U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Bureau of Justice Statistics

Special Report

DECEMBER 2014 NCJ 248471

Rape and Sexual Assault 

Victimization Among College-Age 

Females, 1995–2013

Sofi Sinozich, BJS Intern

Lynn Langton, Ph.D., BJS Statistician

For the period 1995–2013, females ages 18 to 24 had the 

highest rate of rape and sexual assault victimizations 

compared to females in all other age groups. Within 

the 18 to 24 age group, victims could be identified as 

students enrolled in a college, university, trade school or 

vocational school or as nonstudents. Among student victims, 

20% of rape and sexual assault victimizations were reported 

to police, compared to 32% reported among nonstudent 

victims ages 18 to 24 (figure 1).

This report describes and compares the characteristics 

of student and nonstudent female victims of rape and 

sexual assault, the attributes of the victimization, and 

the characteristics of the offender. The findings are from 

the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ (BJS) National Crime 

Victimization Survey (NCVS), which collects information on 

nonfatal crimes reported and not reported to police against 

persons age 12 or older. Rape and sexual assault are defined 

by the NCVS to include completed and attempted rape, 

completed and attempted sexual assault, and threats of rape 

HIGHLIGHTS 

This report uses the National Crime Victimization 

Survey (NCVS) to compare the rape and sexual assault 

victimization of female college students and nonstudents. 

For the period 1995–2013—

 The rate of rape and sexual assault was 1.2 times higher 

for nonstudents (7.6 per 1,000) than for students (6.1 per 

1,000).

 For both college students and nonstudents, the offender 

was known to the victim in about 80% of rape and sexual 

assault victimizations.

 Most (51%) student rape and sexual assault victimizations 

occurred while the victim was pursuing leisure activities 

away from home, compared to nonstudents who were 

engaged in other activities at home (50%) when the 

victimization occurred.

 The offender had a weapon in about 1 in 10 rape and 

sexual assault victimizations against both students 

and nonstudents.

 Rape and sexual assault victimizations of students (80%)

were more likely than nonstudent victimizations (67%) to 

go unreported to police.

 About a quarter of student (26%) and nonstudent (23%) 

victims who did not report to police believed the incident 

was a personal matter, and 1 in 5 (20% each) stated a fear 

of reprisal.

 Student victims (12%) were more likely than nonstudent 

victims (5%) to state that the incident was not important 

enough to report.

 Fewer than 1 in 5 female student (16%) and nonstudent 

(18%) victims of rape and sexual assault received assistance 

from a victim services agency.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Nonstudentsb Studentsa

Percent reported

Figure 1

Rape or sexual assault victimizations against females ages 

18 to 24 reported to police, by post-secondary enrollment 

status, 1995–2013

Note: Includes only reports to the police, not to other officials or administrators. 

See table 8 for estimates and appendix table 9 for standard errors. 

aIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a 

post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary 

institution.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 2

Comparing the NCVS and other surveys that measure rape and sexual assault in a 

college-age population

The NCVS is one of several surveys used to study rape and 

sexual assault in the general and college-age population. 

In addition to the NCVS, the National Intimate Partner and 

Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) and the Campus Sexual Assault 

Study (CSA) are two recent survey efforts used in research on 

rape and sexual assault. The three surveys differ in important 

ways in how rape and sexual assault questions are asked 

and victimization is measured. Across the three surveys, 

the measurement differences contribute, in part, to varying 

estimates of the prevalence (the number of unique persons in 

the population who experienced one or more victimizations 

in a given period) and incidence (the number of victimizations 

experienced by persons in the population during a given 

period) of rape and sexual assault victimization. 

Although conducted at different times, with different samples 

and reference periods, both NISVS and CSA produced 

prevalence rates that were substantially higher than the NCVS 

victimization and prevalence rates. Based on 2011 NISVS 

data, 2% of all females experienced unwanted sexual contact 

during the prior 12 months.1 The 2007 CSA findings suggested 

that 14% of females ages 18 to 25 who were enrolled in two 

colleges and surveyed in the United States had experienced 

a completed sexual assault since entering college.2 In 

comparison, in 2010 the NCVS showed that 1% of females age 

12 or older experienced one or more rape or sexual assaults in 

the prior year.3 For the period 2007–13, the NCVS victimization 

rate was 4.7 per 1,000 for females ages 18 to 24 who were 

enrolled in post-secondary schools (not shown). 

Several of the key measurement differences that contribute to 

the different estimates include (see Appendix 1)— 

 Survey context and scope. The NCVS is presented as a 

survey about crime, while the NISVS and CSA are presented 

as surveys about public health. The NISVS and CSA collect 

data on incidents of unwanted sexual contact that may not 

rise to a level of criminal behavior, and respondents may 

not report incidents to the NCVS that they do not consider 

to be criminal.

 Definitions of rape and sexual assault. The NCVS, 

NISVS, and CSA target different types of events. The NCVS 

definition is shaped from a criminal justice perspective 

and includes threatened, attempted, and completed 

rape and sexual assault against males and females (see 

Methodology). The NISVS uses a broader definition of 

sexual violence, which specifically mentions incidents 

in which the victim was unable to provide consent due 

to drug or alcohol use; forced to penetrate another 

person; or coerced to engage in sexual contact (including 

nonphysical pressure to engage in sex) unwanted sexual 

contact (including forcible kissing, fondling, or grabbing); 

and noncontact unwanted sexual experiences that do not 

involve physical contact.4 The CSA definition of rape and 

sexual assault includes unwanted sexual contact due to 

force and due to incapacitation, but excludes unwanted 

sexual contact due to verbal or emotional coercion.5

 Question wording. The three surveys use different 

approaches to asking about experiences with rape and 

sexual assault. The NCVS uses a two-phased approach to 

identifying incidents of rape and sexual assault. Initially, 

a screener is administered, with cues designed to trigger 

the respondent’s recollection of events and ascertain 

whether the respondent experienced victimization during 

the reference period. The screener questions are short 

and worded specifically about experiences with rape and 

sexual assault. For instance, “Incidents involving forced or 

unwanted sexual acts are often difficult to talk about. Have 

you been forced or coerced to engage in unwanted sexual 

activity by (a) someone you didn’t know before, (b) a casual 

acquaintance? OR (c) someone you know well?”

The screener is then followed by an incident form that 

captures detailed information about the incident, including 

the type of injury, presence of a weapon, offender 

characteristics, and reporting to police.

Even if the respondent does not respond affirmatively 

to the specific screeners on rape and unwanted sexual 

contact, the respondent could still be classified as a rape or 

sexual assault victim if a rape or unwanted sexual contact is 

reported during the stage-two incident report. 

1Breiding, M.J., Smith, S.G., Basile, K.C., Walters, M.L., Chen, J., & 

Merrick, M.T. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, 

stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization — National 

Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, United States, 2011. 

Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Surveillance Summaries, 63(8), 

1–18. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/

ss6308a1.htm?s_cid=ss6308a1_e#Table1

2Krebs, C.P., Lindquist, C.H., Warner, T.D., Fisher, B.S., & Martin, 

S.L. (2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) study. Final report to 

the National Institute of Justice, grant number 2004-WG-BX-0010, 

document number 221153. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/

pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf

3Measuring the Prevalence of Crime with the National Crime 

Victimization Survey, NCJ 241656, BJS web, September 2013.

4National Research Council. (2014). Estimating the incidence of rape and 

sexual assault. Panel on Measuring Rape and Sexual Assault in Bureau 

of Justice Statistics Household Surveys, C. Kruttschnitt, W.D. Kalsbeek, 

and C.C. House, Editors. Committee on National Statistics, Division 

of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: 

The National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/

openbook.php?record_id=18605&page=R1, p. 86.

5Krebs, C.P., Lindquist, C.H., Warner, T.D., Fisher, B.S., & Martin, S.L. 

(2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) study. Retrieved from https://

www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf, p. 1–3.

