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^ecUnlcui i\ot& 188

CALIBRATION OF VOLT-AMPERE CONVERTERS

E. S. WILLIAMS

sS-^*'

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

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NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Technical ^otc 188

ISSUED APRIL 25, 1963

CALIBRATION OF VOLT-AMPERE CONVERTERS

E. S. Williams

NBS Technical Notes are designed to supplement the Bureau's regular publications program. They provide a means for making available scientific data that are of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes may be

listed or referred to in the open literature.

For sale bv the Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25. DC. - Price 20 cents

Calibration of Volt-Ampere Converters

E. S. Williams

These notes have been prepared to describe the National

Bureau of Standards calibration services for volt-ampere con- verters (or transfer volt-ammeters), to suggest procedures

for d-c standardization in the user's laboratory, and to describe a voltage comparator which can be used to make such

calibrations quickly and easily.

1. General

A volt-ampere converter, shown schematically in figure 1, incorporates

a thermoelement connected in series with a resistive multiplier for alternating voltage measurements |br in parallel with a shunt for alternating

current measurements. (Multi-range switching is not shown in the figure.)

With alternating current applied to the heater of the thermoelemert , the

output emf of the thermocouple is balanced against an adjustable internal

d-c source as indicated by a null on a galvanometer. (This is usually

called the No. 1 or A-C balance). The heater is then switched to a second

internal d-c source which is adjusted to give the same thermocouple emf.

(This is the No. 2 or D-C balance). The direct voltage, V , is then

measured with a suitable potentiometer. The alternating input voltage or

current is equal to the output voltage (V ) multiplied by a simple factor,

usually shown directly on the dial of the range switch. The basic equations [l and 2] are shown in figure 1. More complete diagrams and additional

information are given in the references.

A modification of this arrangement uses a decade multiplier or decade

Figures in brackets indicate the literature references on page 14 .
shunt, with a two-coil milliammeter as an error indicator, as shown in

2

simplified form for voltage measurements in figure 2. The torques of the

two milliammeter coils are in opposition, and the second coil is energized

by a zener diode reference-voltage source. When balances of the galvanometer are obtained in the A and then the B positions, by adjusting d-c

supplies 1 and 2 respectively, the error indicator shows directly the

percent difference between the input voltage or current and the quantity

indicated by the setting of the decade multiplier or shunt dials of the

converter.

Volt-ampere converters are normally standardized at NBS only to

determine their ac-dc differences. These differences depend on the reactances of the measuring circuit and normally increase with frequency.

Determinations are therefore usually made only at the highest rated

frequency. Because the differences are small and relatively permanent in

a well-designed and well-constructed instrument, they ordinarily need to

be redetermined only if the instrument is altered or damaged. However,

for additional assurance, it is recommended that the ac-dc tests be

repeated at intervals of not less than five years, if the converter is to

be used in the upper part of its frequency range. The ac-dc differences

are not affected appreciably by ordinary changes in laboratory temperature

or changes in applied voltage or current on a given range.

2An instrument of this type has been built by the Sensitive Research

Instrument Corporation, 310 Main Street, New Rochelle, New York, and is

described in their house organ, "Electrical Measurements," 2.8, No. 5,

May 1961.
For these reasons, only periodic d-c calibrations should be necessary

to verify the continued accuracy of a volt-ampere converter in service.

These periodic d-c calibrations can, in most cases, be made in the user's

own laboratory. This is an important advantage of this type of instrument,

because the accuracy of a-c measurements can be maintained with relatively

simple d-c calibration techniques. A calibrated potentiometer is a

necessary accessory to the instrument and must be at hand; the only additional calibrated equipment needed is a shunt box and a volt box.

Normally these would be readily available in an instrument -testing laboratory. Alternatively, the voltage comparator described in these notes

will save time and effort.

It is recommended that d-c tests be made at rated voltage or current

on each range and at 50 percent of rated value on the highest and lowest

ranges, at intervals of 6 to 12 months for normal service. The d-c

correction thus determined is practically independent of voltage or current level on a given range if the design of the converter includes

compensation (R ' and R ') for the resistance of the heater of the thermom s element which does depend on the applied current.

