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to NBS TECHNICAL NOTE 892

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Bureau of Standards

fcliOI Xiii&d .vSIQffltCG fOI

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he Design and Constructioi
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards 1 was established by an act of Congress March 3, 1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and technology

and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts

research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measurement system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government, (3) a technical basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to promote public safety. The Bureau consists of the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials Research, the Institute for Applied Technology,

the Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology, and the Office for Information Programs.

THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS provides the central basis within the United

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Applied Mathematics — Electricity — Mechanics — Heat — Optical Physics — Center

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1 Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg. Maryland, unless otherwise noted; mailing address Washington. D.C. 20234.

- Located at Boulder, Colorado 80302.
»W STANDARDS

LUHUKY

APR 2 1976 Retrofitting a Residence for Solar Heating and

Cooling: The Design and Construction of the System

James E. Hill and Thomas E. Richtmyer

Ct 3-

Center for Building Technology

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

Sponsored by

Federal Energy Administration

Office of Energy Conservation Ben Franklin Station Washington, D.C. 20461

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Rogers C. B. Morton, Secretary

James A. Baker, IN, Under Secretary

Dr. Betsy Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Acting Director

Issued November 1975
National Bureau of Standards Technical Note 892

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 892, 99 pages (Nov. 1975) CODEN: NBTNAE

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1975

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Order by SD Catalog No. C13.46:892). Price $1.70 (Add 25 percent additional for other than U.S. mailing).
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. Introduction . 1

2. Description of the Test House 1

3. Design of the Solar Heating and Cooling System 2

k. Addition of the Solar Heating and Cooling System to the Test House 10

5. Economic Considerations 11

6. Instrumentation 12

7. Plans for Test Program . 1^

8. References l6

Illustrations 20

Table U8

Appendix A: Purchase Specification for Solar Collector Modules *+9

Appendix B: Empirical Routine for the Prediction of Solar Collector . Performance 52

Appendix C: Prediction of Solar Collector Performance for a Typical

Weather Year (1957) in Washington, D.C. for a SouthFacing Collector at Various Tilt Angles 56

Appendix D: Computer Predictions for the Day hy Day Performance of

a Solar Heating and Cooling System in the NBS Test House

for a Typical Weather Year (1957) in Washington, D.C 82

Retrofitting a Residence for Solar Heating and Cooling

The Design and Construction of the System

James E. Hill and Thomas- E. Richtmyer

ABSTRACT

During 1972 and 1973, the National Bureau of Standards conducted controlled laboratory

tests on a factory-built four-bedroom house having a floor area of 110 m

2 (1200 ft 2

) equipped

with a conventional gas furnace and central electric air conditioner incorporated into a forced air distribution system. During 197^, the house was moved onto the NBS grounds and

a solar heating and cooling system was designed to be added to the house. Calculations have

been made to show that more than 75% of the yearly energy needs for heating, cooling, and

supplying domestic hot water could be obtained from the sun.

This report deals with the design and construction of the retrofitted sysi/em. It consists of i+5 m

2 (1+85 ft2

) of double-glazed, flat-plate solar collector, 5.7 m

3 (1500 gallons)

of water storage, and a 10,000 W (3 ton) lithium bromide absorption air cooling unit.

Key Words: Retrofitted solar residence; solar collector; solar heating and cooling system;

solar-powered absorption refrigeration.

1. Introduction

In order to study energy usage in residential buildings and to experimentally verify

computer programs that have been constructed for calculating heating and cooling loads and

energy requirements in buildings, the National Bureau of Standards purchased a factoryproduced four-bedroom house. During 1972, it was installed in a high-bay-environmental

laboratory of approximately 2000 m

3 (70,000 ft 3

) in volume and tested under simulated summer

and winter conditions. Later it was moved to a site on the NBS grounds in Gaithersburg,

Maryland and tested under actual weather conditions. References [l] and [2] give the details

of the testing that was done prior to the beginning of the calendar year 197^. The purpose

of this report is to give the details of the design of a solar heating and cooling system

that was added to the house during the latter part of 197^-.

During the thirty years prior to 1970 , there were twenty to thirty buildings built

around the world designed to utilize solar energy for partially or totally heating the

building space. Some of the buildings that were parts of we11-documented experiments are described in references [3-10]. During the 1970 's there has been an increased emphasis in

exploring the utilization of solar energy in buildings. Reference [ll] is one of the most

up to date surveys of current activity and in it are described 135 buildings past and present

that are now using or will shortly use solar energy, for heating and/or cooling.

Almost all of these 135 buildings have been designed and constructed to be solar

equipped. The present research project was conceived to determine the feasibility of

adding solar heating and cooling components to a house that had originally been designed

to operate with a conventional system. In addition, this is one of the first studies in

which the same building will have been tested with both a completely conventional system

as well as an integrated solar system.

The specific objectives of the present study are as follows:

1. To design a fully automated and instrumented "state-of-the-art" solar heating and

cooling system that can effectively be integrated with the existing heating and

cooling system of the NBS four-bedroom test house.

2. To construct, test, and document the system performance under typical winter and

summer weather conditions for Washington, D.C.

3. To determine the fraction of the energy supplied by the auxiliary and solar components

respectively and project the savings in fossil fuels on a yearly basis.

h. To fully document the economic implications of utilizing solar energy in this manner.

2. Description of the Test House

The test house has approximately 110 m* (1200 ft2) of floor area and is of modular

design and lightweight (wood) construction. The house would typically be the end dwelling

unit of a row of townhouses at a field site. The house is shown in Figure 1 at its present

location on the NBS campus. A series of wooden racks are shown added to the roof of the

house which now hold the solar collector modules (not shown).

Two modules compose the first floor and contain the kitchen, dining area, utility room, living area and two bedrooms separated by a full bath. A floor plan of the first floor is

shown in Figure 2. The second floor module contains two bedrooms and a second full bath

with a stairway from the kitchen to the hallway connecting the bedrooms. A floor plan of
the second floor is given in Figure 3. The floors of the living area, dining area" and the

four bedrooms are carpeted. All other floor are"as are finished with asphalt tile. Construction details of the test house ate given in Table 1. As received from the factory, the' house was equipped with a refrigerator, an electric stove, an 0.3 m

3 (80 gallon) electric

hot water heater, a gas-fired forced air furnace system with a central electric air conditioner.

The windows consist of brown anodized aluminum frames and sash, with window panes, storm

windows, and screens. The thickness of the glass panes and air space are 0.32 cm (1/8 in.)

and 0.48 cm (3/16 in.), respectively. The total window area is 12.7 m

2 (137 ft 2

) or approximately 11.8 percent of the floor area. The double-wide front door contains two insulating

glass sheets. The rear door is solid wood.

The conventional equipment supplied for heating, cooling, and air distribution is located in the left side of the living area closet on the first floor and consists of a gasfired- furnace, evaporator coil, and forced air blower. The furnace is rated at input and

output capacities of 22,000 W (75,000 Btu/h) and 17,600 W (60,000 Btu/h) , respectively. The

vapor compression air conditioning unit has a listed capacity of 7000 W (2 tons). The con- densing unit is located in an interior cabinet under the kitchen window with the outdoor

coil projecting through the wall.

The air distribution system consists of a common return located in the hallway between

the living room and the utility closet. A circulating blower forces air through the gas

furnace into the distribution ducts.

Since interior furnishings have an effect on the thermal behavior of a structure, the test house if fully furnished with 1500 kg (3300 lbs.) of furniture, draperies, and other

household accessories and appliances.

3. Design of the Solar Heating and Cooling System

In designing the solar energy system for the NBS test house to accomplish the objectives

of the study, specific design criteria for the system and components were established:

1. The system must

a. utilize an existing forced air distribution system,

b. utilize solar components that are commercially available,

c. provide a comfort level fully equal to that obtainable with the conventional

system, and

d. supply greater than 75% of the energy needs for the house for heating, cooling,

and the heating of domestic water.

2. The solar components must

a. have a predictable performance,

b. be reliable, durable, and safe,

c. have a minimum cost without jeopardizing performance, and

d. be easily replaced for repair or testing with other components.

Based on these design criteria, the system as depicted in Figure 4 was designed. The

primary components are 45 m

2 (485 ft 2

) of PPG Industries'* prototype flat-plate solar collector, a water to air heat exchanger mounted in the furnace plenum, 1.9 m (500 gallon) and

3.8 m

3 (1000 gallon) water storage tanks, and a 10,000 W (3 ton) lithium-bromide absorption

air cooling unit. An ethylene glycol-water solution will be used as the heat transfer fluid

throughout the system. A small cooling tower is required in conjunction with the absorption

* Identification of commercial products does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the

National Bureau of Standards.
refrigeration machine. In addition, an electric water boiler is to be used as the auxiliary

energy source and a small preheater (heat exchanger and 0.3 m

3 (80 gallon) tank) will be

used to preheat city water prior to putting it into the conventional electric water heater

installed in the house.

