COMMERCIAL

STANDARDS

MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S. A.

Vol. 6, No. 9 MARCH, 1930

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C* Sec page 3 of cover for prices
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. Lamont, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

George K. Burgess, Director

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

S. F. Tillman, Editor

DIVISIONS OF THE COMMERCIAL STANDARDIZATION GROUP

DIVISION OF SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE, Edwin VV. Ely.

The division of simplified practice was formed in November,

1921, to provide a clearing house or centralizing agency through

which the manufacturer, distributor, and consumer groups

could meet to discuss their common problems and decide upon

eliminations which would prove of mutual benefit to all con- cerned. The activities of the division are purely cooperative

in character. It orders nothing; it dictates nothing; the ini- tiative must come from business itself. It has no regulatory nor police powers to enforce adherence to the simplified-practice

recommendations that industry develops under the auspices

of the United States Department of Commerce. Its chief function is to serve as a neutral meeting ground for the purpose

of bringing together producers, distributors, and consumers, whose aims are sometimes divergent and possibly antagonistic,

and who would be unwilling to cooperate, except through some

unbiased central agency. Following the approval of the tentative simplified-practice recommendation by a general conference

of all interested elements thereof, the project is then presented

to the entire industry by letter referendum for its approval and

written acceptance, the publication and indorsement of the recommendation on the part of the Department of Commerce

being deiiendent upon acceptance of the program by at least 80 per cent, by volume, of the manufacturers, distributors, and

users"concerned. AMERICAN] MARINE STANDARDS COM’TEE, A. V. Bouillon.

The American Marine Standards Committee was organized

to promote simplification of practice and elimination of waste

in the marine and allied industries. It is composed of indi- viduals, coriiorations, societies. Government departments, public bodies, or other organizations or groups engaged in building

or operating ships, port facilities, and related activities. It works in close cooperation with official agencies, but its activities are controlled by an executive board elected annually

by and from the membership. For further information, write

direct to the secretary, A. V. Bouillon, Room 713, Department

of Commerce, Washington, D. C. DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS, I. J. Fairchild.

The commercial standards unit, now known as division of trade standards, was created on October 1, 1927, for the purpose

of aiding those industrial and commercial groups desiring to establish standards of grades, cpiality, or measurements for their products or their purchases on a purely voluntary basis. The division functions only at the direct request of the in- dustry concerned. Its procedure is similar to that of the divi- sion of simplified practice, except that at least 65 per cent of the industry, by volume of annual production, must accept

the commercial standard in writing before it is published by

the Department of Commerce. A certification plan is applied

DIVISION OF TRADE STANDARDS—Continue^

on request as a means of increasing the effectiveness of such

standards. Provision is made for regular revision of the standard

through the appointment of a standing committee to consider

periodically any necessity for revision of the standard, in order that it may be kept constantly compatible with progress in the

industry.

DIVISION OF SPECIFICATIONS, A. S. McAllister.

The duties of the division of specifications are to promote and

facilitate the use and unification of specifications. In doing so

it carries on activities involving cooperation with technical

societies; trade associations; Federal, State, and municipal

Government specifications making and using agencies; producers, distributors, and consumers; and testing and research

laboratories. The cooperation with technical societies and

trade associations includes ascertaining the standardization

and specification promoting activities of these organizations,

and bringing to their attention the work being done by the commercial standardization group. The cooperation with

producers involves the compilation of lists of manufacturers

who have expressed their willingness to certify to purchasers,

upon request, that material supplied by them on contracts based on certain Federal specifications or commercial standards comply with the requirements thereof. The division prepares

the directories of governmental and nongovernmental testing

laboratories; the Directory of Specifications; and is working

on an encyclopedia of specifications, the first volume of which.

Standards and Specifications in the Wood-Using Industries, has been issued. It also aids in preparing the Standards Yearbook. BUILDING AND HOUSING DIVISION, J. S. Taylor.

The division of building and housing cooperates with business, technical, and professional groups in, practically all its undertakings on building and housing. Its work to modernize

buildmg codes and to encourage improved standards for the

quality of building construction promotes the practical application of the latest development in design and use of build- ing materials. This division was also formed in 1921. In furthering home ownership, an effort is made to develop an enlarged, steadier, more intelligent, and more discriminating

demand for soundly built dwellings, the largest single class of buildings which the construction industries provide. The

division also cooperates with many business and professional groups in efforts to distribute building activity more evenly

throughout the year, and to secure less fluctuation from year

to year. The work on city planning and zoning has in mind

the broad objective of buildings made more useful because

well located with respect to other buildings, a well-coordinated

street system, and appropriate public works. Good city

planning and zoning likewise encourages stability in land

values and property uses, and thereby contributes to the demand for durable structures.

Except where otherwise indicated, for further information address

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

WASHINGTON, D. C.
COMMERCIAL STANDARDS MONTHLY

A Review of Progress in

Commercial Standardization and Simplification

Volume G WASHINGTON, D. C., MARCH, 1930 Number 9

CONTENTS

FEATURE ARTICLES

Page Gasoline characteristics controllable by specifications 261

Simplification and standardization 266

Simplification the keynote in production management- _ 275

Standardization movement in Japan 271 Standard of minimum requirements for air-passenger

transportation being prepared 279

BUILDING AND HOUSING NEWS

Consulting expert appointed 286

FOREIGN NEWS

Annual contribution to British Engineering Standards

Association increased 283

German handbook for draftsmen 286

German mining standardization 277

Standardization in Australia 276

MARINE STANDARD NEWS

Standard condenser ferrules and tube sheets 269

Standard locks for ship doors proposed 290

Wire ropes specification approved 288

RESEARCH NEWS

Care and adjustment of paper folding testers 268

Chemically treated timber in demand 277 Chromium plating research 281 Commercial research valuable 265

Effect of light on silver chloride 278

Gas analysis technique improved 280

Radio oscillator test apparatus 280

Rayon deficient as paper-making material 283

SIMPLIFICATION NEWS

Page Arbor holes 289

Automobile tire sizes reduced 288

Containers for ice cream 289

Cooperation of trade associations 280

Department store' packaging survey 284

Inflated rubber toy balls 290

Skid platform schedule revised 289

Standard can sizes are proposed by packing industry 282

SPECIFICATION NEWS

Index to Federal Standard Stock Catalogue now available. 265

New England Council establishes marketing standards. _ 288

Purchasing methods of householders 269

STANDARDIZATION (GENERAL) NEWS

American Standards Association notes 270

Drainage of coal mines 286

Flexible cord standard raised 278

1929 fruitful year for American Society for Testing Materials 278

New requirements for weighing devices for concrete aggregates 281

Radio-signal transmissions of standard frequency 278

Safety in coal-mine transportation 276

SmaU-dimension lumber bulletin available 283

Standard methods of purchasing road-building equipment 289

Testing railroad track scales 290

Uniformity is urged to cut airplane costs 287

TRADE STANDARDS NEWS

Feldspar 287

Foundry patterns of wood 268

Interchangeable ground glass joints 288

Screw thread tables for shop use 287

Special screw threads 287

AN INVITATION TO VISIT THE BUREAU OF STANDARDS

An interesting fact in the growth of the bureau is the steady increase in the number of visitors. From all over the world experts come to see the work in progress in many specialties. Not alone the

experts but in growing numbers many of our people visit the bureau from a public-spirited desire to acquaint themselves with its research work. All visitors, from the newspapermen, who have called the

bureau a “house of wonders,” to the speciahsts, who use its services, are welcome, for it is their bureau

in a very real sense. They are the owners of the business and its beneficiaries. The annual per capita

cost of 2 cents which the average citizen pays toward the operation of the bureau yields returns sometimes a hundredfold or a thousandfold. How science turns wastes into profits, increases the useful fife of materials, adds new efficiencies to industry, advances new arts, such as aviation and radio, by research

and discovery—these are to be seen first-hand in the scientific and technical laboratories of the bureau.

A cordial invitation is extended to all citizens interested in scientific progress to visit the laboratories

of the Bureau of Standards when in Washington. A personally conducted trip is organized at 2.15 p. m.

daily except on holidays. Special trips for groups may be arranged at other times by writing to the

bureau in advance. The bureau’s illustrated Visitor’s Manual may be had for the asking. This lists the work in progress and gives an airplane view of the ensemble and a brief statement of typical discoveries and inventions which have been notable, basic contributions to radio, aviation, and other modern

arts and industries.

George K. Burgess, Director.

98752—30 1 (259)
QUALITY-GUARANTEEING LABELS

Labeling of specification-made goods assists the producer

in marketing these goods and facilitates the

purchase of such goods by the public

WHE assistance which quality

labeling can give the individual consumer in his or her daily purchases is receiving attention in the merchandising industry to-day.

Quality labeling assists the manufacturers and dealers in obtaining the

maximum benefit to be reali^^ed from the mass production, mass distribution,

and mass consumption of such of their commodities as comply with the re- quirements of nationally recognised specifications and also encourages the

small quantity “over-the-counter” buyer to purchase staple goods that are guaranteed to comply with such specifications.

Purchases made on quality labeled goods will pass along to the “over-thecounter” buyer (the nonspecifications-using public) some of the benefits

derived by the contract buyer from using nationally recognised specifications.

Such labels are now being employed by many manufacturers frequently co- operating under the auspices of their trade associations.

Quality labels give to the individual consumers, as well as the organised

producers, the benefit of tests and investigations, the result of such research

being placed at the disposal of committees formulating nationally recognised

specifications (which may or may not be those of the Federal Government).

Their use encourages firms to manufacture goods to comply with, or to

exceed, the requirements of these specifications, and facilitates the buying of

specification-made goods.

Advertising which identifies one or more trade-branded articles of a producer as complying with certain nationally recognised specifications, is supplementary to, but not a substitute for, trade-brand advertising and other

phases of trade-brand sales promotion work. A label on goods manufactured

in accordance with the nationally [recognised specifications indicates to the

buyer that the producer has attempted to comply with the requirements of

such specification, or to exceed such requirements.

The significance and strength of the quality-guaranteeing label will be

appreciated when consideration is given to the fact that the label is in reality an announcement to the public that the producer is staking his reputation on

the compliance of the labeled commodity with the specification requirements.
261

GASOLINE CHARACTERISTICS CONTROLLABLE BY SPECIFICATIONS

Distinction Between Different Grades of Gasoline Explained; Specifications Should Contain Basic Requirements as Developed Through Research; Federal Specifications for Gasoline Cited as Example

H. C. Dickinson, Bureau of Standards

When gasoline was a by-product, mainly from

Appalachian crude oils, it was tested and sold on a

basis of density or Baume gravity. When a wider

variety of crudes became available and it became

profitable to put into gasoline for motor-car fuel as wide a range of volatilities as the trade would accept,

the Engle'r distillation test was generally adopted and

standardized by the American Society for Testing

Materials. This has largely displaced the gravity test as an index of gasoline

quality although “ gravity ”

is still occasionally used and

usually misinterpreted.

It was not until about

1920 that any serious and

systematic effort was made

to determine what gasoline

for use as a commercial

automobile fuel ought to be. It is sometimes a long step

from a knowledge of what

a product ought to be to a

specification including in- structions as to how it shall

be tested. Gasoline is a complex, not

a simple material. It is made up of an indefinite

number of compounds known

as hydrocarbons derived

from petroleum. These com- pounds differ not only in

volatility, or the ease of

evaporation, but in other

properties as well, notably

in their tendency to knock

when used in high-compression engines or when too much carbon is present.

Final product has different

properties.

The final product—gasoline—has different properties, depending upon which of the various compounds

are present and in what proportions. And this, again,

is affected by the nature of the crude oil from which

the gasoline is refined. Moreover, at present the crude

sources of gasoline include not only the natural crude

oils but crudes produced by any one of several cracking processes, which produce oils differing from any

of the natural petroleums and from each other. It

is obvious, therefore, that gasolines which can be produced and marketed on a commercial basis will differ

radically in composition in different parts of the country and at different times.

Specifications are often so drawn as merely to identify some particular product known to be good

rather than to define all and only such products as

will give good service. However, if cost is to be kept

down, one must leave all possible leeway for the use of different products in specifying the qualities of

gasoline. Therefore, only those tests should be in- cluded in the specifications which relate directly to the behavior of the gasoline in service.

The early gasoline specifications were not so drawn.

They contained some tests which did not relate at all to use and others whose rela- tion to behavior in service was not well known.

For the past six years

the National Bureau of

Standards has been studying the behavior of gasolines of all sorts in engines

of different kinds, in the

laboratory and on the road,

and has found out much

about what is required of a good gasoline.

Volatility.

Of these requirements the

most obvious is volatility, or

the ease with which the fuel

is evaporated. Volatility is usually tested by distillation

of the fuel under standard

conditions, which are fully

described by the American

Society for Testing Material. After several years’

work on the subject, this test has been so well related to performance of the fuel in

the engine that, given the re- quirements of the engine, the

desired volatility can be determined by the laboratory

test. The next question,

therefore is. What does the

engine require of a fuel in

order that it may perform properly under all sorts of

conditions ? Engine requirements.

The main items in this catalogue of requirements

are somewhat as follows: The engine must start. To

be sure, the oil and the battery and the starting motor

have much to do with this, but we are discussing fuel

and must assume that these other elements are in

order. To start an engine requires that enough of the

fuel shall vaporize at the existing temperature to form

an explosive mixture. Since only the lighter fractions of the gasoline will vajDOrize at starting temperature, and since the lower the temperature the less will

When a motorist drives into a filling sta- tion to replenish his gasoline supply, he is confronted with a battery of pumps con- taining gasolines of various brands and colors. He can exercise his choice and select a brand or a color which appeals to him.

If he is disappointed in the performance

of the engine with this fuel, he can change

to another gasoline in a few days, for he

has only purchased a few gallons.

When the Government- obtains gasoline,

however, it purchases large quantities at a time, and the purchase is made under contract in which the lowest bid must generally be accepted. If an unsatisfactory

fuel is obtained, many months must pass

before a new supply can be procured.

Hence, the Government purchases according to specification in order to make sure

that a good gasoline will be obtained.

In his article. Doctor Dickinson, chief,

heat and power division of the National

Bureau of Standards, says : “ In order

that a gasoline may be satisfactory, it must give satisfactory engine performance. This is the real criterion for a good

gasoline, and is the one which is used by

the Government in drawing ujd specifications.”
262

vaporize, excess fuel must be added to supply enough

of the lighter portions to produce an explosion.

It has been found that a well-designed choke mechanism will enable the carburetor to supply for start- ing, a mixture of about 1 pound of fuel per pound

of air; that is, from twelve to fifteen times the nor- mal amount of fuel. A long series of careful tests has shown how to determine with some accuracy, the

temperature at which any given fuel will start, assuming a 1 to 1 mixture ratio as noted above.

Incidentally, the method of measuring the starting

ability of a gasoline, as well as its temperature of

complete evaporation, which will be discussed next,

is the standard American Society for Testing Materials distillation test referred to above, which is al- most universally used in this country for measuring

the volatility of gasoline. (See American Society for

Testing Materials Book of Standards, 1927, or Bureau

of Mines Technical Paper 323B, or current revision

thereof.)

Starting temperature computation.

When the test is applied to a gasoline and the

temperature at which 10 per cent is distilled, to- gether with the percentage distillation loss, is determined as explained in the test procedure, the starting

temperature can be computed with sufficient accuracy

from this 10 per cent temperature corrected for loss. Table 1, gives the practical starting temperature

for a series of gasolines determined in this way.

From this it is shown that different grades of gasoline may well be used at different seasons of the

year. In January or February a gasoline with 10

per cent off at 101° or 122° F. might be desirable,

whereas in July one with 10 per cent off at 176° F.

might be preferable. The latter might be cheaper

and certainly would be less liable to vapor lock, which we will discuss later. Losses in storage would also be

much less for the 176° F. gasoline.

Table 1

10 per

cent

American

Society

for Testing Materials

Star ting femperature

° C. ° F. ° F.

40 104 -22

50 122 -9

(iO 140 1 70 158 12 80 170 23

Under operating conditions air and gasoline spray

enter the manifold of an automobile engine. Here

they are intimately mixed by turbulence of the air

stream, heated to some extent by contact with the

walls of the manifold and enter the cylinders in

about the correct proportions. Entrance through

the intake valve still further increases the turbulence

and consequent mixing of the charge.

Evaporation is gradual.

Generally, the liquid is not all evaporated at this

stage; probably some of it is in the form of small

droplets which are further vaporized by mixing witli the residual hot exhaust gases in the cylinder and by

contact with the hot cylinder wall during compression of the charge before ignition. Hence, under

ordinary running conditions little, if any, liquid

should remain at the time of ignition.

What little gasoline may remain in the form of

droplets suspended in the air at the end of the compresssion stroke is probably vaporized and burned

during the power stroke. However, if the cylinder

walls, with their film of lubricant, are at too low a temperature, liquid particles striking them will be

dissolved in the oil film, or, under extreme conditions, fuel vapor may be condensed on the walls.

The oil thus diluted in the cylinder is interchanged

with oil in the crank case by the reciprocating action

of the piston, and thus dilutes the crank-case oil.

IfO

aao

aoo

1 80

liO

lio “c

ia.0

1 00

St

to

**0

ao

0 0 10 ao 30 fo 50 to 70 80 <jo (00 ftrcent fvaporftteW A good gasoline must vaporize in the manifold

sufficiently to avoid too much crank-case dilution and

to give good distribution of the fuel to the different

cylinders. Before crank-case ventilators and other

devices for removing fuel from the oil in the crank

case became common, the limit in use of heavier or

less volatile fuels was set by crank-case dilution.

This may not be so at present, but, in any case, ex- perience has shown that for practical purposes a fuel is not satisfactory if too much of it remains unvaporized, nor is it entirely satisfactory if too volatile

and, therefore, vaporizes too readily.

Gage of volatility.

For a long time the usual gage of volatility in re- spect to the completeness of evaporation was the “ end

point ” of the distillation. It was shown, however, some years ago that this is not at all a good measure

of Amlatility, but that the temperature of the 90 per

cent of the distillation is a much better measure; in

fact, a very satisfactory one. This is the point, therefore, which is stressed in the

Federal specification, and should be so in any specifi-
263

cation. In fact, it -would be better to omit the end

point entirely as it is both inaccurate and misleading.

Table 2 gives the de-w points, -which are the same

as the temperatures at which all of the fuel would

evaporate, in a mixture of 16 pounds of air per pound

of fuel. This is a somewhat leaner mixture than is commonly used in an engine, but the temperature

given would permit almost complete vaporization of

the fuel in the usual mixture.

TAsr.E 2

90 per

cent

American

Society

for Testing Materials

16-1 Dew

point

“C. op °C. °F.

