C

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all

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER

Prepared in cooperation with the 

California Department of 

Water Resources
Land Subsidence in the 

San Joaquin Valley,

California, 

As of 1972

By J. F. POLAND, B. E. LOFGREN, R. L. IRELAND, and R. G. PUGH

STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 437-H

Prepared in cooperation with the 

California Department of 

Water Resources

A history of land subsidence 

caused by water-level decline 

in the San Joaquin Valley, 

from the 1920's to 1972

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, W AS H I N GTO N : 1 97 5
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

JAMES G. WATT, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Doyle G. Frederick, Acting Director

First printing 1975 

Second printing 1981

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Land subsidence, San Joaquin Valley, California as of 1972. (Studies of land subsidence)

(Geological Survey Professional Paper 437-H)

Bibliography: p. 53-54.

Supt. of Docs. No.: I 19.16:437-H

1. Subsidences (Earth movements)-California-San Joaquin Valley. 2. Water, Underground-California-San Joaquin

Valley. I. Poland, Joseph airfield, 1908- II. California. Dept. of Water Resources. III. Series. IV. Series:

United States. Geological Survey. Professional Paper 437-H. 

QE75.P9[GB485.C2] 557.3'08s[551.3'5] 75-619092

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402
CONTENTS

Metric conversion table ____________________ V

Abstract__________._______.__.____________ HI

Introduction ___________________________ 1

The subsidence problem..________________ 1

Purpose of report _ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ _____ ___ _ _ 3

Acknowledgments ______________________ 3

Well-numbering system_____________________ 3

Reports by the Geological Survey ___.__________ 5

Annotated bibliography __________________ 5

Valleywide investigations_____.____________ 5

Los Banos-Kettleman City area ________________ 5

Tulare-Wasco area ______________________ 6

Arvin-Maricopa area _________________ 6

Special studies _____________________ 6

Causes of subsidence __________________________ 7

	Page

Subsidence due to water-level decline _______________ __ H8

San Joaquin Valley__ _ _____ 8

Los Banos-Kettleman City area _____________ 14

Tulare-Wasco area ______ __ 24

Arvin-Maricopa area ____________-______-_ 30

Relation of subsidence to pumpage____ _________ __ 36

Los Banos-Kettleman City area ____ _ 36

Arvin-Maricopa area _____________________ 38

Analysis of stresses causing subsidence _ __ _______ _ 39

Methods for stopping or alleviating subsidence ___________ 44

Measurement of compaction __ _ _ 47 

Interrelations of water-level change, compaction, and

subsidence _____-_-_____----____________ 48

Examples of stress-strain graphs _____ _ 48

Computer plots of field records _ _____ _ ____ ___ 51

References cited __________________ _____________ 53

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

FIGURE 1. Map showing pertinent geographic features of central and southern San Joaquin Valley and areas affected by subsid- H2 

ence _________________________.._^_______________________________ 4

2. Diagram showing well-numbering system ________________________________._________

3. Map showing network of leveling by the National Geodetic Survey and three areas of detailed studies of land subsidence ___________________________________________________________ 9

4. Map showing location of selected observation wells, nearby bench marks, and boundary of principal confining beds__ 10

5. Map showing land subsidence, 1926-70, San Joaquin Valley ______________________- ____ - 11

6. Graph showing cumulative volume of subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, 1926-70 _______. ___. _ 12

7. Profiles of apparent subsidence and water-table decline along the Southern Pacific Railroad between the San Joaquin

and Kings Rivers _______________________________________________.__________ 13

8-11. Graphs showing:

8. Subsidence and artesian-head change 10 miles southwest of Mendota __________--. __ 14

9. Subsidence and artesian-head change near Cantua Creek___________________---__________ 14

10. Subsidence and artesian-head change near Huron ________________________________________ 15

11. Subsidence and head change in two zones near Hanford _________________________.__________ 16

12-17. Maps showing:

12. Land subsidence, 1966-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area______________________--____ 17

13. Average yearly rate of subsidence, 1966-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area ________.___________ 18

14. Land subsidence, 1955-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area_____________________.__________ 19

15. Land subsidence, 1926-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area._____________________.__________ 20

16. Land subsidence, 1969-72, Los Banos-Kettleman City area_______________________________ 21

17. Land subsidence, 1926-72, Los Banos-Kettlemen City area .__________________-__________ 22

18. Graph showing rate of subsidence, 1926-72, Los Banos-Kettleman City area ____________.__________ 23

19. Graph showing cumulative volumes of subsidence and pumpage, 1926-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area__ _ 23

20. Graph showing relation of magnitude to area of subsidence, 1926-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area _______ 23

21. Profiles of subsidence, 1943-69, Tumey Hills to Mendota _______________________-__________ 24

22. Profiles of subsidence, 1943-69, Anticline Ridge to Fresno Slough __________________-__________ 25

23. Profile and graph showing subsidence and water-level fluctuations northeast of Delano _____.___________ 26

24-27. Maps showing:

24. Land subsidence, 1962-70, Tulare-Wasco area _____________________________________ 27

25. Average yearly rate of subsidence, 1962-70, Tulare-Wasco area ______________--. 28

26. Land subsidence, 1948-70, Tulare-Wasco area __________________________.__________ 29

27. Land subsidence, 1926-70, and location of subsidence profile, Tulare-Wasco area _____.__________ 30 

28. Graph showing rate of subsidence, 1926-70, Tulare-Wasco area ____________________-_______ 31

III
IV CONTENTS

Page 

FIGURE 29. Graph showing cumulative volume, 1926-70, Tulare-Wasco area ___________________._________ 31

30. Graph showing relation of magnitude of subsidence to area, 1926-70, Tulare-Wasco area_________________________ 31

31. Land-subsidence profiles along U.S. Highway 99 from Tulare to Famoso, 1901-2 to 1970 _____.__________ 32

32. Hydrographs of three piezometers at 32S/28E-30D1 in the center of the Arvin-Maricopa subsidence area and the subsidence graph of a nearby bench mark ________________________________________________________ _______ 33

33-36. Maps showing:

33. Land subsidence, 1965-70, Arvin-Maricopa area __ _________________-_________-____-__-._----__---______ 34

34. Average annual rate of subsidence, 1965-70, Arvin-Maricopa area _____________________________________ 35

35. Land subsidence, 1957-70, Arvin-Maricopa area -____________________________________________________ 36

36. Land subsidence, 1926-70, and location of subsidence profiles, Arvin-Maricopa area ___________________ 37

37. Graph showing rate of subsidence, 1926-70, Arvin-Maricopa area _____________________________ _ _____________ 38

38. Graph showing cumulative volume, 1926-70, Arvin-Maricopa area-_---_--------__----_---------------------_ 38

39. Graph showing relation of magnitude of subsidence to area, 1926-70, Arvin-Maricopa area ___--_ _---------____- 38

40. Profiles of land subsidence along U.S. Highway 99, Bakersfield to Grapevine, 1926-70________-__________ 39

41. Profiles of land subsidence along the Maricopa Road, Maricopa to Mettler, 1935-39 to 1970 ______________________ 40

42. Map showing proportion of pumpage derived from water of compaction, 1963-66, Los Banos-Kettleman City area____ 41

43. Map showing proportion of pumpage derived from water of compaction, 1962-65, Arvin-Maricopa area ______________ 42

44. Pressure diagram for unconfined aquifer and confined aquifer system; head reduction, confined aquifer system only 43

45. Effective-stress diagrams for a confined aquifer system overlain by an unconfined aquifer _____________________ 44

46. Graph showing surface-water imports from the joint-use reach of the California Aqueduct to the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, 1967-72 __________________________________________-__________ 45

47. Graph showing surface-water deliveries from the Friant-Kern Canal to irrigation districts in the Tulare-Wasco area,

1949-72 __________________________________________________________________________________________ 46

48. Graph showing surface-water imports to the Arvin-Maricopa area, 1962-72--------------____________________ 46

49. Diagram of recording compaction gage ___________________________________________________________ 48

50. Map showing location of water-level and compaction measuring sites____________-_______-____-- _------_--__--- 49

51-78. Computer plots showing:

51. Stress change versus compaction at 16/15-34N _______________________________-___-___---_--_---_-_- 51

52. Stress change, compaction, and strain, well 18/19-20P2 _________________-____--___---__--_--__----_--- 51

53. Hydrographs, compaction, and subsidence, 12/12-16H ____________________--___-____--____-____---_-_-- 56

54. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 13/12-20D1 ____________--___--___----_-___--._-__--__--_-_--- 57

55. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 13/15-35D5 _________________ _--__.___-___ 57

56. Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 14/13-1 ID _ 58

57. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 14/12-12H1 ____________________________________________ 59

58. Hydrograph, compaction, and bench-mark subsidence, 15/13-11D2 ________________________ ___________ 59

59. Hydrograph of well 15/14-14J1, depth 1,010 feet _______________________________________ ______ 60

60. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship, 15/16-

31N3 ___________________________________________________________________________________ 60

61. Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, casing separation, and stress-compaction

relationship, 16/15-34N ._______________--________________________________________________ 61

62. Hydrograph and compaction, 17/15-14Q1 _____________________________ _______ 63

63. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 18/16-33A1 _____________________ ._ 63

64. Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 18/19-20P ____ 64

65. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship, 19/16-

23P2 ____________________________________________________ _______ 65

66. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 20/18-6D1 _____________________ _____ __ ________ 66

67. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, and stress-strain relationship, 20/18-11Q1 ____________ 66

68. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 20/18-llQ3-___ 67

69. Hydrograph, casing protrusion, and casing separation, 20/18-11Q2 and 11Q3 ________________________ 68

70. Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship,

23/25-16N ______________________-._______________________---_____.___--____--___- 69

71. Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, and stress-strain relationship, 23/25-16N3

andN4 __-____________________________________________________________________ 70

72. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship, 24/26-

34F1 ________________________________-___.__.-_______-_________________--___- 71

73. Hydrograph and change in applied stress at 25/26-1A2; compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship at well 24/26-36A2 ________________________________---. 72

74. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, and stress-compaction relationship, 25/26-1A2 __ 73

75. Hydrograph of well 25/26-1K2, perforated 1,000-2,200 feet _____________________-_._--_-______ 74

76. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 12N/21W-34Q1 _____ ____ _____ ____ __ _ 74

77. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship, 32/28-

20Q1 _ ___-__________-___-_-__- _ - 75

78. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 11N/21W-3B1__ 76
TABLE

English 

unit

Inch 

Foot 

Mile 

Acre 

Square mile

1. Years 

2. Summ 

3. Surfac 

ar 

4. Summ 

IS 

5. Surfac 

72 

6. AnnuB 

7. Tentat 

8. Notes

Symbol

(in.) 

(ft) 

(mi)

(mi2 )

of leveling control of the network 

ary of extent and volume of subs 

e-water deliveries through the jt 

ea, 1967-72

CONTENTS

TABLES

of bench marks in three £ 

idence, 1926-70, San Joa 

)int-use reach of the Ca]

V

Page

ubsidence areas by the National Geodetic Survey _.H10

ifornia Aqueduct to the Los Banos-Kettleman City 

_ __ _ _ ___ _____ _______ _ ___ 45

ary of surface-water deliveries from the Friant-Kern Canal to irrigation districts in the Tulare-Wasco 

49-72 __ _________ _ ______ __ _ _______ _________ _ _______ _ _ _______ _ _.. ._ __ ___

e-water imports from the Friant-Kern Canal and the California Aqueduct to the Arvin-Maricopa area,

tl compaction rate 

ive elastic storag 

on wells or sites i

Equivalent 

(multiply by-)

2.54 

0.3048 

1.609 

0.405 

2.590

s at compaction-measuring sites, San Jc

or which records are included in figures

METRIC

Metric 

unit

Centimetres 

Metre 

Kilometres 

Hectare 

Square 

kilometre

CONVERSION

Symbol

(cm) 

(m) 

(km)

(km2 )

53-78 _______

TABLE

English 0 , , 6 Symbol unit

U.S. gallon (gal) 

Acre-foot (acre-ft) 

U.S. gallon per (g/m) 

minute 

Cubic feet per (ft3/s) 

second

Equivalent Metric 

(multiply by-) unit

3.785 Litres 

1,233.5 Cubic metres 

0.0631 Litres per 

second 

1.699 Cubic metres 

per minute

area, 

______ 46

1962-

______ 47

______ 50

______ 53

______ 77

Symbol

(m3) 

(1/s)

(m3/min)

STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

LAND SUBSIDENCE IN THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA,

AS OF 1972

By J.F. POLAND, B. E. LOFGREN, R. L. IRELAND, and R. G. PUGH

ABSTRACT

Land subsidence which began in the mid-1920's due to groundwater overdraft in the San Joaquin Valley has caused widespread 

concern for the past two decades. Withdrawals for irrigation increased 

from 3 million acre-feet in 1942 to 10 million acre-feet in 1966. Water 

levels declined at unprecedented rates during the 1950's and early 

1960's. Pumping lifts became inordinately high, well casings failed at 

alarming rates, and differential settlement caused numerous farming 

and engineering problems. By 1970,5,200 square miles of valley land 

had been affected, and maximum subsidence exceeded 28 feet. The 

valleywide volume of subsidence totaled 15.6 million 

acre-feet one-half the initial storage capacity of Lake Mead. This 

subsidence represents one of the great environmental changes imposed by man.

Importation of surface water to the northwestern and eastern areas 

of overdraft in the valley began in the 1950's and to the much larger 

western and southern areas in the late 1960's. Canal imports have 

largely replaced ground-water pumpage in these areas. As of 1973, 

after three decades of continued declining water levels, many hundreds of irrigation wells are idle and water levels are rising. Throughout much of the valley, artesian pressures are recovering toward their 

presubsidence levels, and elevations of the subsiding land surface are 

stabilizing.

Basic-data graphs and computer-plotted stress-strain relationships 

constitute a major part of this report. They are based on 10-13 years of 

detailed field measurements of both water-level change and compaction collected by the U.S. Geological Survey at 20 selected locations in 

the San Joaquin Valley.

The recharge characteristics of a ground-water reservoir are indicated roughly by the volume ratio, which is subsidence/pumpage. In 

the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, the values of this ratio range 

from less than 0.2 near the perimeter to more than 0.6 in the central 

part of the area. In the corresponding parts of the Arvin-Maricopa 

area, the ratio ranges from near 0 to more than 0.4.

INTRODUCTION

THE SUBSIDENCE PROBLEM

Land subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, Calif., 

represents one of the great changes man has imposed on 

the environment. About 5,200 square miles of irrigable 

land, one-half the entire valley, has been affected by 

subsidence, and maximum subsidence exceeded 28 feet 

in 1970; by 1972 subsidence was about 29 feet. 

Throughout most of the area, subsidence has occurred 

so slowly and over such a broad area that its effects have 

gone largely unnoticed by most residents. It has created 

serious and costly problems, however, in construction 

and maintenance of water-transport structures; also,

many millions of dollars have been spent on the repair 

or replacement of deep water wells because of ruptured 

casings.

The San Joaquin Valley (fig. 1) is a broad alluviated 

structural trough constituting the southern two-thirds 

of the Central Valley of California. Tt is about 250 miles 

long, averages about 35 miles in width, and encompasses 10,000 square miles, excluding the rolling foothills 

that skirt the valley on three sides. Figure 1, showing 

the pertinent geographic features of the area discussed 

in this report, covers the southern four-fifths of the 

valley.

Agricultural development in the San Joaquin Valley 

has been intensive, especially since World War I . In the 

eastern part of the valley from the Kings River north, 

surface streams from the Sierra Nevada supply most of 

the irrigation needs, but are supplemented by ground 

water, especially after midsummer when streamflow is 

deficient. From the Kaweah River south except for the 

Kern River and its alluvial fan and in the west-central 

area from Mendota to Kettleman City, local surfacewater supplies have been small to negligible. Prior to 

the construction of major canals or aqueducts, irrigation was almost wholly from thousands of large and 

deep irrigation wells; conditions of ground-water overdraft have prevailed since the 1930's. Extractions of 

ground water in the San Joaquin Valley for irrigation 

increased from 3 million acre-feet in 1942 to at least 10 

million acre-feet in 1964 (Poland and Evenson, 1966) 

and in 1966 (Ogilbee and Rose, 1969a, b; Mitten and 

Ogilbee, 1971).

The trend of declining water levels was well established long before the problems or the causes of subsidence were recognized. Few areas had sufficient leveling control to reveal the subtle land-surface changes; 

however, induced by greater and deeper pumping, the 

subsidence that began in several centers of overdraft in 

the 1920's became of widespread concern in the late 

1940's and early 1950's. Through the 1950's and early 

1960's, water levels declined at an unprecedented rate 

throughout much of the area. Pumping lifts became 

inordinately high, well casings failed at an alarming 

rate, and differential settlement of the land surface

Hi
H2

121'

STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE 

120° 119 C 118°

37'

36°

35'

EXPLANATION

Outline of valley

Drawn chiefly on boundary

of consolidated rocks

''::Si::8$:^^

"' X<X'""SAN ''':'W!M$*-- MTS 

EMIGDIO " ::: : : 

MTS

Area of little or no 

subsidence 10 20 30 40 MILES

0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETRES

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

1:1,000,000, State base map, 1940

FIGURE 1. Pertinent geographic features of central and southern San Joaquin Valley and areas affected by subsidence.

caused numerous farming and engineering problems. 

Clearly, remedial action was urgently needed.

Importation of surface water to areas of serious overdraft began in 1950 when water from the San Joaquin

River was brought south through the Friant-Kern Canal, which extends to the Kern River (fig. 1). Of the 

average annual deliveries of about 1 million acre-feet of 

water from this canal, about 80 percent has been
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H3

supplied to irrigation districts south of the Kaweah 

River. Importation from the Friant-Kern Canal to the 

east side area south of the Kern River did not begin 

until 1966. Surface-water imports to the northwestern 

part of the area via the Delta-Mendota Canal began in 

the early 1950's.

Additional large surface-water imports from the 

Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta to deficient areas on the 

west side and to the south end of the valley are being 

provided by the California Aqueduct and its joint-use 

reach between Los Banos and Kettleman City. This 

joint-use facility serves the San Luis project area of the 

Bureau of Reclamation and transports State water 

south to Kettleman City. The joint-use reach was completed in 1968, and water deliveries from the aqueduct 

to the San Luis project area increased from 200,000 

acre-feet in 1968 to 865,000 in 1972. After completion of 

the distribution system in the middle 1970's, a 

maximum of about 1.2 million acre-feet of water can be 

delivered annually to the San Luis project area. The 

California Aqueduct was completed south to the 

Tehachapi Mountains in 1970, delivered 570,000 acrefeet to the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley in 

1971, and eventually will supply 1.35 million acre-feet 

per year to the San Joaquin Valley south of Kettleman 

City under long-term contracts.

Surface-water imports to subsiding areas through the 

Friant-Kern Canal and the California Aqueduct 

through 1972 are given in tables 3-5.

As a result of the importation of large surface-water 

supplies, pumping of ground water has been reduced, 

and the rapid decline of artesian head has been reversed 

in parts of the areas of overdraft. By the end of 1971, 

many hundreds of irrigation wells were idle, and subsidence trends were leveling out as stresses on the deposits were reduced. Today (1973), after three decades of 

overdraft, much of the overdrawn area of the San Joaquin ground-water basin is returning to a stable water 

budget, and artesian pressures are recovering toward 

their presubsidence levels.

Although subsidence has caused serious and costly 

problems, not all its effects have been bad. The deposits 

of the ground-water basin are now largely "preconsolidated" to their historic low water levels, and thus the 

basin can be managed for cyclic storage nearly to the 

historic low levels without the threat of serious subsidence. Also, the basin has provided a field laboratory for 

testing compression characteristics of complex aquifer 

systems, in situ, and for measuring mechanical and 

storage parameters of aquifer systems under a wide 

range of loading stresses. An incidental minor economic 

benefit is that the depth to water and hence the pumping lift have increased more slowly than if comparable 

volumes of water had been withdrawn from a less compressible aquifer system.

PURPOSE OF REPORT

This report is part of a study of land subsidence in 

California in financial cooperation with the California 

Department of Water Resources; the study is closely 

interrelated with a concurrent Federal research investigation of the mechanics of aquifer systems. Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley has been studied in this 

cooperative program since 1956. This report is intended 

to present an up-to-date factual summary of recorded 

land subsidence in the valley. More specifically, the 

purpose is to show the overall extent and magnitude of 

subsidence for the full period of available vertical control, to describe the several causes of subsidence, to 

present the latest available information on magnitude 

and rates of subsidence in the principal subsiding areas, 

to report on the volume of subsidence and, where possible, its relation to pumping draft, and to show the relationship between water-level change (stress change), 

measured compaction, and subsidence, chiefly by use of 

computer plots of Geological Survey field data.

These computer graphs contain the essence of 13 

years of field measurements by the Geological Survey. 

From these data, the stress-strain characteristics of 

complex aquifer systems can be obtained and their relation to the magnitude, rate, and causes of subsidence 

studied. The report incorporates field data through December 1970 and demonstrates that water levels at 

many of the observation sites are in the transition from 

a declining to a rising trend.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writers acknowledge the cooperation of Federal, 

State, and local agencies, irrigation districts, private 

companies, and individuals. All leveling data used in 

the preparation of the various subsidence maps and 

graphs and in calculating magnitudes and rates of subsidence were by the National Geodetic Survey, a component of the National Ocean Survey1 (formerly the 

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey). Water-level data 

utilized in this report were chiefly from field measurements by the Geological Survey, but some records were 

from the Bureau of Reclamation, the California Department of Water Resources, the Pacific Gas and Electric Co., and irrigation districts. Many Survey workers 

have contributed to this continuing research program; 

some of these are listed in the section "Annotated Bibliography."