2. Potentiometer Method for Volt-Ampere Converter Calibration

For d-c tests of the converter voltage ranges, a potentiometer and

volt box are used to measure the voltage across the input terminals of

the converter. Then, after the proper balances of the converter are

made, the potentiometer is used to measure the output voltage of the

converter, as shown in figure 3. The correction to the range factor of

the converter is calculated from these two potentiometer readings and the
known ratio of the volt box. For tests of the current ranges a shunt is

used as shown in figure 4.

2.1 Calibration Circuits

Volt-ampere converters generally have a small reversed d-c difference,

so that the average for the two directions of the current must be used as

a d-c reference. The circuits of figures 3 and 4 show a convenient

switching arrangement which provides for reversing the test current and

the leads to the potentiometer. It is more convenient if S- and S in are

la lb

ganged together.

Short, low- resistance leads (less than 0.01 percent of the input

resistance of the converter) should be used between the volt box and the

volt-ampere converter. The common or ground terminal of the instrument

and the low-voltage end of the volt box should be grounded as shown in

the figure.

It is advantageous (although not necessary) to select shunts and

volt-box ranges of such value that their nominal output voltage is the

same as that of the converter. Such an arrangement will help to save

time by allowing the two measurements to be made without resetting the

main potentiometer dials. It will also tend to minimize the effect of

potentiometer errors, since it is only the difference between the two

readings that is significant.

It is very important that the metal case of a potentiometer which is

internally connected to the emf circuit should not be directly grounded,

since this would comprise a second ground. If an auxiliary emf dial is

provided, it may be connected to the V circuit, following the directions
given by the manufacturer. This makes it unnecessary to reset the dials

when switching to V . Note that a potentiometer reversing switch may

still be required in this circuit.

If the volt-ampere converter has a built-in potentiometer, this

potentiometer should first be calibrated. This can often be done conveniently by comparison with a general purpose potentiometer having known

corrections. For the calibration of the converter, the built-in potentiometer is then used to measure the output of the volt-ampere converter,

and the general purpose potentiometer is connected to the shunt or volt

box. Alternatively the internal potentiometer can be used with a suitable

switch to measure first the voltage of the standard shunt or volt box and

then the volt-ampere converter, as already outlined.

Stable d-c supplies of voltage and current are necessary, and the

observer at the potentiometer must have the fine supply controls within

his reach. Two observers are required for the test.

2.2 Precautions

Because the frequency response of thermoelements such as those used

in volt-ampere converters extends to many megacycles, interference from

TV stations and other sources of rf fields can sometimes be troublesome

unless a filter is incorporated in the leads to the heater of the converter

or, in extreme cases, the instrument is used in a shielded room. A quick

check of this interference is easily made, however. With the input terminals of the converter connected to the calibrating circuit but with the

source disconnected, and with a potentiometer connected to the "potr"

terminals, (V in figure 1), adjust the No. 1 control on the instrument
(with the transfer switch in No. 1 (A-C) position) for minimum deflection

of the converter galvanometer. There should be no noticeable change in

the deflection when the input terminals are short-circuited. Similarly,

after a balance has been obtained (at any settings of the No. 1 and No. 2

controls) with the transfer (selector) switch in the No. 2 (D-C) position,

there should be no change in galvanometer deflection when a capacitor (at

least 2000 pf) is connected across the "potr" terminals (V in figure 1).

Such a capacitor will effectively short-circuit any rf current picked up

in the potentiometer circuit.

Many bead-type thermoelements (having an electrically-insulating

bead between the heater and thermocouple) exhibit a small exponentiallydecreasing drift of emf for the first few minutes after a steady heater

current is applied. This does not ordinarily cause a significant error,

but, for the most accurate results, a wait of a minute after each large

change in heater current is desirable.

The sensitivity and stability should be checked after warm-up but

before the formal test is begun. For a check of sensitivity, select any

convenient range, turn S

9 (figure 3 or 4) to the V position, and the

transfer (selector) switch on the converter to the No. 1 (A-C) position.

With the potentiometer set to the corresponding nominal value, adjust the

input voltage or current until the potentiometer is balanced. Then

balance the converter in the No. 1 position. Change the potentiometer

dials by 0.1 percent, readjust the input to rebalance the potentiometer

and note the change in deflection of the galvanometer in the converter.

