• 

U.S. Department of Justice 

Office of Justice Programs 

National Institute of Justice 

National Institute of Justice in Brief 

September 1994 

Past and Future Directions of the 

D.A.R.E.® Program: An Evaluation Review 

by Christopher L. Ringwalt, Dr.P.R., Jody M. Greene, M.S., Susan T. Ennett, Ph.D., 

Ronaldo Iaehan, Ph.D., Richard R. Clayton, Ph.D., and Carl G. Leukefeld, Ph.D, 

Since its inception in the early 1980s, Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.~ has become 

the Nation's most prevalent school-based drug use prevention program. D.A.R.E.® is distinctive among 

such programs in that it uses trained, uniformed police officers in the classroom to teach highly 

structured curricula. D.A.R.E.® is also distinctive in that it combines a partnership between law 

enforcement and education at the local level with a high degree of centralized program control asserted 

by coordinating mechanisms at the State, regional, and national levels. 

• 

Despite the wide dissemination of drug use prevention efforts nationwide, an understanding of 

the effects of D.A.R.E.® and other such programs in our Nation's schools is only beginning to emerge. 

Insert Box 1 about here 

In recent years, several comjrehensive reviews of school-based drug use prevention program 

evaluations have been conducted.1

- These have increasingly pointed to the efficacy of psychosocial 

approaches, as opposed to those that provide information or seek to change attitudes or increase selfesteem. Psychosocial approaches emphasize the development of social skills in general, and of peerrefusal skills in particular, and typically include peer interaction components. Although D.A.R.E.® is 

usually considered to be a psychosocial approach, it includes lessons representing all the areas identified above. 

Reviews have focused on the effectiveness of prevention programs, but attempts to synthesize 

findings from a variety of sources into an integrated assessment have been rare. This study represents 

an effort to synthesize information from several sources, including original and secondary data, to 

provide an overall evaluation review of D.A.R.E.® 

D .. A.R.E.® curricula 

The primary (or core) D.A.R.E.® curriculum, which is taught in the 5th or 6th grade, has 17 

A hour-long weekly lessons. The D.A.R.E.® officers have sole responsibility for teaching all of the lessons, 

~ although classroom teachers are encouraged to participate. Officers use a variety of teaching approaches, including the presentation of facts, group discussions, role-playing, and workbook exercises. 

If you have issues viewing or accessing this file contact us at NCJRS.gov.
• 

• 

• 

Past and Future Direction of the D.A.R.E. Program: An Evaluation Review 

Grant No. 91-DD-CX-K053 

Submitted to the National Institute of Justice on 9/27/94: 

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• 

• 

The D.A.R.E.® core curriculum has several primary purposes: 

• teach students to understand the effects and consequences of drug use; 

.. teach them to recognize and resist interpersonal and media pressures to use drugs; 

• enhance their self-esteem and assertiveness; 

• introduce them to older youth who serve as role models; 

• teach positive alternatives to drug use; and 

• increase students' interpersonal, communication, and decision-making skills.9 

Other D.A.R.E.® curricula are targeted toward (a) kindergarten through 4th-grade pupils (15- to 

20-minute introductory lessons), (b) junior high students (10-lesson refresher course taught by 

D.A.R.E.® officers and classroom teachers), (c) senior high students (11 classes on health effects and 

social consequences of drug abuse), and (d) parents (four or five 2-hour evening workshops). Our focus 

in this study was the core curriculum. 

All of the curricula share a common set of primary purposes and objectives. Each curriculum is 

periodically updated. An updated version of the core curriculum, for example, was pilot tested in 1993. 

D.A.R.E.® officers will be trained in its implementation in September 1994. The new core curriculum 

will add violence prevention as a lesson and use more participatory learning activities . 

Insert Box 2 about here 

D.A.R.E.® officers and training 

Law enforcement agencies exercise considerable discretion in identifying qualified, motivated 

police officers to be trained as D.A.R.E.® officers. D.A.R.E.® officers must be full-time, uniformed 

officers with at least 2 years of experience. When selecting candidate officers, local police departments 

are encouraged to consider each officer's ability to interact with children, ability to organize, and ability 

to handle the unexpected, as well as whether the officer would provide an exemplary role model. 

Selected officers undergo an intensive, 2-week course of at least 80 hours of training. Officers 

are trained not only in the core curriculum, but also in public speaking, teaching skills, and classroom 

management. The core curriculum's training course includes opportunities to practice lessons both with 

peers and in an actual classroom setting. 

Once in the field, D.A.R.E.® officer performance is monitored by mentors who observe classroom 

presentations and evaluate performance. Their performance is directly critiqued by assigned mentors, 

who are experienced and specially trained D.A.R.E.® officers. Instructors who teach and mentor officers 

must have taught the core curriculum at least one semester and must attend an additional 40 hours of 

accredited instruction. Mentors may also use input from school administrators, classroom teachers, 

•

health education coordinators, and advisory committees to provide officers with feedback on their 

presentations. 

2 

J 
The time tha.t D.AR.E.® officers commit to the program varies considerably from one law en-

• forcement jurisdiction to the next. For some officers, particularly those in large urban departments, 

teaching D.ARE.® is a full-time occupation. In departments that serve rural communities, D.ARE.® 

officers administer the program on a part-time basis, devoting the remainder of their time to other law 

enforcement tasks. 

• 

Purpose of the study 

D.A.RE.@,s popularity, as demonstrated by its rapid rate of dissemination and by abundant 

anecdotal reports of its success, is self-evident. In part because of its preeminent position, 

policymakers, researchers, educators, and parents are asking a number of fundamental questions about 

the program: 

• How extensively is D.ARE.® implemented nationwide? 

• What are the basic features common to most D.AR.E.® programs? 

• How is D.ARE.® managed and funded at the national, State, and local levels? 

• How does D.ARE.® compare with other drug use prevention programs in terms of 

school and community support and satisfaction? 

• What is the level of methodological rigor of thG outcome evaluations of D.ARE.@,s 

core curriculum conducted to date? 

• What are D.ARE.@,s short-term effects on drug use by youth, as compared with 

those of other school-based drug use prevention programs? 

To address these and other questions, the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) awarded the 

Research Triangle Institute (RT!) and the University of Kentucky's Center for Prevention Research 

(CPR) a grant to conduct an extensive review of the D.A.R.E.® program and to assess its place within 

the context of the broad spectrum of school-based drug use prevention efforts. 

Study objectives 

The research team proposed and carried out two distinct types of assessments, the first 

pertaining to implementation and the second to outcomes or effectiveness. The primary objectives of the 

implementation assessment were to 

• assess the organizational structure and operation of representative D.ARE.® programs nationwide; 

• review and assess factors that contribute to the effective implementation of 

D.A.RE.® programs nationwide; and 

• assess how D.A.RE.® and other school-based drug prevention programs are 

tailored to meet the needs of specific populations. 

• The first two o~ectives for the implementation assessment relate exclusively to D.ARE.® The 

third targets D.A.RE. ,but also includes other drug use prevention programs. 

