Influences of Strip Mining on the 

Hydrologie Environment of Parts of 

Beaver Creek Basin, Kentucky, 1973-74

U,S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 427-D

V

Prepared in collaboration with the U.S. Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and Bureau of Mines; U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service; 

Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers; Commonwealth of Kentucky t University of Kentucky, Kentucky Geological Survey, Kentucky 

Department of Commerce, and Kentucky Department for Natural 

Resources and Environmental Protection
Influences of Strip Mining on the 

Hydrologic Environment of Parts of 

Beaver Creek Basin, Kentucky, 1973-74

Edited by ROBERT A. KRIEGER

HYDROLOGIG INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 427-D

Prepared in collaboration with the U. S. Department of the Interior, 

Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and Bureau of Mines; U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service; 

Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers; Commonwealth of Kentucky, University of Kentucky, Kentucky Geological Survey, Kentucky 

Department of Commerce, and Kentucky Department for Natural 

Resources and Environmental Protection

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, W ASH INGTON : 1 98 5
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

DONALD PAUL HODEL, Secretary

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under tide:

Influences of strip mining on die hydrologic environment of parts of Beaver Creek basin, Kentucky, 1973-74.

(Hydrologioinfluences of strip mining) (U.S. Geological Survey professional paper ; 427-D)

"Prepared in collaboration widi die U.S. Department of die Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife ... [et al.]"

Bibliography: p. 53

Supt. of Docs, no.: I 19.16:427-D

1. Strip mining Environmental aspects Kentucky Beaver Creek Watershed. 2. Coal mines and mining Environmental aspects 

Kentucky Beaver Creek Watershed. 3. Freshwater biology Kentucky Beaver Creek Watershed. I. Krieger, Robert A. (Robert 

Albert), 1918- . II. United States. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. III. Series. IV. Series: Geological Survey professional 

paper ; 427-D.

TO195.S75I54 1984 553.7'09769'135 84-600131

For sale by the Distribution Branch, U.S. Geological Survey 

604 South Pickett Street, Alexandria, VA 22304
PREFACE

This report is the fourth in a series on the environmental effects of strip mining of coal in Cane Branch basin, McCreary County, Kentucky. The series of 

reports, published by the U.S. Geological Survey as Professional Paper 427, is 

the product of a study by several Federal and State agencies. The physical environment of the study areas and the history of mining in the basin are described 

in the first report, Professional Paper 427-A (Musser, 1963). Results obtained 

during the study period 1955-59 and definitions of terms are given in the second 

report, Professional Paper 427-B (Collier and others, 1964). The third report, 

Professional Paper 427-C (Collier, Pickering, and Musser, 1970), describes the 

results of the investigation since 1955, with emphasis on the period 1959-66. 

With the end of the 1966 water year, the project became dormant until the 1974 

water year, when it was reactivated for one year. The purpose of the reactivation 

was to determine the changes in the hydrologic characteristics of Cane Branch 

after the intervening seven years. This report describes the results of that 

investigation.

in

CONTENTS

Preface III

Summary, by Robert A. Krieger Dl

Suggestions for further study 3

Conclusions 4

Introduction 4

Land use and cover conditions, by Beecher J. Hines 6

Precipitation and runoff, by John A. McCabe 6

Introduction 6

Instrumentation 6

Data available 7

Runoff characteristics 8

Flow duration and variability 9

Peak discharges 10

Monthly runoff 11

Annual summaries of precipitation and runoff 11

Conclusions 11

Ground water, by Robert W. Davis 11

Geochemistry of water, by Robert W. Davis 13

Introduction 13

Helton Branch 15

West Fork Cane Branch 16

Cane Branch study area 18

Pools in mined areas 18

Tributaries of Cane Branch 21

Cane Branch 22

Comparison of chemical erosion in Cane Branch and

Helton Branch study areas 23

Conclusions 31

Erosion and deposition, by John A. McCabe 32

Introduction 32

Erosion and deposition Continued

Erosion from the southwest spoil bank D32 

Sediment deposition in Cane Branch 34 

Erosion and sediment yield, by Beecher J. Hines 34 

Conclusions 37

Suspended-sediment transport, by John F. Santos 38 

Suspended-sediment transport at Cane Branch gaging

station 38 

Storms 42 

Conclusions 42

Stream-bottom fauna, by Albert R. Jones 44 

Methods 44 

Results 45 

Comparison of accumulated bottom-fauna data 45 

Conclusions 45

Fish population, by John L. Boaze 45 

Methods of conducting fish-population studies 46 

Results of sampling fish populations 46 

Conclusions 48

Tree growth on spoils, by Thomas M. Yanosky and Robert 

S. Sigafoos 48 

Methods 49 

Composition and distribution of vegetation in sampled

areas 49 

Quantity of vegetation 49 

Growth rate of trees on spoils and on an abandoned

farm 51 

Conclusions 52

Selected references 53

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURES 1, 2. Maps showing:

1. Upper Beaver Creek basin study areas, stream-gaging stations, and recording precipitation stations,

1973-74 D5

2. Location of mines and prospect areas in the Cane Branch and West Fork Cane Branch study areas, 1973-

74 7

3-9. Graphs showing:

3. Comparison of monthly runoff for the periods of record: A, Cane Branch basin and B, Helton Branch basin 9

4. Flow-duration curves, Cane and Helton Branches 10

5. Frequency of annual floods, water years 1956-74 10

6. Correlation of monthly runoffs, Cane and Helton Branches, October 1958 to September 1966 and May 1973

to September 1974 12

7. Changes in sulfate concentration of water in weD 12 and annual precipitation, 1959-66 and 1973-74 14

8. Range of dissolved solids and pH of surface waters in study areas, June 1956 to December 1959 and August

1967 to October 1974 15

9. Relation of dissolved-solids concentration to water discharge in Helton Branch, 1956-58 and 1973-74 17 

10. Specific conductance and pH of water in pools, tributaries, and main stem of Cane Branch on September 11 and 12,

1973 19
VI CONTENTS

FIGURES 11-14. Graphs showing:

11. Decrease with time in specific conductance of water in selected pools on the southwest spoil bank D20

12. Relation of runoff and dissolved-solids load, 1957-66 and 1974 water years: A, annually, and B, relative to

time 28

13. Changes in relation of cumulative dissolved-solids load to cumulative runoff, Cane Branch gaging station,

water years 1957-66 and 1974 29

14. Relation of monthly water discharge to monthly gross dissolved-solids load in Cane and Helton Branches

from October 1956 to September 1958 and from October 1973 to September 1974 30

15. Map showing sediment sampling and study sites in the Cane Branch study area, 1973-74 33

16. Profiles of the floor of gully 14 showing erosion from August 1959 to March 1974 34

17. Contour map of area 11, an area on the southwest spoil bank drained by a large gully, February to March 1974 35

18. Profiles of upper surface of spoil bank, area 11, section A-A', showing erosion from October 1958 to March 1974 36 

19,20. Comparative photographs showing:

19. Channel development, upper surface of spoil bank, area 11 37

20. Gully development in area 11 38 

21, 22. Contour maps of:

21. Area 12, a rilled and terraced part of the southwest spoil bank, February 1974 39

22. Area 1, a reach of Cane Branch channel, February 1974 40

23. Cross-section and longitudinal profiles of Cane Branch in area 1 41

24. Comparative photographs of the Cane Branch channel in area 1 42

25. Longitudinal profile of Cane Branch in area 2 43 

26-29. Graphs showing:

26. Relation of suspended-sediment concentration to precipitation and water discharge, Cane Branch near

Parkers Lake, October 3,1973 43

27. Variation in suspended-sediment discharge and water discharge for Cane Branch and Parkers Lake, by

water year 43

28. Relation of suspended-sediment concentration to precipitation and water discharge, Cane Branch near

Parkers Lake, March 21,1974 44

29. Relation of suspended-sediment discharge to water discharge by storms, Cane Branch near Parkers Lake 44 

30, 31. Maps showing:

30. Location of fish-sampling stations and distribution of fish within the Beaver Creek basin, 1973-74 47

31. Cane Branch basin and location of forest plots 50 

32. Graph showing basal area of all woody stems 1 inch or larger in diameter for all plots 52

TABLES

	Page

TABLE 1. Summary of annual precipitation, runoff, change in ground-water storage contributing to base flow, and evapotranspira-

	tion D8

2. Chemical analyses of common constituents in samples of ground water from well 12,1967-71 and 1973-74 14

3. Chemical analyses of common constituents in samples from Helton Branch at Greenwood, 1973-74 16

4. Chemical analyses of total and dissolved minor elements in samples from Heton Branch at Greenwood, 1973-74 16

5. Chemical analyses of common constituents in a sample from West Fork Cane Branch, 1973 18

6. Chemical analyses of minor elements in a sample from West Fork Cane Branch near Parkers Lake, 1973 18

7. Chemical analyses of common constituents in samples from selected pools in Cane Branch study area, 1973 20

8. Chemical analyses of minor elements in samples from selected pools in Cane Branch study area, 1973 20

9. Chemical analyses of common constituents in samples from selected tributaries of Cane Branch, 1973 22

10. Chemical analyses of minor elements in samples from selected tributaries of Cane Branch, 1973 22

11. Chemical analyses of common constituents of samples from Cane Branch near Parkers Lake, 1967-74 24

12. Chemical analyses of total and dissolved minor elements in samples from Cane Branch near Parkers Lake, 1973-74 26

13. Annual runoff, gross annual loads, and annual mean concentrations of selected chemical constituents at Cane Branch near

	Parkers Lake gaging station, water years 1957-66 and 1974 26

14. Dissolved solids and sulfate concentrations and loads, Cane Branch near Parkers Lake, October 1973 to September 1974 27

15. Dissolved solids and sulfate concentrations and loads, Helton Branch at Greenwood, October 1973 to September 1974 31

16. Rates of chemical degradation and runoff in the Cane and Helton Branches study areas, water years 1957-62 and 1974 31

17. Gross erosion and average annual sediment yield for Cane Branch basin, 1974 water year 36

18. Gross erosion and average annual sediment yield for Helton Branch basin 36

19. Gross erosion and average annual sediment yield for West Fork Cane Branch basin 36

20. Summary of sediment discharge by water year, Cane Branch near Parkers Lake 41

21. Summary of suspended sediment discharge by month, Cane Branch near Parkers Lake 44
CONTENTS VII

Page

TABLE 22. Average number of bottom-fauna organisms per square foot in tributaries to Beaver Creek, June 1974 D45

23. Average number per square foot of Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, and Coleoptera in Little Hurricane Fork and Hughes

Fork below the mouth of Cane Branch in selected months, 1956-62,1964, and 1974 46

24. Fish production in affected and reference streams, Beaver Creek basin, 1973-74 46

25. Comparison of the standing stocks of the affected and reference streams within the Beaver Creek basin, 1973-74 48

26. Relative abundance of various species of fish collected from the affected and reference stations within the Beaver Creek

study area, 1973-74 48

27. Mean number and mean basal area of species in four areas 51

28. Growth rates of pine trees on the young mine spoils and on abandoned farmland 52

29. List of common and scientific names of woody species 57

30. Discharge and runoff at the Cane Branch near Parkers Lake stream-gaging station 57

31. Discharge and runoff at the Helton Branch at Greenwood stream-gaging station 58

32. Annual maximum discharges for Cane Branch near Parkers Lake 59

33. Annual maximum discharges for Helton Branch at Greenwood 59

34. Annual maximum discharges for West Fork Cane Branch near Parkers Lake 59

35. Precipitation at recording gages, October 1966 to September 1974 60

36. Maximum precipitation amounts recorded in Cane Branch basin during selected storms 63

CONVERSION FACTORS

[Factors for converting inch-pound units to metric units are shown to four significant factors]

Inch-pound units Multiply by Metric units

acres 0.004047 km2 (square kilometers)

acre-ft (arre-feet) 0.001233 hm3 (cubic hectometers)

ft3/s (cubic feet per second) 0.02832 m3/s (cubic meters per second)

ft (feet) 0.3048 m (meters)

gal (gallons) 3.785 L (liter)

in (inches) 25.4 mm (millimeters)

mi (miles) 1.609 km (kilometers)

mi2 (square miles) 2.590 km2 (square kilometers)

tons (short) 0.9072 t (metric tons)

tons/mi2 (tons per square mile) 0.350 t/km2 (metric ton per square kilometer)

HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING ON THE 

HYDROLOGIC ENVIRONMENT OF PARTS OF 

BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KENTUCKY, 1973-74

Edited by ROBERT A. KRIEGER

SUMMARY

By Robert A. Krieger

Coal was strip mined in the Beaver Creek basin, 

McCreary County, Ky., intermittently from 1955 to 

1959. Three small areas of Cane Branch, West Fork 

Cane Branch, and Helton Branch basins in the headwaters of Beaver Creek were studied for changes 

resulting from this mining. About 10 percent of the 

Cane Branch study area had been mined, and the West 

Fork Cane Branch basin had been prospected. The 

Helton Branch study area, which had not been mined, 

was used as a control. Investigations of the three areas 

were made during the years 1955-66, and the areas in 

Cane Branch and Helton Branch basins were restudied 

in 1973-74. It was originally proposed that 1-year 

studies of the effects of mining be activated every 10 

years in order to develop information on the rate of recovery of the area. However, because of the possibility 

that part of the study area would be declared a Wilderness Area, it was necessary to reactivate the project in 

1973 rather than in 1976. Under Wilderness Area classification, further access and data-acquisition activities would be severely constrained. Also, the spoil 

bank would be regraded and seeded to restore the 

mined area to a more natural state.

Mining in the Cane Branch basin significantly 

changed the chemical quality of the surface and 

ground waters, increased the sediment yield from the 

basin, and adversely affected the aquatic life in the 

streams. The picture that emerged from the wet water 

year 1974 was that of a drainage basin and its stream 

gradually recovering toward its premining quality.

In the 1974 water year, heavy rainfall on the basins 

produced runoff from November to January that was 

more than twice as great on the whole, as the average 

runoff for these months. Runoff was about 54 percent 

of precipitation for Cane Branch basin and 64 percent

for Helton Branch basin. Runoff records for gaging 

stations on Cane and Helton Branches showed marked 

differences. However, the effects of strip mining could 

not be separated from the usual factors in the hydrologic environment that also affect the flow regimen.

Records for the earlier period of study indicated that 

at higher flows the discharge for Cane Branch generally exceeded the discharge for Helton Branch. The 

reverse was true at lower flows. During 1973-74, 

Helton Branch discharge generally exceeded Cane 

Branch discharge throughout the range of discharge, 

except for the maximum for the year. At durations of 

less than about 20 percent, Helton Branch flows exceeded Cane Branch flows by as much as 30 percent. 

This perceptible shift to higher runoff in Helton 

Branch during 1973-74 could be due to an inherent difference in flows (in years of heavy precipitation) that 

existed before strip mining began. However, small 

mountain streams are some of the most difficult to 

measure accurately, especially at high flows. It is 

possible that the differences in flood discharges between the two basins are within the margin of error.

No significant trends in ground-water levels were observed other than normal seasonal variations in response to rainfall and evapotranspiration.

Cane Branch became a highly mineralized acid 

stream in early 1956 as a result of intermittent strip 

mining of coal in the basin during the periods May 

1955 to April 1956 and December 1958 to August 

1959. The increase in concentrations of dissolved 

solids, sulfate, and acidity in the water of Cane Branch 

was significant. These concentrations began to decrease in 1960 and by 1962 had reached the 1957 level. 

Although fluctuations of annual mean concentration 

due to climatic variations made it difficult to identify a 

definite trend for the period 1962-66, it appeared there 

was little change in the rate of chemical weathering or

Dl
D2 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

in the chemical composition of the water in Cane 

Branch during these 5 years of the study.

Cane Branch in water year 1974 transported out of 

the basin a dissolved-solids load of 237 tons/mi2 (tons 

per square mile), about 57 percent of the load for the 

high runoff year 1960 and somewhat less than the load 

for water year 1962, also a high runoff year. Nearby 

Helton Branch in water year 1974 transported about 

66 tons/mi2 of dissolved-solids load.

Corrected for the dissolved solids in precipitation 

during the period 1957-62, Cane Branch transported a 

net dissolved-solids load of about 1,370 tons per square 

mile of dranage area, and Helton Branch transported a 

net load of about 111 tons per square mile of drainage 

area In water year 1974, the net loads of dissolved 

solids were 202 tons/mi2 and 35 tons/mi2 for Cane 

Branch and Helton Branch areas, respectively. The 

rate of chemical degradation for the Cane Branch area 

was about 12 times greater than that for the Helton 

Branch area during the 6-year period and about 6 times 

greater in the wet water year 1974.

As an indication of the quality of the water in the 

Cane Branch study area prior to the April 1955 mining, several small streams unaffected by mining have 

had a median dissolved-solids concentration of 

20 mg/L (milligrams per liter) and a pH range of 5.2 to 

7.6 units. From June 1956 to December 1959, the 

dissolved-solids concentration of Cane Branch water 

increased, ranging from 76 to 1,460 mg/L with a median value of 310 mg/L. Sulfate made up about 70 percent of the dissolved solids, ranging in concentration 

from 46 to 1,220 mg/L. In contrast, from August 1967 

to October 1974 the concentration of dissolved solids 

narrowed to a range of 40 to 366 mg/L while sulfate 

ranged from 21 to 226 mg/L.

Helton Branch, which drains a nearby similar basin 

that had not been mined, changed little in water quality from 1956 to 1974, remaining low in mineral content and with a nearby neutral pH. In the 1973-74 

study, the discharge-weighted average concentration 

for dissolved solids was about 25 mg/L and the median 

value for sulfate was about 7 mg/L.

Water in pools formed by the strip mining of coal has 

become less mineralized. Since 1956-59, some pool 

waters in the southwest spoil bank have shown a tenfold reduction in sulfate concentration and specific 

conductance and are less acidic. By 1973, specific conductance of some pool waters had begun to level off at 

about 100 micromhos, or about that of natural surfacewater drainage. The exceptions are the metals 

aluminum, iron, and manganese, which continue, collectively, to exceed 1 mg/L in acid waters. The rapid 

rate of chemical degradation in the Cane Branch area is 

attributed largely to the strip mining of coal in 

1955-56 and 1958-59, which exposed pyrite and other

unweathered minerals to agents of weathering and 

erosion.

There is compelling evidence that erosion of the spoil 

banks and deposition of sediment in the Cane Branch 

channel is decreasing. Erosion and downcutting of 

gullies on the southwest spoil bank have continued, 

but at a lower rate since the 1966 surveys. The mean 

degradation along the profiles of gullies 14 and 15 

averaged 0.24 ft/yr (feet per year) during the period 

1966-74, well below the value during the 1959-62 

period. For area 12, a rilled and terraced part of the 

southwest spoil bank, the 1974 survey indicated an 

average net fill (sediment deposit) on the area of less 

than 0.1 ft since the 1966 survey, well within the 

margin of measurement error.

The February 1974 survey showed that the channel 

of Cane Branch in the lower reaches of the study area 

(area 1) has been scoured since 1966 and possibly has 

undergone a number of scour and fill cycles. The channel appears to be returning to its condition prior to 

strip mining. Material eroded from the spoil piles and 

deposited in the channel from 1958 to 1966 has been 

transported out of the study area and redeposited farther downstream. Gross erosion or soil loss in the 

0.67-square-mile area of Cane Branch basin is about 

2,400 (tons/mi2)/yr, and the measured sediment yield at 

the gaging station is 1,170 (tons/mi2)/yr. Thus, about 

49 percent of the sediment eroded is delivered to the 

streams. The bulk of the soil loss, 1,500 tons, or nearly 

94 percent, comes from the spoil piles.

These observations are in sharp contrast with the 

undisturbed (unmined) Helton Branch basin, where the 

gross erosion is about 796 (tons/mi2)/yr and the measured sediment yield is 207 (tons/mi2)/yr. Thus, Cane 

Branch basin has an erosion rate more than three times 

and a sediment yield more than five times the rates for 

Helton Branch. With only about 2 percent of West 

Fork Cane Branch acreage in mine spoil, there is no apparent increase in erosion or sediment yield in comparison with values compiled for Helton Branch basin.

The annual suspended sediment yield from Cane 

Branch ranged from 617 to 3,010 tons/mi2 during the 

period 1957-66. The highest weighted mean concentration was 1,640 mg/L. In 1974, the suspended sediment yield was 1,170 tons/mi2, with a weighted mean 

concentration of 416 mg/L.

Thus, the current data (1973-74) support the conclusion that sufficient revegetation has taken place in 

Cane Branch to cause a decrease in suspended sediment yields. The discharge-weighted concentration of 

suspended sediment in 1973-74 was the minimum for 

the study years, while the discharge was a maximum. 

This significant change in water discharge versus sediment discharge indicates that less material is readily 

available for transport out of the basin.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D3

Bottom-fauna data from the Beaver Creek basin for 

the years 1956-66 and 1974 reveal that the acid water 

and the sediment resulting from the strip mining of 

coal have resulted in a loss of invertebrate bottom 

fauna in Cane Branch and Hughes Fork. In Helton 

Branch, about 24 organisms per square foot of stream 

bottom were present, while in an equal area of stream 

bottom in Cane Branch only 1 organism was present.

Results of fish-population sampling in Beaver Creek 

basin in 1973-74 indicate that Cane Branch remains 

devoid of fish owing to low pH of the water draining 

from the strip-mined areas. Comparison of the standing stock in the reference streams within Beaver Creek 

basin with stock in Cane Branch and Lower Hughes 

Fork seems to indicate that surface mining is responsible for depressing or eliminating the fish population 

in the streams receiving the acid runoff. The reference 

streams were supporting 3.7 times as many fish by 

number and 2.5 times as many fish by weight as the affected streams. The fish population in Hughes Fork 

below the confluence with Cane Branch was severely 

restricted in both numbers and species. However, 

natural stream recovery appeared to be taking place, 

as indicated by the increase in fish population in the 

lower section of Hughes Fork of Beaver Creek.

The number, form, and density of woody vegetation 

in various parts of the Cane Branch study area indicate 

the overall negative influence of strip mining on woody 

vegetation. The significantly smaller amount of vegetation on the young mine spoils than on the older mine 

spoils, abandoned farmland, and upland probably is related to poorer site conditions on the younger spoils. 

Basal area of pines on the spoils is less than on the 

abandoned farmland because fewer trees per unit area 

grow on the spoils, as reflected in density values. 

Although trees on the young spoils are younger than 

trees on the abandoned farmland, time alone cannot account for the differences in quantity of vegetation. 

Comparable growth rates of trees on the two sites indicate that, in places on the spoils, trees grow as well as 

on nonmined areas.

Reforestation of those parts of the mined areas now 

inadequately forested will undoubtedly continue, and 

future studies are needed to document their rate of 

recovery.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

Although it is unlikely that another 1-year study will 

be made, the following studies and practices would be 

useful. These suggestions are phrased in terms of the 

conclusions reached from the 1-year resumption of 

data collection in Beaver Creek basin. 