The system has been designed to be as flexible as possible allowing operation in 20 to

30 different modes. Figure 5 shows the detailed piping diagram for the system including all

valves and pumps. Figure 6 through 16 have been included to show the operation of the system

in several of the modes.

Figures 6, 7, and 8 show the system operating in the space heating mode where the source

of the energy is the solar collector (Figure 6) , the small storage tank (Figure 7) , and the

large storage tank (Figure 8), respectively. In each case, the fluid is shown passing

through the auxiliary boiler. The boiler could be on or off. Therefore, the flow diagram

would be identical for the three additional operational modes where the electric boiler was being used to supplement the three primary energy sources.

Figures 9 and 10 show the system again in the space heating mode where the two storage

tanks are operated in series (Figure 9) or parallel (Figure 10). The series operation could

prove beneficial in creating an artificial condition of "thermal stratification" whereby the

hottest fluid is in the small storage tank and used for space heating.

Figure 11 shows the system in the space heating mode where the auxiliary energy source

is the only source in the system. Isolating the storage tanks from the "loop" in this mode

eliminates the use of auxiliary energy for "charging" the storage tanks, a wasteful and inefficient use of such energy.

Figures 12 and 13 show the system in the space heating mode where one or the other of

the storage tanks are used in series with the solar collector array. The fluid is drawn

from the tanks, heated by the solar collector and then passed through the water-to-air heat

exchanger.

Figure 14 shows the system operating in the space cooling mode where the energy source

for the absorption air cooler is the solar collector array. Diagrams similar to Figures 7 through 13 could also be shown for space cooling where the various combinations of solar

collector, auxiliary boiler, and two storage tanks are used.

Figure 15 shows the system operating in a mode where the solar collector is being used

to preheat the domestic hot water. In Figure 16, the solar collector is being used to "charge" the small storage tank.

From the above description, it is obvious that the solar heating and cooling system has

been designed for operational flexibility. One of the primary objectives will be to experimentally examine the feasibility and relative efficiency of these various modes.

Solar Collectors

Based on the projected needs for a heated fluid to heat the supply air and also to "drive"

an absorption refrigeration unit, a purchase specification was written for modular solar collectors and was distributed by the Department of Commerce on a request for proposal basis.

The specification is given in Appendix A. Five proposals were received and the quoted prices

ranged from $69 per m

? ($6.40 per ft 2

) to $1500 per m

2 ($140 per ft 2 ).

The collector that was selected is manufactured by PPG Industries* and its price was $69

per m

2 ($6.40 per ft 2 ). It is a flat-plate collector with two cover glasses and 0.076 m (3 in.)

* Identification of commercial products does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the

National Bureau of Standards.
of fiberglass insulation attached to the back. The experimental and theoretical thermal efficiencies of the collector are compared in Figure 17. More detailed technical specifications

are given in reference [12].

This collector is normally available with a metal pan enclosing the back insulation.

NBS purchased the collectors without the pan; however, prior to placing the collectors on the

roof of the house, pans were added by NBS personnel.

The absorber of the collector is an aluminum ROLL BOND* panel that is painted with a high quality black paint and consequently the absorbing surface is nonselective (properties

are given in reference [12]). Part of the contract with PPG Industries calls for them to supplV

NBS in the summer of 1975 with another set of collector modules of identical construction

except for the addition of a selective surface which minimizes the emission of long wavelength

radiation from the absorbing surface. As part of the research program, operational data will

be obtained during two cooling seasons with both types of collectors.

Air Cooling Unit

There are several ways in which solar energy can be used for providing space cooling.

Attention is being given to the study of rock bed regenerative cooling at CSIRO in Australia

[13], the use of desiccants in general [14, 15], and the use of an expansion engine with com- pression cooling [16-22]. However, the most intensive work in the solar energy field has

been done with absorption refrigeration machines at the University of Wisconsin [23, 24], the

University of Florida [25, 26], and in Australia [27-29]. Based on these studies and the potential availability of absorption cooling machines, a 10,000 W (3 ton) lithium bromide absorption unit manufactured by Arkla Industries** was selected. The machine was modified at the factory to utilize hot water (instead of natural gas) as the source of energy. It should

also be noted that this machine is currently being used in residential solar cooling experiments at Colorado State University [30], at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center [31], by the

Honeywell Corporation in Minneapolis, Minnesota [32], at Ohio State University [33], and in

the "Decade 80" house built in Tucson, Arizona by the Copper Development Association [34],

In a typical absorption refrigeration machine, a solution of refrigerant and absorbent,

which have a strong chemical affinity for one another, are heated in a device called the

generator. This drives the refrigerant out of the solution. The refrigerant vapor is then

cooled until it condenses and can be passed through an expansion valve into the "low pressure"

side of the system. At this low pressure, the refrigerant vaporizes (in the evaporator) and

absorbs energy from the environment (the cooling effect). The vaporized refrigerant is then

recombined with the abosrbent mixture from which it was initially obtained. The mixture then moves back to the generator on the "high pressure" side of the system and the cycle continues.

Figure 18 is a schematic diagram of the absorption unit being used in this experiment.

The system is charged with lithium bromide and water, the water being the refrigerant and the

lithium bromide solution being the absorbent. The entire unit operates under a vacuum at all

times. The absolute pressure within the generator and condenser is of the order of 6700 to 8000 N/m2 (50 to 60 mm of Hg) absolute.

With reference to Figure 18, the generator contains a solution of lithium bromide in

water. As heat is applied in the heat exchanger of the generator, it causes the refrigerant

(water) to be boiled off. As this water vapor is driven off, the absorbent solution is

raised by vapor lift action through tube (2) into the separating chamber (3). Here the re- frigerant vapor rises through tube (4) to the condenser, and the absorbent solution flows

be gravity through tube (6), through the heat exchanger, and then to the absorber. This

circuit will be described in more detail; the refrigerant circuit will be described first.

* ROLL BOND process patented by Olin Brass, East Alton, Illinois.

** Identification of commercial products does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the

National Bureau of Standards.
After the refrigerant (water vapor) passes from the separating chamber to the condenser

through tube (4) , it is condensed to a liquid by the action of cooling water flowing through

the condenser tubes. The cooling water is brought from an external source (a cooling tower

in this case)

.

The refrigerant vapor thus condensed to water within the condenser then flows through

tube (5) into the cooling coil. Tube (5) contains a restriction which offers a resistance

and therefore a pressure barrier to separate the slightly higher absolute pressure in the

condenser from the lower pressure within the cooling coil. The high vacuum within the

evaporator (cooling coil) lowers the boiling temperature of water sufficiently to allow evaporation to occur within the coil. The cooling coil is constructed with finned horizontal

tubes over which the air to be cooled is blown. The heat of evaporation for the refrigerant

is extracted from the air stream, and the cooling and dehumidifying are accomplished.

In the absorber, the solution absorbs the refrigerant vapors which are formed in the

evaporator directly adjacent. To explain the presence of the absorbent, it is necessary to divert attention back to the generator. The absorbent was separated from the refrigerant by

boiling action. The absorbent then drains from the separator (3) , down to the liquid heat

exchanger, and thence to the absorber through tube (8). The flow of solution in this circuit

can actually exist by gravity action alone, because the absorber is slightly below the level

of the separating chamber. It is also aided by the pressure difference existing between the

separator and the absorber.

The absorber is a cylindrical shell which contains a coil through which cooling water is

circulated. The solution flowing into the top of the absorber is distributed over the entire

outside surfaces of the coil so that a maximum area of absorbent solution is exposed to the

refrigerant vapor which is flowing into this chamber from the evaporator.

It must be understood at this point that cool lithium bromide in either dry or solution form has a very strong affinity for water vapor. It is because of this principle that

the refrigerant vapor is absorbed back into solution again. The rate of absorpt/on is increased at lower temperatures; therefore, a cooling water coil has been provided within the

absorber shell. The resultant mixture of refrigerant and absorbent drains back through the

heat exchanger through tube (9) , to the refrigeration generator where it is again separated

into its two component parts by boiling action, to repeat the cycle.

The air conditioning unit is rated at 10,000 W (36,000 Btu/h) of cooling when the fluid

enters the generator at 99 °C (210 °F) and 6.9 x 10 "* m /s (11 gal/min) and the cooling tower

water enters the condenser at 29- °C (85 °F) and 6.3 x 10 k m

3 /s (10 gal/min). Figure 19

shows how the performance is expected to vary as a function of outdoor air wet-bulb temperature and temperature of fluid entering the generator. Due to the absence of a mechanical

pump from the generator by vapor lift action, the unit cannot be operated at less than 60%

capacity. Below this condition, vapor formation occurs at a rate too low for effective

lifting of the solution. The concentration would then increase to the crystallization point.