120 248 3 37

140 284 17 S3

160 320 31 88 180 356 45 113 200 392 59 138 220 428 73 163

The sample marked 200° C. (392° F.) represents the current Federal specification limit. This gasoline

would vaporize completely at 138° F. in a 16 to 1 air-fuel ratio. Experience in service has shown this

to be a fairly satisfactory motor fuel. The average

gasoline throughout the country meets this requirement, and it appears to be a good limit to set for ordinary motor fuel which is not intended for use under

specially adverse conditions.

Cause of vapor lock.

A gasoline should not be too volatile, since it may

cause vapor lock. Vapor lock is caused by the boilino- of the fuel’ in the gasoline line or the carburetor, and

often results in stopping the engine, after which one must wait for the fuel to cool down before starting.

Vapor pressure is the property of a gasoline which

determines its tendency to boil in the fuel line or car- buretor, and, hence, cause engine stoppage due to vapor lock. The higher the vapor pressure, the

greater is the possibility that vapor lock will occur. Table 3 gives the gas-free vapor pressures in pounds

per square inch, for a series of gasolines when heated

to a temperature of 100° F. The lightest of these

gasolines will almost boil at this temperature.

Table 3

10 per

cent

American

Society

for Testing

Materials

Vapor pressures

100° F.

°C. °F. Mm. Lbs./in.^ 40 104 720 13.9 50 122 545 10.5 60 140 415 8.0

70 158 310 6.0 80 176 235 4.5

The vapor pressures of gasolines, excluding those

undesirable fuels which are not properly stabilized,

is related to the 10 per cent point in the distillation

test. In fact, trouble from vapor lock will almost

certainly occur if the temperature of the gasoline in

the fuel lines exceeds the 10 per cent temperature.

Trouble did not always exist.

Formerly this trouble did not often happen, since

there was a dearth of volatile fractions in most gasolines. Of late, cracking processes and increased re- covery of natural-gas gasoline have changed this. At

present volatile fractions are plentiful and gasolines are often too “ good ” at the 10 per cent point. To

avoid trouble from vapor lock, the Federal Specifications Board has included a lower, as well as an

upiier, limit to the 10 per cent point of Government

gasoline. This appears to be the best solution of

the difficult}". It is not wise to make the lower limit too high as this would limit competition and raise

the price. There is hardly any need of a lower limit

in winter unless one forgets to open the radiator

shutters.

In specifications, like those of the United States

Government which apply to Government purchases

throughout the country at all times, these limits must

be as wide as possible to meet all conditions without

limiting competition. Some discretion is left to the

jjurchasing officer, as will appear when the detailed

Federal specifications are considered. Where purchases are made locally under specifications which can

be modified at will to meet local or temporary conditions, it may be desirable to require difi'erent limits

for the 10 per cent point under diffei’ent climatic or operating conditions.

But for the tendency of fuels to knock or detonate

when the compression ratio is raised, much more

power and better economy could be had in automotive

engines.

Subject given study in recent years.

It is only within the past four or five years that this

subject has been given much attention, and even yet we have no uniform and generally accepted test for

the rating of fuels in this regard, as we have for

volatility. As a result there is much confusion in the

industry and among users of fuels as to relative qualities of different fuels on the market.

Broadly speaking, there are four classes of fuels on

the mai’ket which are better than straight distillate gasoline from Appalachian crude oils in knock rating

these are (A) California and west coast oils, which

are high in aromatic comiDounds; (B) cracked gasolines, particularly vapor phase cracked products; (C)

blends of gasoline with benzol and other coal-tar

derivatives; and (D) blends with tetraethyl-lead.

Classes (A) and (B), particularly the lattei’, may rate anywhere between wide limits. Classes (C) and (D), on the other hand, can he accurately controlled by the

producers and, in general, are kept to a rather definite

-standard; this is particularly true of class (D).

While the knock characteristics of fuels are, per- haps, as important as any of the other items noted,

there is at present no accepted means of defining or specifying the knock rating. However, a group of

interested parties is very actively stud}"ing the problem and experiments are being made jointly in a dozen different laboratories, from which it is hoped

that a rating system soon will be decided upon.

Tlie only means so far found of measuring fuel

knock is to test it in an engine, and the plan of the

grouj) working on the problem is to devise a standard

engine and a standard test procedure for this purpose.
264

An experimental engine has been designed and supplied to all the laboratories concerned. Until an ac- ceptable standard method of knock rating is found,

it is best to postpone any specifications for the knock

characteristics of fuels. 50 per cent point less important than 10 per cent. One other purely physical proper!}^ of fuels is in- cluded in the Federal specifications, viz, the 50 per

cent point of the distillation curve. Careful tests have shown that this point is of much less importance

than the 10 and the 90 per cent point, but being of some value as an index to the general behavior of a gasoline in the warming-up period, it may well be

included in any general specification for gasoline.

Rarely, a sample of gasoline is found to leave a deposit of gum on intake-valve stems and in the in- take manifold. This fault has become somewhat more common of late, since cracked gasolines, which are more liable to form gums, have been increasing in

amount. This is a fault which shoixld be avoided.

The “ copper-dish ” test, described in Bureau of

Mines Technical Paper 323B, is commonly used to measure gum-forming tendencies of gasoline. This

test is not very satisfactory. Some gasolines which

deposit gum in the test give no trouble in the engine.

It is a fairly safe test, however, in that gasoline which

passes is not likely to give trouble. This test is not included in the Federal specification for motor gasolines but is included in those for aviation gasolines.

Much work is being done by several laboratories to- ward devising a better test for gum formation and more satisfactory test methods are under development.

If trouble is experienced from gum formation, tbe

copper-dish test may be adopted until a better test

is developed.

One foreign element almost always present in crude

oil and in gasoline is sulphur. This may occur as sulphur in solution or as any one of several sulphur

compounds. Tavo sorts of damage are chargeable to sulphur: {a) Corrosion of fuel lines and fittings, and

(6) corrosion in the crank case. Corrosion of fuel lines uncommon.

Corrosion of fuel lines {a) is not common, as nearly

all gasoline is refined to meet the copper-strip cor- rosion test. Like the other tests mentioned above,

this has been standardized and is described in the

Federal specifications, as well as by the American

Society for Testing Materials. It is a part of the

Federal specifications, and should be included in any

other specification for motor gasoline.

Corrosion in the crank case (6) is a much more

insidious and serious fault Avhen it occurs. The cause was definitely discovered only a few years ago. When

sulphur is burned along with the fuel, it forms SO2 , some of which leaks past the piston rings, and, combining with Avater when present in the crank case, forms corrosive acids. The acid attacks any exposed

surfaces, particularly bearing surfaces, in the colder

parts of the crank case where moisture condenses.

When there is no condensation of water in the crank

case, corrosion is not serious, while with Avater pres- ent probably some corrosion takes place even without

sulphur in the fuel. Water collects normally in cold

weather and particularly Avhen an engine is often

stopped and started. A H-cylinder engine is less subject to water in the crank case than a 6 or an 8

cylinder engine, because with 4 cylinders the air in

the crank case is partly displaced at each stroke,

which is not the case with the other designs. Crankcase ventilators and other devices reduce or prevent

collection of water.

It is clear, therefore, that during most of the time

fuels high in sulphur might be used with impunity,

but there are times when such fuels may practically

destroy an engine in a few weeks.

Sulphur limit.

The Government requires that total sulphur be not more than 0.10 per cent which seems to be a safe limit. This limit certainly should be retained in any specifications applying to gasoline for cold-weather use, and probably is best for all gasolines, at least until

reliable data are at hand to show that the limit can

be safely raised.

Other tests, such as color, odor, gravity, staining on evaporation, etc., Avhich have been used, appear to Dear no direct relationship to engine requirements,

other than as possible indexes of qualities already

discussed.

Two of the most important characteristics of motor

fuels have been omitted entirely from the foregoing

discussion as they are omitted from usual specifications. These are the heat of combustion in British

thermal units per gallon or calories per liter of the

liquid fuel and the heat of combustion per unit volume of the explosive mixture. The former is proportional to the total amount of work which can be

obtained per gallon of fuel, the latter to the motive

poAver which can be produced by a given engine.

The reasons that these two important factors can

be neglected in specifications, are that the heats of

combustion per gallon of hydrocarbon in the gasoline

range are substantially alike, and that the heats of

combustion of the air-fuel mixtures, formed from

them, are even more nearly the same. If alcohols or blends containing them Avere to be considered the

heat of combustion of the liquid would need to be

specified, but even here the heats of combustion of

the air-fuel mixture are substantially the same. Present Government specifications which are met

by the average motor gasoline on sale, embody the

principles discussed above, in so far as the necessary

tests have been developed and generally accepted.

Accepted test methods have been the result of long

continued development, and modifications of them,

or the substitution for them of other and better

methods must necessarily also be gradual. Much is being done by the research laboratories of the Government, as well as by those of the petroleum and auto- motive industries toward the better realization of

the ideal specification for motor fuel. Federal specifications satisfactory.

If gasoline is to be purchased on specification it is believed that the present Federal specifications,

adopted last September, are a reasonably satisfactory

basis for such purchases. Copies of these specifications can be secured from the Federal Specifications

Board, National Bureau of Standards, Washington,

D. C.
265

The chart gives the distillation limits for United

States motor gasoline when the temperatures are

plotted against the per cent evaporated, assuming

an average distillation loss. The upper full line and

the lower full line at the 10 per cent point represent

maximum and minimum limits. Between these, as indicated by the dotted lines, a certain amount of

discretion is allowed to the purchaser to meet climatic conditions.

It may be well to take account of atmospheric

temperature when making purchases locally for immediate use. Thus when freezing temperatures or lower are to be expected, the upper limit at 10 per

cent evaporated well may be fixed at 149° F., al- though it is not desirable to reduce the upper limit

for fuels to be used in summer weather.

On the other hand, for fuels subject to long storage

at high temperatures, the lower limit at 10 per cent evaporated may well be raised to 131° F. This limit,

however, shouid not be set unless conditions require

it, because gasoline purchased on this basis may not

start as readily as would otherwise be the case.

If a special high-test gasoline is to be purchased on specification for such purpose as operation of fire apparatus, ambulances, and emergency vehicles in

cold weather, a special grade of gasoline, motor fuel V,

is provided for in Federal specifications.

As for the antiknock characteristics of gasolines, as noted above, no satisfactory basis for specification

exists at present. If the grade of straight gasoline

procured does not knock, no improvement in operation

of the vehicle is to be expected from the use of special

antiknock gasolines of like volatility, although there

may be increased satisfaction in the use of the latter. On the other hand, if serious knocking occurs with

ordinary gasoline, there should be a gain in mileage

and in horsepower and a saving in upkeep cost by

the use of fuels having better antiknock qualities.

Since the need for antiknock gasolines varies widely

with the type of equipment and the conditions of operation, the user must determine whether the added

advantages justify the increased cost under any particular set of circumstances.

.INDEX TO FEDERAL STANDARD STOCK

CATALOGUE NOW AVAILABLE

Index and Certain Sections Published and on Sale Under

Auspices of Catalogue Board

The General Index and certain parts of the Federal

Standard Stock Catalogue are now available for purchase from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., according to an announcement just made public by Rear Admiral

T. H. Hicks, United States Navy, chairman of the

Federal Stock Catalogue Board.

This catalogue will be printed in loose-leaf form,

for insertion in a 3-post binder, and when completed,

will comprise several volumes of approximately 3,000

pages each. Sections I and II can be included in one

binder, and other volumes, which will comprise information in Section III, will be compiled and issued

from time to time and will probably require a year or two for completion. The Federal specifications,

which comprise Section IV of the Federal Standard

Stock Catalogue, will not be issued under the plan

outlined below, but may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents direct.

The ordinary procedure in obtainirm' Government

publications is by purchasing from the Superintendent

of Documents. In order, however, that the first edition of the catalogue may be readily available to commercial and industrial establishments interested in

the publication, authority has been obtained to issue

the various parts, as fast as they are received from the

Government Printing Office, under the supervision of

the Federal Standard Stock Catalogue Board.

Will cost about $20.

It is not practicable to determine the ultimate cost of Sections I, II, and III of the catalogue at this

time, but it is believed that it will be approximately

$20, including the binder at about 75 cents. Should

the reader of the Commercial Standards Monthly

desire, therefore, to obtain a Federal Standard Stock

Catalogue with binder, it is suggested that he draw

a check for $20 to the order of “ The property ac- counting officer of the Navy,” and forward this check

to Rear Admiral T. H. Hicks (SC) United States

Navy, chairman. Federal Standard Stock Catalogue

Board, room 1149 Navy Building, Washington, D. C.

This check will be turned over to the property ac- counting officer and record will be maintained of the

cost of each part of the catalogue, as it is issued to the subscriber, and a memorandum of cost will accom- pany each shipment. In the event that the complete

catalogue costs more than $20 the subscriber will be

requested to furnish an additional sum. The catalogue will be kept up to date by addenda

indicating changes, or by reprints of pages or classes. All such addenda and reprints will be issued and

charged exactly as the original.

COMMERCIAL RESEARCH VALUABLE

Assistant Secretary of Commerce Emphasizes Present Importance of Fact Finding

In a recent radio talk the Assistant Secretary of

Commerce, Dr. Julius Klein, refuted the suggestion

that commercial research is partly nonessential and

can be cut down safely in a time of financial depression in order to reduce expenses. He claimed that at

this particular time commercial research can prove its practical usefulness most forcibly.

He gave much of the credit for the great American

commercial advance to the research activities of many

of our large business corporations, advertising agencies, and individual manufacturers, who have maintained in recent years rather extensive staffs to gather

market data, study purchasing power, chart industrial

activity, investigate living conditions and habits in

the different regions, determine actual- and potential

demand, and keep clo.sely in touch with changing

tendencies.
266

SIMPLIFICATION AND STANDARDIZATION

Aids to Manufacturers and Distributors

By Edwin W. Ely, Chief, Division of Simplified Practice

The month of December, 1929, marked the eighth

anniversary of the establishment of the division of

simplified practice as a centralizing agency for bringing together the various elements of industry, and for

indorsing and supporting their collective efforts toward eliminating the waste inherent in overdiversification of product.

That period has seen the introduction of an organized procedure of nonregulatory cooperation and its acceptance by American business. It has seen the

simplification movement recognized as an integral

part of successful management methods. Industry

is constantly improving the technique of its attack on

costs of production and distribution, through a growing reliance upon simplification and standardization

as two of j^roduction management’s most powerful

weapons. The effective use of these weapons has re- warded American industry in its effort to reduce the

spread between the prices of raw materials and those

of finished products.

Many recommendations promulgated.

The 105 simplified-practice recoimnendations now in effect testify conclusively that interest in simplification has continued to spread. Evidence of the extent

of this interest is clearly shown in the degree of adherence to programs which are audited periodically

following their first year of activity. It is futile to expect any simplified practice recom- mendations to function 100 per cent, but when it can be demonstrated that manufacturers, distributors, and consumers of a product are conforming with an established simplified list of sizes and varieties

to the extent of 80 per cent, or better, of the total volume of business, it can be said that the recom- mendation is functioning successfully. To be specific,

the average adherence to 27 of the recommendations

recently audited was found to be better than 81 per

cent. 1 The terms “ simplification,” “ simplified practice,”

“ elimination of waste,” and “ reduction in variety ” have become definitely recognized as belonging in

the vocabulary of industry, showing that knowledge

of this movement is nation-wide in extent. Applications of the principle of simplification are to be

found on every hand. Many of them have come

about through the initiative of individual firms or groups, in addition to those brought about through

the concerted activity of entire industries working

under the guidance of the division of simplified

practice.

Variety of lamps reduced.

For examjDle, a manufacturer of electric lamps

reduced his variety of lamps from 1,260 to 180 types.

Lamp base styles were cut from 179 to 3. It is in- teresting to note that he was able to reduce prices

of lamps one-half, over a period of 12 years, and

that his sales increased nearly 75 per cent in four

years. He reduced his transportation and warehousing expenses, increased the efficiency of his employees,

and can now supply the public with a better lamp

for 25 cents than it could get in 1909 for $1.

A manufacturer of self-opening and adjustable diehead chasers found that 80 per cent of his business came from 2,000 varieties—3.6 per cent of his total

line. The other 96.4 per cent, representing 53,000

varieties, brought in only 20 per cent of the business.

Among other iDenefits, elimination of the latter cut

his inventory by $225,233, saving him $13,500 a year

in interest charges, and $10,000 is reduced obsolesence

costs. Other examples of simplification, which may be

mentioned, are files and rasps, forged tools, sheet steel,

and grinding wheels, in the field of mill supplies ; and

construction materials, such as hollow building tile, roofing slate, face brick, and so forth. Eaves trough,

and conductor pipe were reduced from 21 varieties to 16 ; paving brick sizes sustained a reduction of 94 per

cent. The entire list of simplified sizes and varieties

of building materials is of great interest to anyone

who contemplates the erection of a home or other

building.

Factual surveys made.

Factual surveys of the benefits of simplified practice

have brought out estimates of savings in materials,

time, and labor, which run high into the millions

of dollars. Fully half of the industries which have

adopted simplified practice found it difficult to interpret their benefits in terms of dollars and cents be- cause of the existence of other contributing factors. All agreed, however, that the savings and benefits were

important and none cared to return to the former

condition of overdiversifications.

Documentary evidence is available in the division

of simplified practice to show that simplified practice

is yielding benefits and savings that approximate

$300,000,000 a year. Leaders in various fields and

branches of industry have provided the division with

conservative estimates regarding benefits in their

respective lines. In the following typical statements from these sources it will be noted that distributors as well as manufacturers and consumers are directly affected

:

Metal lath.—Dealer’s stocks in sizes of metal lath eliminated

under Simplified Practice Recommendation No. 3 represented an investment of $2,000,000 which they do not now have to stock. Steel reinforcing bars . —Idle stocks of manufacturing dis- tributors (of steel reinforcing bars) have been reduced from

17.5,000 to 75,000 tons, with a resulting release of capital in- vestment totaling $4,500,000.

Sheet steel. —Increased production, with fewer machine

changes, smaller stocks, and lower handling charges are esti- mated by the industry to have saved $4 a ton, or a total of

$2,400,000. When the total effect of the program is felt, it is estimated that this sum will be increased to $8,000,000.

Range hollers. —The general conference of October 30, 1923, on range boilers and expansion tanks, in addition to adopting
267

a simplified practice recommendation reducing from 130 sizes to 13, adopted standards for tappings in connection with range

boilers and expansion tanks used with piping and heating sys- tems. This makes it possible for pipe to be cut in plumbing

and gas shops instead of at the place of installation and to complete the entire job in about one-half the time formerly

required, thereby effecting a great saving to the consumer on

every boiler placed in service. The sale of new boilers for the 12 months following the adoption of the program was estimated at $1,000,000—A con- servative figure, according to the manufacturers. It was cal- culated that the immediate saving to the public would be

$4,000,000. There also was added to this initial saving another $1,500,000, representing a secondary saving in fuel con- sumption resulting from increased heating efficiencies made

possible by the new standards, according to engineers in the gas industry.