1. A minimum continuing program to monitor longterm change should include a daily record of

water discharge at the Cane Branch and Helton 

Branch gaging stations, records of monthly and 

maximum precipitation at the two recording precipitation stations in Cane Branch basin (storm 

events exceeding 2 inches), seasonal measurement of water level and sulfate content of well 12, 

and chemical analysis of water at pools 2, 3, and 9 

in the mined area. The program should also include, for both Cane Branch and Helton Branch, 

at least quarterly chemical analysis, a resurvey of 

areas 1 and 2 in Cane Branch Channel and areas 

11 and 12 and gullies 14 to 17 on the southwest 

spoil banks, an update of the annual gross erosion 

estimate for Cane Branch and Helton Branch, 

and measurement of monthly and annual suspended sediment discharge for Cane Branch and 

Helton Branch. In addition, the study should include a summer-period survey of stream-bottom 

fauna and fish population for a section of Cane 

Branch and Helton Branch above and below the 

affected areas, and a resurvey of reforestation 

and growth rates of trees on selected mine spoils.

2. The Beaver Creek study was started after strip 

mining had begun in Cane Branch basin. The lack 

of hydrologic data for Cane Branch before mining 

made it necessary to choose another, nearby 

basin as a control against which the hydrologic 

character of Cane Branch basin after mining 

could be compared. The major criteria for choosing a control basin should include: (1) the control 

basin must be as similar as possible to the study 

basin and (2) the control basin should not be altered during the study. Wherever and whenever 

possible, the study basin and the control basin 

should be investigated and data collected for 2 or 

3 years before strip mining is begun.

3. Stream-discharge stations on small streams in 

mountainous terrain are often very difficult to 

operate, making it difficult to obtain data within 

normal standards of accuracy. The flashy character of the stormflows, the very low discharges 

during base flows, and difficulty of access can 

produce data of less accuracy than desirable 

unless special data collection techniques are used. 

In this instance, the water-discharge data could 

have been more accurate had a flume and a broadbase weir been used for increased sensitivity at 

low flows and floodflows, respectively. Floodflows would still be a problem requiring study of 

best placement of intakes and instrumentation 

for measurement of high flow. Ease of access during storms is an important factor in devising a 

data-collection program.

4. If another study of this kind is made, it would be informative to measure the acidity or pH of the
D4 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

spoil material in a number of areas to a depth of 

3 ft to document the leaching of acidic material 

from the surface layer for comparison with the 

rate and extent of revegetation.

CONCLUSIONS

The intent of the Beaver Creek study was to document the effects of the strip mining of coal in mountainous terrain and restoration methods normal for the 

time. This was accomplished, as shown by the numerous data given in this and other chapters in U.S. 

Geological Survey Professional Paper 427. The data 

support several overall conclusions, as follows:

1. The method of piling the overburden without any 

specific attempt to bury the sulfurous minerals 

was a major factor in promoting the intensity and 

duration of acid mine drainage to the streams.

2. The method of piling the overburden and allowing 

natural revegetation to reclaim the area delayed 

the recovery process.

3. Drift mining of the coal seam in the strip pit 

seemed to have no measurable effect on either 

erosion or production of mine acids. If there was 

any effect, it was masked by the load of sediment 

and acid from the spoil bank.

4. The primary products from the strip mining of coal 

harmful to the environment are sediment and 

mineral acids. These in turn affect the biological 

component of the environmental system. Both 

sediment and acidity can be qualitatively and 

quantitatively measured with a reasonable 

degree of accuracy.

5. Under the conditions that prevailed in this study, 

sediment yield decreased more rapidly than did 

the production of mineral acids.

6. The strip mining of coal in Cane Branch basin had 

no measurable effect on the total flow of Cane 

Branch. However, the effect of increasing erosion 

and fluvial sediment, degrading the chemical 

quality of the water, and depressing the biological system was highly significant.

7. Measurement of the effects of strip mining is best 

done by establishing baseline data, by a few years 

of environmental study preceding the mining, for 

comparison with postmining data.

8. The effect on the ground-water system in the Cane 

Branch basin was negligible compared with the 

effect on the surface-water and the biological 

systems.

9. The unordered method of piling and leveling of the 

spoil material produced some sorting of the raw 

spoil into pockets of highly acidic and of low- or 

non-acidic material. This resulted in some areas 

of surface material that were soon suitable for

natural revegetation and other surface areas that 

were very hostile, for long periods, to any kind of 

revegetation. The obvious conclusion is that the 

practice, sometimes used in strip-mining reclamation, which separates and then restores soil and 

soil material as the top layer for promoting reclamation, is indeed a good one.

INTRODUCTION

A study of the hydrologic effects of the strip mining 

of coal with very little subsequent reclamation commenced in 1955 in the basin of Cane Branch, a tributary of Beaver Creek in McCreary County, southern 

Kentucky. At the same time, a comparative study was 

made in the basin of Helton Branch, another, nearby 

tributary of Beaver Creek, where mining had not taken 

place (see fig. 1).

The results of these studies through the 1966 water 

year have been documented in three earlier reports 

(Musser, 1963; Collier and others, 1964, 1970). The 

project was essentially closed down in 1966; however, 

the three gaging stations in Cane Branch, West Fork 

Cane Branch, and Helton Branch basins and the precipitation gages in Cane Branch and Helton Branch 

basins continued to operate. The original plan called 

for reactivation of the study every 10 years after 1966 

to assess the long-term effects of strip mining. However, because the U.S. Forest Service was contemplating reclamation work in the Cane Branch basin, the Interagency Beaver Creek Work Group Committee met 

May 19,1973, and decided to reactivate the project for 

an additional year of study beginning July 1, 1973. Actually, data collection extended over a 15-month period 

ending September 30, 1974.

Agencies that participated in the most recent study 

were U.S. Forest Service; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; U.S. Soil Conservation Service; U.S. Geological Survey; U.S. 

Bureau of Mines; Kentucky Department of Commerce; 

Kentucky Department for Natural Resources and 

Environmental Protection; University of Kentucky; 

Kentucy Geological Survey; and Kentucky Reclamation Association.

The Interagency Beaver Creek Work Group Committee was chaired by E. L. Hendricks, retired chief 

hydrologist, U.S. Geological Survey. A. K. Trethow, 

Topographic Division, U.S. Geological Survey, provided the resurveys of the areas and gullies on the 

southwest spoil bank and in the Cane Branch channel.

In preparing this chapter of Professional Paper 427, 

it was assumed that the reader would be reasonably 

familiar with basic characteristics of the area and with 

the progress and findings of the study that were described in the three previous chapters. Therefore, no
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D5

EXPLANATION

A Stream-gaging station and

principal stream-sampling site 

O Recording precipitation station

site and number 

- Study area boundary 

 Town site V

-NWest Fork Cane Branch 

study area

Parkers Lake/

1 MILE

FIGURE 1. Upper Beaver Creek basin study areas, stream-gaging stations, and recording precipitation stations, 1973-74.
D6 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

attempt was made to describe the geology of the three 

study areas or the soils, mining activities, hydrology, 

and other details. However, it seemed desirable to provide some simple sketch maps for orientation purposes 

and to include some previous material in instances in 

which data and records were extended to include September 1974. Because so many changes were made in 

the spoil banks, roads, and vegetation cover upon conversion of parts of the study areas to Wilderness Area 

classification, no further work is intended. Furthermore, the Wilderness Area classification forbids many 

of the activities required to continue the study.

LAND USE AND COVER CONDITIONS

By Beecher J. Hines 

U.S. Soil Conservation Service

The undisturbed areas along Helton Branch have 

remained about the same, or perhaps show some improvement, since 1966. The one farm that lies partially 

within the watershed has converted from rotation 

corn-meadow to permanent grass. The sod is an excellent stand of almost pure fescue. Cultural changes include the construction of one small dwelling and the 

presence of one mobile home situated on land that was 

previously idle.

U.S. Highway 27 has been relocated since the last 

study. Most of the roadbanks have been successfully 

seeded to fescue, resulting in an excellent stand of 

grass on the banks, shoulders, and berms. The remaining bare areas consist of steep cut banks that average 

8 ft in height and approximately 1,600 ft in length. 

These bare roadbanks constitute sediment-source 

areas to Helton Branch.

The Cane Branch basin has not been disturbed since 

the March 1966 study. Ground cover in the woods may 

be slightly improved in 1974 owing to the added 

growth of the shrubs, forbs, and young trees. The 

abandoned fields and idle land now have a dense stand 

of young trees, weeds, and blackberry briars.

There is some variation in the cover conditions on 

the spoil banks. Most of the high walls remain bare, 

but better vegetative cover has been established on 

some of the spoil banks than on others.

The mined area (fig. 2, northeast strip mine) in the 

northeastern part of Cane Branch basin (Musser, 1963, 

pi. 3, fig. 1) includes about 13 acres. The younger spoil 

(4.2 acres) has Virginia pines on about 35 percent of the 

area. Accumulation of pine needles provides good 

cover on about 10 percent of the 4.2 acres. The older 

mine spoil (8.8 acres) has 55 percent vegetative cover; 

Virginia pine is dominant, and there are a few oak, 

maple, and shrubs. Common lespedeza grows on some 

spoil areas along with wild grasses and weeds.

The spoil area of the east strip mine covering 4.2 

acres (fig. 2) had the best vegetative cover of any site in 

1974. This area is in a saddle or gap and has more gentle slopes than the other spoil areas. A dense growth of 

weeds, wild legumes, and grasses cover the outer 

perimeter, and only 10 percent of the spoil area remains bare. Virginia pine dominates the tree species, 

but shortleaf pine, maple, poplar, oak, and other trees 

are present, with a mixture of wild grasses and 

legumes.

The small, 1.1-acre mine spoil and prospect area (fig. 

2, strip mine, 1947) in the southern part of Cane 

Branch basin (Musser, 1963, pi. 3, fig. 1) has a fairly 

good cover of wild legumes, weeds, and grasses under 

pine trees. Approximately 20 percent of this area remains bare.

The largest mined area (Musser, 1963, pi. 3, fig. 1), 

consisting of 24.8 acres (fig. 2, southwest strip mine) 

has almost no vegetation other than Virginia pines. 

Salt crystals or salty deposits are visible where surface 

water has evaporated. Nearly all the trees are on the 

spoil that has been leveled or on the slopes toward the 

high wall. The outslopes are almost bare, perhaps 65 

percent of the total. Pine needles cover about 30 percent of the portion shaded by trees.

The three small coal prospecting areas (fig. 2), one of 

which is in the West Fork Cane Branch basin watershed, have about 60 percent ground cover (1974), with 

wild legumes, weeds, and grasses growing between the 

trees to provide fair to good soil cover.

PRECIPITATION AND RUNOFF

By John A. McCabe 

U.S. Geological Survey

INTRODUCTION

Precipitation and runoff data were collected during 

the 1974 water year as support records for other 

phases of the project. Thomas (in Collier and others, 

1964, p. B4-B19) and McCabe (in Collier and others, 

1970, p. C5-C9) determined differences in runoff characteristics between the Cane Branch and Helton 

Branch basins. Thomas concluded that the Cane 

Branch runoff data probably reflected, to an unknown 

degree, the changes in land cover and use resulting 

from strip mining in the basin. McCabe was unable to 

determine any progressive change in runoff characteristics that could be related to the history of mining in 

the area, within the limits of error of the runoff data.

INSTRUMENTATION

The Cane Branch gaging station had been converted 

to a crest-stage/low-flow partial-record station on September 30, 1966. With the reactivation of the project,
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74

EXPLANATION

D7

( Northeast strip 

i mine 195&r59

Study area (drainage) 

boundary

Stream-gaging station and 

principal water-quality 

and sediment sampling 

station

Long-term observation well 

with well number

16 Coal test hole with 

test hole number

^j/£p Spoil area 

Drift mine

Southwest strip 

mine 1955-56

500 500 1000 1500 FEET

FIGURE 2. Location of mines and prospect areas in the Cane Branch and West Fork Cane Branch study areas, 1973-74.

daily recording of water discharge at that station was 

resumed and continued from May 1973 to September 

1974. The daily record for Helton Branch, the West 

Fork Cane Branch crest-stage partial-record station, 

and the four recording rain gages in the Cane and 

Helton Branch basins had continued in operation since 

the end of the 1955-66 phase of the project. The location of these data-collection points is shown in figure 1.

DATA AVAILABLE

Daily precipitation records were available for two 

stations in each of the two basins in the study area. In 

addition, daily records were available at three nearby 

U.S. Weather Service stations, namely, Cumberland 

Falls, Monticello, and Stearns, for evaluation of the 

four gages in the study area.
D8 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

The precipitation records for the gages, gages 5 and 

6 in Helton Branch basin and gages 1 and 2 in Cane 

Branch basin, were reviewed and evaluated for accuracy using U.S. Weather Service station data at Cumberland Falls, Monticello, and Stearns for comparison. 

Double-mass curves were used extensively in the 

evaluation. The two gages in Cane Branch basin were 

found to yield valid, acceptable data. However, the 

gages in Helton Branch basin (gages 5 and 6) were 

found to give consistently low readings beginning in 

1965, probably owing to the rain-shadow effect of encroaching trees and shrubs. In addition, gage 5 developed an instrument error. From the double-mass curve 

evaluation, the record for gage 6 was corrected for the 

period 1965-74 on the basis of the records for gages 1 

and 2 in Cane Branch basin and the U.S. Weather 

Bureau gages at Cumberland Falls, Monticello, and 

Stearns. From 1965 on, the record for gage 5 was not 

used. Annual precipitation records, including the corrected record for gage 6, runoff, changes in groundwater storage, and evapotranspiration, are given in 

table 1.

Maximum precipitation amounts recorded in Cane 

Branch basin since the 1966 water year are listed in 

table 36 (at end of paper). Listed are storms during 

which precipitation exceeded 2 inches at one of the two 

recording precipitation stations.

Records of daily mean flow at the gaging stations, 

Cane Branch near Parkers Lake and Helton Branch at 

Greenwood, have been published by the U.S. Geological Survey in its Water-Supply Paper annual series

(1957-60), in the Water-Supply Paper 5-year series 

(1961-65 and 1966-70), and in the series of annual 

State reports (1961-74). The water-discharge records 

for the Cane Branch and Helton Branch stations are 

rated as fair to poor for the purpose of evaluating the 

effects of strip mining on runoff.

Monthly values of runoff for Cane Branch for the 

1973 and 1974 water years are given in table 30, and 

monthly values of runoff for Helton Branch for the 

water years 1967-74 are given in table 31 (Both tables 

at end of paper).

Comparable flow and precipitation data prior to the 

1967 water year were given by Thomas (in Collier and 

others, 1964, B5-B6) and by McCabe (in Collier and 

others, 1970, p. C62-C65).

RUNOFF CHARACTERISTICS

The distributon of average monthly runoff in the 

Cane Branch and Helton Branch basins for the periods 

February 1956 to September 1966 and October 1973 to 

September 1974 is shown in figure 3. A comparison of 

the runoff characteristics for 1956-66 indicates that 

the monthly distributon of flow is about the same for 

both basins.

The 1974 water year was a very wet one. The runoff 

from the Cane Branch basin during the 1974 water 

year was 31.35 inches, and from the Helton Branch 

basin, 36.49 inches (table 1). These amounts were by 

far the maximum annual runoff from each basin for the 

period of record. In relation to total precipitation for

TABLE I. Summary of annual precipitation, runoff, change in ground-water storage contributing to base flow, and evapotranspiration

f [All All values values are are in in inches] inches]

Cane Branch basin

Average annual 

Water precipitation 

year (2 stations)

19563 ____

1957 

1958 

1959 

i Q£n

1961

1Qfi9

1963 

1964 

1 Q£C

1966 -

19734 ____

1974 

Total

27.98

56.19

52.00 

41.85 

55.18 

43.14 

56.43 

44.73

37.02 

45.76 

39.54

24.79

58.61

583.22

Runoff

10.11

21.57

23.04 

10.40 

25.76 

18.03 

25.80 

14.76

10.54 

15.86 

6.71

6.31

31.35

220.24

Change in 

storage 1

-0.41

+.04

0 

-.05 

0 

-.02 

+.02 

0

+.08 

-.10 

+.16

-.43

0

-0.71

Evapotranspiration

18.28

34.58

28.96 

31.50 

29.42 

25.13 

30.61 

29.97

26.40 

30.00 

32.67

18.91

27.26

363.69

Annual 

precipitation 

(1 station)

27.26

55.82

52.43 

41.68 

53.45 

39.54 

56.57 

41.09

38.62 

44 

40

23

57

570.46

Helton Branch basin

Runoff

9.16

20.61

22.57 

10.85 

22.67 

17.75 

24.40 

14.59

9.64 

17.60

7.87

9.23

36.49

223.43

Change in 

storage1

-0.77

+.09

+.01 

-.02 

-.02 

+.02 

-.06 

0

+.35 

-.33 

+.12

-.53

-.01

-1.15

Evapotranspiration

18.87

35.12

29.85 

30.85 

30.80 

21.77 

32.23 

26.50

28.63 

26.7 

32.0

14.3

20.5

348.12

Change in ground-water storage contributing to base flow. 

Record for gage 6: 1956-64 as measured; 1965-74 corrected by double-mass curve technique using gages 1 and 2 versus U.S. Weather Service stations at Cumberland Falls, 

Monticello, and Stearns and gages 1 and 2 versus gage 6. 

March to September. 

4May to September.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D9

Cane Branch near Parkers Lake

EXPLANATION 

February 1956 to 

September 1966

October 1973 to 

September 1974

OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT

A. Cane Branch basin

Helton Branch at Greenwood 

EXPLANATION

February 1956 to 

September 1966

October 1973 to 

September 1974

OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT

B. Helton Branch basin

FIGURE 3. Comparison of monthly runoff for the periods of 

record, A'- Cane Branch basin and B, Helton Branch basin.

1974 in the basins, runoff was 53.5 percent for Cane 

Branch and 64 percent for Helton Branch. These 

values are much greater than the average runoff for 

the 19-year period of record, 1956-74, of 38 percent for 

Cane Branch and 39 percent for Helton Branch.

Expressed in these terms, the extent of wetness in 

the two basins in 1974 was about 15 percent greater 

than the 19-year average of runoff to total precipitation for Cane Branch basin and about 25 percent 

greater for Helton Branch basin.

The data show (fig. 3) that high runoff in the 1974 

water year occurred during November, December, and 

January, when excessive rains fell on the basins and 

produced runoff more than twice as great, on the 

whole, as the average runoff for these months. The 

previous annual maximum runoff from the Cane 

Branch basin for the water years 1957 to 1966 was 

25.80 inches for the 1962 water year (table 1). The

previous annual maximum runoff from the Helton 

Branch basin for the 1957 to 1973 water years was 

27.04 inches for the 1973 water year, which makes it 

probable that runoff in 1973 in Cane Branch was also 

the second highest of record.

For the 12 years of record, 1956-66 and 1974, the 

average annual runoff from Cane Branch basin was 

16.9 inches, and for the 19 years of record for Helton 

Branch basin, 1956-74, average annual runoff was 

17.2 inches. Some monthly records for Cane Branch 

basin for the 1956 and 1973 water years were missing. 

Excluding those 2 years, the average annual runoff for 

the 11 years of continuous record for Cane Branch 

basin was 18.5 inches and for Helton Branch, 19.5 

inches. For all practical purposes, average annual runoff amounts for the periods of record for the two basins 

were within an inch of each other. McCabe (in Collier 

and others, 1970) also correlated runoff from Cane 

Branch with runoff from Helton Branch at the two stations for different periods of the year (annual 7-day 

minimum and 30-day minimum flows) for the period of 

record. He concluded that the relation in runoff between the two basins changed very little during the 

17-year period.

Thus, it can be shown that in the exceptionally wet 

water year of 1974, the annual runoff in both basins 

was almost twice the annual average for the period of 

record.

This similarity between runoff of the two basins for 

the periods of record is evidence that mining has produced no noticeable changes in average monthly and 

annual runoff of the Cane Branch basin. The results of 

more detailed comparisons of the basins using other 

runoff characteristics are discussed in the following 

sections.

FLOW DURATION AND VARIABILITY

A comparison of variability in runoff of Cane and 

Helton Branches for the periods 1956-66 and 1973-74 

is shown in figure 4 by flow-duraton curves. These 

curves are cumulative-frequency curves that show the 

percentage of time during which specific discharges 

were equaled or exceeded, without regard to sequence 

of flow.

Runoff characteristics at Cane and Helton Branches 

were different during May 1973-September 1974 than 

during 1956-66. During the earlier period, the discharge per square mile at Helton Branch exceeded that 

for Cane Branch at the lower flows. During storms, 

Cane Branch had the higher flow per unit area. This is 

shown in figure 4 by the lesser slope of the duration 

curve for Helton Branch at low discharges and indicates a somewhat greater seepage of ground water 

into Helton Branch to sustain the stream during
DIG HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

100 ~

0.01

0.2 1 2 5 10 20304050607080 90 95 98 99.5 99.9 

0.1 0.5 99 99.8 

PERCENTAGE OF TIME DISCHARGE EQUALED 

OR EXCEEDED THAT SHOWN

FIGURE 4. Flow-duration curves, Cane and Helton Branches.

periods of dry weather. However, a duration curve for 

1 year of record is not as reliable as a curve based on 

several years of record.

At duration of 50 percent, daily flow at Helton 

Branch during the period 1956-66 was approximately 

1V2 times greater than at Cane Branch (Thomas, in Collier and others, 1964). At 84-percent duration (one 

standard deviation from the median), Helton Branch 

had nearly three times the flow of Cane Branch.

Cane Branch had greater flood discharges than 

Helton Branch. At durations of less than about 20 percent, which represent overland flow, Cane Branch 

discharges exceeded those of Helton Branch by as 

much as 60 percent (Thomas, in Collier and others, 

1974). This situation was reversed during 1973-74, 

when runoff was greater than during previous water 

years of record. Helton Branch generally exceeded 

Cane Branch throughout the range of discharge. At 

durations of less than about 20 percent, Helton Branch 

flood flows exceeded those of Cane Branch by as much 

as 30 percent.

The general long-term situation at higher base flows 

and lower flood discharges in Helton Branch can be attributed in part to better infiltration rates and greater 

storage capacity of the rocks due to both a thick duff 

layer on the forest floor and much more sandstone in 

the basin. Cane Branch basin has much less duff and 

sandstone, and both those conditions favor lower base 

flows and higher flood discharges. It should be noted 

that the discharge data are rated as fair to poor owing 

to instrument and measurement problems.

In summary, there is no hard and satisfactory explanation for some of the water-discharge data. Factors 

such as climate, channel geometry, and the relation between area and elevation are considered to have minor 

effects on the differences in flow-duration characteristics of the two basins.

PEAK DISCHARGES

The annual maximum discharges for Cane Branch 

and Helton Branch were analyzed by the annual flood 

method developed by Dalrymple, as described by 

McCabe in Collier and others (1970, p. C6-C7). The 

recurrence interval for each flood at each of the stations was plotted against the discharge of the flood in 

cubic feet per second per square mile (see tables 32-34 

at end of paper), and smooth curves were fitted by eye 

to the plots for each of the stations (fig. 5).

The curves in figure 5 might be in error for the rarer 

events, but their relative positions are not expected to 

change greatly for longer periods of record. The addition of flood peaks for the water years 1967-74 

changed the curves somewhat but did not change the 

relative positions of the three curves. The curves show 

that Cane Branch has a greater flood potential than 

Helton Branch.

