and is a 

source of risk to the product

3) Rework/Defects: discarded defects result in wasted resources or extra costs 

correcting the defect

4) Over-processing: occurs when more work is done than is necessary

5) Motion: unnecessary motion results in unnecessary expenditure of time and 

resources

6) Inventory: is similar to that of overproduction and results in the need for 

additional handling, space, people, and paperwork to manage extra product

7) Waiting: when workers and equipment are waiting for material and parts, these 

resources are being wasted

Given these categories of waste, it is interesting to note that wholesale and retail trade, 

transportation, and warehousing along with transportation and material moving 

occupations are 18.1 % of the total value added for new automobile production or 30.9 % 

of costs (excluding depreciation of capital).

Error! Reference source not found.Table 5-2 provides the broadest level of occupation 

data for new car production while Error! Reference source not found. Table 5-3

provides the top 50 of over 800 occupations at the detailed level. As is expected, 

production occupations account for the largest category at the broadest level. 

Interestingly, only 6 of the top 20 occupations in Table 5-3Error! Reference source not 

ound., however, are production occupations. Among the others are occupations within 

management; transportation and material moving; architecture and engineering; 

installation, maintenance, and repair; sales; business and finance; and construction and 

extraction occupations. Industrial machinery mechanics are number 12, suggesting that 

machinery maintenance and repair is a significant cost. It is important to note that the 

highest cost activities are not necessarily the highest paid per hour. For example, an hour 

of management is more than twice as much as an hour of production work, as seen in 

Table 5-2Error! Reference source not found..
49

For a more detailed use of this model, we can consider a change agent interested in 

examining the maintenance, repair, replacement, and energy for machinery associated 

with new car production. The aggregate compensation for industrial machinery 

mechanics and machinery maintenance workers for new car production and its supply 

chain is $1.8 billion with $647.6 million being for automobile assembly alone, as seen in 

Table 5-2: Compensation for New Vehicle Production by Occupation, Broad Category Level

Table 5-4. Of the $1.8 billion, $1.5 billion was mechanics while $290.7 million was 

maintenance workers. An additional $1.2 billion was spent on machinery for new car 

production and its supply chain. Some of this machinery would be to replace old 

machinery while some could be to increase capacity. The machinery in place throughout 

the new car production supply chain consumed $631.2 million in energy with $369.6 

million in energy for machine drive (i.e., mechanical energy or motors). Future research 

efforts will facilitate examining the value of machinery being used.

5.2.2 Time and Building Capital

Time is an important aspect in operations management and understanding the costs of 

production. Every moment that a product or material sits idle or is in production it is 

consuming resources. Materials and products in inventory must be stored, cataloged, and 

protected, taking up building space and real estate. If they are in transit, they are taking 

up space on trucks, trains, and vehicles. Meanwhile the materials and products 

themselves tie up capital, depreciate, deteriorate, and become obsolete. 

Figure 5-2 provides a summarized version of the steps of manufacturing production

categorized into activity in the supply chain based on chronology. At this point these 

steps are approximated. Future research might provide a more detailed supply chain map, 

Compensation 

($millions)

Hours 

(millions)

Per hr 

compensation

510000 Production Occupations 34640.1 984.6 35.2

110000 Management Occupations 13436.8 148.9 90.3

430000 Office and Administrative Support Occupations 8030.6 307.1 26.2

130000 Business and Financial Operations Occupations 7332.5 141.0 52.0

530000 Transportation and Material Moving Occupations 6701.7 255.8 26.2

170000 Architecture and Engineering Occupations 6306.3 100.8 62.6

490000 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair Occupations 5850.8 143.3 40.8

410000 Sales and Related Occupations 6510.0 149.7 43.5

150000 Computer and Mathematical Occupations 3600.0 65.1 55.3

470000 Construction and Extraction Occupations 1874.4 40.8 45.9

270000 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media Occupations 806.0 20.4 39.5

230000 Legal Occupations 802.6 11.0 73.2

370000 Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance Occupations 573.4 39.6 14.5

290000 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical Occupations 406.0 9.8 41.3

190000 Life, Physical, and Social Science Occupations 389.1 8.7 44.6

350000 Food Preparation and Serving Related Occupations 349.8 33.6 10.4

330000 Protective Service Occupations 250.3 14.6 17.1

450000 Farming, Fishing, and Forestry Occupations 138.9 6.2 22.5

390000 Personal Care and Service Occupations 94.5 5.9 15.9

210000 Community and Social Service Occupations 44.1 1.6 27.3

310000 Healthcare Support Occupations 42.3 2.9 14.7

250000 Education, Training, and Library Occupations 38.1 2.1 18.5

Occupation Code and Description
50

rather than broad classifications. For example, raw material extraction is in step 1, as it 

occurs before any of the manufacturing steps. Plastics material and resin manufacturing 

is categorized in step 2, as it comes after the extraction of raw materials but before 

plastic product manufacturing in step 3. 