Water Cooling Tower

In order to match the capacity of the air conditioning unit, the cooling tower must be

able to reject 27,000 W (91,000 Btu/h) with water entering the tower at 6.3 x 10 4 m

3 /s

(10 gal/min). A 28,000 W (8 ton) cooling tower was selected. It weighs approximately 186 kg

(410 pounds) and measures 0.79 m (31 in.) wide, 1.55_m (61 in.) long and 1.4 m (55 in.) high.

The tower is designed for water flow rates of 1 x 10 3 to 1. 7 x 10 m

3 /s (16 to 27 gal/min).

Thermal Storage

Conventional steel pressure-tested tanks were selected as the means for storing the solar

heated fluid in the system. The tanks have a design pressure of 6.9 x 10 5 N/m2 (100 psi) and
were pressure tested to 10.3 x 10 5 N/m2 (150 psi) . They have no interior baffling installed

and are unlined. The 1.9 m

3 (500 gallon) tank weighs approximately 485 kg (1070 pounds),

has an outside diameter of 0.9 m (3 ft), and is 3.1 m (10 ft) in length. The 3.8 m

3 (1000

gallon) tank weighs approximately 4853 kg (2400 pounds), has an outside diameter of 1.1 m

(3.5 ft), and is 4.3 m (14 ft) in length. After the tanks were installed, they were insulated with approximately 0.1 m (4 in.) of fiberglass insulation.

Water- to-Air Heat Exchanger

The finned-tube heat exchanger incorporated into the duct-work of the distribution system has a face area of 0.31 m (12 in.) by 0.56 m (22 in.) and consists of six rows of 0.016 m

(5/8 in.) outside diameter finned copper tubes. The fins are 0.0002 m (0.008 in.) aluminum

and spaced at 354 fins/m (9 fins/in.). The heat exchanger is housed in a galvanized steel

casing and insulated on the inside with 0.025 m (1 in.) fiberglass insulation. The exchanger

is_rated to heat 0.38 m

3 /s (800 cfm) of air from 18 °C (65 °F) to 34 °C (94 °F) with 6.3 x

10 ^ m

3 /s (10 gal/min) of water entering the coil at 57 °C (135 °F) (7300 W (25,000 Btu/h)

capacity)

.

Auxiliary Boiler

Even though the gas furnace installed in the house is still operable and could be used

as the auxiliary energy source for space heating, an electric water boiler was installed for

supplying auxiliary energy for the cooling and domestic water preheating processes. Since

electrical use is generally determined more accurately than natural gas use*, the water

boiler will probably be used for the space heating process as well.

The boiler has a heating capacity of 17,600 W (60,000 Btu/h). It consists of electrical

resistance heating elements which are modulated in five steps of 3500 W each. The modulating

steps were chosen so that the boiler outlet temperature could be easily thermostated.

Domestic Water Preheater

In order to preheat the domestic hot water before passing it into the existing electric

hot water tank in the house, a shell and tube heat exchanger and additional 0.3 m

3 (80 gallon)

water tank were obtained. The heat exchanger is rated to heat 6.3 x 10 m /s (1 gal/min) of

domestic water from 18 °C (65 °F) to 49 °C (120 °F) in the tubes when supplied with 6.3 x 10 " m

3 /s (10 gal/min) of a 40% ethylene glycol solution entering the shell at 54 °C (130 °F)

.

The heat exchanger is cylindrical in shape with an approximate diameter of 0.13 m (5 in.) and

an approximate length of 1.8 m (6 ft). The 0.3 m

3 (80 gallon) water tank is a conventional

glass lined electric water heater havine; a diameter of 0.58 m (23 in.).

Transfer Fluid

In designing the system to minimize the possibilities of corrosion, it was decided to construct a closed, pressurized system in which the fluid is in the solar collector panels

at all times. Therefore, to prevent freezing, expansion, and cracking of the solar collector panels, a 1:1 water - antifreeze solution is to be used. Industrial grade ethylene

glycol was purchased. The chemical had no additives as purchased and therefore additional

corrosion inhibitors were added (see next section) . Thermal properties of ethylene glycol

water solutions are given in references [35, 36].

* The energy use in an electric furnace can be determined to an accuracy of less than 1 per

cent. The corresponding accuracy with a gas furnace is usually on the order of several

per cent.
Corrosion Considerations

The transfer fluid in this system is pumped through a variety of equipment including the

aluminum absorber of the collector,, copper pipe, bronze or brass valves, and steel tanks.

This mixture of metals with an aqueous mixture could result in significant chemical attack

on the aluminum by galvanic, concentrated cell (crevice), pitting, erosion, or stress corro- • sion. Of the metals listed, aluminum is the most anodic in the electro-chemical series.

Thus any foreign metal deposit or concentration of other metal ions could result in "sacrificing" the aluminum and in pitting.

Unfortunately the collector plate is usually the most expensive and the most difficult

component to replace. Therefore, it is incumbent on the design and operation of the system

that provision be made for corrosion protection of the panel. Of particular concern are the

fluid passages formed by diffusion bonding and expansion which result in crevices on each

side of the passage. Even though chemically inert titanium oxide (Ti 2

) is used as the stopweld material, the Ti 2 particles can still provide a site for the initiation of corrosion

by foreign particles or even in an uninhibited aqueous solution by interfering with the normal formation of aluminum oxide on the surface.

A review of the literature regarding liquid cooling system antifreeze solutions used in

automotive and other commercial applications [37] uncovered the existence of both federal [38]

and military [39] specifications for inhibited mixtures. While the temperature levels during

standby and operation of the solar heating and cooling system are similar to the internal

combustion engine, the combination of metals in an engine system does not usually contain a large amount of aluminum.

In addition to the referenced specifications cited above, several other sources were consulted prior to making a decision on the addition of inhibitors. Contact with experts from

the automotive industry led to the conclusion that the high borate concentrations recommended

in the federal and military specifications [38, 39] are not desirable with aluminum. Another

formula using nearly a 1:1 ratio of borate to other chemicals was mentioned as having performed well in automotive tests over a two-year period [40]. An additional source [41]

recommended using a mixture with a high phosphate concentration in a predominately aluminum

system. A third source described tests using a proprietary inhibitor with aluminum solar

collectors in which the results have been very encouraging [42].

A series of tests have been conducted on aluminum solar collector panels by the Reynolds

Metals Company [43], Successful corrosion mitigation has been achieved in a 1:1 mixture of

tap water and ethylene glycol using an amine neutralized acid phosphate [44]. Based on the test results in reference [44], a decision was made to use this inhibitor in the system.

Twenty three kilograms (50 pounds) were required for a system having a capacity of 5.7 m

(1500 gallons)

.

Besides the addition of the inhibitor, other steps have been and will be taken to minimize the possibility of corrosion. Prior to charging the system, the cloride concentration

of the local water will be checked and if found to be higher than 50 ppm, deionized water will

be used. Steps have been taken to galvanically isolate the dissimilar metals. Rubber hoses

(see below) connect the copper header pipes to the aluminum collectors. Copper-silicon fittings are used to connect the copper pipes to the steel tanks.

Representatives of Olin Brass suggests [45] that a "getter" column be installed, through

which the transfer fluid passes before entry into the aluminum collectors. Such a "getter"
column would consist of a plastic cylinder containing a series of aluminum sheets. The fluid

would circulate over this surface and the function of the surface would be to pick up "heavy

metal" ions which may have gotten into the system as the result of corrosion of other metal

components or as the result of "tramp" material within the system. Because of other precautions taken, it was decided not to use the "getter".

"Buffers" in the inhibitor function to control the pH* of the solution to a desirably

high value between 6.0 and 8.0. As the "buffers" in the solution become exhausted, the pH

will drop significantly indicating a formation of organic acids which serve to make the mixture more corrosive. Reference [44] describes a method of monitoring the inhibitor concentration which will be used periodically during the experiment. If the pH is found to be

below the level of 6.0, it will be increased by the addition of sodium carbonate; if it is

found to be higher than 8.0, it will be lowered by the addition of concentrated sulfuric

acid to the solution.

Pumps

Six centrifugal pumps are used in the system. All are rated to pump a 40% solution of

ethylene glycol and water at a temperature 121 °C (250 °F) at a flow rate of 7.6 x 10 "* m

3 /s

(12 gal/min). All pumps have an iron body, bronze impeller and have a rotation speed of 59

revolutions/s (3500 rpm) . The pump circulating the fluid through the collector is driven by

a 746 W motor (1 horsepower) and the other five are driven by 250 W motors (1/3 horsepower).

Valves

In order to control the flow through the system and to divert it through the various

loops, nine proportional valves and thirty-one automatic open-close type valves are used.