The list of flood peaks makes up a partial duration 

series and covers a period of nearly 19 years ending 

September 1974. Most of the floods were associated 

with "winter-type" storms, that is, storms generally of 

longer duration during which precipitaton intensities 

were not particularly high. In contrast, "summertype" storms, usually typified by one or more bursts of 

rainfall of high intensity, produced lesser peak flows 

(Thomas, in Collier and others, 1964, p. B9). Significant increases in Helton Branch discharges are mainly 

associated with winter-type storms. Antecedent 

hydrologic conditions and vegetative characteristics 

generally favor higher runoff in winter, also.

For summer storms, the lower peak discharges and 

small runoff show that retention characteristics, inWest Fork Cane Branch 

Cane Branch 

Helton Branch

1.1 1.2 1.4 

1.3 1.5 

RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS

20

FIGURE 5. Frequency of annual floods, water years 1956-74.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 Dll

eluding the impediment of overland and subsurface 

runoff and loss by evaporation and transpiration, are 

important factors in both basins during the summer.

Time intervals from the beginning of flood rises to 

the peaks of the floods were determined by Thomas for 

the Cane and Helton Branches for 1958-59. He found 

that the lag at Cane Branch was about 1 hour 10 minutes less than at Helton Branch. McCabe (in Collier 

and others, 1970) reported that the additional years of 

record since the 1959 water year had not changed this 

average difference. "Thus, it appears that the 1959 

mining in the northeastern part of the Cane Branch 

basin had no measurable effect on the rate at which 

flood peaks moved downstream" (Collier and others, 

1970, p. C7).

MONTHLY RUNOFF

A correlation of monthly runoffs for Cane Branch 

and Helton Branch during the periods 1958-66 and 

1973-74 is shown by the solid regression line in figure 

6. The dashed line in figure 6 is the equal yield line. 

Points plotted below the equal yield line represent 

runoff per square mile of Helton Branch that exceeded 

Cane Branch, and points plotted above the line, when 

runoff of Cane Branch exceeded that of Helton Branch. 

As described in the "Runoff Characteristics" section 

(also see fig. 3), runoff in Helton Branch generally exceeded that in Cane Branch during the 1973-74 period 

and at times of low flow or during rainless periods.

For 1958-66, at discharges greater than 1 (ft3/s(/mi2, 

the runoff of Cane Branch was slightly more than that 

of Helton Branch. The points for months of low runoff 

are scattered but indicate less runoff in Cane Branch 

than in Helton Branch. Thus, the greater runoff in 

Helton Branch for both low and high runoff during 

1974 may reflect, for years of heavy precipitation, the 

inherent difference in flow that existed before strip 

mining began.

ANNUAL SUMMARIES OF 

PRECIPITATION AND RUNOFF

Annual summaries of precipitation, runoff, changes 

in base-flow storage, and computed evapotranspiration 

for Cane Branch and Helton Branch for years for which 

there are runoff records for Cane Branch are given in 

table 1. Annual values for 1973 and 1974 runoff were 

taken from tables 30 and 31. Table 1 is an update of 

table 1 in Collier and others (1970). Annual values of 

1973 and 1974 precipitation for Cane Branch were 

taken from table 35. Commencing about 1961, the precipitation gages for Helton Branch apparently were in 

some kind of rain shadow, for records were not consistent with precipitation records for Cane Branch and for 

nearby U.S. Weather Service stations. Therefore, the 

annual precipitation amounts for Helton Branch are 

values corrected using double-mass curves, as indicated, and represent revisions of the data given in 

table 1 of Collier and others (1970).

Changes in base-flow storage were chosen from figure 10 in Collier and others (1964) using the daily discharge on the last day of the indicated water year. 

Thomas developed the relation between base-flow discharge and storage on the basis of records for January 

1956 to September 1958. Additional records collected 

for water years 1959-66 showed no change in the relation. The change in storage for each water year is 

minor, as the water year ends September 30, during 

the low-water season.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of precipitation and runoff data for the 

periods of records, including monthly runoff, flow 

duration and variability, and peak discharges, provides evidence that there have been no significant 

changes in runoff characteristics that could be related 

to the history of mining in the area.

For all practical purposes, the average annual runoff 

amounts for the period of record for Cane Branch and 

the unmined Helton Branch were within an inch of 

each other, about 19 inches for the 19-year period of 

record 1956-74. That portion of precipitaton that runs 

off also is nearly identical, 39 to 38 percent for each 

basin. The monthly distribution of flow is about the 

same for both basins.

In the 1974 water year, heavy rainfall on the basins 

produced runoff from November to January that was 

more than twice as great as the average runoff for 

these months. Runoff was about 54 percent of precipitation for Cane Branch basin and 64 percent of precipitation for Helton Branch basin.

Previous analysis of precipitation and runoff for 

Cane Branch and Helton Branch basins for the water 

years 1955-66 indicated that measurable differences in 

runoff characteristics between the two basins may be 

attributed more to differences in geology, soils, and 

vegetative cover than to mining operations (see Collier 

and others, 1970, p. C9). This previous analysis indicated that at higher discharges Cane Branch has 

greater flows on a square-mile basis than Helton 

Branch and that Helton Branch has greater base flows 

on a square-mile basis than Cane Branch.

During the excessively wet 1974 water year, the 

runoff in inches from Helton Branch was double the 

long-term average and exceeded the runoff from Cane 

Branch by 5.14 inches.

GROUND WATER

By Robert W. Davis 

U.S. Geological Survey

Investigation of the ground water in the principal 

spoil bank (fig. 2, southwest strip mine) mined in
D12 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

10.0 I I I I I I

Equal yield line

EXPLANATION

Calendar year 

monthly discharge

O 1958

A 1959

D 1960

 1961

A 1962

 1963 

x 1964 

0, 1965 

Q 1966 

H 1973 

	1974

Water year 

annual discharge

I I II I

.1 1.0 10.0 

HELTON BRANCH MONTHLY RUNOFF, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SQUARE MILE

FIGURE 6. Correlation of monthly runoffs, Cane and Helton Branches, October 1958 to September 1966 and

May 1973 to September 1974.

1955-56, and the adjacent bedrock ridge was begun in 

1958 to determine the effects of mining on the occurrence and quality of ground water in the Cape Branch

study area. The ridge is the source of the coal and spoil 

material, and it is connected hydrologically to the spoil 

bank. The unmined West Fork Cane Branch study area
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D13

on the other side of the same ridge provided a basis for 

comparison of the ground-water characteristics of 

mined and undisturbed land.

Price (in Comer and others, 1964, p. B19-B24) concluded that the quantity of water discharged from the 

approximately 1.3 linear miles of spoil banks as determined by using calculations based on Darcy's law is 

very much smaller than the quantity determined on 

the basis of seasonal changes in storage. A rough estimate of the quantity of water discharged from the 

spoil banks ranges from approximately 40 gal/d if the 

spoil banks are of lower permeability to approximately 

600 gal/d if the spoil banks are of higher permeability. 

Price further concluded that the value of 10,000 gal/d, 

obtained by the changes-in-storage method, is the 

more accurate because it is based on a longer period of 

time and a larger area. The wide difference in discharge 

obtained by the two methods may indicate relatively 

rapid ground-water movement along zones of higher 

permeability within or beneath the spoil piles. Even so, 

the total amount of water moving in and out of the 

banks is small. Probably some of the water seeps into 

the bedrock and streams, but most of it is discharged 

by evaporation.

Hopkins and Mull (in Collier and others, 1970, 

p. C9-C14) stated that in spite of the small transmissivity of the spoil, water seeping from the spoil bank 

continuously provides highly mineralized water to 

Cane Branch. This contribution is particularly significant during periods of low flow, when it constitutes a 

major part of the flow of Cane Branch and provides the 

bulk of the dissolved-solids and acid loads of that 

stream.

The investigators concluded there had been no significant change in the occurrence and movement of 

ground water in the vicinity of the southwest spoil 

bank since observations began in the spring of 1958. 

Shallow ground water in bedrock is recharged by precipitation and moves from topographically high areas 

to streams. Ground water in the southwest spoil bank 

is recharged by direct infiltration of precipitation and 

seepage from adjacent pools, and it discharges mostly 

eastward into tributaries draining the spoil bank area.

Fluctuations of the water table in the spoil bank are 

largely controlled by direct infiltration of precipitation 

during the winter-spring season, but they are strongly 

influenced by seepage from pools adjacent to the spoil 

bank during the summer-autumn season. Recharge 

from the pools varies with water levels in the pools during the summer-autumn season, but it is fairly constant during the winter-spring season, when the pools 

are full most of the time.

The shape and slope of the water table in the spoil 

bank have not changed significantly since observations began in 1958 (see fig. 8 in Collier and others, 

1970, (12)). Although the amount of ground water in

storage in bedrock areas and in the southwest spoil 

bank changes seasonally, there was little overall 

change over the period of record. However, there was 

indication of a small overall loss in storage during the 

study period, mostly the result of deficient precipitation in 1963,1964, and 1966 but possibly due in part to 

deepening of gullies in the spoil bank and increased 

transpiration by vegetation.

Erosion of the spoil piles, vandalism, and filling of 

wells by debris have destroyed or partly filled most of 

the former network of temporary observation wells at 

the project site. However, well 12 (see fig. 2), which 

predates the beginning of the project, was preserved 

for observation of changes in both water level and 

water quality. No upward or downward trend in water 

level was noted, merely seasonal variations in response 

to rainfall and evapotranspiration.

During the period 1966-74, water samples were collected from well 12 each year except 1972. the analyses 

of water from this well are shown in table 2. Musser 

and Pickering (in Collier and others, 1970, p. C19) observed that between 1959 and 1966 there was an increase in mineralization of the water from well 12. The 

increase in mineralization was relatively minor, 

however, and was apparent only in the sulfate content 

of the well water. Since 1966, the amount of mineralization of the water has varied, but it is within the range 

of the 1959-66 analyses, generally above the median 

level for that period. The quality of water from the well 

is neither better nor worse.

There is no discernible correlation between sulfate 

and annual precipitation during the water years 

1959-66 and 1973-74 (fig. 7). Musser and Pickering (in 

Collier and others, 1970, p. C19) found a pattern of relation between monthly precipitation and specific 

conductance. They observed that the ground water in 

coal-test hole 16 was most dilute (least mineralized and 

had lowest conductance) during the winter-spring 

period, when recharge is greatest, and most mineralized during the summer-autumn period, when recharge 

is slight and evapotranspiration is high.

GEOCHEMISTRY OF WATER

By Robert W. Da vis 

U.S. Geological Survey

INTRODUCTION

One of the most significant and obvious effects of 

strip mining in Cane Branch basin on the environment 

is the degradation of the chemical quality of water in 

Cane Branch. The stream became highly mineralized 

and acidic in early 1956 because of strip mining in the 

basin beginning in 1955. Mining was intermittent, last 

occurring in 1959, but Cane Branch in 1974 remained 

mineralized and acidic. This section of the report
D14 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 2. Chemical analyses of common constituents in

[All constituents in milligrams

Date of sample

Dissolved 

silica 

(SiO )

Dissolved 

iron

(Fe) 

fog/L)

Dissolved 

manganese

(Mn)

Dissolved

calcium

(Ca)

Dissolved

magnesium

(Mg)

Dissolved

sodium

(Na)

Dissolved

potassium

(K)

Sept. 29,1967 

Oct. 31,1968 

Sept. 26,1969 

Nov. 4,1970 

Oct. 28,1971 

Sept. 24,1973 

Aug. 21,1974

27

43

32

19

38

35

35

1,900

40

4,300

4,300

24

28

24

20

25

25

27

9.5

13

11

7.6

11

9.1

7.9

33

31

29

12

30

27

30

3.9 

3.4

3.2

3.3

3.4 

3.4 

3.2

60 rANNUAL PRECIPITATION, INCN -P» fOGOCJ1 

O

-

110

100

90

80 -

cc 

2 70

- 60

50 -

40 -

Maximum

Median 7 ^

/ 

/

Minimum

H-

+

Note: One sample taken annually, 

1967-74

1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

WATER YEAR

FIGURE 7. Changes in sulfate concentration of water in well 12 and annual precipitation, 1959-66 and 1973-74.

reviews and describes the changes in the chemical 

quality of water within the Cane Branch study area affected by strip mining and describes the chemical 

quality of water in Helton Branch, a nearby, comparable basin in which no strip mining has occurred. 

Results of two earlier studies of these areas have been 

published in Collier and others (1964, p. B25-B48) and 

Collier and others (1970, p. C14-C30).
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D15

samples of ground water from well 12, 1967-71 and 1973-74

per liter except as noted]

Bicarbonate 

(HC03 )

6

24

6

3

4

8

2

Dissolved 

sulfate

(S04)

54

100

81

70

91

69

85

Dissolved 

chloride

CD

62

40

51

22

51

49

54

Dissolved 

fluoride

(F)

0.5

.8

.5

.4

.8

.5

.8

Dissolved 

nitrate 

(K03 )

43

23

31

18

34

22

22

Dissolved 

solids 

(residue 

at 180°C)

268

299

266

172

288

252

252

Hardness 

(Ca, Mg)

99

124

105

81

110

100

100

Specific 

conductance 

(/unho)

426

455

434

278

442

367

396

pH

5.1

5.7

4.9

5.0

4.7

5.5

4.5

The scope of this study of the geochemistry of the 

water in 1973-74 is more limited than that of the previous two studies; however, the 19-year record of 

periodic water sampling at the gaging station on Cane 

Branch furnishes a unique opportunity to compare the 

water-quality changes while mining was active with 

the changes after mining ceased. Continuous recording 

of streamflow and measurements of conductivity of 

water at the Cane Branch gaging station were discontinued from 1966 to 1973; therefore, no attempt was 

made to calculate cumulative dissolved-solids loads 

and chemical-erosion values to compare the mined with 

the unmined basin. However, the results from water 

year 1974 records are included in this section, as is a 

discussion of quantitative comparisons of chemical 

loads transported prior to 1966 and in water year 1974 

by Cane Branch and Helton Branch and chemical 

losses from the land areas of the two basins.

HELTON BRANCH

Dissolved solids in water in Helton Branch during 

1973-74 remained at low levels, never exceeding 

60 mg/L in the monthly chemical analyses. These 

results are comparable to similar low levels observed in 

earlier studies. The water in Helton Branch is a dilute 

calcium bicarbonate type (see table 3). In spite of the 

differences in sampling patterns between the 1958-65 

period and the 1973-74 period, the quality of water in 

Helton Branch was substantially the same. Based on 

median values of 14 samples for 1958-65 and 13 

samples for 1973-74, the following values, in milligrams per liter, are obtained:

7973-74

32

5.8

5

14

7.4

Very small but detectable amounts of minor elements 

also occur in the water of Helton Branch, as given in 

table 4. There appears to be no occurrence of these 

metals in water in amounts exceeding drinking water 

standards.

Dissolved solids Silica _

Siilfato

1958-65

25

10

?; Q

The range of pH, 6.6 to 7.4 units, of Helton Branch 

water during 1973-74, as shown in figure 8, was slightly less than for 1958-65 (pH 5.8 to 7.4 units), as reported by Musser and Picketing (in Collier and others, 

1970, p. C15). Median pH was about 7.2 units, compared with about 6.7 units during the sampling period 

1956-59 (fig. 8). One cause of this slightly higher 

alkalinity, as shown by the bicarbonate content, is considered to be the effects of the highway relocation and 

the addition of limestone fill in the headwaters of the

Q1956-! 

^Medi

P 1956

\ 

39

an

^59

3 1967-74

|;.»

Vest For

H

c Cane E

;lton Bra

ranch

nch

Cane Branch 1956-59

A

b><S>>^<H 1967-74

m

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 

DISSOLVED SOLIDS, IN PARTS PER MILLION

[mi

V

A

Vest Fort 

H< 

Ca

.-\ I \J*J\J v

<^^SH 1967-

: Cane Branch

t

3lton Branch

1956-5

pMsiS^Sw*::! 1956-

ne Bran 

&

-74

A I 

:h

Sp 197

)

-59 

3-74

0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0

pH

FIGURE 8. Range of dissolved solids and pH of surface waters in 

study areas, June 1956 to December 1959 and August 1967 to 

October 1974.
D16 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 3. Chemical analyses of common constituents in

[All constituents in milligrams

Qanf

Feb

July

Aug. 

Sept.

dant

Date of sample

7973 

11

14 

f)n

1974

oc

9

7 

90

1 9

17 

°.ft

9Q

Instantaneous 

discharge

<ft3/s)

qi

19 c

'3.4

i °.

1.4

9C

qi

.70

oc

1 Q

Dissolved 

Dissolved aluminum 

silica (AJ) 

(Si02) (^g/L)

7 Q

rr Q OA

4.4

A O

U.W

U.^ 

A H

rr Q

c c

E Q

6

rr

C K

Dissolved 

iron

(Fe) 

(>«g/L)

50

Of)

70

10

Of)

*J\J

Oft

ow 

70

Dissolved 

manganese 

(Mn) WL

0£

14

40

oc

C.f)

QO

15

OK

OA

10

qf)

Dissolved 

calcium 

(Ca)

1 °.

5.4

3

C

4.1

A 9

7.0

5.0

9 °.

7.0

Q 0

C Q

q Q

Dissolved 

magnesium 

TMg)

1 3

1 9

1.5

1.0

Q

1.0

1.4

Q

.4

1 9

1.0

Daily mean.

TABLE 4. Chemical analyses of total and dissolved minor elements

[All constituents in

Dissolved Total Dissolvec 

Date of sample arsenic arsenic cadmium 

(As) (As) (Cd)

7973

Sept. 11 6 0 

Nov. 14- - 0

Ti0/> Ofi 9 Q

1974 

IMnr R _ ft 91 Q

Apr. 25 000 

June 7 662

Aug. 12 0 1 1

Sept. 30 0 0 1

basin in 1965. The limestone is considered the source of 

the increased and sustained alkalinity in Helton 

Branch which has persisted for almost 10 years after 

the relocation of the highway. 

The dissolved-solids concentration of the runoff is 

virtually constant (fig. 9) and is controlled by chemical 

equilibrium between the solutes in precipitation and 

solid phases. In the study area, the dissolved-solids 

concentration of rainwater ranges from 8 to 10 mg/L 

(see Collier and others, 1964, p. B29).

WEST FORK CANE BRANCH

The single analysis of water in West Fork Cane 

Branch shows it to be low in concentration of dissolved 

solids, similar to the water in Helton Branch, and of a

I Total Dissolved Total Dissolved 

cadmium chromium chromium cobalt

(Cd) (Cr) (Cr) (Co)

0 1

40 

O q

 0

00 01

1

0 Q C

1 0 

£t \J *xW ^

0 0 <10 0

dilute magnesium and calcium sulfate and bicarbonate 

type (tables 5 and 6). The pH was about midpoint in 

the range of values reported for 1958-65 (Collier and 

others, 1970, p. C16). The West Fork Cane Branch 

basin was prospected but not mined, and water in this 

stream could be assumed to be very similar to the type 

of water that would be in Cane Branch if mining had 

not occurred between 1955 and 1959. The coalprospect trenches dug in 1960 exposed small quantities of iron sulfide minerals tp weathering, but there 

were no significant changes in sulfate or other dissolved solids in the water because of this activity (Collier and others, 1970, p. C16). A few minor elements 

were barely detectable. The sample collected in 

1973-74 shows no appreciable change from previous 

analyses of water for 1956-61.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D17

samples from Helton Branch at Greenwood, 1973-74

per liter except as noted]

Dissolved 

sodium

(Na)

1.6

.8

.7

1.0

.7

1.1

.9

.3

1.1

.2

.0

.7

.5

Dissolved 

potassium

(K)

1.3

.9

.8

.6

.7

.8

1.1

.8

2.0

1.2

.9

.9

.6

Bicarbonate 

(HC03 )

34

15

5

6

10

10

20

14

10

25

22

20

11

Dissolved 

sulfate 

(S04)

11

6.6

8.5

8.1

7.9

6.7

8.9

7.4

3.6

5.8

9.0

5.5

3.1

Dissolved 

chloride

(Cl)

1.0

3.6

.2

1.3

1.0

.3

1.2

1.0

.5

2.1

1.0

.4

1.1

Dissolved 

fluoride

(F)

0.0

.2

.1

.1

.0

.1

.1

.1

.1

.2

.1

.0

.1

Dissolved 

nitrate 

(N03 )

0.80

 

.50

.40

2.0

 

.40

.30

 

 

 

 

 

Dissolved 

solids 

(residue 

at 180°C)

56

44

30

31

32

30

50

27

40

40

42

32

22

Hardness

(Ca, Mg)

38

18

15

15

14

15

23

16

7

21

27

19

13

Specific 

conductance 

(fimhos)

84

44

36

36

39

36

48

44

23

73

59

47

26

pH

(units)

7.2

7.4

6.6

7.2

7.2

6.9

7.2

7.2

6.9

 

 

7.4

 

in samples from Helton Branch at Greenwood, 1973-74

micrograms per liter]

Total Dissolved Total 

Cobalt Copper Copper

(Co) (Cu) (Cu)

- 7 -

0

5 10 0

320

335

203

223

053

100 

£ o 

cn-= o 

zSa: 50- d m °

oS ~o Q° o 

%d 20- 0 0 gQ^ePo

^ 0 

m I

Dissolved Total Dissolved Total 

lead lead mercury mercury 

(Pb) (Pb) (Hg) (Hg)

8

8

<0.5

.3

25 33 .2

4 9 .0 0.4

13 .1 .0

0 .0 .0

8 12 .0 .1

20 .0 .0

A 

i

Dissolved Total Dissolved Total 

selenium selenium zinc zinc

(Se) (Se) (Zn) (Zn)

0 60

4

12 4 150

4 

2606

23 10 10

2 2 3 20

 3 10 0

8 4

A

" °o° § o ^ o A e-g 

c9

1 

EXPLANATION 

© 1956-58 

A 1973-74

A

 - __

I

0.1 1.0 10 

DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

100

FIGURE 9. Relation of dissolved-solids concentration to water discharge in Helton Branch, 1956-58 and 1973-74.
D18 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 5. Chemical analyses of common constituents

[Results in milligrams per

Location and

date of sample

Dissolved

silica 

(Si02)

Dissolved

aluminum

(Al) 

(Mg/L)

Dissolved

iron

(Fe)

Dissolved

manganese

(Mn)

Dissolved

calcium

(Ca)

Dissolved

magnesium

TMg)

Dissolved

sodium

(Na)

West Fork Cane Branch, 

Nov. 11, 1973 6.5 60 130 25 1.3 0.8 0.6

CANE BRANCH STUDY AREA

Strip mining of the Barren Fork coal seam in 

1955-56 and 1958-59 exposed and redistributed in the 

spoil piles large quantities of iron sulfide minerals and 

nodules (pyrite or marcasite). These minerals are 

capable of producing acidic water when exposed to 

weathering processes. Consequently, the water in Cane 

Branch first became acidic in the spring of 1956. 