Invoices.—Thirty-five business corporations of average size were asked by the National Association of Purchasing Agents

to estimate what, in the opinion of their officers, might be

saved in their purchasing and accounting departments if all invoices received by them were on a national standard in- voice form. If these corporations estimated correctly, the annual saving of 25,000 concerns of corresponding size in the United States, Canada, and Mexico would amount to $15,500,-

000. If we discount the figure for the purpose of being conservative, the potential savings will still run into the millions

of dollars. Bank checks.—In 1928 it was estimated by the American

Bankers’ Association that 85 per cent of the bank checks then

being issued complied with the simplified form. In discussing

the simplification movement and the savings resulting from

adherence to it, it was stated by the association that the

simplified check replaces the heterogeneous shapes and sizes

in use prior to its development. It is believed by those af- fected that the universal adoption of simplified checks will mean a saving of at least $20,000,000 a year in the conduct

of the Nation’s business. Two pamphlets prepared.

A multitude of inquiries from all over the world,

both through correspondence and personal contact with foreign visitors to the division, has made it neces- sary for the division to prepare two publications

Simplified Practice, What It Is and What It Offers,

and A Primer of Simplified Practice. These books

not only serve to answer many typical questions, but

are being used as textbooks in courses in industrial

management. Many foreign visitors have published

articles and books concerning this movement, and there

are instances on record where foreign countries have

lost no time in applying the principles of simplification to their own products.

When the work of the division of simplified practice was first started industry was inclined to believe that simplification was merely another name

for standardization. Indeed, during the past eight

years the Bureau of Standards has found that any

opposition to the movement has invariably been the

result of misunderstanding of the true meaning of

simplified practice. With such misunderstanding

removed by the actual results shown on every hand,

the spirit of cooperation in industry increased

rapidly.

Manufacturers, distributors, and users within a given industry have shown a growing desire to work

with each other in solving problems of mutual interest. Also, separate industries are finding it practicable to work together toward the common end of

waste elimination, for it is now fully appreciated that

the producers in one industry are the consumers of

the products of another.

98752—30 2

Manufacturers realize that they can not fully con- summate a program of simplification without the un- derstanding and support of their distributors and

consumers, and they have also learned that they can

cooperate with each other in such matters without destroying that desirable element—competition.

This building up of confidence in an idea has suc- ceeded because all action is based upon voluntary

cooperation, initiated and carried on by industry

itself. In 1922 industry was uncertain as to the scope of the

simplification movement. In 1930 industry appreciates

the fact that simplified j^ractice means the reduction

of variety in sizes, dimensions, and immaterial differ- ences in everyday commodities as a means of eliminating waste, decreasing costs, and increasing profits

and values in production, distribution, and consumption. Simplification means concentration upon sizes and varieties that are in greatest demand.

Definition of standardization.

Standardization, based as it is upon technical re- search, tests, and experience, leads to the detei’mination of sizes, equality, and performance of a given

commodity. A list of standards may be short or long,

but the important thing is that each item must be

essentially correct. Such a list is permissive but not

mandatory. It should be carefully examined from

the viewpoint of commercial expediency, using actual

demand as a measuring stick. True simplification

then consists in selecting from the list those items on which production and sales effort can be concentrated

to the best advantage of the industry.

Let us say that there is a list of standards cover- ing 800 varieties of a given commodity. Each of

those standard items may be technically correct, but

if it can be shown that the major demand is for only

160 of those items it is obviously unprofitable to carry

in stock the other 640 items. This would be no re- flection upon the merits of the 640 items. They may,

if necessary, be furnished on occasion, when nothing

else will fill a particular need, but the industry will

not be justified in establishing or maintaining mass

production of items for which there is only a sporadic, uncertain demand.

If any survey shows that 80 per cent of the demand

is for 20 per cent of the line, it is at once evident

that 80 per cent of the line is made up of so many

parasites, not pa3nng their way.

In establishing a simplified practice recommendation, the manufacturers never desire to urge their

customers to struggle along with less than the former

number of varieties. Their main purpose is to determine the shortest possible list which will adequately

cover normal demand—a list that can be modified periodicall}" to conform with changing conditions.

If the producers can definitely determine where to emphasize their manufacturing and sales policies and

where to retrench, they will be able to reduce over- head exjDense and to maintain in a fluid state that

capital which formerly remained “ frozen ” in slowmoving inventory.

It should be thoroughly understood that simplification is not offered either as alternative to, nor as a process superior to, standardization. Instead, it may
268

be said that simplification is best applied as a logical

preliminary step to standardization. The former

clears aways nonessentials and provides “ elbow room ” in which standardization can work to develop products which are better, not merely different.

Advantages of simplification.

Industry has become a consistent believer in simplification as a useful tool for management. The reason why that is soi and why continued demands are being

made upon the facilities of the division of simplified

practice, may be explained by listing some of the

specific advantages which should follow adoption and

adherence to simplification.

For the manufacturer.

1. Less capital tied up in raw materials; semifinished stock; finished stock; jigs, dies, templates,

and special machinery; storage floor space; and re- pair parts.

2. More economical maiiufacture through larger

units of production, reduced number of manufacturing units, longer runs with less frequent changes,

accurate estimating for production, more effective

stock control, less idle equipment, less expensive handling of stock, more accurate cost accounting system,

less involved inventories, and elimination of waste in

experimentation and design.

3. More efficient labor due to simpler training of

emiDloyees, increased earnings through inci'eased in- dividual output made possible by longer runs, and

less labor idle from preventable causes.

d. Better service to the trade in better quality of

product, more prompt delivery, less obsolete material,

decreased number of sizes of packing required, and

reduced amount of material handling.

5. More efficient sales force, increased rate of turnover, intensified sales momentum, easier financing,

fewer factory shutdowns.

For the distributor.

1. Quickened turnover because of elimination of

slow-moving stock, and concentration on items for

which there is a known predetermined demand; and more effective sales force.

2. Decreased capital investment in spot stocks, re1 air parts, and storage space.

3. Reduced handling charges and improved service

to customers. For the consumer.

1. By reason of his cooperation in making the

above-mentioned advantages possible, the consumer

should feel such reflected benefits as those conveyed

to him in the form of improved quality of product

and better service on complete products, repair parts,

and prompt deliveries.

These advantages are exemplified in the simplified

practice recommendations which are developed by

the collective action of producers, distributors, and

consumers, with the cooperation of the division of

simplified practice in its capacity of clearing house

or centralizing agency.

FOUNDRY PATTERNS OF WOOD

Commercial Standard Accepted by Industry Effective Immediately for New Production

Under date of February 10, the Bureau of Standards announced that a sufficient number of written

acceptances have been received for the Recommended

Commercial Standard for Foundry Patterns of

Wood to warrant establishment as a commercial

standard and, therefore, it should be considered as

effective immediately for new production.

It covers standard color markings for foundry patterns of wood to provide the molder with correct information regarding location of cores, the surfaces

to be machined and the portions to be filled up where

stop-off construction is used. Surfaces to be left unfinished are to be painted black. Surfaces to be

machined are to be painted red. Seats of and for

loose pieces are to be red stripes on a yellow background. Core prints and seats for loose core prints are to be painted yellow. Stop-offs are to be indicated by diagonal black stripes on a yellow base. Pattern manufacturers are, of course, free to use any quality of paint, varnish, or shellac, which may

be desired, and a considerable variation in the shades

of the colors is permitted. It is understood that

each of the recommended colors may be obtained by

mixing suitable inexpensive pigments with shellac so that there should be no insurmountable difficulties for those manufacturers who wish to use shellac as a coating material.

CARE AND ADJUSTMENT OF PAPER-FOLDING

TESTERS

New Circular of Importance to Industry on Care and

Adjustment of Paper Testers The Bureau of Standards has completed an extensive study for the purpose of increasing the accuracy

of the folding test of paper. This work is of importance, as the resistance which paper offers to re- peated folding is considered the best indication of its general wearing quality.

The United States Government places its chief re- liance in the folding test as a criterion of the quality

of papers which must have considerable endurance,

such as currency, bond, ledger, and wrapping. An

instrument designed many j^ears ago in Germany is internationally recognizecl as the standard folding

tester. This indicates the number of folds required

to break the paper under tension during folding.

The mechanical “ fingers ” of this machine naturally wear with repeated use and sometimes this causes the

mechanical tester to give erroneous indications. The

I’eport of the bureau describes the method which the

bureau uses to keep the tester functioning properly

and no doubt will assist others in increasing the accu- racy of this important test. This investigation is completely described in Circular No. 379, of the Bureau of Standards, which may

be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.. at 5 cents the copt^
269

PURCHASING METHODS OF HOUSEHOLDERS

Goods Made to Standard Specifications and Labeled Benefit the Individual

A recent issue of the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, a symposium on Women in the Modern World, contains an important

article by Dr. Benjamin R. Andrews, professor of

economics at Columbia University, and an international authority in this field, on the Home Woman

as Buyer and Controller of Consumption.

Doctor Andrews deals in straightforward fashion

with the essential conflict of interest between producer

and consumer and in this connection makes some pertinent remarks relative to individual buying.

“ Good ‘ buymanship ’ requires an answer to one or more questions before a purchase is made,” he states, asking the question “ Do I need something of this

kind?” “Is this the particular type that I want,

functionally; in quality? How much will I give for

it? How long will it last? How much work will it require to operate it? What else would my money

buy now ; that is, what other purchases do I give up,

if I buy this? Am I buying because I myself need

it, or am I being led to buy by social compulsion?

Does its purchase encroach upon my savings? Are

the claims for it unproven, exaggerated, and the mere

prestige of advertising? Is there not a cheaper way

to buy it? Will this object give continued satisfaction? What are the possible sources of dissatisfaction ? “It is not that one Avill use all these test questions

in every case, or in anj^ case ; it is simply that the purchaser usually has need to think critically at some

point in any purchase, and the more he thinks before

he buys the more satisfaction he will likely have from

his purchase. The business world deals too much in

opiates for the consumer. The retail bu3^er needs to keep awake and not alloAv himself to be exploited by

prestige, chic, pressure to Imy, or ‘ pooh bah ’ generally.”

Business is interested in profits. “ Let business be frank. It is interested in profits, not primarily in meeting needs. Let the consumer

be frank. He is not interested in profits, but only in

meeting his needs as cheaply as possible. His profits come from the largest possible satisfactions for his

money. How, then, shall the tAvain ever meet? Precisely as thej^ do in AA’holesale trade, by gi\dng the

buyer exactly what he wants, and under conditions

that mean reasonable profit to the dealer.

“ Standardization of products, according to specification, is the measure that, in the retail market, AAdll prove of greatest benefit to the buyer, as has been the

case in the Avholesale market. IMay not the consumer

STANDARD CONDENSER FERRULES AND

TUBE SHEETS

Due to the report of unfavorable criticism regarding the marine standard. Standard Condenser Tube

Ferrules and Tube Sheets, the executive board of the

hope that there Avill some time be available at his cor- ner store and other jalaces of daily purcliase many

consumers’ goods thus based upon standardized specification? The fact that large private buyers are already using Government specifications gives the

home buyer hope of similar standards in her markets.

It is noteworthy that business itself seems to be moving in the direction of graded goods openl}' ac- knoAvledged.”

System of branding goods of value.

“ Our system of branding goods, Avhich at present

consists almost exclusively of trade-mark and pri- vate brand names, is of significance of course in identifying the product of a certain advertiser, but is in- adequate as to qualify identification. It should be

supplemented by a system of brands having reference

to objective quality and the meeting of specifications. It is conceivable that in standardized goods, such as rubber overshoes, bed sheets, garden hose, and Avhat

not, Ave shall have broad levels of distinctive quality

alloAving for each gnade a considerable margin for

Auiriation, so that one might call for a particular commodity, as ‘ Consumers’ Grade I, II, or III,’ with the

goods labeled accordingfy.

“ There are under Avaj'' studies of specifications of

consumers’ goods, in some cases considered jointly by

producers, engineering organizations, and consumers,

that look in this direction toAvard the possible establishment of objective grades of goods.

_ “ There has been time and again demand for obligatoiy textile, and other descriptive labels, to indicate

wool content, leather shoes, etc. This seems but an

extension of the laAV requiring a label of net Aveight or contents upon food packages, so that many have supported the plea for such labels. Business has opposed

obligatory labeling, claiming that such labels Avould

be clifficult to administer. As a moderate step ahead

there has been rather general support for the adoption in the United States of the English merchandise

marks act, the principle of AAdiich is ‘ no label is re- quired; but if goods are labeled, the label must be

honest and not misleading.’ This principle of square

dealing as regards labeling has been in court again

and again in decisions of the Federal Trade Commission, Avhich has required honest labels in individual

cases Avhere business itself has complained of unfair

competition by dishonest labels. “The consumer by joint action, the business man

through upholding equitable standards in trading, and

the Government itself, can do much to insure conditions of fair dealing Avhen the home buyer goes into

the market to bu}'.”

American Marine Standards Committee, has concluded

to let the standard stand until further experience in

the use of the ferrules indicates necessity to revieAV it for possible revision. This action Avas taken in vieAV

of the fact that diametrically opposite vieAvs Avere expressed regarding main features of the ferrules.
270

AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION NOTES

Standardization Programs Cover Pipe Traps, Road Materials, Graphical Symbols, Red Lead, Petroleum;

Safety Codes for Wood Working Plants and Grand Stands

The establishment of a safety code for grand stands,

under the auspices of the American Standards Association, has been formally requested by the department of labor and industry of the State of Pennsylvania, and by the Belmont Iron Works and Wayne

Iron Works. The A.S.A. reports that it anticipates

taking early action on the request.

“ There is,” states C. S. Wetzel, of the Wayne Iron

Works, “ in so far as we know, no standard in exist- ence at present. Accidents are not unknown, and

with the greatly increased interest in athletics, there is a pressing need for a standard for design, manufacture, and inspection. As we see it, the standard code

should apply both to permanent and portable structures. The former we have found oftentimes are

erected without any attention to strength and durability, the only object being to seat a large given

number of persons at small

expense. The latter are

subject to the same defects,

and, in addition, constant assembly and dismantling,

many times by inexperienced workmen, carry with

them increased hazards.”

To standardize pipe traps.

At the organization meeting of the (Subcommittee on

plumbers’ pipe traps of the

A.S.A. technical committee on the standardization of plumbing equipment, the

decision was made to divide the work among five subgroups. These subgroups will cover brass traps, cast- iron traps, lead traps, vitreous china traps and interceptors, catch basins and miscellaneous traps, respectively. The technical committee is under the joint

sponsorship of the American Society of Sanitary

Engineering and the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers.

Safety code for woodworking plants.

The American tentative standard safety code for

woodworking plants has been revised by the technical

committee on this subject, and the revision submitted

to the A.S.A. for approval as an American standard.

The code was first approved as a tentative standard in

October, 1924. Since that time the code has been

widely distributed, and, except for a few of its provisions, has proved satisfactory. The most important

part of this committee’s work on revision has been

their investigation of safe limiting speeds for cir- cular saws. Since the former edition of the code,

there has been a decided tendency toward higher

speeds which are made possible by alloy steels, hence,

a redetermination of limiting peripheral speeds was

necessary.

New petroleum standards.

A method of test for saponification and a method

of test for detection of free sulphur and corrosive

sulphur compounds in gasoline have been approved

as American standard and American tentative standard, respectively. With these important standard

tests for gasoline there are now 21 standard methods

of test for petroleum products and lubricants, ap- proved by the A.S.A. All of these were submitted by

the American Society for Testing Materials.

Red lead.

Standard methods of routine analysis of dry red

lead, submitted by the American Society of Testing

Materials, has been approved as an American standard

by the A.S.A.

Graphical symbols.

A draft of proposed standards for graphical symbols,

used for electric power

and interior wiring, has

been prepared by a subgroup

of the A.S.A. technical

committee on scientific and

engineering symbols and

abbreviations. In an outline of scope contained in

the report it is stated that

* * * this report comprises

graphical symbols used for one

line and complete diagrams of electric-power apparatus, instruments and relays, system

connection diagrams, and interior-wiring diagrams.

The symbols are limited to apparatus usually met with

in electrical-power engineering, such as major electrical equipment in power houses, substations, and transmission and

distribution systems, and to system and building wiring

diagrams. They are not intended to cover communication,

railway or other allied branches of electrical engineering.

Basic symbols which seem to have widespread use and application, and only such symbols (with few exceptions), are

given. It is recognized that the symbols presented do not

cover all types of equipment, but it is believed that with

relatively small additions to the basic symbols the variations

in practice can be accommodated. This is especially true

of the complete diagram symbols for rotating apparatus and

transformers where it seems impracticable to show all possible connections of parts. Road materials standards.

By action of the standards council of the A.S.A.

the status of the following American tentative standards has been changed to that of American standard;

method of test for toughness of rock; method of

sampling stone, slag, gravel, sand, and stone block

for use as highway materials ; standard method of

test for penetration of bituminous materials; standard method of float test for bituminous material ; and

method of test for the determination of bitumen.

All of these standards were submitted by the

Amei’ican Society for Testing Materials.

The American Standards Association,

upon the unanimous action of the board

of directors, has become a member body of

the International Federation of National

Standardizing Associations, usually designated as the Internation Standards Association (I.S.A.), whose central office is in

Zurich, Switzerland. This membership

will date from the beginning of the fiscal year of the I.S.A., which is October 1,1929.
271

STANDARDIZATION MOVEMENT IN JAPAN

Government Takes Lead in Furthering Standardization Movement in Japan; Accomplishments of Various

Japanese Organizations Engaged in Developing Standards

By Shoji Konishi

Prior to the establishment of standards, the Japanese specifications for structural steel were diversified and many, especially those for structural steel for

bridges, buildings, and general construction. However, structural steel for shipbuilding was made in

accordance with Lloyd’s specifications. Boiler steel for vessels was fairly uniform, but that for railway

locomotives was not. In making investigations on various kinds of struc- tural steel, conveniences in trade and the future of

international standarization were considered, as well as compliance with the standards of more advanced

European and American countries; conflicts with the

existing specifications were avoided and a decrease

in the number of classes were sought. In the study

of the standards for structural steel, tensile strength

and elongation, the type and

the dimensions of bars, the

test pieces and their permissible variations, were the

most important items considered.

Methods of analyses.

In the investigations and

studies on the methods of

analyses for metals, great

care was taken to choose

such simple methods as might produce comparatively accurate results with

a minimum of personal

errors, but at the same time be adaptable to the

ordinary arrangements used at home and abroad.