(Continued on next page)
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 3

Unlike the NCVS, which uses terms like rape and unwanted 

sexual activity to identify victims of rape and sexual assault, 

the NISVS and CSA use behaviorally specific questions 

to ascertain whether the respondent experienced rape 

or sexual assault. These surveys ask about an exhaustive 

list of explicit types of unwanted sexual contact a victim 

may have experienced, such as being made to perform or 

receive anal or oral sex. 

 Mode and response rates. Collection mode and response 

rates can impact data quality. The NCVS uses in-person 

and telephone interviews to collect data and has an 88% 

person and 74% overall response rate. The 2011 NISVS 

uses random-digit dialing with a 33% response rate. The 

2007 CSA is a self-administered survey with 33% to 43% 

response rates. 

Despite the differences that exist between the surveys, 

a strength of the NCVS is its ability to be used to make 

comparisons over time and between population subgroups. 

The differences observed between students and nonstudents 

are reliable to the extent that both groups responded 

in a similar manner to the NCVS context and questions. 

Methodological differences that lead to higher estimates of 

rape and sexual assault in the NISVS and CSA should not affect 

the NCVS comparisons between groups.

As a result, the differences in the NCVS between student and 

nonstudent rates and variations in the characteristics of student 

and nonstudent victimizations should not be affected by the 

methodological differences impacting the overall level of rape 

and sexual assault victimization in the NCVS. Because the CSA 

only collects data from a student population, and student status 

cannot be identified in the NISVS, the magnitude of difference 

between these subgroups cannot be ascertained. 

Comparing the NCVS and other surveys that measure rape and sexual assault in a 

college-age population (continued)

Figure 2

Rate of rape or sexual assault for females, by age and postsecondary enrollment status, 1997–2013 

Note: Estimates based on 3-year rolling averages centered on the most recent 

year. See appendix table 1 for estimates and standard errors. 

aPer 1,000 females ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a postsecondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bPer 1,000 females ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary institution.

cPer 1,000 females ages 12 to 17 and age 25 or older. 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

0

3

6

9

12

15

Not college-agec

Nonstudentsb

Studentsa

'97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 '10 '11 '12 '13

Rate

or sexual assault (see Methodology). Unless otherwise noted, 

this report presents aggregate estimates of rape and sexual 

assault victimization for the period 1995 through 2013. 

Aggregating data across the period increases the reliability 

and precision of estimates and facilitates comparisons of 

detailed victimization characteristics.

Females ages 18 to 24 had higher rates of rape and 

sexual assault than females in other age groups

From 1997 to 2013, females ages 18 to 24 consistently 

experienced higher rates of rape and sexual assault than 

females in other age brackets (figure 2). In 2013, collegeage females had a similar rate of rape and sexual assault 

regardless of enrollment status (about 4.3 victimizations per 

1,000), while the victimization rate for not college-age (ages 

12 to 17 and 25 or older) females was 1.4 victimizations per 

1,000. For both students and nonstudents ages 18 to 24, the 

2013 rates of rape and sexual assault were not significantly 

different from their respective rates in 1997. During the 

period, the rates for students did not differ significantly from 

one year to the next, though rates in the high years of 2001 

and 2002 were slightly higher than in the low year of 2009. 

For nonstudents, there was more fluctuation. The rates of 

rape and sexual assault victimization for nonstudents were 

significantly higher for the period 1999–2001 than for the 

periods 2005–07 and 2012–13.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 4

Table 1

Rape or sexual assault victimization against females ages 18 to 24, by post-secondary enrollment status, 1995–2013

Studentsa Nonstudentsb Ratio of nonstudent 

Average annual number Rate to student rate c Average annual number Rated

Total 31,302 6.1 65,668 ‡ 7.6 † 1.2

Completed rape 10,237 2.0 26,369 3.1 † 1.5

Attempted rape 7,864 1.5 15,792 1.8 1.2

Sexual assault 9,714 1.9 18,260 2.1 1.1

Threat of rape or sexual assault 3,488 0.7 5,247 0.6 0.9

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. Excludes a small number of female victims ages 18 to 24 with unknown enrollment status (less than1%). The average 

annual population was 5,130,004 for students and 8,614,853 for nonstudents. See appendix table 2 for standard errors. See Methodology for definitions.

† Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 95% confidence level.

‡ Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 90% confidence level. 

aIncludes females ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a post-secondary institution (college or university, trade school, or vocational school).

bIncludes females ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary institution.

cPer 1,000 female students ages 18 to 24. 

dPer 1,000 females ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary institution. 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 1995–2013.

Rate of rape and sexual assault victimization was 

1.2 times higher for nonstudents than students

For the period 1995–2013, females ages 18 to 24 not enrolled 

in a post-secondary school were 1.2 times more likely to 

experience rape and sexual assault victimization (7.6 per 

1,000), compared to students in the same age range (6.1 per 

1,000) (table 1). Nonstudents (65,700) also accounted for 

more than double the number of rape and sexual assault 

victimizations as students (31,300).

The rate of completed rape for nonstudents (3.1 per 1,000) 

was 1.5 times higher than for students (2.0 per 1,000). 

However, there was no significant difference in the rates 

of female students and nonstudents who experienced 

attempted rape or other sexual assault. This suggests that 

differences in the rates of completed rape largely accounted 

for differences in the overall rates of rape and sexual assault 

between students and nonstudents.

Among female student victims ages 18 to 24, a third (33%) 

of the rape and sexual assault victimizations involved 

completed rape, while 2 in 5 nonstudent (40%) female 

victims experienced completed rape (figure 3). The majority 

of student (56%) and nonstudent (52%) victims experienced 

attempted rape or other sexual assault.

Figure 3

Type of rape or sexual assault experienced by female 

victims ages 18 to 24, by post-secondary enrollment status, 

1995–2013

Note: Excludes a small number of female victims ages 18 to 24 with unknown 

enrollment status (less than 1%). The average annual population was 5,130,004 

for students and 8,614,853 for nonstudents. See appendix table 2 for standard 

errors. See Methodology for definitions.

aIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a 

post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary 

institution.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

0

20

40

60

80

100 Threat 

Sexual assault

Attempted rape

Completed rape

Nonstudentsb Studentsa

Percent

11

31

25

33

8

28

24

40
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 5

Rates of other violence 

among college-age females

Across all types of violent crime, female 

students had a lower victimization rate 

than nonstudents (table 2). For the 

period 1995–2013, the rate of violent 

victimization was 1.6 times higher 

for nonstudents (73.1 per 1,000) than 

students (46.3 per 1,000). For both 

students and nonstudents, the rate of 

rape and sexual assault was lower than 

the rate of aggravated and simple assault, 

but higher than the rate of robbery.

Table 2

Rate of violent victimization among females ages 18 to 24, by post-secondary 

enrollment status, 1995–2013

Ratio of nonstudent 

Students to student rates a Nonstudentsb

Violent crime 46.3 73.1 † 1.6

Serious crime 17.8 25.8 † 1.5

Rape and sexual assault 6.1 7.6 † 1.2

Robbery 3.3 5.6 † 1.7

Aggravated assault 8.3 12.5 † 1.5

Simple assault 28.5 47.3 † 1.7

Note: Excludes a small percentage of females ages 18 to 24 with unknown enrollment status (less than 

1%). See appendix table 3 for standard errors. 

† Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 95% confidence level. 

aPer 1,000 females ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a post-secondary institution (i.e., 

college or university, trade school, or vocational school).

bPer 1,000 females ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary institution.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 1995–2013.

Table 3

Rape and sexual assault victimization, by sex of victim and post-secondary enrollment status, 1995–2013

Studentsa Nonstudentsb Ratio of 

nonstudent to 

Sex of victim student rate

Average annual 

number

Percent of 

victimizations Ratec Average annual number

Percent of 

victimizations Ratec

Male 6,544 17% 1.4 2,866 4% † 0.3 † 0.2

Female 31,302 83 6.1 65,668 96 † 7.6 † 1.2

Note: Excludes a small percentage of victims with unknown enrollment status (less than 1%). See appendix table 4 for standard errors. 

† Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 95% confidence level.

aIncludes victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational school).

bIncludes victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary institution.

cPer 1,000 persons ages 18 to 24.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 1995–2013.

