x ' T

*"'E«U 0» ^

to Q NBS TECHNICAL NOTE 838

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Bureau of Standards

The Use of Weather and

Climatological Data in Evaluating

the Durability of Building

Components and Materials
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The National Bureau of Standards' was established by an act of Congress March 3. 1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science and technology

and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the Bureau conducts

research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measurement system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government. ( 3 ) a technical basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to promote public safety. The Bureau consists of the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials Research, the Institute for Applied Technology,

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THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS provides the central basis within the United

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1 Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg, Maryland, unless otherwise noted; mailing address Washington, D.C. 20234.

2 Part of the Center for Radiation Research.

3 Located at Boulder, Colorado 80302.

* Part of the Center for Building Technology.
The Use of Weather and Climatological

Data in Evaluating the Durability of

Building Components and Materials

Larry W. Masters and Winthrop C. Wolfe

Institute for Applied Technology

National Bureau of Standards

Washington, D.C. 20234

Sponsored by

Department of Housing & Urban Development

451 7th Street, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20410

°*£AU Of

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Frederick B. Dent, Secretary

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Richard W. Roberts, Director

Issued August 1974
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74-600106

National Bureau of Standards Technical Note 838

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 838,101 pages (Aug. 1974)

CODEN: NBTNAE

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON: 1974 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (Order by SD Catalog No. 03.46:838). Price $1.45
Table of Contents

Page

Glossary iv

SI Conversion Units vii

1. Introduction 1

2. Weather and Climate 3

3. Climatological and Weather Data 3

3.1 Sources of Data 3 3.2 Classification of Climates in the United States 4

4. The Role of Climatological and Weather Data in

Durability Testing 5

4.1 Short-Term Tests 5 4.1.1 Accelerated Aging Tests 5 4.1.2 Tests Based Upon the Detection of Incipient

Changes 6 4.2 Long-Term Tests Based on Natural Aging by Outdoor

Exposure 7

5. Climatological and Weather Data: Their Relevance to

Durability Testing 9

5.1 Solar Radiation 9 5.2 Temperature 11

5.2.1 Temperature Extremes 12

5.2.2 Temperature Cycling 14

5.2.3 Freeze-Thaw Cycling 14

5.3 Water 16

5.3.1 Vapor 16

5.3.2 Liquid Water 18

5.3.3 Frozen Water 19

5.4 Normal Air Constituents 20

5.4.1 Natural Sources of Air Contaminants 20

5.4.2 Oxygen and Ozone 21

5.4.3 Carbon Dioxide 21

5.5 Air Contaminants 21

5.5.1 Gases 22

5.5.2 Mists 22

5.5.3 Particulates 23

5.6 Particulates and Wind 24

5.7 Biological Factors 24

5.7.1 Fungi 24

5.7.2 Bacteria 25

6. Use of Climatological and Weather Data in Durability Testing . . 25

6.1 A General Methodology for Short-Term Durability Tests ... 25

6.2 Use of Climatological Maps, Tables and Indices for

Durability Prediction 27

6.3 Economic Importance of Various Climatological Divisions . . 28

6.4 Feasability of a Climatological and Weather Data

Retrieval System 29

7. Summary 29

Bibliography 31

iii
GLOSSARY

Abs olute humidity. The ratio of the mass of water vapor to the volume of the

air containing the moisture or the density of the water vapor component. This

is usually expressed as g (water vapor)/m 3 (air) or grains/ft 3

. Sometimes

called Vapor density . Specific humidi ty is called Absolute humidity in airconditioning practice.

Aging . A change in a pronertv of a building component or material caused by

one or more environmental factors.

Air c ontaminant s. Substances which are not normal constituents of the atmosphere , commonly referred to as air pollutants, which may have a deleterious

effect on building components and materials, as well as on the health of

humans, animals, and plants.

Albed o . Ratio of the reflected solar radiation to the incident solar radiation on the surface of a material, sometimes expressed as a decimal fraction

but usually as a percentage.

Biological factor . An environmental factor associated with biological organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or organisms closely related to these, which

attack building components and materials.

Building component. A part of a building, such as a wall or a roof, formed

by combining building materials.

Building material . The matter of which, a building component is comprised,

sucTf as Tirick , concrete, lumber, etc.

Build ing system. A structure or building composed of various components and

materials which" have been combined in such a way as to provide a shelter for

the activities of man or protection for his property.

Climate . A generalization or integration of weathering conditions for a given

period of time in a given area. Climatography . The science that seeks to describe and explain climate, how

it differs from place to place, and how it is related to man's activities on earth.

Dew point . The temperature at which water vapor saturation of the air occurs. Durability . A term used to express the length of time a building system,

component, or material will perform its intended functions above a certain

minimum acceptable level.

Environment . The sum of all factors to which a building system, component,

or material is exposed.

Environmental Factor . A factor which is part of the total environment to

which a building system, component, or material is exposed. See Biological , Incompatibility , Stress , Use and Weathering Factors . Freeze, killing . A phenomenon defined by NCAA National Weather Service in

terms of "widely destructive effects of stable vegetation, with temperatures

usually below 32°F. at the thermometer level in the instrument shelter".

Frost, killing . Synonym for killing freeze.

Freeze cycle period . Period of the year during which killing freezes or killing frosts occur or 365 minus (Freeze-free period in days).

iv
Freeze- free perio d . Period of the vear in days between the last occurrence

of a fiven freeze threshold temperature in the snring and the first occurrence of the same freeze threshold temperature in the fall, normal dates or means over a period of years.

Freeze-thaw cycl e. A evele between temperatures above and below the freezin"

point of water, "3"2°F. or 0°C.

Freezing cycle day . A day during which the air temperature exhibits a freeze

thaw cycle or cycles at least once between a temperature above and a temperature below the freezing point of water.

Freeze threshold t emperatures . Temperatures used by NOAA instead of killing

frost to define the freeze-free period of various locations. The freeze

threshold temperature may be 32, 28, 24, 20, or 16°F.

Humidity . The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, expressed by several

different terms [36], [37], [38]. See Ab solute , Rel ative , Spec ific Hum idity,

Dew point , Mixing ratio , Vapor density."

Incompatibility factor (chemical and physical) . An environmental factor due

to deleterious interactions between adjoining or neighboring building components and materials. ; Meteorology . The science of the atmosphere in general of which climatorraphy

is a branch.

Mixing ratio . The ratio of mass of water vapor to mass of dry air.

Specific humidity may be approximated by the mixing ratio and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, since the difference is less than the error involved in the measurement of either value. The equation relating specific

humidity and mixing ratio is as follows:

q

=

(1 "

W) ' where

^ q

= specific humidity

W = mixing ratio

Relative humidity . This is what is commonly meant by "humidity" and is the

ratio of atmospheric vapor pressure to saturation vapor pressure, usually in

nercent. The World Meteorological Organization prefers the definition of

relative humidity as the ratio of specific humidity or mixing ratio to sataration mixing ratio in percent. Relative humidity, U, in percent may be

expressed as

II = Absolute Humidity , nf1 Saturation Absolute Humiditv

>ol-air temperature . The fictitious temperature of the outside air that would

)roduce by convection alone the same rate of heat exchange at the surface as ictually occurs by convection and short- and long-wave radiation combined.

Solar altitude . Altitude of the sun or angular distance from the horizon,

he complement of zenith angle or zenith distance and equal to (90° - zenith

ingle of the sum) .

itress factor . An environmental factor resulting from stresses, which may be

sustained or periodic. Sustained stress is generally due to the load of the

uilding, while periodic stress may be caused by weather conditions.
Use factor . An environmental factor resulting from the use of the building

component "or material.

Vapor density . Synonym for Absolute humidity . Specific humidity . Ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of air as

g (water vapor ) /kg (air) or grains/lb. Called Absolute humidity in air

conditioning practice.

Weather . The sum total of atmospheric conditions and solar radiation at a given place at a given time.

We athering fact or. An environmental factor associated with weather, such as solar radiation, temperature, water, normal air constituents, air contamination, and wind.

Wetness. State of being wet with liquid water, specifically as applied to

materials exposed outdoors, the surfaces of which are wet from precipitation,

due, fog, etc.

Zenith angle of the sun . Angular distance of the sun from the zenith or point directly overhead at 90° distance from the horizon: the complement of

Solar altitude.

vi
SI CONVERSION UNITS

In view of the present practice in building technology in the United States

and in publications of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA) , common II. S. units of measurements have been used throughout this

paper in most cases. However, in recognition of the position of the United

States as a signatory to the fleneral Conference on Weights, and Measures,

which gave official status to the metric SI system of units in 1960, convers

ion factors are given as follows:

Length

1 inch (in) = 0.0254* meter (m)

1 foot (ft) = 0.3048* m

1 yard (yd) = 0.9144* m

1 mile (U. S. Statute) = 1.609344 x 10 3 m

Area

1 sq. mile (mile 2

) = 2.589988 x 10

6 m

2

Velocity

7

1 mile per hour (mph) = 4.470400 x 10 meters per second (m/s)

= 1.609344 kilometers per hous (km/hr)

Mass

1 (short) ton 9.071847 x 10 kilogram (kg)

Mass/Area

2 1 (short) ton per sq. mile 0.35 g/m

Temperature

t c

= (tp - 32) /l. 8, where

t~ = degrees Celsius (° C.)

t F

= degrees Fahrenheit (° F.)

Solar Radia-tion

• i i a - n . ,«4 . , » 2 , i /- o in l watt-hr

1 langley = 4.184 x 10 ioules/m = 1.162 x 10

2 m

'exactly

vii

THE USE OF WEATHER AND CLIMATOLOGIGAL DATA IN EVALUATING THE

DURABILITY OF BUILDING GOMPONENTS AND MATERIALS

Larry W. Masters

Winthrop C. Wolfe

The durability of building components and materials is dependent, to a large extent, on the in-service environment to which they are subjected.

Thus, the prediction of durability requires knowledge of the service environment . Weathering factors, which comprise one group of environmental factors,

are the subject of this report. The objectives of the report are to identify the types of climatological and weather data that are available and to

indicate how, in the present state of knowledge, weather and climate data can

be used to aid in quantifying weathering factors so that durability tests for

building components and materials may be designed.

Key Words : Accelerated aging; building components and materials; climatological data: durability; environmental factors; long-term tests: short-term tests:

weather data; weathering factors.

1. Introduction

Durability tests are used to predict or determine the long-term performance of building components and materials; Durability can be evaluated by

both long-term and short-term tests. In long-term tests, specimens are exposed to natural or simulated environmental factors of importance to closely

simulate or duplicate in-service usage. For example, long-term tests for

building materials used in the exterior envelope may consist of exposure on test racks at outdoor exposure sites or installation in a testing building

[1, 2]. Long-term tests, however, consume considerable time in obtaining

results. Therefore, much interest has been devoted to the development of

short-term tests which can be used to predict long-term results. One type

of short-term test currently being emphasized is based upon increasing the

detection sensitivity of changes in the component or material. In this way

incipient changes indicative of long-term changes, can be detected in a re- latively short time using exposure conditions similar to those used in longterm tests. Other types of short-term tests are often termed "accelerated

aging" tests. In these tests, expected in-service exposure factors are intensified in some manner in an attempt to accelerate the effects of longterm exposure.

A general methodology for durability tests consists of at least three

parts: Problem Definition, Testing, and Interpretation. The first part of

the methodology, Problem Definition, includes defining the performance re- quirements, identifying properties which can be used as indicators of degradation and identifying and quantifying the exposure parameters (environmental factors) of importance. The second part of the methodology, Testing,

includes incorporating the information from the first part of the methodology

into tests and conducting tests, and the third part, Interpretation, includes

interpreting the test data in terms of long-term performance. For durability

tests based upon accelerated aging, one must also postulate how the degradation mechanism can be induced in a relatively short period of time.

Environmental factors are instrumental in causing the degradation of

building components and materials. Thus, the success of durability evaluations is highly dependent upon the proper consideration of environmental

factors in the tests. The environmental factors of importance in durability

testing can be divided into factors relating to: 1) weathering, 2) biological
organisms, 3) stress, 4) incompatibility, and 5) use. Table 1 illustrates a breakdown of these factors. Weathering factors include solar radiation,

temperature, water, normal air constituents, air contaminants, and wind.

Biological factors include fungi and bacteria. Stress factors may be

sustained or periodic. Sustained stress is most likely due to the load of

the building, while periodic stress is often due to weathering factors such

as temperature changes or stress due to earthquakes, tremors, and vibrations

from vehicles. Complicating factors in sustained stress are soil/structure

interaction and building settlement. Incompatibility factors may be due

to deleterious interactions between adjoining or neighboring materials. Use

factors reflect misuse or abuse and the normal wear of materials by the user. The effects of the five classes of environmental factors are not independent

and substantial interaction between them is observed. Weathering factors,

for example, can cause or accelerate the effects of stress or incompatibility

factors; e.f., freezing and thawing or absorbed water can cause destructive

stresses. Moisture may also be instrumental in inducing corrosion, an incompatibility factor. Biological factors, such as fungal and bacterial

growth, are highly dependent upon temperature and moisture conditions.

Weathering factors are of particular importance for products used in the

exterior envelope of a housing system because they interact with or cause many other environmental factors resulting in deterioration. The importance

of a particular weathering factor varies with the geographic location in

which the component or material is used. It is also dependent upon the

material itself and how the material is used. For example, solar radiation

is an important factor in degrading organic polymers as in coatings and joint

sealants. Temperature extremes may also be important for organic polymers.

Temperature cycling can be instrumental in degrading concrete or brick by

freezing and thawing of liquid water in pores, thus causing spalling and

cracking. Water as liquid and vapor can chemically degrade certain polymers

by hydrolysis and it is important in the corrosion of metals. Solid water

such as hail can cause severe impact damage to materials such as roofing and

cladding. Oxygen and ozone can oxidize polymers and carbon dioxide can neu- tralize the basicity of concrete, leading to the corrosion of steel reinforcing when the depth of neutralization reaches the steel. Air contaminants

such as the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen can produce acidic solutions which

corrode metals or degrade organic polymers. Wind can produce extreme cyclic

loads on buildings. Thus, weathering factors affect many different types of

materials.

Since exposure to weathering factors can result in decreased performance

of building components and materials, they must be included in durability

tests. The inclusion of weathering factors in durability tests requires that

these factors be quantified as much as possible. This quantative information

can be inferred from climatological and weather data. These data, however,

are subject to statistical fluctuations and the evaluations of the effects of

weathering factors must consider expected (average) conditions as well as typical extremes. Although climatological and weather data permit, the average

and extreme values of weathering factors to be identified, the intensity of

these factors on or in the building component or material and the effects of

these factors in degrading the component or material are the primary concerns.

Thus, climatological and weather data provide a means of quantifying weathering factors so that their effect on components and materials can be determined,

The objectives of this report are to identify the types of climatological

and weather data that are available and to indicate how, at the present state

of knowledge, these data can be used to aid in the durability testing of

building components and materials. Although much of the discussion in the

report concerns climatological and weather data, the most important theme is

the use of this data for durability testing.

The intended audience to which the report is addressed includes those

persons involved in developing and conducting durability tests of building

components and materials.
2. Weather and Climate

Climatography has been defined as "the science that seeks to describe and

explain climate, how it differs from place to place, and how it is related to

man's activities on earth" [3], Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere

in general, of which climatography is a branch.

Weather [4] is defined as "the sum total of atmospheric conditions at a given place at a given time" and climate [4] as "a generalization or integration of weathering conditions for a given period of time in a given area."