WELL-NUMBERING SYSTEM

The well-numbering system (fig. 2) used in California

'The agency requests that all inquires for geodetic control data (including vertical-control 

data) be directed to the National Geodetic Survey, Rockville, Md. 20852 and advises that this 

name will replace Coast and Geodetic Survey on future publications. Accordingly, subsequent reference in this report is to the National Geodetic Survey.
H4 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

FIGURE 2. Well-numbering system.

by the Geological Survey and the State of California 

shows the locations of wells according to the rectangular system for the subdivision of public lands. For example, in the number 12/12-16H2, the part of the 

number preceding the slash indicates tl^e township (T. 

12 S.), the part between the slash and the hyphen shows

the range (R. 12 E.), the number between the hyphen 

and the letter indicates the section (sec. 16), and the 

letter following the section number indicates the 

40-acre subdivision of the section as shown in figure 2. 

Within each 40-acre tract, wells are numbered serially 

as indicated by the final digit of the well number. Thus,
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H5

well 12/12-16H2 is the second well listed in the SE% of 

the NE% of sec. 16, T. 12 S., R. 12 E. Except for the 

extreme south end of the valley which is referenced to 

the San Bernardino base and meridian, all wells are 

referenced to the Mount Diablo base and meridian.

REPORTS BY THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

In December 1954, concerned Federal and State 

agencies formed an Inter-Agency Committee on Land 

Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley to plan and coordinate subsidence studies. The first major activity of 

this Committee was the preparation of a proposed program of investigation (Inter-Agency Committee on 

Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, 1955). As 

one product of the inter-agency planning, the Geological Survey began in 1956 an intensive study of the 

extent, rates, and causes of subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, in financial cooperation with the California Department of Water Resources. At the same time, 

a companion federally financed study of the mechanics 

of aquifer systems was initiated to determine the principles controlling the compaction and expansion of 

aquifer systems under pumping stresses and to determine hydrologic storage parameters from field measurements. These two projects, cooperative and Federal, 

have resulted in a number of published or open-filed 

research reports. An annotated bibliography of the 

more significant contributions resulting from this research follows under the following five topic headings: 

(1) valley wide investigations, (2) Los Banos-Kettleman 

City area, (3) Tulare-Wasco area, (4) Arvin-Maricopa 

area, and (5) special studies. Professional Papers in the 

437 number series represent products of the cooperative 

program on land subsidence; those in the 497 number 

series are products of the Federal program on 

mechanics of aquifer systems.

At the end of this report, complete bibliographic citations are given. Many additional shorter papers have 

been published or open filed. Some of these are referred 

to in the text and cited under references.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

VALLEYWIDE INVESTIGATIONS

Inter-Agency Committee on Land Subsidence in the 

San Joaquin Valley, "Progress report on landsubsidence investigations in the San Joaquin Valley, California, through 1957." Prepared chiefly by 

J. F. Poland, G. H. Davis, and B. E. Lofgren of the 

Geological Survey (1958). Reviews the program of 

the Inter-Agency Committee on Land Subsidence 

in the San Joaquin Valley and describes the work 

accomplished through 1957. Includes maps and 

graphs showing results of precise leveling in the

Los Banos-Kettleman City and Tulare-Wasco 

areas. Includes maps of areas of shallow subsidence 

(hydrocompaction) and reports on construction and 

operation of test plots. Summarizes geologic and 

hydrologic aspects of subsidence due to artesianhead decline.

Professional Paper 497-A, "Physical and hydrologic 

properties of water-bearing deposits in subsiding 

areas in central California," by A. I. Johnson, R. P. 

Moston, and D. A. Morris (1968). To provide information on the water-bearing deposits in the principal subsiding areas, six core holes were drilled in 

the San Joaquin Valley as part of the program of 

the Inter-Agency Committee on Land Subsidence 

in the San Joaquin Valley. In all, 462 samples from 

these core holes were tested by the U.S. Geological 

Survey for physical and hydrologic properties, and 

86 samples were tested by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation for engineering properties, including 

one-dimensional consolidation tests. This report 

presents core-hole logs and laboratory data in tabular and graphic form, describes methods of laboratory analysis, and shows interrelationships of some 

of the physical and hydrologic properties.

Professional Paper 497-C, "Petrology of sediments underlying areas of land subsidence in central 

California," by R. H. Meade (1967). Describes petrologic characteristics that influence compaction of 

sediments in the San Joaquin and Santa Clara Valleys, including particle size, clay minerals, and associated ions. Tabular presentation of results of 

laboratory tests from four core holes in the Los 

Banos-Kettleman City area, two each in the 

Tulare-Wasco area and Santa Clara Valley, and 

from one in the Arvin-Maricopa area. Montmorillonite is the principal clay mineral in each area.

Professional Paper 497-D, "Compaction of sediments 

underlying areas of land subsidence in central 

California," by R. H. Meade (1968). This report 

relates, partly by statistical analysis, the variation 

in overburden load and petrologic factors to variations in the pore volume and fabric of the waterbearing sediments in subsiding areas in the San 

Joaquin and Santa Clara Valleys. These sediments 

have been compacted by effective overburden loads 

ranging from 3 to 70 kilograms per square centimetre (40-1,000 Ibs. in -2).

LOS BANOS-KETTLEMAN CITY AREA

Professional Paper 437-A, "Alluvial fans and nearsurface subsidence in western Fresno County, 

California," by W. B. Bull (1964a). A study of compaction caused by water percolating through 

moisture-deficient alluvial-fan deposits above the
H6 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

water table for the first time since burial. Detailed 

description of surficial deposits on alluvial fans in 

west-central San Joaquin Valley, where about 124 

square miles of deposits has subsided or probably 

would subside if irrigated. Tests on surface samples 

under hygroscopic conditions indicate that maximum compaction occurs at a clay content of about 

12 percent.

Professional Paper 497-E, "Geology of the compacting 

deposits in the Los Banos-Kettleman City subsidence area, California," by R. E. Miller, J. H. 

Green, and G. H. Davis (1971). This report describes the geology of the deposits undergoing compaction due to head decline, including source, type, 

physical character, and mode of deposition and the 

hydrologic framework so developed. In a series of 

subsurface maps and sections based on electric logs 

and core records, the Tulare Formation and overlying younger deposits are subdivided into alluvialfan, flood-plain, deltaic, and lacustrine deposits and 

are identified as from the Sierra Nevada or the 

Diablo Range.

Professional Paper 437-E, "Land subsidence due to 

groundwater withdrawal in the Los BanosKettleman City area, California. Part 1, Changes 

in the hydrologic environment conducive to subsidence," by W. B. Bull and R. E. Miller (1975). Withdrawing water for agriculture and thus increasing 

the stress tending to compact unconsolidated deposits by as much as 50 percent has created in the 

west-central part of the San Joaquin Valley what is 

believed to be the world's largest area of intense 

land subsidence. More than a million acre-feet has 

been pumped from the ground-water reservoir each 

year during the period 1951-65, lowering the 

potentiometric surface as much as 600 feet, reversing the eastward gradient of 2-5 feet per mile to a 

westward gradient of 30 feet per mile, and causing 

water levels to decline below the base of the Corcoran Clay Member of the Tulare Formation adjacent 

to the Diablo Range.

Professional Paper 437-F, "Land subsidence due to 

ground-water withdrawal in the Los Banos- Kettleman City area, California. Part 2, Subsidence 

and compaction of deposits," by W. B. Bull (1975). 

In the west-central San Joaquin Valley, Calif., as of 

1966, 2,000 square miles had subsided more than 1 

foot, and the area that had subsided more than 10 

feet was 70 miles long. Maximum subsidence was 

26 feet. The rates, amounts, and distribution of 

subsidence within the area are described and are 

shown to be highly dependent on regional variations of certain geologic factors influencing the 

compaction of unconsolidated deposits. The report 

describes the measurement of compaction, the rates

and amounts occurring within specified depth intervals, and the proportions of subsidence being 

measured, and then assesses the geologic factors 

influencing compaction.

Professional Paper 437-G, "Land subsidence due to 

ground-water withdrawal in the Los BanosKettleman City area, California. Part 3, Interrelations of water-level change, change in aquifersystem thickness, and subsidence," by W. B. Bull 

and J. F. Poland (1975). This report relates changes 

in thickness of the aquifer-system skeleton to 

water-level changes. Reviews analysis of stresses 

and change in stress. Describes various parameters 

necessary for a better understanding of the 

mechanics of aquifer systems and the compaction of 

sediments and for the development of criteria for 

predicting future subsidence.

TULARE-WASCO AREA

Professional Paper 437-B, "Land subsidence due to 

ground-water withdrawal, Tulare-Wasco area, 

California," by B. E. Lofgren and R. L. Klausing 

(1969). More than 800 square miles of irrigable 

land has subsided in the Tulare-Wasco area, owing 

to intensive pumping of ground water. The magnitude and rate of subsidence are directly related to 

the change in effective stress within the various 

beds that results from water-level changes and to 

the thickness and compressibility of the compacting deposits. In the southeastern part of the area, 

subsidence nearly stopped in the late 1950's, when 

water levels recovered as much as 130 feet in response to reduced pumping and increased recharge 

resulting from importation of water through the 

Friant-Kern Canal.

ARVIN-MARICOPA AREA

Professional Paper 437-D, "Land subsidence due to 

ground-water withdrawal, Arvin-Maricopa area, 

California," by B. E. Lofgren (1975). As of 1970,700 

square miles of irrigable land roughly 60 percent 

of the area had subsided owing to intensive pumping of ground water. Maximum subsidence exceeded 9 feet, and the total volume (1926-70) is 

about 1 million acre-feet. The report describes four 

types of subsidence occurring in the ArvinMaricopa area and develops criteria that may be 

applied to estimate the amount of subsidence that 

will occur under assumed hydrologic change.

Professional Paper 437-C, "Prehistoric near-surface 

subsidence cracks in western Fresno County, 

California," by W. B. Bull (1972). During the excavation for the California Aqueduct, thousands of
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H7

clay-filled tension cracks were found in the alluvial 

fans of western Fresno County which raised the 

possibility of postconstruction tensional rupture of 

the canal. Many filled near-surface subsidence 

cracks occur in the small fans, and evidence is presented to show that many of these are historic. They 

have a mean spacing of less than one per hundred 

feet of canal length. On the other hand, the 

thousands of filled near-surface subsidence cracks 

in the large fans have a mean spacing of two to six 

per 100 feet of canal. The study revealed that virtually all the cracks in the large fans are prehistoric 

and that the possibility of future near-surface subsidence which would cause damage to the California Aqueduct is slight.

Professional Paper 497-B, "Removal of water and rearrangement of particles during the compaction of 

clayey sediments review," by R. H. Meade (1964). 

Review of pertinent literature on the factors 

influencing the water content and clay-particle 

fabric of clayey sediments under increasing overburden pressures.

Professional Paper 497-G, "Land-surface tilting near 

Wheeler Ridge, southern San Joaquin Valley, 

California," by F. S. Riley (1970). Two continuousrecording liquid-level tiltmeters and three associated borehole extensometers recorded tilt at 

land surface and compaction of the upper 150 feet of 

alluvial-fan deposits at the site of a future pumping 

plant of the California Aqueduct. The site bordered 

a large bowl of land subsidence due to ground-water 

overdraft and overlay deposits susceptible to hydrocompaction. Repeated releveling of an array of 

surface bench marks agreed with the tiltmeter data 

in defining two principal periods of northward tilting per year.

Professional Paper 497-H, "Application of the modified 

theory of leaky aquifers to a compressible 

multiple-aquifer system," by F. S. Riley and E. J. 

McClelland (open file, 1972). Detailed description 

of practical procedures, based on the Hantush 

"modified theory of leaky aquifers," for analyzing 

pumping-test data. Application of the Hantush 

function is illustrated by the analysis of one recovery and five drawdown tests made near Pixley in 

the San Joaquin Valley, in a heterogeneous alluvial aquifer system.

Water-Supply Paper 2025, "Glossary of selected terms 

useful in studies of the mechanics of aquifer systems and land subsidence due to fluid withdrawal," 

by J. F. Poland, B. E. Lofgren, and F. S. Riley 

(1972). The glossary defines 25 terms as they are 

used in Geological Survey research reports concerned with the mechanics of stressed aquifer systems and of land subsidence. Most are terms that

have appeared in engineering or hydrologic literature, but several have been introduced as a result of 

the Survey's studies.

Geological Society of America, Reviews in Engineering 

Geology II, "Land subsidence due to the application 

of water," by B. E. Lofgren (1969). Hydrocompaction has produced widespread subsidence in low 

density moisture-deficient deposits and is of serious 

concern in the design and construction of many 

engineering structures. Deposits susceptible to 

hydrocompaction worldwide are described. In 

western and southern San Joaquin Valley, probably 200 square miles of irrigated farm land is subsiding because of the application of water, and at 

least another 50 square miles of susceptible land 

has not yet been irrigated. Preconsolidation before 

construction begins usually minimizes damage.

Geological Society of America, Reviews in Engineering 

Geology II, "Land subsidence due to withdrawal of 

fluids," by J. F. Poland and G. H. Davis (1969). A 

review of the known (1963) examples of appreciable 

land subsidence due to fluid withdrawal throughout the world, with a brief examination of the principles involved in the compaction of sediments and 

of aquifer systems as a result of increased effective 

stress. Special emphasis is given to studies in the 

San Joaquin Valley. Other areas in California affected by subsidence due to withdrawal of fluids are 

Santa Clara Valley, Wilmington, Lancaster, and 

La Verne. Several ways to alleviate subsidence are 

mentioned.

Professional Paper 352-E, "Geomorphology of segmented alluvial fans in western Fresno County, 

California," by W. B. Bull (1964). A study of the 

interrelations of alluvial-fan morphology, 

drainage- basin characteristics, and tectonic and 

climatic events. This study presents data on the 

geomorphology of alluvial fans in the west-central 

part of the San Joaquin Valley. It provides information concerning deposition and erosion of the fans 

as well as the relations of fan size and slope to 

drainage-basin area and lithology. The overall 

shape of the fans was studied by means of radial and 

cross-fan profiles. Fan segmentation, revealed by 

the radial profiles, was used to decipher tectonic 

history.

CAUSES OF SUBSIDENCE

Four types of subsidence are known to occur in the 

San Joaquin Valley. In order of their magnitude, they 

are (1) subsidence caused by water-level decline and the 

consequent compaction of aquifer systems, (2) subsidence related to the hydrocompaction of moisturedeficient deposits above the water table, (3) subsidence 

related to fluid withdrawal from oil and gas fields, and
H8 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

(4) deep-seated tectonic settlement. A fifth type, subsidence caused by the oxidation and compaction of peat 

soils, occurs in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta area 

and is not considered in this report.

Figure 1 shows the principal areas affected by subsidence caused by water-level decline and hydrocompaction. These areas are principally in the western and 

southern parts of the valley, where runoff from surface 

streams is minimal. Subsidence due to hydrocompaction (also called near-surface or shallow subsidence) has 

occurred in two areas southwest of Mendota (Bull, 

1964b) and in five areas south and southwest of 

Bakersfield (California Department of Water Resources, 1964a, pi. 2; Lofgren, 1975, pi. 3C). The total 

area susceptible to hydrocompaction is about 210 

square miles, of which about 130 is north of Kettleman 

City.

Oil-field subsidence is known to occur in a few small 

areas south and west of Bakersfield (Lofgren, 1975). For 

the most part, this type of subsidence has been less than 

1 foot during the period of leveling control and is restricted to local areas. Present subsidence rates are 

generally very low. During earlier periods of maximum 

production, however, subsidence rates in some oil fields 

undoubtedly were much greater than during the period 

of measurement. This type of subsidence has little effect 

on the long-term subsidence trends in the valley and is 

not considered further in this report.

Little information is available on rates of tectonic 

downwarping occurring in the San Joaquin Valley. 

Davis and Green (1962, p. D-90) postulated that postdepositional downwarping was responsible for 300 feet 

of deformation of the Corcoran Clay Member of the 

Tulare Formation beneath Tulare Lake bed. Carbon-14 

dates used to calculate average depositional rates south 

of Kettleman City (Lofgren, 1975) indicate that if structural downwarping has been occurring uniformly since 

the Pleistocene, tectonic subsidence would have been so 

slow that it would not have affected bench marks appreciably during the historical span of leveling control. 

Of particular significance, however, are the evidences of 

tectonic movement of "stable bedrock" bench marks in 

the Coast Ranges to the west and the Tehachapi Mountains to the south. Apparent tectonic movements of as 

much as 0.8 foot in these bedrock tie points has affected 

the computed elevations of many of the bench marks in 

the valley. The magnitudes of these movements are not 

precisely measurable with present methods and instruments, but probably represent several tenths of a 

foot for many bench marks during the period of record.

SUBSIDENCE DUE TO WATER-LEVEL

DECLINE

SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY 

In 1956 when this cooperative investigation was initiated, subsidence centered in three broad areas of 

known pumping overdraft. These were designated (fig. 

3) (A) the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, (B) the 

Tulare-Wasco area, and (C) the Arvin-Maricopa area, 

and most of the subsequent studies and reports have 

considered these separately. As of 1956, a valleywide 

bench-mark network of leveling control, with some precise leveling dating back to 1902, was available. A 

bench-mark network had been established in the 

Tulare-Wasco subsidence area in 1948 through the efforts of the Geological Survey, the National Geodetic 

Survey, the Bureau of Reclamation, and other interested agencies. Similar networks were established in 

the Los Banos-Kettleman City area in 1955 and in the 

Arvin-Maricopa area in 1957 (Inter-Agency Committee 

on Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, 1958, 

pis. 4-6).

Figure 3 shows the network of leveling control, 

periodically resurveyed by the National Geodetic Survey. The control is concentrated in the three subsidence 

areas and ties to a dozen "stable bedrock" reference 

bench marks around the perimeter of the valley. Table 1 

shows for each of the three subsidence areas the date the 

network was first established and the years of releveling of the network.

Significantly, most of the subsiding area in the San 

Joaquin Valley is underlain by a continuous and extensive confining bed (aquiclude). Most of the pumping 

overdraft and most of the compaction occurs in the artesian aquifer system beneath this confining bed. The 

boundary of this bed, where known, is shown in figure 4 

(Lofgren and Klausing, 1969; Miller and others, 1971; 

Croft, 1972). North of the vicinity of Wasco, the 

confining bed is the Corcoran Clay Member of the Tulure Formation which also has been called the E clay by 

Croft (1972). Figure 4 also shows the location of selected 

observation wells and nearby bench marks discussed in 

this report.

Figure 5 shows the magnitude and extent of subsidence exceeding 1 foot in the San Joaquin Valley from 

1926 to 1970 (1926-69 in the Los Banos-Kettleman 

City area). Three centers of subsidence stand out on the 

map. The most prominent is the long narrow trough 

west of Fresno that extends 90 miles from Los Banos to 

Kettleman City. Maximum subsidence in this area to 

1969 was 28 feet, 10 miles southwest of Mendota. The 

second center, between Tulare and Wasco, is defined by 

two closed 12-foot lines, 20 and 30 miles south of Tulare, 

respectively. The depression near Delano had subsided 

12 feet by 1954 (Lofgren and Klausing, 1969, fig. 43); 

subsidence of the northern depression has doubled since 

1954. The third center, 20 miles south of Bakersfield, 

has subsided a maximum of about 9 feet, mostly since 

World War II.

Manmade subsidence began in the San Joaquin Valley in the middle 1920's, but the cumulative volume of
121°

SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

120° 119'

H9

37° -

36° -

35° 

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

1:1,000,000, State base map, 1940

118°

San Lus\m&4?g^

EXPLANATION

Outline of valley

Drawn chiefly on boundary

of'consolidated rocks

Area of detailed study of

land subsidence 

. Los Banos-Kettleman City 

B. Tulare-Wasco 

C. Arvin-Maricopa

Line of 1-foot

subsidence, from

figure 5 TEHACHAPI 

Sx MTS - SAN 

EMIGDIO 

MTS

10 20 30 40 MILES

0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETRES

FIGURE 3. Network of leveling by the National Geodetic Survey and three areas of detailed studies of land subsidence.

subsidence (fig. 6) remained small until after World 

War II. By 1970, the total volume of subsidence for the 

44-year period (table 2) was 15.6 million acre-feet, having doubled since 1957. This volume is equal to one-half

the initial storage capacity of Lake Mead. The volume of 

subsidence for any interval of leveling control is obtained by planimetry of the subsidence map for that 

period. The cumulative volume for the entire valley (fig.
H10 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

TABLE 1. Years of leveling control of the network of bench marks in three subsidence areas by the National Geodetic Survey

Los Banos-Kettleman City Tulare-Wasco Arvin-Maricopa

1957-58 

1959-60

'Year network established.

121°

X 1948 

1953 

1957 X 1957 

1958-59

Los Banos-Kettleman City

1963 

1966 

1969

1Q71 79

Tulare-Wasco

1962 

2 1964 

1969-70

Arvin-Maricopa

1962 

1965 

1970

118°

37° -

36° -

35° 

"Partial releveling of net.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

1:1,000,000, State base map, 1940

FIGURE 4. Location of selected observation wells, nearby bench marks, and boundary of the principal confining beds.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA Hll

6) is derived by addition of the volumes for individual 

areas. Figure 5 shows the areal distribution of this 15.6 

million acre-feet of subsidence. However, figure 5 only 

defines the extent of subsidence that exceeds 1 foot, an 

area of 4,300 square miles. Extrapolation of the 

magnitude-area graphs for the four areas given in table

2 (such as fig. 20 for the Los Banos-Kettleman City 

area) to zero subsidence suggests that the total area 

affected by subsidence is about 5,200 square miles 

(table 2) and hence that the area in which subsidence is 

less than 1 foot but greater than zero is 900 square 

miles.

121' 120" 119' 118 C

37° -

36° -

35° 

San Luis y.X 

ReservoirC^

EXPLANATION

Outline of valley

Drawn chiefly on boundary vV, :: : : : 

of consolidated rocks ©* ':::::

4 V

Line of equal subsidence, in feet 

Interval variable. Compiled from comparison of U.S. 