3 
~------------------------------------------~-----~-

• 

The primary objectives of the outcome assessment were to 

• identify all outcome evaluations of D.A.R.E.®>s core curriculum conducted to date 

in the United States and Canada; 

• assess the methodological rigor of those evaluations; 

• examine the nature and extent of the effects of D.A.R.E.®>s core curriculum; and 

• compare the effectiveness of D.A.R.E.®os core curriculum with other school-based 

drug use prevention programs targeting 5th- and 6th-grade pupils. 

Although the first three objectives of the outcome assessment focus exclusively on D.A.R.E.®, the 

fourth places D.A.R.E.® in a larger context by comparing it with other drug use prevention programs. 

In this Research in Brief, we synthesize the most important findings from both of the 

assessments and present overall conclusions and offer some recommendations. Further details are 

available in the study's final report.10 

Description of the study 

To achieve the study's goals and objectives, the research team designed a set of research 

strategies that would yield data pertinent not only to a review and critique of D.A.R.E.®, but also to an 

assessment of how D.A.R.E.® compares with other school-based drug use prevention programs, and the 

.future directions of these programs. 

To this end, we carried out as previously noted two distinct types of assessments, the first 

pertaining to implementation and the second to outcomes or effectiveness. For the implementation 

assessment, we collected original data by conducting 

• informal interviews and discussions with the coordinators and/or educational 

advisors of D.A.R.E.®>s Regional Training Centers (RTCs); 

• a 8urvey of State D.A.R.E.® coordinators; and 

• a survey of drug use prevention coordinators in a representative, stratified sample 

of school districts that included districts with and without D.A.R.E.® 

For the outcome assessment, we reviewed and assessed the published and unpublished shortterm evaluations of D.A.R.E.@;s original core curriculum conducted to date. We collected no primary 

data, but instead studied prior D.A.R.E.® evaluations using meta-analytic techniques. 

A description of the methodology by which we conducted the State D.A.R.E.® coordinator survey, 

the school district drug use prevention coordinator survey, and the meta-analysis may be found in three 

boxed sections. 

• Insert Boxes 3, 4, and 5 about here 

4 

~~ ~---~- ~- ~~--------~.~--------------------~-~~----'---.....I 
Findings and recommendations 

• In this section, we present highlights of the findings from the implementation assessment, 

followed by key findings from the outcome assessment. Our discussion is organized by some of the 

questions that guided these two study components. RecommelJ.dations based on our findings are in 

il~~. . 

Implementation assessment 

How extensively is D.A.R.E.® implemented nationwide, and how does D.A.R.E.@,s prevalence 

compare with that of other curricula? 

• Over half (52%) of the school districts in the country have implemented D.A.R.E.® 

in one or more schools. 

• The other two most prevalent curricula, Quest and Here's Looking at You, have 

been implemented in 27% and 24% of school districts nationwide, respectively. 

• Demand for D.A.R.E.® will increase substantially in the next 5 years. Over 40% of 

districts with D.A.R.E.® plan to expand its use, and 21% of those without 

D.A.RE.® expressed interest in implementing it. 

How does D.A.R.E.@,s implementation var.f by such key school district characteristi~ as geographic region, urbanicity, SES, and minority status? 

• • The Midwest had the highest percentage of districts using D.A.R.E.® (60%), and 

the Southwest had the lowest (37%). 

• Urban and suburban school districts were more likely to use D.A.R.E.® than were 

rural districts. 

• D.A.R.E.® was equaUy likely to be used in school districts with varied racial/ethnic 

composition and high (relative to low) SES. 

• Consideration should be given to strategies to make DA.R.E.® more accessible to 

rural and small school districts. 

How does D.A.R.E.® compare with other AOD use prevention programs in terms of support and 

satisfaction for the programs? 

• School district drug use prevention coordinators indicated that support for 

D.A.R.E.® is very strong among students, school personnel, pan>"1ts, and the community. Their ratings for D.A.R.E.® substantially surpassed those of other AOD 

use programs (see Table 3). 

Insert Table 3 about here 

• 

5 

I 
• 

• 

• 

• Most school district drug use prevention coordinators rated the D.A.R.E.® 

curriculum and how it is taught as "very satisfactory." They also rated students' 

receptivity to D.A.R.E.® and its effects on students as very high. These findings 

contrast markedly with their ratings of other AOD use programs (see Table 4). 

Insert Table 4 about here 

• Coordinators in districts with a high percentage of minority students were more 

likely than those in districts serving predominantly white students to rate 

students' receptivity to D.A.R.E.® as very high. 

Is D.A.R.E.® adapted to each community's particular needs? 

• Over two-fifths of coordinators of districts with D.A.R.E.®, and over half of the 

coordinators in school districts vvith other drug prevention programs, reported at 

least some degree of adaptation, usually because of local drug availability. 

• Although we recognize that a modest degree of tailoring the program to the specific 

needs of a particular audience may be appropriate, we recommend that basic fidelity 

to the curricula be maintained. Otherwise, their integrity will be jeopardized and 

the various lessons may be implemented haphazardly, without attention to how they 

contribute to a comprehensive K-12 curriculum. 

To what extent are classroom teachers and parents involved in D.A.R.E.~ 

• In 84% of the school districts, teachers were reported to be "actively involved" in 

D.A.R.E.® 

• We encourage an even more active role for teachers in all DA.R.E. ® curricula and 

suggest that DA.R.E. ® consider providing co-training and in-service opportunities 

for officers and teachers together. . 

• About half the coordinators reported that parents WClre actively involved in 

D.A.R.E.® 

• DA.R.E.®'s efforts to reach out to parents through the parent curriculum are 

commendable. We recommend assigning homework exercises that children must 

complete with their parents and developing a videotape for parents of D.A.R.E.® 

students that would include drug use prevention advice. 

How are changes made to the D.A.R.E.® curriculum? 

• Responsibility for changes to the D.A.R.E.® curricula are assumed by D.A.R.E.® 

America, as advised by the D.A.R.E.® America RTC Advisory Board. 

• A revised curriculum was piloted in 1993. All D.A.R.E.® officers will be trained to 

administer the revised curriculum, titled "D.A.R.E.® to Resist Drugs and Violence," 

in September 1994. In 1993, D.A.R.E.® America convened a Scientific Advisory 

6 
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• 

• 

Board comprising drug prevention specialists who will review relevant drug 

prevention research findings and make recommendations concerning improvements 

to the curriculum. 

It is important that the various D.A.R.E. ® curricula be kept up to date in response 

to new developments in the field of drug prevention research and practice. The 

D.A.R.E.® America Scientific Advisory Board is charged with accomplishing this 

objective. 

What is the relationship between D.A.R.E.® and the State departments of education? 

• 

• 

About one-third of the State-level D.A.R.E.® coordinators reported a great deal of 

communication with their State's department of education and half reported having at least some communication. 

It is critical that D.A.R.E. 's® ties with education be enhanced. All State D.A.R.E. ® 

programs should retain educational consultants to act as liaisons employed by their 

departments of education. Further, an appropriate representative of the U.S. 

Department of Education should be invited to serve as an ex officio member of 

DA.R.E. ® America's RTC Advisory Board to provide guidance on how D.A.R.E. ® 

can be integrated effectively into a comprehensive school-based drug use prevention 

strategy. 

How can D.A.R.E.® be improved at the local level? 