The process of designing and interpreting tests using either short-term

or long-term exposures to predict long-term performance of building components

or materials in a selected climate, requires knowledge of the history of the

weathering factors listed in table 1. Unfortunately, the necessary data are often not available or not available in the desired detail. For example, in

designing freeze-thaw tests it is of interest to determine how many freezethaw cycles may be expected to occur each year in a specific region. Such

information is not readily available, although it can be obtained by reviewing accumulated weather data. The data needed for designing short-term tests

must be obtained from existing weather and climatic data. Weather data are particularly' useful in identifying extremes for test conditions such as the

highest wind, the highest or lowest temperature, or the greatest snow load.

Climatic data, which provides an average of weather data, are useful in identifying the normal expected values of weathering factors and their normal

variations. Weather data are much more variable than climatic data and,

therefore, are more difficult to simulate experimentally. The difficulty in

experimentally simulating weather data leads to the dominant use of climatic

data in designing short-term tests although it would be preferable to use weather data to obtain more accurate simulations.

Climatological data, based on years of accumulated weather data, are useful in interpreting long-term test results although some caution must be

exercised. For example, since the intensity of weathering factors varies

substantially depending on the season of the year, or even the time of day, errors could arise by assuming long-term climatological data to be representative of factors during the exposure. The reliability of using climatological

data in this application increases with the time of exposure. For example,

the intensity of weathering factors in a given time, such as six months, may

be very different from those predicted by climatological data. However, the

intensity of factors during a ten year period would be expected to correlate

better with climatological data than that in a much shorter time. It is

advisable, therefore, particularly for exposures of relatively short duration,

to measure the weathering factors during the time of the exposure.

3. Climatological and Weather Data

This chapter of the report includes a listing of some typical sources of

climatological and weather data. Also, climatological classifications are discussed to illustrate the large number of climates which are experienced in

the United States.

3. 1 Sources of Data

Climatological data in the Appendix and for tables 6 through 15 in the

text were taken from publications of the United States Department of Commerce,

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) , Environmental Data

Service, Silver Sprirrg, Maryland. Between July 1965 and October 1970, publications of this agency were issued under its previous title, Environmental

Science Services Administration (ESSA) , Environmental Data Service. Before

July 1965, publications were issused by the predecessory of ESSA, The Weather

Bureau. These publications are as follows:
"Local Climatological Data, Annual Summary with Comparative Data. Issued

for major weather stations and revised annually through 1972.

°Climatography of the United States, Nos . 60-1 through 60-52, Climates

of the States. Issued for the 50 states, the District of Columbia,

and Puerto Rico; revised periodically through 1972.

"Climate Atlas of the United States, June 1968.

Figures 5, 6, 7, and 8 were derived from maps in the National Atlas of

.the United States of America, U. S. Department of the Interior, Ceological

Survey, Washington, D. C. , 1970. This includes the use and definition of

Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas, defined on page 293 of the National

Atlas, referring to United States Bureau of the Budget, Standard Metropolitan

Statistical Areas, 1967, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

Sources of other information are indicated by footnotes in the text,

which refer to the list of references at the end of this report.

3 . 2 Classification of Climates in the United States

Maps showing the various climates of the world have been devised by

climatologists . Although these maps were not originally intended to reflect

the effect of climatology on building components and materials, Wessel and

Thorn [5] utilized a map by Trewartha to better understand this effect. More

detailed maps [6] have been developed since Trewartha' s. Climatological classifications will be discussed in this chapter to point

out the large range of climates found in the United States and to illustrate

the magnitude of the problem in considering the various climates with regard

to materials degradation.

Trewartha, in devising his climate map, identified six major divisions

of climate:

A. TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES

B. DRY CLIMATES

C. HUMID MESOTHERMAL CLIMATES

D. HUMID MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES

E. POLAR CLIMATES

F. UNDIFFERENTIATED HIGHLANDS

Figure 1 is a map of the continental United States showing Threwartha's

climate classification. Table 2, which is a supplement to figure 1, lists

the climate divisions of Trewartha and the geographic areas of the United

States which are included in each classification. Table 3 contains a brief

description of the criteria used by Trewartha in classifying climates.

Climates within the United States are diversified to the extent that

each of Trewartha's six major climate divisions is experienced in some location. Under TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES, Trewartha includes Tropical Rainforest,

Monsoon Rainforest, and Tropical Savanna. These climates are experienced in

Hawaii, the southern tip of Florida, and the Florida Keys. The DRY CLIMATES

include much of New Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada, and parts of Texas, Colorado,

Utah, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, California, the Dakotas , Nebraska and

Kansas. The HUMID MESOTHERMAL CLIMATES include most of the Southeast, parts

of California and the Oregon and Washington coastal areas. HUMID MICROTHERMAL

CLIMATES include the New England states, New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa,
Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and parts of Maryland, West Virgina, Ohio, Illinois,

Indiana, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Alaska, and the Dakotas. POLAR CLIMATE

is divided by Trewartha into Tundra and Ice Cap climates. The Polar Tundra

is experienced by northern Alaska. HIGHLANDS CLIMATE is found in an area of

Arizona including Flagstaff, parts of Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana,

California, Oregon and Washington. The large range of climates experienced

in the United States presents a formidable problem to the materials engineer

interested in eveluating materials for long-term performance by laboratory

techniques. The problem is to simulate the deterioration caused by the desired range of climatic conditions with a minimum number of tests and ex- posures.

In addition to the broad climate classifications, micro-climates must

be considered in evaluating building components and materials. For example,

large temperature and humidity gradients may exist close to the ground. Also,

weather data recorded at the airport of a major city might not adequately

reflect the intensity of factors a few miles away.

Appendix table I contains climatological data for 18 sites with various

climatological. classifications. Table 4 lists the 18 sites according to the

climate classifications in table 2. The data in Appendix table I were taken

from the NOAA publication, "Local Climatological Data" for 1972 and represent

normal, mean and extreme values of recorded data based upon measurements for

a number of years. The data include values for temperature, precipitation,

relative humidity, wind and mean sky cover. For some sites, values are also

presented for percent of possible sunshine. However, Appendix table I does

not contain values for solar radiation as these data were not included by

NOAA in the 1972 annual summaries. Therefore, Appendix table II is included

to summarize solar radiation values. Values of annual mean daily solar

radiation, total and percent sunshine and mean sky cover are included in

Appendix table II for each of the 18 sites. The sources of data are shown

in the footnotes. Appendix table III lists the names and the total number

of months of freeze-thaw cycles for each of the 18 sites. The data presented

in these tables will be used throughout this report in illustrating the use

of climatological data in durability testing.

4. The Role of Climatological and

Weather Data in Durability Testing

4.1 Short-term Tests

4.1.1 Accelerated Aging Tests

Accelerated aging tests consist of two parts -- the simulated aging and

the evaluative technique. In the simulated aging, the test specimens are subjected to selected environmental factors in such a manner as to induce, in

a much shorter period of time, changes representative of those induced by

natural aging at a selected site. The evaluative technique is then applied

to provide a measurement of the properties of interest and to allow calculation of the changes in the properties caused by the simulated aging. This

discussion is specifically concerned with those environmental factors caused

by weathering factors and with the simulated aging part of accelerated aging

tests.

The goals of accelerated aging tests are 1) to induce, in a much shorter

period of time, changes in properties representative of those caused by natural aging at a selected site and 2) to relate the time required by induce a property change to that required by natural aging so that long-term performance

can be predicted from the test results.
To adequately design simulated aging procedures, it is necessary to con- sider weathering factors. The consideration of weathering factors can be

accomplished qualitatively, semi-quantatively or quantatively

Qualitative considerations is often used, particularly in establishing

a single set of simulated aging conditions which incorporate all factors of

importance which represent all climatological divisions. This approach has

been used in establishing many existing accelerated aging tests. Such tests

can serve a useful purpose particularly for quality control tests. They are useful for durability testing of building materials providing the materials

are similar to those used extensively in the past. Then the evaluator can compare the test results for the new material with those of similar materials

known to perform satisfactorily, incorporate a factor based on scientific

and engineering judgment, and predict durability in various climates, often

with good reliability. Problems occur with qualitative consideration of

climate when new or innovative materials are used because no data base is

available for comparison, and when attempts are made to quantitatively re- late the results of accelerated tests to long-term exposure in specific

climates

By semi-quantitative consideration of weathering factors the evaluator

recognizes the existence of a number of distinctly different climates and

establishes various simulated aging conditions to represent these various

climates. This approach is used currently in many testing laboratories and

simulated aging conditions in some ASTM methods are developed with this

philosophy. The semi-quantitative approach is useful when considering new

or innovative materials particularly if a wide variety of natural exposures

are used. The application of broad climate divisions and maps such as those

developed by Trewartha [5] provides a valuable input in this approach.

In building climatology [7] a broad classification and map would simplify

the use of climatological data in durability testing if a broad classification

could be sufficiently detailed to be useful. One broad classification and

map is used in an ASTM test to define grades of brick according to the "Weathering Index" related to freezing and thawing [8],

The quantitative approach to considering weathering factors consists of

designing a simulated aging procedure for each specific geographic location.

This approach should yield the best correlations between accelerated and

long-term test results. In using this approach the weather and climatic

data for the location, such as a major city, would be collected and analyzed

and, based on the data, a preliminary simulated aging procedure established.

The usefulness of the procedure for other locations would not be of concern

to the evaluator. This approach is also useful when considering new or innovative materials except that for most durability evaluations, the economic

feasibility becomes a problem to be considered. Some question might be

raised about the need to be highly quantative in considering weathering factors

because of the imprecisions of evaluative measurements.

4.1.2 Tests Based Upon the Detection of Incipient Changes

An alternative to using accelerated aging tests to obtain long-term

performance from short-term tests is the use of tests based upon the detection of incipient changes. These tests may also be considered as consisting

of two parts -- the aging and the evaluative technique. However, instead

of attempting to induce property changes in a short time these tests rely

on increasing the sensitivity of the evaluative technique. The aging step,

therefore, may be the same as that used in long-term testing. The advantage

of increasing the sensitivity of property change detection is that the problems arising in attempting to accelerate changes are overcome.
Accurate information is needed for the intensity of weathering factors

during the aging step to permit interpretation of the test results.

4 . 2 Long-Term Tests Based on Natural Aging by Outdoor Exposure

Natural aging tests are an important part of durability testing of

building materials. Since these are often relied upon to determine in which

climates or geographic areas materials may be expected to perform adequately,

the exposure test sites should include a number of climates.

The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) , for example, maintains Exposure

Test Sites at seven locations which cover a wide range of climates. Consideration of these sites will illustrate how the climatic and weather data are

used. The types of climate in the United States as defined by Trewartha are shown in table 2. The seven NBS Exposure Sites with climate classifications

are defined by Trewartha [5] in brackets are:

1. Roosevelt Roads Naval Station, Puerto Rico [Am, Monsoon Rainforest ]

2. Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada [BWh, Subtropical Desert ]

3. NBS, Gaithersburg, Maryland [Caf, Humid Subtropical (Warm Summer)

with No Dry Season ]

4. Fort Holabird, Baltimore, Maryland [Caf (also industrial)]

5. Coast Guard Receiving Center, Cape May, New Jersey [Caf (also sea- coast, receiving salt spray)]

6. Fort Lewis, Washington [Cb, Marine West Coast (Cool Summer) ]

7. Fort Freely, Alaska [Daf, Subarctic - No Dry Season ] Thus, of the six major climate divisions defined by Trewartha [5], the

NBS sites include the TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES, DRY CLIMATES, HUMID MESODERMAL CLIMATES, and HUMID MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES. In addition, NBS has used

exposure sites in Miami, Florida and Pheonix, Arizona. Miami is located in an Aw, Tropical Savanna climate and Pheonix in a BWh, Subtropical Desert

climate.

Although with the exception of the Puerto Rico site, climatological

data are not available for these specific sites, data for nearby cities are available. The data for these cities are included in Appendix tables I, II,

and III. San Juan, P. R. data can be used for the Roosevelt Roads Naval

Station site; Las Vegas, Nevada data for Nellis Air Force Base; Washington,

D. C. data for the Gaithersburg, Md. site; Baltimore, Md. data for the Fort

Holabird site; Atlantic City, N. J. data for the Cape May, N. J. site;

Seattle, Washington data for the Fort Lewis site; and Fairbanks, Alaska data

for the Fort Greely site.

Variations in climate stem from geographic and topographic factors. Some

consideration must, therefore, be given to these factors in estimating possible

errors arising from the use of weather and climatic data collected at stations

near the NBS exposure test sites. For discussions purposes, the distances

between the NBS Exposure Test Sites and the data collection stations are listed

as follows:
NBS Exposure Test Site Nearest NOAA Station' Distance

Roosevelt Roads Naval

Station, Puerto Rico

Nellis Air Force Base,

Nevada

National Bureau of Stds.

(NBS), Gaithersburg, Md.

Fort Holabird, Baltimore,

Maryland

Coast Guard Receiving

Center, Cape May,

New Jersey

Fort Lewis, Washington

Fort Greely, Alaska

Isla Verde International

Airport, San Juan, P.R.

McCarran International

Airport , Las Vegas

,

Nevada

Washington National

Airport , Wash. , D.C.

Friendship International

Airport, Baltimore, Md.

Aviation Facilities

Experimental Center,

Atlantic City, N.J.

Seattle-Tacoma Airport

Washington

Fairbanks International

Airport, Fairbanks,

Alaska

30 miles SSE

12 miles NE

24 miles NW

9 miles NE

40 miles SW

45 miles SSW

75 miles SE

Appendix table I contains weather and climatological data for these stations

'Distance and compass direction for neareat NOAA Station to the NBS Exposure

Test Site.

Comparisons o the data published

agreement. For ex Washington, D. C.

apart, show close

Rico in Appendix t in Climatography o ment in terms of t rainfall, however,

Juan. It is expec

in specifying expo

a particular expos

of these data will

properties in the

f climatological data for the NBS Exposure Test Sites and

for the NOAA stations are likely to show reasonably good

ample, the climatological data in Appendix table I for

and Baltimore, Maryland, which are approximately 40 miles

agreement. Also, climatological data for San Juan, Puerto

able I and data for Roosevelt Roads Naval Station, published

f the United States , No. 60-52, show reasonably close agreeemperature, relative humidity, and wind. The average annual

is about 8.5 inches less at Roosevelt Roads than at San

ted that climatological data, as described above, are useful

sure conditions for accelerated tests designed to simulate

ure test site. It is likely that errors arising from the use not be greater than those arising from the measurement of

evaluative technique.

It is important to rememb

difference between climates in

differences in climate may als

apart. These differences may

lating to the use of the land

For example, the Fort Holabird

area, whereas Friendship Airpo

Washington National Airport in

Test Site is not near a body o extend over a wide area, a gre

latitudes. One example of thi

er that distance is not th

the same general geograph

o occur in places a compar

be due to geographic facto

such as for residential or exposure test site is loc

rt is not. Also, the geog

elude the Potomac River wh

f water. Similar climatic

at distance, and even thro

s is the United States Pac

e only source of

ical area, since marked

atively short distance

rs or to factors re- industrial purposes,

ated in an industrial

raphic factors at ereas the NBS Exposure

conditions may also

ughout widely separated

ific Coast where the
climate along the coast changes slowly with latitude but differs markedly in areas a short distance east due to mountain ranges. Roosevelt Roads Naval

Station, Puerto Rico, is in a fortunate location for an NBS Exposure Site

since it is in the same climatic region as San Juan. Both locations are in

the North Coastal climatic region according to NOAA Climatography of the

United States, Climates of the States, No. 60-52. If the exposure site had

been 30 miles S, SW, or SSW of San Juan, it would have been in the Eastern

or Western Interior region with lower mean temperatures and greater annual

precipitation. If the station had been about 50 miles SW, it would be within

the South Coastal region with considerably lower annual precipitation but

with approximately the same mean annual temperature.