Rape and sexual assault victimization among male students

For the period 1995–2013, the rate of rape and sexual assault victimization was lower for males ages 18 to 24 than for females, 

regardless of enrollment status (table 3). College-age male victims accounted for 17% of rape and sexual assault victimizations 

against students and 4% against nonstudents. However, the rate of rape and sexual assault victimization for nonstudents 

(0.3 per 1,000) was a fifth of the rate for students (1.4 per 1,000). Due to the relatively small number of sample cases of male 

victims, this report focuses exclusively on females. Estimates of male rape and sexual assault victimization from the NCVS cannot 

be further disaggregated by victim and incident characteristics. 
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 6

Female students were more likely to experience rape 

or sexual assault victimization away from home, while 

nonstudents were more likely to be at home

For both students and nonstudents, about 70% of rape and 

sexual assault victimizations occurred either at the victim’s 

home or the home of another known person (table 4).

6 A 

greater percentage of the victimizations against students 

(29%) than nonstudents (17%) occurred at the home of a 

known person, such as a friend, relative, or acquaintance. 

In comparison, nonstudents (50%) experienced a greater 

proportion of rape and sexual assaults at their homes 

than students (38%). There were no significant differences 

between the percentages of students and nonstudents 

victimized in other places, including commercial areas, at 

school, or on public transportation. 

The majority (51%) of student rape and sexual assault 

victimizations occurred while the victim was away from 

home pursuing leisure activities or traveling from place to 

place. Nonstudents (50%) were more likely than students 

(31%) to be sleeping or pursuing other activities at home 

when the victimization occurred. Nearly two-thirds of both 

student (65%) and nonstudent (64%) victims experienced 

the victimization at night (from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m.).

Table 4

Location, victim activity, and time of day of the rape/sexual 

assault victimization among females ages 18 to 24, by postsecondary enrollment status, 1995–2013

Studentsa Nonstudentsb

Location where crime occurred 100% 100%

At or near victim’s homec 38 50 †

At or near home of friend/relative/

 acquaintance 29 17 †

Commercial place/parking lot or garage 16 15

Schoold 4 ! 2 !

Open areas/public transportation/othere 13 16

Activity when crime occurred 100% 100%

Traveling to or from other place/shopping 

or errands/leisure activity away from 

home 51 29 †

Sleeping/other activities at homec 31 50 †

Working or traveling to work 10 ! 16 ‡

Attending school or traveling to schoold 5 ! 2 !‡

Other/unknown 3 ! 4

Time of day 100% 100%

Daytime (6 a.m. – 6 p.m.) 33 35

Night (6 p.m. – 6 a.m.) 65 64

Unknown 3 ! 1 !

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. Excludes a small percentage 

of female victims ages 18 to 24 with unknown enrollment status (less than 1%). 

See appendix 5 for standard errors.

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

† Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 

95% confidence level.

‡ Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 

90% confidence level.

aIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a 

post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary 

institution. 

cIn the NCVS, the victim’s home is defined as the location of residence at the time 

of the interview.

dIncludes schools at any educational level regardless of whether the victim was a 

student at the location. 

eIncludes locations such as an apartment yard; a park, field, or playground not on 

school property; a location on the street other than that immediately adjacent to 

home of the victim, a relative, or friend; in a station or depot for bus or train; on a 

plane; or in an airport.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

6In the NCVS, the victim’s home is defined as the location of residence at 

the time of the interview.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 7

About 1 in 10 rape and sexual assault victimizations 

against college-age females involved a weapon

For the period 1995–2013, the offender had a weapon in 

about 1 in 10 rape and sexual assault victimizations against 

female students (11%) and nonstudents (12%) (table 5). 

There were no significant differences between students and 

nonstudents in the percentage of rape and sexual assault 

victimizations in which a weapon was present. 

There was also no significant difference in the percentage of 

student and nonstudent victims who sustained a physical 

injury during the rape and sexual assault victimization. The 

majority of student (57%) and nonstudent (63%) victims 

suffered an injury (e.g, cuts, bruises, internal injuries, broken 

bones, gunshot wounds, or rape-related injuries) during the 

victimization. About 4 in 10 students (40%) and nonstudents 

(37%) who were injured during the victimization received 

medical treatment for their injuries.

More than 3 in 4 student victims of rape and sexual 

assault knew the offender

College-age female victims knew their offender in about 

80% of rape and sexual assault victimizations, regardless 

of their enrollment status (table 6). Nonstudents (34%) 

were more likely than students (24%) to experience rape 

or sexual assault committed by an intimate partner (i.e., 

a former or current spouse, boyfriend, or girlfriend). For 

student victims, offenders were more likely to be friends or 

acquaintances (50%) than intimate partners (24%). Among 

nonstudent victims, there was no significant difference in the 

percentage of rape and sexual assault committed by friends 

or acquaintances (37%) or intimates (34%). About 1 in 5 

rape and sexual assault victimizations among students (22%) 

and nonstudents (20%) were committed by a stranger.

Table 5

Presence of weapon and injury to victim in rape or sexual 

assault victimizations against females ages 18 to 24, by 

post-secondary enrollment status, 1995–2013

Studentsa Nonstudentsb

Involving weapons 100% 100%

No weapon 82% 84%

Weapon 11 ! 12

Don’t know 7 4

Involving injuries 100% 100%

No injury 43% 37

Injury 57 63

Treatment for injuriesc 100% 100%

No treatment 60 63

Any treatment 40 37

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. Excludes a small percentage 

of female victims ages 18 to 24 with unknown enrollment status (less than 1%). 

See appendix table 6 for standard errors.

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

aIncludes females ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a postsecondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary 

institution.

cIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 who were injured during the 

victimization. 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Table 6

Victim–offender relationship in rape or sexual assault 

victimizations against females ages 18 to 24, by postsecondary enrollment status of victim, 1995–2013

Victim–offender relationship Studentsa Nonstudentsb

Stranger 22% 20%

Nonstranger 78% 80%

Intimate partnerc 24 34 †

Relative 2 ! 1 !

Well-known/casual acquaintance 50 37 †

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. Excludes a small percentage 

of victimizations in which the victim-offender relationship, number of offenders, 

or victim enrollment status was unknown. See appendix table 7 for standard 

errors.

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

† Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 

95% confidence level.

aIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a 

post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary 

institution.

cIncludes former or current spouse, boyfriend, or girlfriend.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 8

Similar percentages of student (47%) and nonstudent 

(40%) victims perceived that the offender was drinking 

or using drugs

In the NCVS, victims of rape and sexual assault are asked to 

provide information about the perceived characteristics of 

their offenders. For the period 1995–2013, more than 90% 

of rape and sexual victimizations of female students (95%) 

and nonstudents (92%) were committed by a single offender, 

rather than a group of offenders (table 7). Regardless of the 

victim’s enrollment status, more than half of female victims 

perceived that the offender was white. However, because 

the NCVS did not collect information on the Hispanic 

origin of the offender prior to 2012, Hispanic offenders 

make up an unknown portion of the white, black, and 

other race of offender categories. There were no significant 

differences between students and nonstudents in the race of 

the offender.

For both students and nonstudents, the vast majority of 

offenders were male. However, a male was the offender in a 

greater percentage of female student victimizations (97%) 

than nonstudent victimizations (91%).

There was no difference in the distribution of offender age 

among female student and nonstudent victims. More than 

half of all offenders were perceived to be between the ages of 

21 and 29 in victimizations involving both students (51%) 

and nonstudents (53%). Student victims (25%) were less 

likely than nonstudent victims (36%) to believe that the 

offender was not under the influence of drugs or alcohol 

at the time of the rape or sexual assault. However, about a 

quarter of student (28%) and nonstudent (24%) victims did 

not know whether the offender was using drugs or alcohol.

Table 7

Perceived offender characteristics in rape and sexual assault 

victimizations against females ages 18 to 24, by postsecondary enrollment status of victim, 1995–2013

Offender characteristic Studentsa Nonstudentsb

Number of offenders

One 95% 92%

Two or more 5 ! 5

Unknown -- ! 3 !