• Although less than half of the drug use prevention coordinators mentioned that 

their district have a written agreement with local law enforcement, D.A.R.E.® 

America reports that such agreements are a prerequisite of the program's 

implementation. 

• All school districts should review these agreements biennially. D.A.R.E. ®'s 

implementation in the schools should be discussed in these meetings, and the 

contributions of D.A.R.E.® officers should be recognized. 

How adequate is D.A.R.E.® training? 

• Recent changes in the D.A.R.E.® core curriculum will require retraining of 

D.A.R.E.® officers. 

• D.A.R.E. ® should consider new methods to provide in-service training, such as 

interactive video networking or prerecorded videotapes. 

Outcome assessment 

• 

What short-term effects do evaluations of the original core curriculum demonstrate? 

• D.A.R.E.® is most effective at immediate posttest in increasing knowledge about 

drug use and in enhancing social skills (see Figure 1). 

7 
• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Insert Figure 1 about here 

. D.A.R.E.® had statistically significant, but more modest, effects on attitudes 

toward drugs, attitudes toward the police, and self-esteem. 

D.A.R.E.® had small effects on drug use, and except for tobacco use none of the 

effect sizes was statistically significant. 

How do D.A.R.E.®s short-term effects compare with those of other school-based drug use 

prevention programs? 

• D.A.R.E.®s effect sizes were smaller than the effect sizes for interactive prevention 

programs emphasizing social and general competencies and using participatory 

teaching strategies (see Figure 2).49 Except for knowledge about drugs, the 

differences were statistically significant. 

Insert Figure 2 about here 

D.A.R.E.®s effect sizes were generally greater, but not significantly different from, 

the effect sizes for programs emphasizing intrapersonal factors and more traditional teaching modes (noninteractlve programs). 

What considerations should be taken into account " in interpreting the findings of this metaanalysis? 

• The higher level of effectiveness of D.A.R.E.® for knowledge compared with drug 

use is consistent with Tobler's results and other meta-analyses1

,4,5 and supports 

the conclusion that knowledge is easier to change than behavior. 

• Low drug use effect sizes may reflect the relatively low frequency of drug use by 

5th- and 6th-grade pupils. 

• The other evaluation studies used for comparison may have been implemented 

under conditions of greater stringency and fidelity, and closer monitoring, than 

were the D.A.R.E.® programs studied, leading to stronger effects. 

• It is possible that the control groups in the D.A.R.E.® studies were exposed to 

more alternative drug education than were the control groups for other drug use 

prevention programs. 

• The small number of D.A.R.E. and comparison studies precluded examination of 

factors that could contribute to the observed differences in effect sizes, such as 

characteristics of the students, features of the interventions, and differences in 

research designs. 

8 
• 

• None of the studies examined such potentially important outcomes as the effects of 

D.A.R.E.® on violent and delinquent behavior, or on the relationship that develops 

between D.A.R.E.® officers and youth, or on the officers themselves. 

What changes might be considered to the D.A.R.E.® core curriculum and how it is taught? 

• Greater emphasis could be placed in the DA.R.E. ® core curriculum on lessons 

concerning social influences, which most closely resemble the content of interactive 

programs. 

• Less emphasis could be placed on lessons. concerning self-esteem, decision-making, 

and stress reduction, which most closely resemble the content of noninteractive 

programs. 

• Traditional didactic teaching styles, which rely on providing information with little 

response from students, have been shown to be less effective than interactive teaching, which relies on engaging students in dialogues with the teacher and each other. 

DA.R.E.® shares aspects of both approaches. The revised core curriculum emphasizes interactive teaching; we suggest that D.A.R.E. ® examine ways to e;ngage 

youth still further. 

Conclusions 

Our findings show a program that has been extremely successful at placing drug use education 

•

in our Nation's schools. D.AR.E.® is now implemented in the majority of the Nation's school districts 

and is expected to grow substantially in the coming years. Its popularity is very high, as is the support 

. it generates. At the same time, however, our findings indicate that the original D.A.R.E.® core 

curriculum has been less successful than interactive programs in accomplishing its mission to prevent 

drug use among 5th- and 6th-grade pupils. More work is needed to make D.A.R.E.® as effective as 

other programs have shown is possible with students who are this age. 

D.A.R.E.® represents an institution that is unique in the area of drug use prevention: an active 

partnership between law enforcement and education. Not unexpectedly, along with this highly visible 

profile come high expectations. Key to the continued growth and success of D.A.R.E.® will be careful 

monitoring of the effectiveness of the various curricula, coupled with the willingness to make and assess 

modifications that could further enhance effectiveness. Continuous work is needed to make D.A.R.E.® 

as effective as it has the potential to be, such as the recent revisions to the core cur; iculum and the 

ongoing oversight provided by the D.A.R.E.® America Scientific Advisory Board. SUl;;h changes will 

result in a program that maintains its unique identity and place in drug use education, while meeting 

more effectively the challenge of preventing drug use among our Nation's most vulnerable population--

adolescents. 

Notes 

1. Bangert-Drowns, R.L. 1988. liThe Effect of School-Based Substance Abuse Education: A MetaAnalysis." Journal of Drug Education 18:243-64. 

Botvin, G.J. 1990. "Substance Abuse Prevention: Theory, Practice, and Effectiveness." In 

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519. 

9 
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• 4. 

. 5. 

6. 

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• 10. 

11. 

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13. 

14. 

15. 

• 16. 

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Tobler, N.S. 1986. "Meta-Analysis of 143 Adolescent Drug Prevention Programs: Quantitative 

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10 
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Rosenbaum, D.P., Flewelling, RL., Bailey, S.L., Faggiani, D., and Ringwalt, C. 1992. Third 

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Clayton, RR, Cattarello, A, and Walden, P. 1991. "Sensation Seeking as a Potential Mediating 

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Gilchrist, L., Schinke, S., Trimble, J., and Cvetkovich, G. 1987. "Skills Enhancement to Prevent 

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Schaeffer, G., Moskowitz, J., Malvin, J., and Schaps, E. 1981. The Effects of a Classroom 

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Program." Journal of Drug Education 17:213-31. 

Schaps, E., Moskowitz, J., Condon, J., and Malvin, J. 1984. "A Process and Outcome Evaluation 

of an Affective Teacher Training Primary Prevention Program." Journal of Alcohol and Drug 

Education 29:35-64. 

Schinke, S., Gilchrist, L., and Snow, W. 1985. "Skills Interventions to Prevent Cigarette 

Smoking Among Adolescents." American Journal of Public Health 75:665-67. 

Dielman, T., Shope, J., Butchart, A, and Campanelli, P. 1986. IIPrevention of Adolescent 

Alcohol Misuse: An Elementary School Program: Journal of Pediatric Psychology 11:259-81. 

Dielman, T., Shope, J., Campanelli, P., and Butchart, A 1987. "Elementary School-Based 

Prevention of Adolescent Alcohol Misuse." Pediatrician: International Journal of Child and 

Adolescent Health 14:70-76. 