5. Climatological and Weather Data: Their

Relevance to Durability Testing

This chapter will include discussions of the weathering and biological

factors listed in table 1. These are solar radiation, temperature, water,

oxygen and ozone, air contaminants, wind, fungi and bacteria.

5. 1 Solar Radiation

For convenience solar radiation is often divided into several wavelength

ranges. The three ranges of interest in degrading building components and

materials are 1) the ultraviolet (200-380 nanometers), 2) the visible (380-

750 nanometers), and 3) the infrared (750-25000 nanometers).

The energy distribution of the solar spectrum is variable with ^51 of

the total falling in the ultraviolet, ^431 in the visible and -v52l in the

infrared. The quantum energy of radiation decreases as the wavelength increases; for this reason, light in the ultraviolet range is the primary

cause of photochemical degradation. Thus, ultraviolet light is most important

in discussing photodegradation , while the visible and infrared light are most

important in the transfer of heat because of their higher intensity.

Photochemical degradation by high energy solar radiation is an important

degradation mechanism for organic building materials. One of the Photochemical Laws is that "Only the light absorbed by a system can be effective in

promoting a photochemical change" [9] . Polymers and organic coatings are sensitive to specific wavelengths (spectral sensitivity). The wavelengths

most effective in degradation of polymers are usually in the ultraviolet

region but not all energy which is absorbed causes degradation [10] . Just

because a polymer, for example, absorbs energy at a given wavelength does

not mean that this wavelength necessarily causes photodegradation. The

relative extent of degradation caused by different wavelength regions can be

determined by isolating various wavelengths bands and studying their effect

on the material in question [11]. The extent of degradation also depends on

the intensity of the radiation at the particular wavelength.

Although the ultraviolet portion of the solar spectrum is known to be

the primary cause of photochemical action, the quantity of ultraviolet

radiation in the solar spectrum at any given location is not well known

because of the lack of adequate measurement devices. A recent publication

by the National Bureau of Standards stresses the present crisis in the

field of optical radiation measurements [12] and states that meteorology is more limited by the state of the art in radiometry than any other technical

field. Further, it can make proportionally greater progress with better

radiometric measurements.
Mean daily solar radiation is determined by the NOAA National Weather

Service by integration of curves obtained with the Eppley pyrheliometer

Newland and Tamblyn [13] found that integration of sunlight with the Eppley

pyrhliometer , a photoelectric integrator, and two types of actinometers , did

not agree with each other when the results were plotted in terms of relative

values. One difficulty with the pyreheliometer was that it was under glass,

which screened out most of the ultraviolet radiation. Instruments of this

type are now available which measure the entire solar spectrum, including

ultraviolet. Even so, the pyrheliometer integrates the entire solar spectrum,

only a small percentage of which (of the order of 5 percent) is ultraviolet

radiation. For this reason, variations in ultraviolet radiation are not

measured. The photoelectric integrator needs a filter to reduce its sensitivity; it is not affected by temperature. Using the proper filter, the

photoelectric integrator could be used to measure ultraviolet radiation, and

temperature could be measured as a separate factor.

Outisde the earth's atmosphere, about 10 percent of the solar energy

is concentrated in the ultraviolet range [14], But the ultraviolet contribution at the earth's surface is reduced because most of the wavelengths

shorter than 295 nm are absorbed by the atmosphere. The relative amount of

atmosphere through which solar radiation passes is called the "air mass";

its value is 1.0 when the sun is at the zenith and is greater for any other

position of the sun. For places near sea level, Moon [15] suggested using

the value 2.0 for air mass for energy calculations. Moon calculated solar

radiation at sea level and found 2.7 percent ultraviolet radiation for an air mass of 2.0 and wavelengths of 290 to 400 nm. Searle and Hirt [16]

measured the spectral energy distribution of sunlight in Stamford, Connecticut

over a period of several years and found that the fraction of ultraviolet to

total energy varied from 1.0 to 7.0 percent. The percentage of ultraviolet

was a function of time of day and season of the year, generally a maximum

at noon, and was extremely dependent on sky conditions. Coblentz [17] found

that the shortest wavelengths in sunlight increase from January to a maximum

in August and September, then decrease.

The amount of total solar radiation varies with latitude and time of

day, or with the solar altitude (90° - zenith angle of the sun). Variation

of irradiance with time of day is illustrated in table 5. The data, expressed

in Btuh/sq. ft. in table 5, were taken from the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals [18] and the values converted to Watts/meter 2 by a conversion factor.

The irradiance values vary from 358 W/m 2 at 6 AM to 882 W/m 2 at 12 AM. In

high latitudes, twilight conditions, or low solar altitude prevails during

30 to 40 percent of the annual cycle as compared to 10 to 15 percent in the

tropics [19]

Kimuar and Stephenson [20] suggested estimating solar intensity using

the "cloud cover factor", estimated visually in somewhat the same manner as Mean Sky Cover, reported by NOAA National Weather Service in Appendix table I. An exhaustive discussion of spectral distribution, total solar radiation,

and instrumentation was presented by Robinson [21].

Although problems exist in measuring solar radiation and determining the

quantity of ultraviolet radiation, solar radiation data are available. Solar

radiation data are presented in Appendix table II for the 18 sites listed in

table 4. These data reflect total solar intensities, not just ultraviolet

intensities. Some questions have been raised by NOAA National Weather Service

as to the accuracy of its solar radiation data. These questions are reflected

by a footnote "a" in Appendix table II. On the basis of conversations with

the staff of the National Weather Service Radiation Program at NOAA, the primary concern is that the values of mean daily solar radiation probably have an uncertainty on the order of 10 to 20 percent. Such an uncertainty may not be

prohibitive in applying the available data to durability testing.

10
The xenon arc light source closely approximates solar radiation in the

ultraviolet portion of the spectrum and, for this reason, it is considered

to be the most suitable source for accelerating photochemical degradation.

However, the spectral energy distribution is not exactly the same as that of

sunlight, so that it is not surprising that correlation between outdoor

exposure and accelerated aging is not the same for all polymers [22].

It is advantageous, in establishing approximate exposure times in

accelerated tests, to estimate the time required to simulate the natural

annual solar radiation by accelerated devices, such as the xenon arc. A

means of calculating this time is illustrated in table 6 using the sites

for which solar radiation data are available in Appendix table II. The first

column of table 6 lists the mean daily solar radiation in langleys at each

site. Based upon a xenon arc radiance of 910 W/m 2 [23] at the drum of a light exposure apparatus, it can be shown that 1.277 x 10" 2 hours of xenon

arc radiation is equivalent to 1 langley. Using this factor, the number of

hours of xenon arc exposure required to equal the annual solar radiation can

be calculated and these values are presented in the second column of table

6. For example, the total annual solar energy as obtained from climatological

data, for Fairbanks, Alaska can be approximated by 1063 hours of xenon arc exposure. However, values in table 6 are only a guideline for establishing

initial exposure times. It is not to be expected that the xenon arc exposure

times in table 6 will produce the same property changes observed in one year

of natural exposure. It must be remembered that other factors in addition

to solar radiation contribute to changes observed in materials. These factors

will be discussed in subsequent sections of this paper. An example is the

combined effect of temperature and humidity. Also, the spectral distribution

of the xenon arc does not approximate solar radiation at higher wavelengths.

Table 7 lists the latitude, altitude, and average solar radiance in

Watts/m 2 for each site listed in table 6. The latitude and elevation for

each site were obtained from Appendix table I and the annual hours of sunshine

from Appendix table II. The Annual Solar Radiation in watt/hrs/m 2 was calculated from the first column of table 6 by converting the data to an annual

basis and changing the units.

The Average Solar Radiance column was then obtained by dividing the

Annual Solar Radiance in watt-hrs/m2 by the annual total hours of sunshine

for each site. As can be seen in table 7, these stations vary considerably

in latitude and also in altitude, although none are high enough to be classified as "highland" types. The values in table 7 for Solar Radiance in W/m2 are all well below the radiance of the xenon arc lamp at the drum of the

light exposure apparatus of 910 W/m2

.

In addition to photodegradation of polymers, solar radiation can cause thermal degradation. The sun is the source of most of the heat experienced

by extorior building materials. Visible and infrared radiation causes in- creases in temperature, which may cause thermal degradation or secondary

degradation following photochemical attack. Thermal and secondary degradation

will be considered in the following discussion under Temperature .

5.2 Temperature

This discussion is concerned with the relation between observed atmospheric temperatures and the properties of building components and materials

which serve as indicators of deterioration.

Air temperature data for the sites listed in table 4 are contained in

Appendix table I. The temperature values in this table represent daily

temperature expressed as 1) the record highest and lowest ever recorded in

11
each month of the year, 2) the normal daily maximum and minimum for each

month and the annual average of these values and, 3) the average monthly

for each month and the annual average of these values. Appendix table III

contains a summary of the freeze-thaw temperature data for each site listed

in table 4.

The effect of temperature on building components and materials may

depend on the high and low temperatures, the times in which they are sustained

and the rate of cycling. In any particular location, temperature variations

show a pattern of daily and yearly cycles with superimposed short-term and

long-term fluctuations as illustrated in figure 2 by Stringer [24]. Figure 3

contains a plot of temperature data extracted from Appendix table I for

Washington, D. C. The record highest daily temperatures for each month are plotted and connected by a line to form "curve" D-D and the record lowest

daily temperatures are plotted and connected to form "curve" E-E. (Actually,

the record daily extreme values are single points recorded sometime during

each month during the total time of the data collection at Washington National

Airport. The points are connected to add clarity to the figure.) The record

highest temperature recorded at Washington National Airport was 101°F and was recorded in July 1966 while the record lowest temperature was 3°F recorded in

the month of January 1972. Thus the differences between the record highest

and lowest temperatures is 98°F. These record highest and lowest values,

which represent the extremes which might occur on unusually hot or cold days, are useful in identifying extreme temperature limits for simulated tests.

The average temperature data, Curve A-A, present a more reasonable estimate

of the expected daily temperatures for each month. The daily maximum temperature curve, denoted as B-B, represents the long-term average of daily

maximum temperatures for each month, while curve C-C represents the long-term

average of daily minimums . The difference between the maximum of the B-B

curve, 87°F, and the minimum of the C-C curve, 29°F, is 58°F and represents

the difference between the maximum average maximum and the minimum average

minimum. This difference is, of course, much less than the extreme variation

of 98°F mentioned earlier. Curve A-A is the monthly mean temperature, calculated using the average daily maximum and minimum values. The average daily

maximum and minimum temperatures are frequently exceeded. For example, in

Washington, D. C. , the daily maximum temperature in July is often above the

normal maximum of 87°F. The average temperatures, though, are very useful in

identifying climatological divisions based on temperature. Table 8 represents

the ranges in temperature for each site listed in table 4. The greatest

extreme temperature range occurred in Havre, Montana, with a record high of

111°F and a record low of -52°F -- a difference of 163°F. The greatest normal

annual range is expected in Fairbanks, Alaska with a difference of 93°F.

Table 8 also contains the normal maximum and minimum daily temperatures ex- pressed as annual averages. This column provides an indication of the temperature range expected each day. For example, the average daily temperature

range, throughout the year, for Pheonix Arixona, varies from a maximum of

85°F to a minimum of S3°F -- a difference of 32*F.

H. D. Parry [25] discussed the state of the art of atmospheric temperature measurements by the Weather Bureau (now NOAA National Weather Service)

in 1962. At that time, the usual mercury-in-glass thermometer was used in

a ventilated standard shelter so that the thermometer was not exposed to the

sun. Parry stated that the error or uncertainty of measurement of atmospheric

temperature was 3°F or more. Consideration of the effect of temperature on building components and

materials is subdivided, in this discussion, into Extremes and Cycling.

5.2.1 Temperature Extremes

Temperature extremes define the limits of temperature to which building

components and materials are exposed in-service. The values can be used in

specifying the temperatures used in tests.

12
Studies have been conducted to measure the surface temperature of various

building materials. For example, Stephenson [26] found that dark roof surfaces

in Canada may reach temperatures as high as 230°F in summer and wall surfaces

as high as 190°F. Cullen [27] reported a maximum temperature of 166°F on a black asphalt built-up roof in Washington, D. C. in August 1962. This measured

surface temperature was 81°F above the air temperature of 85°F. Thus, surface

temperatures may differ greatly from the ambient air temperature. Since air

temperature data is readily available, it is advantageous to relate measured

air temperature to the surface temperature of building materials; however,

these relationships are often difficult to quantify.

Surface temperatures of materials can be estimated by means of equations

for the heat balance at a surface exposed to sunlight. Equations for heat

balance at the surface generally make use of the "sol -air" temperature concept

[18], [26]. The definition of the "sol-air" temperature is "the fictitious

temperature of the outside air that would produce by convection alone the same

rate of heat exchange at the surface as actually occurs by convection and

long- and short-wave radiation combined" [18]. Wengert [28], in his equation

for heat balance, used an estimated value of air temperature near the surface.

Air temperature values from NOAA data at the nearest weather station were considered by Wengert to be satisfactory for small surfaces but for large

surfaces, such as roofs, the actual temperature near the surface is probably

several degrees higher than the air temperature reported at the NOAA weather

station and an actual measurement may be necessary.

Wengert' s equation is between energy gains and energy losses at the

surface of the material. Experimental values used to estimate energy gains

in the equation included the albedo of the surface and the incident solar

radiation. The emissivity of the surface enters into both sides of the

equation. Air temperature, surface temperature, and convection coefficeint

were used to estimate energy losses. The convection coefficient was previously determined by Wengert to be 0.2 langley/min/deg. K [29]. The values

of emissivity were used by Wengert [28] were 0.95 for painted surfaces and

0.85 for natural wood surfaces.

In equations using the "sol-air" temperature [18], [26], the absorptivity or absorbance of the surface was used instead of the emissivity. Wengert 's calculations involved estimates of the amounts of short-wave (275-4000 nm)

and long-wave (4000-25000 nm) [29] radiation. He also assumed that the

temperature of emitting objects is the same as the air temperature and that

their emissivity, e, is about 1.00. These estimates and assumptions should

be investigated before relying on Wengert 's calculations for surface temperature of materials exposed to sunlight. While no values for surface

temperature were given directly, diagrams were included in Wengert' s paper

[28] to estimate surface temperatures from solar radiation and albedo in

percent.

From various sources, the albedo of various surfaces on the earth varies

from 3 to 90 percent [28], [30], [31], [32]. Some of these values are given

in table 9, which also includes extreme values for the albedos of painted

surfaces. In table 9, both percent albedo and percent absorption are given.

For opaque surfaces, Percent Absorption = 100 - (Percent Albedo). Sometimes

absorption, absorptivity, or absorption factor is given as a decimal fraction,

sometimes as a percentage. Absorptivity is the ratio of radiant energy absorbed to total incident energy [30], [32].

In addition to surface temperatures, the temperatures within the exterior

envelope of the system are often of interest in evaluating materials. Otto

Heyer [33] reported a study of measurements of temperatures in walls and

roofs, in which thermocouples were placed in various positions in wood parts

and inside the insulation. Locations chosen were Tucson, Arizona (house);

Athens, Georgia (house); Portland, Oregon (2 houses); Diboll, Texas (house);

and Madison, Wisconsin (house and office building). The buildings were of

13
various constructions. Heyer found that the maximum temperature in walls

reached 130°F, but did not exceed 120°F for more than 32 hours in any one

year. Roofs reached a maximum temperature of 170°F but temperatures of

160 C F or more were not obtained for more than 21 hours in any one year.

The effect of low temperatures on building materials and components

must be considered apart from cycling between high and low temperatures. In

a study published in 1950, Roberts [34] reported that the chief problem

with concrete was freezing and thawing while wet. Plastics vary in their

reaction to extreme cold and care must be taken in selection of these materials for housing applications. Properties of plastics at low temperatures

are discussed by Lever and Rhys [35], including brittleness , flexibility,

stress decay, and low temperature shock resistance. Plastics may crack when

subjected suddenly to low temperature.