The proportional valve assembly consists of a single-seat globe valve mechanically linked to

a reversible actuator with a driving motor and gear train. The valve assembly is connected

to two relays and the flow is adjusted by activating one of the two relays for a certain

length of time. The power input to the valve motors is 24 volts a.c. The automatic valves

are all two position, two way valves. Depending upon the location in the system, the automatic valves are either straight way or 90° angle and are either normally open or normally

closed. All of the valve actuators are connected to a 24 volt a.c. source through a relay

contact.

Piping

The plumbing that comprises the solar heating and cooling system includes approximately

035 m (1000 ft) of nominal 0.32 m (1 1/4 in.) copper pipe. The pipe is insulated with urethane pipe insulation having a thickness of 0.051 m (2 in.). For a pipe temperature of

93 °C (200 °F) , the heat loss is expected to be less than 9.6 W per lineal m (10 Btu/h per

lineal ft).

Hoses

As mentioned previously, connections from copper headers to the solar collector modules

are made with high quality "heater" hose. The material used was 0.13 m (1/2 in.) inside

diameter tubing which will withstand 1.7 N/m2 (250 psi) working pressures and temperatures

in excess of 149 °C (300 °F).

* A scale based" on the hydroxide-ion concentration of a solution. All neutral solutions

have pH of 7. Acid solutions have a pH less than 7; basic aolutions have pH greater than

7.
Simulation Study for the Sizing of Components

In order to properly size the critical components of the system, namely, the collector

and storage tanks, a detailed mathematical simulation of the system and house should be used

that accounts for the dynamic way in which the collector and the house respond to changing

environmental conditions. The building simulation model NBSLD [46] is currently available

at NBS for just such studies but as of yet, a simulation model of a solar heating and cooling

system has not been written and combined with the program. The University of Wisconsin com- puter program TRNSYS [47] which contains solar component simulation routines has recently

been purchased but was not available to NBS at the time the present solar heating and cooling

system was being designed. In addition, arrangements have been made to obtain a similar program being developed by the Lockheed Corporation [48] as aoon as it is available. It is the

intent of the authors to critically examine the extent to which the University of Wisconsin

and Lockheed computer programs can accurately predict the performance of the heating and

cooling system in this house.

The technique used to size the solar components was to develop a simplified computer

program utilizing the knowledge obtained in previous research on the thermal characteristics

of the house [1, 2], and an empirical routine for solar collector performance developed by

Kusuda [49] and based on experimental data reported by the University of Pennsylvania [50, 51]

The empirical routine used for predicting solar collector performance is explained in

Appendix B. Sample output data for a south-facing flat-plate collector tilted at angles of

12° and 50° from the horizon is given in Appendix C. These were the two angles finally

selected for arrays of modular collectors. The 12° angle corresponds to the slope of the

flat roofs of the test house. It was felt that part of the collector could be placed flat

on the roof for ease of installation and operate with a relatively high thermal output during

the summer months when the air cooling unit is used. The 50° angle was selected as being one which would allow a row of normal-sized modular collectors to be installed between the lower

and upper roofs of the house and operate with a high thermal output during the winter months.

The collector calculations proved that these angles were acceptable.

In constructing the simplified computer program for matching the solar collector output

with the building heating and cooling load, the following assumptions were made:

1. Daily house heating and cooling loads (QT

) could be computed by using the average

temperature difference for that day and an overall loss coefficient U (determined

from the test results in [1] and [2]), such that Q = U • At.

Li Li

2. Internal heat generation due to appliances and occupants would be 1.1 x 10 J/day

(105,000 Btu/day) (summer) and 1.05 x 10 9 J/day (100,000 Btu/day) (winter).

3. When the collectors supply more energy than is required to meet the load, the excess would be stored as hot water. Of that energy added to storage, 90% could be re- trieved when the water temperature is below 60 °C (140 °F) and 80% could be re- trievedwhen it is between 60 °C (140 °F) and 104 °C (220 °F) . Above 104 °C

(220 °F), further storage would no longer be possible and excess energy would be

"thrown away".

4. Useful energy could be extracted from the heat transfer fluid when it is above 27 °C (80 °F) for winter heating and above 88 °C (190 °F) for summer cooling.

5. Winter and summer thermostat settings would be 21 °C (70 °F) and 24 °C (75 °F)

,

respectively.
On a day to day basis, the thermal requirements of the house were matched against the

output of the collector and the difference was either stored in or retrieved from storage.

The calculation, was done for an entire year of 1957 weather*. The storage and collector

sizes were varied and the simulation repeated until a final decision was made on the size of

the system components. Sample output is given in Appendix D for the case of a south-facing

collector having an area of 43 m

2 (460 ft ) and a tilt angle of 12° with a storage tank capacity of 194 m

3 (1200 gallons). Figure 20 shows the predicted monthly energy demand and the

part that will be supplied by the collector and the auxiliary energy source, respectively.

These results are based on the final design of 26.7 m

2 (288 ft 2

) of collector at the 12° slope

(197 ft 2

) of collector at the 50° slope.

4. Addition of the Solar Heating and

Cooling System to the Test House

The major tasks required during installation were a) mounting the collectors on the

house, b) constructing an additional room on the back of the house to contain the storage

tanks and other components of the solar system (the house had no basement) , c) making modifications to the existing space heating and cooling system, and d) installation and connection of all components.

The collector rack consists of wooden boxes that were fabricated in the NBS carpenter

shop and then moved to the site of the house (Figure 21) . They were mounted on the house

(Figure 22) and the sides and edges were trimmed with simulated redwood and then finished off

so that they blend with the exterior of the house. The collectors were then moved to the

site, lifted to the roof of the house (Figure 23), put in place, and then sealed with a neo- prene gasket (Figure 24) to prevent any large amount of moisture from getting behind the

panels. The collectors themselves have a metal pan enclosing the insulation and in addition,

"weep holes" are present in the lower edges of both the metal pans and wooden boxes.

During 1973 and after the test house was moved onto the NBS grounds, a special two-story

instrument room was built on the north side of the house to hold the computerized data acquisition system. The room is located midway between the west and east ends of the house and measures approximately 3.7 m (12 ft) by 3.7 m (12 ft). During 1974, a second two-story room

was built on the northwest corner of the house, again measuring approximately 3.7 m (12 ft)

by 3.7 m (12 ft) and finished off in artificial redwood to match the rest of the house. The room is shown being constructed in Figure 25. Prior to putting up the walls of this second

room, the storage tanks were moved into place (Figure- 26 shows one of the tanks being moved).

The tanks are mounted vertically in the equipment room. No consideration was given to burying them since it was felt necessary to have access to them during the experimental program.

All pumps are located on the floor of the room, the major part of the piping hung on the four

walls, the electric water boiler on the floor, and the cooling tower installed on a special

platform at a location corresponding to the second floor of the room. Ducting runs to and

from the cooling tower through the walls of the room.

The absorption air cooler was installed in the utility or storage room on the first

floor of the house (see Figure 2) . The duct work was then modified and connections made between the outlet of air cooler and the horizontal run above the outlet from the existing gas

furnace. The water to air heat exchanger was installed in a horizontal run between these

two locations.

* The year 1957 was selected by using the proposed procedure of the ASHRAE Task Group on Energy Requirements [52]. Even though this year may be typical from the standpoint of

energy demand, a quick comparison of average monthly radiation values with those predicted using the procedures of Liu and Jordan [53] would indicate that for several months,

the predicted incident solar radiation was rather low.

10
5. Economic Considerations

During the testing program, an economic analysis will be made of retrofitting an existing

residence with a solar heating and cooling system. The analysis will take into account the

energy saved based on test results as well as the cost of components, material, and labor to install the system. An attempt will be made to separate those costs that have occurred as a result of the engineering experiment being conducted from those that would normally be incurred by the homeowner. The economic analysis will be done using techniques outlined in

references [54-56].

The approximate cost of the major components purchased for the system (excluding instrumentation) are as follows

1. solar collectors (31 panels) $3,575

2. Lithium bromide absorption air cooling unit $2,000

3. 3.8 m

3 (1000 gallon) storage tank $ 990

4. 1.9 m

3 (500 gallon) storage tank $ 700

5. cooling tower for the absorption air cooling unit $ 410

6. heat exchanger and tank for domestic hot water preheating $ 510

7. furnace plenum heat exchanger for space heating and cooling $ 200

8. auxiliary 17,600 W (60,000 Btu/h) electric water boiler $1,065^

9. automatic two-way valves (31 total) $2,470

10. proportional valves (9 total) $1,490

11. centrifugal pumps (6 total) $1,400

12. 2.9 m

3 (770 gallons) of industrial grade ethylene glycol $1,890

13. 22.7 kg (50 pounds) of corrosion inhibitor $ 150

14. 305 m (1000 ft) of high temperature pipe insulation $2,470

15. 130 m (425 ft) of high temperature hose $ 245

16. Storage tank insulation $ 300

Subtotal $19,865

Other major cost items not listed include approximately 305 m (1000 ft) of copper pipe,

material and labor for the construction of a solar collector rack and an additional room on

the back of the house (see below) to hold the storage tanks, pumps, cooling tower, and other

associated components, and the labor cost for the plumbing.