An abnormally low sensitivity is usually an indication that the
thermoelement is faulty. Then, to check stability, keep the voltage constant and observe the galvanometer deflection for a few minutes. The

drift should be less than 0.01 percent per minute. The error introduced

from this source is mainly dependent upon the time needed by the operator

between setting the No. 1 controls of the converter and balancing the

potentiometer after setting the No. 2 controls. An excessive drift is

usually remedied by replacing the internal batteries.

2.3 Procedure

After preliminary settings of the input controls and adjustment of

the No. 1 and No. 2 controls of the converter, an observer at the potentiometer adjusts the voltage or current to balance the potentiometer at

the desired setting, with switch S_ in the V position (figure 3 or 4).

The second observer adjusts the No. 1 (A-C) balance controls on the

converter until the galvanometer is set exactly on a scale mark near the

null position. The transfer switch on the converter is then turned to

the No. 2 (D-C) position, and the No. 2 balance controls are adjusted for

the same galvanometer position as was set in the first balance. The

potentiometer observer meanwhile switches to the V position and, while

the No. 2 setting is held constant, measures the converter output. The

potentiometer and converter are then switched to their initial positions,

the current or voltage is reversed, and the two-step test is repeated.

For increased reliability, it may be advisable to take an average of four

determinations two for each direction of current.

NOTE: If the transfer switch is left in the No. 2 (D-C) position,

the thermoelement will remain energized while the preliminary settings

are made for the next test point.
The corrected potentiometer setting in the V position of S

9 divided by the corrected shunt resistance or multiplied by the corrected

volt box ratio is the "true" input current or voltage, Q . The current

or voltage indicated by the converter, Q , is the corrected average of

the potentiometer readings in the V position of S multiplied by the

factor given on the range switch. The percentage d-c correction for the

converter is then simply c = 100 (0 - Q.)/Q where Q is the nominal

t i ti Ti voltage or current.

Example:

Range

Current (nominal)

Shunt, R

Potentiometer setting, V

Average potentiometer reading, V

Measured current = V /R = I

s m

Indicated current = V x F = I.

t i

5 amps

5 amps

0.09999 ohm

0.50000 volt

0.49996 volt

5.0005 amps

Converter correction = Im

Percent correction, c

4.9996 amps (F=10 for

this range)

+0.0009 amp

+0.09/5 or +0.02%

NOTE: Potentiometer correction assumed negligible in the above

example.

For an alternative method of making this calculation, see Appendix

II.

When the volt-ampere converter is used to measure an a-c quantity,

the true alternating voltage or current is Q = V F (1 + 0.01c + O.Old)

where F is the factor marked on the range switch, c is the d-c correction

8
in percent for the range used and d is the percent ac-dc difference of

the converter at the applied frequency.

Acceptable accuracy in this d-c test can be obtained only if the

corrections to the standard cell, shunt box, volt box, and potentiometer

are known to within ±0.01 percent or better at the working current or

voltages and the corrections applied.

3. Calibration Procedure for Converters Having Double-Coil Indicators

For volt-ampere converters having the double-coil milliammeter as an

error indicator the circuits and procedure are necessarily somewhat

different. As before, two observers are required one to operate the

converter and one to measure the input with a potentiometer and volt box

or shunt. A reversing switch for the test voltage and current should be

provided, but the switch S

9 in figures 3 and 4 is not used.

A procedure paralleling the one described earlier can be used, but

for best precision the following one is recommended.

With the decade multiplier or shunt dials set to the nominal test

value, the transfer switch (SW in fig. 2) should be turned to position B

(equivalent to No. 2 or D-C previously) and the No. 2 supply controls are

adjusted to give a zero indication on the error indicator. The No. 1

supply controls are then adjusted until this internal d-c source balances

the thermocouple output as indicated by a null on the galvanometer. The

transfer switch is then turned to position A and the input voltage or

current is adjusted by the observer at the converter until the galvanometer is again balanced. The input is held constant while the second

observer measures the input voltage or current with the potentiometer and
volt box or shunt. The difference between the corrected potentiometer

reading and the converter indication (dial settings) is then the correction to be applied to the converter with due attention to sign. Again

the average of four readings two for each direction of current is

advised.