Table 5-3: Compensation for New Vehicle Production by Occupation, Top 50 (Detailed Category 

Level)

Compensation 

($millions)

Hours 

(millions)

Per hr 

compensation

512092 Team Assemblers 12905.3 318.7 40.5

111021 General and Operations Managers 4212.5 45.7 92.2

414012 Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing, Except Technical and Scientific Products 3167.9 67.2 47.1

511011 First-Line Supervisors of Production and Operating Workers 2913.0 56.2 51.8

172112 Industrial Engineers 2206.5 30.7 71.8

514041 Machinists 1963.8 58.3 33.7

113051 Industrial Production Managers 1640.7 19.6 83.7

537062 Laborers and Freight, Stock, and Material Movers, Hand 1624.7 72.1 22.5

519061 Inspectors, Testers, Sorters, Samplers, and Weighers 1600.8 47.5 33.7

533032 Heavy and Tractor-Trailer Truck Drivers 1585.7 56.3 28.2

132011 Accountants and Auditors 1463.1 28.8 50.9

499041 Industrial Machinery Mechanics 1460.3 30.2 48.3

172141 Mechanical Engineers 1453.9 21.3 68.3

512099 Assemblers and Fabricators, All Other 1445.7 45.2 32.0

113031 Financial Managers 1230.2 12.9 95.6

499071 Maintenance and Repair Workers, General 1199.2 34.0 35.2

514111 Tool and Die Makers 1195.1 23.8 50.2

434051 Customer Service Representatives 1098.3 44.0 25.0

112022 Sales Managers 1078.3 11.7 92.1

472111 Electricians 954.9 16.6 57.5

119041 Architectural and Engineering Managers 946.1 9.2 102.5

537051 Industrial Truck and Tractor Operators 940.7 30.5 30.8

111011 Chief Executives 920.6 6.5 142.2

514121 Welders, Cutters, Solderers, and Brazers 912.8 31.6 28.9

519199 Production Workers, All Other 890.0 21.7 40.9

439061 Office Clerks, General 839.6 38.5 21.8

414011 Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing, Technical and Scientific Products826.8 13.8 60.1

514031 Cutting, Punching, and Press Machine Setters, Operators, and Tenders, Metal and Plastic820.3 31.0 26.5

131199 Business Operations Specialists, All Other 796.4 14.9 53.5

435071 Shipping, Receiving, and Traffic Clerks 785.2 30.9 25.4

431011 First-Line Supervisors of Office and Administrative Support Workers 764.2 18.7 40.8

433031 Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks 754.9 28.1 26.8

514011 Computer-Controlled Machine Tool Operators, Metal and Plastic 748.8 26.5 28.2

131111 Management Analysts 681.1 11.5 59.1

491011 First-Line Supervisors of Mechanics, Installers, and Repairers 671.1 11.7 57.3

151132 Software Developers, Applications 667.5 10.6 62.9

151121 Computer Systems Analysts 657.3 10.9 60.5

231011 Lawyers 653.8 6.7 97.7

113021 Computer and Information Systems Managers 617.1 6.9 89.1

131023 Purchasing Agents, Except Wholesale, Retail, and Farm Products 608.2 12.7 47.7

436014 Secretaries and Administrative Assistants, Except Legal, Medical, and Executive 588.8 25.0 23.5

131161 Market Research Analysts and Marketing Specialists 569.4 11.7 48.6

514081 Multiple Machine Tool Setters, Operators, and Tenders, Metal and Plastic 564.7 19.0 29.7

519198 Helpers--Production Workers 563.1 25.8 21.9

413031 Securities, Commodities, and Financial Services Sales Agents 551.3 4.1 133.1

512031 Engine and Other Machine Assemblers 539.5 13.2 40.8

514072 Molding, Coremaking, and Casting Machine Setters, Operators, and Tenders, Metal and Plastic 519.3 20.4 25.5

435081 Stock Clerks and Order Fillers 507.8 22.3 22.7

131071 Human Resources Specialists 495.2 10.8 46.1

119199 Managers, All Other 492.0 6.1 81.0

Occupation Code and Description
51

Table 5-4: Machinery Data for New Car Production ($millions)

Assembly 

Only

Total Supply 

Chain for New 

Cars

Maintenance and Repair 647.6 1751.0

Machinery Mechanics 627.9 1460.3

Machinery Maintenance 19.7 290.7

New Machinery for Production 949.4 1230.0

Other industrial machinery manufacturing 0.0 42.4

Plastics and rubber industry machinery manufacturing 0.0 3.7

Industrial mold manufacturing 13.4 54.9

Metal cutting and forming machine tool manufacturing 0.0 33.6

Special tool, die, jig, and fixture manufacturing 13.8 95.2

Cutting, machine tool, and metalworking machinery 22.6 77.5

Turbine and turbine generator set units manufacturing 0.0 19.4

Speed changer, industrial high-speed drive, and gear 0.0 106.9

Mechanical power transmission equipment manufacturing 508.1 270.4

Pump and pumping equipment manufacturing 0.0 15.6

Air and gas compressor manufacturing 0.0 12.2

Material handling equipment manufacturing 6.1 54.8

Power-driven handtool manufacturing 0.0 3.4

Other general purpose machinery manufacturing 33.3 94.4

Industrial process furnace and oven manufacturing 0.0 6.7

Fluid power process machinery 352.1 339.1

Machine Related Energy 93.7 631.2

Process Heating 7.2 135.6

Process Cooling and Refrigeration 10.9 53.9

Machine Drive 65.2 369.6

Electro-Chemical Processes 0.2 49.1

Other Process Use 10.2 23.0

Table 5-5 presents details of the each of these steps for the top 35 manufacturing 

subsectors, representing 88 % of the manufacturing value added for new car production. 

Also included are 5 raw material extractors that are associated with manufacturing. 

The average time for each step in each industry has been calculated. For instance, 

material inventory for NAICS 325211 in step 2 has an average time of 10.62 days for 

material goods inventory. Work-in-process time is 3.71 days, down time when the plant 

is closed is 0.48 days and finished goods is 25.81 days. A multiplier, discussed 

previously, was estimated and used to approximate the number of times a material cycled 

through an industry. 