Dielman, T., Shope, J., Leech, S., and Butchart, A 1989. IIDifferential Effectiveness of an 

Elementary School-Based Alcohol Misuse Prevention Program. 1I Journal of School Health 

59:255-62, 

Shope, J., Dielman, T., and Leech, S. 1988, November. "An Elementary School-Based Alcohol 

Misuse Prevention Program: Two Year Follow-Up Evaluation. 1I Presented at the American 

Public Health Association Annual Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts. 

FJ;~y, B., Koepke, D., Thomson, S., Santi, S., Best, J., and Brown, S. 1989. "Six-Year Follow-Up 

of the First Waterloo School Smoking Prevention Trial." American Journal of Public Health 

79:1371-76. 

Flay, B., Ryan, K., Best, J., Brown, K, Kersell, M., d'Avernas, J., and Zanna, M. 1983. 

"Cigarette Smoking: Why Young People Do It and Ways of Preventing It." In Pediatric and 

Adolescent Behavioral Medicine, P. McGrath and P. Firestone, eds. New York: Springer-Verlag. 

132-83. 

Flay, B., Ryan, K., Best, J., Brown, K, Kersell, M., d'Avernas, J., and Zanna, M. 1985. IIAre 

Social Psychological Smoking Prevention Programs Effective? The Waterloo Study." Jo'urnalof 

Behavioral Medicine 8:37-59. 

Gersick, K, Grady, K, and Snow, D. 1988. "Social-Cognitive Development with Sixth Graders 

and Its Initial Impact on Substance Use." Journal of Drug Education 18:55-70 . 

12 

-- - ------ ---------------------
43 . 

• 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 

McAlister, A. 1983, May. "Approaches to Primary Prevention." Presented at the National 

Academy of SciencelNational Research Council Conference on Alcohol and Public Policy, 

Washington, D.C. 

Schinke, S., Bebel, M., Orlandi, M., and Botvin, G. 1988. "Prevention Strategies for Vulnerable 

Pupils: School Social Work Practices to Prevent Substance Abuse." Urban Education 22:510-19. 

Schinke, S.P., and Blythe, B.J. 1981. "Cognitive-Behavioral Prevention of Children's Smoking. II 

Child Behavior Therapy 3:25-42. 

Schinke, S., and Gilchrist, L. 1983. "Primary Prevention of Tobacco Smoking." Journal of 

School Health 53:416-19. 

Schinke, S., Gilchrist, L., Schilling, R., Snow, W., and Bobo, J. 1986. "Skills Methods to Prevent 

Smoking." Health Education Quarterly 13:23-27. 

Schinke, S., Gilchrist, L., Snow, W., and Schilling, R. 1985. "Skills-Building Methods to Prevent 

Smoking by Adolescents." Journal of Adolescent Health Care 6:439-44. 

Comparison programs for Figure 2 were selected from Tobler's meta-analysis (see Notes 7 and 8). 

References 

Allison, K, Silver, G., and Dignam, C. in press. "Effects on Students of Teacher Training in Use of a 

• Drug Education Curriculum." Journal of Drug Education. 

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Bulletin 99:388-99. 

Bangert-Drowns, R.L. 1988. liThe Effect of School-Based Substance Abuse Education: A MetaAnalysis." Journal of Drug Education 18:243-64. 

Botvin, G.J. 1990. "Substance Abuse Prevention: Theory, Practice, and Effectiveness." In Drugs and 

Crime, M. 'Tonry and J.Q. Wilson, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 461-519. 

Bruvold, W.H. 1993. "A Meta-Analysis of Adolescent Smoking Prevention Programs." American 

Journal of Public Health 83:872-80. 

Bruvold, W.H., and Rundall, T.G. 1988. "A Meta-Analysis and Theoretical Review of School Based 

Tobacco and Alcohol Intervention Programs." Psychology and Health 2:53-78. 

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Education. Program Brief. NCJ 129862. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office 

of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Assistance. 

Clayton, RR Cattarello, A., Day, L.E., and Walden, KP. 1991. "Persuasive Communication and Drug 

Prevention: An Evaluation of the D.A.R.E. Program." In Persuasive Communication and Drug 

Abuse Prevention, L. Donoher, H. Sypher, and W. Bukoski, eds. Hillsdale, New Jersey: 

• Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 295-313 . 

13 
-------------------------------------------------

Clayton, RR, Cattarello, A., and Walden, P. 1991. "Sensation Seeking as a Potential Mediating 

• 

Variable for School-Based Prevention Intervention: A Two-Year Follow-Up of D.ARE." Health 

Communication 3:229-39. 

Dielman, T., Shope, J., Butchart, A, and Campanelli, P. 1986. "Prevention of Adolescent Alcohol 

Misuse: An Elementary School Program." Journal of Pediatric Psychology 11:259-81. 

Dielman, T., Shope, J., Campanelli, P., and Butchart, A 1987. "Elementary School-Based Prevention 

of Adolescent Alcohol Misuse." Pediatrician: International Journal of Child and Adolescent 

Health 14:70-76. 

Dielman, T., Shope, J., Leech, S., and Butchart, A. 1989. "Differential Effectiveness of an Elementary 

School-Based Alcohol Misuse Prevention Program." Journal of School Health 59:255-62. 

Dubois, R, Hostelter, M., Tosti-Vasey, J., and Swisher, J. 1989. Program Report and Evaluation: 

1988-1989 School Year. Unpublished report. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Corporate Alliance for 

Drug Education. 

Ennett, S.T., Rosenbaum, D.P., Flewelling, R.L., Bieler, G.S., Ringwalt, C.L., and Bailey, S.L. 1994. 

"Long-Term Evaluation of Drug Abuse Resistance Education." Addictive Behaviors 19:113-25. 

Faine, J.R, and Bohlander, E. 1988. Drug Abuse Resistance Education: An Assessm~nt of the 1987-88 

Kentucky State Police DA.R.E. Program. Unpublished report. Bowling Green, Kentucky: 

Western Kentucky University, Social Research Laboratory . 

• 'G'aine, J.R, and Bohlander, E. 1989. D.A.R.E. in Kentucky Schools 1988-89. Unpublished report. 

Bowling Green, Kentucky: Western Kentucky University, Social Research Laboratory. 

J11ay, B., Koepke, D., Thomson, S., Santi, S., Best, J., and Brown, S. 1989. "Six-Year Follow-Up of the 

First Waterloo School Smoking Prevention Trial." American Journal of Public Health 

79:1371-76. 

Flay, B., Ryan, K, Best, J., Brown, K, Kersell, M., d'Avernas, J., and Zanna, M. 1983. "Cigarette 

Smoking: Why Young People Do It and Ways of Preventing It." In Pediatric and Adolescent 

Behavioral Medicine, P. McGrath and P. Firestone, eds. New York: Springer-Verlag. 132-83. 

Flay, B., Ryan, K, Best, J.: Brown, K, Kersell, M., d'Avernas, J., and Zanna, M. 1985. "Are Social 

Psychological Smoking Prevention Programs Effective? The Waterloo Study." Journal of 

Behavioral Medicine 8:37-59. 

Gersick, K, Grady, K, and Snow, D. 1988. "Social-Cognitive Development with Sixth Graders and Its 

Initial Impact on Substance Use." Journal of Drug Education 18:55-70. 