11
6. Instrumentation

One of the primary advantages in conducting the solar heating and cooling experiment on

this particular house is that a significant amount of instrumentation already exists and is

installed in the house. A brief description of the instrumentation follows.

Ambient air and surface temperatures are measured with 24 gauge type T thermocouples.

Thermocouple strings, suspended by 0.0048 m (3/16 in.) diameter polycarbonate rods, are placed

at the geometric center of each room and 0.61 m (2 ft) horizontally centered in front of each

of the windows. The locations of the thermocouple strings, numbered 1 through 19, are depicted with solid circles on the floor plans of Figures 2 and 3. Six thermocouples are attached to a rod and located at 0.076 m (3), 0.76 (30), 1.83 (72), and 2.13 (84) m (in.)

above the floor, and' 0.076 m (3 in.) below the ceiling. Four thermocouples are placed in

the crawl space 0.15 m (6 in.) below the floor joists. The location of the crawl space

thermocouples is depicted with the symbol C on the floor plan of Figure 2. All thermocouples

are referenced to the ice point (0 °C, 32 °F) by connecting them to a thermoelectric icepoint reference system.

During the previous test , program, globe thermometers were used to determine the mean

radiant temperature (MRT) at the geometric center of the living room, den, kitchen, and four

bedroom areas at the 0.76 (30 in.) level above the floor. The locations of the globe thermometers are shown with the symbol G on the floor plans of Figures 2 and 3. A globe thermometer consists of a 0.15 m (6 in.) diameter hollow copper sphere with a thermocouple

supported in the center. The outside surface of the sphere is painted with matt-black paint,

so as to absorb most of the long wave thermal radiation emitted from the inside surfaces of

a room. Recently NBS has developed a "scanning radiometer" [57] that will also be used to determine the mean radiant temperature in the house.

Relative humidity transducers (H) are placed in the geometric center of the living room, kitchen, bathrooms, and bedrooms at the 1.5 m (60 in.) level above the floor. The humidity

transducers produce a millivolt output signal proportional to the relative humidity.

The temperature of the return air to the heating and cooling plant will be measured with

a network of four thermocouples connected in parallel. The temperature of the supply air

will be measured with a network of eight thermocouples connected in parallel placed in the

air outlet past the water to air heat exchanger. The air delivery rate of the blower will be

determined with a calibrated vane anemometer and a calibrated hot wire anemometer.

The volume of natural gas consumed by the furnace in the test house during the previous

test program was measured with a calibrated domestic gas consumption meter that was specially

modified so that the passage of a cubic foot of gas produced an electrical pulse. This was accomplished by placing an excitation voltage across a microswitch that rode on a cam shaft

of the metering circuit. The temperature and pressure of the gas at the inlet to the gas'

meter were monitored, so that the volumetric consumption of gas could be corrected for changes

in density. For those tests where the gas furnace will be used for the auxiliary energy

source, this technique will continue to be used.

The gross electrical. energy supplied to the house will be measured using a calibrated

watthour meter equipped with a photo-electric device that generates a pulse for each revolution of a disk inside the meter. The individual electric energy consumption of such items

as the blower fan, pumps, and electric water boiler will also be monitored using individual

watthour meters.

12
An energy enalysis of the system will also require the determination of fluid flow rates

and temperature differences across individual pieces of equipment in the fluid transport

loops. Five oscillating piston, positive displacement, flow meters were recently purchased

along with a series of ceramic-insulated sheathed thermocouples. The flow meters are equipped

with pulse generators which provide a resolution of 2.6 x 10 5 pulses/m 3 (1000 pulses/gallon)

with an accuracy of + 0.25%. The thermocouples are 0.0032 m (1/8 in.) in diameter and 0.31 m

(12 in.) long and will be inserted directly into the pipe at specified locations.

During the past year, a new and versatile data acquisition system was purchased for the

test house. The system consists of:

1. a six digit integrating digital voltmeter,

2. a scanner permitting the voltmeter to read any of 400 channels of data,

3. a magnetic tape system to record measured values,

4. four data source input channels (DSI) that allow the input of binary coded decimal

(BCD) information,

5. a relay register with 48 separate contacts that will enable the system to control

not only external measuring devices but also the pumps, motors, valves, etc. that

comprise the solar heating and cooling system, and

6. a mini-computer which serves as the central control for the total system.

In order to automatically record the output of the watthour meters and gas meter (if

used) and in order to eliminate the need for digital to analog conversion on the flow meters,

totalizers have been purchased that have a BCD output which in turn will be fed through one

of the DSI channels in the data acquisition system.

In previous years, the analysis of the test results for the house and conventional

heating and cooling system was not as dependent on accurate measurements of the weather con- ditions as will be the case for the coming year. As a result, a compact weather station was purchased that contains instrumentation for the accurate measurement of:

1. Wind speed

2. wind direction,

3. dry-bulb temperature,

4. relative humidity,

5. rain fall,

6. barometric pressure,

7. direct component of incident solar radiation, and

8. total incident solar radiation.

The system has been designed and built so that the output from each sensor is a voltage that

ranges from to 5 volts DC and varies linearly with temperature, relative humidity, etc. These voltages will be input through the digital voltmeter and scanner of the data acquisition system.

13
7. Plans for Test Program

In planning the tests to be conducted on the house, emphasis has been place on continuing the philosophy used in previous years when the house was tested with its conventional

equipment [1, 2]. The house was installed in a high-bay environmental laboratory and a series of ten tests were conducted in which the house was subjected to 24-hour outdoor temperature and relative humidity patterns taken from records of actual weather data for the summer, fall, and winter in Kalamazoo, Michigan and Macon, Georgia. For each test, the

weather variation was maintained for a period of two to three days before a final set of

24-hour energy consumption data was taken.

The test series to be conducted on the house as it is now equipped with a solar heating

and cooling system must obviously be done in a different way since the house is now located

outside and will be tested under actual weather conditions. However, the philosophy of

testing for short periods of time and obtaining detailed data will be maintained for several

reasons:

1. It is impossible to test continuously for extended periods of time (months) taking even hourly data where two to three hundred channels of information are obtained

and still be able to reduce and synthesize the data properly.

2. It would be impossible to examine alternate modes of operation or configurations of

equipment for seasons at a time and still produce meaningful data in a reasonable

period of time.

3. Heating and cooling equipment and/or instrumentation inevitably require some downtime during an experimental program such as this.

The general procedure followed in the previous years was to take the detailed test data

for the 24-hour periods and then compare the energy consumption data with the predicted data

using the actual test weather data as input to the calculations , the computer program NBSLD

[46] in which the building was precisely modeled, and additional routines added to NBSLD

that modeled the gas furnace, electric heater (used in some tests), and electric air conditioner. In this way, an accurate semi-empirical model of the building and equipment were

established and the model could be used with the actual weather data for an entire year to determine yearly performance.

To achieve realistic test conditions, the occupancy and activities of a family living in

the house were simulated. A complete description of what was done is given in reference [1]. In each of the tests described below, it is planned to use the same or a similar simulation

and activity schedule.

Since the weather parameters influence the performance of the house and its solar system

to a much greater extent than in the previous tests, it is envisioned (will be verified once

the experimental program begins) that each of the tests described below will be conducted for

at least two week periods in which all the detailed data is taken and analyzed. The house

and system will be kept operational as much as is feasible during the next two years and

gross energy measurements (electrical and gas consumption) as well as hourly recordings of

weather data will be taken during periods when the detailed tests are not being conducted.

Test results from the detailed tests are expected to be similar to those displayed in

Figure 27 (taken from reference [2]) except they will cover longer periods of time. The

predicted performance of the house and system will again be determined using NBSLD with the

solar system and its components simulated using the appropriate parts of the TRNSYS computer

program [48] now in use at NBS. The results will then be used to generate seasonal perfor- mance data similar to that shown in Figure 28 for the MIT house IV [4]. This seasonal performance data will be generated for each of the testing configurations chosen.

lit
The scope of the detailed testing configurations include space heating tests, space

cooling tests, and a series of special tests.

Space Heating Tests

For each of two basic operational modes (single-loop and two-loop configurations*) , a series of tests will be run in which both the amount' of thermal storage and size of collector

will be varied independently. The system is valved so that the storage size can be adjusted

to 1.9 m (500 gallons), 3.8 m (1000 gallons), or 5.7 m (1500 gallons) 'and any combination

or all three of the collector arrays can be used. In addition, when using 5.7 m (1500 gallons) , the storage tanks can be connected in parallel or in series (simulating extreme stratification in a single 5.7 m (1500 gallon) tank).