To predict durability of materials exposed to extreme temperatures and

to design tests for this prupose, knowledge of the thermal behavior of

materials must be combined with climatological and weather data, such as that summarized in table 8.

5.2.2 Temperature Cycling

The chief effect of temperature cycling, other than freeze-thaw cycling,

is thermal expansion and contraction. Temperature cycling may also cause changes in such properties as viscosity. Viscosity changes may adversely

affect asphalt or coal tar based products, such as bituminous roofing mem- banes [36] . Temperature cycling may result in failures from thermal shock

[36] . Building components must be designated to withstand movement due to the

expansion and contraction of materials of which they are composed. This is

particularly true of plastic exterior cladding or sandwich panels with plastic

skins. According to Everard [37], assuming an extreme seasonal range of

160°F, "the change of length of plastic materials over a 10-ft. length will

be approximately 1 in. as compared to below 0.2 in. for established materials". Sealants and the structures in which they are installed must be designed to function over a specified range of temperatures, to insure that

thermal movements are not so great as to cause failure of the bond to the

joint surfaces [38] or failure of the component by buckling.

Temperature cycling and temperature differentials between the interior

and exterior of buildings can be instrumental in the formation of dew. Dew

results from the condensation of moisture on a cool surface. Dew is frequently observed in the interior walls of basements or other masonry structures

during the day. Dew formation will be discussed further in section 5.3.1.

Thus, in designing and conducting durability tests, temperature cycles

must be considered. Data, such as that in Appendix table I are useful in

deciding on the temperature limits.

5.2.3 Freeze-Thaw Cycling

Freeze-thaw cycling is a special case of temperature cycling in which

the temperature cycles above and below the freezing point of water. This is

important in the deterioration of porous materials which are sufficiently

close to water saturation at the time the freezing occurs. Water-filled

pores and freezing cycles must both be present to obtain this specific type

of aging or weathering. The deterioration is due to the expansion of the

water when it solidifies. Repeated freezing and thawing cycles increase the

damage and result in disintegration of the material.

14
Building stone [39] , [40] , often has pores and cleavage cracks that can

be penetrated by water which can subsequently freeze and thaw. This is a major cause of the weathering and disintegration of stone. Damage of watersaturated concrete from freezing and thawing is well known and has been

studied extensively [41].

It has also been known for a long time that freezing and thawing causes deterioration of brick, otherwise durable to weathering, and that this is

related to the porosity and water absorption of the brick [42].

In ASTM C 62 [8] , three grades of brick are defined by physical requirements. Two grades are specified for exposure to weather, while one grade is

not to be used for outdoor exposure. Grade requirements for the exterior

brick depend on the type of exposure in the building (whether or not vertical

or in contact with the earth) and on a Weathering Index.

Figure 4 is a copy of the map, which appears as figure 1 in ASTM C 62

[8], reproduced by permission of the American Society for Testing and Materials. The numbers on the map refer to the Weathering Index, the product of

the average annual number of freezing cycle days and the average winter

rainfall in inches. The average number of freezing cycle days may be calculated from data in NOAA Local Climatological Data Annual Summaries, using

the figures under MEAN NUMBER OF DAYS, Temperature (a) Max. 32°F and (b) Min.

32°F. The parehtheses (a) and (b) were added by the authors for convenience.

The difference (b) - (a) is "the average number of freezing cycle days".

Table 10 presents results of calculations for those sites listed in Appendix

table I which experience freezing and thawing cycles. Data for calculation

of Winter Rainfall is also taken from the Appendix table I using figures for

total precipitation and for "Snow, Ice pellets".

The calculation of winter rainfall is not as simple as that for "average

number of freezing cycle days". Killing frost [43] dates are not always

given in NOAA publications but complete data is given for freeze-free periods

at "freeze threshold" temperatures of 32, 28, 24, 20, and 16°F. The freeze

cycle period can be taken at 365 minus (the freeze-free period in days).

The authors calculated winter rainfall and Weathering Index for all these

temperatures but negative values were obtained for several stations at threshold temperatures of 24°F and below. Table 11 presents the results of calculations of winter rainfall from NOAA data [44] and of Weathering Index from

data in table 10. When the locations in table 11 are compared with the map,

figure 4, values of the Weathering Index for Atlantic City, Baltimore, Bismark, Great Falls, Havre, and Washington agree with the map at a threshold

temperature of 32°F. Only Atlantic City's, Baltimore's, Bismarck's and

Washington's Weathering Index agree with the map at a threshold temperature

of 28°F. Las Vegas and Minneapolis Weathering Index figures do not agree

with the map at either threshold temperature. Las Vegas should belong in

the "negligible" weathering region with an Index under 100 and Minneapolis

should be in the "moderate" region, with an Index 100-500. Fairbanks is

outside the map so this location can be disregarded.

One possible reason for discrepancies between the calculated figures

in table 11 and the map, figure 4, is the assumption that the "winter rainfall" equals "total winter precipitation" minus 1/10 of the solid precipitation as snow, sleet, and hail. According to Peter and Schriever [45], the

specific gravity of snow varies from about 0.05 to 0.1 (1/20 to 1/10 that of

water) . Procedures are available to determine the water equivalent of

solid preciptiation [43]

Freezing and thawing is also probably a factor in the degradation of

composite plastics exposed outdoors. Blaga [46] found evidence that surface

spalling of glass fiber reinforced polyester is followed by water penetration

into the voids or cavaties resulting from the incipient degradation; further

damage is then caused by freezing and thawing. Table 12 lists the number

15
of months classified as freezing, freezing and thawing, or above freezing

for each site listed in table 4. The months in each category are also

listed; the data were extracted from Appendix table I. A "freezing" month

is defined as one in which the daily maximum temperature in Appendix table I is 32°F or below. A "freezing and thawing" month is one in which the daily

maximum temperature is above freezing (32 F) and the daily minimum temperature is 32°F or below. "Above freezing" months are those in which the daily

maximum temperature is greater than 32°F. The sum of the "freezing" and

"above freezing" months must equal 12.

Since the presence of moisture is important in freeze-thaw cycles for

many materials, it is advantageous to determine the extent of wetness during

periods of freezing and thawing. Table 13 presents data to show the extent

of precipitation during freeze-thaw months listed in table 12 for the various

sites. The precipitation measure is the number of days in which 0.01 inch

or more of precipitation fell during the total period of freeze-thawing

This data was extracted from Appendix table I. Wetness can occur by means other than the precipitation included in table 13. A more complete discussion of wetness is included in section 5.3.

5.3 Water

Water can be a substantial factor in degrading products used in the

exteriors of buildings. It can hydrolyze groups such as esters, amides,

nitriles, and acetals , which are present in many plastic or other polymerbased building materials. Rain can also physically erode materials and

solid precipitation, such as snow, sleet, and hail, can damage materials

by erosion and impact. Further mechanisms for water attack are provided by

combinations of water with other weathering factors , such as soluble air

contaminants (sections 5.5.2, 5.5.3) and freeze-thaw cycling (5.2.3).

The discussion of water as a weathering factor will be divided into

1) Vapor, 2) Liquid Water, and 3) Frozen Water.

5.3.1 Vapor

The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere is expressed by several

different terms [30], [31], [32]. These terms are defined in the Glossary

and are as follows:

Absolute humidity

Specific humidity

Mixing ratio

Relative humidity

Dew point

Relative humidity is what is commonly referred to as "humidity" in

meteorological and climatological reports and summaries. Relative humidity

may be computed from wet and dry bulb temperatures and other psychrometric

data. Charts are available of relative humidity versus wet and dry bulb

temperatures or dew point depression [47]. Although there is some difference

of opinion about the definition of relative humidity it is used by meteorologists and climatologists because it is a conservative property, while absolute humidity is not. That is, the measurement of relative humidity is not

dependent of adiabatic compression or expansion [32], [48]. The wet and

dry-bulb psychrometer is customarily used by the NOAA National Weather Service

16
to obtain temperature measurements which are used to calculate various

indices of humiditv, although work is being done to improve the instrumentation [43] , [48]

High humidity and ranges in relative humidity are likely to have a deleterious effect on building materials as can be seen from the following

examples

According to Hall [49], who included a bibliography on the subject,

wood and wood products are adversely affected by fluctuations in moisture

content. Water absorption causes swelling which stresses the surface layers,

and eventually results in splitting and checking. Changes in the moisture

content of coatings, together with photochemical degradation, cause stresses

which result in checking and cracking. Experiments by Dantuma [50] showed

that about 4 to 15 percent increase in moisture content of painted wood panels

resulted from exposure to 18 to 20°C to an atmosphere of 94 to 98 percent

relative humidity over a period of 16 days. The increase in moisture content

of panels depended on the number of coats of paint. The moisture content

decreased from 1 to 5 percent on exposure of the panels to conditions of

18 to 20°C and 55 to 70 percent relative humidity.

According to Sereda [51] , the presence of water is necessary for the

corrosion of steel. This can be in the form of liquid water as in rain or

as high humidity.

The effect of moisture on porous materials is reviewed by Sereda and

Feldman [52], who present sorption isotherms for wood, concrete, and brick

as curves of moisture content versus relative humidity.

As mentioned in section 5.2.2, temperature cycling and temperature

differentials between the outside and inside of buildings can cause condensation of moisture inside the walls. This is sometimes referred to as dew

formation. Formation of dew is a function of temperature and humidity. For

example, differences in temperature and humidity between the outside and

inside of a building can result in condensation of moisture on any surface

that falls below the dew point. In building interiors which are heated and

humidified in winter, moisture migrates through the porous wall to the colder

exterior portions and dew formation results in the accumulation of liquid

water in the components of the system.

Average relative humidity data based on long term measured values for

various times of the day and for each month of the year are included in

Appendix table I for the sites listed in table 4. The time of day in these

tables is expressed as Local Standard Time (LST) . Also included in the tables

is the annual average relative humidity for each time of the day at each site.

Humidity data are usually reported four times daily, but sometimes only twice

daily, so that the values in the tables may be far from the extremes.

Published data do not include a separate listing of extreme high and

low humidities but the measured extremes can be extracted from the data

in Appendix table 1. Table 14, for example, lists relative humidity data

for each site to show the normal expected ranges. The columns of Highest

and Lowest Annual Mean R.H. were extracted from the average annual values

in Appendix table 1. The difference between these two values represents

the average daily ranges. The difference between the Highest Monthly Average

and the Lowest Monthly Average relative humidity represents the expected

ranges on an annual basis.

The Highest Monthly Average relative humidity in table 14 is found in

Eureka, California at 94 percent. The lowest is for Las Vegas at 12 percent,

with Phoenix at 13 and Yuma at 15 percent. But since the humidity measurements

are not made continuously during the day, more extreme values undoubtedly

occur. For example, the atmosphere is sometimes saturated, as in a heavy

17
mist, and it is likely that relative humidities in the desert dron to below

10 percent.

Two of the desert sites, Phoenix and Yuma, show apparent daily humidity

cycling of over 30 percent, with values ranging from over 50 percent to

about 20 percent. These two sites also have a higher expected daily maximum

relative humidity than Las Vegas. In addition, Phoenix and Yuma show greater

seasonal variation in relative humidity than Las Vegas. Of course, daily

ranges are not likely to approach the seasonal ranges because the seasonal

ranges represent the difference between the highest average monthly value in

the wettest season and the lowest average monthly value in the driest season. External relative humidity changes with air temperature and we can norm- ally expect it to be lower in the hottest part of the day and higher at night

and early morning.

5.3.2 Liquid Water

Water can degrade building materials in several ways. It can chemically

decompose compounds comprising building materials by hydrolysis. It may be

essential for corrosion, as with some metals. It can, in combination with

other factors, physically alter or dimensionally change materials so that

they either fail to perform their functions or are susceptible to further

degradation by other factors. For example, swelling induced by the absorption of moisture plays a major role in warping materials which often makes them

unusable. Moisture causes the blistering of coatings through the hydrostatic

pressure of the liquid under the films which causes them to lift. Moisture

also provides a medium by which soluble salts in materials can migrate and

recrystallize at other locations.

Wetness refers to the presence of liquid water on the surface of materials. This may be a surface film or water may be absorbed by the material.

Deposition of water or wetness can occur by the condenstation of moisture

from the air, (dew), by precipitation (rain, mist, and fog), or from ground

moisture. Building components on or below grade may become wet from ground

moisture, and moisture from the ground may migrate upward by capillary action.

Ground moisture may result from standing water or from wet soil.

To evaluate the effect of wetness it is advantageous to estimate the

length of time during the exposure or in-service application in which the

material is wet. The time of wetness can be measured using commercially

available instrumentation but it is not possible to obtain accurate time of

wetness data from available climatological or weather data. Climatological

and weather data does, however, permit relative wetness comparisons between

various sites. Included in Appendix table I are data for mean precipitation

per month and per year; maximum and minimum monthly precipitation, representing extreme values; and mean number of days per month and year with precipitation greater than 0.01 inch. Appendix table I also included data for snow

and ice pelets, thunderstorms, and fog. The data discussed in section 5.3.1

on Vapor is also relevant in comparing the relative wetness of various sites.

Table 15 provides, in the first column, a tabulation of the mean number of

days having a maximum temperature above 32°F and a total precipitation of

0.01 inch or more for the 18 sites discussed in this report. Only the number

of days with temperatures above 32°F were tabulated so that the values would

reflect the liquid precipitation. The annual number of days in the first

column of table 15, then, provides a measure of the relative wetness of the

particular location.

Three sites in table 15 have more than 150 days of precipitation per

year under the criteria used; these are San Juan, Puerto Rico with 202,

Seattle with 162, and Astoria with 200. Sites with more than 100 but less

than 150 days are, Miami, 126; Washington, D. C, 111, Baltimore, 112;

18
Atlantic City, 112; and Eureka, 117. Sites with more than 50 but less than

100 days are: Great Falls, 90; Havre, 61; Fort Worth, 78; Minneapolis-St.

Paul, 88; Bismarck, 74; Fairbanks, 65; and Flagstaff, 74. The three desert

sites have less than 50 days precipitation with Las Vegas having 24, Phoenix

34, and Yuma 15.

In their discussion of wetting and drying of porous materials, Sereda

and Feldman [52] presented sorption isotherms showing the relationship between

moisture content and relative humidities at various temperatures. While the

rate of change of moisture content with relative humidity and temperature

depends on several other factors, such as wind velocity, it is reasonable to

expect more rapid drying at lower relative humidities. In table 15, columns

are listed to show the number of days in which liquid precipitation is 0.01

inch or more for various ranges of lowest monthly average relative humidity.

The number of days with precipitation of 0.01 inch or more is a measure of

days of wetness and number of periods of wetness. If materials exposed

outdoors have an opportunity to dry before the next period of wetness, days

of wetness can be equated to wetting and drying cycles. Hence, it can be

postulated that the relative number of days of precipitation in table 5 under

columns of low relative humidity (49 percent and below) provide a rough measure of the number of wetting and drying cycles. A more precise measure

would require:

(1) data on intervals between days of wetness and temperatures on days of wetness

(2) data on rates of drying of various building materials likely to

be exposed outdoors under various conditions of temperature and

relative humidity.

Like other applications of climatological data this would be complex

but might be possible through the use of computers.