Gilchrist, L., Schinke, S., Trimble, J., and Cvetkovich, G. 1987. "Skills Enhancement to Prevent 

Substance Abuse Among American Indian Adolescents." International Journal of the Addictions 

22:869-79. 

Hansen, W.B. 1990. School-Based Substance Abuse Prevention: A Review of the State of the Art in 

• 

Curriculum, 1980-1990. Professional Services Contract No. 90MF34652701D. Winston-Salem, 

North Carolina: Bowman-Gray School of Medicine, Department of Public Health Sciences. 

14 

_____ "_C ____ ~_· ______ ~_~ _______ ~ _______________ ____' 
r

Harmon, M.A. 1993. "Reducing the Risk of Drug Involvement Among Early Adolescents: An 

• Evaluation of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.RE.)." Evaluation Review 17:221-39. 

Johnson, C., Graham, J., Hansen, W., Flay, B., McGuigan, K., and Gee, M. 1987. Project Smart After 

Three Years: An Assessment of Sixth-Grade and Multiple-Grade Implementations. Unpublished 

report. Pasadena, California: University of Southern California, Institute for Prevention 

Research. 

Manos, M.J., Kameoka, K.Y., and Tanji, J.H. 1986. Evaluation of Honolulu Police Department's Drug 

Abuse Resistance Education Program. Unpublished report. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of 

Hawaii-Manoa, School of Social Work, Youth Development and Research Center. 

McAlister, A. 1983, May. "Approaches to Primary Prevention." Presented at the National Academy of 

SciencelNational Research Council Conference on Alcohol and Public Policy, Washington D.C. 

McCormick, F.C., and McCormick, E.R 1992. An Evaluation of the Third Year Drug Abuse Resistance 

Education (DA.R.E.) Program in Saint Paul. Unpublished report. Saint Paul, Minnesota: 

Educational Operations Concepts, Inc. 

Moskowitz, J., Malvin, J., Schaeffer, G., and Schaps, E. 1984. "Evaluation of an Affective Development 

Teacher Training Program." Journal of Primary Prevention 4:150-62. 

Ringwalt, C., Curtin, T.R, and Rosenbaum, D.P. 1990. A First-Year Evaluation of D.A.R.E. in Illinois. 

Unpublished report. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: Research Triangle Institute . 

• Ringwalt, C., Ennett, S.T., and Holt, KD. 1991. "An Outcome Evaluation of Project DARE (Drug 

Abuse Resistance Education)." Health Education Research 6:327-37. 

Ringwalt, C., Greene, J., Ennett, S., Iachan, R, Clayton, R, and Leukefeld, C. 1994. Past and Future 

Directions of the D.A.R.E. Program: An Evaluation Review. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department 

of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. 

Rosenbaum, D.P., Ringwalt, C., Curtin, T.R, Wilkinson, D., Davis, B., and Taranowski, C. 1991. 

Second Year Evaluation of D.A.R.E. in Illinois. Unpublished report. Chicago: University of 

illinois at Chicago, Center for ReseaL'ch in Law and Justice. 

Rosenbaum, D.P., Flewelling, RL., Bailey, S.L., Faggiani, D., and Ringwalt, C. 1992. Third Year 

Evaluation of D.A.R.E. in Illinois. Unpublished report. Chicago: University of illinois at 

Chicago, Center for Research in Law and Justice. 

Sarvela, P. 1984. "Early Adolescent Substance Use in Rural Northern Michigan and Northeastern 

Wisconsin." Dissertation Abstracts International 46(01):2000A. University Microfilms No. 

8422327. 

Sarvela, P., and McClendon, E. 1987. "An Impact Evaluation of a Rural Youth Drug Education 

Program." Journal of Drug Education 17:213-31. 

Schaeffer, G., Moskowitz, J., Malvin, J., and Schaps, E. 1981. The Effects of a Classroom Management 

• 

Teacher Training Program on First-Grade Students: One Year Follow-Up. Unpublished report. 

Napa, California: The Napa Project, Pacific Institute for Research. 

15 
Schaps, E., Moskowitz, J., Condon, J., and Malvin, J. 1984. "A Process and Outcome Evaluation of an 

• 

Affective Teacher Training Primary Prevention Program." Journal of .. 4.lcohol and Drug 

Education 29:35-64. 

Schinke, S., Bebel, M., Orlandi, M., and Botvin, G. 1988. "Prevention Strategies for Vulnerable Pupils: 

School Social Work Practices to Prevent Substance Abuse." Urban Education 22:510-19. 

Schinke, S.P., and Blythe, B.J. 1981. "Cognitive-Behavioral Prevention of Children's Smoking." Child 

Behavior Therapy 3:25-42. 

Schinke, S., and Gilchrist, L. 1983. "Primary Prevention of Tobacco Smoking." Journal of School 

Health 53:416-19. 

Schinke, S., Gilchrist, L., Schilling, R., Snow, W., and Bobo, J. 1986. "Skills Methods to Prevent 

Smoking." Health Education Quarterly 13:23-27. 

Schinke, S., Gilchrist, L., and Snow, W. 1985. "Skills Interventions to Prevent Cigarette Smoking 

Among Adolescents." American Journal of Public Health 75:665-67. 

Schinke, S., Gilchrist, L., Snow, W., and Schilling, R. 1985. "Skills-Building Methods to Prevent 

Smoking by Adolescents." Journal of Adolescent Health Care 6:439-44. 

Shope, J., Dielman, T., and Leech, S. 1988, November. "An Elementary School-Based Alcohol Misuse 

Prevention Program: Two Year Follow-Up Evaluation." Presented at the American Public 

Health Association Annual Meeting, Boston, Massachusetts . 

• Tobler, N.S. 1986. "Meta-Analysis of 143 Adolescent Drug Prevention Programs: Quantitative 

Outcome Results of Program Participants Compared to a Control or Comparison Group." 

Journal of Drug Issues 16:537-67. 

• 

Tobler, N.S. 1994. Meta-Analysis of Adolescent Drug Prevention Programs. Unpublished Ph.D. 

dissertation, State University of New York at Albany. 

Tobler, N.S. in press. "Meta-Analytic Issues for Prevention Intervention Research." In Advances in 

Data Analysis for Prevention Intervention Research, L. Seitz and L. Collins, eds. Rockville, 

Maryland: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 

Walker, S. 1990. The Victoria Police Department Drug Abuse Resistance Education Programme 

(D.A.R.E.J: Programme Evaluation Report #2. Unpublished report. Victoria, British Columbia: 

The Ministry of the Solicitor-General, Federal Government of Canada. 

NCJ __ 

16 
• Christopher L. Ringwalt is a research health analyst in the Center for Social Research and Policy 

Analysis at the Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Jody M. Greene, 

a sociologist, and Susan T. Ennett, a research health analyst, are in the same center as Dr. Ringwalt. 

Ronaldo Iachan is a research statistician in the Center for Research in Statistics at RTI. Richard R. 

Clayton is scientific director of the Center for Prevention Research at the University of Kentucky. Carl 

G. Leukefeld is the director of the Multidisciplinary Research Center on Drug and Alcohol Abuse 

Research at the University of Kentucky. 

Findings and conclusions of the research reported here are those of the authors and do not necessarily 

reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. 