For this purpose data was collected concerning the

experiments on the methods made at the leading manufacturing plants, and consuming establishments, as well as the governmental and private research insti- tutions. In studying the data collected, the existing standards of Europe and the United States were also considered. After the methods had been

agreed upon by the subcommittee as satisfactory,

tests were made at the laboratories with which each

member of the committee was associated, and then the

final drafts were obtained by adopting or rejecting the

views from various quarters on the submitted drafts.

Standards for Portland cement.

Tlie standard for Portland cement developed out

of the testing method of Portland cement which was

originated by the Department of Commerce and

Industry in 1905. In the ]^ast serious inconveniences were experienced by the suppliers because of the ab- sence of a specification for the testing of cement in

Japan. The Government appointed a committee from

among the officials of the departments concerned, in

accordance with the request made by the manufac- i

turers, through Avhich the standard testing method

was studied and developed.

The Government notified the trades that the test- ing method would have to be applied to the cement

ised by them. However, before the testing method was

approved as a Japanese engineering standard in 1927,

two revisions (1909 and 1919) were made in accord- ance with suggestions of the Japanese Technical

Society of Portland Cement.

Standards for lumber.

The demand for timber and lumber, which are the

principal building materials in Japan, increased in recent years. Ready-made lumber on the market,

however, was diverse as to quality and dimensions,

according to the districts; no definite standard for

quality existed and not only

wide differences between

the normal dimensions and

the actual dimensions were

found, but there were great

variations in dimensions,

according to the districts in

which purchased. Consequently, the consumers suffered from serious inconviences.

In view of these conditions,

the Engineering Standards

Committee made several

studies on this subject, using

the draft prepared by the

Association of Building Materials (consisting of the

Society of Architects and five other societies), with the

assistance of the Japan Forestry Association, and vari- ous other bodies in the principal districts, all of whom

had been very enthusiastic in the studies.

After three years’ careful deliberation, a definite

draft was obtained. The main points of discussion

have been whether grades should be expressed by

taking knots and other factors into consideration, or should they be expressed by combining all the grades

provided for each factor; what should be done to the

relation between the length of lumber expressed by the

multiples of 1 and the dimensions of the Japanese

living houses; and the method of calculating the

volume of logs. The method of calculating the volume

of logs was decided by taking the figures obtained by

the Japanese Forestry Association through an actual

measurement of the dimensions of about 10,000 logs.

Standards for induction motors.

In developing standards for small 3-phase induction

motors, careful deliberation was made by consulting

with the Japanese Electrotechnical Commission and

the Electrical Association, and taking the results of

home and foreign made motor.s. the present conditions

The first j^art of this article by Shoji

Konishi, mechanical engineer, of the Bureau of Industry, Department of Commerce

and Industry, Tokyo, Japan, appeared in

the February issue of the Commercial

Standards Monthly, entitled “ Standardization in Japan.” The two articles are based on the paper the author delivered

before the World Engineering Congress

last October in Tokyo.
272

of production and consumption, as well as the views

of users and makers into consideration. The following are the principal items discussed during the con- sideration of this standard:

Frequency.—Fifty and sixty cycles, which are most universally used in Japan, were adopted.

Standard voltage.—Although it is an ideal to decide upon 200

volts as the standard voltage, it was decided that 220 volts may be used for 60 cycles only in view of the fact that 50 cycle motors of 200 volts and 60-cycle ones of 220 volts can he made,

using the frames of the same type. Rated, output. —Round numbers of kilowatts were adopted

for the rated output. With a view to avoid inconveniences in

its use for the time being, rated outputs of 0.75, 1.5, and 3.7 kilowatts were retained for motors of 1, 2, and 5 horsepower,

respectively, which had hitherto been manufactured.

Characteristic.—The determination of characteristic is based on comparatively simple tests, such as no-load tests and short- circuiting tests, etc., using the circle diagram which is comparatively well known. In the case of the values in the de- termination made by the circle diagram being doubtful, it has

been decided that the values of the circle diap’am shall be determined by calculation made in accordance with the method

of calculation provided.

Loio-speed revolution.—In running the main shaft of a fac- tory with a small motor, the number of revolutions of a low- speed motor is prescribed in order to avoid the diameter of the pulley of the main shaft becoming too large. The specifi- cation for characteristic in this case, however, is left to an

agreement between the producer and u.ser. Standards for screws. About five years have been spent in the study on

screws used in general machinery and construction.

In the first place, the forms, kinds, amounts, etc., of the screws used in Japan have been investigated,

by collecting the views of the Government and pri- vate factories as to the forms of screws to be adopted

as standard in Japan, and considering the present

condition of standardization on screws, as well as the forms likely to be adopted in the future, in Great

Britain, the United States, Germany, and France

into consideration.

Furthermore, after studying the effect of standardization on the foreign trade of machinery, and

the expenses to be incurred through alterations and

abolitions of the existing machines and tools, due to the change in the forms of screws, study was carried on with the idea of standardizing the screws into one

of the three different systems, viz, the Whitworth,

Sellers, and International.

Differences in opinion.

In view of the fact that the principal Government

offices and many private factories used the Whitworth screws and to replace them with screws of other systems would be extremely difficult, and due

to the fact that an international standardization was

not likely to materialize within the near future, two

different opinions on the subject existed.

One group held that the screws should be unified

into the Whitworth system, which was most suitable

for prevailing conditions in the Japanese industries,

while the other held that the screws should be unified

with the International system, which not only con- formed to the standard measures of Japan, but the screws of the latter type were admitted to be superior,

As a result of experimental manufacture of the

English, American, and International screws at dif- ferent factories, and making a comparative studj!

as to the manufacture of tools (taps and dies), and

testing the accuracy of the finished tools and the

tensile strength of bars having screw threads, etc., coupled with further careful deliberation, a draft

in which screw threads based on the International

and Whitworth systems were decided as the standard

screw threads—was prepared.

Nevertheless, in view of the undesirability of using

screws of two different types, and in order to further

the aim of standardization by providing the sphere of

use according to machinery and other purposes, a proposal was made by the committee that the Government

decide the question as to what should be the standard

screw. This proposal having been carefully studied, it was

decided, with the exception of aircraft and automobiles

to which metric screw threads were to be used in ac- cordance with the specification separately provided,

that of the screws to be used by the Government, those

of more than 9 mm in outside diameter should be of

the Whitworth system, while those 9 mm or under

should be of the metric system.

Promulgating standards.

In view of the desirability of adopting the approved

standards in various quarters of the Government and

trades, the Department of Commerce and Industry,

with the assistance of other departments, issued a

notice to the effect that all the articles to be made or used by the Government, as well as works to be

ordered by the Government, should conform to the

requirements of the standards. The number of the

standards promulgated up to May, 1929, was 66. Thus, by the Government taking the lead in adopting standards for the commodities required by it, and

by the fact that the standards are apt to be referred

to in the laws and regulations, articles manufactured

by private factories are more likely to be produced in

accordance with the standards.

As a general means of distribution of the standards,

each is printed on loose-leaf paper and distributed

among various elements, such as Government offices, academies, societies, schools, trade associations, factories, etc., thus introducing the standards to the public and facilitating adherence to them. In addition,

the standards are promoted by means of the distribution of pamphlets, lectures, and exhibitions. Furthermore, the local Government authorities are re- quested to use appropriate measures for the spread

of the standards, and the adoption of the standards

is recommended in the principal districts to the perfectures themselves, and the industrial bodies of the

cities and towns by means of notifications and messages. Regulations revised to meet standards.

Upon examining the conditions pertaining to the

application of the standards in various quarters of

the Government and trades, it is sometimes found that

the Government offices engaged in actual works are

consistently adhering to them, but certain other offices find it necessary to revise the present regulations

or effect new rules in order to make use of the standards. For the purchase of articles on the market, the

use of the standards is found difficult, due to the general absence of standard articles. Thus standards are
273

partly used, but there is still room for spreading the

general apj:)lication of the principle.

The sectional offices for electricity, civil engineering, etc., of the principal cities are adliering to the

standards, especially those for electric works. The

use of the standards is in satisfactory condition

throughout the municipalities. Their use by the general factories are various, but the makers of electric

machines and tools and the suppliers of electricity,

who have been endeavoring to increase working effi- ciency through standardization of the articles con- nected with their business, or the works of iron and

steel as well as other materials, factories of cars, etc., where the merits of standardization is understood, are strong supporters for standardization, and especially

in the development of new standards in anticipation of

future benefits to be had regardless of present temporary disadvantages suffered, due to the process of

making the changes.

Standards for home articles.

A general desire to advance efficiency, through the

application ff the principles of standardization, has

grown of late and the trend of adopting standards is particularly conspicuous in articles made for the

homes, such as steel bars, electric copper wires, small

transformers, screws, charcoal, etc., which are capable

of meeting the entire demancl. The development of

standards is likely to make further progress in the

future, with the spread of the metric system.

The principal organizations engaged in standardization Avork are : The Japanese Electrotechnical Commission, the Electrical Association, the Japanese

Technical Society of Portland Cement, the Associated

Society of Building Materials, the Osaka Limit

Gage Society, the Society of Naval Architects, the

Association of Chemical Industry, all of which keep

in touch with the Engineering Standards Committee,

and are of much assistance to the committee.

Histories of committees.

The Japanese Electrotechnical Committee was

established in 1910, joining the International Electrotechnical Commission the same year. This committee is a central organization engaged by the

request of the Electrical Association in the unification of technical terms concerning electricity and

drafting of standard specifications for electric machines and pieces of apparatus, as well as in standardization of other electrical subjects.

The committee has 30 members appointed from

among the members of the Electrical Association,

who are officials of the departments of the Government concerned, professors of universities, and engineers engaged in the manufacture of electric machines, suppliers of electricity or electric railway.

The principal subjects investigated or under investigation concern electrical terms and symbols, rating of

electric machines and apparatus, standard items for

' electric meters, electric wires, electric lamps, iron

1^ poles, and iron towers, etc. The committee is not only engaged, as a member of

tlie International Electrotechnical Commission, in a study of electrical subjects by keeping in toucli with

Amrious countries of Europe and America, but cooperates with the Engineering Standards Committee. The

standards Avhich have been based on the drafts of materials prepared by the committee, approved by the

Engineering Standards Committee, and issued as the

notifications of the Government, are standards for

dimensions of electric Avires, dimensions of bases and

sockets for electric lamps, small transformers, and

small motors.

Electrical Association.

The Electrical Association Avas organized through

an amalgamation of the Electrical Association of Nippon (established in 1882 at Tokyo), the Central Electrical Association (established in 1919 at Osaka), and

the Kyushu Electrical Association (established in 1915

at Eulcuoka), and took over the standardization work,

which included specifications for high-voltage insulators, single-phase oil immersed transformers for use on poles, electric cables for mines, etc. The committee is divided into tAvo sections on parts

of ships and engines. In vieAv of the progress of the

Avork on the part of the Engineering Standards Committee, the committee is noAV investigating standardization of parts of ships. Before developing definite

specifications, careful stud_y shall be made of materials

noAV in use at the dockyards in Japan, as Avell as data

from the leading sliipbuilding countries, and by consideration of the current types at home as much as

possible.

Association of Chemical Industry.

The Association of Chemical Industry Avas formed

in 1918, and aims at fostering the development of the

chemical industr3^ As a result of certain investigations made as to the future of the industry in 1927,

the association made a proposal to each department of

the GoA'eniment concerned, regarding the measures to be used for the development of this industry.

Portland cement group.

The Japanese Technical Society of Portland Cement

is a bodv composed of the makers of Portland cement

in dapaii, and encourages the establishment of standards for cement, improA'ement ’of art, prevention of

disasters, etc. This society was formed in 1900, and,

as its first step, set to work on a standard sand. As a

result a notification for the testing method of Portland cement to be used by the Government Avas issued.

In making the amendments to the standard in 1909

and 1919, the society gaA’e assistance in preparing the

draft, and after 1925 the societ}^ engaged in the study

of the standard for sand and completed an investigation of the neAv standard, in which amendments were

later added. The neAV draft of the standards was

submitted to the Engineering Standards Committee

and Avas approved as the present standard. In view

of the necessity of making further revisions to the

standard, due to the improvement in quality of cement,

the society is going to present a revised draft decided

after conferring with v^arious parties concerned.

Building material group organize.

The Associated Society of Building Materials Avas

e.stablished in 1920 as a union of the Architectural
274

Association, the Japan Forestry Association, and four

others, and aims at standardization of the grades,

dimensions, designations, etc., of building materials.

Of various building materials, standardization of

timber and lumber, as well as common bricks, having

been considered by the society as particularly important, the specifications were obtained after careful

review of studies made with the cooperation of the

trade and consumers, according to which all the

dimensions were given in accordance with the metric

system prior to the enforcement of the system, and the

old designations which had lacked unity were replaced

with the new designations based on exact dimensions.

These two standards have been annoimced as Japanese engineering standards. The following four

standards have been approved by the Engineering

Standards Committee, the drafts prepared by the so- ciety being used as the proposed standards ; standards for roofing tiles, stones, earthenware pipes, and

slates. Osaka Limit Gage Society.

The Osaka Limit Gage Society was organized in

1924 for the purpose of study and diffusion of the

limit gage system, and has the engineers of the Government and private factories concerned, and professors, as its members. It has two sectional committees.

The first sectional committee has been engaged in

the study of the standards of foreign countries, as well as investigation and study of the merits and

demerits of various systems of limits and fits by ex- amining the accuracies of workmanship at the factories in Osaka. This committee is making valuable

contribution to the Engineering Standards Committee by presenting specifications relating to tolerances,

allowances, and fits, and by participating in the deliberation of the committee.

The second sectional committee is in charge of dis- tribution of the standards for limit gages and accele- ration of application thereof, as soon as they are developed. The committee is at jjresent engaged in

the study of the type of gages and dimensions thereof, their heat treatment, finishings, etc. Society of Naval Architects.

The Society of Naval Architects was established

in 1898, and consists of professors, engineers, and

Government officials connected with shipbuilding and

mechanical engineering, as well as the representatives

of the dockyards and shipping companies, as its members.

The different dockyards in Japan have their own

standard specifications for ship’s equipment, but have

not had the means or opportunity for unification. In

1922 or 1923, when shipbuilding industry was in- active, the Society of Naval Architects advocated the

importance of standardization, but failed to make

headway at that time. With the development of

standards for chemical products, especially those for

petroleum products and paints, the association ap- pointed a standards committee for petroleum products

in March, 1928, which is composed of chemists, the

Government officials concerned, authorities of the

public bodies, and the trade as its members.

European connections.

In April, 1921, the secretaries of the national standardizing bodies of various countries in Europe and

America met in London and exchanged information,

as well as their vieAvs, regarding international standardization that might be made in the future on some

of the national standards. They also decided to ex- change correspondence respecting the progress of

work, and the Japanese Engineering Standards Committee was requested to participate.

The committee decided to join the cooperative ex- change in October, 1922, and ever since it has been ex- changing reports on its work, as well as materials,

with the countries in Europe and America.

The second conference of the secretaries, held at Zurich in July, 1923, decided on the establishment of a central office of the secretaries’ conference in the

Swiss Standards Bureau, where all the correspondence

with the various countries could be controlled and also

that on collateral subjects summarized. At the conference of chairmen and secretaries of various national

bodies, held in New York in April, 1926, deliberation was made as to the draft constitution of the International Standards Association. After making neces- sary adjustments in accordance with the opinion of

the committee of seven, consisting of the representatives of the secretariat bodies of Great Britain, the

United States, and five other countries, a draft was

so drawn.

Further, the committee of seven took over the work

which had been looked after by the central office in

Switzerland, and at the same time continued the rela- tions among the national bodies, through the establishment of temporary offices in London and Switzerland,

for the purpose of studying technical subjects. In

October, 1927, the committee requested the national

bodies to give their approval to the establishment of

the International Standards Association. Due to fail- ure of certain countries to give their approval at the

time the plan fell through, but the study of technical

subjects was continued at the office in Switzerland.

Interest in association.

In appreciation of the benefits derived through the

exchange of materials and views in the past, and trust- ing that not only international standardization itself,

but the accompanying exchange of information would

be helpful to the growth of industries of the countries

concerned, the Japanese Engineering Standards Committee welcomed the opportunity of establishing the

association. As many as 15 countries, including

France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Sweden, Russia,

etc. (exclusive of Great Britain, the United States,

Australia, and Canada), having expressed their desire

for tile establishment of the association, the meeting of

the committee of seven, held at Prague in October,

1928, voted to establish the association.

The Japanese Engineering Standards Committee | formally joined the association in June, 1929, after 1 completing the necessarj^ procedure, thereby partici- ' pating in the exchange of materials and in the study | of international standardization. i
275

SIMPLIFICATION THE KEYNOTE IN PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

Present High State of Efficiency Has Been Based on a Gradual Growth in Operations, with the Application

of Common Sense in Connection with Higher Standards of Accuracy

To the question, “ What lies over the production

horizon?” E. K. Wennerlund, director, factory engineering section, works managers committee, of the

General Motors Corporation, in a recent issue of

Automotive Industries^ states that the best answer is pi’obably found in a study of the past and the present.

“ We haven’t reached our present high state of production efficiency as the result of sudden leaps or

specific steps,” says the writer. “ It has been a gradual growth based chiefly on the application of com- mon sense, simplification, and higher standards of

accuracy. In addition, we have had many mechanical developments, and we will have more in the future, some of which we can not even foresee at present, new tools and processes, new materials which will cut costs and give us better products—in short a continuation of production progress which has been

going on for years. Intangible factors.

“ Much of an intangible nature is now being done

to increase our production efficiency. Simplification

is the keynote to-day. In the early days of industrial

development, production was more or less haphazard.

The system became the byword, but the swing of

the pendulum carried many organizations too far in

that direction. System became a fetish in many

cases, which resulted in losing sight of the main purpose in the detail systematization itself. When applied to larger organizations, it just got so big that

it was beyond handling.

“ The relatively high cost of handling a wage-incentive system on an individual basis led us to develop and adopt quite generally the group plan of

wage payment. It was found that some of our plants

had as many as 25,000 job tickets a day, all of which

had to be extended, audited, and credited to individual accounts. Under the group plan we have been

able to do away with job tickets, using only the in-andout clock cards and giving credit for finished good

product. This has been a great saving in clerical detail in our factories, it has cut inventories of workin-process, and has on the whole stimulated production efficiency. “ It is now realized that system has its place only

where it simplifies production routine. As a result,

the systematizer-for-the-sake-of-system has been re- placed by the practical man who applies system as a method of simplifying production conti’ol. Materials control good example.

“ Materials control is a good example. Here there was a tendency in the past to systematize down to the

last detail. Nowadays we use less system and greater

accuracy in scheduling and adherence to schedules.

We finish our final designs of new models well in

advance of production. That enables us to work out our material requirements. When we go into production, management sets definite schedules and tries to

adhere to them. Engineering design is changed only

reluctantly thereafter and only when absolutely

necessary.