Agec

18–20 17% 13%

21–29 51 53

30 or older 23 23

Mixed group 2 ! 3

Unknown 7 7

Sex

Male 97% 91% †

Female 1 ! 3 ! †

Mixed group/unknown 2 ! 5 ! †

Raced

White 63% 60%

Black 19 22

Other/mixed groupe 10 12

Unknown 8 7

Alcohol/drug use

Yes 47% 40%

No 25 36 †

Don’t know/unknown 28 24

Note: See appendix table 8 for standard errors. 

--Less than 0.5%. 

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%. 

†Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 

95% confidence level.

aIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a 

post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary 

institution.

cDetail may not sum to total due to small portion of offenders age 17 or younger.

dPrior to 2012, victims were not asked about perceived Hispanic origin of 

offenders, so Hispanic offenders make up an unknown portion of the white, 

black, and other race of offender categories.

eAmerican Indian, Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian, and other Pacific 

Islander, persons of two or more races, and mixed groups that may include 

persons of any race. 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 9

Table 8

Rape or sexual assault victimizations against females ages 

18 to 24 reported and not reported to police and reasons 

for not reporting, by post-secondary enrollment status, 

1995–2013

Studentsa Nonstudentsb

Reportedc 20% 32% †

Not reported 80% 67% †

Reason for not reporting

Reported to different official 4% ! 14% †

Personal matter 26 23

Not important enough to 

respondent 12 5 †

Police would not or could not do 

anything to help 9 19 †

Did not want to get offender in 

trouble with law 10 10

Advised not to report -- ! 1 !

Fear of reprisal 20 20

Other reason 31 35

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to multiple reasons for not reporting. 

About 0.4% of student and 0.6% of nonstudent victims did not know or did not 

report whether the victimization was reported to police. See appendix table 9 for 

standard errors.

--Less than 0.5%.

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

†Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 

95% confidence level.

aIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a 

post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary 

institution.

cIncludes only reports to the police, not to other officials or administrators. The 

NCVS does not collect information on victim reporting to parties other than law 

enforcement.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Table 9

Receipt of assistance from a victim service agency among 

female rape or sexual assault victims ages 18 to 24, by postsecondary enrollment status, 1995–2013

Studentsa Nonstudentsb

Received assistance 16% 18%

Did not receive assistance 83 82

Note: Detail does not sum to total due to a small percentage of victims who 

did not know whether assistance was received. Excludes a small percentage of 

female victims ages 18 to 24 with unknown enrollment status (less than 1%). See 

appendix table 10 for standard errors. 

aIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a 

post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary 

institution.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

A greater percentage of student (80%) than 

nonstudent (67%) rape and sexual assault 

victimizations were not reported to police

For the period 1995–2013, rape and sexual assault 

victimizations against female students (80%) were more 

likely to go unreported to police, compared to victimizations 

against nonstudents (67%) (table 8). Regardless of 

enrollment status, rape and sexual assault victimizations 

were more likely to go unreported than other types of 

violent crime (not shown). The NCVS does not directly 

collect information about whether victims reported to other 

officials or administrators.

The reasons for not reporting a rape or sexual assault 

victimization to police varied somewhat between students 

and nonstudents. A greater percentage of nonstudent 

(19%) than student (9%) victims stated that they did not 

report to police because the police would not or could not 

do anything to help. Nonstudent victims were also more 

likely to state that they had reported to a different official.7

Student victims (12%) were more likely to state that the 

victimization was not important enough to report, compared 

to nonstudent victims (5%). About a quarter of student 

(26%) and nonstudent (23%) victims who did not report to 

police believed the incident was a personal matter, and 1 in 5 

(20% each) stated a fear of reprisal.

No significant difference in the proportion of student 

and nonstudent victims who received assistance from 

a victim service agency 

Fewer than 1 in 5 female student (16%) and nonstudent 

(18%) victims of rape and sexual assault received assistance 

from a victim services agency for the period 1995–2013 

(table 9). Victim service agencies include public or privately 

funded organizations that provide victims with support and 

services to aid their recovery, offer protection, guide them 

through the criminal justice system process, and assist with 

obtaining restitution. There was no significant difference in 

the proportion of victims who received assistance based on 

enrollment status.

7The NCVS does not ask victims for information about the types of other 

officials to which they may have reported.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 10

Table 10

Rate of rape and sexual assault against female victims ages 

18 to 24, by demographic characteristics and post-secondary 

enrollment status, 1995–2013

Ratio of nonstudent 

Victim characteristic Students to student rate a Nonstudentsb

Age

18–19 6.6 10.4 † 1.6

20–21 5.8 8.9 † 1.5

22–24 6.0 5.4 0.9

Race/Hispanic origin

Whitec 6.7 9.2 † 1.4

Blackc 6.4 6.2 1.0

Hispanic 4.5 4.5 1.0

Otherc,d 3.7 ! 5.9 1.6

Regione

Northeast 5.2 4.1 0.8

Midwest 8.3 11.0 1.3

South 4.7 6.5 ‡ 1.4

West 5.9 8.0 1.4

Location of residence

Urban 6.6 8.7 ‡ 1.3

Suburban 6.0 6.3 1.0

Rural 4.6 8.8 † 1.9

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. See appendix table 11 for 

standard errors. 

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

† Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 

95% confidence level.

‡ Nonstudent estimates are significantly different from student estimates at the 

90% confidence level.

aPer 1,000 females ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a postsecondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational 

school).

bPer 1,000 females ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary institution.

cExcludes persons of Hispanic or Latino origin.

dIncludes American Indian, Alaska Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian, and other 

Pacific Islander, and persons of two or more races.

eIncludes data from 1996 through 2013 because information about region was 

not collected prior to 1996. 

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Among females living in rural areas, the rate of rape 

and sexual assault victimization was almost 2 times 

higher for nonstudents (8.8 per 1,000) than students 

(4.6 per 1,000)

For the period 1995–2013, there were no significant 

differences in the student and nonstudent rates of rape 

and sexual assault for black non-Hispanics, Hispanics, or 

persons of other races (table 10). However, among white 

non-Hispanic females, the rate of victimization was 1.4 times 

higher for nonstudents (9.2 per 1,000) than for students 

(6.7 per 1,000). Among female students, the rate of rape 

and sexual assault was slightly higher for whites (6.7 per 

1,000) than for Hispanics (4.5 per 1,000), but did not differ 

significantly from the rate for blacks (6.4 per 1,000).

The rate of rape and sexual assault was 1.6 times higher 

for females ages 18 to 19 not enrolled in college (10.4 per 

1,000) than for female students in the same age group 

(6.6 per 1,000). Among females ages 20 to 21, the rate of 

victimization was 1.5 times higher for nonstudents (8.9 per 

1,000) than students (5.8 per 1,000). There was no significant 

difference in the rate of rape and sexual assault for students 

and nonstudents ages 22 to 24.

Among female college students there were no significant 

differences in the rate of victimization by age. However, 

among nonstudents, the rate of victimization was lower for 

females ages 22 to 24 (5.4 per 1,000) than for females ages 18 

to 21. 

Nonstudents in the South were slightly more likely (1.4 

times) to experience rape and sexual assault, compared to 

female students in the South. Across other regions of the 

country, there were no significant differences in the student 

and nonstudent victimization rates.

Female students in the Midwest (8.3 per 1,000) had a higher 

rate of rape and sexual assault, compared to students in 

the Northeast (5.2 per 1,000) and South (4.7 per 1,000). 

Similarly, among nonstudents, females in the Midwest had 

a higher rate of victimization than in any other region of 

the country.

In rural areas, the rate of rape and sexual assault was 

1.9 times higher for college-age nonstudents (8.8 per 1,000) 

than students (4.6 per 1,000). Nonstudents in urban areas 

(8.7 per 1,000) also had a slightly higher rate of victimization 

(1.3 times), compared to students in urban areas (6.6 per 

1,000). In suburban areas, there was no significant difference 

in the rate of rape and sexual assault between female 

students (6.0 per 1,000) and nonstudents (6.3 per 1,000). 