In table 15, the relative humidity columns are divided into 1) over 70

percent, 2) 50 to 69 percent, 3) 20 to 49 percent, and 4) lower than 20

percent. San Juan, Miami, Atlantic City, Astoria, Eureka, and MinneapolisSt. Paul have no days of precipitation in low humidity columns. At the other

extreme are the desert sites which have all the precipitation days in the

low humidity columns.

The authors have been informed by NOAA National Climatic Center at

Asheville, North Carolina, that the values for days of precipitation 0.01

inch or more include rain, fog, and dew. If data for precipitation are based

only on total rainfall, it is important to distinguish between rain, fog,

and dew [53]. Thornthwaite 's "precipitation effectiveness" is a measure of

wetness and wetting and drying, based on precipitation and temperature, the

precipitation data being based only on rainfall [55]. Surface moisture and

time of wetness may be measured directly at exposure sites and in laboratory

accelerated aging devices [56].

5.3.3 Frozen Water

Erosion of materials exposed outdoors is due to a combination of factors

including -weather elements such as rain, sleet, snow, hail, wind, sand and

dust. The rate of erosion depends on the weather element impinging on the

material, the position of the material, and other factors to be discussed

later. The position of the building material varies according to whether

it is the outer part of a flat roof, a sloping roof, a horizontal flat wall,

or a piece of cladding at an angle to the wall. The position of the building

material is important since one factor in erosion is the angle of impingement.

Figure 5 shows the locations of hail storms in the continental United States

19
between 1960 and 1969, caused more than $5,000 in damage during the storm.

This map is useful in defining geographical areas in which hail damage to

building materials might be expected to occur. Studies in the period around

1950 [39] indicated that rain and sleet have a serious erosive effect on plastics and organic coatings on high speed airplanes. Also, intense sleet

storms were found to damage both moving and stationary objects. More recently,

studies have been reported [57] , [58] of the effects of various factors on rain erosion from the standpoint of aerospace engineering. The rate of ero- sion for plastics was found to depend on the velocity of the vehicle, air

pressure, temperature, relative humidity, the angle of incidence of the rain,

and drop size. Various mechanical properties were used as evaluative techniques, such as notch-impact strength and hardness. Brittle plastics were found

to be less resistant to rain erosion than tough plastics. Further studies

of this type are needed from the standpoint of building materials, the

difference being in the nature of the materials and the fact that the buildings are stationary.

5.4 Normal Air Constituents

The following is a table of estimated concentrations of gases in normal

dry air, compiled from various sources [59]:

Nitrogen 780,900 ppm (78.09% by volume)

Oxygen 209,400 ppm (20.94% by volume)

Nitrogen and oxygen 990,300 ppm (99.03%)

Argon 9,300 ppm (0.93%)

Carbon dioxide 315 ppm (0.03%)

Nitrogen, oxygen, argon and

carbon dioxide 999,915 ppm (99.99%)

Other constituents 85 ppm (0.085%)

Neon 18 ppm

Helium 5.2 ppm

Methane 1.0-1.2 ppm

Krypton 1 ppm

Nitrous oxide 0.5 ppm

Hydrogen 0.5 ppm

Xenon 0.08 ppm

Nitrogen dioxide 0.02 ppm

Ozone 0.01-0.04 ppm

5.4.1 Natural Sources of Air Contaminants

There have been a number of definitions of air pollutants or contaminants

implying that these are harmful constituents not present in normal air or atmosphere. Normal constituents of the atmosphere may be defined as those

arising from "natural" processes or processes other than from man's activities.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide are normal constituents of the atmosphere which are essential to life but these gases have a deleterious effect on some materials.

The extent to which these gases are harmful depends largely on their concen- trations which are increased in some areas by man's activities. About 85

percent of hydrocarbon emission is from natural sources [60], primarily agterepenes from forests and other vegetation and methane from the bacterial

decomposition of organic matter. Methane is a normal constituent of the

atmosphere and is part of the carbon cycle of the biosphere [59] . Sources of

air contamination from man's activities will be discussed in section 5.5.

Discussion of air constituents in section 5.4 is confined to oxygen, ozone,

and carbon dioxide. These gases are the only atmospheric constituents present in sufficient quantities in normal dry air to have an appreciable effect

on materials.

20
5.4.2 Oxygen and Ozone

Oxygen constitutes about 21 percent of the atmosphere and the proportion

does not vary so that it is a constant factor in all geographic areas. Ozone

is formed naturally outside the earth's atmosphere by the irradiation of

oxygen with ultraviolet radiation less than 220 nm in wavelength. Various

natural and man-made processes also contribute to the ozone concentration.

Ozone normally constitutes only 0.01 to 0.04 ppm of "normal dry air" [59]

but was reported to be about 1 ppm in Los Angeles during a severe smog.

Ozone is being monitored on a regular basis by NOAA Air Resources Laboratory

in cooperation with several universities at ten stations throughout the

United States, including Alaska and Hawaii.

As has been discussed in review articles [39] , [61] , oxygen and ozone

may have deleterious effects on organic materials including rubber, organic

coatings, and cellulosic materials; and they may contribute to the corrosion

of metals. Solar radiation and high temperatures are contributing factors

in the oxidation of organic materials, fioisture together with oxygen and

acid gases in the atmosphere is the chief contributing factor in the corrosion of metals. This is discussed in section 5.5.2.

5.4.3 Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide comprises about 0.03 percent of normal dry air and, like

oxygen, does not vary in proportion with geographic area. Hamada [62] and others have shown carbon dioxide to exhibit a slow

neutralizing action on the alkali (calcium hydroxide) in concrete. Neutralization of the concrete may be detrimental because reinforcing steel has been

found to rust when the depth of neutralization reaches the steel. The

corrosion of the steel is dependent upon the pH of the concrete aggregate

with rusting occurring at a pH of less than about 9.

5. 5 Air Contaminants

Air contaminants not only include gaseous pollutants but also mists and

particulates. The term "mist" is used in section 5.5.2 to denote suspended

water droplets in the form of fog, mist, or spray, in which air contaminants

are dissolved or suspended. These contaminants are mostly from man's activities but salt spray is a special case of a natural air contaminant confined

to the seashore. The phenomenon of "smog" is a special case of a mist which

results from photochemical oxidation of a mixture of reative hydrocarbons

such as olefins and nitrogen dioxide [59]. The term "particulate" in section

5.5.3 refers to solid suspensions or aerosols. The suspended solids may be

harmful or may absorb, adsorb, or occlude air contaminants most likely dissolved in water. Particulates may consist of "natural" materials such as sand or dirt from soil or may result from manufacturing other human activities. The deleterious action of particulates on materials may be chemical

or physical. The main physical effect is erosion resulting from the combined

action of particulates and wind, as discussed in section 5.6.

Data on concentrations of pollutants in various geographic areas have

not been accumulated for as many years as other weather and climatological

data. Data that are available will be discussed in sections 5.5.1, 5.5.2,

5.5.3, and 6.2. The lack of data and the uncertainty of the interactions

between pollutants and materials are reasons for the lack of understanding

of the effects of pollutants on building materials.

21
5.5.1 Gases

The major gaseous pollutants or air contaminants include sulfur compounds

oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. These pollutants are concentrated largely in industrial and urban areas and can be extremely damaging to building materials. Mixing of these pollutants with the atmosphere

due to circulation of air distributes these pollutants to rural areas. The

major sources of these pollutants in industrial areas are motor vehicles,

manufacturing, electrical power plants, space heating, and refuse disposal

[60].

Gaseous sulfur pollutants in the air include sulfur dioxide, sulfur

trioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Sulfur oxides and nitrogen dioxide form acid

mists, as discussed in section 5.5.2. Natural occurrence of sulfur oxides

does not occur to any measurable extent. The principal source of sulfur

oxides in the combustion of coal and the quantity of their emission is directly proportional to the quantity and sulfur content of the coal used. In

industrial areas, the concentration of sulful dioxide may be as high as 3.2

ppm [59] although the average maximum concentration in United States cities

in about 0.42 ppm. About 20 percent of the sulfur dioxide in the air results

directly from emissions with the remaining portion arising from oxidized

hydrogen sulfide. Sulfur dioxide measurement is usually used as an indicator

of the concentration of sulfur pollutants. Hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) is produced

largely by decaying organic matter and by volcanoes. It is also emitted by some industrial operations. Data on H 2 S concentrations in the atmosphere are incomplete but available information indicates that it is not significant on

a global basis [60]. However, in urban areas, hydrogen sulfide may be a pollutant problem as for example, in causing the darkening of lead based

paints [63], It also causes the tarnishing of copper and silver. Hydrogen

sulfide is oxidized in the air to form sulfur and sulfur dioxide.

One reaction of sulfur dioxide which can be particularly damaging to

building materials is its oxidation to form sulfuric acid. This is discussed

further in section 5.5.2.

As already mentioned, man-made processes yield only about 15% of the tota

global hydrocarbon emissions, the remainder being emitted mainly from "natural

processes. Much of the man-made hydrocarbon emissions are concentrated in

urban areas. The primary man-made sources of hydrocarbon emissions are in the

manufacture and use of petroleum, including exhaust from motor vehicles. In

this processing-use chain, gasoline is the major source of hydrocarbon emissions. Hydrocarbons are regarded as air pollutants chiefly because of the

phenomenon of "smog". Olefins and other reactive hydrocarbons, mixed with

nitrogen dioxide, undergo photochemical reaction in the presence of sunlight,

resulting in "smog".

Carbon monoxide is the product of incomplete oxidation of organic

compounds during combustion and this pollutant appears to be almost exclusive

ly man-made. Motor vehicles are estimated to contribute more than 80% of the

global carbon monoxide emission. Smaller amounts result from other combustion processes and from plant and animal sources. Although the maximum global

concentration of carbon monoxide is about 0.1 ppm, the level for off street

sites in five major United States cities have been measured at about 7 ppm

[60].

Carbon monoxide can be a health hazard but there seems to be no direct

evidence that it is a factor in the deterioration of presently used building

materials

5.5.2 Mists

Soluble gaseous pollutants and salts formed from pollutants, such as

22
ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate, dissolve in water to form mists which

can degrade building materials. Acid mists result from oxides of sulfur and

nitrogen as in the following discussion. Also discussed is salt spray from

sea water which can be considered as an air contaminant.

Sulfur pollutants, in addition to the oxides and hydrogen sulfide mentioned previously, include sulfuric acid and sulfate salts. Sulfur dioxide

can be oxidized to sulfur trioxide which dissolves in water to form sulfuric

acid. The acid may then further react to form salts such as ammonium sulfate.

Sulfur dioxide is oxidized photochemically in the presence of nitrogen dioxide

and certain hydrocarbons to produce aerosols containing sulfuric acid. It can

also be oxidized in water containing ammonia to form ammonium sulfate aerosol.

These aeorsols are removed from the air primarily by precipitation but also

by gravitational settling. The presence of sulfuric acid and sulfates in

the precipitated or deposited aerosol results in a more acidic solution, the

effect being reflected by a lower pH.

Acid mists of this type may cause serious deterioration of a variety of

building materials, including metals, organic coatings, and stone [63],

Nylon is a well know example of a polymer which is attacked by sulfur dioxide

and sulfur trioxide dissolved in water in the form of a mist.

Nitrogen dioxide gas can also combine with water vapor to form nitric

acid. This results in another type of acid mist. The acid may then further

react with ammonia to form ammonium nitrate which is somewhat less corrosive

than nitric acid for most materials. Nitrogen dioxide that does not react

photochemically is ultimately converted to nitrate salt aerosol, which settles

by gravitation or is removed from the air by moisture in the form of precipitation.

Particulate pollutants can be removed from the air by rain and thus

deposit on materials. However, this removal by rainfall is negligible for

particles less than 2 urn in diameter unless the particles originate in clouds.

Cloud particles are more effective than rain drops in collecting small particles [65].

Seawater salt spray is a factor in the deterioration of materials in areas close to the seacoast. The effect of salt spray is confined to a distance of only a few hundred yards inland [63] . The chief effect of salt

spray is to increase the corrosion of metals including those coated with

porcelain enamel. Considerable difference in gloss and color retention of

porcelain enamel specimens on steel and aluminum were noted at two sites at

Kure Beach, North Carolina [66]. Specimens exposed 80 feet from the ocean deteriorated more rapidly than specimens exposed 800 feet inland.

5.5.3 Particulates

Particulate pollutants or particles in suspension, as aerosols, or gas

ions, are complex and are widespread types of air contaminants [60]. The

size and chemical content of particles vary depending on the source. For

example, those larger than 10 ym in diameter come mainly from mechanical

processes, such as erosion, grinding, and spraying. These from 1 to 10 um stem partly from mechanical processes but also include industrial dusts

and ash; these are more numerous in the atmosphere than those greater than

10 ym and generally include the largest weight fraction. Smaller size

particles, between 0.1 and 1 urn in diameter, tend to contain more- ammonium

sulfate and combustion products and to form aerosols primarily by photochemial reactions in the air. Little is known of the chemical nature of particles

less than 0.1 urn but their concentration is highest over cities, a fact

ttributed largely to combustion. Those smaller than 0.1 um may also act

s what are called "mixed nuclei", which can act as condensation nuclei.

23
"Mixed nuclei" probably arise from agglomeration of smaller particles or by

adsorption of gases or vapors. This action is postulated [67] to form a water-soluble crust on a particle larger than 0.1 urn. These appear to be

made up largely of sodium chloride, sodium carbonate, and ammonium sulfate.

Aerosols formed by fine particles are complex with respect to size,

structure, chemical composition, and concentration. It is important to

study the chemical composition of these particulates in relation to size to

determine their effect on materials, both as to type and duration of exposure,

It is also important, for the same reason, to extend out knowledge of the

behavior of aerosols in the atmosphere.

The importance of particulates in deterioration of materials is shown

by chemical analysis of dustfall and other suspended particulates, which

shows them to contain a variety of pollutants, such as tar, sulfates, nitrates,

and various metals.

5.6 Particulates and Wind

In addition to factors already discussed, winds of high velocities,

combined with particulate matter, may produce an effect similar to that of

sandblasting on building materials [63] . Wind also contributes to the erosive

effect of water, as discussed in section 5.3.3. Peak gust wind velocity data

are presented in Appendix table 1 as are mean wind speed and prevailing

direction. These data can be related to erosive action and also to estimate

the expected wind load on structures in specific locations. Wind load is an example of an environmental factor which imposes a stress on building com- ponents .

5.7 Biological factors [68], [69], [70,] [71], [72]

Living organisms are an important environmental factor in the deterioration of organic building materials, particularly wood and wood products.

While biological attack is not a weathering factor, it is dependent on such

weathering factors as solar radiation, temperature, and water. These factors

determine optimum conditions for survival and growth of living organisms and

therefore for deterioration of organic building materials which they attack.

Materials attacked may be a source of food, a barrier to food, or provide

shelter or attachment for the organisms. The material may also be attacked

by a product of the life process of the organisms, such as sulfuric acid from

bacteria which digest sulfides or organic acids.

5.7.1 Fungi

Fungi are a class of plants which do not contain chlorophyll, cannot

manufacture food by photosynthesis, and feed on organic materials. Fungi

multiply by means of very small and numerous spores , which germinate and grow

like seeds under moist conditions. The rotting of wood is caused by the

spread of a network of tubes, called hyphae , which forms a tissue, called the

mycelium. This network feeds on the wood, weakens the structure, and causes

it to disintegrate. At the advanced stage of decay, the fungus may form

visible bodies on the surface of the wood as toadstools, fleshy or woody

shelves, or crusts. Wood decay is of two main types, known as brown rot and

white rot. Brown rot causes the wood to darken and shrink into cubes or oblong pieces. White rot causes overall disintegration and a pale color.

Figure 10 shows regions of the contiguous United States which experience

various degrees of wood decay.