Precipitation that percolates into the spoil piles and 

seeps slowly from pools in the mined area into the spoil 

piles reacts with the buried iron sulfide minerals to 

produce acidic leachate. Locations of pools are shown 

in figure 10. This leachate seeps continually from the 

piles to help sustain the flow of Cane Branch. Overland 

flow from the spoil piles also dissolved products of 

weathering and increased the acidity of Cane Branch.

In recent years, erosion has breached some of the 

formerly permanent pools and they are either dry or 

contain water only temporarily during storm runoff. 

The breaching of the pools has reduced somewhat the 

amount of storage during storms, but the increase in 

contributing area is considered to be small.

Cane Branch is a slightly mineralized stream (less 

than 50 micromhos of specific conductance measured 

on September 11 and 12,1973) upstream from the spoil 

piles. There is very little buffering capacity in the 

water because of the low mineralization. Although 

Cane Branch continues to flow out of the study area as 

a more mineralized acidic stream, the acid load, as 

measured by the sulfate ion concentration, is decreasing. The iron sulfide minerals are being dissolved and 

carried off from both the surface and within the spoil 

piles. Nodules of pyritic material that once lay on the 

surface during the early part of the Cane Branch 

studies have been altered and dissolved by weathering 

and are no longer visible. Pyritic material remains 

within the piles, however, causing acidic leachate to 

drain from the spoil piles into Cane Branch.

POOLS IN MINED AREAS

Pools, most of which contain acidic water, have 

formed in depressions between the spoil piles and the 

high wall of the abandoned strip mines. At times in 

winter and spring, the pools overflow into tributaries 

of Cane Branch; when the pools do not overflow, their 

contents are lessened by evapotranspiration and slow 

seepage into the spoil piles. Chemical analyses of water 

collected from selected pools (fig. 10) during November 

13-15, 1973, are shown in tables 7 and 8. The samples 

are considered typical of the water in the pools during 

the dry period of the year in the fall. Rainfall prior to 

November 13-15 was 0.05 inch on November 8, 1973 

(an insignificant amount) and 1 inch (average of rainfall from four rain gages at the study site) on November 4-5, 1973. On November 14, 1973, the discharge of 

Cane Branch was 0.31 ft3/s, about at base flow.

Pools 1 through 11 (fig. 10) are in the area on the 

southwest side of Cane Branch that was strip mined in

1955-56. At the time of sampling, pools 5, 7, and 10 

were dry and pool 1 was almost dry. The principal 

dissolved constituents of the water in the remaining 

pools were aluminum, iron, manganese, calcium, 

magnesium, and sulfate. At times, aluminum, iron, 

and manganese in the acidic waters exceeded 1 mg/L. 

Bicarbonate was absent in six of the nine water 

samples. However, there was a marked improvement 

in the quality of the water over that observed in

1956-59 and 1960-66. For example, in the water years 

1956-59, sulfate concentration in these pools ranged 

from 52 to 3,080 mg/L, with a median value of 

530 mg/L. In the 1973, dry-period sampling, sulfate 

concentration ranged from about 6 to 200 mg/L, and 

the median value was 78 mg/L. Further evidence of 

real change is that sulfate in pools 3, 9, and 11 exceeded 300 mg/L for all samples in 1956-59 but did not 

exceed 80 mg/L in the 1973 samples.

TABLE 6. Chemical analyses of minor elements in a sample from West Fork Cane Branch near Porkers Lake, 1973

[Results in micrograms per liter]

Location

and date

of sample

Dissolved

cadmium

(Cd)

Dissolved

chromium

(Cr)

Dissolved

cobalt

(Co)

Dissolved

copper

(Cu)

Dissolved

lead

(Pb)

Dissolved

mercury

(Hg)

Dissolved

zinc

(Zn)

Dissolved

arsenic

(As)

West Fork Cane Branch Nov. 15, 

1973 0.0 10
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D19

in a sample from West Fork Cane Branch, 1973

liter, except as indicated]

Dissolved

potassium

(K)

Bicarbonate

(HC03)

Dissolved

sulfate

(S04)

Dissolved

(CD

Dissolved

fluoride

(F)

Dissolved

solids

(residue

at 180°C)

Hardness

(Ca, Mg)

Specific

conductance

(ftmhos) pH

1.1 5.4 0.6 0.1 24 23 6.6

A 1 rEXPLANATION

 Drainage boundary

Spoil bank

Number and pool

(dashed where dry) 

Stream-gaging station

and chemical-quality

sampling site 

Supplemental sampling

site and identification

letter

X Additional field

observation point 

Field specific conductance 

in micromhos per centimeter 

at 25°C 750 

Field pH 3.3 

Field pH

3.0-3.9

4.0-4.9

2000 FEET

FIGURE 10. Specific conductance and pH of water in pools, tributaries, and main stem of Cane Branch on September 11 and 12, 1973.
D20 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 7. Chemical analyses of common constituents in samples

(Results in milligrams per

Location and 

date (1973) 

of sample

Pool 2, 

Pool 3, 

Pool 4, 

Pool 9, 

Pool 11, 

Pool 12, 

Pool 13, 

Pool 16, 

Pool 17, 

Pool 18, 

Pool 19,

Nov.

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov.

14

IQ

14

14

14 _______

1 x>

1 C

15 _______ 

14 _______

1 x>

Dissolved 

silica 

(Si02)

0.1 

1.6 

.9 

2.9 

.1 

6.1

3.3

1.3

1.5

Dissolved 

aluminum 

(Al) 

(^g/L)

330 

1,500 

650 

1,700 

1,500 

90 

10 

10 

3,100 

1,300 

30

Dissolved 

iron 

(Fe) 

(ng/L)

50 

400 

90 

580 

120 

70 

60 

30 

3,200 

180 

80

Dissolved 

manganese 

(Mn) 

0«/L)

230 

600 

400 

1,200 

280 

550 

25 

140 

5,000 

1,200 

100

Dissolved 

calcium 

(Ca)

0.9 

5.2 

2.2 

16 

3.5 

5.2

74

12 

1.3

Dissolved 

magnesium 

TMg)

0.5 

1.3 

.7 

5.2 

1.2 

6.7

7.5

2.1 

.6

Dissolved 

sodium 

(Na)

0.2 

.3 

.3 

.6 

.3 

.3

.6

.3 

.3

TABLE 8. Chemical analyses of minor elements in samples from selected pools in Cane Branch study area, 1973

[Results in micrograms per liter]

Location and Dissolved Dissolved Dissolved Dissolved Dissolved

date (1973) cadmium chromium cobalt copper lead

of sample (Cd) (Cr) (Co) (Cu) (Pb)

Pool 

Pool 

2, 

3 Nov 

Nov. 

13 

14 

0 

00516

2 14 c c

Pool 4 Nov 14 007

Pnnl Q Nnv 14 0 fl 9^

U \J

3 4

9 6

Pool 

Pool 11, 

12, Nov. 

Nov. 14 

15 

 

 00407

00946

Pool 13, Nov. 15 0 0 0 ° c

Pool 16, Nov. 15 1 0 3

Pool 17, Nov. 15 0 1 60

Pool 18, Nov. 14 0014

u u

0 6

5 3

2 9

Pool 19, Nov. 15 10 1 3 10

The sulfate and specific conductance in 1973-74 (an

indicator of dissolved-solids content) were about onetenth of the values reported for 1956-59 (see specific

conductance versus time for pools 2, 3, and 9, fig. 11).

Small amounts of free acidity, 0.5 mg/L or less, occurred with pH in the range of 3.8 to 5.1 units, similar

to amounts reported for 1960-66. The water contained

less iron, less than 0.6 mg/L, but the dissolvedmanganese content of the water had not changed significantly from the 1960-66 values. A few minor

elements, particularly cobalt, copper, lead, and zinc,

occurred at barely detectable levels.

Pools 12 and 13 are in a small mined area on the

northeast side of the basin (fig. 10). Pool 12 contained

about the same range of concentration of constituents

in 1973 as it contained in 1966. Pool 13 was not acidic

in 1966 or in 1973, indicating that the water in the pool

is not influenced by iron sulfide minerals.

Pools 14 to 19 are on the north side of the Cane

Branch basin (fig. 10). At the time of sampling, pool 14

2800

C/3

§ 2400

O

DC (_)

y £o 2000

^<

iJ a-1600

(_) LU

<^

t p 1200

O LU

go: 800 <*-> LU

£°~

o 400

LU 

Q.

C/5

1 1 i 1

O

^

\

P-\

\

vb

\ °v

 YVi \ °^T

!X\. °

Z^v

1 T~Af 0 i . , . 1957 58 59 60 61 62

Dissolved

mercury

(Hg)

0 9 \J,£*

.0

.0

.1

.0

.0

.0

.0

.0

.2

.0

1

0

PoolS ^N

0 PooT?^-

 I^n__

Pool 2

1 A

63 64 65 66 67

Dissolved Dissolved

zinc arsenic

(Zn) (As)

Qf) O\J

60 0

40 0

100

70 1

50 12

on q

oU o

20 2

310 0

50

20 0

1 1 1 1 !

~

_

-^_

 -- ^L^^o "

i i r"s

68 69 70 71 72 73 74

FIGURE 11. Decrease with time in specific conductance of water in

selected pools on the southwest spoil bank.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D21

from selected pools in Cane Branch study area, 1973 

liter, except as indicated]

Dissolved 

potassium 

(K|

1.6

2.5

2.8

3.0

2.1

2.2

 

3.2

 

2.9

1.6

Bicarbonate 

(HC03)

0

0

0

0

0

1

-

5

-

0

2

Dissolved 

sulfate 

(S04)

8.6

37

19

78

33

40

 

200

 

55

6.2

Dissolved 

chloride 

(CD

0.0

.1

.2

1.2

.6

.7

 

.7

 

.1

.6

Dissolved 

fluoride

(F)

0.2

.1

.1

.4

.1

.1

 

.3

 

.3

.0

Dissolved 

solids 

(residue 

at 180°C)

14

54

29

117

55

85

 

338

 

80

25

Hardness 

(Ca, Mg)

4

18

8

61

14

41

 

220

___

39

6

Total 

acidity 

as H+

__

0.5

.2

.5

.5

 

 

 

 

.4

 

Specific 

conductance 

(ftmhos)

44

156

80

240

151

111

146

461

772

185

24

pH

5.1

3.8

4.1

3.8

3.8

5.3

7.2

6.7

3.1

3.9

5.3

was almost dry and pool 17 drained into pool 18, which 

in turn was draining through a breach in the spoil pile, 

maintaining a small flow of water into the northbranching tributary (see fig. 10). The water in pools 16 

and 18 is similar in type to water in pools 1 through 11. 

Water in pool 16 was slightly less mineralized in 1973 

than in 1966; however, the water flowing through pool 

18 was appreciably less mineralized than in 1966, 

possibly because the water was in contact with iron 

sulfide minerals for a shorter time than when the pool 

did not drain. Noteworthy is that pool 19 had reversed 

the trend, cited by Musser and Pickering (in Collier 

and others, 1970, p. C17-C18), of becoming more mineralized since 1961. The water contained only 6.2 mg/L 

of sulfate in 1973 compared with 238 mg/L in 1966. 

Pool 19 was one of the few pools containing bicarbonate ions.

Pools 20 and 21, new pools on the west side of the 

basin, were not sampled for chemical analyses, but 

field pH and specific-conductance measurements, as 

shown on figure 10, indicate that the water was acidic 

and probably contained appreciable concentrations of 

sulfate ion.

In summary, since 1956-59 some pool waters, as in 

the southwest spoil bank, have shown a tenfold reduction in sulfate concentration and specific conductance 

and are less acidic. The rate of reduction was very 

rapid during the first 5 years and then slowed after 

about 1961 or 1962. The bedrock in the highwall, along 

with the overlying weathered soil, has slumped into 

the strip pits since their abandonment, resulting in the 

restriction of air and water circulation to the sulfidebearing rocks in the highwall and probably contributing to the decrease in mineralization in the pools. By 

1973, the specific conductance of some pool waters had 

begun to level off at about 100 micromhos, or about 

that of natural surface water. The exceptions to large 

reductions in concentration were the metals aluminum,

iron, and manganese, which continued, collectively, to 

exceed 1 mg/L in acidic waters.

TRIBUTARIES OF CANE BRANCH

Tributary streams of Cane Branch carry overland 

runoff from precipitation and ground-water discharge 

from the rocks and seepage from the spoil piles into 

Cane Branch. Locations of the tributaries and sampling points are shown on figure 10. The only streamflow that never was affected by strip mining was sampled at site C, in the headwaters of Cane Branch. In 

September 1973, the conductivity of the water at site 

C was less than 50 micromhos (fig. 10), the minimum 

reading on the instrument, and the field pH was 5.6 

units. This water was low in dissolved solids; however, 

in November there was insufficient water at this site to 

obtain a sample for chemical analysis. Downstream 

from site C, water that has been in contact with iron 

sulfide minerals in the spoil piles of the southwest strip 

mine enters Cane Branch from seeps and tributary 

streams that carry leachate from the spoil piles. Field 

specific conductance and pH of water in the pools and 

water entering Cane Branch upstream from the gaging 

station in September 1973 are shown in figure 10. At 

that time Cane Branch was near base flow at 0.15 ft3/s.

Upstream from the spoil piles, water in Cane Branch 

is slightly acidic and of low mineralization. At sites P 

and M, tributary streams draining the southwest spoil 

piles enter Cane Branch; the water in the Branch 

becomes acidic, and dissolved-mineral content increases about tenfold. Site 3GW is the beginning of 

ground-water discharge or seepage from the spoil pile 

just below pool 3. Additional tributaries sampled at 

sites G, N, and O enter Cane Branch upstream from 

the gaging station. Chemical analyses of water from 

tributary streams are shown in tables 9 and 10.

Water in the tributaries is a calcium, magnesium, 

sulfate type, low in pH, with appreciable quantities of
D22 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 9. Chemical analyses of common constituents in

[Results in milligrams per

Location and 

date (1973) 

of sample

Site 3GW, Nov. 13 -

Site G, Nov. 14 

Site M, Nov. 13 -

Site N., Nov. 13 -

Site O, Nov. 13

Site P, Nov. 13

Dissolved 

silica 

(Si02)

01

1 Q

on

14

6

Q

on

Dissolved 

aluminum 

(Al) 

(Mg/D

7,500 

5,300 

12,000 

4,600 

180 

10,000

Dissolved 

iron 

(Fe) 

(Mg/L)

3,800 

5,900 

2,200 

660 

110 

2,300

Dissolved 

manganese 

(Mn) 

(Mg/L)

7,200 

2,500 

14,000 

13,000 

550 

40,000

Dissolved 

calcium 

(Ca)

31 

3.5 

43 

50 

3.0 

100

Dissolved 

magnesium 

(Mg)

26 

5.8 

32 

22 

3.3 

48

Dissolved 

sodium 

(Na)

1.7 

.3 

2.0 

1.7 

.3 

2.6

silica, aluminum, iron, and manganese. With the exception of water at site O, the tributary waters were more 

mineralized than was water in the pools. Water from 

site O, which has drained from the easternmost stripmine area, is acidic and low in dissolved solids because 

pools 12 and 13, and their associated spoil piles, contribute low-mineralized water to this tributary. Apparently there are fewer iron sulfide minerals in the 

drainage area contributory to site O than in the other 

tributary drainage areas. The amount of dissolved constituents in water from all sites is within the range of 

samples taken in 1958-66. Although the overall water 

quality of base flow has not improved, the dissolvediron concentration has decreased at all sites.

CANE BRANCH

The effect of acid mine drainage on the chemical 

quality of water in Cane Branch has been measured 

since 1956 by periodic sampling at the Cane Branch 

gaging station downstream from the mined area. 

Chemical analyses of water from Cane Branch for 

1967-74 are given in tables 11 and 12. Selected 

chemical analyses for 1955-66 are given in part C of 

this series (in Collier and others, 1970, p. C23).

Some indication of the quality of the water in the 

Cane Branch study area before the April 1955 mining 

is given by Musser and Whetstone (in Collier and 

others, 1964, fig. 27, p. B38-B39), who noted that, for

several small streams not influenced by mining, the 

median dissolved-solids concentration was 20 mg/L 

and the pH ranged from 5.2 to 7.6 units.

From January to June 1956, the mine debris affected 

the chemical character of the Cane Branch water, altering it to a calcium and magnesium sulfate type. The 

dissolved-solids concentration increased from 31 to 

195 mg/L.

From June 1956 to December 1959, the dissolvedsolids concentration of Cane Branch ranged from 76 to 

1,460 mg/L. The principal ionic species in solution were 

hydrogen, aluminum, iron, manganese, calcium, 

magnesium, and sulfate. Silica made up about 4 percent of the dissolved-solids content and ranged in concentration from 1 to 19 mg/L. The sulfate ion accounted for about 70 percent of the dissolved solids 

and ranged from 46 to 1,220 mg/L.

The high flows of 1974 carried an average of 237 tons 

of dissolved solids, of which 155 tons were sulfate, 

from each square mile of drainage of the Cane Branch 

study area (table 13). These values were higher than for 

most of the years from 1957 to 1966, as shown in table 

13. However, the concentrations of 104 mg/L and 

68 mg/L for dissolved solids and sulfate, respectively, 

were the lowest for the same period. The effect of time 

and the relation of loads to discharge is not so obvious 

in table 13 as they are in figure 12. Helton Branch 

tends to show much less response in loads of dissolved 

solids to increases in runoff than Cane Branch (see fig. 

12A). Of considerable significance is the change with

TABLE 10. Chemical analyses of minor elements in samples from selected tributaries of Cane Branch, 1973

[Results in micrograms per liter]

Location and 

date (1973) 

of sample

Site 3GW, Nov. 13

Site G, Nov. 14 

Site M, Nov. 13 

Site N, Nov. 13

SiteO, Nov. 13 

Site P Nr«7 1 a

Dissolved 

cadmium 

(Cd)

 0

 1

 0

 0

 1

n

Dissolved 

chromium 

(Cr)

2 

0 

2 

2 

0

9

Dissolved 

cobalt 

(Co)

66 

47 

40 

96 

1

7 A

Dissolved 

copper 

(Cu)

1

6 

5 

9 

1

Q

Dissolved 

lead 

(Pb)

4 

8 

0 

0

0

1

Dissolved 

mercury 

(Hg)

0.0

.1

2.6 

5.0 

.0 

n

Dissolved 

zinc 

(Zn)

220 

120 

1,600 

290 

20 

9nn

Dissolved 

arsenic 

(As)

0

0 

0 

0 

fi
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D23

samples from selected tributaries of Cane Branch, 1973

liter, except as indicated]

Dissolved 

potassium

(K)

4.5

2.6

45

3.3

1.3

3.8

Bicarbonate 

(HC03 )

0

0

0

0

0

0

Dissolved 

sulfate 

(S04)

320

97

430

290

23

880

Dissolved 

chloride

(Cl)

0.1

.2

.1

.8

.7

.5

Dissolved 

fluoride

(F)

0.7

.5

.7

.3

.1

.5

Dissolved 

solids 

(residue 

at 180°C)

494

170

705

445

51

1,220

Hardness

(Ca, Mg)

180

33

240

220

21

450

Total 

acidity 

asH +

3.4

1.4

3.9

1.5

 

9.0

Specific 

conductance 

(/unhos)

1,000

406

1,280

752

73

2,400

pH

2.9

3.3

2.8

3.3

4.6

2.5

the passage of time of the ratio of the dissolved load 

per square mile to water discharge (fig. 12B). The loaddischarge ratio for Helton Branch showed no change 

with the variation in runoff, whereas the ratio varied 

considerably with the discharge from Cane Branch. 

Generally, the dissolved load showed a downward 

trend in Cane Branch basin after the peak water year 

of 1959. Although mineral loads are important in comparing year-to-year change and in determining trends 

in water quality, it is the concentration of the mineral 

and its components that are important to the life of 

aquatic organisms.

Loads of sulfate and dissolved solids passing Cane 

Branch gaging station during each month of water 

year 1974 are given in table 14. Data for water years 

1957 and 1958 were reported by Musser and Whetstone (in Collier and others, 1964, p. B47) and for 

1959-66 by Musser and Pickering (in Collier and 

others, 1970, p. C73-C74). The monthly load depends 

on both the amount of water passing the gaging station and the concentration of the chemical constituent 

in that water. Monthly loads were computed from 

mean concentrations using the appropriate discharge.

To examine the record of monthly loads transported 

by Cane Branch for significant changes during* the 

period 1956-66, Musser and Pickering prepared a 

cumulative plot of runoff and dissolved-solids load. 

Figure 13 shows the Muser-Pickering curves with the 

addition of 1973-74 data. The slopes of the lines in 

figure 13 represent average concentrations 01 dissolved solids in the water; an increase or decrease in 

slope means that the average dissolved-solids concentration for that period increased or decreased, respectively, with time.

The bulk of the dissolved constituents in Cane 

Branch is contributed by direct runoff and seepage 

from the spoil banks. Changes in slope of the lines in 

figure 13 thus represent changes in the quantity of dissolved constituents contributed by these spoil-bank 

waters to Cane Branch. The average concentration of 

the dissolved solids during a period of time is defined 

by the slope of the line through all points for that 

period.

A plot (the inset on fig. 13) of dissolved-solids load 

for water year 1974 (237 tons) and corresponding 

runoff (842 ft3/s per day) show a marked decrease in the 

slope of the line to about 30 percent, indicative of a 

lower mean concentration for water year 1974 

(104 mg/L) compared with the 1960's.

<X MPARISON OF CHEMICAL EROSION IN

CANE BRANCH AND HELTON BRANCH

STUDY AREAS

The disturbance of the land surface in the Cane 

Branch area by strip mining has placed unweathered 

rocks at or near the surface. These exposed rocks allow 

the rate of chemical erosion to increase in the mined 

areas. With time, higher concentrations and loads of 

chemical constituents occur in the runoff from the 

mined areas than from the unmined areas.

An example compares the load of dissolved constituents being transported by Cane and Helton Branches 

at their gaging stations. The relation of the monthly 

water discharge and the monthly dissolved yield for 

Cane and Helton Branches depicted in figure 14 for 

1956-58 and 1973-74 show that at a given water discharge the Cane Branch load is greater than the Helton 

Branch load. In both study areas, the greatest loads 

are transported during winter-type months when the 

water discharges are high. In both areas, also, winter 

discharges are distinct from summer discharges in dissolved-solids concentrations.

Noteworthy in figure 14 is that the 1973-74 monthly 

loads for Cane Branch have shifted significantly 

toward the weighted mean line of Helton Branch as 

mean concentrations in Cane Branch continue to 

decrease and as the stream basin gradually returns to 

the premining conditions represented by Helton 

Branch. It is likely that as time goes on, assuming no 

other changes take place in Cane Branch basin, the 

dissolved-solids concentration of Cane Branch will 

gradually decrease and the pH values will gradually increase. This may be regarded as the mine-age factor or 

the die-out curve. If this be the case, it will be many 

years before the quality of water in Cane Branch is 

reasonably similar to that of Helton Branch.
D24 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 11. Chemical analyses of common constituents of

[All constituents in milligrams

Aug. 

Oct.

Jan. 

Apr. 

Aug. 

Oct.

Jan. 

Mar. 

June 

Aug. 

Oct.

Mar. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Dec.