Among female students, there was no significant variation 

in rape and sexual assault rates across urban, suburban, and 

rural areas. Among nonstudents, females living in suburban 

areas had the lowest victimization rates.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 11

Methodology

Survey coverage

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is an 

annual data collection conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau 

for the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). The NCVS is a 

self-report survey in which interviewed persons are asked 

about the number and characteristics of victimizations 

experienced during the prior 6 months. The NCVS collects 

information on nonfatal personal crimes (rape or sexual 

assault, robbery, aggravated and simple assault, and personal 

larceny) and household property crimes (burglary, motor 

vehicle theft, and other theft) both reported and not 

reported to police. In addition to providing annual level and 

change estimates on criminal victimization, the NCVS is 

the primary source of information on the nature of criminal 

victimization incidents.

Survey respondents provide information about themselves 

(e.g., age, sex, race and Hispanic origin, marital status, 

education level, and income) and whether they experienced 

a victimization. The NCVS collects information for each 

victimization incident about the offender (e.g., age, sex, race 

and Hispanic origin, and victim–offender relationship), 

characteristics of the crime (including time and place of 

occurrence, use of weapons, nature of injury, and economic 

consequences), whether the crime was reported to police, 

reasons the crime was or was not reported, and victim 

experiences with the criminal justice system.

The NCVS is administered to persons age 12 or older from a 

nationally representative sample of households in the United 

States. The NCVS defines a household as a group of persons 

who all reside at a sampled address. Persons are considered 

household members when the sampled address is their 

usual place of residence at the time of the interview and 

when they have no usual place of residence elsewhere. Once 

selected, households remain in the sample for 3 years, and 

eligible persons in these households are interviewed every 

6 months either in person or over the phone for a total of 

seven interviews.

All first interviews are conducted in person with subsequent 

interviews conducted either in person or by phone. New 

households rotate into the sample on an ongoing basis to 

replace outgoing households that have been in the sample 

for the 3-year period. The sample includes persons living 

in group quarters, such as dormitories, rooming houses, 

and religious group dwellings, and excludes persons 

living in military barracks and institutional settings such 

as correctional or hospital facilities, and persons who 

are homeless.

NCVS measurement of rape and sexual assault 

This report focuses on rape and sexual assault victimizations, 

including completed, attempted, and threatened rape 

or sexual assault. Because of the sensitive nature of the 

topic, measuring the extent of these victimizations is often 

difficult, and best practices are still being determined. For 

the NCVS, survey respondents are asked to respond to a 

series of questions about the nature and characteristics of 

their victimization. The NCVS classifies victimizations as 

rape or sexual assault, even if other crimes, such as robbery 

or assault, occur at the same time. The NCVS then uses the 

following rape and sexual assault definitions:

 Rape is the unlawful penetration of a person against the 

will of the victim, with use or threatened use of force, 

or attempting such an act. Rape includes psychological 

coercion and physical force, and forced sexual intercourse 

means vaginal, anal, or oral penetration by the offender. 

Rape also includes incidents where penetration is from a 

foreign object (e.g., a bottle), victimizations against males 

and females, and both heterosexual and homosexual rape. 

Attempted rape includes verbal threats of rape.

 Sexual assault is defined across a wide range of 

victimizations separate from rape or attempted rape. 

These crimes include attacks or attempted attacks usually 

involving unwanted sexual contact between a victim and 

offender. Sexual assault may or may not involve force and 

includes grabbing or fondling.

The measurement of rape and sexual assault presents many 

challenges. Victims may not be willing to reveal or share 

their experiences with an interviewer. The level and type of 

sexual violence reported by victims is sensitive to how items 

are worded, which definitions are used, the data collection 

mode, and a variety of other factors related to the interview 

process. In addition, the legal definitions of rape and sexual 

assault vary across jurisdictions. The NCVS presents one 

approach to measuring and enumerating these incidents as 

well as other forms of violence and property crime.

Comparison of NCVS and National Center for 

Education Statistics student population statistics

This report focused on females ages 18 to 24, which 

account for about 32% of the total population enrolled in 

post-secondary institutions.8 To assess whether the NCVS 

estimates of the college student population accurately reflect 

the actual population of students, NCVS weighted counts of 

enrolled students were compared to data collected through 

the National Center for Education Statistics’ (NCES) 

Integrated Post-Secondary Education Data System (IPEDS). 

8National Center for Education Statistics.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 12

Table 11

Number of female students ages 18 to 24 enrolled in postsecondary institutions according to the NCVS and NCES, 

1997–2011

National Crime Victimization Survey

Integrated PostSecondary Education 

Year Estimate Data System

Lower 

confidence 

level

Upper 

confidence 

level

1997 4,090,000 3,687,000 4,494,000 4,409,000

1998 4,122,000 3,755,000 4,489,000 4,571,000

1999 4,498,000 4,028,000 4,967,000 4,769,000

2000 4,441,000 4,035,000 4,847,000 4,959,000

2001 4,513,000 4,028,000 4,997,000 5,186,000

2002 4,874,000 4,292,000 5,456,000 5,467,000

2003 5,074,000 4,610,000 5,538,000 5,602,000

2004 5,139,000 4,606,000 5,671,000 5,713,000

2005 5,217,000 4,680,000 5,755,000 5,683,000

2006 5,297,000 4,783,000 5,810,000 5,864,000

2007 5,611,000 5,136,000 6,087,000 5,994,000

2008 5,658,000 5,195,000 6,121,000 6,208,000

2009 5,781,000 5,320,000 6,241,000 6,580,000

2010 6,262,000 5,781,000 6,743,000 6,685,000

2011 6,222,000 5,710,000 6,735,000 6,723,000

Note: See appendix table 12 for standard errors. 

Sources: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 1997–

2011; and National Center for Education Statistics, Integrated Post-Secondary 

Education Data System, 1997–2011.

From 1997 to 2011, the years of available NCES data, the 

NCVS estimates of the female population of college students 

were significantly lower than the NCES estimates in 9 of the 

15 years (table 11). In the years in which the NCVS estimate 

differed from the IPEDS population count, the NCVS female 

student population was about 10% lower.

Nonresponse and weighting adjustments

In 2013, 90,630 households and 160,040 persons age 12 

or older were interviewed for the NCVS. Each household 

was interviewed twice during the year. The response rate 

was 84% for households and 88% for eligible persons. 

Victimizations that occurred outside of the United States 

were excluded from this report. In 2013, less than 1% of the 

unweighted victimizations occurred outside of the United 

States and were excluded from the analyses.

Estimates in this report use data from the 1995 to 2013 

NCVS data files, weighted to produce annual estimates 

of victimization for persons age 12 or older living in U.S. 

households. Because the NCVS relies on a sample rather 

than a census of the entire U.S. population, weights are 

designed to inflate sample point estimates to known 

population totals and to compensate for survey nonresponse 

and other aspects of the sample design.

The NCVS data files include both person and household 

weights. Person weights provide an estimate of the 

population represented by each person in the sample. 

Household weights provide an estimate of the U.S. 

household population represented by each household in the 

sample. After proper adjustment, both household and person 

weights are also typically used to form the denominator in 

calculations of crime rates.

Victimization weights used in this analysis account for the 

number of persons present during an incident and for highfrequency repeat victimizations (i.e., series victimizations). 

Series victimizations are similar in type but occur with such 

frequency that a victim is unable to recall each individual 

event or describe each event in detail. Survey procedures 

allow NCVS interviewers to identify and classify these 

similar victimizations as series victimizations and to collect 

detailed information on only the most recent incident in 

the series.

The weight counts series incidents as the actual number of 

incidents reported by the victim, up to a maximum of 

10 incidents. Including series victimizations in national rates 

results in large increases in the level of violent victimization; 

however, trends in violence are generally similar, regardless 

of whether series victimizations are included. In 2013, series 

incidents accounted for about 1% of all victimizations and 

4% of all violent victimizations. Weighting series incidents 

as the number of incidents up to a maximum of 10 incidents 

produces more reliable estimates of crime levels, while the 

cap at 10 minimizes the effect of extreme outliers on rates. 