The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Juatice Programs, which also includes 

the Bureau of Justice Assistance, Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile Justice and 

Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Criliw. 

U.S. Department of Justice 

Office of Justice Programs 

National Institute of Justice 

BULK RATE 

POSTAGE & FEES PAID 

DOJINU 

Permit 1'\0. G-91 

• 

Washington. D.C. 20531 

~~---

Official Business 

Penalty for Private Use $300 

• 

17 

----- ------ --------- .~--~~--~--~ 
Box 1 

• Issues and Findings 

• 

• 

Discussed in this Research in Brief: Results of an assessment of the Drug Abuse Resistance 

Education (D.A.R.E.®) Program. 

Key issues: Researchers sought to find out how prevalent D.A.R.E.® is nationwide, how it is 

managed, what educators and others think of it, and what the short-term effects of the original core 

curriculum are, as compared with those of other school-based drug use prevention programs. 

Key findings: The study found that: 

• D.A.R.E.® is prevalent in over 50% of the Nation's school districts. 

• Demand for D.A.R.E.® will increase substantially in the next 5 years. 

• School- and community-based support for D.A.R.E.® are both high, as are support 

for the D.A.R.E.® curricula and beliefs concerning its positive effects on youth. 

• As revealed by the meta-analysis, the original D.A.R.E.® core curriculum had small 

short-term effects on 5th- and 6th-grade pupils' drug use; only the effect on tobacco 

use was statistically significant. 

• D.A.R.E.®s greatest short-term effects concern increasing knowledge about drug 

use and enhancing social skills. 

• D.A.R.E.®s short-term effects on drug use and other outcomes were less than those 

of programs emphasizing social and general competencies and using interactive 

teaching strategies, but slightly greater than those of programs emphasizing intrapersonal factors and more traditional, didactic teaching methods. 

• All study findings should be interpreted carefully in light of considerations 

described in the report, including those mentioned on page _. For example, 

D.A.R.E.®s low drug use effect sizes may reflect, in part, the relatively low 

frequency of drug use by elementary school pupils. 

The researchers conclude that D.A.R.E.®s popularity and public support are both very high. The 

program represents a unique partnership between education and law enforcement and is well managed 

at the local, State, and national levels. At the same time, the findings indicate thllt the original 

D.A.R.E.® core curriculum has been less successful at preventing drug use among youth than some other 

drug use prevention programs. Additional attention to the curriculum and how it is taught is needed 

to make D.A.R.E.® more effective. 

Target audience: School and law enforcement administrators, school- and community-based 

drug use prevention practitioners, and researchers. 

18 
Box 2 

• D.A.R.E.® National and Regional Operations 

D.A.R.E.® is very much a grassroots operation that is the product of an active partnership 

between community law enforcement and local public school districts. The primary purpose of the 

national and regional SD.'ucture summarized here is to (a) ensure the integrity of the D.A.R.E.® 

curriculum and the fidelity with which it is delivered; (b) develop and uphold standards for the integrity, 

coordination, and quality ofD.A.R.E.® operations; and (c) provide support to D.A.R.E.® at the community 

level. 

At the national, regional, State, and local levels, D.A.R.E.® is promoted, monitored, and overseen 

by D.A.R.E.® America, which is chartered as a nonprofit organization. D.A.R.E.® America is charged 

with administering the D.A.R.E.® program, providing educational materials to communities 

implementing D.A.R.E.®, overseeing and ensuring the consistency of D.A.R.E.® officer training, 

improving the curriculum, protecting the D.A.R.E.® name and logo (over which D.A.R.E.® America holds 

copyright), and providing support to D.A.R.E.® both nationally and internationally. 

D.A.R.E.® America also oversees the activities of five Regional Training Centers (RTCs), funded 

through a grant from the Bureau of Justice Assistance. The responsibilities of the RTCs include making 

recommendations to D.A.R.E.® America concerning the accreditation of State-level D.A.R.E.® Officer 

Training Centers and providing oversight to local D.A.R.E.® programs to ensure that copyrighted 

curricula are taught as specified. Educational specialists representing the five RTCs, together with the 

Los Angeles United School District, are charged with developing and modifying the various curricula . 

• 

In this capacity, they are assisted by the recently established D.A.R.E.® America Scientific Advisory 

Board, which includes prevention specialists from across the Nation. 

• 

D.A.R.E.® is organized and supported at the State level by means of chartered nonprofit 

organizations over which D.A.R.E.® America has oversight, or by individuals (usually State employees) 

who are designated as D.A.R.E.® coordinators. Their duties include obtaining State support and 

overseeing policy development and implementation, coordinating D.A.R.E.® officer training, and 

providing technical assistance to community programs. In addition, most States now have accredited 

State Training Centers, the purpose of which is to conduct training for prospective D.A.R.E.® officers. 

With help from D.A.R.E.® America, D.A.R.E.® officers have formed the National D.A.R.E.® Officers 

Association, which serves to improve communications among officers . 

19 
Box 3 

• Methodology for the State D.A.R.E.® Coordinator Survey 

• 

• 

Instrument Design 

Our survey instrument was composed of two parts: a questionnaire and a list of school districts. 

The questionnaire contained items concerning the administration, funding, and implementation of the 

State D.A.R.E.® program. The list of school districts collected information that was used for sampling 

purposes in the school district drug use prevention coordinator survey. 

We pretested the instrument on three State D.A.R.E.® coordinators in early February 1992 and 

also solicited feedback from all fiv~ RTC coordinators. We incorporated the responses of pretest participants, as well as the comments of the RTC coordinators, the NIJ Program Manager, and other alcohol 

and other drug (ADD) use prevention program experts. 

Data Collection 

In January 1992, the RTC coordinators provided us with lists of names and addresses of State 

D.A.R.E.® coordinators. From the lists we identified 44 States with D.A.R.E.® coordinators and then 

mailed a survey to each. 

Two weeks after our initial maHout to the coordinators, we contacted nonresponders by telephone. 

We made repeated attempts by mail and telephone to secure the return of completed materials or to 

collect the information by phone. The RTCs assisted in urging coordinators to return surveys. Of the 

44 respondepts identified by the RTC coordinators, 39 completed the instrument. 

20 
Box 4 

• Methodology for the School District Drug Use Prevention Coordinator Survey 

• 

• 

Sample Design 

The survey of the school district drug use prevention coordinators employed a two-phased 

stratified random sample. This strategy was necessary to meet the multiple goals of this survey. The 

goal of the first-phase sample was to produce estimates ofD.ARE.®s prevalence by region, district size, 

socioeconomic status (SES) categories, racial/ethnic categories, and urbanicity. The goal of the secondphase sample was to enable comparisons between districts with and without D.ARE.® 

Sampling frame 

As the first step in our sampling design, we obtained a list of public school districts nationwide, 

which included each school district's SES, urbanicity, racial/ethnic composition, and number of students. 

First-phase sampling 

The goal of the first phase of our sampling design was to ensure that we selected a nationally 

representative sample of school districts. Additionally, we wanted to ensure that the urbanicity, SES, 

racial/ethnic composition, and district size categories were adequately sampled, as well as each of 

D.ARE.®s five administrative regions. We thus used a stratified random sample to select 1,500 school 

districts from the 15,000 in the original file. 