The growth of fungi is determined by available food, oxygen, and optimum

conditions of temperature and moisture. Optimum conditions vary between

species of fungi. The optimum temperature for many species is 58 to 86°F

24
and for others 65 to 95°F. Above 95°F, fungi grew more slowly and may be killed

by temperatures over 100°F. However, it is possible for fungi to grow at any

temperature above freezing and some species can survive severe winters with

several month of temperatures below F. Fungi can attack wood if the moisture content is 20% or more but the optimum moisture content is 35 to 50

percent. Ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths less than 320 nanometers kills

bacteria and fungi and hence is called biologically active ultraviolet light.

However, very little of this short wavelength ultraviolet reaches the earth's

surface

Attack by fungi on building materials usually occurs as rot of wood or mildew on organic coatings. Mildew attacks organic coatings based on linseed

oil, generally causing it to turn black. Coatings based on synthetic resins

are not generally attacked by mildew but thickeners and stabilizers used in

latex paints may cause these coatings to be attacked by mildew. Linseed oil

putty does not usually support mildew because of its low content of linseed

oil. Synthetic materials, such as plastics, do not generally contain food

for living organisms unless they contain edible additives such as plasticizers

and fillers. Organisms may grow on asphalt roofs but do not usually cause

damage. If organisms penetrate the outer surface, they may thrive inside

building components, possibly in the insulation, if the insullation or other

material inside the component contains nutrients for the organisms. Organisms penetrating the outer skin of structural building panels might attack

edible adhesives such as casein.

5.7.2 Bacteria

Bacteria differ from fungi in that they are microscopic in size, do not

form hyphae or mycelia, and generally require liquid water for growth, while

fungi thrive under high humidities and high moisture content of supporting

media, such as wood. Bacteria requiring oxygen are called aerobic and those

which do not need oxygen are called anaerobic. Bacteria and fungi which

attack wood, cotton, and other cellulosic materials are cellulolytic microorganisms [73] which decompose the cellulose molecule by enzymatic action.

Decay from attach by these organisms is accelerated by high temperatures,

dampness, and rain, and seldom occurs in areas where the annual rainfall is

10 inches or less. Cellulosic materials degrade when soaked in water as well

as under high humidities, due to the action of cellulolytic microorganisms.

As already mentioned, bacteria may also attack building materials by a product of their life process, such as sulfuric acid from bacteria which

digest sulfides. Bacteria can also form a variety of aliphatic or fatty

acids from fermentation or attack on organic materials. Fatty acids include

the stronger formic, acetic, and propionic acids as well as the weaker higher

fatty acids. Information regarding the effect of fatty acids on building

materials is not available.

6. Use of Climatological and Weather

Data in Durability Testing

6. 1 A General Methodology for Short-Term Durability Tests

As mentioned briefly in the Introduction, a general methodology for

short-term durability tests can be considered to consist of three parts:

Problem Definition, Testing and Interpretation.

Following is an outline of a proposed general methodology:

25
Problem Definition.

A. Define the performance requirements

B. Characterize the specific building component or material

1. Identify important properties to be measured as indicators

of degradation.

2. Identify environmental factors expected to be encountered

by the component or material in-service.

3. Identify, where possible, the degradation mechanisms.

C. For short-term tests based upon accelerated aging, deduce how

the degradation mechanism or the property change can be accelerated using the environmental factors of importance or, for

short-term tests based upon incipient property changes, determine how the property changes can be measured following exposure

to the environmental factors of importance.

II. Testing

A. Design the testing program and include tests to accelerate all

likely degradation mechanisms.

B. Conduct the tests to identify the major degradation mechanisms

and to allow prediction of their rates under in-service conditions .

III. Interpretation

A. Interpret the data obtained from the testsby using the data

from IIB. to predict service life under the conditions of

interest

Although all environmental factors listed in table 1 must be considered

in all parts of the general methodology, weathering factors are of particular

interest in this report.

In the Problem Definition part of the methodology, important weathering

factors must be identified, quantified and related to the property changes or

to the degradation mechanisms.

The second part of the methodology, Testing, requires selection and

control of the intensities of the various weathering factors to be used in

the test.

The third part of the methodology, Interpretation, requires consideration

of the weathering factors used in the test so that quantitative durability

predictions may be made.

The weathering factors data needed for designing and interpreting shortterm durability tests must be obtained from existing climatological and weathering data such as that presented in the various tables in this report. Also,

maps, tables, and indices can be useful in the durability testing. These are discussed in the following section of this report.

26
6. 2 Use of Climatological Maps, Tables and Indices for Durability Prediction

With the exception of the map and index designed for brick [8] , systematic

maps and indices are not available to show the degradation of building materials in various geographic areas; however, existing climatological data can

be used to some extent in designing accelerated tests and interpreting natural

exposure tests.

The effect of solar radiation and temperature on materials was discussed

in sections 5.1 and 5.2. Also discussed were uncertainties in measurement

particularly of solar radiation. Appendix table II compares mean daily solar

radiation in langleys, annual hours of sunshine, percent of possible sunshine

and mean sky cover for the sites listed in table 4. Table 16 illustrates the

consideration of these values as an index with Las Vegas representing the

value of 100. Such indices are useful in considering climatological values

in different geographical areas. Figure 6 indicates both mean daily solar

radiation and total annual hours of sunshine for areas in the contiguous

United States and for sites listed in table 4. In spite of the uncertainty

of measurement locations can be classified semi-quantitatively . Prediction

of durability to solar radiation and correlation of outdoor exposure and

accelerated aging in light exposure apparatus might be based on the calculations illustrated in table 6 which show the number of hours of xenon arc exposure required to simulate the annual solar radiation. The values in table

6, however, do not reflect the effect of other weathering factors so that the

values can be used only as a guideline.

Maps from the National Atlas [74] showing solar radiation and temperature

in various sections of the United States are available and these are helpful

in designing test conditions. Figure 7, for example, shows a map of the con- tiguous United States with solar radiation and maximum temperatures in July.

Durability of materials to low temperatures may be predicted by the use

of Trewartha's map [5] illustrated in figure 1. Areas of extremely low

temperatures are found in D. HUMID MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES and BSk, Middle

Latitude Steppe, as in table 2.

One map and Index designed specifically for building materials is in the

ASTM specifications for brick [8] which was discussed in section 5.2.2 under

the subject of freezing and thawing. It was mentioned in this discussion

that freezing and thawing affects not only brick but other porous building

materials. The map designating weathering areas with respect to brick appears

in figure 4. Freezing and thawing is a combination of temperature cycling

about the freezing point of water and wetness. In order for damage to occur

to materials this temperature cycling and wetness must coincide or the material must be wet during cycling between temperatures above and below freezing.

Time of wetness would be of greater signficiance than total winter rainfall

as used in the Index and map just discussed. Table 13 gives the frequency

of precipitation during months of freezing and thawing for stations in Appendix

table I for which freezing and thawing temperatures are recorded. While this

is not a perfect criterion for this type of damage to building materials it

may be a better indication than the Weathering Index for brick [8]. It may be

possible to obtain data on periods of wetness which coincide more precisely

with freezing and thawing temperature cycling.

Maps, which may be useful in predicting the durability of materials to

attack by air pollutants are shown in figures 8 and 9, adapted from The

National Atlas [74]

In figure 8, isolines represent the total number of days of high air

pollution (including major gaseous pollutants) that were recorded since the

national air pollution potential forecasting began through December 31, 1966.

In the eastern part of the United States forecasting began August 1, 1960 and

in the west forcastning began October 3, 1963. According to The National

27
Atlas, in 1957 the Public Health Service set up a National Air Sampling Network, now National Air Surveillance Networks (NASN) , to measure solid pollutants in

the air. In 1960 it began limited sampling for gaseous pollution and in 1962

initiated the Continuous Air Monitoring Program (CAMP) to intensively measure concentrations of major gaseous pollutants in six representative usban areas. The 164 urban and 30 non-urban NASN stations and the six CAMP stations are being supplemented to an increasing extent by State and local sampling networks.

Currently about 300 stations are being operated by these networks.

Figure 9 shows emission of sulfur dioxide in tons/sq. mile/year for

Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSA's) which have 40,000 or more persons employed in manufacturing. At the time the original data was published

a SMSA was defined as a county or counties including a city or town cities with

a population of 50,000 or more. In New England, towns or cities rather than

counties were used to define a SMSA. Also, certain areas were counted as SMSA's which are "metropolitan in character" even if they do not qualify

under the above definition [74] , [75] . While these areas are sources

of sulfur dixoide and concentrations are correspondingly high mixing of the

atmosphere distributes such pollutants as shown in figure 8. Table 17 is a list of SMSA's which appear in figure 9.

Also in The National Atlas is a map of ESTIMATED ANNUAL CONCENTRATION OF

SUSPENDED PARTICULATES AND NITROGEN DIOXIDE, 1961-1965, for 302 urban areas

in the National Air Surveillance Networks. Particulates in the map are given

as total suspended particulates (size of circles) and organic suspended particulates (color of circles). Suspended particulates might be significant, in

combination with data on average wind speed, in predicting the durability of

materials to erosion. Also needed for prediction of erosion is data on erosive solid precipitation, especially hail and sleet. Information on hail is

mainly directed at hail damage form destructive hailstorsm. Figure 5, showing

the location of hail storms causing more than $5,000 damage, is a useful

indicator as to where hail damage might be expected. Data on wind and application to building climatology is from the standpoint of design loads on buildings [76] . Some type of map or chart is needed to predict the durability of building

components and materials to biological factors. This would be based either

on data on such damage or on climatological conditions which are optimal for

the growth of organisms which attack buildings. Such organisms would include

fungi and bacteria which attack wood and organic coatings.

A "comfort index" and Comfort Chart have been prepared, based on "effective temperature" scale, in which temperature and relative humidity are related

to human sensations and physiological reactions [18]. It is very likely that

similar indexes and charts could be prepared for durability of a specific

material to high temperatures and relative humidities knowing the combination

most harmful to the material. Such an index or chart could also be based

on optimum conditions for the growth of harmful living ogranisms.

6. 3 Economic Importance of Various Climatological Divisions

In Section 3.2, it was pointed out that a large number of climates are observed in the United States. Thus, durability tests are often needed to

determine in which climates building components or materials might be expected

to perform well. Therefore, in the selection of exposure sites and in the

design of short-term tests, it is important to consider what types of climate

or conditions of exposure are most important with respect to this country

and its most populated areas. To obtain an estimate of the relative distribution of buildings it can be assumed that building distrubution is roughly

proportional to population. Durability tests to simulate the most highly

populated climate regions would provide a means of identyfying problem climates

for specific components or materials. For example, some regions such as tropi28
cil , desert, and subarctic areas may not be of great economic importance but

are proving grounds for materials as other areas experience periods of ex- tremes such as are found in the climates prevailing in these areas. To

estimate the relative economic importance of each type of climate as defined

by Trewartha [5] to material's durability, the population in each climate was estimated. These data are illustrated in the table 18. The first, part, 18-1,

of table 18 shows the estimated percent population in each climate and the

second part, 18-2, lists the areas used to obtain the estimate. It is evident

that monsoon rainforest, tropical savanna, steppe, desert and subartic types

of climates are of relatively little economic importance in building climatology in the United States when population is used as the criterion. The

HUMID MESOTHERMAL and the HUMID MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES are estimated to contain

over 95 percent of the population; these climates obviously would be of major

importance in building climatology.

6.4 Feasibility of a Climatological and Weather Data Retrieval System

Existing climatological and weather data, such as that included in Appendix tables I and II, provides a means of obtaining quantative information on weathering factors to be included in durability tests for building components

and materials. The existing data, however, are often not tabulated in a form

most useful to durability testing. Data for use in durability testing, therefore, must be extracted from the existing data as has been done in the tables

included in the text of this report. Also, existing data are often not presented in the desired detail so that referral to detailed weather data is

necessary. For example, it would be necessary to tabulate the number of

freeze-thaw cycles experienced in a specific location by referring to the

detailed weather data.

To simplify the techniques for obtaining climatological and weather data

for use in durability testing, a data retrieval system may be useful. One means of obtaining the needed information is to develop a retrieval system

utilizing computer facilities. Computer printouts would then provide data

in the form most usable in durability testing. Such a retrieval system would

greatly simplify the process of obtaining the needed information. Feasibility

studies for such a system may be a worthwhile effort to pursue in further

studies

7 . Summary

1. The durability or long-term performance of building components and materials is dependent, to a large extent, on the environment to which they are subjected in-service.

2. Environmental factors affecting the durability and performance of building components and materials include weathering, biological, stress,

imcompatibility and use factors.

3. Of the environmental factors affecting building components and materials,

weathering factors are of particular importance for products used in the

exterior envelope because they interact with, or cause, many other environmental factors resulting in deterioration.

4. Reliable durability evaluations are needed for the selection of appropriate

components and materials for specific applications, for assessing claims that

new products have cost or other advantages and for ensuring against catastrophic failures.

5. Ideally, durability evaluations would be based upon the results of longterm tests using exposure conditions which duplicate those in the service

application; however, because of the length of time required to obtain

29
results, long-term tests are often not practicable. The alternative is to

devise short-term tests based upon the measurement of incipient property

changes or accelerated aging which yield meaningful measures of long-term

performance.

6. To evaluate the durability of components and materials comprising the

exterior envelope of a building system, weathering factors must be quantified.

This quantitative weathering data can then be used in designing and interpreting both short-term and long-term test results.

7'. Weather or climatic data to permit the quantification of weathering

factors is often not available or not available in the desired detail; available data, however, must be used to better design and interpret durability

tests. The statistical fluctuations in the data must also be considered in

establishing test conditions for weathering factors.

8. In quantifying weathering factors for the design of simulated aging procedures it would be preferable to use weather data; however, the problems in

experimentally simulating weather data, which is highly variable, often leads

to the use of climatic data which is an average of weather data, and hence,

less variable.

9. Weather data is particularly useful in identifying extremes for test

conditions such as the fastest wind, the highest or lowest temperature or

the greatest snow load.

10. Climatic data can be used to assist in interpreting the results of longterm natural aging although it is best to record weather data at the site used

for the natural aging.

11. The large range of climates experienced in the United States presents a formidable problem to the materials engineer interested in evaluating materials for long-term performance by laboratory techniques.

12. Durability tests for building components and materials must be designed

on the basis of the type of material, the type of application, and the climatic conditions in which it will be used.

13. Data to specify the conditions for each durability test must be obtained

from weather or climatic data at the site of interest and micro-climates

must be considered in establishing test conditions.

14. To simplity the techniques for obtaining climatological and weather data

for use in durability testing from existing data, a data retrieval system may

be useful. Such a system might well be based on the use of computer facilities

30
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35
Table 1. Environmental Factors in Deterioration of Building

Components and Materials

I. WEATHERING FACTORS

A. Solar Radiation

B. Temperature

Bl. Extremes

B2. Cycling

C. Water

CI. Vapor

C2. Liquid

C3. Solid

D. Normal Air Constituents

Dl. Oxygen and ozone

D2. Carbon dioxide

E

Air Contaminants

El. Gases (as oxides of nitrogen and sulfur)

E2 • Mists (as aerosols gases, salt, acies , and alkalies dissolved

in water)

E3. Particulates (as sand, dust, dirt)

F. Wind

II. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

A. Fungi

B. Bacteria

III. STRESS FACTORS

A. Stress, Sustained

B. Stress, Periodic (resulting from weathering factors)

Bl. Physical action of water, as rain, hail, sleet and snow

B2. Physical action of wind

B3. Combination of physical action of water and wind

B4 . Thermal movement resulting from temperature changes combined

with thermal incompatibility factors

B5 . Movement due to other factors, such as settlement or vehicles

36
Table 1. Environmental Factors in Deterioration of Building

Components and Materials (cont .