Geological Survey topographic maps prior to about 

1955, and subsequent leveling of National Geodetic 

Survey. South of Bakersfield, compiled wholly from 

leveling

A A'

Alinement of subsidence and water-table profiles 

Profile shown in figure 7

 ' SAN 

EMIGDIO 

MTS

10 20 30 40 KILOMETRES

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

1:1,000,000, State base map, 1940

FIGURE 5. Land subsidence, 1926-70. Compiled from comparison of U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps prior to about 1955 and subsequent leveling of National Geodetic Survey.

South of Bakersfield, compiled wholly from leveling.
H12 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

16

14

12

10

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURE 6. Cumulative volume of subsidence, 1926-70.

TABLE 2. Summary of extent and volume of subsidence, 1926-70, 

San Joaquin Valley

Area

Area where subsidence Total area affected1 

exceeds 1 foot

Volume

Square Square 

Acres xlO3 miles Acres xlO3 miles Acre-feet xlO6

Los BanosKettleman City2 ___

Hanford . _

Tulare-Wasco-.. _ _ __ _

Arvin-Maricopa _ _. _

Total (rounded) _ .

1,300

OCA

800

320

2,750

2,030

550

1,250

500

4,300

1,530

435

910

450

3,300

2,400

fiftft

700

5,200

9.92

1 Q1

3 32

1.06

15.6

'Extrapolated graphically to zero subsidence. 

"Subsidence, 1926-69.

Probably more than 900 square miles has been affected by subsidence, but falls outside the 1-foot line of 

figure 5. Certainly, elevation differences of 0.05-0.3 foot 

are indicated along many bench-mark Jines which have 

bteen resurveyed 10-40 years after the first survey. 

However, most leveling surveys are not that precise. 

Complications that include distance to bedrock ties, 

stability of bedrock ties, instruments used, order of accuracy required, adjustment procedures, and other 

problems lead to the conclusion that comparative elevation changes at individual bench marks (from surveys 

tens of years apart) which do not exceed 0.2-0.3 foot are 

of questionable value as indicators of subsidence trends. 

For this reason, we have not attempted to map overall 

subsidence in the valley to limits of less than 1 foot, 

although we have mapped subsidence in active subsidence areas to 0.1 foot under favorable conditions.

As shown later, generally there is a close correlation 

between subsidence and water-level trends. When this 

correlation does not exist, other causes or spurious data 

are suspected. Figure 7 is an example of small apparent 

subsidence that does not correlate with water-level decline and which may not be real. The water-level and 

subsidence profiles are along the Southern Pacific Railroad, between the San Joaquin and the Kings Rivers 

(for alinement, see section A-A', fig. 5). The water-level 

profiles are from 1960 data of the California Department of Water Resources (California Department of 

Water Resources, 1963,1964b) and from its predecessor 

(California Division of Water Resources, 1931, pi. 13; 

1921 and 1929 autumn levels); the subsidence profiles 

are from bench-mark surveys by the National Geodetic 

Survey. This profile alinement is along the upper 

reaches of the alluvial fans of the San Joaquin and 

Kings Rivers. To the depths of 150-300 feet tapped by 

water wells, these deposits are primarily coarse sand 

and gravel, and the ground-water body at these depths 

is unconfined (Page and LeBlanc, 1969, pis. 8, 10).

The indicated subsidence from the 1930 base as of 

1952-53 averaged about 0.06 foot (max 0.10) and as of 

1959-60 ranged from 0.02 to 0.20 foot. However, the 

maximum indicated subsidence from 1930 to 1960 was 

between Fowler and Selma, in the area of only 10-15 

feet of water-table decline (autumn low level, 1929 and 

1960), whereas the reach of maximum water-table decline of 40 feet in the city of Fresno subsided only half as 

much (0.08-0.09 ft) in the 30 years. Thus, the apparent 

subsidence does not correlate with water-table decline; 

except for three bench marks, the 30-year subsidence is 

less than 0.1 foot and thus may represent adjustment 

procedures from different bedrock ties. It is possible 

that vibrations caused by the passage of several 

thousand trains per year might cause differential compaction of as much as 0.1 foot between bench marks 1-3 

miles apart in a period of 30 years.

Two long reaches of the California Aqueduct traverse 

the west side of the valley north and south of the Los 

Banos-Kettleman City subsidence area. The magnitude and extent of historical subsidence in these two 

areas is of interest. To the north, the area between Los 

Banos and Tracy (57 miles northwest; not shown) has 

been irrigated primarily with surface water since the
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H13

200

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED

10 MILES

0 5 10 15 KILOMETRES 

FIGURE 7. Apphfent siJbsidence and water-table decline along the Southern Pacific Railroad between the San Joaquin and Kings Rivers.

Oelta-Mendota Canal was completed in 1951. During 

1962-66, one-quarter of the irrigation water in this 

northern area (about 300,000 acre-ft/yr) was supplied 

from wells, and three-quarters (900,000 acre-ft/yr) from 

canals (Hotchkiss and Balding, 1971). In general, water 

levels in wells have been rising for the past two decades, 

and so subsidence would not be anticipated to be a 

current problem. On the other hand, tne area traversed 

by the California Aqueduct between Kettleman City 

and T. 30 S. (fig. 4) never had beeri developed agriculturally prior to canal deliveries in 1970 because inferior 

quality of the ground water had discouraged well development (Wood and Davis, 1959). Here also, subsidence from water-level decline would not be anticipated.

' In 1966, the California Department of Water Resources made a Tbrief analysis of bench-mark surveys by 

the National Geodetic Survey north of Los Banos and

between Kettleman City and Tupman (in T. 30 S., R. 24 

E., sec. 24; fig. 4). The purpose was to appraise historical 

land subsidence in these areas, with respect to State 

water facilities the California Aqueduct then under 

construction and the proposed Master Drain. From 

Tracy to 50 miles southeast to within 5 miles of Los 

Banos, the maximum historical subsidence (1935-66) 

along the Southern Pacific Railroad was about 0.5 foot, 

and the rate of subsidence was lowest in the 1960's 

(Marvin V. Damm, written commun., June 29, 1966). 

From Kettleman City south to Tupman (in T. 30 S., R. 

24 E.; see fig. 4), subsidence along the general California Aqueduct alinement did not exceed 0.2 foot in the 

period between the first leveling control of the National 

Geodetic Survey (in 1935 or 1942) and 1966 (Marvin V. 

Damm, written commun., July 12, 1966). Leveling by 

the National Geodetic Survey in 1969-70 southeast of 

Kettleman City shows only a few hundretlths of a foot of
H14 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

increased subsidence along the aqueduct alinement in 

this reach. However, it should be noted that two bench 

marks on U.S. Highway 466 at the axis of the Lost Hills 

oil field (SW. cor. sec. 33, T. 26 S., R. 21 E.) subsided 2.24 

feet, 193&-66, and 1.04 feet, 1954-66. Evidently this 

local subsidence was caused by fluid production from 

the oil field, but it represents no hazard to the aqueduct 

which is about 2 miles to the east.

LOS BANOS-KETTLEMAN CITY AREA

Roughly 2,400 square miles of the Los BanosKettleman City area (fig. 3) has been affected by subsidence, of which 1,500 square miles is west of the valley 

trough as defined by the San Joaquin River and Fresno 

Slough. For a detailed discussion of the geology, hydrology, and characteristics of the compacting aquifer systems, reference is made to comprehensive reports listed 

in the section "Annotated Bibliography."

Figures 8, 9, and 10 are comparative records of subsidence and change in artesian head of the lower zone

200

300

ffi 

u.

Z 400 

GC

 - 500

600

700

Subsidence, bench mark S661

Pumping level, 

wells 14/13-26 

N1, N2, andE2

Static level, E2

Summer low

10

15

20

25

1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURE 8. Subsidence and artesian-head change 10 miles southwest of Mendota.

400

500

600

700

800

900

Subsidence, 

bench mark 

Y883

E1

Water level, 

wells 17/15-21 

N1.Q1, and22E1

15

1

1

7 

/

Iir\

V, / / / / /

\

Subsidence 

rate

1|

1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURE 9. Subsidence and artesian-head change near Cantua Creek.

(confined aquifer system) at three centers of rapid subsidence. (For location of these wells and bench marks, 

see fig. 4.) At each location, an extended period of 

water-level decline accompanied by rapid subsidence 

was followed by a few years of water-level rise. The 

Federal San Luis Project area includes most of the agricultural land in Fresno County west of Fresno Slough 

(fig. 13); surface-water deliveries to this area from the 

joint-use reach of the California Aqueduct increased 

from an initial 200,000 acre-feet in 1968 to 865,000 in 

1972. As shown by the bar diagrams in the three figures, 

the rate of subsidence in 1966-69 compared with the 

rate in the early 1960's decreased markedly southwest 

of Mendota (fig. 8) and appreciably near Huron (fig. 10), 

but registered little change near Cantua Creek (fig. 9). 

Southwest of Mendota, by 1966-69 the yearly rate had 

decreased to 38 percent of the maximum rate in 1953- 

55.

The average rate of subsidence in 1969-72 decreased 

drastically at all three sites because of the rapid rise in 

artesian head caused by the increase in surface-water 

imports (table 3) and the resulting decrease in groundwater draft. For example, southwest of Mendota the
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H15

200

300

400

500

600

700

Subsidence, bench mark B807

 N1

Water level, 

wells 19/18-20N1, 

20D1, 16N2, 18N3 

and 20M1

10 O

UJ

o

CO 

CD

CO

15

20

1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURE 10. Subsidence and artesian-head change near Huron.

average rate of 0.2 foot per year in 1969-72 was only 11 

percent of the 1953-55 maximum; near Huron the average rate was only 22 percent of the 1960 average.

Figure 11 shows the trends of subsidence and head 

decline in two zones near Hanford (for location, see fig. 

4). The upper zone is above the principal confining 

bed the Corcoran Clay Member of the Tulare 

Formation and the lower zone is below. This location 

is outside the Los Banos-Kettleman City area (fig. 3), 

but in general the same effects of overpumping have 

occurred. About 8 feet of subsidence has been measured 

in this area (fig. 5), mostly since 1953. At bench mark 

Y286, the maximum subsidence rate of 0.6 foot per year 

(lower graph, fig. 11) was measured in 1959-62. The 

average rate in 1966-69 was less than half this amount. 

Of the two water levels, the hydrograph of shallow well 

19/22-19A2 (110 ft deep) seems to more closely parallel 

the subsidence trend, although the deep summer low 

levels registered in observation well 19/22-19Al (well 

point set at 559 ft) undoubtedly contributed to the subsidence.

Figure 12 shows the magnitude and areal extent of 

subsidence in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area during the 3 years 1966-69. The construction of the 

California Aqueduct south to Kettleman City was completed early in 1968. About 230,000 acre-feet of surface 

water had been imported by the end of 1968 (see table 3), 

thereby causing about 20 percent reduction in pumpage 

and about a 20-foot average recovery of the artesian 

head of the low,er zone. Hence, the rate of subsidence 

must have decreased substantially during 1968, but 

even so, the 3-year total exceeded 2.5 feet along a 4-mile 

stretch of the aqueduct west of Cantua Creek and exceeded 2 feet for an aggregate length of 32 miles.

The average yearly rate of subsidence during 1966- 

69 (fig. 13) was derived by dividing the values of figure 

12 by three. The average rates shown undoubtedly are 

lower than the actual rates of 1966 and higher than the 

actual rates of 1968. Nevertheless, the map indicates 

that for 60 miles from west of Mendota to 3 miles north 

of Kettleman City the average yearly rate of subsidence 

along the central subsidence trough exceeded 0.4 foot 

per year.

Figure 14 shows the total subsidence in the 14 years 

since the bench-mark network was established in 1955. 

The maximum subsidence of 14 feet was 10 miles 

southwest of Mendota. More than 10 feet of subsidence 

occurred during the mapped period in a 50-mile reach 

extending from west of Mendota southeast past the 

Kings County line.

The total subsidence due to man's overall increase of 

subsurface stresses from 1926 to 1969 is shown in figure 

15. By 1969, maximum subsidence exceeding 28 feet 

affected an area of about 1 square mile, 10 miles southwest of Mendota. Subsidence exceeded 10 feet in about 

600 square miles and 4 feet in 1,200 square miles. Figures 12 through 15 delineate by a dotted outline the 

areas west and northwest of Cantua Creek (town) and 

16-19 miles west of Mendota where hydrocompaction 

has been a problem for many years.

In December 1972, after the draft of this summary 

report was completed, the National Geodetic Survey 

supplied a tentative adjustment of bench-mark elevations for the survey of November 1971-March 1972. 

Adjustments were made on the same basis as for the 

surveys of 1966 and 1969. During the 3-year period 

1969-71, the increasing importation of surface water 

through the California Aqueduct (fig. 46) and the consequent decrease in ground-water pumpage greatly decreased the stress applied to the fine-grained beds 

(aquitards). Imports during this period totaled 

1,434,000 acre-feet (see table 3), and the artesian head 

of the lower water-bearing zone rose an average of 42 

feet, in contrast to the previous 3-year period, 1966-68, 

when imports totaled 228,000 acre-feet (92 percent of
H16 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

50

150

 50

100

150

Subsidence, bench mark Y286

Water level, 

well 19/22-19A2 

(upper zone)

Water level, 

well 19/22-19A1 

(lower zone)

HI 5 O

LLJ

O 

CO 

00

CO

10

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURE 11. Subsidence and head change in two zones near Hanford.

this was in 1968) and net change in artesian head was 

small.

Figure 16 shows the subsidence from 1969 to 1972. 

(Because of the late availability of the 1971-72 bench-
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

120*30'

H17

120*00'

37*00

Boundary of deformed rocks

2.5 

Line ofr equal subsidence

Interval 0.5 foot. Compiled from leveling of the National Geodetic Survey, February-March 1966 and 

December 1968-April 1969

Boundary of near-surface subsidence area as of 1961 

California Aqueduct

36*30' -

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000, 1958

FIGURE 12. Land subsidence, 1966-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area. Compiled from leveling of the National Geodetic Survey, February-March 1966 and December 1968-April 1969.

mark elevations, we have not attempted to update other 

subsidence graphs or maps beyond the 1969 data except 

figures 8-10 and 18, but we have added figures 16 and

17.) The 1969-72 change in both magnitude and pattern 

of subsidence* from 1966-69 (fig. 12) is striking. 

Maximum subsidence of about 1.6 feet occurred on the
HIS STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE 

120" 30' 120 e OO'

37°00

Cantua Creek^.

EXPLANATION

Boundary of deformed rocks

Line of equal subsidence rate

Interval 0.2 foot per year, except for the

O.I-foot line

Boundary of near-surface subsidence area 

as of 1961 PLEASANT 

Coalinga

California Aqueduct

LAKE 

BED 

10 15 KILOMETRES I Kettleman City

36°30' 

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000, 1958

FIGURE 13. Average yearly rate of subsidence, 1966-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area. Based on control data of figure 12.

aqueduct 2 miles west of Cantua Creek (town), compared with 2.7 feet in 1966-69. Everywhere the 196&-72

subsidence shows a decrease in the magnitude compared with 1966-69, but the ratio ranges widely from
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

120 "30'

H19

120"00'

37"00'

36"30'

36"00'

FRESNO CO | \^ KINGS Cp

EXPLANATION

Boundary of deformed 

rocks

Line of equal subsidence, in feet

Dashed where approximately located, interval

variable

Boundary of near-surface subsidence area as of 1961

California Aqueduct

10 15 MILES

10 15 KILOMETRES

itratford

TULARE

LAKE 

BED 

Kettleman City

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000, 1958

FIGURE 14. Land subsidence, 1955-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area. Compiled from leveling of the National Geodetic Survey, September-November 1955 and December 1968-April

1969.

1/5 to as much as 4/5. The irregularity of the lines of 

equal subsidence in figure 16, in contrast to the smooth

pattern of figure 12, reflects the progressive completion 

of the irrigation distribution system in the area, caus-
H20 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE 

120°30' 120° 00'

37°00'

36°30' -

 i Cantua Creek

EXPLANATION

Line of equal subsidence, in feet

Dashed where approximately located, interval

variable

Boundary of near-surface subsidence area as of 1961

California Aqueduct

Alinement of subsidence profile 

Profiles shown in figures 21 and 22 PLEASANT 

Coalinga

Bench mark and number

 "Kettleman City 36°00'

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000, 1958

FIGURE 15. Land subsidence, 1926-69, Los Banos-Kettleman City area. Compiled chiefly as the sum of (1) a comparison of topographic mapping by the U.S. Geological Survey done between 1920-28 and in 1955 and (2) leveling of the National Geodetic Survey in 1955 and 1969.

ing an irregular pattern of surface-water deliveries and Figure 17 shows the subsidence from 1926 to 1972. By

hence of irrigation well shutdown and artesian-head 1972, maximum subsidence had reached 29 feet, 10

recovery. miles southwest of Mendota. Because subsidence in
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

120°30'

H21

120° 00'

37°00'

36'30'

36°00'

EXPLANATION

Boundary of deformed 

rocks

 1.0

Line of equal subsidence

Interval 0.2 foot. Compiled from leveling of the National Geodetic Survey, December 1968-April 1969 

and November 1971-March 1972

Boundary of near-surface subsidence area as of 1961

California Aqueduct

10 15 MILES

10 15 KILOMETRES |

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000, 1958

FIGURE 16. Land subsidence, 1969-72, Los Banos-Kettleman City area. Compiled from leveling of the National Geodetic Survey, December 1968-April 1969 and November 1971-March

1972.

1969-72 (fig. 16) exceeded 1 foot only in two small areas, 

the configuration of the lines of equal subsidence in 

figure 17 differs little from that in figure 15, except in

the El Nido area, at the north edge of the map. Subsidence in the El Nido area is controlled by leveling of the 

National Geodetic Survey along Highway 152 at five
H22 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

120"30' 120'00'

37 "00

Line of equal subsidence, in feet

Dashed where approximately located, interval

variable

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000, 1958

FIGURE 17. Land subsidence, 1926-72, Los Banos-Kettleman City area. Compiled as sum of subsidence for 1926-69 (fig. 15) and for 1969-72 (fig. 16).
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H23

times between 1933 and 1972 and north through El 

Nido in 1958 and 1972.

The average yearly rates of subsidence, in acre-feet 

per year, during the nine periods of vertical control 

between 1926 and 1972 are illustrated by the rectangular bars in figure 18. They were obtained by dividing the 

computed volume of subsidence for the period by the 

number of years between times of vertical control. The 

dashed line represents the estimated probable rate of 

subsidence which varies with time. The probable subsidence rate increased fairly uniformly from the 1920's to 

1957, reached a maximum of about 450,000 acre-feet 

per year in 1961, and declined to about 100,000 acre-feet 

per year in 1972. The pumping draft in the area west of 

Fresno Slough and south of the Merced County line 

reached its peak of 1.275 million acre-feet in 1952, 

about 10 years before the maximum subsidence rate. 

Pumpage in 1960-62 averaged 1.075 million acre-feet 

per year (Bull and Miller, 1975, table 3).

Figure 19 indicates that after subsidence began in the 

middle 1920's the volume increased slowly to 1 million 

acre-feet by 1942, then rose rapidly in the postwar years 

to 4 million acre-feet at the end of 1953. By 1969, the 

total volume of subsidence related to ground-water 

pumpage west of Fresno Slough was 9.6 million acrefeet, nearly two-thirds of the cumulative total for the 

San Joaquin Valley (fig. 6). The cumulative groundwater pumpage in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area 

(west of Fresno Slough and the San Joaquin River) 

through March 1969 is estimated as 28.5 million acrefeet. This cumulative pumpage has been plotted annuQUJ 

\li>

UJ UJ o 

t °-

cc<

UJU.

00

UJ

e CO 1'

co

CO

.

-

I

-G*-

Average for period / 

(computed) /

Probable rate /

(estimated)^ /

-

x^s

y

X

I

/

\

n \

1

-

\

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 

FIGURE 18. Rate of subsidence in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, 1926-72.

ally in figure 19 to show the relation between subsidence volume and pumpage. At a scale ratio of 1 to 3, the 

correlation is rem.arkably consistent, indicating that 

throughout the 43 years since subsidence began (1926 

into 1969) about one-third of the water pumped has 

been water of compaction derived from the compaction 

of the aquifer systems.

As of 1969, about 1.3 million acres (2,030 sq mi had 

subsided more than 1 foot (fig. 20), and the total area 

affected by subsidence was 1.53 million acres (2,400 sq 

mi). About 400,000 acres had subsided more than 10 

feet, and 80,000 acres more than 20 feet.

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURE 19. Cumulative volumes of subsidence and pumpage, 1926-69, Los Bano 

Kettleman City area. Points on subsidence curve indicate times of leveling control.

30 i

25

UJ O 15 

UJ

o

V)

SP, 10

CO

-Planimetered acreage within the lines of equal subsidence for fig. 15

Volume, 9.92 million 

acre-feet

 H-.,.

4 6 8 10 12 

AREA, IN HUNDRED THOUSAND ACRES

14 16

FIGURE 20. Relation of magnitude to area of subsidence, 1926-69, Los Banos-Kettleman

City area.
H24 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

Two transverse subsidence profiles illustrate the history of subsidence from 1943 to 1969 southwest of Mendota and along Five Points Road (for location, see fig. 

15). Along both profiles the subsidence is caused wholly 

by water-level decline. Profile B-B' (fig. 21) extends 

from the foothills of the Diablo Range through Mendota, 

passing close to the site of maximum subsidence (bench 

mark S661). It shows subsidence during eight periods 

since 1943, with the 1943 control used as a horizontal 

reference base. The center of subsidence migrated 

southwest about 3.4 miles from 1947 to 1957 in response 

to the major westward extension of ground-water development from 1940 to 1950 (Bull and Miller, 1975, fig. 

22).

Profile C-C' (fig. 22) extends northeast along the Five 

Points Road from Anticline Ridge to Fresno Slough. 