Example

:

Converter setting 150.0 volts

Error indicator 0.00

Converter indication, V. 150.00 volts

Volt Box ratio, N 100 x 1.0002

Average potentiometer readings, V 1.49928 volts

Measured voltage = V N = V 149.958 volts

s m

Converter Correction = V - V. -0.042 volts

m i

Percent correction, c -4.2/150 =-0.03%

4. Thermoelements

Ordinarily replacement thermoelements can be obtained from the

manufacturer with guaranteed ac-dc differences of not more than 0.01 percent. Thus the ac-dc differences of a volt-ampere converter having a

rated accuracy of 0.05 percent do not need to be redetermined when a thermoelement is replaced. The d-c calibration may be affected slightly if the

new thermoelement has a reversed d-c difference, or (for instrument without compensating resistors) if its heater resistance is not at the nominal

value. A d-c measurement on one or two ranges will show the magnitude of

the effects.

10
5. A Voltage Comparator

A voltage comparator (figs. 5, 6, and 7) has been constructed at NBS

which can be used instead of the external potentiometer for converter

calibration. With it, a direct measurement of the percentage difference

between V and V is made. The instrument has five ranges, .25, .5, .75,

1.0, and 1.5 volts, corresponding to the volt-ampere converter outputs

obtained in the usual test. If the comparator input voltages (V and V )

are nominally equal to any one of these range values, then the comparator

indicates percent correction directly with the proper sign. If tests at

other output levels are required, the comparator indication can be easily

corrected as explained below.

Unlike the requirement of the potentiometer method, the shunt and

volt box ranges must be selected so that V and V are nominally equal.

This requirement is rarely difficult, although a wide-range shunt box may

be needed.

Very fine controls for voltage and current are not required although

good short-time stability is necessary. Again it is necessary to reverse

the test current or voltage and take the average of values obtained for

the two directions. The switches S and S shown in figures 3 and 4 are

built into the voltage comparator and shown as S in figures 5 and 6. The

shunt or volt box output and the volt-ampere converter output are connected directly to the V and V terminals, respectively.

Referring to figure 5, with the test voltage or current set within

a few percent of the nominal value, the switch S is turned to V + or V - v s s depending on the polarity of V , and this input is balanced against the

11
internal Lindeck potentiometer by adjusting I until I R is equal to V . s s s s An internal galvanometer indicates equality. The I adjustment and the

No. 1 (AC) balance on the VA converter being calibrated should be made

simultaneously.

The No. 2 (DC) balance is then made on the converter, the switch Sv

is moved to V and the converter output is compared with I R . If V and

u s s s V are equal (a very special case) the galvanometer will again balance

indicating that the volt box (or shunt) and the converter have equal

corrections. If they are not equal, the balance can be restored by

inserting the difference potential across the resistor R by adjusting I .

A milliammeter in this circuit measures I and is marked so as to indicate

c the percent r difference between V and V if the I meter is at full scale.

s t s When this indication is corrected for any shunt or volt box error, the

converter correction is determined.

If V is smaller than V the switch S is reversed. This position

t s c

r

of the switch is marked plus to show that the difference is to be added

to the indication of the converter.

The correction formula for voltage ranges is shown in Appendix I to

be c = v + __c where c is the percent correction of the volt-ampere conD s verter, v is the percent volt box correction, D is the indication of the

"correction" milliammeter (I ) with its proper sign, and D is the indication of the one milliampere (full scale) instrument in the Lindeck

potentiometer (I ) . It is expected that the comparator will nearly always

be used with this instrument at full scale so that D is 1 and the formula

s

is c = v + D . This is also the case for the current ranges. The formula,

12
derived in Appendix I, is c = -u + _c where u is the percent shunt

D s correction and D is again one at full scale or rated input.

The NBS voltage comparator is built entirely of commercial parts.

The rotary switches S and S have solid silver contacts and 10-turn,

v p

helically wound, 1000 ohm control resistors are used. All other resistors

are in the 1/2 percent accuracy class and wire wound. The I circuit is

s supplied by two No. 6 dry cells and the I circuit by one. It is important that the current in the I circuit be stable to at least 0.01 percent

for as long as it takes to make the second balance. The meters are of the

panel type in the two percent accuracy class.

It should be noted here that high accuracy in comparator circuits

is not necessary. The "correction" meter has a full scale range of 0.1

percent so that a ten percent error is necessary in its associated resistors to cause a 0.01 percent error in the resulting volt-ampere converter

correction. Furthermore, as suggested earlier, exact setting of the test

voltage or current is not necessary. It can be shown that if the voltampere converter input differs from the nominal value by nine percent,

the indicated converter correction (c) will not be in error by more than

0.01 percent even if the converter correction is as large as 0.1 percent.