)

IV. INCOMPATIBILITY FACTORS

A. Chemical

B. Physical

V. USE FACTORS

A. Abuse of material, either before or after installation

B. Wear

37
Table 2. Types of Climate in the United States as Defined by Trewartha

A. TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES

Af, Tropical Rainforest

Parts of Hawaii

Am, Monsoon Rainforest

Parts of Hawaii and Puerto Rico

Aw, Tropical Savanna

Southern tip of Florida, including Keys

Parts of Hawaii and Puerto Rico

B. DRY CLIMATES

BS, STEPPE

BSh, Tropical and Subtropical Steppe

Small part of southern California; most of central Arizona

parts of New Mexico and Western Texas; western part of

Oklahoma panhandle

BSk, Middle Latitude Steppe

Parts of eastern Washington and Oregon and of southeastern

Idaho and northern Nevada; parts of Utah, Montana, Wyoming,

Colorado, New Mexico; western North Dakota, South Dakota,

and Nebraska; western end of Kansas

BW, DESERT

BWh, Tropical and Subtropical Steppe

Small part of southern California; most of southern Nevada;

western, southern, and northern Arizona except for highlands;

parts of southern New Mexico and western Texas

BWk, Middle Latitude Desert

Parts of northern Nevada; small part of northeastern Utah

C. HUMID MESOTHERMAL CLIMATES

Cs, Mediterranean or Dry Summer Subtropical

Most of coastal and central valley California

Ca, Humid Subtropical

Caf - with no dry seasons Southeastern United States, including most of Kentucky,

Tennessee, and Virginia; southern Maryland; Delaware;

southern end of Illinois; most of Oklahoma, Arkansas;

eastern and central Texas

38
Table 2. Types of Climate in the United States as Defined by

Trewartha (cont.)

Cb , Marine West Coast (Cool Summer)

North Pacific coast from northern California to southern Alaska;

southern Appalachians

. HUMID MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES

Da, Humid Continental (Warm Summer)

No sub-classification: Parts of northern Utah and southern Idaho

Daf - with no dry season

Parts of West Virginia, northwest Virginia, western Maryland

and southern Pennsylvania; southern end of New York and New

England; most of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri,

Kansas, and Nebraska; parts of southern Wisconsin and

Minnesota; southeastern part of South Dakota

Db, Humid Continental (Cool Summer)

No sub-classification: Parts of eastern Washington

Dbf - with no dry season

Most of New England and New York; central and northern

Appalachians; Great Lakes region, including northern

Pennsylvania, northeastern Ohio, Michigan, and most of

Wisconsin and Minnesota; eastern North Dakota; northeastern

South Dakota

Dc, Subarctic

Most of Alaska

. POLAR CLIMATES

ET, Tundra

Alaska North Slope

F. UNDIFFERENTIATED HIGHLANDS

Sierra Nevada, Cascade, and Rocky Mountain regions

39
Table 3. Description of the Types of Climate Found in the United

States as Defined by Trewartha

TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES (Temperature of coolest month over 64.4 deg. F)

Af, Tropical Rainforest (No distinctly dry season)

Uniformly high temperatures and heavy rainfall distributed throughout the year. Yearly temperature averages between 77 deg. and 80 deg. F. or higher and annual temperature range is usually less than 5 deg. F.

Daily temperature range may be 10 to 25 deg. F. Has no distinctly dry

season. Normally has dense tropical forest.

Am, Monsoon Rainforest (Short dry season)

A modified tropical rainforest climate, intermediate between

Tropical Rainforest and Tropical Savanna. Has the heavy yearly

rainfall of the Tropical Rainforest but the seasonal distribution

of the Tropical Savanna. Normally situated along coastlines adjacent

to Tropical Rainforest climates.

Aw, Tropical Savanna (Much more rain in summer than in winter)

High temperature but less rainfall than Tropical Rainforest.

Normal rainfall about 40 to 60 inches annually. Has three temperature seasons: a cooler dry season, a hotter dry season, and a hot

wet season. The hot wet season is very similar to the Tropical

Rainforest climate. Daily temperature ranges may be 30 deg. F or more during cooler dry and hotter dry seasons. Usually has open, tropical,

deciduous forests and grasslands.

DRY CLIMATES (Evaporation exceeds precipitation)

BS , Steppe (Semi-arid)

BSh, Tropical and Subtropical Steppe (Average annual temperature over 64.4 deg. F)

Normally surrounds the northern and southern parts of

BWh, Tropical and Subtropical Desert. Average annual rainfall 10

to 20 inches. Temperatures normally high but are less than those

in the desert. Essentially an intermediate area between desert

and a more moderate climate.

BSk, Middle Latitude Steppe (Average annual temperature under

64.4 deg. F)

Hottest and driest regions of the earth. Rainfall may

approach or equal that of Steppe but is extremely variable.

Deserts have long periods, sometimes years, without rainfall

and rain occurs in scattered heavy storms with rapid run-off,

so that the area supports little or no vegetation. Extreme

deserts have less than 5 inches annual rainfall and some areas have no recorded rainfall. Summer season temperatures normally

well over 100 deg. F in the daytime but may drop 25 to 45 deg. F

at night. Characterized by abundance of sunlight. Dust and

sandstorms are often a problem.

40
Table 3. Description of the Types of Climate Found in the United

States as Defined by Trewartha (cont.)

BWk, Midd l e Latitude Desert (Average annual temperature under

64.4 deg. F)

Generally found in the interior or large land masses or where high mountains block an area from the ocean and prevent

entrance of humid air. Have meager and unpredictable precipitation. Are marked by a definite cold season and summers are warm to hot.

C. HUMID MESOTHERMAL CLIMATES (Coldest month between 64.4 and 32 deg. F)

Cs, Mediterranean or Dry Summer Subtropical (Much more rain in winter

than in summer)

Normally found on western sides of continents. Climate is mild

and pleasant. Have dry summers with warm to hot temperatures. Summer

temperatures average 70 to 80 deg. F and winter temperatures from 40

to 50 deg. F. Rainfall is normally low, from 15 to 25 inches annually,

and occurs mostly in the winter season. Coastal regions have a goodly

amount of fog. Bordered equator-ward by Subtropical Steppe and Desert

areas.

Ca, Humid Subtropical (Warm Summer) (Warmest month over 71.6 deg. F)

Caf , With no Dry Season

Normally found on eastern sides of continents. Summers

usually humid, with sultry heat. Rainfall fairly abundant and

generally spread out over the entire year. Annual rainfall averages

from 30 to 65 inches. Average summer temperatures from 75 to

80 deg. F. Average relative humidity in summer as high as

70 to 80 percent. Winter average temperatures usually moderate,

from 40 to 50 deg. F. Caw type with dry winter not found in

the United States.

Cb, Marine West Coast (Cool Summer) (Warmest month below 71.6 deg. F)

Normally found on west coast of continents at higher latitudes

than Cs, Mediterranean climate. Climate considered mild. Does not have

a definite dry season. Annual rainfall may vary from 20-150 inches,

with the higher amounts being found in the mountain ranges. Cloudiness,

fog, and mist are characteristics. Summers are cool with average

temperatures from 60 to 70 deg. F. Winter temperatures are warmer

than would be expected at higher latitudes. Cc type similar but less

than 4 months above 50 deg. F; not found in the United States.

D. HUMID MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES

(Temperature of coldest month under 32 deg. F; warmest month over

50 deg. F)

Da, Humid Continental (Warm Summer) (Warmest month over 71.6 deg. F)

41
Table 3. Description of the Types of Climate Found in the United

States as Defined by Trewartha (cont.)

Daf, With no Dry Season

Normally found from 35° to 45° N latitude. Summers are long,

hot, and humid. Winters are cold but some spells of mild

but unpleasantly foggy weather. Rainfall is a maximum in the summer. Daw type with dry winter not found in the United States.

Db, Humid Continental (Cool Summer) (Warmest month below 71.6 deg. F)

Dbf , With no Dry Season

Generally located north of Da climates and have much

colder winters than Da, sometimes as much as 10 to 30 deg. F.

Summers are cooler than Da summers by 5 to 10 deg. F. Summers are short and winter dominates the year. Sub-zero temperatures are

not unusual. Dbw type with dry winter not found in the United

States.

Dc, Subarctic (Warmest month below 71.6 deg. F; less than 4 months

above 50 deg. F)

Dcf , With no Dry Season

Gnerally found north of Da and Db climates in the range

of 50° to 65°N latitude. The Subarctic is the most extreme climate

of the Continental type with temperature ranges as much as

110° deg. F. Summers are extremely short and winters are long and

extremely severe. Precipitation is sparse, from 10 to 20 inches

annually, and is concentrated in the summer. Dcs type with dry

winter and Dd type (coldest month below -36.4 deg. F) not found

in the United States.

E. POLAR CLIMATES (Temperature of warmest month under 50 deg. F)

ET, Tundra ; EF, Ice Cap

Polar climates are confined to the high latitudes. A climate is

termed Tundra when at least one month has an average temperature above

32 deg. F but less than 50 deg. F. EF, ice cap climate (average

temperature of all months below freezing and no vegetable life is

possible) is not found in the United States.

F. UNDIFFERENTIATED HIGHLANDS

Locations over 6,000 ft. altitude with no "type" of climate,

variations being great from one highland spot to another.

42
Table 4. Climate Classifications of Sites for Which Cliraatological

Date are Presented in Appendix Tables I, II, and III

TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES

Am, Monsoon Rainforest

- San Juan, Puerto Rico

Aw, Tropical Savanna

- Miami, Florida

DRY CLIMATES

BS, STEPPE

BSk, Middle Latitude Steppe

- Great Falls, Montana

- Havre, Montana

BW, DESERT

BWh, Tropical and Subtropical Desert

- Las Vegas, Nevada

- Phoenix, Arizona

- Yuma, Arizona

HUMID MESOTHERMAL CLIMATES

Ca, Humid Subtropical

Caf - With No Dry Season

- Washington, D. C.

- Baltimore, Maryland

- Atlantic City, New Jersey

- Fort Worth, Texas

Cb, Marine West Coast (Cool Summer)

- Seattle, Washington

- Astoria, Oregon

- Eureka, California

HUMID MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES

Da, Humid Continental (Warm Summer)

Daf - With No Dry Season

- Minneapolis-St . Paul, Minnesota

Db , Humid Continental (Cool Summer)

Dbf - With No Dry Season

- Bismarck, North Dakota

43
Table 4. Climate Classifications of Sites for Which Climatological

Data are presented in Appendix Tables I, III, and III (cont.)

Dc, Subarctic

- Fairbanks, Alaska

F. UNDIFFERENTIATED HIGHLANDS

- Flagstaff, Arizona

44
Table 5. Typical Solar Radiation at Different Times of Day at 32 Degrees

North Latitude on July 21

Solar Time

A.M.

Direct Normal Irradiance

Btuh/sq. ft. W/m

6 113 358

7 203 644

8 241 764

9 261 828

10 271 859

11 277 878

12 278 882

45
Table 6. Time of Xenon Arc Exposure Required to Simulate One Year of Solar

Radiation

Location Mean Daily Solar

Radiation (Langleys)

Hours of Xenon

Arc Exposure to

Simulate Annual

Solar Radiation

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Miami, Florida

Great Falls, Montana

Las Vegas, Nevada

Phoenix, Arizona

Washington, D. C.

Fort Worth, Texas

Seattle, Washington

Astoria, Oregon

Bismarck, North Dakota

Fairbanks, Alaska

512

447

356

504

503

350

435

302

302

366

228

2387

2084

1660

2349

2345

1632

2028

1408

1408

1706

1063

a. See Appendix Tables I and II

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Table 9. Albedo and Absorption of Various Surfaces

Percent Percent

Albedo Absorption

Surfaces of the earth [34], [36], [37], [38]

Green forest 3-10 90-97

Black mold, wet 8 92

Black mold, dry 14 86

Ground, 70-95 percent bare, wet 8-9 81-82

Ground, 70-85 percent bare, dry 10-20 80-90

Sand, wet 9 91

Sand , dry 18 82

Grass, dry 15-25 75-85

Grass, wet, in sun 33-37 63-67

Fresh snow, highest value 87 13

Glossy oil based paints [34]

Black, with carbon black pigment 7 93

White, titanium dioxide pigment 85 15

White, titanium dioxide pigment, lead primer... 88 12

49
Table 10. Freezing Cycle Days for the Sites Listed in Table 4

Experiencing Freeze-Thaw Conditions

Location Mean Number of Days

Maximum Minimum

32 deg. F 32 deg. F or below or below

Difference,

Average Freezing

Cycle Days

Great Falls, Montana

Havre, Montana

Las Vegas, Nevada

Washington, D. C.

Baltimore, Maryland

Atlantic City, New Jersey

Bismarck, North Dakota

Fairbanks, Alaska

Flagstaff, Arizona

51

69

10

14

17

Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota 84

86

162

16

155

185

42

80

101

115

160

186

227

214

104

116

42

70

87

98

76

100

65

198

a. Data from Appendix table I.

50
Table 11. Winter Rainfall and Weathering Index for Sites Listed in Table 10

Location

Great Falls, Montana

Havre, Montana

Las Vegas, Nevada

Washington, D. C.

Baltimore, Maryland

Atlantic City, New Jersey

Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota

Bismarck, North Dakota

Fairbanks, Alaska

Flagstaff, Arizona

Winter Rainfall, in.

at Freeze Threshold

Temperature, deg. F.

Weathering Index

at Freeze Threshold

Temperature, deg. F

32

1.0

1.1

1.6

11.5

15.6

14.6

3.6

1.9

-1.8C

2.7

28

-0.2 C

0.2

1.1

9.2

12.6

11.0

2.4

1.1

-2.3 (

2.2

32 28

104 —

128 23

67 46

805 644

1357 1096

1431 1078

274 182

190 110

535 436

a. Difference between total winter precipitation and 1/10 (winter snowfall)

both in inches, from data in Appendix table I. Winter precipitation and

snowfall are those occuring during the freezing cycle period for each

location. The freezing cycle period for each location was calculated by

subtracting from 365 the freeze-free period in days. Freeze-free periods

were obtained from FREEZE DATA, Climatography of the United States, Climates

of the States. The freeze-free period is defined as the period between

the last occurrence in the spring. Since precipitation and snowfall are recorded monthly, these values were pro-rated for some months according

to the freeze threshold dates.

c.

(Winter rainfall in inches) times (Average Freezing Cycle in days)

Average Freezing Cycle Days from table 10.

Calculated winter rainfall was negative, since 1/10 (Winter Snowfall)

exceeded value for total winter precipitation. Density of snow is not

always 1/10 that of liquid water.

51
Table 12. Months of Freezing3

, Freezing and Thawing , and Above Freezing'

for Sites Listed in Table 4

Location and Months Number of Months

Freezing and

Freezing'

Above

Thawing" Freezing

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Miami, Florida

Great Falls, Montana

Jan. 1

Feb . , Mar . , Apr . , Nov . , Dec

Feb. through Dec.

Havre, Montana

Jan. , Feb. , Dec. 3

Mar., Apr., Oct., Nov.

Mar. through Nov.

Las Vegas, Nevada

Jan.

Phoenix, Arizona

Yuma, Arizona

Washington, P. C.

Jan. , Feb. , Dec.

Baltimore, Maryland

Jan. , Feb. , Dec.

Atlantic City, New Jersey

Jan., Feb., Mar., Dec.

Fort Worth, Texas

Seattle, Washington

Astoria, Oregon

Eureka, California

Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota

Jan. , Feb. , Dec. 3

Mar . , Nov

Mar. through Nov.