Maximum subsidence from 1943 to 1969 was 21 feet at 

bench mark M692. About 1 mile northeast of the 

California Aqueduct alinement, the subsidence profiles 

steepen dramatically, suggesting a fourfold increase in 

the compressibility of the deposits tapped by wells, a 

rapid thickening of compactible deposits, or a greater 

historic drawdown of artesian head, or, more probably, 

the combined effect of all three factors.

TULARE-WASCO AREA

Subsidence was first recognized in the Tulare-Wasco 

area in 1935. As of 1970, an estimated 1,420 square

B

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED

8 12 

DISTANCE, IN MILES

20

FIGURE 21. Profiles of subsidence, 1943-69, Tumey Hills to Mendota.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H25

C

ANTICLINE 

RIDGE

V692 California Aqueduct M692 FEBRUARY 1943

Fresno 

Slough

ze?a

4 -

8 -

O UJ 10 1Z

UJ 

Q

§ 

CO

16

20

24

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED

8 12 16

DISTANCE, IN MILES 

FIGURE 22. Profiles of subsidence, 1943-69, Anticline Ridge to Fresno Slough.

20 24

miles (fig. 3; table 2) had been affected by subsidence, 

about 1,220 square miles had subsided more than 1 foot, 

and 300 square miles had subsided more than 5 feet. 

Lofgren and Klausing (1969) described in considerable 

detail the pertinent geologic framework of the groundwater reservoir, the hydrologic units, the history of 

water-level trends and subsidence of the land surface 

and the measured compaction of the water-bearing deposits to the end of 1964, computed compaction at Pixley 

(computed from laboratory consolidation tests and
H26 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

generalized trend of water-level decline), and parameters for estimating subsidence under assumed hydrologic change.

Historically, water levels in wells in the area have 

responded differently depending on whether the wells 

tapped the confined system west of Delano (fig. 4) or 

tapped the semiconfined to confined system to the east 

(Lofgren and Klausing, 1969, figs. 13, 45, table 3). 

Water levels in wells tapping the confined system west 

of Delano have declined throughout the period of record 

(Lofgren and Klausing, 1969, figs. 34, 35). Water levels 

in wells to the east, in much of the service area of the 

Friant-Kern Canal, declined from 1920 to 1951, but 

have recovered substantially in the past two decades as

surface-water imports through the Friant-Kern Canal 

permitted reduction of pumping and increased recharge. The decline and recovery pattern is well demonstrated by the multiple hydrograph of figure 23 for 

three wells northeast of Delano (fig. 4). The water level 

of 1970 (well 34F1) was equal to that of 1930 (33H1), 

following a recovery of 230 feet from the low level of 

1950. This recovery has stopped the subsidence of bench 

mark G758 since 1962. The most rapid average rate of 

subsidence at bench mark T88 was 0.54 foot per year 

during 1948-54, when water levels reached their historic low. From 1962 to 1970, however, the average rate 

at that bench mark was only 0.04 foot per year (fig. 23). 

Figure 24 shows the magnitude and extent of subsidI- 200

ILI 

ILI 

11.

- 240 UJ"

o

280

320

360

400

440

480

Bench mark T88 (51/z miles 

northwest of 33H1)

Hydrograph, 24/26-28Q1 

(depth 1,184feet

Hydrograph, 24/26-34F1 

(depth 1,522 feet)

Hydrograph, 24/26-33H1 

(depth 977 feet)

Subsidence rate, 

bench mark T88

1.0

0.5 £ 

a.

ILI 

ILI 

LL.

FIGURE 23. Subsidence and water-level fluctuations northeast of Delano.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H27

119° 30' 119°00'

T.

22

S.

36° 00'

35°45'

T. 

25 

S.

Line of equal subsidence 

Pfished where approximate. Interval 0.5 foot

.1A2

Water-level and compaction recorders, and 

numbers

036A2

Compaction recorder 

and number

R. 22 E. R. 23 E. R. 24 E. R. 25 E.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000. 1958

R. 26 E. 

246

R. 27 E. 

8 MILES

0 2 4 6 8 10 KILOMETRES

FIGURE 24. Land subsidence, 1962-70, Tulare-Wasco area. Compiled from leveling of the National Geodetic Survey, January-April 1962 and November 1969-February 1970.

ence in the Tulare-Wasco area during the latest period 

of control, from 1962 to 1970. Two features are noteworthy. First, the map is pockmarked with subsidence 

"holes," indicating areas of continued intensive pumping. The biggest "hole," exceeding 3 feet during the 

8-year period, is southwest of Pixley, an area irrigated 

mostly from wells. Second, the beneficial effects of substituting surface water from the Friant-Kern Canal for 

well water are demonstrated by the area of nearly 200 

square miles in the south-central part of the map, between Earlimart and Famoso, that subsided less than

0.5 foot in the 8 years. About half of that area subsided 

less than 0.3 foot.

The average yearly rate of subsidence from 1962 to 

1970 exceeded 0.1 foot in about half (800 sq mi) of the 

Tulare-Wasco area (fig. 25), mostly in the west half 

within lands not served by the Friant-Kern Canal. Only 

in two areas, southwest of Pixley and southwest of Alpaugh, did the average yearly rate of subsidence exceed 

0.3 foot.

The leveling network was established in 1948, shortly before surface-water imports through the Friant-
H28 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

119° 30'

_ TULARE CO_ 

KERN CO

Dashed where approximate. Interval 0.1 foot 

per year

R. 22 E.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000. 1958

0 2 4 6 8 10 KILOMETRES 

FIGURE 25. Average yearly rate of subsidence, 1962-70, Tulare-Wasco area. Based on control data of figure 24.

Kern Canal began in 1950 and 1951. In the 22 years 

from 1948 to 1970, a major subsidence "hole," centered 3 

miles south of Pixley (fig. 26), developed in an area 

irrigated chiefly by ground water. This major sink extended 9 miles north to Tipton and 12 miles west to 

Alpaugh and was a maximum at bench mark N88R (for 

location, see fig. 27), which subsided 11.7 feet. Subsidence at a second much smaller depression, centered 1 

mile west of Richgrove, was more than 6 feet in the 22 

years. More than half of this subsidence in Richgrove 

developed between 1948 and 1954 because of increased

pumping from new deep wells (Lofgren and Klausing, 

1969, fig. 44 and p. B58).

The long-term subsidence from 1926 to 1970 (fig. 27) 

is characterized by two major subsidence "holes" along 

U.S. Highway 99; the 6-foot subsidence line encloses 

both. The "hole" south of Pixley is slightly larger and 

deeper than that in figure 26. Bench mark N88R had 

subsided 12.8 feet since its establishment in 1940, and 

total subsidence at this site was over 14 feet. By 1970, 

the land surface in the southern "hole," centering 3 

miles north of Delano, had subsided more than 12 feet.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H29

119° 30' 119°00'

Line of equal subsidence 

Dashed where approximate. Interval 1.0 foot 

except for 0.5-foot line

R. 22 E.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000. 1958

8 10 KILOMETRES

FIGURE 26. Land subsidence 1948-70, Tulare-Wasco area. Compiled from leveling of the National Geodetic Survey, February-May 1948 and November 1969-February 1970.

Ingerson demonstrated (1941, fig. 7) that this "hole" 

was about half developed by 1940. (See also Lofgren and 

Klausing, 1969, p. B49, fig. 36.) A comparison of topographic maps of the Geological Survey made in 1926 

and 1953-54 (Lofgren and Klausing, 1969, fig. 43) indicates that the land surface in this subsidence "hole" 

north of Delano had subsided more than 12 feet by 1954. 

The average yearly rates of subsidence during the 

seven periods of control between 1926 and 1970 are 

shown by the bars in figure 28. The dashed line represents the estimated probable rate of subsidence at any

particular time. During 1948-54, the subsidence rate 

increased to 1950, owing to expanding ground-water 

use and then decreased rapidly as surface water from 

the Friant-Kern Canal replaced ground water. The 

highest yearly rate of subsidence that from 1959 into 

1962 occurred during a drought period. The cumulative volume of subsidence from 1926 to 1970 was 3.32 

million acre-feet (fig. 29). Almost half of this subsidence 

occurred since 1960.

The area affected by subsidence from 1926 to 1970 

was about 1,420 square miles or 9.1 x 105 acres (fig. 30),
H30

119° 30'

STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

119-15' 119 0 00'

_ TULARE CO \ 

KERN CO

Line of equal subsidence 

Dashed where approximate. Interval 2 feet,. 

except for I-foot contour

Alinement of subsidence

profile

Profile shown in figure 

31

R. 22 E.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000. 1958

2 4 6 8 10 KILOMETRES

FIGURE 27. Land subsidence, 1926-70, and location of subsidence profile, Tulare-Wasco area. Compiled from (1) 1948-70 subsidence (fig. 26 this report), (2) 1926-62 subsidence

(Lofgren and Klausing, 1969, fig. 50), and (3) 1962-70 subsidence (fig. 24 this report).

based on planimetry of figure 27. Of this area, about 

200,000 acres had subsided more than 5 feet, and 20,000 

acres had subsided 10 feet or more.

Land-subsidence profiles from Tulare to Famoso (fig. 

31) illustrate subsidence along a 44-mile reach of the 

Southern Pacific railroad for 10 periods since 1931. 

Leveling for these profiles was by the National Geodetic 

Survey, and the 1931 control has been used as the reference datum. Changes since the 1901-2 leveling of the 

Geological Survey are shown above the 1931 datum for

the eight bench marks recovered in 1931. Maximum 

subsidence since 1901-2 is 14.2 feet at bench mark N88 

between Pixley and Earlimart. This site has been the 

center of maximum subsidence continuously since 

1953-54.

ARVIN-MARICOPA AREA

As of 1970, about 700 square miles in the ArvinMaricopa area (fig. 3) had been affected by subsidence, 

and 100 square miles had subsided more than 5 feet.
150 

100

50

0 

19i

-

20

I I

Probable rate 

(estimated).

Average for per 

(computed) x

^(

od 1

I

.

\*

I 

f*~

I

X,^ _

-

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

15

H31

FIGURE 28. Rate of subsidence in the Tulare-Wasco area, 1926-70.

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURE 29. Cumulative volume of subsidence in the Tulare-Wasco area, 1926-70. Points 

indicate times of leveling control.

Lofgren (1975) described the geologic and hydrologic 

setting, the history of water-level decline, the available 

records of subsidence, and the compaction that has been 

measured in several wells to 1970.

The development of ground water south and east of 

the Kern River alluvial fan was described in some detail 

by Wood and Dale (1964). Although there was substantial development of ground water in the Arvin-Edison 

area by 1930, development in the area south of T. 31 S. 

was small until 1945. By 1950, most of the productive

ffi 10 - 

5 -

i Planimetered acreage within 

the lines of equal subsidence for fig. 27

Volume, 3.32 million 

acre-feet

2468 

AREA, IN HUNDRED THOUSAND ACRES

10

FIGURE 30. Relation of magnitude to area of subsidence, 1926-70, Tulare-Wasco area.

land was under cultivation, and many wells had been 

drilled to depths of 1,000-1,500 feet.

Figure 32 shows the water-level trend for three 

piezometers at 32S/28E-30D1 and the plot of subsidence 

at bench mark L365 near the center of the subsiding area (fig. 36). These piezometers, completed with 

well points at the depths indicated, were installed by 

the Bureau of Reclamation in 1952. The water levels in 

the three piezometers declined rapidly into 1957. The 

level in the shallow zone (No. 1) was about constant 

from 1957 to the end of record in 1961. The winter high 

water level for the intermediate zone (No. 2) at 611 feet 

declined 75 feet from 1957 to 1967 at a nearly uniform 

rate and then was about uniform into 1970. The level for 

the deep zone (No. 4) 1,220 feet below the land surface 

declined at roughly the same rate as No. 2 until 1962, 

although its peak water level was 2-3 months later than 

that in No. 2. In 1962, the level fell rapidly about 94 feet 

to 47 feet below the level in No. 2 piezometer, and the 

seasonal fluctuation nearly tripled, suggesting the 

onset of pumping draft from new and nearby irrigation 

wells. Since 1967, however, the winter high has been 

about constant. At bench mark L365, the average rate 

of subsidence (lower graph, fig. 32) for the period 1962- 

65 was equal to that of 1953-57, but from 1965 to 1970 

the average rate decreased noticeably in response to the 

lack of water-level decline in 1967-70.

The latest leveling of the bench-mark net in the 

Arvin-Maricopa area was in 1970. Figure 33 shows the 

magnitude and areal extent of subsidence for 1965-70. 

The maximum subsidence in the 5 years, centered 6 

miles northwest of Mettler, was 2.2 feet (fig. 33). A small 

secondary center of 0.4 foot enclosed the town of Arvin. 

About 530 square miles of land subsided more than 0.2 

foot in the period. The volume of subsidence in the 5 

years was 230,000 acre-feet. The average annual rate of 

subsidence in this 5 years was 0.44 foot at the center (fig. 

34).
H32 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

133d NI '30N3aisans
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H33

Bench mark L365 1.8 

miles northeast of 

32/28-30D1

Well 32/28E-30D1

No. 1. Perforated at 212 ft, unconfined 

No. 2. Perforated at 611 ft, confined 

No. 4. Perforated at 1,220 ft, confined

bench mark L365

300

350

1952 1955 1960 1965 1970

FIGURE 32. Hydrographs of three piezometers at 32S/28E-30D1 in the center of the Arvin-Maricopa subsidence area and the subsidence graph of a nearby bench mark. See figure 4 for

location of piezometers and bench mark.

From 1957 when the bench-mark net was established 

to 1970, subsidence exceeded 6 feet at the center 5 miles 

north of Wheeler Ridge (fig. 35). About 430 square miles 

of land extending from Bakersfield south to Wheeler 

Ridge and from Buena Vista Lake bed to 3 miles east of 

Arvin subsided more than 0.5 foot in the 13 years, and

about 160 square miles subsided more than 2 feet. The 

volume of subsidence in this period was 630,000 acrefeet.

The maximum subsidence from 1926 to 1970 (fig. 36) 

exceeded 9 feet at the center, and an area of 500 square 

miles had sunk more than 1 foot. The total area affected
H34 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

119°30' 

R. 23 E. R. 24 E.

119°15 

R. 25 E. R. 26 E R. 27 E

119° 00' 

R. 28 E. R. 29 E.

118°45' 

R. 30 E. R. 31 E.

35°15

35° 00

Line of equal subsidence 

Interval 0.2 -foot

R. 24 W. R. 23 W. R. 22 W. R. 21 W.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley, California, South Area, 1:250,000 1958

R. 20 W. R. 19 W. 

5 10 MILES

R. 18 W.

0 5 10 KILOMETRES

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

FIGURE 33. Land subsidence, 1965-70, in the Arvin-Maricopa area. Compiled from leveling of the National Greodetic Survey, March 1965 and January-May 1970.

was about 700 square miles. Using the leveling data for 

pre-1957 subsidence and figure 35 for post-1957 subsidence, figure 36 is an approximation of the total manmade subsidence in the Arvin-Maricopa area. The total 

volume of subsidence is estimated to be 1.06 million 

acre-feet, based on planimetry of figure 36.

The average rate of subsidence for the seven periods 

of leveling control beginning in 1926 is illustrated by 

the bar diagram of figure 37.

As already noted, bench marks along U.S. Highway 

99 from Bakersfield to Grapevine were first leveled in 

1926 and releveled periodically thereafter. The areal 

network was first leveled in 1957. To approximate the 

rate of subsidence for time intervals prior to 1957, the 

assumption was made that the volume of subsidence for 

the Arvin-Maricopa area increased proportionately to 

the respective areas under the 1926-57 subsidence

profiles along U.S. Highway 99 (fig. 40). Thus, the three 

approximate rate bars of figure 37 prior to 1957 were 

derived from the respective estimated volumes. The 

four since 1957 were by planimetry of the subsidence 

maps. The probable rate (dashed line) increased about 

sixfold from 1942 to 1948, was fairly constant to 1959, 

and increased to the maximum rate of 60,000 acre-feet 

per year in 1960 (owing to very deficient rainfall and 

runoff in 1959-61). From 1962 to 1970 the yearly rate 

has been about 48,000 acre-feet. Up to the time of the 

1970 leveling, no irrigation water had been delivered to 

the subsiding area through the California Aqueduct. 

Deliveries started in 1971 and water levels started to 

recover as a result of decreased pumping of ground 

water. As a result of decreasing stress, the subsidence 

rate began decreasing in 1971 as shown by the compaction record at well 11N/21W-3B1.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H35

35"15

35 "00

0.3 

Line of equal

subsidence rate

Interval 0.1 foot

per year

R. 24 W. R. 23 W. R. 22 W.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley, California, South Area, 1:250,000 1958

R. 21 W. R. 20 W. R. 19 W. 

5 10 MILES

R. 18 W.

0 5 10 KILOMETRES

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

FIGURE 34. Average annual rate of subsidence, 1965-70, Arvin-Maricopa area. Based on control data of figure 33.

As of 1970 the cumulative volume of subsidence since 

1926 was 1.06 million acre-feet (fig. 38). About 80 percent of the subsidence has occurred since 1950, and 44 

percent since 1960.

Figure 39 illustrates that the area affected by subsidence as of 1970 is about 700 square miles (450,000 

acres). About 500 square miles (320,000 acres) has sunk 

more than 1 foot, and 100 square miles (64,000 acres) 

has sunk 5 feet or more.

The rate, magnitude, and distribution of subsidence 

are well displayed in subsidence profiles. Two profile 

alinements are shown for the Arvin-Maricopa area (for 

location, see fig. 36): one extends from Bakersfield south 

to Grapevine (fig. 40); the second, about perpendicular 

to the first, extends from Maricopa east along the 

Maricopa Road (fig. 41).

In figure 40, the 1926 leveling used as a base was 

followed by partial releveling in 1935-39, 1942, and 

1947 and then by six relevelings from 1953 to 1970 

extending across the full 32-mile reach. The 1957 leveling marked the establishment of the bench-mark net 

over the full subsiding area. The profiles demonstrate 

that the axis of maximum subsidence has shifted 

northward slightly through the years and in 1970 was 

close to bench mark L365. Maximum subsidence was 

insignificant until 1942, increased to an average rate of 

0.35 foot per year in 1947-53, and 0.45 foot per year in 

1959-62.

The profiles of figure 41 extend 28 miles east from 

Maricopa to 3 miles east of U.S. Highway 99 and define 

an axis of subsidence at bench mark K367. Subsidence 

at this bench mark has been about 8.5 feet since the
H36 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

118°45' 

R. 30 E. R. 31 E.

35°15

35 "00'

R. 24 W. R. 23 W. R. 22 W. R. 21 W.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley, California, South Area, 1:250,000 1958

R. 20 W. R. 19 W. 

5 10 MILES

R. 18 W.

 2.0 

Line of equal

subsidence

Dashed where approximate. Interval 1.0 

foot except for 

0.5-foot line

0 5 10 KILOMETRES

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

FIGURE 35. Land subsidence, 1957-70, Arvin-Maricopa area. Compiled from leveling of the National Geodetic Survey, January-February 1957 and January to May 1970.

1935-39 base and was most rapid from 1959 to 1965, 

averaging about 0.5 foot per year. From 1965 to 1970 

the rate of subsidence averaged 0.38 foot per year.

RELATION OF SUBSIDENCE TO PUMP AGE

Recently, quantitative estimates of ground-water 

pumpage for agricultural use, based chiefly on metered 

electric power consumption and computed average 

power per acre-foot, have become available for the years 

1962-66 (Ogilbee and Rose,1969a; Mitten and Ogilbee, 

1971). These estimates provide the data to compare 

areally the volumes of subsidence and pumpage for a 

common 3-year period in both the Los BanosKettleman City and the Arvin-Maricopa areas. 

From these data, subsidence/pumpage ratio maps have 

been derived, this ratio being an approximation of the

proportion of pumpage derived from water of compaction (assumed equal to the subsidence volume).

LOS BANOS-KETTLEMAN CITY AREA

In the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, the pumpage and subsidence were compared on an areal basis 

for the 3-year period March 1963 to March 1966. In 

this appraisal, pumpage (Ogilbee and Rose, 1969b) was 

summed by unit area for the 3 years 1963-65 (agricultural power year Aprill-March 31),expressed in feet of 

water. The average subsidence for the same period 

(Bull, 1975, fig. 13), derived from leveling of the 

bench-mark net by the National Geodetic Survey in 

March 1963 and March 1966, was visually assigned to 

each unit area. A ratio of subsidence to pumpage was 

then derived for each unit area from the two sets of
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H37

119°30' 

R. 23 E.

35°15

35°00'

Line of equal subsidence 

Interval 1-foot

E'

R. 24 W. R. 23 W. R. 22 W.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley, California, South Area, 1:250,000 1958

R. 21 W. R. 20 W. R. 19 W. 

10 MILES

R. 18 W.

0 5 10 KILOMETRES

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

Alinement of subsidence

profiles

Profiles shown in figures 

40 and 41

Bench mark and number

FIGURE 36. Land subsidence, 1926-70, and location of subsidence profiles, Arvin-Maricopa area. Compiled chiefly as the sum of (1) approximated subsidence from 1926 to 1957 from leveling data of the National Geodetic Survey along U.S. Highway 99 and along Maricopa Road and (2) 1957-70 subsidence from figure 35.

numbers. The ratio values, entered in the center of each 

unit area, were then contoured to construct the lines of 

equal subsidence/pumpage ratio shown in figure 42.

The ratio in figure 42 ranges from less than 0.2 to 

more than 0.6, indicating that the percentage of pumpage derived from "water of compaction" ranged from a 

few percent to more than 60 percent. This ratio is related to the recharge characteristics of the compacting 

aquifer systems in the subsiding area and to the magnitude of delayed compaction occurring in response to 

prior water-level decline.