Additional information on the series enumeration is detailed 

in the report Methods for Counting High-Frequency Repeat 

Victimizations in the National Crime Victimization Survey

(NCJ 237308, BJS web, April 2012).

Standard error computations

When national estimates are derived from a sample, as with 

the NCVS, it is important to use caution when comparing 

one estimate to another estimate or when comparing 

estimates over time. Although one estimate may be larger 

than another, estimates based on a sample have some degree 

of sampling error. The sampling error of an estimate depends 

on several factors, including the amount of variation in the 

responses and the size of the sample. When the sampling 

error around an estimate is taken into account, the estimates 

that appear different may not be statistically different.

One measure of the sampling error associated with an 

estimate is the standard error. The standard error can vary 

from one estimate to the next. Generally, an estimate with a 

small standard error provides a more reliable approximation 

of the true value than an estimate with a large standard error. 

Estimates with relatively large standard errors are associated 

with less precision and reliability and should be interpreted 

with caution.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 13

To generate standard errors around numbers and estimates 

from the NCVS, the Census Bureau produced generalized 

variance function (GVF) parameters for BJS. The GVFs 

take into account aspects of the NCVS complex sample 

design and represent the curve fitted to a selection of 

individual standard errors based on the Jackknife Repeated 

Replication technique. The GVF parameters were used to 

generate standard errors for each point estimate (e.g., counts, 

percentages, and rates) in this report.

BJS conducted tests to determine whether differences in 

estimated numbers, percentages, and rates in this report 

were statistically significant once the sampling error was 

taken into account. Using statistical programs developed 

specifically for the NCVS, all comparisons in the text were 

tested for significance. The primary test procedure was 

the Student’s t-statistic, which tests the difference between 

two sample estimates. Differences described as higher, 

lower, or different passed a test at the 0.05 level of statistical 

significance (95% confidence level). Differences described 

as somewhat, slightly, or marginally different, or with some 

indication of difference, passed a test at the 0.10 level of 

statistical significance (90% confidence level). Caution must 

be taken when comparing estimates not explicitly discussed 

in this report.

Data users can use the estimates and the standard errors of 

the estimates provided in this report to generate a confidence 

interval around the estimate as a measure of the margin of 

error. The following example illustrates how standard errors 

can be used to generate confidence intervals:

According to the NCVS, for the period 1995–2013, 

the rate of rape and sexual assault for female students 

ages 18 to 24 was 6.1 per 1,000 persons (see table 1). 

Using the GVFs, it was determined that the estimated 

victimization rate has a standard error of 0.56 (see 

appendix table 2). A confidence interval around the 

estimate was generated by multiplying the standard 

errors by ±1.96 (the t-score of a normal, two-tailed 

distribution that excludes 2.5% at either end of the 

distribution). Therefore, the 95% confidence interval 

around the 6.1 estimate is 6.1 ± (0.56 X 1.96) or (5.0 to 

7.2). In others words, if different samples using the same 

procedures were taken from the U.S. female student 

population, 95% of the time the rape and sexual assault 

rate would fall between 5.0 and 7.2 per 1,000 persons.

In this report, BJS also calculated a coefficient of variation 

(CV) for all estimates, representing the ratio of the standard 

error to the estimate. CVs provide a measure of reliability 

and a means to compare the precision of estimates across 

measures with differing levels or metrics. In cases in which 

the CV was greater than 50%, or the unweighted sample had 

10 or fewer cases, the estimate was noted with a “!” symbol. 

(Interpret data with caution. Estimate based on 10 or 

fewer sample cases, or the coefficient of variation is greater 

than 50%.)

Methodological changes to the NCVS in 2006

Methodological changes implemented in 2006 may have 

affected the crime estimates for that year to such an extent 

that they are not comparable to estimates from other 

years. Evaluation of 2007 and later data from the NCVS 

conducted by BJS and the Census Bureau found a high 

degree of confidence that estimates for 2007 through 2013 

are consistent with and comparable to estimates for 2005 and 

previous years. The reports, Criminal Victimization, 2006, 

NCJ 219413, December 2007; Criminal Victimization, 2007, 

NCJ 224390, December 2008; Criminal Victimization, 2008, 

NCJ 227777, September 2009; Criminal Victimization, 2009, 

NCJ 231327, October 2010; Criminal Victimization, 2010, 

NCJ 235508, September 2011; Criminal Victimization, 2011, 

NCJ 239437, October 2012; Criminal Victimization, 2012, 

NCJ 243389, October 2013; and Criminal Victimization, 

2013, NCJ 247648, September 2014, are available on the 

BJS website.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 14

Appendix 1

Differences between the NCVS and other surveys 

measuring rape and sexual assault in a college-age 

population

The NCVS is one of several surveys used to study rape and 

sexual assault in the college-age population. In addition to 

the NCVS, two recent survey efforts used in research on 

rape and sexual assault of college students are the National 

Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) 

and the Campus Sexual Assault Study (CSA). Each of 

these surveys has a different purpose and methodological 

approach than the NCVS. Depending on which of the three 

data sources are used, researchers will generate different 

estimates of the prevalence and frequency of rape and sexual 

assault victimization. Some of these differences include—

 Survey context and scope. In a 2014 report on the 

measurement of rape and sexual assault in the NCVS 

and other federal surveys, the National Research Council 

(NRC) of the National Academies of Sciences described 

survey context as “a major contributor of differences in 

the estimates of rape and sexual assault” across different 

data collections.9 Survey context refers to how the survey 

is described to respondents through notification letters, 

survey questions, or the interviewer. The NCVS is an 

omnibus survey designed to collect information on 

experiences with a broad range of crimes. It is likewise 

presented to respondents as a survey about criminal 

victimization. Because victims of rape or sexual assault 

may not consider their victimization a crime, this context 

could discourage or suppress recall and reporting of those 

incidents.10 Additionally, because the NCVS covers a wide 

range of criminal victimization, the number of screening 

questions related to rape and sexual assault are limited. 

In comparison, the NISVS focused on sexual violence, 

stalking, and intimate partner violence and was presented 

as a survey collecting data on a range of behaviors that 

impact public health. This public health perspective 

may encourage respondents to recall and report on 

experiences that they may not typically think of as 

criminal victimization. It also may result in the collection 

of incidents that may not be considered criminal 

behavior. Similarly, the CSA study focused specifically 

on rape and sexual assault, also from a public health and 

safety perspective.

 Definitions of rape and sexual assault. The NCVS, 

NISVS, and CSA define rape and sexual assault slightly 

differently. The NCVS definition is shaped from a criminal 

justice perspective and includes threatened, attempted, and 

completed rape and sexual assault against males and females 

(see Methodology). Penetration due to coercion is included 

in the definition of rape, but the survey does not specifically 

ask about incidents in which the victim was unable to 

provide consent because of drug or alcohol consumption. 

Because the NISVS is focused on rape and sexual assault 

from a public health perspective, the scope of sexual violence 

included in NISVS is broader than the definitions used in 

the NCVS. In NISVS, sexual violence includes threatened, 

attempted, or completed rape, including incidents in which 

the victim was unable to provide consent due to drug or 

alcohol use; forced penetration of another person; sexual 

coercion, which includes nonphysical pressure to engage 

in sex; unwanted sexual contact, including forcible kissing, 

fondling, or grabbing; and noncontact unwanted sexual 

experiences, which do not involve physical contact.11 The 

CSA definition of rape and sexual assault included unwanted 

sexual contact due to force and due to incapacitation, 

but excluded unwanted sexual contact due to verbal or 

emotional coercion.12

11National Research Council. (2014). Estimating the incidence of rape and 

sexual assault, p. 86.

12Krebs, C.P., Lindquist, C.H., Warner, T.D., Fisher, B.S., & Martin, S.L. 

(2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) study. Retrieved from https://

www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf, p. 1–3.

9National Research Council. (2014). Estimating the incidence of rape and 

sexual assault, p. 96.

10Krebs, C.P., Lindquist, C.H., Warner, T.D., Fisher, B.S., & Martin, S.L. 

(2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) study. Retrieved from https://

www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf, p. 15.