At the bottom of each step in Table 5-5 is the average of all industries in the step. One 

average includes the multiplier while the other excludes it. For instance, at the bottom of 

step 2 is the average of the total time in days for the 5 industries in the step. Also shown 

is the average of the different inventory times, including material inventory, work-inprocess inventory, work-in-process down time, and finished goods inventory. The sum of 

the average for the 9 steps with the multiplier is 528 days and without the multiplier is 
52

Figure 5-2: Supply Chain Steps and Average Flow Time

348 days. Using the data with the multiplier reveals that 42 % of the 528 days is material 

inventory, work-in-process is 10 %, down time when the plant is closed was 15 %, and 

finished goods was 33 %.

One of the costs of inventory, whether it is materials, finished goods, or work-in-process, 

is the cost of housing the inventory. Table 5-6 provides an estimated value of the 

buildings that house manufacturing activities related to new automobile production. It is 

the square feet of factory space multiplied by the median per square foot cost of factory 

construction for a typical sized factory from RS Means.44

5.2.3 Natural Resources and Environmental Impacts

Table 5-7 provides the results of the environmental impacts and natural resources used 

for the top 35 NAICS codes calculated utilizing the data and methods in Sections 3 and 4. 

As can be seen, glass product manufacturing, iron and steel mills, and automobile 

manufacturing (i.e., assembly) have some of the highest impacts. Plastic material and 

resin manufacturing have a high impact on ozone depletion.

 

44 RS Means Mechanical Cost Data. (RS Means, Kingston, MA: 2005). 28th Edition. 558.

28.1

83.7

55.3

63.7

46.1

76.3

120.2

35.1

20.1

0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0

Days

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 

4

Step 5

Step 

6

Step 

7

Step 

8

Step 

9
53

NAICS Location Days NAICS Location Days Multiplier NAICS Location Days Multiplier

Total 8.37 Materials 10.62 Materials 18.43

WIP 3.71 WIP 2.59

WIP - Dow n time 0.48 WIP - Dow n time 3.12

Finished Goods 25.81 Finished Goods 21.09

Total 13.39 Materials 15.76 Materials 15.48

WIP 0.92 WIP 2.25

WIP - Dow n time 1.48 WIP - Dow n time 1.92

Finished Goods 23.69 Finished Goods 19.42

Total 45.61 Materials 15.03 Materials 10.69

WIP 2.41 WIP 2.00

WIP - Dow n time 2.32 WIP - Dow n time 1.70

Finished Goods 28.92 Finished Goods 13.72

Total 38.68 Materials 26.62 Materials 16.17

WIP 8.95 WIP 2.81

WIP - Dow n time 5.37 WIP - Dow n time 2.63

Finished Goods 18.40 Finished Goods 13.20

Total 34.53 Materials 15.97 Materials 34.84

WIP 1.41 WIP 9.09

WIP - Dow n time 0.77 WIP - Dow n time 5.45

Finished Goods 11.59 Finished Goods 22.70

Materials 16.88

WIP 4.87

WIP - Dow n time 5.93

Finished Goods 19.27

Materials 14.17

WIP 4.98

WIP - Dow n time 7.44

Finished Goods 10.68

w/multiplier w/multiplier

AVERAGES Total 28.12 28.12 AVERAGES Materials 16.80 31.57 AVERAGES Materials 18.09 23.23

WIP 3.48 7.57 WIP 4.08 4.94

WIP - Dow n time 2.08 4.67 WIP - Dow n time 4.03 4.85

Finished Goods 21.68 39.89 Finished Goods 17.15 22.25

TOTAL of Averages 28.12 28.12 44.05 83.70 43.36 55.26

212100 Coal 

mining

331510 Ferrous 

metal foundries

Approximated Step: 1 Approximated Step: 3

1.47

1.00

2.69

Approximated Step: 2

325510 Paint and 

coating 

manufacturing

326190 Other 

plastics product 

manufacturing

326210 Tire 

manufacturing

331110 Iron and 

steel mills and 

ferroalloy 

manufacturing

326290 Other 

rubber product 

manufacturing

331200 Steel 

product 

manufacturing from 

purchased steel

2.63

1.00

322210 

Paperboard 

container 

manufacturing

327200 Glass and 

glass product 

manufacturing

331520 Nonferrous 

metal foundries

1.67

325211 Plastics 

material and resin 

manufacturing

326110 Plastics 

packaging materials 

and unlaminated 

film and sheet 

manufacturing

1.24

1.21

1.07

1.00

1.00

1.94

212230 Copper, 

nickel, lead, and 

zinc mining

2122A0 Iron, 

gold, silver, and 

other metal ore 

mining

2123A0 Other 

nonmetallic 

mineral mining 

and quarrying

211000 Oil and 

gas extraction

Table 5-5: Approximated Chronological Supply Chain Steps and Corresponding NAICS Codes for New Vehicle Production
54

NAICS Location Days Multiplier NAICS Location Days Multiplier NAICS Location Days Multiplier