In figure 42, the ratio exceeds 0.6 both near the north 

end and at the south end of the map. In the northern 

area between Los Banos and Mendota where the ratio 

exceeds 0.6, the subsidence was small, ranging from 0.3

to 1.0 foot in the 3 years, and was largely in response to 

earlier head decline. But the pumpage also was small 

because much of this area is irrigated with surface 

water. Therefore the ratio far exceeded unity in some 

unit areas where pumpage was very small. In the 

southern area between Kettleman City and Stratford, 

the subsidence ranged from 0.4 to 2.0 feet in the 3 years. 

In several of the unit areas, pumpage was very small, in 

part because of surface-water irrigation from the Kings 

River. In years of abundant surface-water supply, the 

ratio would be higher than in years of deficient supply 

because the quantity of ground water pumped varies 

more significantly than the subsidence on a year-toyear basis. Also, the rate of water-level decline in response to pumping in this area, and hence the rate of
bffi

...LU

Q 10 on 20

STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE 

10

Probable rate 

(estimated)

Average for period x^ (computed) ^~"~ *"

0

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURE 37. Rate of subsidence in the Arvin-Maricopa area, 1926-70.

1.2

tu

ff 1-0

lien 0.8

0.6

LU

0.4

8 ° 2

1940 1950 1960 1970

FIGURB 38. Cumulative volume of subsidence in the Arvin-Maricopa area, 1926-70. Points 

indicate times of leveling control.

subsidence, is increased by the barrier effect of the 

fine-grained deposits beneath Tulare Lake bed which 

inhibit recharge from the east.

In the remainder of the mapped area of figure 42, the 

ratio is irregular, without any specific pattern. Nearly 

all the recharge moves southwest across the trough 

(Fresno Slough) as underflow. Subsidence decreases 

rapidly to the east of Fresno Slough, as historic headdecline decreases. Therefore, as would be expected, the 

ratio is less than 0.2 along much of the valley trough. 

The two central areas along Fresno Slough where the 

ratio is greater than 0.4 are irrigated chiefly with sur-

\

^PlarUmetered acreage with- 

\ in the lines of equal sub- 

\ sidence for fig. 36

Volume, 1.06 million 

acre-feet

012345 

AREA, IN HUNDRED THOUSAND ACRES

FIGURE 39. Relation of magnitude to area of subsidence, 1926-70, Arvin-Maricopa area.

face water. For this reason the ground-water pumpage 

is low, which explains the high ratio.

In several areas bordering the foothills, the ratio is 

less than 0.2. These low ratios are related chiefly to 

small values of subsidence in an area where the 

subsidence/head-decline ratio has been very low (Bull 

and Poland, 1975, fig. 32), even though the historic head 

decline has been many hundreds of feet. In general, 

water wells adjacent to the foothills tap older deposits 

than wells to the east at equal depths. These older 

deposits have substantially lower average compressibilities than the younger deposits to the east, and 

therefore the subsidence/pumpage ratios also tend to be 

low.

The total pumpage from the area for which the 

subsidence/pumpage ratio is mapped in figure 42 was 

about 3.7 million acre-feet in the 3 years. The subsidence in the same area was about 1.1 million acre-feet. 

Thus, the average "water of compaction" for the 3 years 

was approximately 30 percent of the pumpage.

ARVIN-MARICOPA AREA

In the Arvin-Maricopa area, the pumpage and 

subsidence were compared for the 3-year period March 

1962 to March 1965. Pumpage estimates (Ogilbee and 

Rose, 1969a) are available for this exact period, and a 

subsidence map is available from leveling of the 

bench-mark net by the National Geodetic Survey in 

January 1962 and March 1965 (Lofgren, 1975, pi. 4C).
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H39

E

Bakersfield 

C55

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED

16 20 24 28 32

DISTANCE, IN MILES 

FIGURE 40. Profiles of land subsidence E-E' along U.S. Highway 99, Bakersfield to Grapevine, 1926-70.

The subsidence/pumpage ratio was computed for all 

unit areas enclosed within or crossed by the 0.2-foot line 

of equal subsidence for the 1962-64 period (shown in 

figure 43). The method of computation was the same as 

has been described for the Los Banos-Kettleman City 

area. The ratio map so obtained (fig. 43) is remarkably 

similar in shape to the longer term subsidence maps for 

the area. The ratio, which is the proportion of water 

pumped in the 3 years that was derived from compaction 

of the ground-water reservoir, ranges from 0.01 (1 percentjat several points around the perimeter of the subsiding area to more than 40 percent in the area of 

maximum subsidence.

The subsidence/pumpage ratios of figure 43 are a 

rough indication of the recharge characteristics of the 

ground-water reservoir. Where recharge is adequate, 

little or no long-term water-level decline or associated 

subsidence occur and subsidence/pumpage ratios are 

small, even though pumping may have been substantial. In the central part of the subsiding area, however,

water levels have declined rapidly in response to pumping, and as much as 40 percent of the water is mined 

from the compressible beds.

ANALYSIS OF STRESSES CAUSING SUBSIDENCE

Increase in effective stress (grain-to-grain load) is 

the cause of compaction of sediments. Change in stress 

can be examined in terms of total, fluid, and effective 

stresses, the classical method, or solely in terms of effective stresses. There are advantages to each approach. 

The idealized pressure diagram of figure 44 utilizes the 

classical method to illustrate the stresses that cause 

subsidence (Poland and Davis, 1969, p. 194). The withdrawal of water from wells reduces the head in the 

aquifers tapped and increases the effective stress borne 

by the aquifer matrix. In 1925, Terzaghi introduced the 

theory of effective stress,

p = p' + uw
H40 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

Mettler

VERTICAL SCALE GREATLY EXAGGERATED

12 16 

DISTANCE, IN MILES

20 24 28

FIGURE 41. Profiles of land subsidence F-F' along the Maricopa Road, Maricopa to Mettler, 1935-39 to 1970.

where

p' = effective stress (effective overburden pressure or grain-to-grain load),

p = total stress (geostatic pressure), and

uw = pore pressure (fluid pressure or neutral 

stress).

The lowering of artesian head in a confined aquifer 

system, for example, from depthZjto z 3 in figure 44, does 

not change the geostatic pressure appreciably. Therefore, the increase in effective stress in the confined 

aquifers is equal to the decrease in fluid pressure. The 

compaction in these is immediate and is chiefly recoverable if fluid pressure is restored, but usually it is small. 

On the other hand, in the aquitards (fine-grained 

interbeds) and confining beds, which have low vertical 

permeability and high specific storage under virgin 

stressing, the vertical escape of water and the adjustment of pore pressures is slow and time dependent. 

Hence, in these fine-grained beds the stress increase 

applied by the head decline in the confined aquifers

becomes effective only as rapidly as pore pressures 

decay toward equilibrium with those in adjacent aquifers. (See dashed pore-pressure lines of fig. 44, where mt 

represents the excess pore pressure at time t.) Attainment of pore-pressure equilibrium (dotted lines) may 

take months or years; the time varies directly as the 

specific storage and the square of the draining thickness 

and inversely as the vertical hydraulic conductivity of 

the aquitard or the confining bed.

Although not illustrated in figure 44, it is readily 

apparent that increase of fluid pressure from a steadystate condition decreases effective stress and causes 

expansion of the pressurized sediments (as in subsidence control and underground waste disposal). Fluid 

pressure cannot exceed geostatic pressures without 

causing uplift of the overburden.

The stress relations of figure 44 serve to illustrate the 

principle of effective stress, but do not emphasize the 

hydrodynamic cause of compaction. Actually, the downward hydraulic gradient developed across the confining 

bed by the head decline induces downward movement of 

water through the pores that exerts a viscous drag on 

the clay particles. The stress so exerted on the particles
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

120° 30'

H41

120 e OO'

37°00'

36 e 30'

36 e OO'

EXPLANATION

Boundary of deformed rocks

-0.2

Line of equal subsidence/ 

pumpage ratio

RATIO

>0.6

10 15 MILES

10 15 KILOMETRES Kettleman City

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley map, 1:250,000, 1958

FIGURE 42. Proportion ofpumpage derived from water of compaction, 1963-66, in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area.

in the direction of flow is a seepage stress. We have 

found it quantitatively convenient in treating complex 

aquifer systems to compute effective stresses and stress

changes in terms of gravitational and seepage stresses, 

which are algebraically additive. The following brief 

discussion is largely summarized from a paper by Lof-
H42 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

119°00' 

R. 28 E. R. 29 E.

118°45' 

R. 30 E. R. 31 E.

35°15

35°00'

 0.2 

Line of 0.2 foot of subsidence 1962-65

0.30-

R. 24 W. R. 23 W. R. 22 W. R. 21 W.

Base from U.S. Geological Survey Central 

Valley, California, South Area, 1:250,000 1958

R. 20 W. R. 19 W. 

5 10 MILES

0 5 10 KILOMETRES

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 FEET 

DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

Line of equal subsidence/ 

R. 18 W. pumpage ratio

0.19

Computed subsidence/ 

pumpage ratio for 

quarter township

FIGURE 43. Proportion of pumpage derived from water of compaction, 1962-65, in the Arvin-Maricopa area.

gren (1968) on the analysis of stresses causing land 

subsidence and also in part from Bull and Poland 

(1975).

Diagram A of figure 45 illustrates part of a confined 

aquifer system containing an aquitard, overlain by a 

confining bed and an unconfined aquifer. The water 

table and the potentiometric surface of the confined 

system are initially at the same depth; hence, fluid 

pressure at all depths is hydrostatic. If we assume an 

average porosity, n, of 40 percent, an average specific 

gravity, G, of 2.70 for the grains, an average specific 

retention, rs, of 0.20, and let the unit weight of water be 

unity, then the effective unit weight of moist deposits 

above the water table, ym , equals 1.8 feet of water per 

foot of thickness:

ym =[G(l-n)+rs]yw or [2.7(1-0.4)+0.20]1=1.8

Also, the effective submerged, or buoyant, weight of 

saturated deposits, y&, equals 1 foot of water per foot of 

thickness:

y6 =(l-n)(G-!)? , or (1-0.4)(2.7-1)1 = 1.0

If these gravitational stresses are expressed in feet of 

water (1 ft of water = 0.433 Ib in ~2, they can be added 

directly to hydraulic stresses.

Vectors to the right of diagram A (fig. 45) represent 

the two components of effective gravitational stress at 

three depths. At the 400-foot depth, for example, the 

stress due to the unsaturated deposits, s, equals 200 feet 

of thickness times 1.8, or 360 feet of water; the stress 

due to the buoyant weight of submerged deposits, b, 

equals 200 x 1.0, or 200 feet of water. The sum of s+b, or 

560 feet of water, is the grain-to-grain stress at this 

plane of reference. The effective stress of the saturated
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

T

H43

200

400

800

-Head 

reduction 

confined 

aquifer 

system

600 

1000 *

SECTION 200 400 600

PRESSURE, IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH

800

FIGURE 44. Pressure for unconfined aquifer and confined aquifer system; head reduction, confined aquifer system only.

deposits increases directly with depth below the water 

table, as indicated by the increasing vector lengths, 6, at 

the base of the confining bed and the top of the aquitard. 

If the potentiometric surface of the confined aquifer 

system is drawn down 100 feet as in diagrams, gravitational stresses remain as in A because the water table is 

unchanged. However, a downward hydraulic gradient 

is developed across the confining bed, which induces 

downward movement of water through the pores and 

exerts a viscous drag on the grains. The force transferred to the grains at any depth is measured by the 

head loss to that depth. The stress so exerted on the 

grains in the direction of flow is called a seepage stress. 

This third effective stress component, represented by 

vector J, is algebraically additive to the gravitational 

stresses and is transmitted downward through the 

confined aquifer system. The solid vectors to the right of 

diagramB indicate the net change in effective stress at 

the base of the confining bed and below, from the hydrostatic condition of diagram A, Because the water table 

is unchanged, the net change is the change in seepage 

stress, which is equal to the decrease in fluid (neutral) 

pressure represented by line C-F (base of aquiclude).

The increase in effective stress in the permeable 

aquifers occurs simultaneously with decrease in head, 

but decrease of pore pressure in aquitards and confining 

beds is delayed because of their high compressibility 

and low permeability. During this period of transient 

pressures, the effective stress can increase only as 

rapidly as the excess pore-pressure decreases. The general pattern of decay is illustrated in diagram B in the 

confining bed by dashed line B-E-F and in the aquitard 

by dashed line H-I-J. Full dissipation of excess pore 

pressures to equilibrium (dashed lines B-F and H-J) 

may require months or years. Note that water drains 

through both boundaries of the aquitard, but only 

through the lower boundary of the confining bed under 

the specified conditions.

If the potentiometric surface of the confined aquifer 

system remains constant and the water table is lowered 

or raised, both gravitational and seepage stresses 

change, but with opposite sign (not illustrated in fig. 45, 

but see Lofgren and Klausing, 1969, fig. 52). For example, if the water table is lowered and the parameters are 

as assumed earlier, the change in gravitational stress is 

+0.8 foot of water per foot of lowering; however, the unit
H44 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

200

- 400

600

800

5 = Stress due to unsaturated deposits

Potentiometric /Water tab.e / rface 

» - 

Unconfined 

aquifer

b= Stress due 

to submerged 

deposits

Confined 

aquifer

Aquitard

| system \L

0 200 400 600 

STRESS, IN FEET OF WATER

A. WATER TABLE AND POTENTIOMETRIC 

SURFACE COMMON

0 200 400 600 

STRESS, IN FEET OF WATER

B. WATER TABLE CONSTANT, POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE LOWERED

FIGURE 45. Effective stress for a confined aquifer system overlain by an unconfined aquifer.

change in seepage stress (differential between water 

table and potentiometric surface of confined system) is 

 1.0 foot, and so the net unit change in applied stress in 

the confined system is 0.2 foot of water. Conversely, if 

the water table is raised, the net change in applied 

stress is +0.2 foot per foot of rise.

In summary, water-level fluctuations change effective stresses in the following two ways:

1. A rise of the water table provides buoyant support for 

the grains in the zone of the change, and a decline 

removes the buoyant support; these changes in 

gravitational stress are transmitted downward to 

all underlying deposits.

2. A change in position of either the water table or the 

artesian head, or both, may induce vertical hydraulic gradients across confining or semiconfining beds and thereby produce a seepage stress. 

This stress is algebraically additive to the gravitational stress that is transmitted downward to all 

underlying deposits. A change in effective stress 

results if preexisting seepage stresses are altered 

in direction or magnitude. 

The change in applied stress within a confined aquifer

system, due to changes in both the water table and the

artesian head, may be summarized concisely (Poland

and others, 1972, p. 6) as

where pa is the applied stress expressed in feet of water, 

hc is the head (assumed uniform in the confined aquifer 

system, hu is the head in the overlying unconfined 

aquifer, and Ys is the average specific yield (expressed 

as a decimal fraction) in the interval of water-table 

fluctuation.

In the San Joaquin Valley, the areas in which subsience has been appreciable coincide generally with the 

areas in which ground water is withdrawn chiefly from 

confined aquifer systems (figs. 1, 4; also Poland and 

Davis, 1969, fig. 32). Furthermore, the great increases 

in stress applied to the sediments in the ground-water 

reservoir by the intensive mining of ground water have 

developed chiefly as increased seepage stresses on the 

confined aquifer systems.

METHODS FOR STOPPING OR ALLEVIATING 

SUBSIDENCE

Studies of land subsidence in California and in other 

parts of the world furnish conclusive evidence that decrease in artesian head increases effective stress, causing compaction of sediments and correlative land subsidence (Poland and Davis, 1969). Conversely, increase 

in artesian head decreases effective stress and slows or 

stops land subsidence. In a compacting confined system, 

if fluid pressures in the aquifers are increased, the rate 

of subsidence will decrease; if fluid pressures in the 

aquifers are increased sufficiently to eliminate all excess pore pressures in the aquitards, subsidence will 

stop.

If artesian head declines for several years, causing 

compaction, and subsequently the head fluctuates seasonally with about the same maximum stress application (depth to water) each year, compaction will continue, but the annual rate of net compaction will gradually decrease until hydraulic equilibrium is reached 

until pore pressures in the fine-grained beds attain 

steady state with pressures in adjacent aquifers. Compaction (and subsidence) will then stop. (Parameters 

determining the time required to reach equilibrium 

are on page 40.) If the artesian head in the system then 

recovers to a higher level, it can subsequently be drawn
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H45

down to the prior maximum effective-stress level without inducing appreciable compaction and subsidence. 

Effects of secondary consolidation, due to internal processes that continue after pore pressures reach steady 

state, are not considered in this discussion.

Remedial action to raise water levels can be accomplished by reducing ground-water pumpage or increasing recharge, or both. In an area that has been 

intensively developed agriculturally by overdraft of the 

ground-water supply, reduction of pumping does not 

occur until pumping lifts or well yields become uneconomic, water quality becomes unusable, an adjudication of water rights is reached through legal procedures, or until water is imported.

As of 1972, surface water was being imported into all 

three principal subsiding areas in the San Joaquin Valley (fig. 3). These imports now constitute a large part of 

the applied irrigation water in each area and have replaced much of the ground-water withdrawal of prior 

years. Therefore, a brief summary of the quantity of 

imports to each of the subsiding areas follows.

Imports to the northern part of the Los BanosKettleman City area began in 1951 when the Bureau of 

Reclamation completed the Delta-Mendota Canal. Supplemental water from that canal has been used only in 

the northern part of the area (north of the midline of 

T. 14 S. (fig. 4). Surface-water deliveries from the 

Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta through the joint-use 

reach of the California Aqueduct to the San Luis service 

area of the Bureau of Reclamation (for location, see Bull 

and Poland, 1975, fig. 40) began in 1967 (table 3). This 

service area occupies most of the Los Banos-Kettleman 

city area west of Fresno Slough and, as of 1967, utilized 

930,000 acre-feet of ground-water pumpage about 90 

percent of the total ground-water pumpage in the area 

(Mitten, 1972). Imports to the service area through the 

104-mile Federal-State joint-use reach of the California 

Aqueduct (fig. 46) increased from 19,000 acre-feet in 

1967 to 650,000 acre-feet in 1971. Of this 1971 total, 

450,000 acre-feet was used on cropland downslope from 

the aqueduct, and 200,000 acre-feet was used upslope. 

Deliveries through 1971 were most extensive north of 

T. 17S., but by December 1971 water was being delivered throughout the aqueduct joint-use reach to Kettleman City, although no distribution laterals had been 

completed south of T. 19 S. These importations have had 

a very significant effect on water levels because several 

hundred irrigation wells have been shut down. The 

artesian head for the lower zone rose about 60 feet from 

December 1967 to December 1971 and slowed subsidence rates substantially during that period. (See figs. 

12, 16.) Deliveries in 1972 rose to 865,000 acre-feet, 93 

percent of the estimated ground-water pumpage from 

the San Luis service area in 1967.

Surface-water imports into the Tulare-Wasco area

from the Friant-Kern Canal of the Bureau of Reclamation began in 1949 and since the early 1950's have 

served as a supplemental irrigation supply to irrigation 

districts throughout the area (fig. 47). Cumulative imports to yearend 1972 were 15.5 million acre-feet. (See 

table 4.) As noted earlier (Lofgren and Klausing, 1969, 

fig. 14, table 3), Friant-Kern Canal deliveries, on the 

average, represent roughly 80 percent of the total 

surface-water inflow to the Tulare-Wasco area and have 

had a marked effect on both the ground-water pumpage 

and subsidence rates through the years.

Imports into the Arvin-Maricopa area since 1962, 

from the Friant-Kern Canal and the California 

Aqueduct, are shown in figure 48. Deliveries to the 

Rosedale-Rio Bravo Water Storage District, released

TABLE 3. Surface-water deliveries through the joint-use reach of the 

California Aqueduct to the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, 1967-72

[In thousand acre-feet per calendar year; data from U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Deliveries 

are to San Luis service area and include water pumped from Mendota Pool by Westlands 

Water District]

Year

1967 _ __ _ __

1968 __________

1969

1970 _ _ _ _ __

1971 __ ___ __

1972 __ _ _ ____

Total 

deliveries

19

____________ 209

306

_ _________ 478

650

____________ 865

Part from Mendota Pool 

included in total

18

26

15

15

23

23

1000

750

500

cr

UJ

J

UJ

Q 250

FIGURE 46. Surface-water imports from the joint-use reach of the California Aqueduct to the 

Los Banos-Kettleman City area, 1967-72. (Imports include water from Mendota Pool but 

exclude deliveries from Delta-Mendota Canal; data from U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.)
H46 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

into the Kern River channel from the Friant-Kern Canal, began in 1962 and undoubtedly have affected subsequent water levels on the north margin of the subsidence area. Deliveries from the Friant-Kern Canal to 

the Arvin-Edison Water Storage District on the eastern 

and southern part of the area south of the Kern River 

began in 1966 and have since been a major source of 

water supply. Then in 1971, deliveries from the California Aqueduct replaced much of the ground-water pumping around the south and west margins of the area. In 

1971 the combined importation from the Friant-Kern 

Canal and California Aqueduct was 250,000 acre-feet 

(table 5), or about 40 percent of the annual pumpage of 

ground water from the subsiding area from 1962 

through 1964 (Lofgren, 1975, table 6). In 1972, a year of 

low precipitation and runoff in California, the combined 

importation decreased to 247,500 acre-feet, but importI£3U

hlit

lit

u- 1000

UJ DC

0

z

co 750

ID

O

I

Z

CO

UJ 500

DC

UJ

UJ

Q

< 250 

0 

\

_

r77-r

J

777

^^

, _ l

~

rW

. ^

_

 ^-r^

T *

____

 

o o in o in o ! ^ in in <o <o r-~ r-~

O) O) O) O> O> O) O)

FIGURE 47. Surface-water deliveries from the Friant-Kern Canal to irrigation districts in 

the Tulare-Wasco area, 1949-72. (Data in thousand acre-feet per calendar year, from U.S. 