Second-phase sampling 

The goal of the second phase of our sampling design was to ensure that the second-phase sample 

included both D.ARE.® and non-D.ARE.® school districts. To make this determination, we asked 

State D.ARE.® or (in States without them) the Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act *DFSCA) 

coordinators to classify the 1,500 school districts in the first-phase sample as either D.ARE. or nonD.ARE.® districts. Because some State coordinators did not return this information or only partiall® 

completed the information, we created a third category of school districts with an unknown D.ARE. 

status. State coordinators reported that 43% of the sampled districts used D.ARE.® and 40% did not; 

D.ARE.® status was unknown for 17% of the districts. 

The next step in selecting our second-phase sample was to determine the number of districts to 

be selected. Calculations to determine the number of districts needed in the second-phase sample were 

based first on the type of analysis we planned to conduct and second on an anticipated 80% response 

rate. Because we calculated that 400 responding school districts were necessary to achieve sufficient 

statistical power and precision, we selected a second-phase sample of 500 school districts. 

Instrument Design 

All drug use prevention coordinators completed a set of core items that were designed to provide 

background information about the district and about the specific drug use prevention curricula used. 

Additionally, coordinators in districts using D.ARE.®, whether alone or in combination with other drug 

use prevention curricula, completed a set of items concerning the D.A.RE.® program only. Coordinators 

in districts using other AOD use prevention programs, alone or in combination with D.ARE.®, 

completed a set of items concerning other AOD (i.e., non-D.ARE.®) programs only. Therefore, school 

districts implementing D.A.RE.® and other AOD programs answered both sets of items. 

21 
Box 4 cont. 

• 

• 

• 

We formally pretested all data collection materials and procedures. Both regional and State 

DFSCA coordinators assisted in identifying pretest subjects. Seven school district drug use prevention 

coordinators completed a pretest questionnaire in early April 1992. 

Data Collection 

In May 1992, we mailed a cover letter, questionnaire, and prepaid return envelope to school 

district drug use prevention coordinators in each of the 500 selected school districts. The cover letter 

included a brief statement of study objectives, information on how the data would be used, and 

confidentiality assurances. Approximately 2 weeks after the initial mailing, we sent postcard reminders 

to coordinators who had not responded. 

We began making follow-up telephone calls to nonresponders approximately 2 weeks after the 

reminder postcards were mailed. Interviewers encouraged coordinators to complete and return their instruments as soon as possible. Those coordinators who indicated to interviewers that they would not 

otherwise complete the instrument were asked to complete the survey over the telephone. 

22 
Box 5 

• Methodology for Meta-Analysis of Short-Term Evaluations of Original D.A.R.E.® 

Curriculum 

• 

• 

Meta-Analysis Background and Stu~y Selection Criteria 

Meta-analysis is a methodology for integrating the research findings from a body of studies. The 

purpose of meta-analysis is to discover whether some pattern of results is apparent from a set of studies 

pertaining to the same research question. Meta-analysis differs from a traditional r;arrative review of 

studies by providing statistical techniques for summarizing the studies' research findings. By quantifying outcomes across studies and making them comparable with each other, meta-analysis provides an 

objective (rather than subjective) basis for drawing conclusions about patterns of study results. 

Three basic steps are commonly followed in meta-analyses.ll First, all relevant studies are 

collected, and studies are selected for inclusion according to a set of a priori defined methodological 

criteria. Second, effect sizes are calculated for each study. Effect sizes represent the statistical outcomes 

of each study transformed to a common metric. This transformation facilitates comparisons across 

different scales of different outcome measures. Third, effect sizes for the set of studies are averaged. 

In addition, explanations for variability in effect sizes across studies usually are tested. We followed 

these three steps in assessing D.A.R.E.@'s core curriculum. 

In selecting studies, our review focused on student-based, quantitative evaluations of D.A.R.E.® 

that measured program effects on drug use behavior and/or other outcomes targeted by the D.A.R.E.® 

core curriculum, such as attitudes about drug use. Evaluations that reported only subjective 

assessments or satisfaction ratings were outside the scope of this review. We also did not consider the 

results of parent, teacher, administrator, or D.A.R.E.® officer surveys, which sometimes were conducted 

as part of the total evaluation effort. It should be noted that many D.A.R.E.® outcomes of importance 

are possible other than the ones we examined in this meta-analyds, such as improved school and police 

relations and greater trust in law enforcement among youth. 

We identified 18 quantitative D.A.R.E.® evaluations conducted in 12 States and one Canadian 

province. From these, we selected studies to include in our meta-analysis that met the following criteria: 

(a) use of a control or comparison group; (b) pretest-posttest design or posttest only with random 

assignment; and (c) use of reliably operationalized quantitative outcome measures. Quasi-experimental 

studies were excluded if they did not control for ~reexisting differences on measured outcomes with 

either change scores or covariance-adjusted means. In addition, to ensure the comparability of results, 

we used only results based on immediate posttest. There were an insufficient number of long-term 

evaluation studies to assess the longer-term effects of the core curriculum adequately. We selected these 

criteria because they help to ensure confidence in the study results by removing a number of alternative 

explanations, other than true D.A.R.E.® impact, that could account for outcomes observed . 

23 
"'.'" 

Box 5 cont . 

• D.A.R.E.® Studies Selected 

• 

• 

Eight of the original 18 evaluation studies met the criteria for inclusion in the review (see Table 

1). Each evaluation represented a State or local (e.g., city, school district) effort using either the entire 

population of schools in a locale or a conven.ience sample. The number of student subjects in all studies 

was large; each study in.cluded at least 10 schools and approximately 500 to 2,000 students in the 

combined D.A.R.E.® and control groups. Assignment of D.A.R.E.® to intervention and control groups 

was by school for all eight studies. 

Insert Table 1 about here 

A fundamental consideration in reviewing the studies was the equivalence of the D.A.R.E.® and 

control groups before the intervention. All studies adjusted for pretest differences on outcome measures, 

which were based on responses to self-administered questionnaires. 

To assess the impact of the original D.A.R.E.® core curriculum on youth drug use, as well as on 

other outcomes targeted by the curriculum, we calculated effect sizes. A positive effect size indicates an 

effect in the desired direction as a result of the intervention. Based on other meta-analyses of adolescent 

drug l'HSe prevention programs, effect sizes below .15 were considered to reflect a small effect; effect sizes 

between .15 and .30 indicated a modest effect; and effect sizes above .30 reflected stronger program 

effects. 

For each of the eight D.A.R.E.® studies, we calculated effect sizes to quantify the magnitude of 

D.A.R.E.®s effectiveness with respect to six outcomes that reflect the aims of the D.A.R.E.® curriculum: 

• knowledge about drugs, 

• attitudes about drug use, 

• social skills, 

• self-esteem, 

• attitude toward police, and 

• self-reported drug use. 

In addition to calculating one effect size for each outcome for each study, we calculated the 

weighted mean effect size and 95% confidence interval for each type of outcome across the eight studies. 

The weighted mean provides a summary measure across the eight studies that is useful for indicating 

D.A.R.E.@,s general effectiveness with respect to each outcome . 