Table 12

Summary of major methodological differences among the NCVS, NISVS, and CSA

NCVS (2013) NISVS (2011) CSA (2007)

Purpose To gather information on victims of crime 

both reported and not reported to police 

in the United States

To gather information related to the 

public health consequences of intimate 

partner violence; sexual violence; and 

related behaviors, such as stalking

To gather data on the prevalence and 

consequences of rape and sexual assault 

against college students

Population surveyed Representative sample of persons age 

12 or older residing in households in the 

United States

Representative sample of adults in the 

United States

Stratified random sample of students at 

two large public universities

Survey scope A range of violent and property crimes Sexual violence, stalking, and intimate 

partner violence

Rape and sexual assault

Data collection mode In-person and telephone interviews Random digit dialing Self-administered, web-based

Response rate 88% person; 74% combined 33% 33% to 43% for males and females at each 

of the two schools

Bounded estimates to control 

for telescoping

Yes No No
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 15

 Longitudinal versus cross-sectional design. Both the 

CSA and NISVS were cross-section data collections 

administered to the sample a single point in time that 

asked about events that occurred during a specified 

reference period. The NCVS is a longitudinal survey 

administered seven times to the same sampled household, 

with questions asked about events occurring since the last 

interview. Longitudinal surveys like the NCVS have the 

advantage of bounding the reference period and ensuring 

that events occurring outside of that reference period are 

not included in estimates. Since research has suggested 

that traumatic events, such as rape and sexual assault, may 

be particularly prone to telescoping (i.e., the reporting of 

events occurring outside of a reference period as though 

they occurred within the specified period), unbounded 

surveys may have artificially high incident rates due to 

events occurring outside of the reference period being 

telescoped in.

 Question wording. The language and ordering of 

questions in a survey may affect whether a respondent 

indicated that an incident occurred. The three surveys 

used different approaches to asking about experiences 

with rape and sexual assault. The NCVS used a twophased approach to identifying incidents of rape and 

sexual assault. Initially, a screener was administered, with 

cues designed to trigger the respondent’s recollection of 

event and ascertain whether the respondent experienced 

victimization during the reference period. The 

screener questions directly focused on rape and sexual 

assault were—

y (Other than any incidents already mentioned), has 

anyone attacked or threatened you in any of these 

ways:... (e) any rape, attempted rape, or other type of 

sexual attack;

y Incidents involving forced or unwanted sexual acts are 

often difficult to talk about. (Other than any incidents 

already mentioned), have you been forced or coerced 

to engage in unwanted sexual activity by (a) someone 

you didn’t know before, (b) a casual acquaintance? OR 

(c) someone you know well?

Even if the respondent did not respond affirmatively to these 

specific screeners on rape and unwanted sexual contact, the 

respondent could still be classified as a rape or sexual assault 

victim if a rape or unwanted sexual contact was reported 

during the stage-two incident report.

Unlike the NCVS which used terms like rape and unwanted 

sexual activity to identify victims of rape and sexual assault, 

the NISVS and CSA used behaviorally specific questions to 

ascertain whether the respondent experienced rape or sexual 

assault. For example, one question on the NISVS survey read: 

y When you were drunk, high, drugged, or passed out 

and unable to consent, how many people ever...

– had vaginal sex with you? By vaginal sex, we mean 

that {if female: a man or boy put his penis in your 

vagina} {if male: a women or girl made you put your 

penis in her vagina}.

– {if male} made you perform anal sex, meaning that 

they made you put your penis into their anus? made 

you receive anal sex, meaning they put their penis 

into your anus?

– made you perform oral sex, meaning that they put 

their penis in your mouth or made you penetrate 

their vagina or anus with your mouth?

– made you receive oral sex, meaning that they put 

their mouth on your {if male: penis} {if female: 

vagina} or anus?13

Questions on the CSA used similar behaviorally specific cues 

to identify victims of rape and sexual assault. 

 Survey mode. The NCVS, NISVS, and CSA used different 

modes of administration. The CSA study was a selfadministered web survey sent via email to students at 

the participating colleges. Self-administered surveys are 

not subject to interviewer effects, but may result in lower 

response rates or confusion over question wording that 

could otherwise be clarified by an interviewer. The NISVS 

was a random digit dialing telephone survey. Telephone 

surveys exclude respondents without a phone, may be 

subject to sampling bias because of multiple phones 

associated with particular households or individuals, and 

may be subject to nonresponse bias due to low response 

rates.14 The NCVS used a multimode design that begins 

with an initial in-person interview, followed by telephone 

follow-ups every 6 months for the 3.5 years the household 

is in the sample. While respondents can develop rapport 

with the interviewer and familiarity with the survey 

questions, the NCVS may be more subject to interviewer 

effects than the CSA or NISVS.

 Population surveyed. The NCVS and NISVS were 

administered to a national sample of noninstitutionalized 

persons, meaning that findings are generalizable to the 

noninstitutionalized U.S. population of persons ages 18 

to 24 with some exceptions. The NCVS uses a householdbased sample, so persons who are homeless are excluded 

from the scope. The NISVS was administered using 

random digit dialing, which excludes persons without a 

telephone. In comparison, the CSA was administered to 

a stratified random sample of students at two large public 

universities.15 Because of the limited population included 

13National Research Council. (2014). Estimating the incidence of rape and 

sexual assault, p. 89.

14National Research Council. (2014). Estimating the incidence of rape and 

sexual assault, p. 102.

15Krebs, C.P., Lindquist, C.H., Warner, T.D., Fisher, B.S., & Martin, S.L. 

(2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) study. Retrieved from https://

www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf, p. 3–11.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 16

in the CSA, it should not be assumed that findings from 

the survey are representative of the population of persons 

ages 18 to 24 or even to college students specifically.

 Survey response rates and bias. Surveys with 

low response rates have an increased potential for 

nonresponse bias compared to surveys with higher 

response rates.16 Nonresponse bias means that those who 

participated in the survey may differ in important ways 

from those who did not participate, which could in turn 

impact the survey findings. In 2013, the NCVS had an 

88% response rate for eligible persons and a combined 

persons and household response rate of 74%, while the 

2011 NISVS had an overall response rate of 33.1%, and 

the CSA response rate was between 33% and 43% for 

males and females at the two schools.17,18

Measuring rape and sexual assault victimization is an 

evolving field. BJS is currently engaged in a variety of 

projects exploring ways to improve the measurement of rape 

and sexual assault through the NCVS and related surveys.

16National Research Council. (2014). Estimating the incidence of rape and 

sexual assault, p. 127.

17Breiding, M.J., Smith, S.G., Basile, K.C., Walters, M.L., Chen, J., & 

Merrick, M.T. (2014). Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, 

stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization — National Intimate 

Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, United States, 2011. Morbidity 

and Mortality Weekly Report, Surveillance Summaries, 63(8). Retrieved 

from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6308a1.htm?s_

cid=ss6308a1_e.

18Krebs, C.P., Lindquist, C.H., Warner, T.D., Fisher, B.S., & Martin, S.L. 

(2007). The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) study. Retrieved from https://

www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/221153.pdf, p. 3-3.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 17

Appendix table 1

Estimates and standard errors for figure 2: Rate of rape or sexual assault for females, by age and post-secondary enrollment 

status, 1997–2013

Estimates Standard errors

Students 

ages 18–24a Nonstudents ages 18–24b Non-college-age femalesc Students ages 18–24a Nonstudents ages 18–24b Non-college-age femalesc

1997 9.2 7.9 3.6 2.9 2.0 0.5

1998 7.8 8.9 3.1 2.9 2.3 0.5

1999 6.0 11.2 3.5 2.1 2.3 0.4

2000 7.1 12.2 2.8 2.3 2.5 0.4

2001 8.8 11.2 3.0 2.7 2.3 0.4

2002 8.9 10.0 2.2 2.7 2.2 0.3

2003 7.6 8.8 2.2 2.4 2.1 0.3

2004 6.5 7.0 1.8 2.4 2.0 0.3

2005 4.7 5.6 1.6 1.9 1.6 0.3

2006 5.4 5.5 1.7 2.1 1.7 0.3

2007 5.5 5.4 1.7 1.8 1.5 0.3

2008 5.2 6.7 1.9 2.1 2.0 0.3

2009 3.7 8.3 1.6 1.5 2.1 0.3

2010 4.1 ! 8.4 1.6 1.8 2.3 0.3

2011 4.6 7.1 1.4 1.7 1.9 0.3

2012 5.9 4.1 1.3 2.0 1.4 0.3

2013 4.4 4.3 1.4 1.4 1.2 0.2

Note: Estimates based on 3-year rolling averages centered on the most recent year.