Materials 30.83 Materials 9.86 Materials 14.43

WIP 3.78 WIP 7.74 WIP 5.70

WIP - Dow n time 4.73 WIP - Dow n time 9.69 WIP - Dow n time 11.74

Finished Goods 16.04 Finished Goods 16.52 Finished Goods 22.67

Materials 24.92 Materials 8.64 Materials 21.23

WIP 10.86 WIP 2.80 WIP 2.91

WIP - Dow n time 16.21 WIP - Dow n time 3.80 WIP - Dow n time 5.99

Finished Goods 14.56 Finished Goods 5.73 Finished Goods 15.18

Materials 16.13 Materials 15.69 Materials 23.00

WIP 4.04 WIP 2.90 WIP 7.53

WIP - Dow n time 5.06 WIP - Dow n time 5.12 WIP - Dow n time 12.63

Finished Goods 17.53 Finished Goods 5.06 Finished Goods 14.43

Materials 20.80 Materials 16.47

WIP 7.12 WIP 3.11

WIP - Dow n time 8.91 WIP - Dow n time 4.22

Finished Goods 8.19 Finished Goods 14.00

Materials 9.63

WIP 8.69

WIP - Dow n time 16.82

Finished Goods 7.87

w/multiplier w/multiplier w/multiplier

AVERAGES Materials 20.46 24.28 AVERAGES Materials 12.66 16.80 AVERAGES Materials 19.55 28.73

WIP 6.90 9.52 WIP 4.14 5.96 WIP 5.38 7.86

WIP - Dow n time 10.35 14.80 WIP - Dow n time 5.71 8.03 WIP - Dow n time 10.12 14.69

Finished Goods 12.84 15.06 Finished Goods 10.33 15.28 Finished Goods 17.43 24.97

50.54 63.66 32.84 46.07 52.48 76.26

334413 

Semiconductor 

and related 

device 

332310 Plate 

work and 

fabricated 

structural 

Approximated Step: 4 Approximated Step: 5 Approximated Step: 6

1.58

1.33

1.47

1.56

1.00

1.95

1.03

1.44

2.04

33211B Crown 

and closure 

manufacturing 

and metal 

336310 Motor 

vehicle gasoline 

engine and engine 

parts 

336211 Motor 

vehicle body 

manufacturing

33211A All other 

forging, 

stamping, and 

sintering

336320 Motor 

vehicle electrical 

and electronic 

equipment 

1.00

1.00

336370 Motor 

vehicle metal 

stamping

332800 Coating, 

engraving, heat 

treating and allied 

activities

1.71

332114 Custom 

roll forming

332710 Machine 

shops

332720 Turned 

product and screw, 

nut, and bolt 

manufacturing
55

NAICS Location Days Multiplier NAICS Location Days Multiplier NAICS Location Days Multiplier

Materials 28.15 Materials 16.01 Materials 7.38

WIP 6.99 WIP 5.86 WIP 0.68

WIP - Dow n time 14.39 WIP - Dow n time 7.58 WIP - Dow n time 1.16

Finished Goods 32.03 Finished Goods 14.38 Finished Goods 0.66

Materials 21.25 Materials 19.05 Materials 15.22

WIP 8.18 WIP 2.13 WIP 5.15

WIP - Dow n time 16.83 WIP - Dow n time 5.18 WIP - Dow n time 4.17

Finished Goods 23.72 Finished Goods 7.16 Finished Goods 5.77

Materials 8.18 Materials 3.71

WIP 0.93 WIP 1.04

WIP - Dow n time 1.26 WIP - Dow n time 2.33

Finished Goods 2.03 Finished Goods 0.85

Materials 14.75 Materials 15.72

WIP 2.11 WIP 2.41

WIP - Dow n time 2.87 WIP - Dow n time 3.27

Finished Goods 9.83 Finished Goods 11.06

Materials 11.71

WIP 3.49

WIP - Dow n time 4.74

Finished Goods 5.32

w/multiplier w/multiplier w/multiplier

AVERAGES Materials 18.08 42.64 AVERAGES Materials 13.24 15.60 AVERAGES Materials 11.30 11.30

WIP 4.55 12.13 WIP 2.99 3.85 WIP 2.92 2.92

WIP - Dow n time 8.84 24.01 WIP - Dow n time 4.62 5.74 WIP - Dow n time 2.66 2.66

Finished Goods 16.90 41.44 Finished Goods 7.75 9.87 Finished Goods 3.22 3.22

48.38 120.22 28.60 35.07 20.10 20.10

336120 Heavy duty 

truck manufacturing 1.00

1.00

1.00

Approximated Step: 9

1.74 1.00

336111 Automobile 

manufacturing

336350 Motor 

vehicle 

transmission and 

power train parts 

336390 Other 

motor vehicle 

parts 

manufacturing

3363A0 Motor 

vehicle steering, 

suspension 

component (except 

1.71

Approximated Step: 7 Approximated Step: 8

3.81

2.03

1.70

336360 Motor 

vehicle seating 

and interior trim 

manufacturing

332991 Ball and 

roller bearing 

manufacturing

334514 Totalizing 

fluid meter and 

counting device 

manufacturing

33291A Valve 

and fittings other 

than plumbing

336112 Light truck 

and utility vehicle 

manufacturing

1.00

1.00

333618 Other 

engine equipment 

manufacturing
56

Table 5-6: Building Capital for New Vehicle Production- New Construction Equivalent, Top 35 

NAICS Description

Building 

Capital - New 

Construction 

Equivalent 

($Million 

2007)