Bureau of Reclamation.)

TABLE 4. Summary of surface-water deliveries from the Friant-Kern 

Canal to irrigation districts in the Tulare-Wasco area, 1949-72

[In thousand acre-feet per calendar year; data from U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Imports 

through 1964 given by district in Lofgren and Klausing, 1969, table 3]

Year

1949___

1950 

1951___

1952 _

1953 

1954- .

1955 

1956 

Delivery

31

 163

 304

 412

 573

 627

 724

 868

Year

1957 

1958 

1959 

I960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

Delivery

.__ 788

.__ 800

724

441

.__ 374

.__ 1,096

. _ 1,042

.__ 638

Year

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970_____.

1971__ _ _

1972_____.

TotalDelivery

1,137

660

870

519

809

722

693

533

15,548

ation through the California Aqueduct increased 85 

percent from 1971. Total imports from 1962 through 

1972 equaled 1,036,000 acre-feet (table 5).

The importation of surface water to replace mining of 

ground water has two Effects, not necessarily entirely 

beneficial, with respect to subsidence alleviation. The 

immediate effect is to reduce or eliminate pumping of 

ground water in the area of surface-water delivery, 

causing the artesian head to rise in the zones experiencing reduced pumping. This effect is wholly beneficial 

because it reduces seepage stresses and hence effective 

stresses. The second effect of importation is to increase 

recharge because any imported water that seeps 

through the soil zone and reaches the water table, 

whether from stream channels, canals, ditches, or field 

irrigation is a net increase to the ground-water supply. 

This increase tends to raise the water table. If the recharge is accomplished in deposits in hydraulic continuity with a compacting confined system, such as the 

recharge (intake) area for that system, then buildup of 

the water table will be transmitted to the confined system as a pressure increase. This pressure increase will

300

250

UJ

UJ

u.

in 200

DC

O

Q

HOUSANI

n

DELIVERIES, Tl IN 

o o c

_l

z

o 

50

n

_

California Aqueduct

(southwestern part of area)-^.

Friant-Kern Canal

(southeastern part of area)\

K

Friant-Kerh Canal N^

(northern part of area) Os

\ v1I\>

1

1x>1

111

i

1

|

IV

I

I

|

IS^

^,

1

|

FIGURE 48. Surface-water imports to the Arvin-Maricopa area, 1962-72.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H47

TABLE 5. Surface-water imports from the Friant-Kern Canal and the 

California Aqueduct to the Arvin-Maricopa area, 1962-72

[Deliveries, in thousand acre-feet]

Year Friant-Kern Canal California Aqueduct1 Combined

1962________

1963______-

1964 _______

1965________

1966.__.____

l967_____-_

1968____.___

1969__ 

1970__ _____

1971____ __

1972______._

_.__ 9.8

15.9

____ 8.8

____ 43.7

____ 85.5

_ _ 54.6

176.8

143.0

149.5

____ 62.5

______ 9.8

___ __ 15.9

____ 8.8

______ 43.7

85.5

______ 54.6

_ ___ 176.8

143.0

100.9 250.4

185.0 247.5

Total ...- _ - -____ _- _ __ .._____. .__- 1,036.0

'South of Buena Vista Pumping Plant.

be beneficial in decreasing effective stress on the confined system. Also, if recharge can be accomplished by 

injection through wells directly in the confined system, 

the pressure buildup will be directly beneficial.

If, however, the recharge from the imported water 

percolates down to a water table in unconfined or 

semiconfined deposits overlying a compacting confined 

aquifer system, as occurs in most of the principal subsiding areas in the San Joaquin Valley, any buildup of the 

overlying water table will be nonbeneficial with respect 

to the confined system. The water-table rise will have 

the net effect of increasing stress applied to the confined 

system by 0.2 foot per foot of rise. (See page 44.)

Thus, in much of the area now being supplied with 

imported water, the net change in effective stress on the 

confined aquifers is the result of two opposing components, a recovery of artesian head in the confined system due to the decrease in pumping and a rise of an 

overlying but hydraulically separate water table due to 

recharge by imported water moving down through the 

unsaturated zone. Because the recovery of artesian 

head decreases the effective stress 1 foot per foot of head 

rise, whereas the water-table rise increases the effective 

stress only 0.2 foot per foot of water-table rise (for the 

parameters assumed earlier), each 1 foot of artesian 

head rise offsets 5 feet of water-table rise. Furthermore, 

the recovery of artesian head is very substantial as 

shown by several of the graphs (figs. 8-11, 23, and several of the computer plots), but the rise in water table 

(not shown) is small.

In the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, for example, 

the hydrograph for well 16/15-34N4 (fig. 6L4; for location, see fig. 50) shows artesian-head recovery of about 

80 feet from mid-1968 to the end of 1970, whereas the 

water table in well 16/15-34N5 (fig. 6L4.) rose only 2 feet 

in the 2Vfe years. Hence, at this site, the effective stress 

on the confined aquifer system decreased by about 80 

feet during the 2%-year period. The general recovery of 

artesian head in 1969 through 1971 produced a dramatic decrease in the rate of subsidence. (See figures 12, 

16.)

In the Tulare-Wasco area, recovery of artesian head 

northeast of Delano has been as much as 230 feet since 

1950 (fig. 23). At the same site, the rise in the water 

table has been about 90 feet. Thus, the effective stress 

on the confined aquifers decreased about 210 feet in the 

20 years. Even though 12 feet of subsidence occurred in 

this general area from 1926-54 (Lofgren and Klausing, 

1969, fig. 43) and shows as a 12-foot subsidence "hole" 

on the long-term subsidence map of 1926-70 (fig. 27), 

subsidence from 1962 to 1970 was negligible (figs. 23, 

24).

MEASUREMENT OF COMPACTION

Two principal objectives of the cooperative program 

with the California Department of Water Resources on 

land-subsidence studies, and essential elements of the 

Federal program on mechanics of aquifer systems, are 

to determine the depth interval(s) in which compaction 

is occurring and to measure the magnitude and the time 

distribution of the compaction where possible. Such information, together with periodic measurement of land 

subsidence as determined by spirit-level surveys to surface bench marks, is essential to determining the cause 

of subsidence and for monitoring the magnitude and the 

change in rate of subsidence. Also, when coupled with 

measurement of water-level or head change in the 

stressed aquifer systems, these data supply the parameters required for stress-compaction or stress-strain 

analysis.

As an initial step in developing techniques for 

measuring compaction, the Geological Survey installed 

the first equipment to record compaction in well 19/17- 

35N1, 16 miles northwest of Kettleman City in 1955. 

The equipment constituted a heavy weight lowered to 

the bottom of the well (2,030 ft below land surface) on an 

attached cable that was counterweighted at the land 

surface to maintain constant tension. Compaction was 

measured continuously by a recorder mounted over the 

casing and attached to the downhole cable. Both the 

equipment and the record of compaction to the autumn 

of 1960, when the cable failed because of corrosion, have 

been described by Lofgren (1961, p. B49-B51 and figs. 

24.1,24.2; also see Bull and Poland, 1975, fig. 11). In 4.8 

years, measured compaction within the 2,030-footdepth interval was 3.8 feet, or 82 percent of land-surface 

subsidence of 4.6 feet in the same period.

Because of the success of the first installation, in 1958 

the Survey began installing a large number of compaction recorders (extensometers) in selected wells in the 

valley. Companion water-level recorders also were installed wherever possible to measure the change in 

applied stress. By the end of 1961, 18 extensometers 

were operating, and by 1969 there were 31. Of these, 22
H48 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

were in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, 6 in the 

Tulare-Wasco area, and 3 in the Arvin-Maricopa area. 

Water levels were being measured in 21 of these wells 

and in 4 supplementary wells. Bull (1975, table 1) gave 

supplementary information for the 22 wells in the Los 

Banos-Kettleman City area. Several improvements in 

measuring equipment have been made since the first 

installation in 1955. Figure 49 is a diagram of the recording compaction gage and illustrates the general 

type of equipment used in the later installations.

Figure 50 shows the location of the 31 sites where 

water-level changes and compaction of the waterbearing deposits are currently being measured. Table 6 

summarizes the net annual compaction rate (in feet per 

year) at each of the 31 sites through 1970 and also gives 

compaction in 8 additional depth intervals defined by 

multiple-depth installations. For example, at 12/12- 

16H, wells H2, 3, and 4 are respectively 1,000, 350, and 

500 feet deep. The extensometer in well H2 records total 

compaction from land surface to the 1,000-foot depth, 

and the extensometer in H4 measures the compaction 

from land surface to the 500-foot depth. By subtracting 

the compaction in H4 from that in H2, the compaction of 

the 500-1,000-foot-depth interval is calculated. Watersheaves

mounted in 

teeter, bar \

Counterweights'

Bench mark\

Cable, 1/8-inch stainlesssteel, 1 x 19 stranded 

reverse lay

-Recorder

-Compaction tape

-Steel table

-Clamp

Concrete slab

' Well casing 

4-13 inches

Anchor weight, 

200-300 poundsFIGURE 49. Recording compaction gage.

level and compaction data from these sites are plotted 

and interpreted by computer and are monitoring the 

characteristics and changes of the aquifer system at 

these selected locations.

The maximum recorded compaction of 10.85 feet from 

September 1958 through 1970 occurred at well 16/15- 

34N1, which is 2,000 feet deep and is adjacent to the 

California Aqueduct in the joint-use reach in western 

Fresno County.

Four wells in the Tulare-Wasco area showed negative 

compaction in certain years. For example, the record for 

well 24/26-34F1 shows negative compaction in the 4 

years 1962, 1965, 1967, and 1969. In other words, the 

extensometer registered net expansion of the measured 

interval (0-1, 510 ft) during each of those 4 years. Figure 72 shows depth to water (A), change in applied 

stress (B), measured compaction (C), and a stresscompaction plot (D) for this well. Inspection of graph B 

indicates that in each of these 4 years the applied stress 

at yearend was less than at the beginning. Evidently 

the elastic expansion due to the net decrease in stress 

was larger than any continuing compaction of the central parts of the thicker aquitards. Hence the aquifer 

system showed net expansion for each of these years. By 

1967, the stress change being applied was wholly in the 

elastic range. In the 4 years 1967-70, the net expansion 

of the aquifer system was 0.012 foot.

INTERRELATIONS OF WATER-LEVEL CHANGE, 

COMPACTION, AND SUBSIDENCE

EXAMPLES OF STRESS-STRAIN GRAPHS

Field measurements of compaction and correlative 

change in water level serve as continuous monitors of 

subsidence and indicators of the response of the system 

to change in applied stress. They also can be utilized to 

construct stress-strain curves from which, under certain favorable conditions, one can derive storage and 

compressibility parameters of the aquifer system, as 

demonstrated by Riley (1969).

Two examples will serve to illustrate the stress-strain 

relations obtained from the measuring sites in the San 

Joaquin Valley and the significance of these curves. 

Figure 51 depicts the stress-strain relations at a site 

where compaction of the aquifer system has continued 

uninterrupted since 1958 and there has been no net 

expansion of the measured interval at any time. The 

other, figure 52, shows stress-strain relations since 

1967 at a site where aquifer-system response has been 

in the elastic range of stressing (expanding when the 

stress is decreased) when the depth to water has been 

less than about 180 feet.

At site 16/15-34N, on the west side of the valley 18 

miles south of Mendota (fig. 50), compaction is recorded 

in three adjacent wells, 503, 703, and 2,000 feet deep.
121'

SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

120' 119 C

37° -

36° -

35° 

Base from U.S. Geological Survey 

1:1,000,000, State base map, 1940

FIGURE 50. Water-level and compaction measuring sites.

The record from the multiple-depth installation indicates the magnitude and rate of compaction, not only 

within the well depths but also within the depth intervals between well bottoms. Figure 51 is a plot of compaction for the depth interval 703-2,000 feet below land

surface versus the change in applied stress in this interval, as represented by change in water level in well 

16/15-34N4 (fig. 61A, B). The interval compacted 7.9 

feet from 1958 through 1970 (table 6; fig. GIF). The 

horizontal distance between the vertical lines drawn at
H50 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

TABLE 6. Annual compaction rates at compaction-measuring sites, San Joaquin Valley

[In order to arrive at consistent sums, the amount of annual compaction is shown to a thousandth of a foot; however.many of the measured yearly rates are not accurate to less than a few

hundredths of a foot]

w ,, Anchor depth Depth 0 c

we" when installed interval btartot 1958 1959 1960 196! 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966, 1967 1968 1969 1970 number ^ ^ record1 compaction

Los Banos-Kettleman City area

12/12-16H3L 

16H4 - - -

16H2 _ _

16H2 _ _ _

13/12-20D1 _ _ _

13/15-35D5 _ . _

14/12-12H1 _ . _

14/13-11D4 - - -

11D6 _ _ _

11D6 _ _

15/13-11D2 _ _ _

15/16-31N3 - _-

16/15-34N3 _ _ _

34N2 . . .

34N1 _ _ .

34N1 _ _ .

34N4 _ _ _

16/15-34N43 - _

17/15-14Q1 _ _

18/16-33A1 _ . _

18/19-20P2 . _ .

19/16-23P2 _ _ _

20/18-6D1

11Q1 . _ _

11Q23 _

11Q2 _ . _

11Q3 .

11Q3 _ .

350

500

1,000

1,000

681

440

913

780

1,358

1,358

958

596

503

703

2,000

2,000

1,096

900

2,315

1,029

578

2,200

867

710

845

845

1,930

1,930

0- 350

350- 500

500-1,000

0-1,000

0- 681

0- 440

0- 913

0- 780

780-1,358

0-1,358

0- 958

0- 596

0- 503

503- 703

703-2,000

0-2,000

0-1,096

0- 900

0-2,315

0-1,029

0- 578

0-2,200

0- 867

0- 710

0- 845

710- 845

845-1,930

0-1,930

5/19/58

5/19/58

5/19/58

5/19/58

10/10/61

5/13/66

1/10/65

1/1/61

5/25/61

5/25/61

1/11/65

3/23/67

9/25/58

9/25/58

9/25/58

9/25/58

8/16/60

9/15/64

11/4/69

3/10/65

3/24/67

1/2/60

1/11/65

7/24/64

2/27/63

7/24/64

2/27/63

1/1/63

0.052

.032

.211

.295

.010

.094

.286

.390

0.053

.087

.302

.442

.118

.232

.857

1.207

-0.004

.019

.293

.308

.093

.123

.717

.933

.232

.508

0.013

.002

.325

.340

.077

.310

.354

.480

.087

.191

.867

1.145

.661

.660

0.036

.008

.158

.202

.340

.196

.462

.658

.138

.167

.697

1.002

.648

.553

0.005

.003

.187

.195

.215

.222

.259

.481

.082

.172

.710

.964

2 .416

.378

.230"

.261

.611

0.008

.011

.173

.192

.119

.199

.400

.599

.096

.174

.829

1.099

.424

.115

.330

.025

.212

.542

0.007

.013

.066

.086

.182

.414

.108

.322

.430

.204

.082

.104

.634

.820

.358

.128

.259

.273

.259

.300

.041

.357

.657

0.002

.011

.125

.138

.120

-.022

.336

.194

.279

.473

.154

.085

.104

.614

.803

.320

.210

.552

.267

.240

.330

.090

.240

.570

0.004

.013

.105

.122

.094

.014

.239

.160

.326

.486

.126

.088

.090

.122

.604

.816

.340

.186

.026

.355

.280

.225

.290

.065

.199

.489

0.002

.015

.075

.092

.074

.022

.139

.071

.157

.228

.099

.120

.101

.118

.573

.792

.334

.124

.070

.328

.179

.224

.280

.056

.259

.539

0

.008

.060

.068

.056

.006

.097

.001

.073

.074

.060

.092

.130

.046

.312

.488

.233

.079

.034

.036

.201

.090

.149

.220

.071

.207

.427

0.002

.007

.060

.069

.032

.034

.164

.013

.078

.091

.047

.032

.112

.077

.202

.391

.210

.478

.094

.065

.192

.121

.145

.190

.045

.160

.350

0.180

.229

2.140

2.549

1.309

.054

1.389

1.474

2.710

4.000

.690

.332

1.224

1.724

7.902

10.850

1.957

1.795

.557

.776

.197

4.410

1.210

1.357

2.170

.393

1.895

4.185

Tulare-Wasco area

23/25-16N4 . _ _

16N3 . . _

16N1 _ _ _

16N1 _ _

24/26-34F1 _ _

36A2 _ . _

25/26- 1A2 _ _ _

250

430

760

760

1,510

2,200

892

0- 250

250- 430

430- 760

0- 760

0-1,510

0-2,200

0- 892

6/24/59

6/24/59

6/24/59

4/18/58

1/21/59

5/12/59

4/6/59

______ 0.005

______ .055

184

0.454 .482

.242

.059

_____ .058

0.024 0.024 0.008 0.007

.100 .062 .120 .042

.433 .473 .051 .056

.557 .559 .179 .105

.100 .111 -.051 .018

.342 .333 .059 .096

.061 .059 -.013 -.004

0.022

.080

.253

.355

.063

.329

.050

0.009

.048

.131

.188

-.025

.062

-.003

0.001

.085

.225

.311

.068

.145

.096

0

.003

.063

.066

-.031

-.045

-.012

0.003

.057

.160

.220

.038

.168

.018

-0.002

.005

.036

.039

-.057

-.060

-.001

0

.033

.100

.133

.038

.143

.014

0.101

.690

2.165

3.648

.514

1.631

.323

Arvin-Maricopa area

32/28-20Ql__.__

12N/21W-34Q1

11N/21W-3B1____

3B1 _____

970

810

1,480

0- 970

0- 810

810-1,480

0-1,480

6/2/60

4/12/63

4/12/63

_.__ 0.192

0.207 0.326 0.271 .209

.188

____ . _____ .326

0.365

.186

.261

.447

0.178

.266

.135

.401

0.255

.197

.229

.426

0.219

.130

.184

.314

0.124

.014

.344

.358

0.124

.186

.152

.338

0.095

.153

.149

.302

1.552

2.145

1.642

2.912

JDate when stabilized installation began giving acceptable record.

Compaction to June 11, 1963.

Compaction based on protrusion of 4-inch casing.

the end of each calendar year indicates the yearly magnitude of compaction. The decrease in applied stress 

beginning late in 1968, reflecting the recovery in artesian head due to surface-water imports and reduction in 

ground-water withdrawal, has had a notable effect on 

the rate of compaction: 0.2 foot in 1970 compared with 

0.87 foot in 1961. (Also see table 6.)

The stress-compaction plot has moved consistently to 

the right throughout the period graphed, indicating 

that the compaction recorder has not registered net 

expansion at any time. Even during times of rapid decrease in applied stress (rapid increase in head), such as 

late in 1961 and 1962 and even during the 80-foot decrease in stress since August 1968, the rate of elastic 

expansion of the aquifers and of the outer parts of the 

aquitards has not been sufficient at any time to exceed 

the rate of continuing compaction of the central parts of 

the aquitards. However, at least three times in 1969-70 

during periods of decrease in applied stress, the stresscompaction curve has been essentially vertical, indicating that the elastic expansion was about equal to the 

continuing compaction during those intervals of head 

increase. This suggests that pore pressures in the aquifers are approaching pore pressures in the central parts 

of the thicker aquitards. Under these transient conditions, one cannot derive either the elastic or the virgin 

parameters of storage and compressibility.

In contrast to figure 51, the stress-strain relations 

shown in figure 52 have been largely in the elastic range 

of stress application since the start of the record in 1967. 

Well 18/19-20P2, 17 miles west of Hanford (fig. 50), is 

578 feet deep. Depth to water is plotted increasing upward, representing increasing stress. Change in depth 

to water represents change in effective stress in the 

aquifers in this confined aquifer system, which is 347 

feet thick, from 231 to 578 feet below the land surface. It 

is assumed that the water table and pore pressures in 

thin aquifers above the 231-foot depth are not affected
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H51

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

No record

Stress-compaction

I I I I I I I I I I I

2.0 2.5 3.0 

COMPACTION, IN FEET

3.5 4.0

4.5 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

COMPACTION, IN FEET 

FIGURE 51. Stress change versus compaction at 16/15-34N (for the depth interval 703-2,000 ft.

7.5 8.0

240

UJ 

UJ li.

- 200 

cc

UJ

I

O

160

120

_5/67

1967,

12/70

1968 / 1969 / 1970

4 6 

STRAIN

8 10x10"

0 0.1 0.2 0.3

COMPACTION, IN FEET 

FIGURE 52. Stress change, compaction, and strain, well 18/19-20P2.

by the irrigation withdrawals and remain constant. The 

yearly fluctuation of water level caused by the seasonal 

irrigation demand and the permanent compaction that 

occurs each summer when the depth to water is greatest 

produces a series of stress-strain loops. The lower parts 

of the descending segments of the irrigation-year loops 

for the three winters 1967-68 to 1969-70 are approximately parallel straight lines (the four dotted lines are 

drawn parallel), indicating that when the depth to 

water is less than about 180 feet, the response (expansion or compaction) of the system is essentially elastic in 

both aquifers and aquitards. 

The heavy dashed line in the 1968 loop (drawn parallel to the dotted lines) represents the average slope of 

the straight-line segments in the elastic range of stress. 

The reciprocal of the slope of the line is the component of 

the storage coefficient attributable to elastic deformation of the aquifer-system skeleton, Sfo, and equals 

1.2xlO~3 . The component of average specific storage 

due to elastic deformation, Ss^e , equals S^g/347 feet or 

3.4xlO~6ft-i. The average elastic compressibility of 

the skeleton, fa, is

5^=3.4x10-6ft-1/0.433 Ib in-2 ft-l = 8xlO-6lbin-2

where yw is the unit weight of water. In consistent units, 

however, when stresses are expressed in feet of water 

and 7^=1, Pk=Sske =3.4x10-6 ft-1. Thus, at this site, 

the value of the elastic storage parameters can be closely approximated through use of the stress-strain plot 

after only 2-3 years of record. Because maximum seasonal stresses increased only slightly during this period 

of record, the inelastic response characteristics of the 

aquifer system to significant increased stresses cannot 

be calculated from this record.