Space Cooling Tests

The major area to be investigated for cooling operation is the extent to which auxiliary

energy must be used to supplement the collector output to properly operate the absorption

cooler and what sort of control could be used that would optimize the performance of the unit.

One possible mode of operation is to run the collector array and auxiliary boiler in parallel

with the flow rate to the collector adjusted to always obtain the desired temperature level

and the remaining energy obtained from the auxiliary boiler. A second possibility would be

to operate the collector array and boiler in series maintaining the required (for the absorption unit) flow rate through the collector and then boosting the temperature level with the

boiler. Intuitively, the second mode would result in higher system efficiency due to a lower

operating temperature for the collector array. In addition, plans are being made to replace

the present collector panels during the second cooling season (1976) with ones identical in

design except for the addition of a selective coatting on the absorber plate.

Special Tests

Additional tests are being planned as follows:

1. The collector array will be run in series with the cooling tower and an efficiency

curve in accordance with references [58] will be determined for this installed array.

2. NBS has published a recommended test procedure for determining the "effective storage

capacity" of thermal storage devices [59]. To the extent possible, this test procedure will be carried out for the two installed tanks.

3. Much concern has been expressed recently over the cost of ethylene glycol which must

be used in water systems to prevent freezing, expansion, and cracking in the collectors. Two possibilities for eliminating its use are a two loop configuration in

which only a small amount of ethylene glycol is required and a heat exchanger is

inserted in or near the storage tank to transfer the energy from one loop to another

or simply draining the collectors. Another possibility for a mild climate such as Washington, D. C, when a closed system must be used for anti-corrosion purposes

and draining is not possible, is to have the control system circulate warm water

through the collectors on those few occasions when freezing might occur. This will

be investigated experimentally.

* In the two loop configuration, two pumps are used independently, one to circulate fluid

between the storage tank and the collector array when energy can be collected and the

second one to circulate fluid between the storage tank and space heat exchanger when there

is a heating demand from the house. In the single loop configuration, only one pump is

used and the fluid is circulated through the collector, the storage tank and space heat

exchanger all in series

.

15
8. References

1. Peavy, B.A. , Burch, D.M. , and F.J. Powell, "Comparison of Measured and ComputerPredicted Thermal Performance of a Four-Bedroom Wood-Frame Townhouse", National Bureau

of Standards Building Science Series 57 , 1975.

2. Burch, D.M. , Peavy, B.A. , and F.J. Powell, "Comparison Between Measured and ComputerPredicted Hourly Heating and Cooling Energy for an Instrumented Wood-Frame Townhouse",

ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 81, Part II, 1975.

3. Whillier, A., "Solar House Heating - A Panel", Proceedings of the World Symposium on Applied Solar Energy , Phoenix, Arizona, November 1-5, 1955.

4. Engebretson, CD., "The Use of Solar Energy for Space Heating M.I.T. Solar House IV",

Proceedings of the United Nations Conference on New Sources of Energy , Rome, August 21-

31, 1961, VoTT 5, III C.2, pp. 159-172.

5. Lof, G.O.G., et al. , "Residential Heating with Solar Heated Air, The Colorado Solar

House", ASHRAE Journal , pp. 77-86, October, 1966.

6. Lof, G.O.G., El Wakil, M.M. , and J. P. Chiou, "Design and Performance of Domestic Heating

System Employing Solar Heated Air, The Colorado Solar House", Proceedings of the United

Nations Conference on New Sources of Energy , Rome, August 21-31, 1961, Vol. 5, p. 185.

7. Thomason, H.E., and H.J.L. Thomas, Jr., "Solar Houses /Heating and Cooling Progress

Report", Solar Energy, Vol. 15, pp. 27-39, 1973.

8. Bridgers, F.H. , Paxton, D.C., and R.W. Haines, "Performance of a Solar Heated Office

Building", ASHRAE Transactions , Vol. 64, pp. 83-97, 1958.

9. Yanagimachi, M. , "Report on Two and a Half Years' Experimental Living in Yanagimachi

Solar House II", Proceedings of the United Nations Conference on New Sources of Energy,

Rome, August 21-31, 1961, Vol. 5, pp. 233-247.

10. Bliss, R.W. , "The Performance of an Experimental System Using Solar Energy for Heating,

and Night Radiation for Cooling a Building" , Proceedings of the United Nations Conference

on New Sources , Rome, August 21-31, 1961, Vol. 5, pp. 148-157.

11. Shurcliff, W.A. , "Solar Heated Buildings, a Brief Survey", 9th edition, May 27, 1975,

distributed by W.A. Shurcliff, 19 Appleton St., Cambridge, Mass. 02138 ($7).

12. "PPG Prototype Baseline Collector", Publication No. G-l+83 5M81| , PPG Industries, Inc.,

1 Gateway Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15222, 19T1+.

13. Read, W.R. , Chapman, H.L. , and L.E. Davey, "The Use of RBR Systems in South Australian

Schools", Australian Refrigeration , Air Conditioning and Heating , Vol. 26, No. 12,

pp. 20-27, December, 1972.

ill. Lunde, P., "Solar Desiccant System Analysis and Materials", Proceedings of the Solar

Cooling for Buildings Workshop, February 6-8, 1974, National Science Foundation Report

NSF-RA-N-74-063, 1974.

15. Rush, W. , "Solar Desiccant Systems", Proceedings of the Solar Cooling for Buildings

Workshop, February 6-8, 1974, National Science Foundation Report NSF-RA-N-74-063, 1974.

16
16. Barber, R.E., "Solar Organic Rankine Cycle Powered Three Ton Cooling System", Proceedings

of the Solar Cooling for Building Workshop, February 6-8, 1974, National Science Foundation Report NSF-RA-N-74-063, 1974.

17. Prigmore, D.R. , and R.E. Barber, "A Prototype Solar Powered, Rankine Cycle System Providing Residential Air Conditioning and Electricity", presented at the 9th Intersociety

Energy Conversion Meeting, San Fransisco, August 25-29, 1974.

18. Davis, J., "Solar Rankine Powered Cooling Systems", Proceedings of the Solar Cooling for

Buildings Workshop, February 6-8, 1974, National Science Foundation Report NSF-RA-N-74-

063, 1974.

19. Burriss, W. , "Solar Powered Rankine Cycle Cooling Systems", Proceedings of the Solar

Cooling for Buildings Workshop, February 6-8, 1974, National Science Foundation Report

NSF-RA-N-74-063, 1974.

20. Curran, H.M. , "Assessment of the Rankine Cycle for Potential Application to SolarPowered Cooling of Buildings", Report HIT-581 to the National Science Foundation from

Hittman Associates, prepared under Contract No. NSF-C858, August, 1974.

21. Sargent, S.L. , and W.P. Teagan, "Compression Refrigeration from a Solar-Powered Organic

Rankine-Cycle Engine", ASME paper 73-WA/Sol-8, 1973.

22. Biancardi, F.R. , "Feasibility Demonstration of a Solar Powered Turbocompressor Air Conditioning and Heating System", Report to the National Science Foundation from United

Aircraft Research Laboratories, prepared under Contract No. NSF-C903, September 15, 1974.

23. Chung, R. , Lof, G.O.G. , and J. A. Duffie, "Solar Space Cooling", Chemical Engineering

Progress , Vol. 55, No. 4, April, 1959.

24. Duffie, J. A., Chung, R. , and G.O.G. Lof, "A Study of a Solar Air Conditioner",

Mechanical Engineering , Vol. 85, pp. 31-35, 1963.

25. Eisenstadt, U. , Flanigan, F.M. , and E.A. Farber, "Solar Air Conditioning with an AmmoniaWater Absorption Refrigerating System", ASME paper 59-A-276, 1959.

26. Farber, E.A. , "Design and Performance of a Compact Solar Refrigeration System", Paper

No. 6/58, International Solar Energy Conference, Melbourne, Australia, March, 1970.

27. Duffie, J. A. , and N.R. Sheridan, "Lithium Bromide-Water Refrigerators for Solar Operation", Mechanical and Chemical Engineering Transactions , Institution of Engineers,

Australia, MC-1, 79, 1965.

28. Sheridan, N.R. , and J. A. Duffie, "The Part-Load Performance of an Absorption Refrigerating Machine", Supplement an Bulletin de l'Institut International du Froid, pp. 381-

387, 1965.

29. Sheridan, N.R. , "Performance of the Brisbane Solar House", Solar Energy , Vol. 13, pp. 395-401, 1972.

30. Ward, D.S., and G.O.G. Lof, "Design and Construction of a Residential Solar Heating

and Cooling System", presented at International Solar Energy Society Meeting, Fort

Collins, Colorado, August 19-23, 1974.

31. "The Development of a Solar-Powered Residential Heating and Cooling System", NASA Tech

Brief M-TU-74-3, May 10, 1974.

17
32. "Design and Test Report for Transportable Solar Laboratory Program", Honeywell Report

to the National Science Foundation, Report No. 2852-41433, October, 1974.