Percent of 

Total for 

Manufacturing

336111 Automobile manufacturing 11460.2 25.9%

336370 Motor vehicle metal stamping 4769.3 10.8%

336350 Motor vehicle transmission and power train parts manufacturing 2577.2 5.8%

336310 Motor vehicle gasoline engine and engine parts manufacturing 1994.4 4.5%

336360 Motor vehicle seating and interior trim manufacturing 1332.5 3.0%

326190 Other plastics product manufacturing 1246.3 2.8%

336390 Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing 1184.9 2.7%

332710 Machine shops 1076.8 2.4%

332720 Turned product and screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing 914.2 2.1%

327200 Glass and glass product manufacturing 903.8 2.0%

3363A0 Motor vehicle steering, suspension component (except spring) 853.5 1.9%

331520 Nonferrous metal foundries 735.6 1.7%

331510 Ferrous metal foundries 706.8 1.6%

331110 Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing 689.6 1.6%

336112 Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing 687.9 1.6%

332800 Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities 679.9 1.5%

33211B Crown and closure manufacturing and metal stamping 669.9 1.5%

333618 Other engine equipment manufacturing 580.2 1.3%

326210 Tire manufacturing 579.9 1.3%

336211 Motor vehicle body manufacturing 503.6 1.1%

326110 Plastics packaging materials and unlaminated film and sheet manufacturing 458.6 1.0%

326290 Other rubber product manufacturing 387.1 0.9%

331200 Steel product manufacturing from purchased steel 364.6 0.8%

33291A Valve and fittings other than plumbing 358.7 0.8%

332310 Plate work and fabricated structural product manufacturing 321.2 0.7%

322210 Paperboard container manufacturing 310.7 0.7%

336320 Motor vehicle electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing 291.3 0.7%

332991 Ball and roller bearing manufacturing 271.9 0.6%

332320 Ornamental and architectural metal products manufacturing 267.6 0.6%

33211A All other forging, stamping, and sintering 261.4 0.6%

332114 Custom roll forming 251.3 0.6%

325211 Plastics material and resin manufacturing 237.5 0.5%

325510 Paint and coating manufacturing 236.1 0.5%

334413 Semiconductor and related device manufacturing 235.1 0.5%

334514 Totalizing fluid meter and counting device manufacturing 218.8 0.5%
57

Table 5-7: Environmental Impact and Natural Resource use (impact per $million) - Top 35 Industries Contributing to New Car Value Added (In order 

of largest to smallest)

Global Warming Acidification HH Criteria Air Eutrophication

Ozone 

Depletion Air Smog Air

NAICS Description kg CO2 eq H+ moles eq kg PM10 eq kg N eq kg CFC-11 eq kg O3 eq

336112 Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing 802 235 765 194 595 504 587 351 103 711 1 355 53 003 030

336111 Automobile manufacturing 2 114 796 363 525 749 064 1 614 049 287 995 2 973 147 926 851

336370 Motor vehicle metal stamping 732 139 877 166 226 243 526 996 84 047 924 42 556 932

336350 Motor vehicle transmission and power train parts manufacturing 1 232 063 582 279 729 745 886 843 141 436 1 555 71 615 886

336360 Motor vehicle seating and interior trim manufacturing 289 421 621 65 710 762 208 327 33 224 365 16 823 146

336120 Heavy duty truck manufacturing 1 240 427 971 247 890 318 771 452 127 621 1 301 69 459 487

336310 Motor vehicle gasoline engine and engine parts manufacturing 692 533 419 157 233 928 498 488 79 500 874 40 254 736

336390 Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing 1 450 944 786 329 424 894 1 044 394 166 563 1 831 84 338 746

331110 Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing 38 984 497 805 4 944 560 326 17 533 039 2 502 306 4 857 1 389 164 598

3363A0 Motor vehicle steering, suspension component (except spring), and brake systems manufacturing 390 962 214 88 764 705 281 416 44 881 493 22 725 374

336211 Motor vehicle body manufacturing 1 777 020 988 403 723 417 1 386 932 205 237 1 830 125 560 690

326190 Other plastics product manufacturing 4 554 148 259 1 096 932 901 3 379 992 552 195 14 504 306 544 333

333618 Other engine equipment manufacturing 3 136 953 432 756 669 244 2 549 280 393 635 2 951 216 066 096

332710 Machine shops 1 511 977 787 352 673 949 979 473 154 317 969 85 276 838

332720 Turned product and screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing 1 876 653 636 380 963 776 1 028 861 174 613 3 257 96 952 100

334413 Semiconductor and related device manufacturing 1 134 409 138 329 692 479 708 923 115 752 2 606 63 556 378

327200 Glass and glass product manufacturing 13 645 923 583 5 630 207 582 17 711 038 3 890 598 11 278 2 175 337 088

331520 Nonferrous metal foundries 3 318 964 906 732 299 119 1 935 053 243 110 1 589 135 174 520

331510 Ferrous metal foundries 2 658 825 017 608 266 439 3 811 699 252 149 1 923 147 670 990

336320 Motor vehicle electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing 189 351 061 42 990 577 136 295 21 737 239 11 006 367

332800 Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities 2 277 371 969 423 394 416 1 264 666 199 520 5 048 112 858 278

33211B Crown and closure manufacturing and metal stamping 1 747 512 700 356 474 204 1 021 743 164 367 1 233 92 030 297

326210 Tire manufacturing 1 995 798 942 830 408 681 2 442 000 282 378 5 717 139 422 570

325211 Plastics material and resin manufacturing 7 195 253 685 1 333 799 460 4 778 652 751 231 24 212 410 458 663

325510 Paint and coating manufacturing 1 865 548 246 416 379 330 1 681 113 239 101 5 459 128 715 607

33291A Valve and fittings other than plumbing 754 904 058 183 943 457 511 322 78 240 679 43 479 777

334514 Totalizing fluid meter and counting device manufacturing 483 665 457 122 150 771 331 135 55 170 758 30 208 452

331200 Steel product manufacturing from purchased steel 4 203 371 779 586 907 238 2 021 036 301 302 940 167 441 851

322210 Paperboard container manufacturing 1 996 303 783 670 334 733 2 258 787 340 137 3 524 177 476 320

326110 Plastics packaging materials and unlaminated film and sheet manufacturing 1 870 829 612 421 837 468 1 281 353 214 093 6 428 118 325 850