COMPUTER PLOTS OF FIELD RECORDS

The records of compaction and of depth to water in the 

extensometer wells or in nearby observation wells have 

been computerized on a daily basis, and computer plots 

of these records through 1970 are included as figures 

53-78 at the end of this report. Graphs of subsidence of a
H52 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

surface bench mark located at the measuring site, determined by periodic instrumental surveys to a stable 

bench mark, are also included for all or part of the 

period of compaction measurement. Table 8, also at the 

end of this report, supplies pertinent notes on the individual graphs. Site locations are shown in figure 50.

With respect to the objectives of the cooperative study 

of land subsidence, the primary purpose of including 

these records is to show graphically the measured compaction and the subsidence at specific sites, and, so far 

as possible, the change in effective stress in the pertinent aquifers at these sites, as indicated by the hydrographs. Because of confining beds and multipleaquifer-aquitard systems, it is difficult to obtain waterlevel measurements that one can be confident represent 

the mean stress and stress change for the interval in 

which compaction is being measured. At each of several 

sites, one to three additional observation wells would be 

needed to define the magnitude of head change, if any, 

in aquifers 100-200 feet below the water table. However, funds for exploring the variation in head with depth 

have been limited.

Change in applied stress and stress-compaction or 

stress-strain relationships are plotted for 14 of the 26 

figures. In these figures, compaction equals the change 

in thickness of the compacting interval, and strain refers to the unit change in thickness or the compaction 

divided by the thickness of the compacting interval. Of 

the 14 relationships included, 7 are in the Los BanosKettleman City area, 5 are in the Tulare-Wasco area, 

and 2 are in the Arvin-Maricopa area. Change in 

applied stress was plotted for each site where the measurements of depth to water were considered to define, at 

least approximately, the change in applied stress on the 

aquifer-system thickness interval being measured by 

the extensometer.

At sites where both the water table and the artesian 

head were measured, as at 16/15-34N (fig. 61) and 23/ 

25-16N (figs. 70,71), the computer program made use of 

the equation cited on page 44 to determine the change in 

applied stress. At sites where changes in the water table 

were not known or were assumed to be 0, the plot of. 

change in applied stress is identical in direction and 

magnitude to the change in artesian head (plotted as 

depth to water) because (1) both are expressed in feet of 

water and (2) the change in stress in the confined system 

is solely a change in seepage stress, with magnitude 

equal to the change in vertical distance between the 

water table and the artesian head. (See p. 43; fig. 45.)

Stress-compaction plots are included for six wells in 

which the measured water-level change is considered to 

be representative for the compacting zone being measured but where the thickness of the compacting zone is 

not known. For example in well 15/16-31N3 (fig. 60),

the extensometer measures change in thickness between the land surface and the anchor at a depth of 596 

feet. Inspection of the electric log (not shown) suggests 

that the deposits to a depth of 320 feet below land surface probably are not experiencing as much change in 

stress as is indicated by the hydrograph and may not be 

experiencing any change in stress. The hydrograph does 

represent change in applied stress in the depth interval 

320-596 feet, and the compacting interval is at least 276 

feet thick. At least one additional observation well 

would be required, however, to resolve the question of 

whether any compaction is occurring above the 320-foot 

depth. If it is, at least two additional wells would be 

required to define magnitudes of change in stress.

The stress-compaction plot for 16/15-34N (fig. 61H) is 

an exception because the thickness of the compacting 

zone is known (1,297 ft), and hence a stress-strain plot 

could have been made.

Stress-strain plots are included for seven wells in 

which the measured water-level change is considered to 

represent change in applied stress throughout the compacting zone being measured and where the thickness of 

the compacting zone is known. For example, at site 

23/25-16N (fig. 70), the extensometers in wells N3 and 

Nl measure change in thickness between the land surface and the anchors at depths of 430 and 760 feet, 

respectively. The deposits between depths of 430 and 

760 feet are 330 feet thick and are affected by the stress 

change defined by the hydrographs for wells N3 and N4. 

Therefore, on the stress-strain plot for this site and 

depth interval (fig. 7QE), the strain has been computed 

as measured compaction divided by 330 feet of thickness.

Elastic storage parameters are given in table 7 for 

five sites, based on the stress-compaction or stressstrain plots for the respective sites. All these plots have 

hysteresis loops developed during the elastic response 

range of stress change. The storage parameters are 

computed following the example given on page 50 for 

site 18/19-20P2. In table 7, the first two sets of parameters are for principal parts of the upper zone in the Los 

Banos-Kettleman City area; the other three are for 

sites in the Tulare-Wasco area. At well 15/16-31N3,596 

feet deep, the thickness of the compacting interval is at 

least 276 feet. If any compaction is occurring at a shallower depth than 320 feet, the average specific storage 

component, Sske, would be reduced accordingly.

At site 23/25-16N, the storage coefficient component 

of the aquifer system skeleton, Ske> for the bottom interval 330 feet thick about equals that for the overlying 

interval 100 feet thick, and for the two intervals together, S^e =1.3xlO~3. Thus, the average specific storage component for the 100-foot interval, 7 x 10 ~6 ft" 1 , if 

four times as large as that for the 330-foot interval.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

TABLE 7. Tentative elastic storage parameters

[Numbers in parentheses are provisional]

H53

Fig. 

No.

60

64

70

71

72

74

Well or site 

No.

15/16-3N3 ___ ______

18/19-20P2 _ __ _

23/25-16N ___________

do

Sum for site 16N

24/26-34F1 __ _____

25/26-1A2 _ ___

Storage coefficient 

component, S ke 

(dimensionless)

__ _ 1.06X1Q-3

_____ 1.2x10-3

_____ 0.64x10-3

_____ 0.7x10-3

1.3xlO-3

2.5xlO-3

_____ (0.6x10-3)

Thickness of 

compacting 

interval

(ft)

(276)

347

330

100

430

(1,310)

Average 

specific storage 

component, S, ske

(ft- 1 ) 1

(S.SxlQ-6)

3.4X10"6

1.9xlO-«

7.0xlO-«

(1.9X1Q-6 )

Remarks

Upper zone.

Do.

Interval 430-760 ft.

Interval 330-430 ft.

Interval 330-760 ft.

May still be transient

value.

'When stress is expressed in feet of water and unit weight of water=l, the numerical value on the average compressibility (ft*1 ) of the compacting interval equals the average 

specific storage component.

Riley (1969, p. 427) used the stress-compaction plot for a 

405-foot thickness at Pixley (the 355-760 ft-depth zone) 

to obtain Ske which he found to be 1.15 x 10~3. The component of the storage coefficient for the depth interval 

330-355, which Riley did not include in his estimate, is 

7xlO-6ft-i x25 feet or O.lSxlQ-3 . Adding this element to Riley's 1.15xlO~3 gives 1.3±xlO~3, which is 

the sum of the two components of the storage coefficient 

given for 23/25-16N in table 7. In short, the elastic storage parameters in table 8 are consistent with Riley's 

(1969).

The rising artesian head in the aquifers of the lower 

zone in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area is rapidly 

reducing the pore-pressure differential between aquifers and aquitards, and hence the graphs showing a 

large rise in head from 1968 through 1970 also show a 

very marked decrease in rate of compaction. As the 

artesian head continues to recover, the pore pressures 

in the aquifers at some sites are (1973) approaching 

values equal to the pore pressures in the central parts of 

the thicker aquitards. When the aquifer pressures exceed the aquitard central pore pressures, the response of 

the system will be wholly in the elastic range. At that 

time, elastic parameters can be derived from stress 

compaction plots for the lower zone the main confined 

aquifer system. The required head recovery will be 

greatest where the aquitards are thickest, all other 

factors being equal.

REFERENCES CITED

Bull, W. B., 1964a, Alluvial fans and near-surface subsidence in 

western Fresno County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

437-A, 71 p.

 1964b, Geomorphology of segmented alluvial fans in western 

Fresno County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 352-E, 

p. 89-129.

 1972, Prehistoric near-surface subsidence cracks in western 

Fresno County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 437-C, 

85 p.

 1975, Land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal in the 

Los Banos-Kettleman City area, California. Part 2, Subsidence

and compaction of deposits: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 437-F, 

90 p.

Bull, W. B., and Miller, R. E., 1975, Land subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, 

California. Part 1, Changes in the hydrologic environment conducive to subsidence: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 437-E, 71 p.

Bull, W. B., and Poland, J. F., 1975, Land subsidence due to groundwater withdrawal in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area, 

California. Part 3, Interrelations of water-level change, change in 

aquifer-system thickness, and subsidence: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Prof. Paper 437-G, 62 p.

California Department of Water Resources, 1963, Ground-water conditions in central and northern California, 1959-60: California 

Dept. Water Resources Bull. 77-60.

 1964a, Design and construction studies of shallow land subsidence for the California Aqueduct in the San Joaquin Valley 

Interim report, California Dept. Water Resources, 130 p.

 1964b, Ground-water conditions in central and northern

California, 1960-61: California Dept. Water Resources Bull. 

77-61.

California Division of Water Resources, 1931, San Joaquin River 

Basin: California Div. Water Resources Bull. 29, 651 p.

Croft, M. G., 1972, Subsurface geology of the Late Tertiary and 

Quaternary water-bearing deposits of the southern part of the 

San Joaquin Valley, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 

Paper 1999-H, 29 p.

Davis, G. H., and Green, J. H., 1962, Structural control of interior 

drainage, southern San Joaquin Valley, California, in Geological 

Survey research 1962: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 450-D, p. 

D89-D91.

Hotchkiss, W. R., and Balding, G. O., 1971, Geology, hydrology, and 

water quality of the Tracy-Dos Palos area, San Joaquin Valley, 

California: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 107 p.

Ingerson, I. M., 1941, The hydrology of the southern San Joaquin 

Valley, California, and its relation to imported water supplies: 

Am. Geophys. Union Trans., pt. 1, p. 20-45.

Inter-Agency Committee on Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin 

Valley, 1955, Proposed program for investigating land subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley: Inter-Agency Committee on Land 

Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, Sacramento, Calif., 

60 p.

 1958, Progress report on land-subsidence investigations in the 

San Joaquin Valley, California, through 1957: Inter-Agency 

Committee on Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, Sacramento, Calif., 160 p.

Johnson, A. I., Moston, R. P., and Morris, D. A., 1968, Physical and 

hydrologic properties of water-bearing deposits in subsiding
H54 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

areas in central California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 497-A, 

71 p.

Lofgren, B. E., 1961, Measurement of compaction of aquifer systems 

in areas of land subsidence, in Geological Survey research 1961: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 424-B, p. B49-B52.

 1968, Analysis of stresses causing land subsidence, in 

Geological Survey research 1968: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 

600-B, p. B219-B225.

 1969, Land subsidence due to the application of water, in 

Varnes, D. J., and Kiersch, George, eds., Reviews in Engineering 

Geology, v. 2: Boulder, Colo., Geol. Soc. America, p. 271-303. 

-1975, Land subsidence due to ground-water withdrawal,

Arvin-Maricopa area, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper

437-D, 55 p. 

Lofgren, B. E., and Klausing, R. L., 1969, Land subsidence due to

ground-water withdrawal, Tulare-Wasco area, California: U.S.

Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 437-B, 103 p. 

Meade, R. H., 1964, Removal of water and rearrangement of particles

during the compaction of clayey sediments review: U.S. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 497-B, 23 p.

 1967, Petrology of sediments underlying areas of land subsidence in central California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 497-C.

83 p. 

-1968, Compaction of sediments underlying areas of land

subsidence in central California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper

497-D, 39 p. 

Miller, R. E., Green, J. H., and Davis, G. H., 1971, Geology of the

compacting deposits in the Los Banos-Kettleman City subsidence

area, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 497-E, 46 p. 

Mitten, H. T., 1972, Ground-water pumpage, San Joaquin Valley,

California, 1967-68: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 6 p. 

Mitten, H. T., and Ogilbee, William, 1971, Ground-water pumpage in

parts of Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, and Tulare Counties,

California, 1962-66: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 8 p. 

Ogilbee, William, and Rose, M. A., 1969a, Ground-water pumpage in

Kern County, San Joaquin Valley, California, 1962-66: U.S. 

Geol. Survey basic-data compilation, 5 p. 

-1969b, Ground-water pumpage on the west side of the San

Joaquin Valley, California, 1962-66: U.S. Geol. Survey basicdata compilation, 7 p.

Page, R. W., and LeBlanc, R. A., 1969, Geology, hydrology, and water 

quality in the Fresno area, California: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file 

report, 193 p.

Poland, J. F., and Davis, G. H., 1969, Land subsidence due to withdrawal of fluids, in Varnes, D. J., and Kiersch, George, eds., 

Reviews in Engineering Geology, v. 2: Boulder, Colo., Geol. Soc. 

America, p. 187-269.

Poland, J. F., and Evenson, R. E., 1966, Hydrogeology and land 

subsidence, Great Central Valley, Calif., in Bailey, E. H., ed., 

Geology of northern California: California Div. Mines and 

Geology Bull. 190, p. 239-247.

Poland, J. F., Lofgren, B. E., and Riley, F. S., 1972, Glossary of selected 

terms useful in the studies of the mechanics of aquifer systems 

and land subsidence due to fluid withdrawal: U.S. Geol. Survey 

Water-Supply Paper 2025, 9 p.

Riley, F. S., 1969, Analysis of borehole extensometer data from central California, in Tison, L. J., ed., Land subsidence, v. 2: Internat. 

Assoc. Sci. Hydrology Pub. 89, p. 423-431.

 1970, Land-surface tilting near Wheeler Ridge, southern San 

Joaquin Valley, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 497-G, 

29 p.

Riley, F. S., and McClelland, E. J., 1972, Application of the modified 

theory of leaky aquifers to a compressible multiple-aquifer system: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 96 p.

Wood, P. R., and Dale, R. H., 1964, Geology and ground-water features 

of the Edison-Maricopa area, Kern County, California: U.S. Geol. 

Survey Water-Supply Paper 1656, 108 p.

Wood, P. R., and Davis, G. H., 1959, Ground-water conditions in the 

Avenal-McKittrick area, Kings and Kern Counties, California: 

U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1457, 141 p.
FIGURES 53-78 AND TABLE 8
H56 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

Q O C

Si ? 8"

'30VdbnS 133d NlONV AO138 U31VM Hld3 Ol 

^s ~**~~~^ _^

Hydrograi

"^^"^ _^-

Dh, 16H5

v^-~

Hydrograiph, 16H6

j __ v _^ " 

^^- - 

,

^ ' -

UJ -O.S

^ 0.0

COMPACTION, 1

OI\J -» 3 -k 

b enui n

2 

0 1- 0.0

1- UJ

< u- 0.5

i -

O

 -=^^ ^,<^

Compactior

Compaction

, 0-500 feet0-350 feet

^/ 

B

Compactic n, 350-500 f set

-0.5 

0.0

* 1.0

2.0 

2.5

3.0 

3.5

^ -^

^-^^_

^^-^

~~-^

^ ^

 _ > -^ Compaction 500-1000 fe et

=^» _

==

 ' 

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

E

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 53. Hydrographs, compaction, and subsidence, 12/12-16H. A, Hydrographs of wells 12/12-16H5, perforated 670-712 feet, and 12/12-16H6, perforated 770-909 feet. B, Compaction to 350-foot depth in well 12/12-16H3 and compaction to 500-foot depth in well 12/12-16H4. C, Compaction in 350-500-foot-depth interval. D, Compaction to 500-foot 

depth in well 12/12-16H4, compaction to 1,000-foot depth in well 12/12-16H2, and subsidence of bench mark 97.68CUSBR), 330 feet south-southeast of well 12/12-16H2. £, Compaction in 500-1,000-foot-depth interval.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H57

BELOW TOL/WATER TH

SURFACE, FEET IN 

S

%K &ft* 01

M 00O CO> 4^co 

Hydrogr.aph, 20D1

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

 » n

^ 

^-^

-"- . Comp. ction, 0-681

 . 

 - 

Bencl

feet

 . 

 - .

mark A998

 

__________

0.0 

0.5 

1.0

IIm z

1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 54. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 13/12-20D1. A, Hydrograph of well 13/12-20D1, perforated 425-665 feet. B, Compaction to 681-foot

depth and subsidence of bench mark A998 at well 13/12-20D1.

Q

<r

BELOW L TWATERH 

FEET SURFACE, IN 

0 - 

JB0> M 00A

co 

/

^-^ v vy

Hydrogr

\^y

aph, 35D5

^S Vy

HI U.3

MPACTION, 1

0 C-L 

b> cj

Bench mark 13/15-35D5

 

~_ __ _ __

~ - -- . - 

Compaction

 - -_ == 

0-440 feet

-LO

bi

oZ IHl HI

9K 

w ^ 

m 2

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 55. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 13/15-35D5. A, Hydrograph of well 13/15-35D5, 

perforated 373-433 feet. B, Compaction to 440-foot depth and subsidence of bench mark 13/15-35D5 at 

well 13/15-35D5.
H58 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

ou 

§ 120 

5 160 

ofc 200 

UJ LL 240

£ ?- 28° 

^0 320 ii 36°

H-OT 400 

I 440 

g 480 

^?n

>\ r^

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Hydrograj

Hydrogr

)h, 11D3

aph, 11D6

V /^ vT^- /

^

'A ,

V^yv/ ^V'"" f

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CHANGE INAPPLIED STRESS, IN FEET OF WATER oo roAg> 

o 

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1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 

D

02 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 43x10" 4

STRAIN

E

FiGURE56, Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 14/13-11D. A, Hydrographs of wells 14/13-11D3 (water table), 

perforated 180-240 feet, and 14/13-11D6 (lower zone), perforated 1,133-1,196 feet. B,, Change in applied stress. C, Compaction to 780-foot depth in well 14/13-11D4, compaction 

to 1,358-foot depth in well 14/13-11D6, and subsidence of bench mark GW6 at well 14/13-11D6. D, Compaction in 780-1,358-foot-depth interval. E, Stress change versus 

strain (578-ft thickness).
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H59

Z 360

> 400

DC

uJSI 440

CD 7

o: s 480

UJUJ

IS 520

600

640

-0.5

1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 57. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 14/12-12H1. A, Hydrograph of well 14/12-12H1, perforated 

740-936 feet. B, Compaction to 913-foot depth and subsidence of bench mark 12H1 at well 14/12-12H1.

-0.5

1970

FIGURE 58. Hydrograph, compaction, and bench-mark subsidence, 15/13-11D2. A, Hydrograph of well 15/13-11D2, 

perforated 900-960 feet. B, Compaction to 958-foot depth and subsidence of bench mark 15/13-11D2 at well 

15/13-11D2.
H60 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

BELOW DEPTH TOWATER LA

SURFACE, FEET IN 

A cor\.& ro o> $QOo 

 r

VA /

^' \s ^\ J

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V^A /

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Vxv^ /"

'

graph, 14J1 f

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1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 59. Hydrograph of well 15/14-14J1, depth 1,010 feet.

TO DEPTH WATER BELOW USURFACE, FEET IN fO 00O)4-f^ o c

AsX\S~^S

Hydro

"\/

graph, 31N3

A

ANGE STR INAPPLIED FEET OFWATER IN 

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o c

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Change in applied stress

0.0 

0.5 

1.0

1 C

 -- » __ .

Bench ma

Compaction,

kY509~~~~"

0-596 feet

 

 .

ff 

0.0 Z

0.5 0

1.0 I

co m

1967 1968 1969 1970

O

UJ IJ

Stress-compaction

5 5; o 0.1 0.2 0.3 o.4 

o

COMPACTION, IN FEET 

D

FIGURE 60. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship, 15/16-31N3. A, Hydrograph 

of well 15/16-31N3, perforated 497-537 feet, upper zone.B, Change in 

applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Compaction to 596-foot 

depth at well 15/16-31N3 and subsidence of bench mark Y509, 220 feet 

north of 15/16-31N3. D, Stress change versus compaction of deposits 

above 596-foot depth.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H61

5UJ 1DU

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00 2 240 

£ uj 440 

$ < 460

O§ 52° 

£ W 560 

fc 2 600 

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\

N

-- -^

V

"V

> ^

\

N

Benc

" ---

\Compa "\

v ""-

\^

\,

h mark G

____Com

ction, 0-2

\

^^^

^\

046 "\

^action, 0

"- . .

000 feet

\

^\

'\

^x

-703 feet

 - - 

v"^-^

^

^>

^ ,

 -~ .

x^

^^^

>^""* 

 - 

^

.^^^^ -

 __

^^-^.

^

~~~--

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 t 

4.0 ff 

4.5 1 

5.0 uj 

5-5 g 

6.0 9 

6.5 | 

7.0 eo 

7.5 

8.0 

6.5 

9.0 

9.5 

10.0 

in.s

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1968 1967

E

1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 61. Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, casing separation, and stress-compaction relationship, 16/15-34N. A, 

Hydrographs of wells 16/15-34N5 (water table), perforated 240-300 feet and 16/15-34N4 (lower zone), perforated 1,052-1,112 feet.B, Change 

in applied stress. C, Compaction to 503-foot depth in well 16/15-34N3 and to 703-foot depth in well 16/15-34N2. D, Compaction in 503-703- 

foot-depth interval. E, Compaction to 703-foot depth in well 16/15-34N2, to 2,000-foot depth in well 16/15-34N1, and subsidence of bench mark 

G1046 at well 16/15-34N3.F, Compaction in 703-2,000-foot-depth interval. G, Compaction to 1,096-foot depth and casing separation (compaction 

to 900-foot depth) in well 16/15-34N4. H, Stress change versus compaction of deposits in the 703-2,000-foot-depth interval. Figure continued on 

following page.
H62 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

-0.5 

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

£ 3.0 

"- 3.5 

\ 4.0 

0 4-5 

fc 5.0 

£ 5.5 

2 6.0 

0 6.5 

7.0 

7.5 

6.0 

8.5 

9.0 

95

Xv

X

v^

V-

 \

""* 

v Compaction, 7

"^-^

^-v^

J3-2000f

\^

^

eet

^-^^

^"^

^ ^

^^ ^^

^^.

 _

^ - -

 - -

1958 1959

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3 5

^^

>

^Compact

^\_

on, 0-10-

V

96 feet

~^~-~_

Casing separation

_ (compaction 0-900 feet)

^ .

~ ~-_

~~~--- 

r ^

 - .