“ Proper inventory control, incidentally, is a production cost factor which a surprising number of

companies have not given the attention which it merits, in spite of the fact that it sometimes may mean

the difference between profit and loss. Just recently an old-established automobile company was carrying an inventory of roughly $4,000,000. One of our men

got a job with them on the promise that he would cut

their inventory in half. He did even better than that

and this company is saving $120,000 a year in interest alone, with interest at 6 per cent. Overhead costs.

“ Relative costs also underlie equipment of factories

for day and night shifts. We might provide sufficient production capacity in machine tools to make a night

shift unnecessary. But if we do this our overhead

goes up not only in actual investment dollars, but also

in percentage of overhead per unit manufactured.

Unless a machine tool is kept busy money is being

wasted.

“ Machine tool manufacturers have further assisted us in i-educing our equipment cost by commercializing

special-purpose tools, with the consequence that individual special-design tools are much less frequently

used. Some of our largest automobile manufacturers

use very few specially designed machines. Of course,

in organizations manufacturing a highly specialized

product, special-design tools are being used and probably will continue to be used, chiefly because machinetool manufacturers do not find it profitable to develop commercially tools for this character of work,

considering the limited market possibilities. Even

in the specialized-parts business, however, we find a gradual tendency away from the special-design tool and toward the commercial, with its greater flexi- bility and lower investment cost. Budget necessities. “ In buying our productive materials, it has long

been customary to buy on specification ; but even here,

the seai'ch for greater accuracy has led us to change

our bases for specifications and acceptance. Every

shipment of material is subjected to inspection, and

often to chemical and tensile tests. We are devising

tests and inspection methods, generally, that will have more direct bearing both on the process to which the

material is to be subjected and on the final result desired. In this connection, machinability measuring

devises simple in character and operation are possibly an interesting development for the near future.

“ As far as factory supplies and perishable tools are concerned, we are just awakening to the necessity

of “ budgeting.” Waste elimination campaigns have

been run, and they serve their purpose in that they
276

show what can be accomplished. But they ai'e not

sufficient. We must sit on the lid, and that requires

organized effort. There are many manufacturers who

have no idea of how much money they are spending

on this end of the business, much less how much they

could save by proper control. Hand in hand with

this goes buying on specification and in accordance

with production volume.

Foremen training.

“ Coming now to the workingman, our chief problem, of course, is labor stabilization. Stabilizing production, as desirable as it may be, is not the complete

economic solution with the present set-up. That in- volves tying up much money in merchandise inventory

during slack sales seasons, especially where the product is bulky and costly and requires considerable storage space. Aside from this there is the influence of

model changes necessitated by competitive conditions

of style trends.

“ The workingman is given more consideration to- day than ever in the past. In progressive plants the

curtailing of working hours in off seasons is pre- ferred as an alternative to the complete laying off of

many men, and full-time operation for the rest. We

have gone to the expense of building up highly

trained personnel departments to properly select our

employees, and we use every reasonable means to keep

them steadily in our service. No foreman is allowed

to discharge an employee without investigation.

“ Giving workers the opportunity to invest in the

company by which they are employed, and the com- pany itself adding to that investment, is a further

aid to labor stabilization.”

STANDARDIZATION IN AUSTRALIA

Consumer Participation on Technical Committees Engaged

in Developing Standards Found of Great Practical Value

The Australian press has lately been carrying news

of a heated controversy between those opposed to standardization and those favoring it. In answer to an invitation received by the Richmond City Council

to join the CommonAvealth Engineering Standards Association, the council’s engineer reported adversely,

stating (according to press reports) that in his opinion standardization was against the interests of progress and hindered the display of initiative. He advised the council to have nothing to do with

the movement. The standard specification for concrete prepared by the association was one of the worst

that he had seen. In reply, it was pointed out that the aim of standardization in Australia is the greatest good for the

greatest number, by seeking to “ exclude initiative of

the wrong sort only, the sort that provides us Avith bolts and nuts that are not interchangeable; Avith Avail plugs that do not fit their sockets; Avith broken rail- way gages (raihvay gages in Australia are not uniform and changes of cars have to be made by 2>as- sengers traveling between various points) and varying sizes of steel rails. On the other hand, no single

factor has been of greater importance than standardization in cheapening production and improving quality ; without standardization, millions of people Avould

be unable to enjoy the benefits of inA-ention and of

scientific research into such matters as telephones,

wireless, and motor cars. It is pointed out in the official reply to the Richmond Council’s declination, that Australian standardization committees are comprised of all interests

concerned in the particular equipment or material under consideration, with the important proviso that

consuming interests shall predominate and that before any specification is promulgated, ample opportunity shall be given to all interests affected to offer comment upon it. The Australian’s practice of providing for a pre- dominance of consuming interests in technical committees seems to have furnished the best possible reply

to the implication that interested parties have undue

influence in the standardization work. (A. S. A. Bulletin.)

SAFETY IN COAL MINE TRANSPORTATION

Joint Committee Engaged in Developing Safety Code for Coal Mine Transportation; Sponsored by American

Mining Congress; Scope of Code Outlined

A joint committee has been engaged during the

past several years in the development of a standard

safety code for coal-mine transportation, which is noAV neai’ing completion, according to an announce- ment of the American Mining Congress. The committee is composed of the American Association for

Labor Legislation, the American Institute of Mining

and Metallurgical Engineers, Coal Mining Institute

of America, National Coal Association, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, National Safety

Council, Rdcky Mountain Coal Mining Institute,

United States Bureau of Mines, United States Department of Labor, and the American Mining Congress, the latter organization serving as sponsor under the American Standards Association procedure.

The scope of this code coA^ers safety requirements

for the installation and operation of transportation

equipment in and about coal mines. It is proposed

to suggest and recommend safe methods of transportation for the coal mines of the United States. Outline of code

Part I, “ Installation,” deals with tracks, clearances,

signals, doors, slope hoists, shaft hoists, and cars. Part II, “ Operation ” contains requirements on

gathering for trips, main haulage, slope haulage,

shaft, including standard signal system, locomotives,

requirements for man trips, requirements for hauling

explosives and inspection. In each case, such as track specifications, wire rope specifications and elec- trical installations, suitable cross references are given

to existing national standards sponsored by the

American Mining Congress, and approved by the

American Standards Association.

The American Mining Congress points out that

the general adoption of these uniform safety precautions will result in widespread accident reduction.
277

GERMAN MINING STANDARDIZATION

Establishment of Standards for the Industry of Paramount Consideration the World Over

In view of the widespread effort being made by the

American Mining Congress, largely under A. S. A.

auspices, to establish standards for the coal-mining

industry, there is special interest in a review of stan- dardization in the German mining industries, pre- sented by F. W. Wedding in a lecture before one of

the German technical mining conferences. The lec- ture was reported in the “Colliery Guardian,” of

London, England. The report states, according to the A. S. A. Bulletin

For mines standards there is a special standards committee for the mining industry, atSliated to the German Industrial Standards Committee, and having representatives from

the industry, the manufacturers, and the official side. The

Mining Industry Standards Committee again has special sub- committees for dealing with standardization in the several branches of mining—bituminous coal, lignite, metalliferous mining, etc.—and for various classes of machinery and supplies. Meetings are held regularly at which the various data

and suggestions are discussed, after which draft standard

specifications are issued for discussion and approval by the

several parties concerned. Only after full discussion are the draft standards approved

by the Mines Standards Committee and submitted to the In- dustrial Standards Committee for final approval and issue. In this way various standard specifications have already been

issued and others will follow at regular intervals as completed.

Utility of standards.

The author gives some examples to show the utility of standards for mine work. To take one case, the standardization of picks for pneumatic ripping machines ; considerable

difficulty was experienced at first, owing to many manufacturers having their own standards as regards dimensions and

shapes. By adopting the standardized pick, the number of types will be reduced from 62 to 3. Similarly, there were

formerly 19 different types of suspended conveyor sections, 50 shapes of fixed conveyors, and 34 of roller conveyors. Standardization has enabled these numbers to be reduced to 1, 2, and 4, respectively. The number of mine-rail sections has

likewise been reduced to 8 standard sections, which, it is claimed, will meet all requirements. Before standardization was adopted, there were 155 types of pit tubs, and these have now been reduced to 3 standard types, which means that manufacturers will be relieved of the necessity of keeping enormous

stocks of spares which were formerly necessary for efficient repair service. Standardization is not being carried through without opposition, this coming mostly from the works and purchase depart- ments of colliery concerns. The purchase departments have

their suppliers to which they go, irrespective of whether they

supply standardized equipment. In many cases the colliery loses a good deal of money simply because the nonstandardized

supplies to which they have been accustomed are dearer than

the similar standardized articles. The works department of a colliery do not always realize

that, even though a standardized article should sometimes

be more expensive in first cost, it is cheaper in the long run

because it is cheaper to run and maintain. The author gives an instance of a large colliery concern in the Ruhr district. Due to the adoption of standardized articles used in large

numbers, viz, hammer drill and coal cutter air cocks, rapidsealing valves, rubber hose and picks, this concern has saved

£2,700 ($13,500) in one year, due to the cheaper purchase price

of the standardized supplies, approximately 2d. (4 cents) per ton of coal brought out. Added to this is the considerable saving effected, due to the reduction of stocks and the simplification and cheapening of operation.

Purchase price of standardized articles in millions.

The purchase price of the articles which are already standardized, or which are now being standardized, amounted to more than five and one-half million pounds sterling for the whole of the collieries in the Ruhr 12 months ago, when the

effects of rationalization were first beginning to be felt. If it is possible to cut down this sum by half, due to the reduction of the stocks necessary (and the author thinks it can be done), it will mean that the industry will save 6d. (12

cents) per ton of coal brought out. Reduced purchase prices

and savings due to simplification of operations would effect a similar saving, so that an average saving of Is. 2d. (28 cents) per ton of coal mining would be possible with very little expenditure for the necessary changeover.

CHEMICALLY TREATED TIMBER IN DEMAND

Railroads Save $145,000 Daily Through Use of Chemically

Treated Timber

“A saving of $145,000 a day accrues to the railroads

of the country through the present practice of using

chemically treated timber for crossties and other

purposes,” said C. C. Cook, maintenance engineer of

the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, at a conference of

the public-utility group of the National Association

of Purchasing Agents, which was held at the National

Bureau of Standards on January 23. He addressed the meeting as a member of the National Committee on Wood Utilization of the Department of Commerce, which committee advocates the

use of preserved lumber as a part of its program to further the intelligent use of wood.

“ Since 1909,” he said, “ the consumption of treated

wood in this country has increased from 75,000,000 to 336,000,000 cubic feet. The railroads consume threefourths of this quantity at the present time, largely

for crossties. It has been found that the life of

chemically treated ties is frequently treble that of

untreated ties.” He predicted that as a result of con- tinued improvement in wood-preservation methods,

the average life of ties will soon be more than 20

years. When this is true the railroads will save $287,000 a day by using treated stock, as compared to the present saving of $145,000.

“Another important outlet for treated lumber,” he

further stated, “ is for telephone, telegraph, and power

poles. This field is steadily expanding. Through the

efforts of the National Committee on Wood Utilization the average consumer who uses lumber in small

quantity is now able to secure treated stock from re- tail lumber yards. In cooperation witli tlie American

Wood Preservers’ Association, the National Lumber

Manufacturers’ Association, and the Ohio Association

of Retail Lumber Dealers, the National Committee on Wood Utilization has arranged for the retail distribution of treated lumber in the State of Ohio.

“ The use of treated lumber is economical in t wo

ways; in the first place, treating wood extends its life; in the second place, its use lowers replacement

and upkeep costs materially.”
RADIO SIGNAL TRANSMISSIONS OF STANDARD FREQUENCY

Bureau of Standards Announces New Schedule For January to June

The Bureau of Standards announces a new schedule of radio signals of standard frequencies for use by

the public in calibrating frequency standards and

transmitting and receiving apparatus. The signals are transmitted from the bureau’s station WWV,

Washington, D. C. They can be heard and utilized

by stations equipped for continuous-wave reception at distances up to about 1,000 miles from Washington.

The transmissions are by continuous-wave radiotelegi*aphy. A complete frequency transmission includes a general call,” “ standard frequency signal,” and

“ announcements.” The general call is given at the

beginning of each 12-minute period and continues for

about 2 minutes. This includes a statement of the

frequenc5^ The standard frequency signal is a series

of very long dashes with the call letter (WWV) in- terventing; this signal continues for about 4 minutes.

The announcements follow on the same frequency as the “ standard frequency signal ” just transmitted, and

contain a statement of the frequency. An announce- ment of the next frequency to be transmitted is then

given. There is then a 4-minute interval while the

transmitting set is adjusted for the next frequency.

Information on how to receive and utilize the signals is given in Bureau of Standards Letter Circular

No. 171, which may be obtained by applying to the

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Even

though only a few frequencies are received (or even

only a single one), persons can obtain as complete a frequency meter calibration as desired by the method

of generator harmonics, information on which is

f

iven in the letter circular. The schedule of standard

requency signals is as follows

:

Eastern standard time Jan. 20 Feb. 20 Mar. 20 Apr. 21 May 20 June 20

10 p. m_. 1,600 4,000 550 1, 600 4, 000 550

10.12 p. m 1,800 4,400 600 1,800 4,400 600

10.24 p. m 2,000 4,800 700 2,000 4,800 700

10.36 p. m 2,400 5,200 800 2,400 5,200 800

10.48 p. m 2,800 5,800 1,000 2,800 5,800 1,000

11 p. m 3,200 6,400 1,200 3,200 6,400 1,200

11.12 p. m 3, 600 7,000 1,400 3,600 7,000 1,400

11.24 p. m_ 4,000 7,600 1,500 4, 000 7,600 1, 500

FLEXIBLE CORD STANDARD RAISED

Industry’s New Standard Will Mean Increased Safety in Use of 'Electrical Appliances

Increased safety and serviceability of flexible cord,

a common adjunct to many household electrical appliances, is expected to follow the establishment of

a higher standard for flexible cord, by the National

Electrical Manufacturers Association, is the opinion

expressed by the A.S.A. Bulletin. The standard,

which is also approved by the Underwriters’ Laboratories, became effective January 1, 1930, and no cord

not complying with the standard will bear the label

of the Underwriters’ Laboratories.

Although flexible cord has been synonymous with

the industry’s worst substandard problem for a number of years, it was, curiously enough, completely

standard vdien first ju'oduced. The factors which

led to the gradual decline in quality and price shaving, largely through the cheapening or deletion of

braids, are well known to the industry. After

lengthy debate, manufacturers of flexible cord, in

conference with representatives of the Underwriters’

Laboratories, formulated a new standard with particular reference to marked improvements in braids.

The problem now becomes one of effective advertising, publicity, and distribution. It was never es- sentially one of manufacturing. Viewed from the

standpoint of the purchaser, all cords looked pretty

much the same in the past. With the new standard

in effect, however, the closeness of braiding will so improve the external physical appearance of the cord

that the uninitiated will have a far better opportunity of distinguishing as between standard and substandard cords.

1929 FRUITFUL YEAR FOR AMERICAN

SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS

Bulletin of Society Reviews Progress of Past Year The year 1929 was in many ways an eventful one

for the American Society for Testing Materials, and

substantial progress was made in the promotion of

knowledge of materials of engineering and the

standardization of specifications and methods of

testing, the fundamental purposes for which the so- ciety is organized, states the A.S.T.M. Bulletin for

January.

In its work of standardizing specifications and

methods of text, tonsiderable jirogress was made

through the activities of the standing committees.

Under the appropriate topics are listed the several

actions taken in respect to. standards, which in all rejiresent the acceptance of 20 new tentative standards,

the formal adoption as standard of 32 tentative standards, and the revision of 19 existing standards. The

society now has 390 standards and 173 tentative

standards.

EFFECT OF LIGHT ON SILVER CHLORIDE

In practically all analytical procedures that deal

with the precipitation of silver chloride the analyst is cautioned against exposing the precipitate to light,

although no information is given as to the magnitude

of the errors caused by the neglect of such precaution.

These errors have been determined by the Bureau of

Standards, and it is interesting to record that the pre- caution is necessary in all accurate work, that the error

is positive in precipitations of silver, and that dry

silver chloride undergoes practically no change. This

subject is treated in the January number of the

Bureau of Standards Journal of Research.
279

STANDARD OF MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR AIR PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION BEING PREPARED

Aeronautics Branch, Department of Commerce, is Taking Action Looking to Present and Future Needs

By Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics

A standard of minimum requirements, drawn up to provide for the present increased growth and expansion of passenger air transportation and applicable to operators carrying passengers for hire on scheduled

services over hxed routes, will be placed in elfect as soon as conditions will permit.

The requirements are being prejoared with the co- operation of the air transport organizations, and will

include complete radio equipment to insure 2-way

communication between aircraft in flight and stations on the ground and adequate ground organizations and

facilities for the proper handling, maintenance, and

operation of the aircraft.

This contemplated action by the Department of

Commerce is another step in the orderly progress and

development of air transportation and air commerce. Two objectives stated.

Under the provisions of the air commerce act of

1926, the Aeronautics Branch of the department lias established two fundamental requirements to insure

the maximum degree of safety and reliability in air

transportation. They are: First, airworthy aircraft

operated and maintained by competent airmen. Second, development of airways equipped with aids to air navigation for both day and night operations, in- cluding boundary-lighted intermediate fields, beacon

lights, weather service, frequent radio broadcasts of

complete weather information ; 2-way radio communication with planes in flight and radio range beacons

for guiding aircraft through fog, storm, or other conditions of poor visibility.

Third requirement added.

To these two requirements there now is added a third which, in addition to licensed aircraft and air- men, requires a full utilization of the air navigation

facilities, and specifies that all aircraft engaged in the

transportation of passengers for hire on scheduled in- terstate service shall be operated over fixed routes provided with these aids to air navigation and that the

aircraft engaged in such operations shall be equipped

to take full advantage of these aids.

Experience has shown us that our objectives can

best be accomplished through the promulgation of

suitable regulations, which, through their flexibility,

may be readily kept abreast with the rapid progress of

aeronautics, rather than b}^ legislation which requires

action by Congress to meet conditions as they arise. Representatives of a majority of the air transport

operators have held conferences at the Depai'tment of

Commerce on the details necessary to carry out the

objects in mind.

Needs are outlined.

In general, the requirements for the further development of air transportation and air commerce, to be

applicable to those organizations carrying passengers

for hire over scheduled, fixed routes, are : 2-way radio

facilities aboard the planes for reception of frequent

broadcasts of weather information, emergency messages, the transmission of inquiries to ground organizations for the proper guidance of the plane, and also

for reception of signals from available radio range

beacons, which are designed to keep the plane on its course at all times.

The routes over which such operations are con- ducted shall be provided with adequate airports and

suitable intermediate landing facilities properly

equipped for use in case the flight is interrupted ; also

|)roper communication and weather-reporting service, so that the operating units will be able to keep in touch

with their planes by radio at all times, by sending

and receiving messages of importance to the safe

completion of the flight.