May 

Sept

Jan. 

Apr. 

July

Feb. 

Mar. 

Sept. 

Nov. 

Dec.

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Sept. 

Oct.

Date of sample

1967

10 -

on

1968

10 -

OC

9°. - -

1 Q

1969 

9°.

1C

1Q

1 C

1970

4 .

1 Q

7 .

9 - -

1971

91 -

1972 

Ofi

14 _

1973 

fi -

14 -

11

14 - -

oc

1974

oc

9 -

7 .

00

19-

n _

Of)

9Q - -

Instantaneous 

discharge

(ft3/s)

0

1 Q

nq

0 1

1 9

no

1 fi

rjf\

CO

AC

no

. 1.4

- .40

- MO

oc

qo

- .07

14

. 1.1

- .04

9 9

- .70

on

- .10

on

- 2.4

1

c»

rjf

o o

OQ

no

- .10

Oft,

- .10

Dissolved 

silica

(Si02)

9.9

10

7.6 

9.7

 

11

14

14 

9.6 

5.2

7.5 

7.7 

8.2 

8.5 

9.5 

14 

12 

9.6 

11 

11

Dissolved Dissolved 

aluminum iron 

(All (Fe) 

l^g/LI </ig/L>

4,800 

7 °.ftft

3,500 

1,200

9 °.ftft

1,400

 1,800 

2,500 1,500 

500

 1,400

1 Qflfl

7CA

 2,400

 2,400

 1,000

1,600

1,300

Dissolved 

manganese 

(Mn)

(^g/L)

960 

2,200 

6,000

2,400 

2,800 

5,600 

3,800 

460

1,400 

2,300

2,700 

6,000 

4,800 

2,500 

4,600 

4,400

Dissolved 

calcium 

(Ca)

25

_

16

20

28

16

21

20 

12 

4.0

11 

8.4 

20 

16 

13 

23 

20 

12 

12 

19

Dissolved 

magnesium 

TMg)

13

9.7

11 

20

8.2

16

11 

8.2 

2.7

4.7 

4.2 

5.5 

8.6 

6.1 

12 

9.0 

4.9 

5.4 

7.9

Dissolved 

sodium

(Na)

4.2

7.4

1.3 

1.0

1.7

__

1.4

1.9 

1.0 

1.3

2.5 

1.0 

.7 

1.0 

.6 

1.6 

.5 

.9 

.7 

.8

Estimated.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D25

samples from Cane Branch near Porkers Lake, 1967-74

per liter except as noted]

Dissolved 

potassium 

(K)

1.7

 

.__

 

 

3.1

__.

1.4

2.6

 

 

__.

 

 

1.5

__

 

_._

 

2.0

_..

 

2.0

1.8

1.1

1.0

1.1

1.1

1.7

1.4

3.2

2.0

1.4

1.7

1.7

Bicarbonate 

(HCOJ

O

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

14

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Dissolved 

sulfate 

(S04)

169

134

80

64

115

90

146

140

226

132

93

160

220

190

110

120

170

41

82

150

80

90

130

92

21

62

59

73

120

72

170

140

62

100

100

Dissolved 

chloride 

(Cl)

4.0

3.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

3.0

2.5

2.5

.5

.7

.0

1.8

.6

.8

1

2.2

.4

1.5

.0

8.0

1.7

1.7

.2

1.0

.8

1.6

1.5

1.4

2.3

1.1

.4

1.3

1.0

.0

.9

Dissolved 

fluoride 

(F)

0.3

 

 

 

.2

.2

.4

 

 

 

.2

.3

.3

.3

.3

0.2

.2

.3

.3

.1

.2

.1

.2

.3

.3

.4

.4

.2

.0

.2

Dissolved 

nitrate 

(N03)

0.10

,10

.20

.10

.10

.30

.00

.00

.00

.40

.10

.50

1.1

.50

.20

.80

.30

.10

.30

.30

0.00

.00

.20

 

.20

.10

4.2

.30

.40

.10

.40

 

 

 

 

Dissolved 

solids 

(residue 

at 180°C)

284

226

114

96

178

150

206

200

322

264

146

249

325

276

156

193

224

68

166

234

114

148

204

150

'40

102

91

109

205

143

366

262

140

146

136

Hardness 

(Ca, Mg)

116

100

60

50

82

80

100

95

152

94

66

104

142

120

74

78

110

30

70

120

60

62

97

64

21

47

38

73

75

58

110

87

50

52

80

Total 

acidity

asH+

2.2

1.0

1.4

.7

.8

.7

1.4

1.3

1.8

.9

.8

1.3

2.1

1.6

.8

.9

1.5

.4

.6

1.2

0.7

.8

1.0

.7

.3

.2

.4

 

.9

.6

1.4

1.3

.6

.9

.8

Specific 

conductance

536

422

238

192

351

276

424

390

644

380

264

431

588

486

340

342

467

123

239

414

233

268

350

338

85

180

186

228

340

251

498

424

223

313

295

pH

(units)

3.3

3.5

3.9

4.1

3.0

3.9

3.6

3.7

3.3

3.5

3.6

3.4

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.5

3.4

4.2

3.8

3.5

3.8

3.5

3.5

3.8

4.3

4.1

3.9

7.2

3.5

3.7

3.3

 

 

3.5

 
D26 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 12. Chemical analyses of total and dissolved minor

[All constituents in

Date of sample

Dissolved 

arsenic

(As)

Total

arsenic

(As)

Dissolved

cadmium

(Cd)

Total

cadmium

(Cd)

Dissolved

chromium

(Cr)

Total 

chromium

(Cr)

Dissolved

cobalt

(Co)

7973

Sept. 11

Nov. 14

Dec. 26

1

37

1

1974

Apr. 25 -

Aug. 12 - 

Sept. 30 -

0

1

1

7 

0 

2 

0

0 

3 

1 

0

2 

1 

1 

0

0

1 

0 

0

0

10

6 

12 

58 

42

TABLE 13. Annual runoff, gross annual loads, and annual mean concentrations of selected chemical constituents at Cane Branch near

Parkers Lake gaging station, water years 1957-66 and 1974 

[e=estimated]

Gross annual load 

(tons per square mile)

Water2 

year1

1957

1958

1959

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1974

Annual 

runoff

[<ft3/s-d)/mi2]

580

619

280

691

485

694

398

284

427

180

842

Dissolved 

solids

227

219

189

414

221

274

3168e

4172e

4191e

106

237

Sulfate

147

140

121

275

153

178

 

 

 

64

155

Acidity 

(equivalent 

H2S04 )

55

51

61

115

62

60

 

 

 

26

20

Annual mean concentration 

(milligrams per liter)

Dissolved 

solids

145

131

250

222

169

146

5156e

5166e

5166e

218

104

Sulfate

94

84

160

147

117

95

 

 

 

132

68

Acidity 

(equivalent ft2so4)

35

31

81

62

47

32

 

 

 

53

46

Annual mean concentration (mg/L)=annual load (tons/mi2)/(ft3/s-d)/mi2X.0027. 

2Values for water years 1957-66 from Collier, 1970, p. C27. 

3Load based on annual runoff for 1963 and dissolved-solids load:runoff ratios for water years 1962 and 1964.

Partial load data for water years 1964 and 1965 used to calculate an estimated total load for the 2 years. Proportioning of the total load between the 2 years was based on annual 

runoff for the 2 years.

The identical estimated annual mean concentrations for water years 1964 and 1965 are the result of the method by which the annual loads for those 2 years were estimated.

The monthly runoff and yields of dissolved solids 

and sulfate transported by Cane Branch and Helton 

Branch are listed in tables 14 and 15. These data show 

that in the 1974 water year Cane Branch transported 

about 3.5 times more dissolved solids and about 8.5 

times more sulfate than Helton Branch on a tons-persquare-mile basis. This is a substantial reduction from 

the 4.5 times more dissolved solids and about 10 times 

more sulfate reported by Collier and others (1964, 

p. B47) for the 2-year period 1957-58.

Noteworthy in table 13 and figure 12 (adapted from 

Collier and others, 1970, fig. 16, p. C26) is that runoff, 

in cubic feet per second-day per square mile, for water

year 1974 is the highest on record for water years 

1957-66 and 1974 and that the dissolved-solids load 

for water year 1974, 237 tons per square mile is about 

57 percent of the load for the high runoff year of 1960 

and also is somewhat less than that for the high runoff 

year of 1962.

Musser and Pickering (in Collier and others, 1970, 

p. C27) discuss the difficulty of distinguishing maninduced changes in environmental studies: "Grouping 

of data on an annual basis can be used to mute 

seasonal variations, and expression of the leaching of 

soluble materials in terms of concentration can be used 

to mask the effect of year-to-year changes in precipita-
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D27 

elements in samples from Cane Branch near Porkers Lake, 1973-74

micrograms per liter]

Total 

Cobalt

(Co)

Dissolved 

Copper

(Cu)

Total 

Copper

(Cu)

Dissolved 

lead 

(Pb)

Total 

lead 

(Pb)

Dissolved 

mercury

(Hg)

Total

mercury

<Hg)

Dissolved

selenium

(Se)

Total

selenium

(Se)

Dissolved 

zinc 

(Zn)

Total 

zinc

(Zn)

10

9

3

10

10

25 35

<0.5 

.0 

.0 18

70

70

100 120

22

6

28

58

40

7

2

2

9

5

2

10

1

12

7

4

0

1

10

2

10

0

2

17

0

.0

.2

.0

.1

.0

0.4

.2

.0

.1

.0

4

1

9

26

3

9

1

80

80

80

180

110

80

100

110

190

110

TABLE 14. Dissolved solids and sulfate concentrations and loads, Cane Branch near Porkers Lake, October 1973 to September 1974

Mean discharge

Date

1973

x-y , i

November 

December -

1974

January 

February 

A^flTV*Vl

April - 

May 

June 

July 

A nmicjf

September 

Total or

mean

Average 

daily

(ft3/s)

0.32

2.10

2.18

4.42

2.51

1.80

2.42

0.81

1.04

0.13

0.25

0.67

1.55

Average daily 

unit area 

[(ft3/s)//mi2]

0.48

3.13

3.25

6.60

3.75

2.69

3.61

1.21

1.55

0.19

0.37

1.00

2.31

Total daily 

unit area 

[(ft3/s-d)/mi 2]

15.0

93.9

101.0

204.0

105.0

83.4

108.0

37.5

46.4

5.9

11.5

30.0

841.6

(mg/L)

180

110

105

85

100

110

100

140

130

230

190

145

104

Dissolved solids

(tons/mi2)

7.5

27.8

28.7

46.7

28.4

24.5

20.1

14.3

16.6

3.7

6.0

11.6

237.0

(mg/L)

103

67

65

58

65

70

65

85

80

125

110

87

68

Sulfate

(tons/mi 2)

4.1

17.0

17.7

31.9

18.4

15.8

19.0

8.6

10.0

2.0

3.4

7.0

155.0

tion and runoff; but these analytical manipulations do 

not completely eliminate the effect of natural variations in the hydrologic cycle." However, the general 

picture obtained from figures 12 and 13 is the same. 

Chemical weathering in Cane Branch basin resulted 

from strip mining of coal in 1955, 1956, and 1959. 

Following cessation of mining, the rate of chemical 

weathering gradually decreased until water year 1966, 

when it was slightly less than that observed in 1957 

following initial mining in the study area. Heavy 

runoff in 1974 increased the load somewhat compared 

with the loads transported in several years of the 

1960's, but the rate per unit of runoff was sharply reduced. The rate of chemical weathering, however, was 

still greater than that prior to the initial disruption of 

bedrock in 1955.

It has been assumed that any gross differences in 

chemical erosion between Cane Branch and Helton 

Branch observed during the study could be attributed 

to mining of coal in the Cane Branch basin.

A distinct difference was observed between the load 

of dissolved solids transported by the two basins. On a 

yearly basis, the dissolved-solids loads removed from 

the Cane Branch study area were four to eight times 

greater than those removed from the Helton Branch 

study area. A better quantitative comparison of rates 

can be made by considering what portion of the 

dissolved material is received by each area in 

precipitation.

The measured yields in table 16 show the dissolved 

solids contributed to the stream by precipitation and 

by chemical degradation in the study area. The mineral
D28

Q 

< 

O UJ

c

00

LLI CO

400

300

200

100

HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING 

B. RELATIVE TO TIME

60

0.5

0.0

EXPLANATION

Annual runoff or dissolved solids 

load at Cane Branch near 

Parkers Lake for the water 

year indicated

Annual runoff or dissolved solids 

load at Helton Branch at 

Greenwood for the water year 

indicated

 Period of no record for 

dissolved solids. Cane 

Branch near Parkers Lake

X X x X X X Helton Branch

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

X\. ANNUAL

60

O

Cane Branch

62

58 60 62

Helton Branch

59

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 

ANNUAL RUNOFF, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND-DAY PER SQUARE MILE

800 900

FIGURE 12. Relation of runoff and dissolved-solids load, 1957-66 and 1974 water years: A, annually, and B, relative to time.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D29

1500

Dissolved-solids loads for water years

1963-1965 were estimated

October 1965 » 

/

April 1966 

April 1965

Recorded high-flow months 

December 1956-May 1966

All months 

October 1956-September 1966

October 1973- 

September 1974

Recorded low-flow months 

October 1956- 

September 1966

April 1959 

April 1958

0 500

CUMULATIVE RUNOFF, IN CUBIC

FEET PER SECOND-DAY

I__I I I I

1000 1500 2000 2500 

CUMULATIVE RUNOFF, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND-DAY

3000 3500

FIGURE 13. Changes in relation of cumulative dissolved-solids load to cumulative runoff, Cane Branch gaging station, water years

1957-66 and 1974.

concentration attributable to precipitation, 8 mg/L 

(Collier and others, 1964, p. B46), was subtracted from 

the measured concentration in 1957-62. Corrected 

concentrations were used, 15 mg/L for Cane Branch 

and 13 mg/L for Helton Branch in 1974, because the 

mineral concentration of precipitation increased about 

1.9 times for Cane Branch and 1.6 times for Helton 

Branch, respectively, as part of the precipitation left 

the areas by evaporation. These assumptions were 

based on the relation of runoff to total precipitation for 

1974 in the basins: runoff was 53.5 percent for Cane 

Branch and 64 percent for Helton Branch, by far the 

maximum annual runoff from each basin for the period 

of record.

For the purpose of this report, the net dissolvedsolids concentration is defined as the difference between the measured dissolved-solids concentration and 

the corrected concentration of the precipitation. The 

net loads of dissolved solids were computed from net 

concentrations.

During the water years 1957-62, Cane Branch transported a net dissolved load of about 1,370 tons per 

square mile of drainage area and Helton Branch, a net 

load of about 111 tons per square mile of drainage area. 

In water year 1974, the net loads of dissolved solids 

were 202 tons/mi2 and 35 tons/mi2 for Cane Branch and 

Helton Branch areas, respectively. Thus, the rate of 

chemical degradation for the Cane Branch area was
D30 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

100

50

20

§ 10

DC 

LLJ 

Q_

5.0

Q

S

o

o

o

2.0

i.o

I

z 

o

0.5

0.2

0.1

EXPLANATION

Cane Branch

A Winter-type ) 1956_58 

A Summer-type J 

A All year 1973-74

Helton Branch 

O Winter-type 

 Summer-type 

® All year 1973-74

> 1956-58

ppm lines show weighted 

mean contentration for 

1956-58 only

5 10 20 50 200 

MONTHLY WATER DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET 

PER SECOND-DAY PER SQUARE MILE

100 500

FIGURE 14. Relation of monthly water discharge to monthly gross dissolved-solids load in Cane and Helton Branches from 

October 1956 to September 1958 and from October 1973 to September 1974.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D31

TABLE 15. Dissolved solids and sulfate concentrations and loads, Helton Branch at Greenwood, October 1973 to September 1974

Mean discharge

Date .

7973

October 

November - 

December 

1974

February 

July 

September 

Total or 

mean

(ft3/s)

0.66 

3.39 

3.54

7.78 

3.40 

2.02 

2.95 

.89 

1.34 

.28 

.41 

.84

2.28

Average daily 

unit area 

[(ft3/s)//mi2]

0.78 

3.99 

4.16

9.15 

4.00 

2.38 

3.47 

1.05 

1.58 

.33 

.48 

.99

2.68

Total daily 

unit area 

[(ft3/s-d)/mi2]

24.2 

120 

129

284 

112 

73.8 

104 

32.6 

47.4 

10.2 

14.9 

29.7

981

Dissolved solids Sulfate

(mg/L)

27 

25 

24

24 

25 

26 

25 

27 

26 

28 

28 

27

25

(tons/mi2) (mg/L) (tons/mi2)

1.8 

8.1

8.4

18.4 

7.6 

5.2 

7.0 

2.4 

3.3 

0.8 

1.1 

2.2

66.3 T 18.5a

aMedian values.

TABLE 16. Rates of chemical degradation and runoff in the Cane 

and Helton Branches study areas, water years 1957-62 and 1974

[e= estimated]

Dissolved solids 

(tons per square mile per year)

Water 

year

Runoff at 

gaging station 

[<ft3/s-d)/mi2]

Total discharge 

at gaging station

Inches 

precipitation

Net from 

degradation 

of the area

Cane Branch near Parkers Lake

1957 

1958 

1959 

i ocn

1961 

1962 

1Q74

580

619

280 

691

485

694

842

227

219

189 

414 

221

274 

237

33

30

24 

32 

25

33 

34

194

189

165 

382 

196

241 

202

Helton Branch at Greenwood

1957 

1958 

1959 

I960 

1961 

1 QRO

1974 

554

607

292

610 

478 

656 

981

46

56

25e

54e 

42e 

58e 

66

32

30

22

30 

23 

32 

31

13

26

3

24 

19 

26 

35

about 12 times greater than that for the Helton Branch 

area during the 1957-62 water years and about 6 times 

greater in the wet water year 1974.

The more rapid rate of chemical degradation in the 

Cane Branch area is attributed largely to strip mining 

of coal in 1955-56 and again in 1959, which exposed 

significant quantities of pyrite and other unweathered 

minerals to agents of weathering and erosion.

CONCLUSIONS

Cane Branch became a highly mineralized acidic 

stream in early 1956 as a result of strip mining of coal 

in the basin during the period May 1955 to April 1956 

and again from December 1958 to August 1959. Concentrations of dissolved solids, sulfate, and acidity in 

the water of Cane Branch increased significantly after 

the mining. These concentrations began to decrease in 

1960 and by 1962 had reached the 1957 level. Although 

fluctuations of annual mean concentrations due to 

climate variations made it difficult to identify a 

definite trend for the period 1962-66, it appears that 

there was little change in the rate of chemical weathering or in the chemical composition of the water in 

Cane Branch during those 5 years of the study.
D32 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

The picture that emerges from the water year 1974, 

even though it was a wet year, is that of a stream and 

drainage area gradually recovering to their premining 

quality.

An indication of the quality of the water in the Cane 

Branch study area prior to the April 1955 mining is 

given by data for several nearby streams not influenced by mining, which had a median dissolved-solids 

concentration of 20 mg/L and a pH range of 5.2 to 7.6. 

By June 1956-December 1959 the dissolved-solids 

concentration of Cane Branch water had risen to a 

range of 76 to 1,460 mg/L. Sulfate accounted for about 

70 percent of the dissolved solids and ranged from 46 

to 1,220 mg/L.

In contrast, from August 1967 to October 1974 dissolved solids had narrowed in range from 40 to 

366 mg/L while sulfate ranged from 21 to 226 mg/L.

Helton Branch, which drains a nearby similar basin 

that has not been mined, changed little in water quality from 1956 to 1974 and remains low in mineral content and with a nearly neutral pH. In the 1973-74 

study, the discharged-weighted average concentration 

of dissolved solids was about 25 mg/L and the median 

value for sulfate about 7 mg/L.

Water in pools formed by the strip mining of coal 

had become less mineralized. Since 1956-59, some pool 

waters, for example, those in the southwest spoil bank, 

have shown a tenfold reduction in sulfate concentration and specific conductance and are less acidic. By

1973. specific conductance of some pool waters had 

begun to level off at about 100 micromhos, or about 

that of natural surface-water drainage. The exceptions 

to large reductions in concentration are the metals 

aluminum, iron, and manganese which continue, collectively, to exceed 1 mg/L in acid waters.

Cane Branch in water year 1974 transported out of 

the basin a dissolved-solids load of 236 tons per square 

mile, about 57 percent of the load for the high runoff 

year 1960 and somewhat less than the gross load for 

water year 1962, also a high runoff year.

Nearby Helton Branch in water year 1974 transported about 66 tons per square mile of dissolvedsolids load. Corrected for the dissolved solids in 

precipitation during the water years 1957-62, Cane 

Branch transported a net dissolved-solids load of 

about 1,370 tons per square mile of drainage area and 

Helton Branch transported a net load of about 111 

tons per square mile of drainage area. In water year

1974. the net loads of dissolved solids were 

202 tons/mi2 and 35 tons/mi2 for Cane Branch and 

Helton Branch areas, respectively. Thus, the rate of 

chemical degradation was about 12 times greater than 

that for the Helton Branch area during the 1957-62 

water years and about 6 times greater in the wet water 

year 1974.

The rapid rate of chemical degradation in the Cane 

Branch area is attributed largely to strip mining of 

coal in 1955-56 and 1959, which exposed pyrite and 

other unweathered minerals to agents of weathering 

and erosion.

EROSION AND DEPOSITION

By John A. McCabe 

U.S. Geological Survey

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of a restudy of erosion and deposition in 

1974 was to document and evaluate changes in the rate 

of erosion from the southwest spoil bank and the deposition in the Cane Branch channel during the intervening 8 years. Areas 11 and 12 and gullies 14, 15, 16, and 

17 on the southwest spoil bank were resurveyed in 

February and March 1974. Areas 1 and 2 in the Cane 

Branch channel were also resurveyed at this time. See 

figure 15 for the location of these areas and gullies.

EROSION FROM THE 

SOUTHWEST SPOIL BANK

Gullies 14 to 17 (see fig. 15) were well incised into the 

spoil bank at the time of the first survey in August 

1959. As the gullies widened and deepened, the cutting 

action was greater upstream than downstream. Consequently, the channel gradient was reduced, as shown in 

the following list:

Period Average gradient of gully 

14 15 16 17

August 1959 - 

August 1962 - 

October 1966 -

February-March 1974 

0.389 0.251 0.344 0.367

.382 .246 .342 .336

.368 .240 .313 .302

.360 .230 .296 .281

Profiles of gully 14 are shown in figure 16.

Downcutting of the gullies has continued since 1966 

but at a decreasing rate. The following tabulation 

shows the total degradation for the periods and the 

average degradation per year of each gully.