326290 Other rubber product manufacturing 1 142 249 249 347 538 429 1 223 870 148 514 4 139 74 238 553

332310 Plate work and fabricated structural product manufacturing 1 434 558 039 238 128 626 760 714 120 529 2 317 68 679 738

332991 Ball and roller bearing manufacturing 491 274 903 105 214 214 283 090 47 207 494 26 443 272

332114 Custom roll forming 2 048 580 888 346 310 411 1 029 263 167 601 563 93 303 486

33211A All other forging, stamping, and sintering 1 386 165 121 263 323 702 734 097 119 930 418 66 554 435
58

ecotox HH Cancer HH Noncancer Primary Energy 

Consumption 

Land Use Water 

Consumption 

NAICS Description CTUe CTUHcan CTUHnoncan thousand BTU acre kg

336112 Light truck and utility vehicle manufacturing 333 718 797 0.40 2 7 6 465 738 811 131 741 51 424 986 126

336111 Automobile manufacturing 963 848 306 1.07 7 2 17 185 730 319 376 956 141 007 021 487

336370 Motor vehicle metal stamping 282 399 141 0.37 2 9 5 381 002 265 110 142 41 383 673 418

336350 Motor vehicle transmission and power train parts manufacturing 475 228 448 0.62 4 8 9 055 287 290 185 350 69 641 496 783

336360 Motor vehicle seating and interior trim manufacturing 111 634 976 0.14 1 1 2 127 159 644 43 540 16 359 346 396

336120 Heavy duty truck manufacturing 344 883 373 0.51 3 4 10 991 320 888 191 168 64 662 757 281

336310 Motor vehicle gasoline engine and engine parts manufacturing 267 122 238 0.35 2 7 5 089 907 014 104 184 39 144 947 208

336390 Other motor vehicle parts manufacturing 559 654 752 0.72 5 7 10 663 996 623 218 278 82 013 597 440

331110 Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing 1 902 159 377 8.10 830 146 261 861 421 571 607 688 401 450 750

3363A0 Motor vehicle steering, suspension component (except spring), and brake systems manufacturing 150 800 956 0.20 1 5 2 873 451 679 58 816 22 098 854 455

336211 Motor vehicle body manufacturing 519 867 842 0.91 5 9 13 868 653 656 321 844 98 849 842 951

326190 Other plastics product manufacturing 959 307 849 2.71 124 46 020 194 901 886 023 268 515 658 354

333618 Other engine equipment manufacturing 643 647 308 1.69 121 25 034 673 908 1 068 271 180 167 334 550

332710 Machine shops 223 471 339 0.72 5 5 13 130 704 502 85 814 91 952 974 077

332720 Turned product and screw, nut, and bolt manufacturing 196 365 688 0.69 5 5 12 944 274 005 86 396 90 459 414 229

334413 Semiconductor and related device manufacturing 117 194 467 0.59 4 8 8 760 769 460 84 520 69 119 590 110

327200 Glass and glass product manufacturing 1 132 907 270 7.22 477 154 297 681 834 1 164 312 606 594 995 472

331520 Nonferrous metal foundries 1 356 465 856 1.90 238 20 390 257 023 163 545 138 138 048 636

331510 Ferrous metal foundries 634 700 522 2.89 255 19 690 102 574 121 681 136 012 010 929

336320 Motor vehicle electrical and electronic equipment manufacturing 73 036 012 0.09 7 1 391 671 891 28 486 10 702 930 829

332800 Coating, engraving, heat treating and allied activities 290 614 108 0.91 6 8 22 972 741 972 98 776 98 554 442 985

33211B Crown and closure manufacturing and metal stamping 210 692 539 0.66 5 4 11 511 334 439 142 878 71 183 142 739

326210 Tire manufacturing 1 566 391 745 1.01 5 7 18 502 191 646 1 116 950 162 578 160 812

325211 Plastics material and resin manufacturing 1 039 105 436 3.23 134 56 560 178 654 335 253 252 644 823 224

325510 Paint and coating manufacturing 420 891 408 1.11 6 6 17 736 186 030 169 942 95 342 870 878

33291A Valve and fittings other than plumbing 162 731 063 0.41 3 4 5 800 248 178 49 108 43 295 805 641

334514 Totalizing fluid meter and counting device manufacturing 83 625 776 0.28 2 1 4 341 997 562 47 318 32 633 188 723

331200 Steel product manufacturing from purchased steel 309 088 123 1.11 111 19 058 889 406 95 008 99 319 008 590

322210 Paperboard container manufacturing 381 634 554 1.14 5 5 22 215 719 096 2 143 098 116 522 959 529

326110 Plastics packaging materials and unlaminated film and sheet manufacturing334 319 603 0.85 4 1 16 432 521 642 170 557 95 487 993 867

326290 Other rubber product manufacturing 555 454 623 0.53 2 6 10 226 786 393 566 212 87 627 967 095

332310 Plate work and fabricated structural product manufacturing 134 816 245 0.44 4 3 8 118 987 307 95 127 48 971 352 998

332991 Ball and roller bearing manufacturing 40 513 662 0.17 1 2 3 776 385 245 21 162 25 851 399 834

332114 Custom roll forming 154 116 144 0.65 5 9 11 392 952 735 60 046 60 741 397 345

33211A All other forging, stamping, and sintering 131 496 036 0.50 4 4 9 918 713 914 42 633 51 172 191 468
59

6 Summary and Recommendations for Future Research

Advances in efficiency are often achieved through competition among private firms; 

however, barriers to efficiency improvement can surpass the ability of any single firm. In 

these situations, publicly-funded research can advance efficiency; however, there is a 

need to identify the efforts that might have the largest impact per dollar of investment. 