Therefore, the D term in the equations above may be considered to be

unity if it is within a few percent of full scale.

The voltage comparator has the advantage of being low in cost and

easily constructed and used. It frees a precision potentiometer for

other work, makes very fine control unnecessary and greatly simplifies

the calculations.

13
The author acknowledges the assistance of Mr. F. L. Hermach who

offered many valuable suggestions and who originally developed the equations given in Appendix II.

6. References

[1] F. L. Hermach and E. S. Williams, Multirange Audiofrequency

Thermocouple Instruments of High Accuracy, J. Research, 52, 227,

(1954) RP2494.

[2] F. L. Hermach and E. S. Williams, A Wide-Range Volt-Ampere

Converter for Current and Voltage Measurements, AIEE Transactions

(Communications and Electronics), 384, (September 1959).

14
Appendix I

Derivation of Equations for the Voltage Comparator

The voltage to be measured (V ) by the volt-ampere converter (with

a potentiometer connected to the output) r 'ptt is V = V F (1 + c) where V is

the converter output, F is the multiplying factor, and c is the proportional correction to F. The same voltage (V ) as measured by the volt

box and potentiometer is V = V N (1 + v) where V is the potentiometer

p s

N ' s

r

reading, N Is the volt box ratio, and v is the proportional correction to

N. Therefore,

V F (1 + c) = V N (1 + v). (1)

When the two balances are made on the voltage comparator V = I R

and Vtsscc = I R - I R for the "plus" position of switch S so that

c N(l + v) .. Vc

F(l + c) I R

* s s In order that V and V be nominally equal, the volt box range must

be chosen so that F = N. The one milliampere instrument in the I circuit

is read directly so that D =1 where its indication is designated as D . s s s The 0.5 milliampere instrument in the I circuit is marked to indicate

c 0.1 at full scale so that I = 5 D where D is the indication of the

c c c "correction" meter. Then with the resistors chosen so that R /R = 1/500,

c s we may write n 5 D

1 + v _ , c

1 + c 500 D

* s If v and c are very much less than unity then, very closely,

c = v + D /100D and if c and v are in percent this becomes

c s c = v + ]jc. (2)

Ds Similarly, a current measured by the volt-ampere converter is

I = V F (1 + c) where I is the measured current and the other terms are

P t p

15
the same as above. The same current measured with the shunt and potentiometer is I = V /R (1 + u) where R is the nominal resistance of the

p s shunt, u is the shunt correction and V is the potentiometer reading,

s therefore,

iT(i-h) = V o + «o. (3)

When the two balances are made on the voltage comparator

V = I R and V = I R - I R

s ss t ss cc

so that 1 _ . c c » F (1 + c) R (1 + u) ~ I R

s s In order that V and V be nominally equal, the shunt must be chosen so

that FR = 1.

Therefore, with R /R = 1/500, c = -u + I /500 I and proceeding as

** o Go

above, we have

c = -u + _c (4)

D

s neglecting second and higher order terms.

Appendix II

Derivation of Equations for the Potentiometer Method

The calculations illustrated earlier for converters used with a

potentiometer can be shortened considerably by using formulas similar to

those above. The equations (1) and (3) are valid whether a potentiometer

or voltage comparator is used.

Considering equations (1) for voltage measurements, we may rewrite

it

V N i . s 1 + c V F 1 + v'

The nominal values of V and V are not necessarily equal but in any

s t case the ratio V N/V F is nominally 1. If V is set exactly to its

16
nominal value, and If we substitute for V a value V. (1 + a), where V

t tn tn

is the nominal value, and a is a fractional correction to the nominal

value, i.e., a = (V - V )/V . then V N/V F - 1 and

* ' v t tn' tn' s tn

V N

s m

1 + c F V\ (1 + a) ' 1 + v

tn

for which

c = v-a

neglecting second and higher order terms.

Similarly, we may write equation (3)

V

(5)

RFV. = (1 + u) (1 + c).

In this case the ratio V /RFV is nominally 1. If V is set exactly to

S t- o its nominal value and V = V (1 + a) as before, we then have

t tn '

' V

RFV <H-a)-<1 + u>< I + c > tn

from which

c = -a -u. (6)

neglecting second and higher order terms.