Period Mean degradation along profile, in feet, of gully 

14 15 16 17

1 OCO CO

i QCO aa

- 1.17

39

119

f)Q

1 Q9

94

1.51

.50

9 °.9

CO

1 QQ

94

1 QQ

CO

1.02

oc

oc

AK

1.48

49

1

O£»

A Q

AC

Two small areas, 11 arid 12, on top of the southwest 

spoil bank, were resurveyed in February and March 

1974. Area 11 drains into one large gully. A contour 

map of area 11, as surveyed in 1974, is shown in figure

17.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D33

I ) : Prospect 

\* I 1955,1960

EXPLANATION

Strip Mine

Basin boundary \

Surveyed gully

Special sedimentation 

study area

Gaging station and 

sediment sampling 

station

ft-- x"Strip Mine 

/ 1947

Note: Sediment samples also 

taken at Helton Branch 

gaging station

FIGURE 15. Sediment sampling and study sites in the Cane Branch study area, 1973-74.
D34 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

10 20 30 40 50 

DISTANCE ALONG GULLY, IN FEET

60

FIGURE 16. Profiles of the floor of gully 14 showing erosion from 

- August 1959 to March 1974.

In area 11, erosion was most noticeable along the 

main gully. The profiles shown in figure 18 illustrate 

the changes of section A -A1 between October 1958 and 

March 1974. From October 1966 to March 1974 the 

top of the spoil bank was lowered less than 0.2 ft by 

sheet erosion. During the same period, erosion from 

the gully part of the area (northeast) averaged about 

2ft.

Channel development in the spoil bank in area 11 is 

shown in the photographs in figure 19, and gully development is shown in the photographs in figure 20.

Area 12 (fig. 15) is a rilled and terraced part of the 

southwest spoil bank (see fig. 21). The 1974 survey 

indicated an average net fill on the area of less than 

0.1 ft since the 1966 survey, well within the margin of 

measurement error. A comparison of the two surveys 

indicates a movement of material from the edge of the 

top of the spoil bank to the toe of the bank.

Surveys of the two areas indicate greater losses from 

a single developing gully that drains a larger area, such 

as in figure 18, than from the development of many 

small gullies.

SEDIMENT DEPOSITION 

IN CANE BRANCH

Areas 1 and 2 (see fig. 15), reaches of Cane Branch, 

were resurveyed in February 1974. The 1974 topographic survey of area 1 is shown in figure 22, and 

longitudinal and cross-section profiles are shown in 

figure 23.

The October 1966 survey indicated that the channel 

has silted up since the 1958 and 1962 surveys. However, 

the February 1974 survey showed that the channel 

through area 1 has been scoured and the brush dam 

removed. It now approximates the channel surveyed in 

1958 and 1962. Whether this has been a gradual change 

since 1966 or has happened in one or more stages is not 

known. Also, the channel may have experienced a 

number of scour-and-fill cycles since 1966. The channel 

appears to be returning to its condition prior to strip 

mining. Material eroded from the spoil piles and 

deposited in the channel from 1958 to 1966 has been 

removed and transported farther downstream.

Comparative photographs of the Cane Branch channel in area 1 are shown in figure 24. The straight tree 

with the light-colored trunk in the 1958 and 1966 

photographs on the left bank had been removed prior 

to the 1974 photograph.

Water discharges at the times of these photographs 

were 0.53 ft3/s on April 20, 1958, 0.11 ft3/s on October 

26, 1966, and 5.4 ft3/s on April 2, 1974.

Area 2 was also resurveyed in February 1974 (see fig. 

25). It had not been surveyed in 1966, but a comparison of the profiles of the 1958, 1962, and 1974 surveys 

showed very little difference among the three. If surveyed in 1966, the channel might have been found to be 

filled compared with the other surveys, but this is 

speculation. The channel of Cane Branch probably 

alternatively scours and fills, depending on the distribution of streamflow.

EROSION AND SEDIMENT YIELD

By Beecher J. Hines 

U.S. Soil Conservation Service

Gross-erosion and sediment-yield predictions were 

made for Cane Branch, West Fork of Cane Branch, and 

Helton Branch. The universal soil-loss equation 

(USLE) developed through cooperative efforts of the 

Agricultural Research Service, State Experiment Stations, and the Soil Conservation Service requires consideration of soil, topographic, rainfall, and cover 

factors.

The USLE is

A=RKLSCP

where

A is the average annual soil loss, in tons per acre; 

R is the rainfall factor, the number of erosion-index

units in a normal year's rain.

K is a measure of the rate at which soil will erode, 

expressed as the soil loss per acre per unit of R on a
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D35

Contour interval 1 foot 

Datum is arbitrary

FIGURE 17. Contour map of area 11, an area on the southwest spoil bank drained by a large gully, February to March 1974.

cultivated, continuous-fallow, 9-percent slope 

72.6 ft long. Different kinds of soil erode at different rates.

L is the length-of-slope factor. Slope length is defined as the distance from the point of origin of 

overland flow to either of the following, whichever 

is limiting for the major portion of the area under 

consideration: (1) the point where the slope decreases to the extent that deposition begins, or (2) 

the point where runoff enters a well-defined channel which may be part of a drainage network or a 

constructed channel such as a terrace or diversion.

S is the steepness-of-slope factor, the ratio of soil loss 

from the field gradient to that from a 9-percent 

slope.

C is the cover factor, the expected ratio of soil loss 

from land used under specified cover conditions to 

corresponding soil loss from continuous bare 

fallow under the same soil, slope, and rainfall 

conditions.
D36 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

<100

QC

 QC 99

O 98

00

97

^ 96

zf 

g

^ 95

LU

Lu 94-

93;

September 1962 i-4 I / /

 . > I I '

 . » / '

 . * i i '

:\\l > ' '

October 1966

February-March 1974

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 

DISTANCE FROM DIVIDE, IN FEET

45 50

FIGURE 18. Profiles of upper surface of spoil bank, area 11, section 

A- A' showing erosion from October 1958 to March 1974.

P is the erosion-control-practice factor, the ratio of 

soil loss with a specified practice to soil loss occurring from uphill and downhill field operations 

when soil, slope, and rainfall remain equal. (The 

practice factor is applicable only on cropland.) 

Soils information was developed by A. S. Johnson 

and J. W. Roehl in 1959 (Musser, 1963, table 1) and 

was kept current by J. W. Roehl, A. S. Johnson, C R. 

Collier, and others (Collier and others, 1964, 1970).

Sediment-delivery ratios are the ratios, expressed in 

percentages of sediment yields at a specified location 

to the gross erosion of the watershed or subwatershed 

unit.

The total suspended sediment yield for Cane Branch, 

as shown in table 17, is the measured cumulative 

annual yield of 784 tons per year to the Cane Branch 

gaging station in the 1974 water year. To determine an 

average sediment-delivery ratio, the magnitude of the 

suspended sediment yield and the total amount of 

erosion must be known. For Cane Branch, the gross 

erosion in the 1974 water year was 1,604 tons per year 

and the suspended sediment yield was 784 tons per 

year [1,170 (tons/mi2)/yr]. The sediment-delivery ratio 

is then 784/1,604, or 49 percent. See tables 18 and 19 

for similar data for Helton and West Fork Cane 

Branches. Sediment-delivery ratios for Helton Branch 

were based primarily on sediment-yield data collected 

before 1964 (see Collier and others, 1964, p. B53). Present land use and cover conditions were used in computing current gross erosion.

TABLE 17. Gross erosion and average annual sediment 

Cane Branch basin, 1974 water year

[Basin area, 0.67 square mile]

Total

Acres Soil loss soil loss 

rtc es (tons per acre) (tons)

Idle 24.7 0.48 12

Woodland 360.8 .25 92

Mine spoil 43.1 34.80 1,500

Total 428.6 1,604

Annual gross erosion (tons per square 

mile) 2,394

TABLE 18. Gross erosion and average annual 

Helton Branch basin

[Basin area, 0.85 square mile]

Total 

. Soil loss soil loss 

A (tons per acre) (tons)

Idle 11.8 0.42 5

Pasture 32.3 .06 2

Woodland 494.9 .58 286

Urbanizing 2.0 100.00 200 

Roadbank '.6 300.00 180

Total 541.0 673

Annual gross erosion (tons per square 

mile) 796

Sub-watershed delivery ratio

(percent) 26

Delivery 

ratio 

(percent)

16 

16 

50

sediment

Delivery 

ratio 

(percent)

10 

10 

10 

10 

70

yield for

Suspended 

sediment 

yield 

(tons)

19.2 

14.7 

750.0

784 

1,170

yield for

Suspended 

sediment 

yield 

(tons)

0 

0 

29 

20 

126

175 

207

Roadbank units shown under acres are bank miles.

TABLE 19. Gross erosion and average annual sediment yield for

West Fork Cane Branch basin

[Basin area, 0.26 square mile]

. Soil loss 

Acres (tons per acre)

Idle 0.3 0.10

Woodland 162.0 .26 

Mine Spoil 3.0 34.00

Total 165.3

Annual gross erosion (tons per square

Delivery ratio (percent) 

Sub-watershed delivery ratio

\^FC1 CCJ.J.t'J

Total Delivery 

soil loss ratio 

(tons) (percent)

0 10 

42 10 

102 50

244 

554

QO

QQ

Suspended 

sediment 

yield 

(tons)

0 

4 

50

54 

208
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74

C

D37

B

* *' 

FIGURE 19. Comparative photographs showing channel development of upper surface of spoil bank, area 11. Photographed (A) December 10,

1958, (B) September 30, 1962, (Q October 20, 1966, and (D) April 2, 1974.

CONCLUSIONS

Erosion is still occurring on the southwest spoil 

bank. Resurveys of two small areas and several gullies 

indicate that most of this erosion is in gullies rather 

than on the top of the spoil bank.

Annual gross erosion in the 0.67-square-mile Cane 

Branch study area is about 2,400 tons/mi2 and the annual measured suspended sediment yield at the gaging 

station is 1,170 tons/mi2. Thus, about 49 percent of the 

sediment eroded is delivered to the streams. The bulk 

of the soil loss, 1,500 tons, or nearly 94 percent, comes

from the spoil piles, which account for 10 percent of the 

basin area.

These observations are in sharp contrast with the 

undisturbed (unmined) Helton Branch basin, where the 

annual gross erosion is about 796 tons/mi2 and the sediment yield is about 207 tons/mi2.

Thus, Cane Branch is eroding at 3 times and sediment yield is more than 5 times the rate observed for 

Helton Branch.

With only about 2 percent of West Fork Cane 

Branch acreage in mine spoil, there is no apparent increase in erosion or sediment yield in comparison with 

values compiled for Helton .Branch basin.
D38 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

"

» £<*« ?'^i'Mift * * *«-.*i^*> -r * - . j . *. C'^i^^;W-i^ * *-' \V<- - ^ awSfi^ssir^ ;* '" 

FIGURE 20. Comparative photographs showing gully development in area 11. Photographed (A) December 10, 1958, (B) September 30, 1962,

(Q October 20, 1966, and (D) April 2, 1974.

SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

By John F. Santos 

U.S. Geological Survey

SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AT 

CANE BRANCH GAGING STATION

Two previous studies of suspended-sediment yields 

(Collier and others, 1964, 1970) were based on a comparison of suspended-sediment yield from Cane Branch 

(strip mined) basin to that of Helton Branch (undisturbed) basin. The present study (1974) was made to 

identify the changes in suspended-sediment yields, if 

any, that have taken place in Cane Branch since mining stopped in 1959. No samples or data were collected

from Helton Branch. It is assumed that since no development of any consequence had occurred in Helton 

Granch basin, the suspended-sediment yield would be 

the same as before.

The relation of suspended-sediment concentration to 

precipitation and water discharge for an individual 

storm is shown in figure 26. Comparison with previous 

data of Collier (in Collier and others, 1970, p. C39) 

shows that this relation has not changed appreciably. 

Peak suspended-sediment discharge generally occurs 

at, or slightly before, peak water discharge.

The annual suspended-sediment yield from Cane 

Branch ranged from 617 to 3,010 tons/mi2 during 

1957-66 ttable 20). The greatest weighted mean con-
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D39

10 20 30 FEET

Contour interval 1 foot 

Datum is arbitrary

FIGURE 21. Area 12, a rilled and terraced part of the southwest spoil bank, February 1974.

centration was 1,640 mg/L. In 1974 the suspended- For the combined periods 1957-62 and 1965-66, the

sediment yield was 1,170 tons/mi2 with a weighted average annual-water discharge was 332 (ft3/s)/d with

mean concentration of 416 mg/L. This weighted mean an average annual suspended-sediment yield of

concentration is the smallest for the period of record 1,614 tons/mi2. Apparently, the suspended-sediment

even though water discharge was 21 percent more than yield from Cane Branch has decreased since the prethe previous highest annual-water discharge (1962). vious studies.
D40 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

Approximate location of 

C' former Brush Dam, 1958

EXPLANATION

m Direction of streamflow

 Edge of water

10 20 30 FEET

Contour interval 1 foot 

Datum is arbitrary

FIGURE 22. Area 1, a reach of Cane Branch channel, February 1974.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D41

B'

LLJ < 

LU Q

O != 

><

51

49

47

O

00

20 30 40 50 60 

DISTANCE, IN FEET

45

1974

- 1958^:

0 10 20 30 40 

DISTANCE, IN FEET

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

DISTANCE, IN FEET

FIGURE 23. Cross-section and longitudinal profiles of Cane Branch in area 1.

TABLE 20. Summary of sediment discharge by water year, Cane 

Branch near Porkers Lake

SuspendedWater Water discharge sediment 

Wof*. <> discharge as a percentage of concentration 

water year (ftS/g.^ 1974 water discharge Img/L)1

2

1957 

1958 

1959 

I960 

1961 

1962 

1 Q£Q

1964 

1QR43

1965 

1966 

389

415

188

464

325

464

190 

28 

286

121 

565

69

73

33

82

56

82

51

21

437 

537

1,160

1,640

1,380

689

1,600

2,510 

1,550

1,270 

416

Suspendedsediment 

discharge 

(tons)

394 

563

1,295

831

1,731

604

2,018

192 

1,200

413

784

Suspendedsediment 

yield 

(tons/mi2)

588 

840

1,930

1,240

2,580

901

3,010

1,790

617 

1,170

Weighted with water discharge. 

February to September only. 

3October to January and July to September only.
D42 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

FIGURE 24. Comparative photographs of the Cane Branch channel 

in area 1. Photographed (A) April 20, 1958, (B) October 26, 1966, 

and (C) April 2, 1974.

Figure 27 shows how the suspended-sediment discharge and water discharge varied for the period of 

record, and table 21 summaries the 1974 water year 

data.

STORMS

Collier and Musser (in Collier and others, 1964, 

p. B58) and Collier (in Collier and others, 1970, p. C40) 

used precipitation and water discharge to characterize 

two types of suspended-sediment discharge. They 

called them winter-type and summer-type storms. The 

summer-type storms are characterized by intense rainfall of short duration that produces a rapid rise and fall 

in water discharge (fig. 26). The winter-type storms are 

produced by rainfall of lesser intensity and longer

afe?r52^fiSi?l-^C

duration that produces a more gradual rise in water 

discharge followed by a gradual decrease in water discharge (fig. 28). As in the previous studies (Collier and 

others, 1964, p. B58), the part of water discharge considered to be base flow was subtracted from the total 

flow of each storm. The suspended-sediment discharge 

attributable to base flow was estimated to be negligible. Figure 29 compares 1956-59 storm data with 

1973-74 data for Cane Branch (see also Collier and 

others, 1964, fig. 39, p. B59). In 1973-74 there was 

much greater variability in sediment yield than there 

was during the earlier period. For the earlier years, 

only one summer-type storm plotted in the area of 

winter-type storms, but some winter-type storms plotted with the summer-type storms. During 1973-74, the 

type of storm had less influence on the sediment yield, 

and the resulting data points were intermingled for the 

two types of storms. This shows that for some of the 

intense, summer-type storms the amount of sediment 

available for transport was not as large as in the past.

CONCLUSIONS

The present data (1973-74) support the conclusion 

that sufficient revegetation has taken place in the 

Cane Branch study area to cause a significant decrease 

in suspended-sediment yields. The discharge-weighted 

concentration of suspended sediment in the 1974 water 

year was the minimum for the study years while the 

water discharge was a maximum. This significant 

change in water discharge versus sediment indicates 

that there is less material readily available for 

transport out of the basin. Although Cane Branch 

shows some sign of recovery toward the natural sediment discharge characteristics of Helton Branch, it 

will be many years, if ever, before the two basins are 

equivalent in sediment discharge. A practical and 

acceptable similarity can be reached much sooner if no 

more mining, farming, or other land-use change occurs.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D43

46

44

o

03

LLJ < 

LLJ O 

LJ_

-I

§| 42

CQ

40-

1962

1958

1974

8000

O LU

6000-

4000-

2000-

20 40 60 80 100

DISTANCE, IN FEET

120 140 160 180 200

FIGURE 25. Longitudinal profile of Cane Branch in «rea 2.

2500

< < X

3 ^ ? 5

°" n

1 1

-

1 l 1

OCTOBER 3,1973

FIGURE 26. Relation of suspended-sediment concentration to 

precipitation and water discharge, Cane Branch near Parkers 

Lake, October 3, 1973.

2000

.

9 1500

oo 1000

(- 900 z. 

n i

^ 800

I 700 i Q 

LU

9 600

Q_ 

00 50°

400

300

I

O1962 

O1960

O1958

01965

O1959

19740"

19610

01957

01966

100 200 300 400 500 600

WATER DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC 

FEET PER SECOND

FIGURE 27. Variation in suspended-sediment discharge 

and water discharge, Cane Branch and Parkers Lake, by 

water year.
D44 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 21. Summary of suspended sediment discharge by month, 

Cane Branch near Parkers Lake

Suspended- SuspendedYear and Water sediment sediment 

month discharge concentration1 discharge 

(ft3/s-d) (mg/L) (tons

79

October 

Novembe 

Decembe

79

January 

February

73

in i QQ 1 9

r 63 810 139

r 68 691 144

74

1 *J J-T X Zd <3,

KC Aft C

April 73 351 156

May 25 467 47.

June 31 551 57.

Tnlv A f\ cc o uiy

August 

Septemlx

JWeight

z- 1.0 11 I "-

SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION, rilMlllAT 

MILLIGRAMS INPERLITER PRECIPITAT 

INCHEN g S « g

o m

}r 20 674 37.

ed with water discharge.

1 1 1

S^ 1 1 1

1 1 I

1 \ Water

/ ^"*-^.

/ \ ^^-Sample ""

^s i T~~ " r 

2

2

7

1 

5 

60 

3 

1

310 *>°>°°Sw4t

WATER DISCHARGE, CUBIC IN SECOND FEET PER

2 6AM 12 6PM 12 

MARCH 21, 1974

500

H

UJ 

QC

^S 100

UJ OC en 

CD ^

c/5 oc 

°^ 10

^0 5

o 7

UJ i

Sit uj o

gi 

|"0.5

n 1

"I II ' A '

0 A

* A * o° A

A A A 

* A

- ± _

A* V* A °£ 0

*oi °

A _^ A A

AA*AAA% . Q Cane Branch

± A A /^ A A Winter-type storms

_ A A Summer-type storms 

AA February 1956 to 

September 1959 ~

O Winter-type storms -

o Summer-type storms 

October 1973 to 

September 1974

II ll II

FIGURE 28. Relation of suspended-sediment concentration to precipitation and water discharge. Cane Branch near Parkers Lake, 

March 21, 1974.

0.1 0.5 1.0 5 10 50 100

WATER DISCHARGE BY DIRECT RUNOFF, IN CUBIC 

FEET PER SECOND-DAYS PER SQUARE MILE

FIGURE 29. Relation of suspended-sediment discharge to water 

discharge by storms, Cane Branch near Parkers Lake.

STREAM-BOTTOM FAUNA

By Albert R. Jones

Kentucky Department of

Fish and Wildlife Resources

The purposes of this study were to describe and evaluate the bottom-fauna composition of streams receiving strip-mine acid effluent, specifically Cane Branch 

and Hughes Fork, and to relate this information to the 

bottom-fauna composition of two control streams, 

Helton Branch and Little Hurricane Fork. The results 

of bottom-fauna studies in these streams during 

1956-58 were reported by Bernard T. Carter (in Collier 

and others, 1964, p. B80-B83); results of studies during 1959-65 were reported by James P. Henley (Collier 

and others, 1970, p. C46-C49). In this report, data on 

bottom fauna in the sampled streams for 1974 are presented, and relative abundance of key-insect orders in 

Hughes Fork and Little Hurricane Fork are compared 

for the entire study period.

METHODS

Bottom-fauna samples were taken throughout the 

length of each stream during June 1974; sample sites 

used by Henley from 1959 through 1965 were duplicated whenever possible.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D45

All samples were taken from the riffle areas at each 

station with a Surber square-foot sampler. The macrobenthos was separated from the large bottom materials, and the remaining benthic organisms and 

detritus were preserved in alcohol for later identification. The data are presented on a square-foot basis.

TABLE 22. Average number of bottom-fauna organisms per square 

foot in tributaries to Beaver Creek, June 1974

Affected streams

Class and order

Crustacea:

Insecta:

Ephemeroptera 

Amphibia:

Total 

Cane 

Branch

0

0 

0 

0 

0 

.5 

0 

0 

.5 

0

0

1.0

Hughes 

Fork

0

2.5 

2.8 

.3 

1.7 

.5 

.2 

.2 

0 

.3

0

8.5

Unaffected streams

Helton 

Branch

0.5

6.5 

5.5 

1.0 

8.0 

1.0 

0 

.5 

0 

0

.5

23.5

Little 

Hurricane 

Fork

0.2

6.8 

4.8 

.7 

4.3 

.5 

0 

1.8 

0 

.3

0

19.4

RESULTS

The results of bottom-fauna sampling during June 

1974 are presented in table 22 by class and order, to 

permit comparision of bottom-fauna production in 

streams affected by acid-mine drainage with production in unaffected streams.

There is definite evidence that adverse environmental factors were still present and affecting the production of stream-bottom fauna in Cane Branch when 

samples were taken in June 1974. In Helton Branch, 

23.5 organisms per square foot of stream bottom were 

present, while in an equal area of stream bottom in 

Cane Branch only 1 organism was present.

An analysis of data collected from Hughes Fork 

below the mouth of Cane Branch and Little Hurricane 

Fork (the stream to which Helton Branch is a tributary) further illustrates the adverse effect of Cane 

Branch effluent on the bottom fauna in 1974. The 

samples from these two streams were similar with respect to types of bottom fauna present; however, 

Hughes Fork supported a mean of 8.5 organisms per 

square foot, while Little Hurricane Fork supported a 

mean of 19.4 organisms per square foot.

COMPARISON OF ACCUMULATED 

BOTTOM-FAUNA DATA

Mayfly nymphs (Ephemeroptera), caddis fly larvae 

(Trichoptera), and beetle larvae (Coleoptera) are important aquatic insect groups and are indicative of clean, 

unpolluted streams in eastern Kentucky. Therefore, 

the relative abundance of these three orders in Little 

Hurricane Fork and Hughes Fork was used to test for 

possible stream-habitat improvement in Hughes Fork 

(table 23).

This comparison reveals considerable variation in 

the relative abundance of these orders throughout the 

study period. However, these data reveal that from 

1960 through 1964, and again in 1974, the ratio of the 

combined mean for these organisms at Little Hurricane Fork and Hughes Fork decreased during each 

sampling period (from 192:trace in 1960 to 13:5 in 

1974). It is axiomatic, from these data, that the production of these organisms in these two streams is approaching equality. This is due primarily to an improvement of habitat in Hughes Fork.