This report identifies and reviews data on manufacturing activity and provides a model of 

industry operations activity. The method is described and then illustrated using the 

automobile manufacturing industry. This method focuses on top down data; however, 

there was some discussion of bottom up data. Section 6.1 provides a summary of the 

method and the illustrated case study and Section 6.2 provides recommendations for 

future research.

6.1 Summary 

The final analysis examines automotive manufacturing qualitatively and quantitatively 

using input-output analysis combined with other industry data to estimate industry 

operations activity. Using input-output analysis, the proportion of inter-industry 

interactions is used to estimate the labor and other resources that are dedicated to the 

specified industry of study, in this case automotive manufacturing. The aggregated 

dataset layout, illustrated in Table 4-1, is a 1238 by 397 matrix resulting in over 490 000 

information points on the US economy with over 290 000 being related to manufacturing. 

That is, the model provides over 490 000 categories of information covering 

compensation costs, taxes, gross operating surplus, labor hours, production time, 

environmental impacts, natural resource use, energy consumption by end use (e.g., 

heating/cooling and production processes), and building capital. Compensation and other 

labor related activities are broken into over 800 different occupations for each industry. 

Industry data is broken into over 300 NAICS code categories for each industry. 

Environmental and natural resource consumption is broken into 12 TRACI categories for 

each industry. This model includes the resources used in US manufacturing and its US 

based supply chain.

The total value added for new vehicles, calculated from the 2007 BEA IO data, 

associated with the production of new vehicles was $186.3 billion. Approximately 

53.6 % of the value added went to compensation of employees, 41.4 % went toward 

owners/investors, and 5.0 % went to the government in the form of taxes (note that this 

only includes taxes on imports and production less subsidies). Unsurprisingly, the most 

costly labor category is production occupations for manufacturing vehicle parts and 

assembly at $24.3 billion or 13 % of the total value added. The second costliest is 

management and business occupations for vehicle parts and assembly at $4.9 billion or 

2.6 % of the total value added. It is interesting to note that transportation and material 

moving occupations for all industries is $6.7 billion or 3.6 % of the total value added. 

The total value added of process energy (i.e., the sum of NAICS 221100-A through 

221100-F), which represents the energy for manufacturing processes associated with 

automobile manufacturing, was $652 million or 0.3 % of the total value added. Facility 

heating, cooling, lighting, and other facility support was $210 million or 0.1 % of the 

total value added. Wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and warehousing along with 
60

transportation and material moving occupations from other industries, which are 

activities that do not alter the final product, is 18.1 % of the total value added for new 

automobile production or 30.9 % of costs (excluding depreciation of capital).

The model presented also facilitates identifying those areas of production that consume 

the most resources. Three categories of resources are discussed: time, labor, and natural 

resources. Labor is categorized by industry by industry by occupation. Time is broken 

into industry by stage (materials inventory, work in process, work in process down time, 

and final goods inventory). The final category, natural resources, is broken into industry; 

however, this category was discussed only briefly. To utilize this model, a change agent 

might examine the various resources consumed in an area of manufacturing of interest. 

As was shown focusing on automobile manufacturing, a change agent could identify the 

areas of highest resource consumption. For example, ‘industrial machinery mechanics’ is 

among the highest cost activities. The change agent might focus their efforts in this area. 

As the model presented in this report develops further, a more formal approach may be 

developed. 

6.2 Recommendations for Future Research 

There are two categories of future research: research to advance the accuracy of the 

model and research to advance the detail of the model. To advance the accuracy there is a 

need to temporally extend the model. Due to the nature of the data, the model is based on 

2007 data; however, data is available on an annual basis that can be used to make 

estimates for more recent years. These estimates will provide a more up to date analysis 

while also providing an opportunity to examine how resource use is changing over time. 

Much of the data provides relative standard error estimates. Using these estimates along 

with Monte Carlo analysis can provide insight into the error bands for the model. Another 

potential area of future research is to update the data on environmental impacts and 

natural resource use. The model currently utilizes 2002 data adjusted to 2007. Updating 

this data will provide a more accurate estimate. 

In addition to research to advance the accuracy of the model, efforts can extend the 

details of the model. The model is systematically categorized by NAICS, SOC, and other 

categorization, making it feasible to collect data that augments the model. One potential 

area for expansion is in transportation. Currently, the four categories of inventory time 

engulf transportation; therefore, it is not explicitly broken out. Data is available from the 

Department of Transportation that might break out this detail. On site electricity 

production is another area that could be expanded. The current model does not estimate 

the production and end use of this type of electricity, but data is available that would 

allow such an estimate. For a thorough understanding of time use in the supply chain, it is 

necessary to chronologically map the industry supply chain using NAICS codes. 

Currently, the model broke industries into steps and took an average of those steps. Also, 

the model does not examine the resources expended in the use of the final product. Data 

is available that might be used to make estimates of the resources consumed for these 

purposes. 
61
62

References

Barr, Nicholas. 2012. Economics of the Welfare State. 5th Edition. (Oxford University 

Press, Oxford, UK: 2012) 43-44. 

Besanko, David and Ronald R. Braeutigam. Microeconomics. 2nd edition. (John Wiley & 

Sons, Hoboken, NJ: 2005).

Blain, Patrick. Steel Perspectives for the Automotive Industry. Presentation on May 31st, 

2012. <http://www.oecd.org/industry/ind/50498824.pdf>

Bureau of Economic Analysis. November 2014. Input-Output Accounts Data. 