Adequate night-flying facilities for air passenger

operations after dark, which will include airways

lighted with beacon lights and properly lighted air- ports and intermediate fields and also the equipment

of the planes themselves with navigation lights and

suitable lights for landing after dark.

Greater safety predicted.

Greater safety and reliability, increased use of air

transportation by the public and further development of air commerce and the aircraft industry un- doubtedly will result from strict adherence to these

requirements, I firmly believe.

The Department of Commerce has made much

progress in the matter of equipping airways with

aids to navigation. It has provided beacon lights,

has established lighted intermediate landing fields,

is issuing carefully prepared airway maps for the

guidance of flyers, has provided the radio range bea- cons and facilities for radio communication between

the ground and planes in flight, and has provided

for the broadcast of weather information to planes

at frequent intervals.

The department’s efforts in this respect are almost

without end. As fast as authorization and appropriations are available, new projects of this nature

are undertaken, and the department is speeding this

work to the utmost of its ability.

Must await equipment.

In the interest of public safety and the development of air transportation and air commerce, trans- port organizations under the regulations to be es- tablished will be required to have the prescribed

facilities available before undertalcing operations.

If the Government has been unable to provide the

facilities, such as lighted airways, radiocommunication, radiobeacons, and weather reports, then the or- ganization itself must take the necessary steps or await the Government’s ability to provide them in

the ordinary course of its airway development progi’am.

This develops a situation which is not unlike a newly projected railway system. The trains can not

opei’ate until the right of way has been established.
280

RADIO OSCILLATOR TEST APPARATUS

System Provides Improved Accuracy, Availability of Calibration Points, and Flexibility

Piezo oscillators are the most satisfactoi'y fre- quency standards yet devised for use in radio broadcasting stations. A piezo oscillator may be used

either to check or to control the frequency of a radio

station. Most of the piezo oscillators tested by the

Bureau of Standards are used to check the frequency

of a station, because there is considerable difficulty

in submitting a complete piezo oscillator intended to control the station frequency. A description of the

apparatus and metliods used at the bureau in testing

piezo oscillators is contained in the Bureau of Standards Journal of Research for January.

A piezo oscillator is a generator of radio-frequency

current, the frequency of which is determined

primarily by the dimensions of the quartz plate used.

If another radio-frequency generator is operated at approximately the same frequency, a beat note will

be produced, the frequency of which can be measured

with considerable precision. The measurement of

the frequency of a piezo oscillator can, therefore, be

made with high precision, although the device may

not maintain its frequency as accurately as may be

desired.

Measures frequency.

The complete piezo oscillator must be submitted

for test. Preliminary tests are first made to determine that the quartz plate operates readily and does

not have one or more extra frequencies near the desired frequency. The piezo oscillator is then kept in a constant-temperature room for at least two days,

during which the frequency is measured.

The method of measurement may be briefly stated

as follows; All measurements on piezo oscillators for

broadcasting stations are made by reference to a 200

kc temperature-controlled piezo oscillator. In accomplishing this result, harmonics of a 10 kc generator

accurately adjusted in terms of the standard, are used

in the setting of another radio-frequency generator to the frequency assigned to the station submitting the

piezo oscillator for test. Telephone receivers used.

Special indicating circuits are employed to make the

required settings of the apparatus. After these set- tings are made, a beat note usually is heard in the

telephone receivers connected to the test piezo oscillator. The frequency of the beat note is matched by

comparison with a similar note produced by a cali- brated audio-frequency generator. The frequency of

the audio generator represents the correction to be

applied to the piezo oscillator under test. At the same

time that this measurement is made a check measure- ment is made on the radio-frequency generator using

a frequency meter. The radio-frequency generator is next readjusted to zero beat with the test piezo oscillator, and another

reading taken with the frequency meter. The differ- ence between the two readings of the frequency meter

should give the same frequency as the audio generator.

Under certain conditions one of the radio-frequency

generators is set 400 cycles off of the required harmonic by matching the beat note Avith the note produced by a tuning fork.

While the method and apparatus were developed

chiefly for piezo oscillator testing, they have also proven to be useful in frequency meter calibration

and station frequency measurement. The system has

the folloAving advantages: Great accuracy, high precision, usefulness of a given frequency standard over

a wide range, large number of calibration points

available, flexibility of system, and ready operation.

COOPERATION OF TRADE ASSOCIATIONS

Associations Interested in Simplification and Standardization,

Reports Writer in Mid-West Purchaser

“ Trade associations are going far in the direction

of bringing about simjDlification and standardization

in industry,” states J. R. Kraus, vice president, the

Union Trust Co., Cleveland, Ohio, in his article, “ Modern Business in Evolution,” which appeared in

the Mid-West Purchaser. He further observes that

“ they are also doing much to abolish trade abuses and

unethical practices in general. The spirit of coopera-

^ tion fostered by trade associations gives to smaller

business enterprises many of the advantages that are

characteristic of larger organizations. In short, trade

associations are typical of the business spirit of the

age, and the business that is keeping abreast of the

times will do well to keep in touch with them. Research, mass production, and commensurate financial

requirements are accelerating the trend toward

mergers.”

In a discussion on “ The Automobile and The

Buyer,” which appeared in the same issue of the magazine, Roger W. Babson, said that “ the desire for even greater standardization and increased efficiency

in production and distribution Avill also precipitate

mergers.”

GAS ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE IMPROVED

Automatic Pressure-Control Device Constructed For Gas

Analysis

The technique of gas analysis has been improved by

a stopcock which was designed at the Bureau of

Standards for controlling pressure balance. The control joermits pressure balance to be obtained easily,

quickly, and Avith high accuracy. Diffusion errors are eliminated without danger of emptying the manometer. The accidental surge of pipette reagents into

the train is prevented. Difficult combustions of heavy

hydrocarbons may be made without the deposition of

carbon. The technique of operation and actual means

of construction of the stopcock is described in the

January number of the Bureau of Standards Journal OF Research.
281

NEW REQUIREMENTS FOR WEIGHING DEVICES FOR CONCRETE AGGREGATES

American Road Builders’ Association Writes Detailed Specifications for Bins, Hoppers, and Scales in

Which All Concrete Materials are to be Weighed

Bj’ Lyle A. Brookovek

Rigid requirements for the standardization of

weighing devices for concrete aggregates are set up

in a report of the year’s work of a committee of the

American Road Builders’ Association, which was

presented at the annual convention in Atlantic City in

January. The committee was headed by P. M. Tebbs,

of the Pennsylvania State Highway Department.

The report contains detailed specifications for the

equipment, and states that the weighing devices in- clude the bin or storage reservoir, together with its supporting framework, from which the aggregate is drawn into the weighing hopper; the hopper or container, holding the portion of the aggregate being

weighed, including discharge levers gates and counterweights; and the scales, which is the balance or weighing mechanism.

Definition of weighing equipment.

The report states that weighing equipment shall be

approved by the engineer. It requires that the bin

shall be of suitable size and shape, and reasonably

tight to hold the aggregates without leakage, and

shall be supported by a rigid framework which, when

set upon a suitable foundation, will hold the bin safely

in correct position. The whole must be designed and

constructed for easy assembling, disassembling, and

moving.

The hopper also shall be of suitable size and shape,

reasonably tight, and supported entirely upon the

scales, but otherwise hanging free. It shall be

equipped with a discharge gate which shall close so that there will be no loss of aggregate. A means of

removing an overload of aggregate from the hopper

shall be provided. The hopper shall be so designed

and constructed as to eliminate the rentention of varying tare materials on any of its parts. It shall be so operated that it will be fully and quickly discharged

without shaking and jariiiig the scales. When more

than one aggregate is to be weighed in the same

hopper, each aggregate shall be in a separate compartment. The compartments shall be so arranged that

each aggTegate can be discharged separately and an

overload in either compartment removed.

Type of scales.

The scales shall be either beam or springless dial

type, made by an established manufacturer. They

shall be capable of supporting the hopper or hoppers,

and shall be of simple rugged design requiring but a minimum number of adjustments consistent with

accuracy.

The report sets forth in full detail the requirements

for scale levers, pivots, leveling lugs, and connections

;

for scales equipment designed to provide a separate

scales for each kind of materials weighed; for scales equipment designed to weigh more than one kind of

material on a single scale; and for full-capacity weight

beams, multiple-weight beams, poises, graduated dials,

“ telltale ” dials, and other equipment.

The arrangement of the bin scales, mechanism for

operating gates or valves, and the operator’s platform

shall be such that the operator may stand in a comfortable position beside the weighing hopper, with

the weight beam or dial in full view as he operates

the gates or valves that control the flow of material

into the weighing hopper. All working parts of

scales, particularly knife-edges, shall be so protected

as to prevent any material, excepting wind-borne material, from falling upon or against them.

With each scale there shall be furnished full and

complete instructions for setting up and adjusting.

These instructions shall be attached to some part of

the equipment.

CHROMIUM PLATING RESEARCH

Poor “ Throwing ” Power in Chromium Plating Solutions

Partially Offset by Suitable Arrangement of Articles in Plating Tanks

During recent 5’ears chromium plating has come

into extensive use, notably on automobile and plumbing fixtures. In this process it is difficult to deposit

chromium in the recesses or remote parts of irregularly shaped articles. In the language of the platers,

the solution has poor throwing power. It is important to define and employ those conditions of operation which will yield the most uniformly distributed

deposits. The American Electroplaters’ Society has,

therefore, supported a research along these lines at the

Bureau of Standards.

The results of extensive studies show that any revolutionary improvements in throwing power are improbable. It will, therefore, still be necessary for the

platers to exercise their ingenuity to so arrange the

articles in the tank as to get the current densitj’ as nearly uniform as possible.

Better throwing power.

By the use of relatively dilute solutions of chromic

acid, with a low sulphate content and at a fairly high

temperature and current density, better throwing

power is obtained than under the reverse conditions.

When, however, as is generally true in plating plants,

the available voltage is less than 6, lower temperatures

and current densities must be used.

Chromium plating is entirely practicable, as shown

b}^ its present extensive use. This study shows that

it will continue to require more care and ingenuity

of the platers to produce complete covering with

bright chromium deposits tlian does plating with

nickel or other metals.

This subject is fully discussed in the January number of the Bukeau of Standards Journal of Research.
282

STANDARD CAN SIZES ARE PROPOSED BY PACKING INDUSTRY

Industry Recommends Reduction From 64 Varieties to 27 in Types of Cans for Fruits and Vegetables

Recommending that 27 sizes of cans be substituted

for 64 that have been used for the packing of fruits

and vegetables, the division of simplified practice an- nounces the results of a survey it undertook at the

request of the National Canners’ Association. The

smaller number recommended should answer all nor- mal requirements.

In April, 1928, the National Canners’ Association

requested the division of simplified practice to make

a survey of the canning industry with a view to as- certaining the diversity existing in sizes of packers’

cans. It was felt by that organization that there was

a needless waste being created by the use of too wide

a range of sizes and that a study of actual operatingconditions might bring to light data which would be

helpful in deciding which cans should be used.

Canners circularized.

Accordingly, the Department of Commerce circularized some 2,800 canners throughout the country, re- questing information on the various sizes of cans which they used in packing their products. About

oOO replies were received containing sufficient information to indicate that there were being used an enor- mous number of sizes, some differing only thirtyseconds of an inch. While this information indicated

a wasteful condition, it Avas not sufficient upon Avhich

to base any definite recommendation. It was felt that

further data should be obtained from the large can

companies.

A representative of the Department of Commerce

conferred in Chicago Avith officials of the American

and Continental Can Cos. and submitted a repoi’t of

the survey which had been completed. It Avas felt by

these officials that many of the differences shown in

the canners’ replies were due to inadequate facilities for accurately measuring the cans, and that while a

diversification certainly existed that it was not quite

as bad as the figures which had been collected Avould

indicate.

The report was then redrafted, and many of the cans which varied by small fractions of an inch were grouped together under classifications which seemed

logical. When this Avork had been completed it was

found that there were 64 different sizes of cans being

used for the packing of fruits and A'egetables.

Many sizes eliminated.

Tlie can companies Avere then requested to supply

figures on the production of these sizes of the cans for

the years 1927 and 1928, in order that a fairly accurate idea might be obtained as to the volume of business

enjoyed by each individual size. This data when compiled indicated very clearly that certain sizes which

enjoyed a very small percentage of the total might

easily be eliminated without working hardship on any- one and with considerable benefit to the great majority

of concerns in the food industry, for wholesalers, retailers, and chain stores, as well as for canners and

manufacturers of cans. Out of the 64 sizes it would seem that 27 would

readily supply the requirements of the large bulk of

the demand. In reaching this conclusion due consideration was given to the particular use for which

each can was intended. In practically every case the cans eliminated enjoyed less than one-tenth of 1 per

cent of the total annual business represented in the

canning of fruits and vegetables.

By this method the following list of sizes to be considered as standard for the country for the packing

of fruit and vegetables was arrived at : 202 by 214, 5- ounce tomato paste ; 202 by 308, 6-ounce tomato paste,

southern 4-ounce nickel milk; 208 by 211, 8-ounce

bean, 8 E, baby milk; 211 by 300, special sauce (coast)

regular tamale; 211 by 304, No. 55, 8-ounce sauce; 211

by 400, No. 1 standard eastern oyster ; southern 8-ounce,

picnic; 211 by 408, special olive; 211 by 600, pint

oliA'^e; 300 by 308 by 308, No. 1 tip asparagus (square) ; 300 by 308 by 604, No. 2)4 asparagus (square) ; 300 by

407, 16-ounce bean, dog chow; 300 by 409, 20-ounce

tall milk; 301 by 208, 8-ounce pimento; 301 by 400,

No. 1 tall (Hawaiian), No. 1 Honolulu tall; 301 by

411, No. 1 tall. No. 1 coast, 1-pound salmon; 303 by

406 by 303 can, 18-ounce bean, medium soup ; 307 by

204, No. 1 squat (Hawaiian) ; 307 b}'^ 302, No. 93, 3%-

inch No. 2; 307 by 400, No. 95, 18-ounce bean, No. 2

squat (or short) ; 307 by 408, No. 2 standard (coast)

;

307 by 409, No. 2 standard (east) ; 401 by 205, No. 1

flat (coast) ; 401 by 206, No. 1 tuna. No. 1 flat (California) ; 401 by 411, No. 2i^ standard ; 404 by 414, No.

3 standard; 603 by 700, No. 10 standard; 603 by 812,

full gallon. No. 12 pickle.

The LouisAulle grocery survey, conducted by an

entirely separate branch of the Department of Commerce, indicated that in 16 stores of all sizes sur- A’eyed in that city, betAveen 90 and 95 per cent of

the total business done in canned fruit and vegetable

Avas covered by about five of the sizes in our standard

list. While it might be pointed out by some that

Louisville is not representative of all sections of the

country, it is true that all types of stores from very

small corner groceries to large retail houses were

covered, and while the five sizes most popular there

might not be those which would answer for the same

percentage of demand all over the country, the list of 27 sizes should certainly answer all normal re- quirements. From the figures obtained from the can companies, it looked as though the 27 sizes retained

would supply 95 per cent of the demand.

Inventories reduced.

The result of the use of this standard list of sizes by wholesalers, retailers, and chain stores will materially reduce their inventory and release capital

tied up in slow-moving stock. It should make for
283

more economical packing clue to longer runs, with

fewer changes of machinery, less idle equipment, and

reduced clerical overhead.

The success of any cooperative movement such as

this is entirely dependent on the whole-hearted support of all of the elements of the industry and it is sincerely hoped that the list of sizes proposed in this

report will be accepted for use by the canning and

affiliated industries and that the economies which

seem apparent in the program will be realized. The

division of simplified practice offers its services in

promulgating this recommendation as a national

standard, should it meet with the approval of the

affected industries.

RAYON DEFICIENT AS PAPER-MAKING

MATERIAL

Although Received in Increasing Quantities by Paper Mills,

Experiments Indicate That It Is Detrimental to the Final

Product

Rayon, unlike the cotton or wood fibers from which

it is made, is not suitable for a paper-making material. Laboratory tests conducted at the Bureau of

Standards show that it is not only valueless in papermaking stock but may actually be detrimental to the

quality of the paper.

The rayon used in the tests was submitted to the same manufacturing processes as rags are in the

production of high-grade papers. Cotton and linen

rags are commonly used as the fibrous material for

fine paper when strength and durability are desired

and the presence of any other fiber which would adversely affect the quality of the paper is to be avoided.

Since rayon has become established as a leading raw

material in the textile industry, however, increasing

amounts are being found in the rag stock supplied for

paper making. Data on the value of rayon when submitted to the paper-making treatment usually given

such materials are therefore of interest to the ragpaper industry.

Fibers lose strength when wetted.

Owing to loss of strength when wetted, the rayon

filaments tended to break into short lengths during the

pulping operations without the fibrillation and fraying necessary for good felting in the formation of the

sheet. As a consequence the sheets from rayon lacked

the strength to withstand the handling required in the

subsequent pressing and drying operations, and the

pliability character of rag papers. This investigation

will be fully described in the February number of the

Bureau of Standards Journal of Research.

SMALL-DIMENSION LUMBER BULLETIN

AVAILABLE

National Committee on Wood Utilization Issues Data on Small-Dimension Stock, its Seasoning, Handling, and

Manufacture

The development of the use of small-dimension

stock—the lumber of the future—cut to sizes suitable

for the manufacture of chairs, furniture, automobiles,

sporting goods, agricultural implements, toys, musical

instruments, and numerous other articles is the result of actual savings in dollars and cents to users of such

stock. The National Committee on Wood Utilization, of

the Department of Commerce, has just released a bulletin, Small-Dimension Stock, Its Seasoning, Handling, and Manufacture, which summarizes the best

practices of 70 of the largest small-dimension plants

in the coimtr}\

ANNUAL CONTRIBUTION TO BRITISH ENGINEERING STANDARDS ASSOCIATION INCREASED

British Government Increases Grant from $511 to a Maximum of $24,333 Per Annum, Resulting from Recommendation in Final Report of Balfour Committee on Industry

and Trade

The British Government has decided to increase its grant to the British Engineering Standards Association from $511 to a maximum of $24,333 per annum,

according to a report from American Consul Gen.

John K. Davis, London, England. This increase fol- lows on the recommendations in the final report of the

Balfour Committee on Industry and Trade, issued in the early part of last year. In that report the committee expressed its cordial

appreciation of the valuable work performed by the

association and its 500 committees in the interests of

British trade and industry. A weak spot, in the

judgment of the committee, is the excessive dependence on trade support. Though most of the work,

especially the committee work, the Balfour committee

observed in a statement, is unpaid, the present annual

expenses of the association amount to $102,197 a 3^ear. To this expenditure the annual contribution of the

British Government is at present $511, and contribirtions of $2,433 a year are also made by the Government of India, and the Crown Agents for the Colonies. There are other receipts from fees for special

work and the sale of publications, but the bulk of the

income is derived from subscriptions from trade

organizations.