Example:

Range 5 amps

Current 5 amps

Shunt R 0.09999 ohms (u = -0.010%)

Potentiometer setting V 0.50000 volts

s Average potentiometer reading V 0.49996 volts (a = -0.008%)

Converter d-c correction c = -a -u + 0.02%

17
m

F Rm=R'm THEN Va

= -^Vt (INDEPENDENT OF R

h

)

Id

NO.2

CONTROL

IF R

s =Rg THEN l Q

= -^-(INDEPENDENT OF R^

O

T

Figure 1. Simplified diagram of volt-ampere converter; (a) For voltage

measurements; (b) For current measurements
ERROR INDICATOR

DECADE

MULTIPLIER

ZENER

REFERENCE

SUPPLY

Figure 2. Simplified diagram of volt- ampere converter with error

indicator (for voltage measurements)
Vi

=E XSi ° VOLT

BOX

Vc f

X

I 6 ifj VOLT

AMPERE

CONVERTER

66

! POTENTIOMETER

Figure 3. Calibration circuit for volt- ampere converter voltage ranges

SHUNT E I—

a

•wwa

Xs

. t

*

vt

VOLT ° f

AMPERE

CONVERTER

"1

i

Figure 4. Calibration circuit for volt-ampere converter current ranges
NOTE .VOLTAGES V

g AND V

f ARE IDENTIFIED IN FIGURES 3 AND 4

Figure 5. Simplified diagram of voltage comparator

r t NOTE: Voltages V and V+ are identified in figures 3 and 4

1500ft

Figure 6. Diagram of voltage comparator
Figure 7. Photograph of voltage comparator

* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ! 1963 —681813
I . S. DEPARTM1 MMERCE

Luther II. Hodge

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Crystallography.

Building Research. Structural Engineering. Fire Research. Mechanical Systems. Organic Building Materials. Codes and Safety Standards. Heat Transfer. Inorganic Building Materials. Metallic Bunding Materials. Applied Mathematics. Numerical Analysis. Computation. Statistical Engineering. Mathematical Physics. Operations Research. Data Processing Systems. Components and Techniques. Computer Technology. Measurements Automation.

Engineering Applications. Systems Analysis.

Atomic Physics. Spectroscopy. Infrared Spectroscopy, far Ultraviolet Physics. Solid State Physics. Electron Physics. Atomic Physics. Plasma Spectroscopy.

Instrumentation. Engineering Electronics. Electron Devices. Electronic Instrumentation. Mechanical Instru- ments. Basic Instrumentation. Physical Chemistry. Thermochemistry. Surface Chemistry. Organic Chemistry. Molecular Spectroscopy. Ele- mentary Processes. Mass Spectrometry. Photochemistry and Radiation Chemistry.

Office of Weights and Measures. BOULDER, COLO.

Cryogenic Engineering Laboratory. Cryogenic Equipment. Cryogenic Processes. Properties of Materials. Cryogenic Technical Services. CENTRAL RADIO PROPAGATION LABORATORY

Ionosphere Research and Propagation. Low Frequency and Very Low Frequency Research. Ionosphere Research. Prediction Services. Sun-Earth Relationships. Field Engineering. Radio Warning Services. Vertical Soundings Research.

Radio Propagation Engineering. Data Reduction Instrumentation. Radio Noise. Tropospheric Measurements.

Tropospheric Analysis. Propagation-Terrain Effects. Radio-Meteorology. Lower Atmosphere Physics.

Radio Systems. Applied Electromagnetic Theory. High Frequency and Very High Frequency Research. Fre- quency Utilization. Modulation Research. Antenna Research. Radiodetermination.

Upper Atmosphere and Space Physics. Upper Atmosphere and Plasma Physics. High Latitude Ionosphere

Physics. Ionosphere and Exosphere Scatter. Airglow and Aurora. Ionospheric Radio Astronomy.

RADIO STANDARDS LABORATORY

Radio Physics. Radio Broadcast Service. Radio and Microwave Materials. Atomic Frequency and Time-Interval Standards. Radio Plasma. Millimeter-Wave Research.

Circuit Standards. High Frequency Electrical Standards. High Frequency Calibration Services. High Frequency

Impedance Standards. Microwave Calibration Services. Microwave Circuit Standards. Low Frequency Calibration

Services.
NBS