CONCLUSIONS

Bottom-fauna data from the Beaver Creek basin 

taken during 1956-66 and again in 1974 reveal that the 

acid and sediment drainage from coal-strip mining has 

resulted in a loss of invertebrate bottom fauna in Cane 

Branch and Hughes Fork. Some recovery apparently 

had occurred by 1974 in Hughes Fork.

FISH POPULATION

By John L. Boaze 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

The purpose of this phase of the work was to describe the changes that have taken place in the fish 

populations of the streams of Beaver Creek basin since 

1966. Previous fishery studies by Smith (in Collier and 

others, 1964) during 1956-58 and Sheridan (in Collier 

and others, 1970) during 1959-66 have documented 

the effects of acid-mine drainage on the fish populations in the basin.

Cane Branch became devoid of fish life when its 

water became highly acidic as a result of surface mining of coal during 1955-56 (Smith, in Collier and 

others, 1964, p. B81). Between 1956 and 1964, the fish 

population below the confluence of Cane Branch and 

Hughes Fork, which receives the acidic water, was 

very limited (Sheridan, in Collier and others, 1970, 

p. C53).

Fish-population sampling was not conducted on any 

of the streams within the study area prior to surface 

mining in the Beaver Creek basin. However, it is
D46 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 23. Average number per square foot of Ephemeroptera,

below the mouth of Cane Branch in

[LHF=Little Hurricane Fork;

Order

May 

1956

June

1957

September 

1957

June

1958

LHF

 1

1

HF

1

Tr 

Tr

1

LHF

2

Tr 

1

3

HF

0 

0 

0

0

LHF

2 

Tr

1

3

HF

0 

1 

2

3

LHF

7 

Tr 

2

9

HF

0

Tr 

0

Tr

reasonable to assume that the affected streams supported fish populations similar to the reference 

streams. Smith (in Collier and others, 1964) reported a 

reduced fish population in Cane Branch until June 

1956, after which time all fish life disappeared.

METHODS OF CONDUCTING 

FISH-POPULATION STUDIES

Fish-population sampling was conducted in conjunction with bottom-fauna sampling during the early summer of 1973 and 1974, but only the fish population was 

sampled during the fall of 1973.

In both previous studies and in this study, Helton 

Branch, Little Hurricane Fork, and Hughes Fork above 

the confluence with Cane Branch were used as unaffected reference streams. Cane Branch and Hughes 

Fork below the confluence with Cane Branch were sampled to determine the continuing influence of the acidmine drainage (fig. 30).

All samples were collected by the use of cresol, which 

was applied by the Kentucky Fish and Wildlife Resources biologist. Streamflows were estimated but surface areas and pH of the water were measured prior to 

the cresol application. Each sampling section consisted of approximately equal areas of riffles and pools.

Virtually all fish were captured with dip nets for 

identification and measurement and released back into 

the streams.

RESULTS OF SAMPLING 

FISH POPULATIONS

The results of the 1973-74 fish-population sampling 

in the Beaver Creek basin are presented in table 24. As 

in previous studies, Cane Branch was devoid of fish life 

during the sampling periods of this study. Hughes 

Fork supported only a limited fish population below 

the confluence of Cane Branch in contrast to the reference streams.

TABLE 24. Fish production in affected and reference 

Beaver Creek basin, 1973-74

Date

Fish per 

Sample area acre 

(ft2) (numbers)

Fish per 

acre 

(pounds)

streams,

pH

(units)

Affected streams

7-12-73 

10-29-73 

6-26-74

Mean

6-26-73 

10-30-73 

6-25-74

Mean

6-26-73 

10-30-73 

6-25-74

Mean

Cane Branch at gaging station

670 0 

670 0 

670 0

0.0

Hughes Fork (station 2)

3,960 11 

3,960 66 

3,960 66

47.7

Hughes Fork (station 1)

3,000 494 

3,000 0 

3,000 160

218.0

0 

0 

0

0.0

0.4 

3.5 

2.2

2.0

6.4 

0 

3.4

3.3

4.2 

3.4 

3.7

6.9 

6.0 

8.0

6.8 

6.5 

6.8

Reference streams

6-27-73 

10-29-73 

6-26-74

Mean

6-26-73 

10-30-73 

6-25-74

Mean

7-13-73 

10-30-73 

6-24-74

Mean

6-27-73 

10-29-73 

6-24-74

Mean

Helton Branch at gaging station

2,160 102 

2,160 101 

2,160 202

135.0

3.0 

2.4 

1.3

2.2

Hughes Fork above Cane Branch (station 3)

2,320 583 8.8 

2,320 132 3.5 

2,320 864 15.9

526.3

Little Hurricane Fork (station 1)

1,165 373 

1,165 299 

1,165 187

286.3

Little Hurricane Fork (station 2)

1,600 182 

1,600 681 

1,600 218

360.3

9.4

6.6 

3.4

2.4

4.1

1.6 

3.4 

2.1

2.4

6.8 

6.6 

7.9

6.7 

7.0 

8.0

7.3 

6.3 

7.4

7.1 

6.4

7.7
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D47

Trichoptera, and Coleoptera in Little Hurricane Fork and Hughes Fork 

selected months, 1956-62, 1964, and 1974

HF=Hughes Fork; Tr=trace]

June 

1959

LHF

44

10

6

60

HF

Tr

Tr

Tr

Tr

June 

1960

LHF

102

42

48

192

HF

Tr

Tr

Tr

Tr

June 

1961

LHF

117

53

55

225

HF

Tr

6

1

7

June 

1962

LHF

21

16

12

49

HF

Tr

2

Tr

2

August 

1964

LHF

20

15

8

43

HF

1

4

1

6

June 

1974

LHF

4

7

2

13

HF

2

3

Tr

5

Station 3

1 MILE

EXPLANATION

<« No fish population

 Limited fish population 

ooo Unsampled section

 Normal fish population 

L^>< Fish sampling station

Strip mining

FIGURE 30. Location of fish-sampling stations and distribution of fish within the Beaver Creek basin, 1973-74.
D48 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

Above the confluence with Cane Branch, Hughes 

Fork was supporting an average of 526.3 fish, or 9.4 

pounds of fish per acre. At station 2, located below the 

confluence with Cane Branch, the fish population of 

Hughes Fork averaged 47.7 fish, or 2.0 pounds per 

acre; at station 1, in the lower section of Hughes Fork, 

the fish population increased to an average of 218.0 

fish, or 3.3 pounds per acre. Thus, the relative population abundance at these stations (1, 2, and 3) probably 

indicates that the fish fauna in Hughes Fork was most 

severely degraded just below the confluence with Cane 

Branch and that population recovery had started farther downstream. During his investigation in 1964, 

Sheridan (in Collier and others, 1970) reported the presence of fish at stations 1 and 3 but not at station 2.

Lower pH values were recorded for Cane Branch 

than for the reference streams (table 24). The acidity 

(pH 3.4-4.2 units) of Cane Branch is in the range 

known to be lethal to fish (Ellis, 1937), although the 

pH levels reported for the affected section of Hughes 

Fork were probably not critical for all species during 

the 1973-74 sampling period. Prior lower levels may 

have accounted for their population reduction.

Comparison of the standing stock of the reference of 

the reference streams with the stock of Cane Branch 

and Lower Hughes Fork seems to indicate that the effect of surface mining is responsible for depressing or 

eliminating the fish population in the streams receiving the acid runoff (table 25). The reference 

streams were supporting 3.7 times as many fish by 

number and 2.5 times as many fish by weight as the 

affected streams.

In addition to the quantitative differences in the affected and reference streams, there is indication that 

surface mining caused qualitative changes in the fish 

populations of the affected streams. Major differences 

are seen in the number of species collected in the comparable streams (table 26). The affected streams were 

supporting no more than two species of fish, while the 

reference streams supported six or more species of fish. 

In both the reference and affected streams, the creek 

chub was the dominant species. The creek chub has 

been the dominant species of fish in Hughes Fork since 

1956 and was the last known species to be present in 

Cane Branch (Smith, in Collier and others, 1964). This 

indicates that it is more acid tolerant than other 

species.

The presence of trout in the streams of the Beaver 

Creek basin was a result of the National Forest Service's stocking program. Each fall, 600 subadult rainbow trout are planted in Little Hurricane Fork. This 

small number of fish probably exerts little or no influence on the native fish population within the study 

area.

TABLE 25. Comparison of the standing stocks of the affected and 

reference streams within the Beaver Creek basin, 1973- 74

Station Number of fish collected Number of pounds of fish collected 

per acre per station per acre per station

Reference streams

12 327.0

Affected streams

88.5

4.5

1.8

CONCLUSIONS

Results of fish-population sampling in the Beaver 

Creek basin indicate that Cane Branch is still devoid of 

fish due to the low pH of the water draining from the 

strip-mined area. The fish population in Hughes Fork 

below the confluence with Cane Branch was severely 

restricted in both numbers and species. However, 

natural stream recovery appears to be taking place, as 

indicated by the increase in fish population in the lower 

section of Hughes Fork of Beaver Creek.

TREE GROWTH ON SPOILS

By Thomas M. Yanosky 

and Robert S. Sigafoos 

U.S. Geological Survey

Natural reforestation of the mine spoils of 1956 has 

created a stand of pine trees that by 1974 covered 

slightly more than one-half of the spoils area. Other 

species are present, but their basal area is less than 2 

percent of that of the pines. This study examined the 

degree of reforestation and growth rates of trees on the

TABLE 26. Relative abundance of various species of fish collected 

from the affected and reference stations within the Beaver Creek 

study area, 1973-74

Species

Number of 

fish per 

acre Percent

Affected streams

Creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus) 716 

Striped darter {Etheostoma virgatum) - _ 81

Total 797

Reference streams

Creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus) - 3,620

Striped darter (Etheostoma virgatum) - - 226 

Northern hogsucker (Hypentelium nigricans) , 19

Spotted has (Micropterus punctulatus) 19

Arrow darter (Etheostoma sagitta) 19

Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) - 21

Total 3,924

89.8

10.2

100.0

92.2

5.8

.5

.5

.5

__.5

100.0
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D49

mine spoils compared with those of the forest that has 

grown on an abandoned farm in the same valley and 

concluded that significantly less vegetation grows on 

the young (1956) mine spoils than on older mine spoils 

and on the abandoned farmland. Previous botanical 

studies were concerned with the effects of acid-mine 

drainage on trees growing below the mine (see Sigafoos 

in Collier and others, 1964, p. B66-B76 and in Collier 

and others, 1970, p. C57-C60) and with the natural 

establishment of trees on the spoils (Sigafoos in Collier 

and others, 1964, p. B75-B76). This earlier phase 

showed that, 10 years after mining, tree seedlings grew 

on spoils in numbers insufficient to ensure full reforestation and stands of Virginia and shortleaf pine on the 

spoils exhibited poorer form and fewer numbers of 

trees than on abandoned farmlands of comparable age.

METHODS

Fourteen plots were arbitrarily established to sample the trees growing on the spoils of two mines 

(Musser, 1963, p. A22), on abandoned farmland, and on 

the upland above the younger mine (fig. 31). The plots, 

each measuring 0.1 acre, were distributed among four 

general areas as follows: seven on spoils (plots 7-13, 

fig. 31) and one above the highwall (plot 6) of the mine 

abandoned in 1956; two on the mine abandoned in 1947 

(plots 1 and 2); three on abandoned farmland southeast 

of the younger mine (plots 3-5); and one in nearby 

upland forest above the younger mine (plot 14).

In each plot, trees having trunks 1 inch or more in 

diameter were identified and measured, and the basal 

area (the total cross-sectional area of stems at the 

points of measurement) was calculated. Representative cores were taken to determine ages and radial 

growth rates of stems on the younger mine spoils, 

above the high wall, and on the abandoned farmland.

COMPOSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF 

VEGETATION IN SAMPLED AREAS

The forests of Cane Branch basin consist of secondgrowth hardwoods with admixtures of pine and 

hemlock locally on cut-over land and nearly pure 

stands of pine species on abandoned farmland. On the 

uplands above the strip mine are oak-pine and oakhickory forests (Musser, 1963, p. A21). Virginia pine 

and shortleaf pine account for the largest number (51 

percent) of trees tallied on spoils plots. Blackgum, 

sweetgum, red maple, serviceberry, persimmon, and 

princess tree are less common. Woody shrubs (blackberry, gooseberry, and sumac) and greenbrier and 

poison-ivy vines are sporadically present, as is a variety of herbaceous forms not considered in this report. 

Lichens are common on rocks and tree trunks throughout the mine area.

More species are present and growth is more dense 

on the spoils of the mine abandoned in 1947 than on 

the younger mine. Vegetation has had nearly 10 more 

years to grow on the older spoils, and the site is a moist 

valley bottom near the head of Cane Branch. Additional time and water and possible differences in soil 

characteristics may account for the denser and more 

diverse vegetation. The uncommon climbing fern 

(Lygodium palmatum (Bernh.)) is abundant on the 

older mine spoils.

According to J. E. Patrick, Honeybee, Ky., at least 

part of the bottom and gentle slopes on the southeastern side of the valley enclosing plots 3, 4, and 5 were 

once farmed (personal commun., January 10, 1974). 

Ages of trees on the site suggest that part of the farm 

was not cultivated after 1938. Patrick moved onto the 

land in 1941, but he did not farm the area and all 

cultivation ceased. Natural reforestation that followed 

has resulted in the growth of dense pine woods on the 

slopes. The bottom is covered with dense growths of 

grass and blackberries along with scattered deciduous 

trees.

The upland area (plot 14) is near the northwestern 

end of the younger mine, and the forest is composed 

primarily of oak species, pignut hickory, and sourgum. 

Sourwood, red maple, and Virginia and shortleaf pines 

are also present. Dogwood, shagbark hickory, silverbell, and staghorn sumac account for the remaining 

woody plants in the basal area plot. The forest was 

poorly stocked when first surveyed (Musser, 1963, 

p. A21); that is, it contained fewer trees than needed 

for maximum forest growth, and probably remains so, 

partly because it was lumbered prior to the start of the 

study in 1958.

QUANTITY OF VEGETATION

The distribution and density of vegetation on mine 

spoils reflects the great variability of site factors in the 

mined areas. Many sites, particularly on the highwall 

or on the steep outer slopes of spoils, or those with internal drainage, support little or no woody vegetation. 

The trees on these sites exhibit poorer form and size 

than those growing in denser stands on the spoils.

The number of woody stems, basal area, and the 

crown density of the trees are variable in the four general areas. Table 27 summarizes the number and basal 

area for all species measured in one-tenth acre plots. 

Basal area for trees on each plot is shown in figure 32. 

Crown density of pine trees on the younger mine spoils 

and the abandoned farmland was estimated from 

1:10,000 scale aerial photographs using a dot grid. The 

pine trees on the mine spoils are not discernible on the 

1959 photographs, whereas they have a density of 55
D50 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

84°26'30"

-.'/ I ' /// '"-.'-' 

l -.;; > ; i^. x : r., ! /

EXPLANATION

' Mine and spoils margin

10 Basal area and growth rate plots

B Mining ceased 1947

A Mining ceased 1956

s^^lll'

ON NOV\\>,7>>^~> //'/'' ',

MW///!^, ^<*?!/////a I/?'.",'//>^~ ^^^//fm^

FIGURE 31. Cane Branch basin and location of forest plots.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D51

TABLE 27. Mean number and mean basal area of species 1 in four areas in Cane Branch basin

[Basal area, BA, in square feet per acre]

1956 mine 1947 Mine

Abandoned 

farmland Upland

No. BA

Virginia pine 270 14.080

Shortleaf pine 40 3.260

Sweetgum 6 .128

Red maple 1 .006 

Shadbush 5 .02875

Rla/*lf sinlr 

Silverbell 

Avpracrp R A tft2lftrrc*\ 1 7 fil 7

Average number of stems 328

No.

385 

25 

5 

185 

10

215 

110

45 

45 

5 

5 

5

55

:::

BA

39.425 

1.152 

.17 

9.13 

.135

11.785 

.90

3.655 

.390 

.025 

.07 

.20

1.115

68.525 

13 

1,095

No.

383 

57 

80 

186 

203

 

23 

30

47

10 

3

7 

97 

7

BA

99.073 

10.096 

1.43 

6.93 

2.176

.413 

.285

.76

.103 

.05

.310 

2.27 

1.06

125.818 

13 

1,133

No.

80 

10 

130

10

20

30

210 

80 

20 

40 

60

40 

10 

10

BA

1.74 

2.91 

6.77

1.96

.51

.92

7.81 

8.66 

4.33 

26.14 

28.48

18.54 

.56 

.16

109.490 

14 

750

See table 29 for scientific names of tree species.

percent in the January 1974 photographs. Crown density of pines on the abandoned farmland was 92 percent in 1959 and 93 percent in 1974. The density of 

pines on the abandoned farmland is essentially the 

same for these two years, but the area covered by pines 

was slightly larger in 1974.

The number of species, number of stems, and basal 

area of trees are markedly different on the young spoils 

compared with the other three areas. Crown densities 

are also different between trees on the young spoils 

and abandoned farmland. The lower basal-area values 

for trees on the young spoils can be due to lower 

number of stems per unit area or to slower growth 

rates on the spoils.

GROWTH RATE OF TREES ON 

SPOILS AND ON AN 

ABANDONED FARM

To determine rate of radial tree growth, 66 cores 

were collected from trees on the young mine spoils and

14 from trees on the abandoned farmland. Trees on the 

spoils ranged in age from 12 to 17 years and in 

diameter from 1.0 inch to 11.4 inches, whereas on the 

abandoned farmland they ranged in age from 31 to 35 

years and in diameter from 7.5 inches to 12.4 inches.

The majority of cores (53) from trees on the spoils 

were Virginia or shortleaf pine. These species are presently most abundant and are the original woody vegetation that invades bare spoils areas (Sigafoos in Collier and others, 1964, p. B75). Owing to dissimilar 

patterns of development, comparisons of growth data 

for different genera must be made with caution. In the 

present study, deciduous genera are insufficient in 

both age and sample numbers, and thus those data are 

not included in the calculations. Virginia and shortleaf 

pine, however, show no discernible growth differential; 

the larger proportion of Virginia pine is probably due 

to this species' greater ability to become established in 

open environments (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

1965a, p. 474).
D52 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

14

13

12

P 11

LU 

LU

>

CO

X

£ 9

I 

O 

^ 8

o

cr in 

o_

0 -3 co 3

Basal area

o

O_

ID

4-1

E

OLD MINE YOUNG MINE ABANDONED 

FARM LAND

FIGURE 32. Based area of all woody stems 1 inch or larger in diameter for all plots.

Mining activities ceased in June 1956, and natural 

reforestation of bare spoils probably began the following spring, resulting in a maximum possible age of 17 

years for the present trees. Only two sampled trees 

were of maximum age, a result consistent with the 

previous observation that initial seedling numbers 

were insufficient for adequate reforestation (Collier 

and others, 1964, p. B76). As a result, the growth rate 

of woody vegetation invading bare spoils soon after 

mining ceased was calculated from 37 individuals germinating within 5 years following abandonment. Only 

the older trees were studied to compare growth rates of 

trees in similar climates on sites that probably had a 

similar degree of weathering. Growth rates of younger 

trees might well be different from older trees because 

the younger trees may have started to grow in the 

shade of older trees, and because younger trees started 

to grow on sites where weathering of minerals had progressed beyond that characteristic of the initial seed 

bed in 1956.

TABLE 28. Growth rates of pine trees on the young mine spoils and 

on abandoned farmland

Range in as

First 25-mm Second 25-mm of sampled 

increment increment trees 

(years)

High wall 

Young mine spoils 

Abandoned farmland

'1.93 

5.49 

5.34

5.34

4.30

12-15 

12-17 

31-35

'Average of total radial growth (radii of five out of six trees are less than 35 mm).

Rings were counted in two successive 25-millimeter 

increments from the pith to the cambium. Fractions 

were adjusted to the nearest half-ring. From these data 

the average width of rings in each 25-millimeter increment was calculated. Ring widths of cores from trees 

on the young spoils (plots 7-13) averaged 5.49 mm in 

the first 25-millimeter increment and 5.34 mm in the 

second increment (table 28).

Trees were also sampled in the plot above the highwall to evaluate the growth rate on the site disturbed 

but not as drastically altered as the spoils. The trees 

(plot 6) showed significantly poorer growth, as the 

radii of five out of six individuals were less than 

35 mm. Total ring width of high wall trees averaged 

1.93 mm (table 28). The slower growth rate is probably 

due to dry soils in summer, as the site and forested 

slope above it is a gently rounded slope.

Growth data based on core samples of trees growing 

on young spoils were compared to trees on the abandoned farmland. Table 28 summarizes these growth 

rates. No significant difference exists in the first 

25 mm of radial growth between trees on young mine 

spoils and those on the abandoned farmland. In the 

second 25 mm increment, however, tree growth on 

young spoils was greater than tree growth on the abandoned farmland, suggesting either accelerated stimulation of growth on spoils or slowing of growth on the 

farmland because of closing of the canopy. Due to scattered distributional patterns on the mine spoils, the 

effects of crowding were minimized. On the other hand, 

the greater number of stems supported on variable 

tracts of abandoned farmland is well documented, with 

as many as 1,600 pines per acre tallied on a 20-year-old 

plantation (Mclntire, 1933). Crowded stems generally 

show less growth than comparable individuals growing in open conditions.

CONCLUSIONS

The significantly smaller amount of vegetation on 

the younger mine spoils than on the older mine spoils,
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D53

abandoned farmland, and upland probably is related to 

poorer site conditions on the younger spoils. Basal area 

of pines on the spoils is less than on the abandoned 

farmland because fewer trees per unit area grow on the 

spoils, as reflected in density values. Although trees on 

the young spoils are younger than those on the abandoned farmland, time alone cannot account for the differences in quantity of vegetation. Comparable growth 

rates of trees on the two sites indicate that, in places 

on the spoils, trees grow as well as on unmined areas. 

The number, form, and density indicate the overall 

negative influence of strip mining on woody vegetation. Reforestation of those parts of the mined areas 

now inadequately forested will undoubtedly continue, 

and future studies are needed to document their rate of

recovery.

SELECTED REFERENCES

Collier, C. R., and others, 1964, Influences of strip mining on the 

hydrologic environment of parts of Beaver Creek basin, Kentucky, 1955-59: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

427-B, 85 p.

Collier, C. R., Pickering, R. J., and Musser, J. J., 1970, Influences 

of strip mining on the hydrologic environment of parts of

Beaver Creek basin, Kentucky, 1955-66: U.S. Geological

Survey Professional Paper 427-C, 80 p. 

Ellis, M. M., 1937, Detection and measurement of stream pollution:

U.S. Bureau of Fish and Wildlife Bulletin 22, v. 48, p. 365-437. 

Gleason, H. A., and Cronquist, Arthur, 1963, Manual of vascular

plants of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada:

New York, van Nostrand, 810 p. 

Little, E. L., 1953, Check list of native and naturalized trees of the

United States: U.S. Forest Service Agricultural Handbook 41,

472 p. 

Mclntyre, A. C., 1933, Virginia pine in Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania

Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 300, 31 p. 