Bismarck, North Dakota

Jan. , Feb. , Dec. 3

Mar ., Apr . , Nov

Mar., through Nov.

Fairbanks, Alaska

Jan., Feb., Mar., Nov., Dec. 5

Apr. , Oct.

Apr. through Oct.

Flagstaff, Arizona

Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Oct., Nov., Dec.

12

12

11

9

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

7 12

a. Months in which the daily maximum temperature is 32 F or below. See Note c. b. Months in which the normal daily maximum temperature is above freezing and

the normal daily minimum is 32°F or below.

c. Months in which the daily maximum temperature is above 32°F. Obviously a plus c must equal 12.

52
Table 13. Frequency of Precipitation During Freezing and Thawing Months

Location and Months

Frequency of Precipitation

Number of Days 0.01 Inch

or More During Months of

Freezing and Thawing*

Great Falls, Montana

(Feb., Mar., Apr., Nov., Dec.) (5)

40

Havre, Montana

(Mar., Apr., Oct., Nov.) (4)

22

Las Vegas, Nevada

(Jan.) (1)

Washington, D. C.

(Jan. , Feb. , Dec.) (3)

28

Baltimore, Maryland

(Jan. , Feb. , Dec.) (3)

28

Atlantic City, New Jersey

(Jan., Feb., Mar., Dec.) (4)

41

Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota

(Mar., Nov.) (2)

18

Bismarck, North Dakota

(Mar., Apr., Nov.) (3)

22

Fairbanks, Alaska

(Apr., Oct.) (2)

Flagstaff, Arizona

(Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Oct., Nov., Dec.) (7)

39

*Data from Appendix table I.

53
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54
Table 15. Frequency of Precipitation at Various Relative Humidities at

Various Locations in Appendix Table I

Location

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Miami, Florida

Great Falls, Montana

Havre, Montana

Las Vegas, Nevada

Phoenix, Arizona

Yuma, Arizona

Washington, D. C. Baltimore, Maryland

Atlantic City, New Jersey

Fort Worth, Texas

Seattle, Washington

Astoria, Oregon , Eureka, California

Minneapolis-St . Paul, Minn.

Bismarck, North Dakota

Fairbanks, Alaska

Flagstaff, Arizona

Mean number of days precipitation 0.01 inch or more

With relative humidity in percent

Annual 70 or over 50 - 69

C 20 - 49° 19 or lower

202 202

126 126

90 22 68

61 8 10 43

24 9 15

34 30 4 15 21

111 90 21

112 101 11

112 112

78 68 10

162 59 100 3 200 181 19

117 117

88 88

74 26 48

65 44 21

74 6 68

a. Sum of days of precipitation 0.01 inch or more for all months in which the

daily maximum temperature is "above freezing" as in table 12.

b. Mean daily number of days precipitation 0.01 inch or more for months in

which the lowest value for relative humidity is in the range indicated

and in which the daily maximum temperature is "above freezing" as in

table 12.

c. Inclusive, as 50 through 69, etc.

d. Data on relative humidity from Climatography of the United States , No. 60-4, Climates of the States, December 1959.

55
Table 16. Index of Annual Mean Daily Solar Radiation, Total and Percent

Sunshine and Mean Sky Cover at Sites Listed in Appendix Table II

C

Location Mean Daily Solar Total Hours

Radiation (langleys) of Sunshine

Percent of Mean Sky

Possible Cover,

Sunshine Sunrise to Sunset

74 62

74 64

74 55

78 55

100 100

100 100

106 111

66 61

67 62

64 59

79 73

56 39 — 36

58 47

67 59

72 58

51 45

85

San Juan, Puerto Rico 102

Miami, Florida 89

Great Falls, Montana 71

Havre, Montana —

Las Vegas, Nevada 100

Phoenix, Arizona 100

Yuma, Arizona —

Washington, D. C. 69

Baltimore, Maryland

Atlantic City, New Jersey

Fort Worth, Texas 86

Seattle, Washington 60

Astoria, Oregon 60

Eureka, California

Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn.

Bismarck, North Dakota 73

Fairbanks, Alaska 45

Flagstaff, Arizona

75

76

75

75

100

100

106

67

69

76

53

57

68

70

55

Index = Value for Site

Value for Las Vegas x 10.

b. Based on "Clear Sky", which equals 1 - (Mean Sky Cover)

56
Table 17. Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas for Which Sulfur Dioxide

Emissions and Concentrations were Reported*, 1961-1965

Emissions over 200 tons per square mile per year

1. Baltimore, Maryland

2. Chicago, Illinois

3. Cleveland, Ohio

4. El Paso, Texas

5. Indianapolis, Indiana

6. Louisville, Kentucky

7. New York, New York

8. Salt Lake City, Utah

9. Toledo, Ohio

10. Wheeling - Steubenville, West Virginia

Emissions 100 - 200 tons per square mile per year

11. Baton Rouge, Louisiana

12. Boston, Massachusetts

13. Cincinnati, Ohio

14. Detroit, Michigan

15. Los Angeles, California

16. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

17. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

18. St. Louis, Missouri

19. Springfield - Hartford, Massachusetts

20. Tacoma, Washington

Emissions 50 - 100 tons per square mile year

21. Atlanta, Georgia

22. Canton - Youngstown, Ohio

23. Charleston, West Virginia

24. Charlotte, North Carolina

25. Columbus, Ohio

26. Dayton, Ohio

27. Evansville, Indiana

28. Houston, Texas

29. Milwaukee, Wisconsin

30. Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minnesota

31. Reading, Pennsylvania

32. Richmond, Virginia

33. Seattle, Washington

34. Washington, D. C.

57
Table 17. Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas for Which Sulfur Dioxide

Emissions and Concentrations were Reported*, 1961-1965 (cont.)

Emissions 10 - 50 tons per square mile per year

35. Albany - Schnectady, New York

36. Altoona, Pennsylvania

37. Chattanooga, Tennessee

38. Davenport, Iowa - Moline, Illinois

39. Huntington, West Virginia - Ashland, Kentucky

40. Kansas City, Missouri - Kansas

41. Knoxville, Tennessee

42. Nashville, Tennessee

43. New Haven, Connecticut

44. New Orleans, Louisiana

45. Omaha, Nebraska

45. Providence, Rhode Island

47. San Francisco - Oakland, California

48. Syracuse, New York

Emissions under 10 tons per square mile per year

49. August, Georgia

50. Birmingham, Alabama

51. Columbus, Georgia

52. Dallas, Texas

53. Denver, Colorado

54. Duluth - Superior, Minnesota

55. Eugene, Oregon

56. Fargo, North Dakota

57. Fort Worth, Texas

58. Grand Rapids, Michigan

59. Greensboro, North Carolina

60. Medford, Oregon

61. Phoenix, Arizona

62. Portland, Oregon

63. San Bernardino, California

64. San Jose, California

65. Shreveport, Louisiana

66. Utica, New York

67. Wichita, Kansas

^Emissions in tons per square mile per year shown in this table and in

figure 9. The original map in The National Atlas also showed sulfur

dioxide concentrations.

58
Table 18. Percent Population in the Various Climatic Divisions of the

United States*

18-1. Estimated Distribution of Population in the United States* Among

Various Climates

A. TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES 1.1 percent

Am, Monsoon Rainforest 0.3 percent

Aw, Tropical Savanna 0.8 percent

B

DRY CLIMATES 2.9 percent

BSh, Tropical and Subtropical Steppe 0.6

BSk, Middle Latitude Steppe 1.6

BWh, Tropical and Subtropical Desert 0.7

C . HUMID MESOTHERMAL CLIMATES 46.2

Cs, Mediterranean 9.3

Caf, Humid Subtropical - no dry season 35.5

Cb, Marine West Coast (Cool Summer) 1.4

D . HUMID MICROTHERMAL CLIMATES 49.6

Daf, Humid Continental (Warm Summer)

no dry season 31.9

Dbf, Humid Continental (Cool Summer)

no dry season 17.5

Dcf, Subarctic - no dry season 0.2

99.8

^Including all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.

59
Table 18. Percent Population in the Various Climatic Divisions

of the United States* (cont.)

18-2. Areas Used to Estimate Population Distribution Among Various Climates

Am, Monsoon Rainforest

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Aw, Tropical Savanna

Pence, Puerto Rico

Miami, Florida metropolitan area

BSh, Tropical and Subtropical Steppe

Honolulu, Hawaii metropolitan area

West Texas, estimate based on population of cities and metropolitan

areas in that area as compared to those in east Texas; ration

applied to total population of Texas

BSk, Middle Latitude Steppe

Albuquerque, New Mexico metropolitan area

Denver, Colorado metropolitan area Montana and Wyoming, entire states

BWh, Tropical and Subtropical Desert

Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona, metropolitan areas

Cs, Mediterranean

California counties on or near Pacific coast except three

northern most coastal counties

Caf, Humid Subtropical - no dry season

Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana,

Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee,

Virginia - entire states

Maryland except for Alleghany, Garrett, and Washington counties

Southern New Jersey

Philadelphia metropolitan area

East Texas, estimated as under BSh

Washington, D. C.

Cb, Marine West Coast (Cool Summer)

California north coast counties - Del Norto, Humboldt, and

Mendocine

Oregon coastal and Willamette valley counties

Washington coastal and Puget Sound counties

60
Table 18. Percent Population in the Various Climatic Divisions of the

United States* (cont.)

18-2. Areas Used to Estimate Population Distribution Among Various Climates

Daf, Humid Continental (Warm Summer) - no dry season

Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska - entire states

Southern Michigan - metropolitan areas of Detroit, Flint,

Grand Rapids, and Lansing

Northern New Jersey

New York City metropolitan area

Dbf, Humid Continental (Cool Summer) - no dry season

New England, Minnesota, North Dakota, Wisconsin - entire states

Upstate New York, including all of state outside New York City

metropolitan area Western Pennsylvania, based on Erie (city) and Pittsburgh

metropolitan area

Dcf, Subarctic

State of Alaska

References:

1971 World Almanac

1970 Census of Outlying Areas, page 409

Population and Areas of Counties by States, pages 444-461

American Almanac for 1973 and The Statistical Abstract of the

United States

No. 20, Metropolitan areas, pages 19-20

No. 12, pages 12-13, Population Bank etc. - States and Puerto Rico

No. 22, Cities with 100,000 inhabitants or more in 1970, pages 21-23

No. 5, Population and Area - United States and Outlying Areas, page 7

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] MODERATE WEATHERING

H] SEVERE WEATHERING

Copyright (c) 1972 BY AMERICAN SOCIETY

FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS

Reprinted by permission of the publisher

Figure 4. Map of the Contiguous United States showing Areas of

Negligible, Moderate, and Severe Weathering of Brick

from Standard Specifications for BUILDING BRICK (SOLID MASONRY UNITS

MADE FROM CLAY OR SHALE) , ASTM C 62 - 69

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Figure 7. Solar Radiation and Maximum Temperatures in

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Figure 10. Regions in the Contiguous United States defined by Decay

Hazard

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(Includes Hawaii and Puerto Rico)

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REGION 3: Little probability of decay (Includes Alaska)

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A-18
Appendix Table II. Annual Mean Daily Solar Radiation, Total and Percent

Sunshine, and Mean Sky Cover at Sites Listed in Table 4

Location Mean Daily Annual Percent Mean Sky Cover, , Solar Radiation Hours Sunrise to Sunset

Sunshine

Possible

langleys Sunshine

San Juan, P. R. 512 2878 64 5.9

Miami, Florida 447 2903 64 5.8

Great Falls, Montana 356 2884 64 6.4

Havre, Montana 2874 67 6.4

Las Vegas, Nevada 504 3838 86 3.4

Phoenix, Arizona 503 3832 86 3.4

Yuma, Arizona 4077 91 2.7

Washington, D. C. 350 2576 57 6.0

Baltimore, Maryland 2653 58 5.9

Atlantic City, N. J. 55 6.1

Fort Worth, Texas 435 2911

e 68 5.2

Seattle, Washington 302 2019 48 7.4

Astoria, Oregon 302 — 7.6

Eureka, California 2198 50 6.9

Minneapolis-St. Paul, Minn. 2607 58 6.1

Bismarck, North Dakota 366 2686 62 6.2

Fairbanks, Alaska 228 2105 44 7.0

Flagstaff, Arizona —

——

—

4.4

d.

e.

From Local Climatological Data, 1971 Annual Summary, except for San Juan,

Puerto Rico, data for which were taken from Climate Atlas of the United

States, June 1968, covering a period of 6 years. This data does not

appear in the 1972 Annual Summaries, which generally include a footnote:

"The National Weather Service considers the accuracy of solar radiation

data questionable; therefore publication is suspended pending determination

of corrected values".

From Climate Atlas of the United States, June 1968, covering the period

1931-1960.

From Local Climatological Data, 1972 Annual Summaries with the following

exceptions:

Data for Miami from Climatography of the United States, No. 60-8,

Climates of the States, published March 1959 and revised November 1962.

Data for Fairbanks from Climatography of the United States, No. 60-49,

Climates of the States, published September 1959.

Data for Fort Worth from Climate Atlas of the United States, June 1968.

From Local Climatological Data, 1972 Annual Summaries.

Data from Dallas, Texas.

A-1Q
•3 Appendix Table III. Number of Months of Freezing and Thawing at Locations

Listed in Table 4

San Juan, Puerto Rico

Miami, Florida . . Great Falls, Montana (Feb., March, April, November, December) 5

Havre, Montana (March, April, October, November) 4

Las Vegas, Nevada (January) 1

Phoenix , Arizona

Yuma , Ar izona

Washington, D. C. (January, February, December) 3

Baltimore, Maryland (January, February, December) 3

Atlantic City, New Jersey (January, February, March, December) 4

Foi t Worth , Texas

Seattle , Washington

Astoria, Oregon

Eureka , California

Minneapolis, Minnesota (March, November) 2 Bismarck, North Dakota (March, April, November) 3

Fairbanks , Alaska (April , October) 2 Flagstaff, Arizona (Jan., Feb., March, April, Oct., Nov., Dec.) 7

In which the normal daily maximum is above freezing and the normal daily

minimum is freezing (32 deg. F) or below.

frU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974-583-010/3

A-20
NBS-114A (REV. 7-73)

U.S. DEPT. OF COMM. BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA

SHEET

I. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO. NBS-TN-838

2. Gov't Accession

No.

3. Recipient's Accession No.

4. Ill 1.1- AND SUBTITLE

The Use of Weather and Climatological Data in Evaluating

the Durability of Building Components and Materials

5. Publication Date August 1974

6. Performing Organization (ode

7. AUTHOR(S)

Larry W. Masters and Winthrop C. Wolfe

8. Performing Organ. Report No.

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20234

10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.

11. Contract/Grant No.

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Complete Address (Street, City, State, ZIP)

Department of Housing & Urban Development

451 7th Street, SW

Washington, D.C. 20410

13. Type of Report & Period Covered "^lterim

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Library of Congress Catalog Card Numbers: 74-600106

16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary ot most significant information. If document includes a significant

bibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)

The durability of building components and materials is dependent, to a

large extent, on the in-service environment to which they are subjected in

service. Thus, the prediction of durability requires knowledge of the service

environment.

Weathering factors, which comprise one group of environmental factors, are the subject of this report. The objectives of this report are to indicate

how, in the present state of knowledge, weather and climate data can be used

to aid in quantifying weathering factors so that durability tests for building

components and materials may be designed.

17. KEY WORDS (six to twelve entries; alphabetical order; capitalize only the first letter of the first key word unless a proper name; separated by semicolons)

Accelerated aging; building components and materials; climatological data;

durability; environmental factors; long-term tests; short-term tests;

weathering factors.

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