Committee recommendations.

The committee did not wish to make any suggestion that would have the effect of diminishing the

support or interest of the trades, but for the reasons

given, and also with a view to developing the work,

it considered that the income from independent

sources ought to be very much more substantial tlian at present. It, therefore, recommended that the

Government should make an annual contribution

equal to the sum subscribed b}^ the trades, subject to a maximum of, say, $48,665.

The Government attaches great importance in the

interests of British industry to the development of

standardization, and as a condition of the grant ex- pects the association to resume and energetically pursue the work of translating the principal British

standard specifications into foreign languages.
284

DEPARTMENT STORE PACKAGING SURVEY

Preliminary Survey Among Typical Stores Reported to National Retail Dry Goods Association

Tlie nineteenth annual convention of the National

Retail Dry Goods Association, which closed in New

York on February 7, received a report from the di- vision of simplified practice on the results of a pre- liminary survey of wrapping and packing methods

and supplies used by six typical stores in the New

York metropolitan area and in Boston.

This survey, which was undertaken by the Department of Commerce at the request of the association,

disclosed striking opportunities to effect savings. The

association has asked that

the scope of the study be ex- tended so as to include 12

cities. When completed, it will present a picture of av- erage conditions throughout

the country.

Merrill W. Osgood, operating manager, Jordan Marsh

Co., one of the Boston stores already surveyed, commented

on the importance of effect- ing savings in wrapping and

packing expenses to a general session of the convention as follows

:

Expense control has turned the

searchlight on the items of supplies. The average percentage figure for supplies in stores with net sales of more than $1,000,000 is usually around 1.5 per

cent. If you examine the Harvard Bureau of Business Research figures, you will find that stores doing a volume of more

than $1,000,000 will spend more money for supplies than they

do for insurance, taxes, and delivery wages combined. In

fact, only three “out-of-pocket” expense items (salaries, rent, advertising) are larger than the item of supplies.

Standardization could save 10 to 15 per cent.

It has been estimated that if the principles of scientific analysis, simplification, and standardization were applied to

supplies, that the supply expense could be reduced by 10 to 15 per cent. This would mean a saving of many thousands

of dollar’s to retail stores. For example, a store doing around

$10,000,000 would spend $150,000, or 1.5 per cent, for supplies,

which is the standard set up by the Harvard Business School. A 10 per cent saving of this would be $15,000, or the equivalent

to a $300,000 increase in sales. Alexander B. Galt, of the division of simplified

practice, in introducing a report on the preliminary

survey, said in part:

A year ago the Assistant Secretary of Commerce, Doctor

Klein, estimated that the annual waste in distribution amounted

to about $8,000,000,000 ; one- twelfth of our national income

;

almo,st $275 for every family in the United States. This estimate

includes all the so-called intangible wastes, such as useless advertising, duplicated sales effort, cross hauling of similar commodities, and movement of empty

transportation equipment. But the waste in physical dis- tribution alone has been esti- mated by several competent

groups at not less than $3,000,- 000,000 a year. This includes

the wastes of time, labor, and

material in the multifarious op- erations that take place after a

product leaves the final machine

or process in a factory, and be- fore it is in the hands of the

final consumer ready to be used. It is often supposed that transportation cost, in the form of freight charges, represents a

large factor in the cost of physical distribution, but this is far from being the case. A recent survey of distribution cost of 20

staple commodities showed that freight charges amounted to only 10 per cent of the total, whereas packing, handling, loading, unloading, rehandling, each often repeated several times, accounted for the other 90 per cent. Work divided into three phases.

This coojierative effort undertaken by the division

of sinqilified practice was done so at the request of

The division of simplified practice has

prepared an Introduction to the Survey of

Methods and Supplies for Wrapping and

Packing of Department Store Merchandise. This statement covers the purpose

and scope of the proposed study and some

of the findings of a preliminary survey

covering three stores in the New York

metropolitan area and three in Boston.

Copies of this statement can be secured

from the division upon request. The final data will not be available until after the

completion of the national survey, some months hence.

The 23 methodsof taping boxes and packages as noted by the preliminary survey
285

the association’s committee on simplification and

standardization of stores supplies, and divides itself into three parts : (1) Field survey of selected stores in

various cities, in which the division’s rej^resentatives

mittee to disseminate its findings and recommendations. This particular survey is not an isolated phenomenon. On the contrary, it may properly be regarded as

DIVERSITY IN BAG SIZES

61 DIFFERENT SIZES

FROM 6 STORES

WRAPPING 6 PACKING SWUEb

DIVISION ,f aMPUFIE.0 PHftaiCE.

U Ik Dt IN COOPERATION VITM THEN. R. D. G. A.

The diversity in bags

Of the 61 pictured, 2.1 are of the serrated-edge type, 21 die-cut, 5 die-cut handle bags, 4 die-cut clasp, 4 die-cut string, 1 serrated-edge string bags, and 1 satchel-bottom die-cut handle bag. Of these 61 bags, 1 was common to 3 stores

3 to 4 stores, and 1 to 5 stores.

gather data on methods and supplies used in the

wrapping and packing of merchandise; (2) preparing this material for study and use by the committee

and merchants generally; and (3) assisting the coman integral part of the much larger movement now

under way to secure basic data necessary for the next

general advance in industrial efficiency. It is obvious

that whatever may be the ultimate solution of these
286

problems the first step must be to secure reliable statistics on existing conditions.

In reporting details of the conditions observed,

George A. Cooper, of the division, said

:

It is reported that iu the United States there are more

than 6,000 department stores, exclusive of specialty stores doing an annual volume of busness of approximately $6,500,- 000,000. All of these stores; distribute annually almost

3,000,000,000 packages. It is estimated that if, as a result of

this survey, it is found possible to effect a saving of 10 per

GERMAN HANDBOOK FOR DRAFTSMEN

German Standardization Body Publishes a Guide For Use

of Its Standards

After the German national standardizing body had

completed its standardization of technical drawings

and drafting-room practice a handbook was published to serve as a guide in the use of the standard

(DIN) sheets. This book, which contains a number of reproductions of the standard sheets referred to, has now been

printed in its fifth edition. Among the subjects dealt

with are the following: Kinds of drawings, sizes of

drawings and systems of folding; scales; layout of

views and cross sections; types of lines and their

thickness; method of making cross sections; designation of materials and of surface finish; diagramatic

presentation of component parts, such as screws, gears,

valves, switches, etc. ; indication of dimensions, including tolerances ; indication of fits according to the

German standard system of fits; type and size of let- tering on drawings, part lists; and text of stamp to be placed on drawings indicating the proprietorship

of the subject matter. (A. S. A. Bulletin.)

The reader will understand that the letters DIN

are the initials of the words Deutsche Industrie Normen (German Industrial Standards). Dinbuch 8, then, means “ Book of German Industrial Standards

No. 8.”

CONSULTING EXPERT APPOINTED

Robert Spurr Weston, Sanitary Engineer, Appointed to Department of Commerce Committee on Plumbing

Upon the invitation of Secretary Lamont, Robert

Spurr Weston, of Boston, Mass., has accepted membership upon the subcommittee on plumbing of the Department of Commerce Building Code Committee.

Weston is a sanitary engineer and member of the firm

of Weston & Sampson. He has had a long and dis- tinguished career in his profession, and is the author

of numerous articles dealing with sanitation. He is president of the New England Water Works Association and a member of the executive boards of the

American Institute of Consulting Engineers and the

Sanitary Engineering Division of the American

Society of Civil Engineers.

The subcommittee on plumbing is composed of sanitary engineers and master plumbers who cooperate

with experts of the Bureau of Standards in establishing basic plumbing principles and their application

through plumbing codes. As a result of an extended

cent in the present cost of wrapping and packing merchandise,

the economies thus secured Avould amount to more than

$9,000,000 a year. One to three stores were tentatively selected for sur- vey in each of the following cities : Atlanta ; Boston

;

Chicago; Dallas, Detroit; Los Angeles; Milwaukee;

Minneapolis; New York; Pittsburgh; Portland,

Oreg. ; San Francisco; St. Louis; St. Paul; and

Washington, D. C.

experimental program at the Bureau of Standards,

the committee issued in 1924 a publication entitled “ Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in Dwellings and Similar Buildings,” which was

widely accepted as the basis for establishing modern

plumbing regulations. Last }^ear it brought out a re- vised edition entitled “ Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing ” in which recommendations

covering plumbing in all types and sizes of buildings were given. At the present time the committee is in- terested in a proposed program of experimental work

directed toward finding out more precisely what happens in the plumbing systems of high buildings. As

before, the Bureau of Standards, is undertaking the

fundamental research work and the committee contributes its practical experience and intimate knowledge of sanitary conditions existing throughout the

country.

DRAINAGE OF COAL MINES

American Mining Congress Committee Conducting First Revision of Mine Drainage Standard

Representative of 10 national associations interested

in the development, a large committee is just completing the first revision of the existing mine drainage

standard, rejjorts the American Mining Congress.

This revision expands and brings up to date the rec- ommendations and specifications contained in the

former code, which was formulated under the auspices

of the American Standards Association. The nine

jDarts into which the work is divided are as follows

:

Field pumps, permanent pumps, piping for pumps,

operations of pumps, storage of mine water, natural

drainage, unwatering unabandoned workings, mine

water, and its action upon mine drainage equipment

and acid-resisting metals.

These recommendations, the American Mining Congress points out, are considered to be of utmost value

to medium small companies not served by widely ex- perienced drainage specialists. Of particular interest

in the development of mine drainage practice and

equipment to-day, are the automatic features now being perfected to such an extent that there are in use mimerous important mine pump stations which have no other attendance than an inspection of an authorized person one or two times in 24 hours. Where

three shifts of pumps are otherwise required, the sav- ing in attendance labor will usually amply justify the

added cost of the automatic features.

This standard points out that only motor centrifugal

pumps lend themselves to full automatic operation,

that they can be arranged to self-prime, start, and stop
287

\ by the height of the water in the pump, and an alarm

is given in case of the failure of any part to perform

properly.

UNIFORMITY IS URGED TO CUT AIRPLANE

COSTS

Standardized Materials and Designs Advocated for Economy

in Production

When airplane manufacturers settle on certain designs there is no question but that the cost of planes

will be lowered, stated the Aeronautics Division of the

Department of Commerce in an oral interview with

newspapermen. Another factor which will enable

them to cut the price of their products will be an

increased production, it was stated. The airplane is built of specially selected materials

which are carefully and painstakingly chosen, and

added to that is the fact that the work of assembling

the materials requires skilled manual labor and also

requires careful engineering work, it was said. These

things are partly responsible for the prices of air- planes. Another factor which makes the plane high

priced is that much material must be rejected before

the plane is put together, according to the statement

of the department.

It is possible for tlie manufacturers to settle on a given design and, by quantity production and sales,

the price can be made much lower, as is true in other

industries. Quantity production Avould make the cost of manufacturing cheaper and would eliminate much

of the expense which is incurred in manufacturing a great many designs. Competition has made it neces- sary for the manufacturer of airplanes to construct them of several types, and the consequence is that he

has not had the opportunity to specialize on one particular type of plane and go into quantity production,

the department explained.

Advancement has been rapid.

The airplane has skipped, to a certain extent, some

of the phases of development which the automobile

went through. The plane has begun to change designs at a comparatively early stage, while for a period the designs and models of the automobile re- mained substantially the same. The airplane manufacturer now has to change his models as frequently

as the automobile manufacturer does, in order to stay

in the competition.

By selecting a certain type, however, it is possible

for the airplane manufacturer to install line-production methods and other time and money saving devices and produce the plane for less than is possible

without concentrating on a certain design, it was said. SCREW THREAD TABLES FOR SHOP USE

Pamphlet Prepared by National Screw Thread Commission

Circulated Among Producers, Distributors, and Users of Standard Screw Thread Products to Determine Extent of Adoption

Purusant to a request from the National Screw

Thread Commission, a pamphlet prepai’ed by that

body entitled “American National Screw Thread

Tables for Shop Use. I. Standard Threads,” was

circulated under date of Januaiy 23 to producers, distributors, and consumers of standard screw-thread

products for written acceptance, in order to determine

the extent of actual adoption.

These tables cover, in a form for convenient use, the

basic sizes, limiting dimensions, tolerances, and tap

drill sizes for the American National coarse and fine thread series, as recommended by the National Screw

Thread Commission. In the event these standard

dimensions and tolerances for screw threads are adopted by a satisfactory majority of the producers,

and in the absence of any active opposition, the recom- mendations will be established as a commercial standard for the industry. It may be of interest to note

that in circulating these screw thread tables for writ- ten acceptance, the Bureau of Standards has made no

attempt to either recommend or urge acceptance, the

emj^hasis has been leather to determine the desire of

the industry in general relative to the use of these

standards.

SPECIAL SCREW THREADS

Pamphlet Circulated Among Interested Elements to Determine Extent of Actual Adoption

Pursuant to a request from the National Screw

Thread Commission, a pamphlet prepared by that

body entitled “American National Scrtw Thread

Tables for Shop Ll'se, Special Threads,” was circulated

under date of January 23 to producers, distributors,

and consumers of special screw-thread products, for

written acceptance, in order to determine the extent of

actual adoption. These tables present in compact

form the basic sizes, limiting dimensions, and toler- ances for the American National 12-pitch thread series

and other screw threads of special diameters, pitches,

and lengths of engagement in four classes of fits. In the event these standard dimensions and toler- ances for screw threads are adopted by a satisfactory

majority of producers, and in the absence of any

active opposition, the recommendations will be established as a commercial standard for the industry.* It may be of interest to note that in circulating these

screw-thread tables for written acceptance the Bureau

of Standards has made no attempt to either recom- mend or urge acceptance ; the emphasis has been rather

to determine the desire of the industiy, in general,

relative to the use of these standards.

FELDSPAR

General Conference Appoints Committee to Redraft Tentative Standard; Proposal Will Be Submitted to Industry for Signed Acceptance

The efforts of the feldspar grinders in their at- tempt to establish uniform classifications for their

product, will be met with interest by all divisions of

the ceramic industry. The movement has been initi- ated by the Feldspar Grinders’ Institute, but is re- ceiving the interest and cooperation of all producers

as a basis of common understanding for the industry.

A general conference of producers, distributors,

and users was held at the Bureau of Standards on January 14 to consider the classifications proposed,

and while general opinion was in favor of standard

classifications and tests some changes were suggested
288

by various consumer groups. Since these recom- mended changes involved mature consideration and

thought, a committee of the feldspar industry was

appointed to incorporate the changes. The committee was authorized to prepare the specification

and tests for submittal to the industry for formal

approval and acceptance.

The committee which is representative of the in- dustry is composed of the following

:

Individual Official title Business connection Interest represented

B. C. Burgess Manager Tennessee Mineral Feldspar grinders. (chairman)

.

Charles E. Golding- President Products Co. Standard Flint & Do.

V, V. Kelsey Sales manager

Spar Corporation. Consolidated Feld- Do.

Jos. P. Rodgers Secretary-t r e a s - spar Corporation. Seaboard Feldspar Do. Arthur S. Watts

urer. Professor ceramic Co. Ohio State Univer- Ceramic schools.

P, H. Bates

engineering. Chief

sity. Clay and silicate products. Trenton Potteries

Bureau of Stand- James Hamilton Superintendent

ards. Whiteware manu- Edw. Schramm

L. E. Barringer

Chemist

Engineer of insuCo. Onondaga Pottery Co. General Electric

facturers. Do.

Do.

E. C. Flint

lation. Chief chemistCo.

Hazel-Atlas Glass Glass manufactur- T. R. Earnill Director, research Co. Owens-1 1 1 i n 0 i s

ers.Do.

H. G. Wolfram

and development.

Director of reGlass Co.Porcelain Enamel Enamel manufacsearch. & Manufacturing Co.

turers.

It is hoped that the classifications to be recom- mended will benefit the entire industry by providing

a better understanding between buyer and seller. United States Standard Sieve Series will be recom- mended for use, and standard methods of chemical

analysis will also be included to assure comparable

tests. INTERCHANGEABLE GROUND-GLASS JOINTS

Proposed Standard Now Before Industry for Acceptance;

Standard Provides Uniform Taper and Nine Sizes The recommended commercial standard for interchangeable ground-glass joints for laboratory and

industrial glassware was circulated during February

to the industry for formal acceptance.

The standard provides for a uniform taper and

nine specific sizes based on the diameter of the joint.

Because of their interchangeability, it will be possible to quickly substitute one portion of a complicated piece of apparatus in case of breakage, rather

than replace the whole thing, which would be neces- sary if hand-ground joints were employed.

The commercial standard recommended by the in- dustry has been sent to a comprehensive list of glass

apparatus manufacturers and dealers and many con- sumers, as represented by college and industrial

laboratories. Others interested will be furnished

copies of the recommended standard upon request

directed to the division of trade standards, Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D. C. WIRE ROPE SPECIFICATIONS APPROVED

American Marine Standards Committee Approves Wire

Ropes Specification

Standard general specifications for wire ropes for

marine uses have been approved by the executive

board of the American Marine Standards Committee.

They establish cast-steel rope as the basic standard

and provide three higher grades of steel ropes as follows : Extra strong cast steel ; plow steel, and improved plow steel; and phosphor bronze for certain

grades of the ropes. The following types of rope strand construction

are included ; 6 by 7, 6 by 19, 8 by 19, 6 by 37, 6 by 24,

6 by 12, 6 by 6 by 7 (6 by 42) tiller rope; 5 by 19

marline-clad rope; 1 by 7 stiff strands; seizing strands;

sash and bell cord; and lead line with wire cord

center. The specifications are appended notes on recommended practice for the storage, handling, use, inspection, and maintenance of wire ropes and notes on working loads and requirements of ship classifica- tion societies. NEW ENGLAND COUNCIL ESTABLISHES

MARKETING STANDARDS

New England Council Has Established Grades and Standards

for Farm Products; 2,505,251 Graded and Labeled Packages Sold in 1929 In all of the six New England States, uniform legislation has been enacted for the establishment of

grades and standards for quality products of New

England farms, and a uniform label for the identifi- cation of these products, known as “ The New England Farm Label,” has been adopted. Grades and

standards, as authorized by this legislation, have been

adopted in the several States, covering such quality

products as eggs, day-old chicks, maple sugar and

sirup, asparagus, potatoes, bunched vegetables, and

fruits. The majority of the standards set up have

been developed either identical with, or in close con- formity to. Federal standards for such commodities.

In accordance with a recent statement issued from

the headquarters of the New England Council a total of approximately 600 licensed users developed busi- ness in 1929 with 13 different grades of commodities

representing a total sale of 2,505,521 labeled packages.