Musser, J. J., 1963, Description of physical environment and of

strip-mining operations in parts of Beaver Creek basin, Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 427-A, 25 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1965a, Sylvics of forest trees of 

the United States: U.S. Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 

271, 762 p.

___1965b, Predicting rainfall-erosion losses from cropland east 

of the Rocky Mountains: U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 282.

___1972, Procedure for computing sheet and rill erosion on 

project areas: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Engineering Technical Release 51.

Wilkins, L. P., 1955, Observations on the field use of cresol as a 

stream-survey method: Progressive Fish Culturist, v. 17, April, 

p. 85-86.

TABLES 29-36

INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D57

TABLE 29. List of common and scientific names of woody species

Common name Scientific name

Birch, sweet Betula Lenta L.

Blackgum Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.

Dogwood Cornus florida L.

Greenbrier Smilax rotundifolia L. 

Hickory, pignut Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet

Hickory, shagbark Carya ovata (Mill.) K. Koch 

Maple, red Acer rubrum L.

Pine, shortleaf Pinus echinata Mill.

Pine, Virginia Pinus virginiana Mill.

Poison ivy Rhus radicans L.

Princess tree Paulownia tomentosa (Thumb.) Sieb. & Zucc. 

Redcedar, eastern Juniperus virginiana L.

Serviceberry Amelanchier Med.

Silverbell Halesia Carolina L.

Sumac, staghorn Rhus typhina L. 

Sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua L.

Yellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera L.

WUlow Salix L.

Note: Nomenclature of trees follows that of Little (1953), and vines that of Gleason and 

Cronquist (1963).

TABLE 30. Discharge and runoff at the Cane Branch near Porkers 

Lake stream-gaging station

Location Lat. 36°52'05", long. 84°26'57", McCreary County, on left bank 2,100 ft upstream from West Fork 2.5 mi northeast of Parkers Lake and 2.6 mi east of Greenwood. 

Drainage area 0.67 mi2. 

Period of record February 1956 to September 1966 (continuous record station); October 

1966 to April 1973 (annual maximums and occasional low-flow measurements); May 

1973 to September 1974 (continuous-record station). 

Gage Water-stage recorder and concrete control. Datum of gage is 979.4 ft above sea 

level (levels by U.S. Forest Service). , 

Average discharge-11 years (1956-66, 1974), 0.914 ftr/s, 18.53 in./yr.

Extremes Period of record: Maximum discharge, 236 ft3/s, August 9, 1970 (gage height, 

2.00 ft); maximum gage height, 2.43 ft, January 29, 1957 (backwater from ice); minimum 

discharge, 0.005 ft^/s, September 7, 8, 1957.

M«m Runoff

Month discharge (ft3/s)/mi2 inches 

(ft3/s)

Water year ending September 30, 1973

May 1.89 2.82 3.25

June .54 .81 .90

july .77 1.15 1.33

August .18 .27 .30

September .32 .48 .53

Water year ending September 30, 1974

October 0.32 0.48 0.56

November 2.10 3.13 3.49

December 2.18 3.25 3.76

January 4.42 6.60 7.60

February 2.51 3.75 3.91

March 1.80 2.69 3.10

April 2.42 3.61 4.03

May .81 1.21 1.40 

June 1.04 1.55 1.73

TiiKr 1 Q 1 Q OO

August .25 .37 .44 

September .67 1.00 1.12

Mean 1.55 2.31

Total 31.36
D58 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING

TABLE 31. Discharge and runoff at the Helton Branch at Greenwood stream-gaging station

stream from mouth and 1 mi northeast of Greenwood.

Period of record January 1956 to September 1974. 

Gage Water-stage recorder and concrete control. Datum of gage is 993.8 ft above sea 

level (levels by U.S. Forest ServiceL 

Average discharge 18 years, 1.22 ft3/s, 19.49 in./yr. 

Extremes Period of record: Maximum discharge, 182 ft3/s, February 27, 1962 (gage 

height, 1.45 ft in gage well), from rating curve extended above 65 ft3/s; maximum gage 

height, 1.52 ft, August 9, 1970; minimum discharge, 0.05 ft3/s, October 2, 1956.

Mean Runoff

Month discharge Total 

(ft3/s) (ft3/s)/mi2 inches

Water year ending September 30, 1967

October 0.26 0.31 0.35

November .84 .99 1.10

December 2.46 2.90 3.34

January 1.06 1.25 1.44

Fphmnrv Q^ 1 1 9 1 1 ft

March 4.55 5.36 6.18

April 1.11 i.3i i.46

May 2.06 2.43 2.80

June .85 1.00 1.12

Tnlv 9 9H 9 f^Q 9 Oft

SUmtomHAr 1 Q 99 9£

Mean 1.40 1.65

Tntnl 99 C1

Water year ending September 30, 1968

October .26 .30 .35

ftT f\\7&m H*ir 7 ft Q 9 1 f\ 9

T")o/»omHor 9 Q7 9 7Q Q O1

January 2.03 2.38 2.75

F*iKni an/ 7ft Q9 QCk

March 3.28 3.85 4.44

Anril 9 9ft 9 G.Q O QQ

\AG\T o 07 o en o nQ

June .51 .60 .67

Mean 1.26 1.48

Total 20.26

Water year ending September 30, 1969

Octobpr - 0 91 n 9^ n 9Q

T^<v»orwVioi" fifi 77 QQ

January .94 1.10 1.27

February 2.13 2.50 2.61

April 1.70 2.00 2.23

June .36 .43 .48

TII Ivr Q 1 OC A O

A/fann O 7Q f\ Q£

Total 11.53

TABLE 31. Discharge and runoff at the Helton Branch at 

wood stream-gaging station Continued

GreenMean Runoff

Month discharge

(ft3/s) (ft3/s)/mi2

Total 

inches

Water year ending September 30, 1970

\J\, \nJU\sl

November 

December

February 

April -

July -

Total -

9/1 9Q

 .37 .44

QQ 1 1C

 z.bz o.Uo 

. 1.21 1.42

 .zz Z.bl

.46 .54

 .^y .^^

.16 .19

. 1.24 1.46

. .64 .75 

. 1.05 1.24

.33 

.48 

3.31 

1.34 

3.21 

1.65 

2.92 

.63 

.25 

.21 

1.68 

.84

16.85

Water year ending September 30, 1971

April -

July -

Total -

O rro n Q£

- 1 1 Q 1 40

1.39 1.64

.b4 i.yj

9C Q1

 .bb ./o

 .10 ./i 

1.40 1.65

0.99 

1.56 

2.30 

4.28 

4.38 

1.89 

2.15 

2.37 

.34 

.90 

.91 

.24

22.32

Water year ending September 30, 1972

February 

July -

August -

91 9^

9/1 9Q

.11 o.bb

4.12 4.85

9 QR ^ f«l

. 4.08 4.80

1 QK 9 9Q

 .oU .60

 .£(} .dl

 .ol .ob 

1 ^9 1 9Q

.28 

.31 

.63 

4.22 

5.23 

4.04 

5.35 

2.65 

.37 

.41 

.36 

.41

24.27

Water year ending September 30, 1973

^cwjutsr 0

9c n 9Q

/JC HC

- --- - - -- 6.06 o.ob

 l.oy I.b4

0.34 

.86 

4.11 

1.89
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D59

TABLE 31. Discharge and runoff at the Helton Branch at Greenwood stream-gaging station Continued

Month

Mean Runoff

discharge Total 

<ft3/s> (fts/s)/mi2 inches

Water year ending September 30, 1973 Continued

July -

Total -

2

00 o c i o rro

3.60 4.24 4.89

O OQ O CC O f\f\

- 3.25 3.82 4.41

1

f\f\ 1 1 Q 1 QO

1 7Q O (\A O QK.

QO OQ A Q

re f*c 7O

1 6Q 1 QQ

£A I ,V4:

Water year ending September 30, 1974

JUly .

Total -

aa <7Q on

q qq q QQ A AC

- 3.54 4.16 4.80

7 70 n i c. i A K.C

o 40 4 ftft 417

O QK. Q A1 Q fifi

- .89 1.05 1.20

- 1.34 1.58 1.75

OQ QQ QQ

- .41 .48 .55

. .84 .99 1.10

2

OQ O £Q

OU.^rl/

TABLE 32. Annual maximum discharges for Cane Branch near 

Parkers Lake

Water 

year Date

1956 Apr. 6 

1957 Jan. 29

1958 Apr. 24 

1959 July 19 

I960 July 10 

1961 Mar. 8 

1962 Feb. 27 

1963 Mar. 11 

1964 Sept. 29 

1965 Mar. 29 

1966 Mar. 4 

1967 Mar. 6 

1968 May 26 

1969 Apr. 18 

1970 Aug. 9 

1971 Jan. 4 

1972 Feb. 24 

1973 Dec. 9 

1974 Apr. 4

Discharge

ft3/s (ft3/s) mi2

98 146 

198 296 

154 230 

30 45 

71 106 

44 66 

184 275 

127 190 

27 40 

54 81 

24 36 

151 225 

60 90 

21 31 

236 352 

106 158 

96 143 

98 146 

82 122

TABLE 33. Annual

Water 

year Date

1956 Apr. 6 

1957 Jan. 29 

1958 Nov. 18 

1959 June 2 

I960 July 10 

1961 Mar. 8 

1962 Feb. 27 

1963 Mar. 11 

1964 Mar. 8 

1965 Mar. 29

1966 Apr. 28 

1967 Mar. 6 

1968 Mar 12 

1969 May 18 

1970 Aug. 9 

1971 Jan. 4

1972 Feb. 24

1973 May 27 

1974 Nov. 27, 

Junel

Approximate.

TABLE 34. Annual

Water 

year Date

1956 Mar. 14 

1957 Jan. 29 

1958 Apr. 

1959 July 

1960 July 

1961 Mar. 8 

1962 Feb. 27 

1963 Mar. 11 

1964 Mar. 8 

1965 Mar. 29 

1966 Mar. 4 

1967 Mar. 6 

1968 Mar. 12 

1969 Apr. 18 

1970 Feb. 15 

1971 Jan. 4 

1972 Apr. 12 

1973 May 28 

1974 Apr. 4

maximum discharges for 

Greenwood

ft3/s

104 

136 

54 

18 

65 

32 

182 

J130 

21 

46 

26 

69 

36 

10 

122 

67 

54 

76 

67

maximum discharges for 

Branch near Parkers Lake

ft3/s

^2 

129 

65 

62 

20 

28 

48 

24 

20 

53 

21 

26 

26 

14 

45 

34 

28 

35 

67

Helton Branch at

Discharge

(ft3/s) mi2

122 

160 

64 

21 

76 

38 

214 

!153 

25 

54 

31 

81 

42 

12 

144 

79 

64 

89 

79

West Fork Cane

Discharge

(ft3/s) mi2

'354 

496 

250 

238 

77 

108 

185 

92 

77 

204 

81 

100 

100 

54 

173 

131 

108 

135 

258

*For oeriod Mar. 9 to Sent. 30, 1956.
D60 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING 

TABLE 35. Precipitation, in inches, at recording gages, October 1966 to September 1974

Month and year

1966

T^^/*^TYI Vl^T _

1967

Year ending March 3 1

July 

Year ending September 30

1968

February 

Year ending March 31

July 

August 

Year ending September 30

1969

Year ending March 3 1

\Jt Q\r

July 

August 

Year ending September 30

^J/Yl/^TViVl^l" _

T"tacemhfir 

Cane Branch basin

Gage 1

QIC

4 fi9

C A<3

2

CC

7 71

50.80

c oc

c en

3 CO

3

crj

56.90

A T C

6

1 Q

52.23

C (\(\

c oc

9 99

O C*7

O OC

43.06

.00

Q CC

.OO

Q QC

1

C1?

39.64

 4.48

3

CC

 4.80

O.U'x

1

c-i

38.95

1 RR

^.L>O

« 9n

Gage 2

2.33 

4.58 

5.05

2.32 

2.45 

7.27 

49.49

3.60 

4.92 

5.61 

8.92 

3.05 

3.58 

53.68

2.44 

4.42 

4.17

1.71 

.45 

6.52 

49.39

4.65 

7.79 

2.30 

2.23 

1.93 

2.13 

40.74

2.48 

2.29 

3.34

2.54 

2.88 

1.68 

36.24

4.76 

3.58 

4.62 

3.14 

1.51 

3.45 

36.27

1.62 

2.49

?. RR

Average

2.24 

4.60 

5.24

2.44 

2.47 

7.51 

50.14

3.90 

5.09 

5.64 

9.31 

3.32 

3.54 

55.29

2.46 

4.59 

4.40

1.81 

.41 

6.35 

50.81

4.82 

8.02 

2.31 

2.45 

2.08 

2.20 

41.90

2.53 

2.36 

3.50

2.56 

3.43 

1.68 

37.94

4.52 

3.56 

4.71 

3.39 

1.56 

3.46 

37.36

1.7S 

2.51

£ (\A

Helton Branch basin

Gage 5

1.44 

3.64

4.85

1.93 

1.98 

7.15 

40.83

3.12 

5.37 

5.31 

7.21 

3.14 

2.83 

47.97

2.01 

4.10 

4.22

1.57 

.27 

6.10 

45.25

4.29 

6.04 

2.47 

2.39 

3.39 

2.63 

39.48

2.83 

2.79 

2.86

2.22 

2.68 

1.25 

35.84

3.80 

2.76 

4.13 

2.83 

1.49 

3.64 

33.28

1.11 

2.28

?. 4.9

Gage 6

1.58 

4.17 

4.79

1.94 

2.01 

8.46 

46.57

3.20 

4.27 

4.33 

7.97 

2.87 

3.52 

49.12

2.03 

4.42 

4.38

1.73 

.21 

6.06 

44.99

4.44 

6.38 

1.75 

1.93 

3.51 

2.43 

39.27

2.88 

2.58 

2.86

2.32 

2.31 

1.10 

34.49

4.52 

3.14 

4.68 

2.97 

1.25 

4.53 

35.14

1.25 

2.39

?. Q3

Average

1.51 

3.91 

4.82

1.94 

2.00 

7.80 

43.73

3.16 

4.82 

4.82 

7.59 

3.00 

3.18 

48.54

2.02 

4.26 

4.30

1.65 

.24 

6.08 

45.12

4.36 

6.21 

2.11 

2.16 

3.45 

2.53 

39.38

2.86 

2.68 

2.86

2.27 

2.50 

1.18 

35.17

4.16 

2.95 

4.40 

2.90 

1.37 

4.08 

34.21

1.18 

2.34

KfiR
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 

TABLE 35. Precipitation, in inches, at recording gages, October 1966 to September 1974 Continued

D61

Month and year

1970

Year ending March 31

July 

Year ending September 30

1971

Year ending March 31

July 

Year ending September 30

'Wov wn V^OT*

1972

\X Qf/*Vl _

Year ending March 31

TV^OTr

Year ending September 30

1973

Year ending March 31

Cane Branch basin

Gage!

 1.04

 4.31

O QQ

40.39

5

QO

1

OC

3

04

1 Qfl

i n QQ

c en

48.70

C f\£*

2 1 3

3

1 Q

c qq

c qq

9 34

53.23

q Q1

 4.80

4 89

7 TQ

i so

9 70

49.18

.14

Q QK

0 QQ

f, tf\

52.02

7 0.9.

X CQ

 5.10

5

OQ

2

1 £,

56.01

o en

 4.50

a co

O TC

 8.14

56.78

Gage 2

.97 

4.00

2.92 

38.94

5.68 

1.42 

3.23 

2.06 

10.48 

4.36 

45.11

4.65 

2.08 

2.92

4.86 

4.82 

1.32 

47.88

3.79 

4.71 

4.02 

6.86 

1.64 

2.44 

44.11

.50 

2.21 

3.71

8.22 

6.34 

4.81 

49.25

6.47 

4.73 

4.06 

4.77 

2.15 

4.15 

52.12

2.53 

4.29 

6.24

2.49 

2.83 

7.15 

51.86

Average

1.00 

4.16 

2.90 

39.66

5.76 

1.39 

3.28 

1.98 

10.70 

5.43 

46.90

4.86 

2.10 

3.05

5.10 

5.08 

1.83 

50.56

3.85 

4.76 

4.42 

7.32 

1.72 

2.57 

46.66

.48 

2.16 

3.84

8.30 

6.37 

4.84 

50.63

6.75 

5.20 

4.58 

5.02 

2.15 

4.36 

54.06

2.56 

4.40 

6.38

2.48 

2.80 

7.64 

54.32

Hellon Branch basin

Gage 5

.49 

3.43 

2.49 

33.88

4.44 

.96 

3.16 

.74 

9.71 

2.75 

36.99

3.97 

1.40 

2.83

4.50 

4.88 

1.52 

40.86

3.04 

3.77 

2.03 

6.93 

2.25 

1.79 

38.91

.33 

1.50 

3.30

8.15 

4.67 

2.53 

40.29

5.04 

2.81 

1.45 

2.56 

2.10 

3.14 

37.58

1.71 

2.07 

5.32

1.65 

2.64 

6.47 

36.96

Gage 6

.72 

3.64

2.67 

37.69

4.73 

.87 

3.03 

1.43 

10.32 

2.90 

39.88

4.13 

1.89 

3.48

5.28 

5.31 

1.57 

44.94

3.61 

4.11 

2.31 

5.68 

2.05 

1.48 

40.90

.32 

1.62 

3.63

8.15 

4.95 

2.45 

40.36

6.19 

3.63 

2.55 

3.71 

2.10 

3.03 

42.33

1.78 

2.16 

5.81

1.97 

2.51 

6.57 

42.01

Average

.60 

3.54 

2.58 

35.78

4.58 

.92 

3.10 

1.08 

10.02 

2.82 

38.44

4.05 

1.64 

3.16

4.89 

5.10 

1.54 

42.90

3.32 

3.94 

2.17 

6.30 

2.15 

1.64 

39.90

.32 

1.56 

3.46

8.15 

4.81 

2.49 

40.31

5.62 

3.22 

2.00 

3.14 

2.10 

3.08 

39.96

1.74 

2.11 

5.56

1.81 

2.58 

6.52 

39.48
D62 HYDROLOGIC INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING 

TABLE 35. Precipitation, in inches, at recording gages, October 1966 to September 1974 Continued

Month and year

1973 Continued

April 

july _

Year ending September 30

C}f*t~fd\£XY*

1974

A/To iv* li

Year ending March 31 

April 

A^OV _

A 11 cni or _

Year ending September 30

Cane Branch basin

Gage 1

A QQ

7 no

<^ 7Q

6 Qfi

9 9/1

58.08

 4.44

 7.00

 4.90

T A C

Q Qf\

_____________ 4.45

63.24

 4.45

c OC

 5.11

1 1 Q

8

1 C

A C9

61.46

Gage 2

4.34 

6.48 

4.42 

5.85 

1.99 

4.12 

52.73

4.04 

6.21 

4.73

7.43 

3.85 

4.27 

57.73

4.57 

5.04 

4.18 

.95 

6.49 

4.00 

53.76

Average

4.36 

6.78 

5.08 

6.32 

2.12 

4.49 

55.40

4.24 

6.60 

4.82

7.44 

3.88 

4.36 

60.48

4.51 

5.45 

4.64 

1.04 

7.32 

4.31 

58.61

Helton Branch basin

Gage 5

'3.77 

6.52 

3.86 

7.34 

2.25 

3.85 

47.45

3.70 

6.30 

4.50

7.00 

3.49 

4.05 

56.63

4.31 

3.50 

3.79 

1.35 

5.15 

3.60 

50.74

Gage 6

3.80 

6.49 

4.01 

6.85 

2.24 

3.74 

47.93

3.65 

6.30 

4.56

7.10 

3.84 

4.10 

56.68

4.35 

4.15 

3.09 

1.35 

4.80 

3.00 

50.29

Average

3.78 

6.50 

3.94 

7.10 

2.24 

3.80 

47.69

3.68 

6.30 

4.53

7.05 

3.66 

4.08 

56.66

4.33 

3.82 

3.44 

1.35 

4.98 

3.30 

50.52

Record for gage 5 from April 1973 to September 1974 is estimated from record of gage 6 due to malfunction of gage 5 recorder.
INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING, BEAVER CREEK BASIN, KY., 1973-74 D63 

TABLE 36. Maximum precipitation amounts recorded in Cane Branch basin during selected storms

[Maximum precipitation amounts, in inches, for indicated periods based on gage that recorded the greater amount]

Dec.

Dec.

Mar.

Mar.

May

June

July

July

Sept.

Nov.

Mar.

May

June

Dec.

Feb.

Apr.

Aug.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Jan.

May

July

Jan.

Feb.

July

Sept.

Dec.

Mar.

May

July

Sept.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Apr.

1966

8-10

27-28

1967

5-6

12

14-15

14

5-6

10

27-28

1-2

1968

11-12

26

1969

23

28-30

1970

14-15

27-28

8-10

31-

1

29-30

1971

3-4

12-13

18-19

1972

27-28

24

27-30

26

8-10

1973

14-17

27

26

9

26, 27, 28

25-26

1974

10-11

3-4

30 minutes

0.14

.22

.36

.75

.40

1.0

.23

.45

.50

.20

.15

.25

.30

.20

.35

.50

1.55

.60

.12

.18

.22

.50

.15

.13

.55

.63

.25

.25

.45

.35

1.0

.40

.15

.20

.75

1 hour

0.30

.37

.42

1.25

.45

2.0

.53

.80

.65

.35

.30

.55

.60

.25

.40

.53

2.05

1.20

.25

.37

.45

1.0

.30

.25

.60

1.26

.35

.35

.60

.55

1.60

.50

.25

.35

1.00

2 hours

0.35

.70

.58

1.42

.68

2.0

.65

1.0

1.0

.45

.60

.78

.92

.35

.85

.65

2.80

1.95

.50

.65

.90

1.60

.60

.55

.65

1.70

.52

.60

.85

1.05

1.80

.78

.50

.55

1.10

4 hours

0.48

1.35

.98

1.42

.92

2.0

.88

1.58

1.40

.76

.90

1.45

1.27

.55

1.20

1.15

3.90

3.25

.85

1.05

.96

1.74

.86

.66

.65

1.96

.90

.85

1.45

1.41

2.71

.87

.67

.92

1.20

8 hours

0.82

2.0

1.40

1.93

1.25

2.0

1.60

1.76

1.90

.90

1.45

1.95

2.27

1.26

1.40

1.54

4.95

4.05

1.40

1.43

1.90

1.82

1.26

.94

.75

2.27

1.14

1.64

2.0

1.43

2.76

1.45

.87

1.28

1.95

Storm 

total

2.65

2.25

3.65

2.11

2.62

2.0

3.05

2.03

2.20

2.28

2.37

2.30

2.62

4.50

2.51

2.22

7.31

4.05

2.21

2.07

2.54

2.57

2.10

1.85

2.16

2.45

3.20

3.89

2.80

1.43

2.76

4.05

2.05

2.70

1.95

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1985-^61-4^6:20008


Rriegejw-INFLUENCES OF STRIP MINING ON THE HYDRCXLOGIC ENVIRONMENT OF BEAVER CREEK BASIN, K.JEN 1 UUK.Y, -l««hry*TU.S. ueow