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

G

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

4.0

140

120

100

60

60

40

20

0

4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 

COMPACTION, IN FEET

H

FIGURE 61. Continued.

7.0 7.5 6.0
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H63

BZcc480

520

600

640

680

720

Hydrograph, 14Q1

-0.5 

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0

1969 1970

B

FIGURE 62. Hydrograph and compaction, 17/15-14Q1. A, Hydrograph 

of well 17/15-14Q1, perforated 

1,064-1,094 feet. B, Compaction to 

2,315-foot depth in well 17/15-14Q1.

BELOW UTWATER TH

IN FEET SURFACE, r^_/-s__ >

^ Hydroj raph, 33A1

^-~-v^^^^^"" % ^ ^

FEET COMPACTION, IN 

1

M OC-> -t 61 bwi

1 *" r~ __

^~~~~~~.

Benc

~ - -

 ______

i mark Y998

Compaction,

- ~

~ _

0-1029 feet

 " - .

h- 

 

1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

B

0.0 

0.5 

1.0

Q I"

FIGURE 63. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 18/16-33A1. A, Hydrograph of well 18/16-33A1, perforated 

85&-1.070 feet. B, Compaction to 1,029-foot depth and subsidence of bench mark Y998 at well 18/16-33A1.
H64 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

WATER BELOW TOLAND DEPTH 

SURFACE, FEET IN 

JO4^ O 0)0M 

Hydro

^-^

jraph, 20P1

-<^s ^-^ s

^^"^*"'

A

TH WATER TOBELOW U

SURFACE, IN FEET .0 toi\» -»

4!k O> S3tO00 

O 30C

Hydrogra

A, /

 "^/^

)h, 20P2

V /

V

x\-VV ^vJ

HANGE APPLIED INSTR FEET OFWATER IN 1 8&gc

A /

; xy

Change in a

V f

jplied stress

f

'\ f

V

-vy /

KvV

t 

ffi

a.

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5

-~^_ _

Compaction 0-578 feet

---^_ Bench mark A516 -^ 

 ~ -

0.0 

0.5

1.0

1 e;

1967 1968 1969 1970

D

21

100

80

60

40

20

Stress-strain

^ -1012345678 9x10"" 

O

STRAIN

E

FIGURE 64. Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 18/19-20P. A, Hydrograph of well 

18/19-20P1 (lower zone), perforated 647-687 feet.B, Hydrograph of well 

18/19-20P2 (upper zone), perforated 497-537 feet. C, Change in applied 

stress (upper zone), water table assumed constant. D, Compaction to 

578-foot depth at well 18/19-20P2 and subsidence of bench mark A516, 

one-half mile west. E, Stress change versus strain (347-ft thickness).
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H65

3 ffi 440

SjJ 480

S ul 520

Ijj *o

0§ 600

1

Hyc rograph, 23 P2

DEPT H T 

LAND S ob 4^OO

Sis

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

-0.5

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.0 

5.5 

fi n

^~~- --,

~"~\_

---^

 ~- ~.

"^^

^~. \^Comp£

v^^-

- -~--^_

ction, 0-22

s _ _^

"~~~-~-.

Bench ma

00 feet

 ^-^ ^

*-^*_

k Z888~~~~

^-r^_^» w

-~^_

v^

^Vv-,

^^^^** "a

k _ ^~"~~~*

^^ r^. .^^

Bench rr

h^___

^~""'~~d!r~-

ark Z998^

^"^~ ^_

0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

c

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

COMPACTION, IN FEET

D

3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

FIGURE 65. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress- compaction relationship, 19/16-23P2. A, Hydrograph of well 19/16-23P2. B, Change in 

applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Compaction to 2,200-foot depth at well 19/16-23P2 and subsidence of bench marks Z888, 575 feet south-southwest, and 

Z998 at well 19/16-23P2. D, Stress change versus compaction of deposits above 2,200-foot depth.
H66 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

_I *WJ

§ti 480

"flu" 560

' rf

0§

 -co 640 

fc" «tn

' 1

\f\r w w

V Hydrograp

V. j*J

\f^

1,601

\ l\ v v\/

/

\^f

% r\ \yr< *

^\ :

[U 0.0 

Z 0.5

1.0 

1.5

2.0

^^_---^_ ^"^\

Bench

- ^_

^^^

nark F999" *

Compactior

^

"^

 

, 0-867 feet

- -, 

 * -»___

0.0 UJ 

0.5 ?

1.0

1.5

2.0

1964 1965 1966 1967 

B

1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 66. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 20/18-6D1. A, Hydrograph of well 20/18-6D1, perforated 

716-736, 760-835, and 851-872 feet. B, Compaction to 867-foot depth and subsidence of bench mark F999 

at well 20/18-6D1.

THO WATER BELOWLAND 

SURFACE, IN FEET

A ^ COU I\JJl£ ^ ootoOi3000600 .

\ yv \_^

\/N-*\

w \

VjA/

A

V \A/

/\ O v~A

Hydrog

W

raph, 11Q2 *v\"^

^y

V /\

~ A 7s Vy / V

-0.5 

0.0

0.5

2.0

3.5 

4.0

Casing protrusion, 11Q2

Casing separation, 11Q2 and Q3

4.5 ! 

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

B

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 67. Hydrograph, casing protrusion, and casing separation, 20/18-11Q2 and 20/18-11Q3.A, Hydrograph of well 20/18-11Q2, perforated 755-805 feet. B, Casing protrusion 

(protrusion of the 11%-in. casing, 11Q2, above the land surface) and casing separation (vertical separation between the 11%-in. casing, 11Q2, and the 4-in. casing, 11Q3).
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H67

WATER BELOWLT =THSURFACE, FEET IN /-"I \^\ f

V H/^>y ^\rJ

^

Hydrog

V\s

aph, 11Q1

\y\,> /\

^/ > r

-fi t 

v/ w

v

^w /v r

^* Vx-^

/\ ,

/ s/ tA\ /

V_f

NGE INAPPLIED STR FEET OFWATER IN I 8§£c

 / I

^\/

>/ Va /

V

U \^\A ^

V\S

Change in a

\/\r

>plied stress

vA_7> A /

\y i-^-- S^v^_/ /\ ^J \ _vAX1 A/

/ V k/

-u.& 

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0

 3 K

^^ ^^~ _^_Cornp action, 0-7K

' -

feet

==» 

 - _

 _

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964

c

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

Stress-strain

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22x10" 4

STRAIN 

D

FIGUKE 68. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, and stress-strain relationship, 20/18-llQl. A, Hydrograph of well 20/18-llQl, perforated 650-710 feet. B, Change 

in applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Compaction to 710-foot depth at well 20/18-llQl. D, Stress change versus strain (650-ft thickness).
H68 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

x w

t

HI

o

320 

360 

400 

440 

480 

can

=£\^-J

w^\Vr\^v/^ ,

r^^~^

 A ,-. \y x^^

.,.,..,...,

Hydrog \y'vjraph, 11Q3

, /-. )

\S ^.'

W "\

^/

^ '\y\ r^ vyA

T^v 

/ V/*w7

o 

13 tD S.U1 rr 

^ z ~ >

»»J

ZffO

$$> 

o

§ §

160

200

Cbi nge in applied stress

-0.5 

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.0 

5.5

.Casing protrusion.

(compaction 0-845 feet)

Bench mark C999

Compact on, 0-1930 feet tu 0.0 UJ

0.5 Z

1.0 O

1.5 |

2.0 &

-0.5 

0.0

0.5 

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5 

3.0

3.5

Compaction, 845-1930 feet

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 

D

1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

CO 160

co£ 120

S§ 100

S:b so

Z^ 60

|z 40

< 20

O 0

Stress-strain

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19x10- 

STRAIN 

E

FIGURE 69. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 20/18-11Q3. A, Hydrograph of well 20/18-11Q3, perforated 1,885- 

1,925 feet. B, Change in applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Casing protrusion (compaction to 845-ft depth), compaction to 1,930-foot depth, and subsidence of 

bench mark C999 at well 20/18-11Q3. D, Compaction in 845-1,930-ft de,pth interval. E, Stress change versus strain (1,085-ft thickness).
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H69

-0.5 

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.0

X

Cor ipaction, X-760 fei t

Bench mark Q945

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.0

-U.& 

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0 

3.5 

4.0

N__ "^»»

s_-»-^

X

_ ^Con

~x« 

ipaction,

 v_

430-760

 \

*» "- __

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

D

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

54 56 58 60 62 64 66 70 72 

STRAIN

E

78 60 62 84 86 88 90x10'

FIGURE 70. Hydrographs, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 23/25-16N A Hydrographs of 

wells 23/25-16N4, perforated 200-240 feet, and 23/25-16N3, perforated 360-420 ftet.fi, Change in applied stress. C, Compaction to 430- 

foot depth in well 23/25-16N3 and to 760-foot depth in well 23/25-16N1 and subsidence of bench mark Q945 at well 23/25-16N1. D, 

Compaction in 430-760-foot-depth interval. E, Stress change versus strain (330-ft thickness).
H70 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

40

80

120

160

200

Change in applied stress ¥

-U.3

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

?n

 .n , 

Compaction, 0-250 feet

Compaction, 0-430 feet

-0.5 

0.0

0.5 

1.0

1.5 

2.0

 ~ »_ Compaction, 250-45 Ofeet

1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

D

160

140

120

60 

I 60

U.

O 40

I "

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73x10''

STRAIN

E

FIGURE 71. Hydrographs, change in. applied .stress, pompaction, and stress-strainrelationship,23/25-16N3andN4.>l,Hydrographsofwells23/25-16N4,perforated 

200-240 feet, and 23/25-16N3, perforated 360-420 feet. B, Change in applied stress. C, Compaction to 250-foot depth in 23/25-16N4 and to 430-foot depth in 

23/25-16N3.D, Compaction in 250-430-foot-depth interval..E, Stress change versus strain (100-ft thickness).
3TH TOWATER BELOW LAND 

SURFACE, IN FEET

6> OJ N>tO -» D CO N>00*O

D OO

X"

r'\^_/

^^^/'

\ ff

XX

^ ^

\y

H ^

\f~^

Hydroj

r/V_rV

raph, 34F1

\/\f^f^ \ /\j

X

^^V^"^

- \

-\r

-~v~\S

~\

^\r

\s

NGE INAPPLIED STRESS

IN FEET OF WATER

o -»*

3 O)N> 00 b

3 Oo

X

~"V^/

^~^S

~~\ ^

^

^ /

*\/

\ ,"

- J

rT^-^S^r^

Change in applied stress

^ /

V

-N^N r/

\/

'Vv\ JX

......

Kr

1956 1957 1958

COMPACTION, IN FEE

l

t\i -» _k p O C

b inaox ^-^- _

* L-5-1.

 

 --^.

Compaction, 0-1 510 feet

Bench mark

 *^^~'

S945

^ " -^S^»»^^ "^-^

 

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 

C

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

Stress-compaction

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

COMPACTION, IN FEET

D

FIGURE 72. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship, 24/26-34F1..A, Hydrograph of well 24/26

perforated 400-1,522 feet. B, Change in applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Compaction to 1,510-foot depth and subsidence of bench mar

at well 24/26-34F1. D, Stress change versus compaction of deposits above 1.510-foot depth.
H72 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

TO WATER DEPTH BLOWLA

SURFACE, FEET IN 

§

*. A ui\. £ tn 

fc 4^ WO)00 P CO

x

^ V--"V7V

^W\ 1

\\

V

Hydros

y >

It ^

: ;

1 !

\ 

raph, 1A2 Xs*

'1 A/

II

I

'i J

4+MI

V

'Hft /

Vj HHi /' 4^-¥-

xw kn \ 1

'; /

V

'-"TV/' "*H y

\ /'

/

A

CHANGE APPLIED STRES IN

FEET OFWATER IN 

sllsissc

X

V" \ r

V

V^\ !

\ .'

I*'

.

V /

ll r

 ;

i i

L . . .V. . .

" Vw

Change in

r/l /^ n/v\

'

applied stre

 > /

1 1 i

I if VlJ 1

ss V;J

x

^\V /

Tjl

V~7 hW nAV

^

\ /

^ /

V

' '~yv/' S (

f

0.0 

0.5 

1.0

1.5 

2.0 

2.5 

3.0

~\_

^.N - Compactkjn, 0-2200 eet 

v ^.

~ 

Bench mar <S1156

1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

C

0-* o 

b o en

SUBSIDENCE, FEET IN 

0.0 0.5 1.0

COMPACTION, IN FEET

D

FIGURE 73. Hydrograph and change in applied stress at well 25/26-1A2 and compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship at well 24/26-36A2. A, Hydrograph of well 

25/26-1A2, perforated 200-600 feet. B, Change in applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Compaction to 2,200-foot depth at well 24/26-36A2 and subsidence of bench mark 

SI 156, 265 feet east-southeast. D, Stress change versus compaction of deposits above 2,200-foot depth.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H73

BELOW PTH TOWATER Lf 

SURFACE, FEET IN JIUI^^^UUN

§8Sl8S8g

/- ^ V--"VVr

'\ /

¥

w

Hydrogra

V J

-j \ r*

Mr^ ..... X*'. . . .

ph, 1A2

V

'

/^

M/v

II

i

\ f

"IT\i

V

'Mfc "(

\i

*v

\7/ j r

UI *

xi r, /^ y/Mrf

->

K /

I /

W

\'

H&Z\ ,(

r

fCC 40 

0<t 80

120

160

;£ 200

i- 240

280

X

^^^>w' \\ r

V

...........

\ / -Vw

*v TT

\ !

\ /

A. j^i rV

w

Change in

rn <lp/: /"

applied stre

> /

JLl ~¥i f

s. V

TI

 \\-i

hVr |

.._*..

s\ ir-uV' r w in w

; /

'; /

V

'->/^¥

y

-O.tJ 

00

0.5

. _

1.b

1957 1958

p- ^»- 

1959

 ...

1960

Bench

 «i 

mark T945

1961 1962

in limn !

Compacts

1963

3n, 0-892 fe

 

1964

et

1965

 ^ -

1966 1967

 

1968 1969 1970

0.0 zV

m UJ

0.5 Qtf

CO z

1.0 £§ ^

CO

c

0.4

COMPACTION, 

IN FEET

D

FIGURE 74. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, and stress-compaction relationship, 25/26-1A2. A, Hydrograph of well 25/26-1A2, perforated 200-600 feet. B, Change in 

applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Compaction to 892-foot depth and subsidence of bench mark T945 at well 25/26-1 A2.D, Stress change versus compaction of deposits 

above 892-foot depth.
H74 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 

FIGURE 75. Hydrograph of well 25/26-1K2, perforated 1,000-2,200 feet.

1969

>TH TOWATER BELOWLAND 

SURFACE, IN FEET 10 CO -»(». g8 io

(~

jfcr l w^TVv f\At f

Hydro

^ ^TCC

graph, 34Q1

{

v^

v^

h v^" i - Ln.^

-0.5 

0.0

2.0

"

3.5 

4.0

4.5

Bench mark W1156

Compaction, 0-810 feet

1960 1961 1962 1963

0.0

0.5 fc

Hi

1.0 " 

z

1 ' 5 ui

2.0 Z Hi

o>; 2-5 9tn

m

3.0 g

3.5

1964 1965 

B

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

FIGURE 76. Hydrograph, compaction, and subsidence, 12N/21W-34Q1. A, Hydrograph of well 12N/21W-34Q1, perforated 400-800 feet.B, Compaction to 810-foot depth

and subsidence of bench mark W1156 at well 12N/21W-34Q1.
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA H75

160 

200 

240 

280 

320 

 3 fin

. r

VV

\

Wv f1

V 4'

V /

v \ /

"\ /

\f

Hydroc

^A /

V V

raph, 20Q1

N^'r

\j ^^v^ ^^/^

40 

80 

120 

160 

ynrt

r

\

V

\ f

S r

* j

"U /

\\ f

~\ ( ^\(

Change in z

v\"7 *v

spiled stress

x.. r

\j

^^ /S

1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

LLJ 

°E £

Q £ 

LLj §

TT^ II

Q. O

160

140

120

Stress-compaction

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 ' 2.0 

COMPACTION, IN FEET

D

FIGURE 77. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-compaction relationship, 32/28-20Q1. A, 

Hydrograph of well 32/28-20Q1. B, Change in applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Compaction to 970-foot depth 

at well 32/28-20Q1 and subsidence at bench mark L365, 1 mile north on State Highway 99. D, Stress change versus compaction of deposits above 970-foot depth.
H76 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

o

1

It]

-J UJ 

UJ U- £2II

gs

t

g

400 

440 

480 

520 

560 

firm

v/r ^ f

-, y Hydrograp

v\ ,^

V ^vy/

\ '

V

Vv /^ /

\J

Q

Sis II? 2 ~<

£8j

i£o

155 o

40 

80 

120 

ififl

v/1 "

x/

Change in a

\ f

v^y

iplied stress

\A /

w

,

V\ »

s/ v/\./ \ /

^\ /^

\ A J-V

\ f

/

'IIXN /

V

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5 

0.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.5 

2.0

Compacton, 810-1480 feet

1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965

D

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970

160

140

100

80

60

40

20

0

Stress-strain

-12 -10 -8 10 12 13x10"

STRAIN

FIGURE 78. Hydrograph, change in applied stress, compaction, subsidence, and stress-strain relationship, 11N/21W-3B1. A, Hydrograph of well 11JV/21W-3B1, perforated 

1,037-1,237 feet.fi, Change in applied stress, water table assumed constant. C, Compaction to 810-foot depth at well 12N/21W-34Q1 and to 1,480-foot depth at well 

11N/21W-3B1 and subsidence of bench mark M991 at well 11N/21W-3B1. D, Compaction in 810-1,480-foot-depth interval. E, Stress change versus strain (670-ft 

thickness).
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

TABLE 8. Notes on wells or sites for which records are included in figures 53-78

[For location of well or site, see fig. 50]

H77

Fig. 

No.

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

fifi

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

73

74

75

Well or site 

No.

12/12-16H __ ______

13/12-20D1 ___ ______

13/15-35D5 __ _ _

14/13-11D-- _ __ _ _

14/12-12H1 ___ ___ __

15/13-11D2 ____________

15/14-14J1 ____________

15/16-31N3 ____________

16/15-34N _____ ____ __

17/15-14Q1 _____ __ ___

18/16-33A1 ____________

18/19-20P ______________

19/16-23P2 ____________

20/18-6D1 _____ _______

20/18-11Q2 ____________

20/18-11Q1 _ __________

20/18-11Q3 _ ___ _

23/25-16N__ __ __ _

Do ________________

24/26-34F1 ___ ___ _

24/26-36A2 __ _ __

25/26-1A2 __ _ _ _

Do _______ _ _____

25/26-lK2__ __. _

Number of 

compaction 

plots

Los

5

1

1

3

1

1

1

6

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

3

3

1

1

1

Number of 

hydrographs

Banos-Kettleman City area

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

Tulare-Wasco area

2

o

1

1

1

1

Stress-compaction 

or stress-strain 

plot made

Stress-strain

________do________

Stress-compaction

Stress-strain

Stress-strain

Stress-strain

____--__do___-____

_ ____do _ _____

Remarks

lower zone. 

Primarily observation well,

lower zone; compaction 

measurement includes 

only part of lower zone. 

Compaction, upper zone;

hydrograph not representative for all stress-change 

interval. Well is east of 

Fresno Slough. 

Compaction for interval

578 ft thick in lower 

zone. 

Primarily observation well,

lower zone; compaction 

measurement includes 

only part of lower zone. 

Primarily observation well,

lower zone; compaction 

measurement includes 

only part of lower zone. 

Representative for the lower

zone. 

Compaction and hydrograph, upper zone. 

Compaction for interval

1,297 ft thick in lower 

zone. 

Deepest compaction anchor,

2,315 ft below land surface. 

Primarily observation well,

lower zone; compaction 

measurement includes 

only part of lower zone. 

Compaction and water

level, upper zone. 

Compaction to depth of

2,200 ft. 

Primarily observation well,

lower zone; compaction 

measurement includes 

only part of lower zone. 

Casing-separation plot;

hydrograph for top of 

lower zone. 

Compaction and hydrograph, upper zone. 

For most of lower zone;

hydrograph for lower 

part of lower zone.

Confined system, compaction in 43 0-760- ftdepth interval.

all compaction in 250-430- 

ft-depth interval occurred 

in 330-430-ft depth. 

Compaction to 1,510 ft.

Assumed that hydrograph

for 1A2 represents stress

change in compacting 

zone of 36A2. 

Compaction measured to

depth of 892 ft. Perforated 

1,000-2,200 ft. 

Perforated 1,000-2,200 ft.
H78 STUDIES OF LAND SUBSIDENCE

TABLE 8. Notes on wells or sites for which records are included in figures 5t° -78 Continued

Fig.

No.

Well or site 

No.

Number of 

compaction 

plots

Number of 

hydrographs

Stress-compa m 

or stress-str i 

plot made

Remarks

Arvin-Maricopa area

76 12N/21W-34Q1 _ _ _ 1 1 __________ Well 810 ft deep.

77 32/28-20Q1 ____________ 1 l Stress-compaction Well 970 ft deep.

78 11N/21W-3B1 ________ 2 1 Stress-strain Well 1,480 ft deep, but

strain computed for 670-ft 

thickness.

£ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981- 341-6M/126