<http://www.bea.gov/industry/io_annual.htm>

Bureau of Economic Analysis. September 2006. Concepts and Methods of the US InputOutput Accounts. <http://www.bea.gov/papers/pdf/IOmanual_092906.pdf>

Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Employment Statistics. 

<http://www.bls.gov/oes/>

Census Bureau. “Annual Survey of Manufactures.” < 

http://www.census.gov/manufacturing/asm/>

Charting technology’s new directions: A conversation with MIT’s Erik Brynjolfsson at 

McKinsey&Company Insights & Publications at 

http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_tech_telecoms_internet/charting_technologys_n

ew_directions_a_conversation_with_mits_erik_brynjolfsson

Contribution of the Automotive Industry to the Economies of All Fifty States and the 

United States, Center for Automotive Research, January 2015, p.30

Costs and Cost Effectiveness of Additive Manufacturing: A Literature Review. 

December 2014. NIST Special Publication 1176. 

<http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.1176.pdf>

Energy Information Administration. Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey. 

<http://www.eia.gov/consumption/manufacturing/>

Freight Analysis Framework. 2007. <http://faf.ornl.gov/fafweb/Extraction2.aspx>

Helper, Susan and Mari Sako. 2010 "Management Innovation in Supply Chain: 

Appreciating Chandler in the Twenty-First Century." Industrial and Corporate Change. 

Vol 19(issue 2): 399-429.

Horowitz, Karen J. and Mark A. Planting. September 2006. Concepts and Methods of the 

Input-Output Accounts. <http://www.bea.gov/papers/pdf/IOmanual_092906.pdf>
63

Lang, Nikolaus S. Stefan Mauerer, Marcos Aguiar, Ewald Kreid, Arindam Bhattacharya, 

and Christoph Nettesheim. January 2010. Winning the BRIC Auto Markets: Achieving 

Deep Localization in Brazil, Russia, India, and China. 

<https://www.bcgperspectives.com/content/articles/automotive_globalization_winning_t

he_bric_auto_markets/>

Larrode, Emilio, Jose Maria Moreno-Jimenez, and M. Victoria. 04/2012 "An AHPMulticriteria Suitability Evaluation of Technological Diversification in the Automotive 

Industry." International Journal of Production Research. Vol. 50(issue 17): 4889-4907.

Maxton, Graeme P, John Wormald. Time for a Model Change: Re-engineering the 

Global Automotive Industry. (Cambridge University Press, New York, NY: 2004): 143.

National Institute of Standards and Technology. “NIST General Information.” 

<http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/general_information.cfm>

Navarro, Peter. “The Power of Microeconomics: Economic Principles in the Real 

World.” Coursera. Paul Merage School of Business, University of California at Irving. 

<https://www.coursera.org/learn/principles-of-microeconomics>

OICA. 2014 Production Statistics. <http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/>

RS Means Mechanical Cost Data. (RS Means, Kingston, MA: 2005). 28th Edition. 558.

Society for Computer Simulation. GENTLE: Generalized Transfer Line Emulation. 

Proceedings of the Conference on Simulation in Inventory and Production Control. San 

Diego, CA: 25-30. 

Rotman, David. June 12, 2013. “How Technology is Destroying Jobs.” 

<http://www.technologyreview.com/featuredstory/515926/how-technology-isdestroying-jobs/>

Suh, S. Developing a sectoral environmental database for input-output analysis: the 

comprehensive environmental data archive of the US, Eco. Sys. Research., 2005, 17: 4, 

449-469.

Sullivan, L.P. 1987 "The Power of Taguchi Methods to Impact Change in US 

Companies." 22. <http://www.ame.org/sites/default/files/documents/87Q2A4.pdf>

Tassey, Gregory. Methods for Assessing the Economic Impacts of Government R&D. 

Planning Report 03-1. <http://www.nist.gov/director/planning/upload/report03-1.pdf>

Thomas G.P. "The Future of Steel in the Automotive Industry - An interview with Cees 

ten Broek." <http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=10538>

Thomas, Douglas S. and Stanley Gilbert. December 2014. Costs and Cost Effectiveness 

of Additive Manufacturing: A Literature Review. NIST Special Publication 1176. 

<http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.1176.pdf>
64

Thomas, Douglas S. August 2013. Economics of the US Additive Manufacturing 

Industry. NIST Special Publication 1163. <http://www.nist.gov/manuscript-publicationsearch.cfm?pub_id=913515>

Thomas, Douglas S. March 2012. The Current State and Recent Trends in 

Manufacturing. Special Publication 1129. 

<http://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.1142.pdf>

Thomas, Douglas S. The US Manufacturing Value Chain: An International Perspective. 

February 2014. NIST Technical Note 1810. 

<http://www.nist.gov/customcf/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=914022>

Ulgen, O. and Gunal, A. (1998) Simulation in the Automobile Industry, in Handbook of 

Simulation: Principles, Methodology, Advances, Applications, and Practice. ed J. Banks. 

(John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA: 1998): 547

US Census Bureau. “Survey of Plant Capacity Utilization: How the Data are Collected.” 

<http://www.census.gov/manufacturing/capacity/how_the_data_are_collected/ 

index.html>

US Census Bureau. Annual Survey of Manufactures. 

<http://www.census.gov/manufacturing/asm/index.html>

Wu, Hsin-Hung and Ya-Ning Tsai. January 2012. "Using AHP to evaluate the criteria of 

auto spare parts industry." Quality &Quantity. Vol 46(issue 1): 359-364.