33. Sepsy, C.E. , "Ohio's First Solar Home: Solar Panels on the Roof and a Computer in the

Garage", ASHRAE Journal , pp. 50-51, October, 1974.

34. "Sun Power", Architecture Plus , pp. 84-99, September/October, 1974.

35. Cragoe, C.S., "Properties of Ethylene Glycol and its Aqueous Solutions", NBS Report

4268, August 5, 1955.

36. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals , Chapter 15, Secondary Coolants (Brines), ASHRAE,

345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017, 1972.

37. Personal Communication, Dr. J. Kruger, Chief, Corrosion and Electrochemical Section,

National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. , January, 1975.

38. Federal Specification 0-A-548D, Antifreeze/Coolant, Engine: Ethylene Glycol, Inhibited,

Concentrated, March 22, 1974.

39. Military Specification MIL-A-46153A, Antifreeze, Ethylene Glycol, Inhibited, Heavy Duty,

Single Package, August 14, 1973.

40. Rowe, L.C., "Application of Inhibitors in Automobiles and their Environment", Corrosion

Inhibitors , C. Nathan (editor), National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston,

Texas, p. 173, 1973.

41. Personal Communication, E. Tracey, Union Carbide Corporation, Terry town, New York,

January, 1975.

42. Personal Communication, F. Kernozek, Nuclear Technology Company, Amston, Connecticut,

January, 1975.

43. Personal Communication, P. Goalsby and R. Limberg, Reynolds Metal Company, Richmond,

Virginia, January, 1975.

44. "Product Information Bulletin, Virco-Pet-30", Mobil Chemical Company, Richmond, Virginia.

45. "Corrosion Protection for Aluminum ROLL-BOND, Solar Energy Collector Plates", RBS 105,

Olin Brass Company, East Alton, Illinois, March, 1974.

46. Kusuda, T., "NBSLD, Computer Program for Heating and Cooling Loads in Buildings", NBS

Report NBSIR 74-574, November, 1974.

47. Klein, S.A. , Cooper, P.I., Beckman, W.A. , and J. A. Duffie, "TRNSYS, a Transient Simulation Program", Report No. 38, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin,

March, 1975.

48. "Brief Description of the Computer Simulation for the NASA-MSFC Solar Heating and

Cooling Demonstration Unit", Lockheed Huntsville Research and Engineering Center Technical Note No. LMSC-HREC TN D 390299, July, 1974.

49. Kusuda, T., Liu, S.T. , Bean, J.W. , and J. P. Barnett, "Solar Energv Analysis for the GSAManchester Building", NBS Report (in review), 1975.

18
50. Altman, M. , "Conservation and Better Utilization of Electric Power by Means of Thermal

Energy Storage and Solar Heating", University of Pennsylvania, Phase II Progress Report

No. NSF/RANN/SE/GI27976/72/4, December 31, 1972.

51. Lorsch, H.G. , "Performance of Flat-Plate Solar Collectors", Proceedings of the Solar

Heating and Cooling for Buildings Workshop , Part 1_: Technical Sessions , National Science

Foundation, Washington, D.C., March 21-22, 1973.

52. "Proposed Procedure for Test -Year Weather Data", ASHRAE Task Group on Energy Requirements

for Heating and Cooling, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning

Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017, January 29, 1973.

53. Liu, B.Y.H., and R.C. Jordan, "Availability of Solar Energy for Flat-Plate Solar Heat

Collectors" , Low Temperature Engineering Application of Solar Energy , American Society

of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New

York, N.Y. 10017, 1967.

54. Lof, G.O.G., and R.A. Tybout, "Cost of House Heating with Solar Energy", Solar Energy , Vol. 14, pp. 253-278, 1973.

55. Lof, G.O.G, and R.A. Tybout, "The Design and Cost of Optimized Systems for Cooling

Dwellings by Solar Energy", paper EH. 146-1, presented at the International Congress - The Sun in the Service of Mankind, Unesco House, Paris, July 2-6, 1973.

56. Ruegg, Rosalie T., "Solar Heating and Cooling in Buildings: Methods of Economic

Evaluation", NBS Report NBSIR 75-712, July, 1975.

57. Benzinger, T.H. , Mangum, B.W. , and J.E. Hill, "The Design and Construction of a Scanning

Radiometer", ASHRAE Transactions (accepted for publication), 1976.

58. Hill, J.E., and T. Kusuda, "Method of Testing for Rating Solar Collectors Based on Thermal Performance", NBS Report NBSIR 74-635, December, 1974.

59. Kelly, G.E., and J.E. Hill, "Method of Testing for Rating Thermal Storage Devices Based

on Thermal Performance", NBS Report NBSIR 74-634, May, 1975.

19
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1" = 0.0254 m

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21
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EQUIPMENT ROOM

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components)

INSTRUMENTATION

ROOM

1' = 0.3048 m

1" = 0.0254 m

Figure 3. Second floor plan of test house,

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CONDENSING

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*i WEAK SOLUTION

REFRIGERANT VAPOR

REFRIGERANT LIQUID

CONDENSING WATER

HOT WATER

Figure 18. Schematic flow diagram of absorption

hot-water-heated air conditioning unit.

37
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6.3*10

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3/s (10 gal/min ) flow rate to cooling tower

4 I I J

55 60 65 70 75 80

OUTDOOR AIR WET-BULB TEMPERATURE TO THE COOLING TOWER , °F

Figure 19. Estimated performance of the absorption

hot-water -heated air conditioning unit.

38
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47
Table 1

Construction Details of the Test House

from Inside to Outside

External Walls

1/2 inch (1.27 cm) gypsum board

2X4 inch (5.08 X 10.16 cm) wood studs (or 31/2 inches

(8.89 cm) glass fiber batt insulation)

1/2 inch (1.27 cm) plywood sheathing

5/8 inch (1.59 cm) redwood siding

Roofs

1/2 inch (1.27 cm) gypsum board

2X6 inch (5.08 X 15.24 cm) wood joists (or 5 1/2 inch (13.97 cm)

glass fiber batt insulation)

1/2 inch (1.27 cm) plywood sheathing

1/16 inch (.159 cm) asphalt roofing felt

1/8 inch (.318 cm) asphalt shingles

Floor

1/4 inch (.635 cm) nylon carpet (or 1/16 inch (.159 cm) asphalt tile)

5/8 inch (.635 cm) p^lywood sheathing

2X8 inch (5,08 x 20.-32 cm) wood joists (or 7 1/2 inch (19.05 cm) glass

fiber batt insulation)

1/4 inch (.635 cm) wood composition fiber board

48
Appendix A

Purchase Specification for Solar Collector Modules

1. General Description

A four bedroom townhouse located on the NBS Campus will be retrofitted with a solar

energy system. Flat plate collector modules will be attached to the roofs of the test

house. Water will be passed through these collector modules where it will be heated by

solar energy. This heated water will be subsequently stored in a storage tank for later

use for space heating, domestic hot water heating, and air conditioning. The present

specification deals with the flat plate collector modules.

2. Technical Requirements

The flat plate collector modules from the top to the bottom in cross-section will consist of the following layers

1. A tempered glass cover plate, preferably double strength and 0.0048 m (3/16 in.).

2. An air space.

3. An inner cover plate.

4. An inner air space.

5. An absorber plate, coated with a selective surface film, will contain passage

ways for circulating water.

6. A backside layer of insulation.

These layers will be supported with a frame and covered with a backside cover plate.

The housing for the collector modules must be weatherproof to avoid water condensation

when exposed to outdoor weather conditions. The collector modules shall be identical

and must be approximately 2.4 m (8 ft) in overall length and 0.9 to 1.2 m (3 to 4 ft)

in overall width. The number of modules supplied will be such that the total top cover area is 51 m

2 (550 ft 2 ). The absorber area shall be greater than 90 percent of the top cover area. The water inlet and outlet piping connections shall not extend more than

0.1 m (4 in.) from the opposite short sides of the collector modules.

It is desirable that the pressure drop at a flow rate of 1.13 x 10 5 m

3 /(s • m

2

) (1 gal/

(h • ft )) of collector as measured between the inlet and outlet piping connections shall

be less than 3400 N/m (1/2 psig) when determined with the collector in the horizontal

position. The absorber plates must be capable of withstanding a fluid static pressure

of 2.07 x 10 5 N/m2 (30 psig). The collector modules must weigh less than 2.3 kg/m 2

(5 lb/ft 2

) of collector area. Each collector module shall be provided with mounting

lugs at its four corners. The design of the modules shall be such as to provide for

relative ease of integration of a single collector into a collection system. Allowance

must be made for venting of the collector in order to prevent moisture buildup.

The selective surface film on the absorbing surface must have an absorptance to emittance ratio, a/e, of approximately 4.5 under operating conditions. The thermal conductance of the backside insulation shall be less than 0.57 W/(m2

• °C) (.10 Btu/ (h • ft 2

• °F)).