The use of these labels and standards assures the con- sumer of fresh, near-by farm products of dependable

quality and aids the producer by providing him with

staple markets for more profitable merchandise.

AUTOMOBILE TIRE SIZES REDUCED

Ten Former Sizes Dropped and Two Added; Present Schedule of Sizes Used on Original Equipment is Seventeen Survey made at the National Automobile Show in

New York revealed that but 17 sizes of tires were used

as original equipment on the 272 models of 47 different

makes of passenger cars exhibited, states the magazine

Tires. This shows a reduction from last year, when

21 sizes were used on 254 models representing 40

makes. This reduction reflects the effect of the bal- loon-size tire standardization program proposed by

tire manufacturers and automobile interests in 1928. Only two new sizes were added to their original

equipment lineup, the 3.75 by 18 and the 7.00 by 19. Ten former original-equipment sizes are discontinued.

These are : 28 by 4.75, 29 by 4.50, 29 by 4.75, 30 by 5.00,

30 by 5.50, 30 by 6.20, 30 by 6.75, 31 by 6.20, 32 bv

6.20, and 32 by 6.75.
289

SKID PLATFORM SCHEDULE REVISED

Revision of Simplified-Practice Recommendation for Skid

Platforms Referred to Industry for Signed Acceptance

At a recent meeting of the standing committee on

the simplification of skid platforms it was unammously decided to revise the simplified-practice recom- mendation as originally adopted, and to submit to industry, for its signed acceptance, the following

uniform dimensions

It is recommended that the clearance from bottom

of runners or other supports to under side of skid

platforms be either 8 or 12 inches; and the distance

between inside of runners or other supports be 29

inches. It is also recommended that over-all dimensions for skid platforms used for shipping goods be

either 33 inches Avide by 51 inches long, or 42 inches

wide by 66 inches long. The changes proposed by

the standing committee are to be effective from March

1, 1930.

The action of the revision meeting, Avhile based by

the standing committee of the industry on a careful

study of conditions and requirements of the industry,

is susceptible of such modifications as future trends

in the industry may render desirable. When sufficient signed acceptances, representing at least 80 per cent of the industry by volume of production have been

received, the revised recommendation will be printed

in accordance with the usual procedure of the division

of simplified practice.

ARBOR HOLES

Industry Contemplates Simplifying Variety of Arbor Holes

for Portable Electric Saws and Grinding Wheels

The increasing use of portable power tools has made

it more desirable than ever for manufacturers of these

tools to secure greater interchangeability between the

applicances fitting on such machines. An example of

the impracticability of nonstandard items was brought

out at the i-ecent meeting of the portable electric machine manufacturers, held at the National Bureau of

Standards.

It seems that various manufacturers of these machines have been requiring odd shaped and sized arbor

holes for circular saAvs and grinding wheels used on

portable electric poAver tools. If the recommendation,

which Avas drafted by the manufacturers’ conference on February 11, is approved March 20, Avhen a general

conference of all interests is scheduled, the shape of

holes will be simplified to the extent that only one shape will be considered as standard and sizes will be

reduced from some 6 or 8 to 2. STANDARD METHODS OF PURCHASING

ROAD-BUILDING EQUIPMENT

Convention of American Road Builders’ Association Receives

Seven Recommendations for Standardization of Purchasing

Methods of Road-Building Equipment

Seven far-reaching recommendations for standardization of methods for pux-chase of road-building

equipment Avere made by cooperating committees of

the American Road Builders’ Association, and the

American Association of State IlighAvay Officials, re- porting at the conA^ention of the foi'iner group, Avhich

Avas held at Atlantic City in January.

Tlie object of the committee is set forth as an en- deavor to eliminate unsound policies in the purchase

of equipment, an effort to prescribe suitable legislation, and an attempt to standardize purchasing

methods along practical and efficient lines. The I’e- port included recommendations by State highway departments on all details of equipment purchase.

Further recommendations by the joint committee

included specific definition of formal public lettings,

informal public lettings, and purchase by negotiation,

and the conclusion that all pui-chases of equipment

over $500 be by formal lettings; that all purchases

from $50 to $500 be by informal lettings; and purchases not to exceed $50 be made by private negotiation. Recommends central information agency.

The joint committee also recommended that in- formation be given to States from a central agency;

that there be an exchange and comparison of experi- ence and information on service and cost records and

purchase price of different kinds and makes of equipment, and that a central point be established for the

exchange of this information ; that in purchasing

equipment no trade-ins enter into the transaction;

that in awarding contracts the determining factors

shall be considered in the following order of importance : Your OAvn past experience with similar machines,

performance record of equipment, experience of

others with similar machines, efficiency in repair

parts service, mechanical details of equipment, first cost of equipment, materials used in equipment, loca- tion of, and service rendered, by local distributors or agents, price of repair parts, length of time product

has been on market, financial standing, past perfor- mance of bidder, capacity of plant, ability to make

prompt deliveries, and number of similar machines

manufactured and sold. That purchase of country equipment be handled by

clearing through State highway departments when

so requested by counties; that model specifications,

inventory, equipment service and cost-record forms

be prepared; and that the committee be continued

to make further studies of the problem.

CONTAINERS FOR ICE CREAM

Bureau of Business Research Urges Use of Factory-Filled Cartons for Ice Cream; Industry Has Approved Simplification for Variety of Ice-Cream-Brick Molds and for MachineFilled Cartons In connection Avith its stud}" of dealer profits on

ice cream, the Boston UniA^n-sity Bureau of Business

Research made a survey of consumer preference to bulk and packaged ice cream, including the reasons

for such preference in each case. The prediction is made, by the investigators, on the basis of that survey,

that the next important advance in the ice-cream trade

Avill be the introduction, by progressive manufacturers,

of factory-filled packages of approximately the same

consistency, flavor, and taste as the present store- jxacked package.

Tlie Bureau of Business Research recommends the

increased use of factory-filled packages, claiming that

they Avill solve the shrinkage problem and yield the

druggist or stoi-ekeoper a more certain profit: they
290

conform to the trend of modern merchandising

methods, public opinion, and the preference of the

buying public in other lines. They are more con- venient and economical to handle ; they are more sanitary; a properly made package provides a uniform

quantity in a convenient form for service at home.

The problem of economical and sanitary distribution of ice cream is now attracting the attention of

the ice-cream manufacturers, and it is the opinion of

many of the leaders in this field that the industry

must turn to packaging as the proper method of

merchandising this confection.

Simplifying variety of cartons. In line with this idea a general conference has been

held, under the auspices of the division of simplified

practice, which approved simplified dimensions for the

2-gallon ice cream brick mold and for the pint and

quart machine-filled cartons. This general confer- ence was held on December 4, 1929, at the request of

the simplified practice committee of the International

Association of Ice Cream Manufacturers, and the

recommendations will shortly be placed before the

producers, distributors, and consumers for acceptance.

An extension of this program came about through

a recent meeting of the committee in New York to discuss the simplification and standardization of

dimensions of cup-shaped containers for ice cream.

Representatives of the manufacturers of containers

and filling machinery were present, and different

makes of cup-shaped containers were studied. Those

present indicated their desire to cooperate and the

committee is now giving further study to the question

of sizes with the view of developing a tentative recom- mendation. This will be submitted for consideration

and approval of a general conference to be held under

the auspices of the division of simplified practice at a future date.

INFLATED RUBBER TOY BALLS

Simplified Sizes and Classifications Approved by Conference;

Now Before Industry for Acceptance

A simplified schedule of sizes and classifications

for inflated rubber toy balls was unanimously ap- proved by a general conference of the industry held

in New York on February 6, under the auspices of the

division of simplified practice in cooperation with

the toy manufacturers of the United States of America.

The recommendation establishes nine classes of

balls, varying in size from 2 inches outside di^neter

to 12 inches. Two of the classes in the smaller sizes provide for more than one size ball to take care of the

mold requirements of manufacturers and the current

needs of the trade. The other classes contain one size each.

The entire schedule applies to balls of the inflated

type only, decorated and undecorated, with or without

design. The recommendation will, therefore, not in- terfere in any way with the artistic side of the toy-ball

industry. General acceptance of the recommendation

should result in economies to manufacturers, by re- ducing mold inventory, and will permit the trade to do business on the same basis so far as size of balls

is concerned.

The recommendation, when and if approved by the

industry, will go into efi'ect on July 1, 1930, in time

for the seasonal demand which commences at that

time.

The conference approved the appointment of a standing committee of the industry for the purpose of

maintaining interest and adherence by keeping the

program abreast of current practice and requirements

through periodic revision.

A summary report of the general conference, to- gether with an acceptance from, Avill shortly be sent

to all concerned. Upon receipt of sulRcient accep- tance to insure the success of the plan, the recom- mendation will be printed as one of the series of publications issued by the Department of Commerce in

the interest of simplification.

TESTING RAILROAD TRACK SCALES

Bureau of Standards Makes Public Annual Report of Rail- road Track Scale Testing Service

To accommodate numerous requests for information

regarding the general fitness of freight-car weighing

facilities throughout the United States, the Bureau

of Standards has adopted a policy of publishing annually the results of track scale tests conducted during

the preceding fiscal }nar. The first of these reports was published at the close of the fiscal year 1924. The

present one reviews the work completed during the

j-ear ended June 30, 1929. The investigation of railroad track scales was begun

by the bureau in 1913 and has since been a regular

function. The work is supported by congressional

appropriation. Operating schedules for the three test units of the bureau are arranged to include; (1) Annual tests and readjustment of 20 master track scales

to which railroads or other organizations periodically

refer test cars for weight standardization, (2) tests of

miscellaneous track scales whose owners have filed formal request for the service, and (3) tests of several

hundred track scales located in representative sections

of the United States and used for different kinds of

service.

The total number of railroad track scales used for

weighing revenue freight on railroads approximates

5,000. There are, in addition, some 7,000 in service at industrial and commercial plants. With the present

equipment and organization, the bureau is seldom able

to test more than 800 scales in any one year. The an- nual testing schedules are, therefore, planned, as far

as may be possible, to serve different localities in suc- ceeding years and to insure widespread distribution of

the tests. STANDARD LOCKS FOR SHIP DOORS

PROPOSED

General specifications and standards for 14 locks

and their accessories have been approved by the exec- utive board of the American Marine Standards Committee, subject to incorporation in the final draft of

a number of suggestions receiA^ed in connection with

the membership vote. o
scientific, technical, A7\[d commercial

PERIODICAL PUBLICATI07<iS ISSUED BY THE

national bureau of STAAIDARDS

BUREAU OF STANDARDS

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

The new Journal describes the bureau’s re- search results in science and technology. The

union of science and its applications in one

journal shortens the lag between discovery

and application.

All engaged in industry and commerce should

have available for current use and permanent

reference, the Bureau of Standards Journal of

Research.

Early in its fir^t year the Journal developed a li^ of paid subscribers double the anticipated

maximum.

This Journal is full of intere^ to executives

and technicians controlling industries and

commercial enterprises. It enables them bet- ter to promote efficiency by determining the

scientific measured controls ofprocess through

experimental and theoretical research.

TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN

The Bureau of Standards periodical with a WAR RECORD! Started during the dark

days of 1917 to keep the Army and Navy and

other branches of the Government informed

of progress in scientific war research at the

bureau. Upon urgent request this publication was continued and expanded to serve the

Government, science, and industry.

The TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN will

keep you informed of current progress in the

scientific and technical work of the bureau’s

laboratories, and gives each month a liSl of

the publications of the bureau. A complete

cross index is published with the December

issue.

You can not afford to be without the TECHNICAL NEWS BULLETIN. Every article is short and to the point. The busieSl executive can afford the time to read it. Issued monthly Price, $2.75 per year Subscription price . 25 cents per year

COMMERCIAL STANDARDS

MONTHLY

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

FOR 1930

This new governmental periodical is a review

of progress in commercial simplification and

standardization. It is the only journal of its kind. It covers the national movement initiated by President Hoover for the reducTtion

of needless sizes and varieties of products and

the promotion of voluntary commercial

Standardization by industry.

The Secretary of Commerce in the firSt issue

of this new journal said: “Certain Standards,

such as those used for weights and measures,

* * * have been fixed by legislative enactment. Mandatory Standards of this character, however, are few in number when compared with the large and steadily growing

volume of Standards developed by industry

and commerce and voluntarily maintained.

* * * The activities of the Commercial

Standardization Group of the Bureau of

Standards are concerned with Standards

adopted by voluntary agreement.’’

Subscription price, $1 per year

The new Standards Yearbook for 1930 is the

third annual issue of a publication devoted to

the great and growing field of Standardization

in its broad aspects. It gives a summary of

progress.

Standardization is a world-wide movement.

It covers all industries. It is part of the application of scientific methods to induStry. Its achievements are of intereSt and concern to business men and manufacturers as well as to engineers. To the technician it is full of

example of methods and results of suggeStive

and Stimulating value. To business men it discloses trends which deeply concern their

interest.

NOW READY Price, 75c. ORDER AT ONCE

Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well' ordered adlivity rather than an incidental

adlivity supplemental to others.”

To obtain regularly the above-described publications send your order, with remittance, addressed: Superintendent

of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Foreign prices (countries other than the United

States, Canada, Mexico, Newfoundland, Cuba, and Republic of Panama) are: Journal, $3.75; Bulletin, $0.40;

Monthly, $1.25; Yearbook, $0.90
“* * * this department * * * is devoted solely to aiding and fostering the development of higher standards of living and comfort of our people * * * its ideals are clear: That by cooperation and not by compulsion it should seek to assist in maintaining and giving the impulse of progress to commerce and industry in a nation whose successful economic life underlies advancement in every other field." —President Hoover, at the laying.of the corner stone of the new building of the U. S. Department of Commerce, June 10, 1929.

THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

R. P. LAMONT, Secretary of Commerce

AERONAUTICS BRANCH, Clarence M. Young, Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Aeronautics. Establishment of civil airways and maintenance of aids to air navigation; inspection and registration of aircraft and licensing

of pilots; enforcement of air traffic rules; investigation of acci- dents; encouragement of municipal air ports; fostering of air commerce; scientific research in aeronautics; and dissemination of information relating to commercial aeronautics. (Some

of these functions are performed by special divisions of the Lighthouse Service, the Bureau of Standards, and the Coast and Geodetic Survey.)

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS, William M. Steuaet, Director. Taking censuses of population, mines and quarries, water

transportation, and religious bodies every 10 years; censuses of agriculture and electrical public utilities every 5 years; and a census of manufactures every 2 years. Compilation of statistics of wealth, public debt and taxation, including financial statistics of local governments, every 10 years; annual compilation of financial statistics of State and municipal governments.

Compilation of statistics of marriage, divorce, births, deaths,

and penal and other institutions annually, and of death rates in

cities and automobile accidents weekly.

Compilation quarterly or monthly of statistics on cotton, wool, leather, and other industries; annually of forest products;

and publication monthly of Survey of Current Business. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE,

William L. Cooper, Director. The collection of timely information concerning world market

conditions and openings for American products in foreign countries, through commercial attaches, trade commissioners, and

consular officers, and its distribution through weekly Commerce

Reports, bulletins, confidential circulars, the news and trade

press, and district and cooperative offices in 65 cities. The

maintenance of commodity, technical, and rtgicnal divisions to

afford special service to American exporters and manufacturers. The compilation and distribution of lists of possible buyers

and agents for American products in all parts of the world and

publication of weekly lists of specific sales opportunities abroad. The publicity of statistics on imports and exports. The study of the processes of domestic trade and commerce. BUREAU OF STANDARDS, George K. Burgess, Director. Custody, development, and construction of standards of measurement, quality, performance, or practice; comparison of standards used by scientific or other institutions; determination

of physical constants and properties of materials; researches and tests on materials and piocesses; and publication of scientific and technical bulletins leporting results of researches and

fundamental technical data. Collection and dissemination of information concerning

building codes and the planning and construction of houses. Establishment of simplified commercial practices through

cooperation with business organizations in order to reduce the wastes resulting from excessive variety in commodities.

BUREAU OF MINES, Scott Tuenit. Director. Technical investigations in the n ining, prtpsration, and

utilization of minerals, including the study of mine hazards and

safety methods and of improved methods in the production

and use of minerals. Testing of Government fuels and management of the Govern- ment Fuel Yard at Washington.

Research on helium and operation__ol plants producing it.

BUREAU OF MINES—Continued.

Studies in the economics and marketing of minerals and col- lection of statistics on mineral resources and mine accidents. The dissemination of results of technical and economic

researches in bulletins, technical papers, mineral resources series, miners’ circulars, and miscellaneous publications.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Henry O’Malley, Commissioner.

The propagation and distribution of food fish and shellfish,

in order to prevent the depletion of the fisheries; investigations

to promote conservation of fishery resources; the development

of commercial fisheries and agriculture; study of fishery methods, improvements in merchandising, and collection of fishery

statistics; administration of Alaska fisheries and fur seals; and

the protection of sponges off the coast of Florida. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES, George R. Putnam, Commissioner. Maintenance of lighthouses and other aids to water navigation. Establishment and maintenance of aids to navigation

along civil airways. Publication of Light Lists, Buoy Lists, and

Notices to Mariners.

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, R. S. Patton, Director. Survey of the coasts of the United States and publication of charts for the navigation of the adjacent waters, including

Alaska, the Philippine Islands, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and the Canal Zone; interior control surveys; magnetic surveys; tide and current observations; and seismological

investigations. Publication of results through charts, coast pilots, tide tables, current tables, and special publications.;!

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION, Aeihue J. Tyree, Commissioner,

superintendence of commercial marine and merchant searnen. Supervision of registering, enrolling, licensing, numbering,

etc., of vessels under the United States flag, and the annual

publication of a list of such vessels. Enforcement of the navigation and steamboat inspection laws,

including imposition of fees, fines, tonnage taxes, etc. STEAMBOAT [INSPECTION [SERVICE, Dickerson N. Hoover, Supervising Inspector General. The inspection of merchant vessels, including boilers, hulls, and life-saving equipment, licensing of officers of vessels, certi- fication of able seamen and lifeboat men, and the investigation

of violations of steamboat inspection laws. UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE, Thomas E. Robertson,

Commissioner.

The granting of patents and the registration of trade-marks,

prints, and labels after technical examination and judicial

proceedings.

Maintenance of library with public search room, containing

copies of foreign and United States patents and trade-marks. Recording bills of sale, assignments, etc., relating to patents

and trade-marks. Furnishing copies of records pertaining to patents. Publication of the weekly Official Gazette, showing the patents and trade-marks issued. RADIO DIVISION, W. D. Terrell, Chief. Inspection of radio stations on ships; inspection of radio

stations on shore, including broadcasting stations; licensing radio operators; assigning station call letters; enforcing the terms of the International Radiotelegraphic Convention; and

examining and settling international radio accounts.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1930