24 

_______________ ----~--------------- --.~--~----------------------......I 
Box 5 cont. 

• Comparison of D.A.R.E.® with Other Drug Use Prevention Programs 

• 

• 

To put D.A.R.E.® in the context of other school-based drug use prevention programs, we compared 

the average magnitude of the D.A.R.E.® effect sizes with those of other programs that target youth of 

a similar age. Effect sizes for other programs were drawn from a recent meta-analysis conducted by 

Tobler.7

•

s We obtained Tobler's results for only those programs aimed at 5th- and 6th-grade pupils. 

Tobler's meta-analysis was selected because it was more similar to our meta-analysis than other metaanalyses of drug use prevention programs. 1.4-6 Like the D.A.R.E:® criteria, Tobler selected student-based 

quantitative evalutions that included a control or comparison group and used a pretest-posttest design 

or posttest-only with random assignment. The meta-analyses differed in that Tobler excluded studies 

that did not measure drug use and that included results from later posttests, whereas only immediate 

posttests for D.A.R.E.® were considered. In addition, some of Tobler's programs focused on a singl~ drug 

(e.g., tobacco) rather than on multiple drugs as in D.A.R.E.® , and some 6th-grade students were in 

middle school rather than elementary school. The collective impact of these differences should be 

minimal, however. Overall, the D.A.R.E.® and Tobler studies are highly comparable in terms of program 

focus, study methodology, and target audience. 

Insert Table 2 About Here 

The evaluation studies included in Tobler's meta-analysis were classified into two categories: 

noninteractive (N=9) and interactive programs (N=16). These program categories reflect crossclassification of two important dimensions: the program content and the program process or teaching 

approach. 

Noninteractive programs emphasize intrapersonal factors and use more traditional teaching 

approaches. Activities typically are designed to increase knowledge about drugs, boost self-esteem, 

promote self-awareness, increase problem-solving skills, and promote values clarifications. These 

activities, in turn, are expected to encourage adolescents to make a personal decision to abstain from 

using drugs. Program content is usu·ally introduced by the teacher in a didactic manner, and 

participatory activities often involve teacher-led discussions. 

Interactive programs emphasize interpersonal factors and use a participatory teaching approach. 

Activities are designed to counter peer pressure to use drugs through developing drug refusal skills, 

promoting general social competencies, and correcting beHefs about the prevalence of drug use among 

peers. Program process emphasizes the interaction and exchange of ideas among peers, and it 

encourages active participation of all students in the classroom, particularly in small groups. 

Because D.A.R.E.® has features of both noninteractive and interactive programs, we compared 

D.A.R.E.® with both categories of programs. To determine whether differences in effect sizes between 

D.A.R.E.® and both noninteractive and interactive programs were statistically significant, we calculated 

the 95% confidence interval for the difference in effect size means. 

25 

----------.---~-----------------------
• 

• 

• 

Table 1. D.A.R.E.® Evaluation Studies Selected for Meta-Analysis <N=8) 

Location 

British Columbia 

Hawaii 

Illinois 

Kentucky 

Kentucky 

Minnesota 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

References 

Walker, 199012 

Manos, Kameoka, and Tanji, 198613 

Ennett et al., 1994; Ringwalt, Curtin, and 

Rosenbaum, 1990; Rosenbaum et al., 1991; 

Rosenbaum et al., 199214-17 

Clayton et al., 1991; Clayton, Cattarello, and Walden, 

199118,19 

Faine and Bohlander, 1988; Faine and Bohlander, 

198920,21 

McCormick and McCormick, 199222 

Ringwalt, Ennett, and Holt, 199123 

Harmon, 199324 

26 
• 

•• 

• 

Table 2. Comparison Drug Use Prevention Programs <N=25)7,8 

Noninteractive Programs 

Study Location 

1,2 Ontario 

3 Pennsylvania 

4 Pacific Northwest 

5 California 

6 California 

7 Michigan; 

Wisconsin 

8 California 

9 Not stated 

Interactive Programs 

Study Location 

10, 11 Michigan 

12 Ontario 

13 New England 

14-16 California 

17 Massachusetts 

18,19 Washington 

20 Not stated 

21 Washington 

22 Not stated 

23 Not stated 

24, 25 Not stated 

References 

Allison, Silver, and Dignam, in .press25 

Dubois et a1., 198926 

Gilchrist et a1., 198727 

Johnson et a1., 198728 

Moskowitz et a1., 1984; Schaeffer et al., 198129,30 

Sarvela~ 1984; Sarvela & McClendon, 198731,32 

Schaps et a1., 198433 

Schinke, Gilchrist, and Snow, 198534 

References 

Dielman et a1., 1986; Dielman et a1., 1987; Dielman 

et al., 1989; Shope, Dielman, and Leech, 198835•

38 

Flay et a1., 1989; Flay et al., 1983; Flay et al., 198539-

41 

Gersick, Grady, and Snow, 198842 

Johnson et al., 198728 

McAlister, 198343 

Schinke et al., 198844 

Schinke & Blythe, 198145 

Schinke & Gilchrist, 198346 

Schinke et al., 198647 

Schinke, Gilchrist, and Snow, 198534 

Schinke et al., 198548 

Note. Some programs were published in multiple publications. Some publications 

reported on more than one type of program . 

27 
• 

• 

• 

Table 3. Individuals, Groups, and Agencies Very Supportive of D.A.R.E.@ and 

Other Alcohol and Drug Use Prevention Programs 

D.A.R.E.@ Program 

OtherAOD 

Use Programs 

(N=222) . (N=406) 

Community 73.8% 46.6% 

School Personnel 82.8 65.1 

Students 89.6 50.7 

Parents 78.7 45.8 

Law Enforcement 92.2 66.8 

Civic Groups 61.7 46.8 

28 
--

, 

• 

• 

• 

Table 4. Components of D.A.R.E.® and Other Alcohol and Drug Use Prevention 

Programs Rated as Very Satisfactory 

Curriculum 

Teaching 

Administrative 

Requirements 

Receptivity of Students 

Effects on Students 

D.A.R.E.® Program 

(N=222) 

67.5% 

69.7 

55.7 

76.5 

63.2 

29 

t 

OtherAOD 

Use Programs 

(N=406) 

34.2% 

29.8 

23.1 

34.6 

22.8 
• 

• 

• 

Figure 1. Magnitude of D.A.R.E.@,s Weighted Mean Effect Size (and 95% 

Confidence Interval), by Outcome Measures at Immediate Posttest 

.. 

Mean Effect Size 

1.0 

0.9 

0.8 

0.7 

0.6 

0.5 0.42 

(.33-.51) 

0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.1 

0.0 

Knowledge Attitudes Social Self- Police Drug 

Skills Esteem Use! 

I Includes alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana . 

30 
Figure 2. Weighted Mean Effect Size (and 95% Confidence Interval), by Outcome 

• for D.A.R.E.® and Other Drug Use Prevention Programs 

• 

• 

Mean Effect Size 

1.0 

0.9 

0.8 

Knowledge Attitudes 

0.76 

(.66·.86) 

Social Skills 

_DARE DNoninteractive .Interactive 

I Includes alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana . 

31 

Drug Usel