The measured steady-state collector efficiency is defined as the ratio of thermal energy

transferred to the heat transfer fluid per square foot of overall collector area to the

normal intensity of solar radiation striking the surface area. The steady-state collector efficiency must be at least 50% at the following conditions:

>+9
• normal intensity of solar radiation as measured by an Eppley pyranometer or equivalent in a plane parallel to the collector cover plate, I = 760 W/m2 (240 Btu/(h • ft 2 ))

• mass flow rate of water, m = 1.13 x 10~ 5 m

3 /(s • m

2

) (1 gal/ (h • ft 2 ))

e surface temperature difference between absorber surface and ambient air, At =

61 °C (110 °F)

• water inlet temperature, t\ = 77 °C (170 °F)

• wind velocity: 2.2 < V < 4.5 m/s (5 <? V < 10 mph)

This must be a minimum efficiency for all orientations.

Exterior Appearance

The exterior housing of the collector modules must be finished, so as to appear like

stained redwood. The siding material of the test house is stained redwood, and it is

necessary that the collector modules blend in and be compatible with the test house.

Other Requirements

A. Packaging

The entire system, when properly packaged, crated, and handled normally, shall be

transportable by common carriers without damage. No special carriers or moving

techniques shall be required. The vendor will assume responsibility for damages

that occur during shipment which are the result of improper packaging.

B. Operating Conditions

The collector modules with water flowing through them must be capable of operating

over an ambient temperature range from -18 °C (0 °F) to 43 °C (110 °F) and absorber

surface temperatures from -18 °C (0 °F) to 149 °C (300 °F) with a minimum of degradation of the original performance characteristics of the collector modules.

It is desirable that no damage or degradation of thermal performance should occur if

the modules are left exposed to normal sunlight conditions without fluid in the

collector plates.

C. Service Life

The equipment must have an expected life and service of at least ten years.

D. Documentation

The vendor shall provide in writing a detailed description of the collector modules

including information and test data on the collector efficiency and absorptance to

to emittance ratio.

E. Warranty

The solar collector modules shall carry a warranty covering repair labor and parts

for a period of one year after final acceptance by NBS at no extra cost to the

Government. This warranty is intended to cover such failures as leaks, degradation

of the selective surface on the absorber plates, and breakage of the cover plates

due to faulty design.

50
F. Delivery

Delivery shall be made to NBS within 30 days after award of contract.

G. Delays - Liquidation Damages

After award is made to a bidder, if he fails to meet the delivery requirements there

will be deducted from payment to him, as a liquidated damage, not as a penalty, an amount equal to 100 dollars/day of the undelivered or nonconforming portions of the

order for each calendar day of delay.

51
Appendix B

Empirical Routine for the Prediction of Solar Collector Performance

The energy collected by a flat plate collector depends upon the following parameters:

Incident solar radiation

Ambient temperature

Collector plate (absorber) temperature

Wind velocity and direction

Type of glazing

Emissivity (e) and absorptivity (a) of the absorber* surface

Thermal properties of the insulation that surrounds the absorber plates

Air convection patterns in the space between the absorber and cover plate

Transmittance, reflectance, and absorptance of the cover plate

Cloud cover

Moisture and CO content of the atmospheric air

Although it is possible to write a comprehensive analytical simulation model that, takes

into account most of these parameters, the approach employed in this study was to use an empirical routine developed by Kusuda [49] and based on the performance of double-glazed

collectors reported by the University of Pennsylvania [50, 51].

The performance of collectors having a common black absorber and selective black absorber (a = 0.94, £ = 0.1'^ 0.15) were reported in the form of curves showing collector efficiency versus temperature difference between the absorber surface and the cover plate

surface such as shown in Figures CI and C2. Since the cover plate surface temperature is

usually unknown, a modification was made to replace the cover plate temperature by the am- bient air temperature.

The efficiency curves may be approximated by straight lines in the form of:

n - n (i - £ ) (i) max

, Q energy collected ,„s where n = t = ~ n—„ > ,. . .— (2)

I incident solar radiation

At = temperature difference between the

absorber plate and cover plate = t - t

At = intercept of the efficiency curve with

the abscissa or the maximum temperature

difference between the cover plate and

the absorber surface

52
t = absorber surface temperature |

t = cover plate surface temperature

ri = intercept of the efficiency curve with the

ordinate

The value of At depends upon the incident radiation and the result of the experiments

max v also shows that it is possible to approximate At by a linear function such that max

At = b x I max

The data on the double-glazed collector can be reduced to yield

b = 1.375

for the selective surface absorber plate and

b = 0.713

for the common black surface absorber. The same data shows that the best numerical value

for x\ is 0.78.

o

There exists the following heat transfer relationship between the cover plate temperature t c and the ambient temperature ta if it is assumed that all of the heat loss from the

collector takes place through the cover plate.

h (t - t ) = I - Q = I (1 - n) (3)

C 3.

where h = surface heat transfer coefficient at the outer

cover plate.

Combining equations (1), (2), and (3), results in the following equation, which is useful for approximating the solar collector efficiency as a function of incident solar radiation I, ambient temperature t , and absorber surface temperature t :

n = n

{1 -^Q- 1 + I

(t D - t a

)} (4)

'o

Tl + hb

Since the value of h is directly related to the wind speed over the cover plate, equation (4)

accounts for the wind as well.

The value of solar collector efficiency was thus evaluated for every hour throughout the

day by using the hourly data on h, I, and ta from the weather tape and for given values of

ts> Ho> an<* b, which are the basic parameters of the specific collector.

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55
Appendix C

Prediction of Solar Collector Performance for a Typical Weather Year (1957) in Washington, D.C.

for a South-Facing Collector at Various Tilt Angles

Table CI

Thermal Output for the Year 1957 and a 12° Tilt Angle

The following twelve pages show the day by day thermal output in

Btu for double-glazed flat-plate solar collectors for the year 1957,

Washington, D.C, under all combinations of the following conditions:

absorber surface; flat black and selective black

fluid temperature; 60 °C (140 °F) and 104.4 °C (220 °F)

inclination; normal to the sun, horizontal, and at a tilt angle

of 12° from the horizon

1 Btu = 1054.35 J

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68
Table C2

Thermal Output for the Year 1957 and a 50° Tilt Angle

The following twelve pages show the day by day thermal output in

Btu for double-glazed flat-plate solar collectors for the year 1957,

Washington, D.C., under all combinations of the following conditions:

absorber surface; flat black and selective black

fluid temperature; 60 °C (140 °F) and 104.4 °C (220 °F)

inclination; normal to the sun, horizontal, and at a tilt angle of

50° from the horizon

1 Btu = 1054.35 J

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81
Appendix D

Computer Predictions for the Day by Day Performance of a Solar Heating and Cooling System in the NBS Test House

for a Typical Weather Year (19.57) in Washington, D.C.

1 Btu = 1054.34 J

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94
NBS-114A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBS TN-892

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

"Retrofitting a Residence for Solar Heating and Cooling

Design and Construction of the System"

5. Publication Date November 1975

- The 6. Performing Organization Code

7. AUTHOR(S) 8. Performing Organ. Report No. James E. Hill and Thomas E. Richtmyer

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No. 462 6401

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Federal Energy Administration

Office of Energy Conservation

Ben Franklin Station

Washington. D.C. 2046l

13. Type of Report & Period Covered Interim

July 1973-December 197t

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significant bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

During 1972 and 1973, the National Bureau of Standards conducted controlled

laboratory tests on a factory-built four-bedroom house having a floor area of

110 m (1200 ft2

) equipped with a conventional gas furnace and central electric

air conditioner incorporated into a forced air distribution system. During 1974,

the house was moved onto the NBS grounds and a solar heating and cooling' system

was designed to be added to the house. Calculations have been made to show that more than 75% of the yearly energy needs for heating, cooling, and supplying

domestic hot water could be obtained from the sun.

This report deals with the design and construction of the retrofitted system.

It consists of 45 m

2 (485 ft2

) of double-glazed, flat-plate solar collector, 5.7 m

3 (1500 gallons) of water storage, and a 10,000 W (3 ton) lithium bromide absorption

air cooling unit

.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons)

Retrofitted solar residence; solar collector; solar heating and cooling system;

solar-powered absorption refrigeration.

18. AVAILABILITY [XXUnlimited

_ For Official Distribution. Do Nof Release to NTIS

[-^ Order From Sup. of Doc, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402, SD Cat. No. C13 . 46 :892

[J Order From National Technical Information Service (NTIS)

Springfield, Virginia 22151 *

19. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS REPORT)

UNCLASSIFIED

20. SECURITY CLASS

(THIS PAGE)

UNCLASSIFIED

21. NO. OF PAGES

99

22. Price $1.70

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