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

aIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 enrolled part time or full time in a post-secondary institution (i.e., college or university, trade school, or vocational school).

bIncludes female victims ages 18 to 24 not enrolled in a post-secondary institution.

cIncludes females ages 12 to 17 and age 25 or older.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 1995–2013.

Appendix table 2

Standard errors for table 1 and figure 3: Rape or sexual 

assault victimization against females ages 18 to 24, by type 

of victimization and post-secondary enrollment status, 

1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Average annual 

number Rate

Average annual 

number Rate

Total 10,416 0.6 15,603 0.5

Completed rape 5,755 0.3 9,499 0.3

Attempted rape 5,014 0.3 7,230 0.2

Sexual assault 5,599 0.3 7,808 0.2

Threat of rape or 

sexual assault 3,292 0.2 4,064 0.1

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Appendix table 3

Standard errors for table 2: Rate of violent victimization 

among females ages 18 to 24, by type of violence and postsecondary enrollment status, 1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Violent crime 2.5 2.8

Serious violence 1.0 1.1

Rape and sexual assault 0.6 0.5

Robbery 0.5 0.5

Aggravated assault 0.6 0.7

Simple assault 1.8 2.0

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 18

Appendix table 4

Standard errors for table 3: Rape and sexual assault victimization, by sex of victim and post-secondary enrollment status, 

1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Average annual 

number

Percent of 

victimizations Rate

Average annual 

number

Percent of 

victimizations Rate

Male 4,557 2.7% 0.3 2,976 1.0% 0.1

Female 10,416 2.9 2.9 15,603 1.2 0.5

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 1995–2013.

Appendix table 5

Standard errors for table 4: Location, victim activity, and 

time of day of the rape/sexual assault victimization among 

females ages 18 to 24, by post-secondary enrollment status, 

1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Location where crime occurred

At or near victim’s home 3.9% 3.0%

At or near home of friend/relative/acquaintance 3.6 2.1

Commercial place/parking lot or garage 2.8 2.0

School 1.5 ! 0.7 !

Open areas/public transportation/other 2.6 2.0

Activity when crime occurred

Traveling to or from other place/shopping or 

errands/leisure activity away from home 4.1% 2.6%

Sleeping/other activities at home 3.7 2.9

Working or traveling to work 2.2 ! 2.0

Attending school or traveling to school 1.7 ! 0.8 !

Other/unknown 1.3 ! 1.0

Time of day

Daytime (6 a.m. – 6 p.m.) 3.7% 2.8%

Night (6 a.m. – 6 p.m.) 3.9 2.9

Unknown 1.2 ! 0.6 !

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Appendix table 6

Standard errors for table 5: Presence of weapon and injury 

to victim in rape or sexual assault victimizations against 

females ages 18 to 24, by enrollment status, 1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Involving weapons

No weapon 3.2% 2.2%

Weapon 2.4 ! 1.8

Don’t know 2.0 1.1

Involving injuries

No injury 4.0% 2.9%

Injury 4.0 2.8

Treatment for injuries

No treatment 4.0% 2.9%

Any treatment 3.9 2.8

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Appendix table 7

Standard errors for table 6: Victim–offender relationship in 

rape or sexual assault victimizations against females ages 

18 to 24, by post-secondary enrollment status of victim, 

1995–2013

Victim–offender relationship Students Nonstudents

Stranger 3.2% 2.3%

Nonstranger 3.4% 2.4%

Intimate partner 3.4 2.7

Relative 0.9 ! 0.5 !

Well-known/casual acquaintance 4.1 2.8

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Appendix table 8

Standard errors for table 7: Perceived offender 

characteristics in rape and sexual assault victimizations 

against females ages 18 to 24, by post-secondary enrollment 

status, 1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Number of offenders

One 1.9% 1.7%

Two or more 1.6 ! 1.1

Unknown ~ 1.0 !

Age

18–20 2.9% 1.9%

21–29 4.1 3.0

30 or older 3.3 2.4

Other mixed group 1.0 ! 0.8

Unknown 1.9 1.3

Sex

Male 1.4% 1.7%

Female 0.6 ! 0.9 !

Mixed group/unknown 0.9 ! 1.2 !

Race

White 3.9% 2.9%

Black 3.1 2.4

Other/mixed group 2.3 1.8

Unknown 2.0 1.3

Alcohol/drug use

Yes 4.0% 2.9%

No 3.4 2.8

Don't know/unknown 3.6 2.4

~Not applicable. 

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013
RAPE AND SEXUAL ASSAULT VICTIMIZATION AMONG COLLEGE-AGE FEMALES, 1995–2013 | DECEMBER 2014 19

Appendix table 9

Standard errors for figure 1 and 8: Rape or sexual assault 

victimizations against females ages 18 to 24 reported and 

not reported to police and reasons for not reporting, by 

post-secondary enrollment status, 1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Reported 3.1% 3.7%

Not reported 2.4% 2.8%

Reason for not reporting

Reported to different official 1.5 ! 2.3

Personal matter 3.8 2.9

Not important enough to respondent 2.7 1.4

Police would or could not do anything to help 2.4 2.6

Did not want to get offender in trouble with law 2.6 1.9

Advised not to report ~ ! 0.6 !

Fear of reprisal 3.5 2.7

Other reason 4.1 3.3

~Not applicable.

! Interpret with caution; estimate based on 10 or fewer sample cases, or 

coefficient of variation is greater than 50%.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Appendix table 10

Standard errors for table 9: Receipt of assistance from a 

victim service agency among female rape or sexual assault 

victims ages 18 to 24, by post-secondary enrollment status, 

1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Received assistance 2.8% 2.2%

Did not receive assistance 3.1 2.3

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Appendix table 11

Standard errors for table 10: Rate of rape and sexual assault 

against female victims ages 18 to 24, by demographic 

characteristics and post-secondary enrollment status, 

1995–2013

Students Nonstudents

Age

18–19 1.0 1.0

20–21 0.8 1.0

22–24 0.9 0.6

Race/Hispanic origin

White 0.7 0.7

Black 1.4 1.0

Hispanic 1.1 0.7

Other 1.2 1.6

Region

Northeast 1.1 0.8

Midwest 1.2 1.2

South 0.8 0.7

West 1.0 1.0

Location of residence

Urban 0.8 0.8

Suburban 0.8 0.6

Rural 1.2 1.1

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1995–2013.

Appendix table 12

Standard errors for table 11: Number of female students 

ages 18 to 24 enrolled in post-secondary institutions 

according to the NCVS and NCES, 1997–2011

Year National Crime Victimization Survey

1997 204,417

1998 185,721

1999 237,939

2000 205,519

2001 245,489

2002 294,786

2003 235,086

2004 269,608

2005 272,300

2006 260,057

2007 240,618

2008 234,551

2009 233,346

2010 243,656

2011 259,479

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Crime Victimization Survey, 

1997–2011.
Office of Justice Programs

Innovation • Partnerships • Safer Neighborhoods

www.ojp.usdoj.gov

The Bureau of Justice Statistics of the U.S. Department of Justice is the principal federal 

agency responsible for measuring crime, criminal victimization, criminal offenders, victims 

of crime, correlates of crime, and the operation of criminal and civil justice systems at the 

federal, state, tribal, and local levels. BJS collects, analyzes, and disseminates reliable and 

valid statistics on crime and justice systems in the United States, supports improvements 

to state and local criminal justice information systems, and participates with national 

and international organizations to develop and recommend national standards for justice 

statistics. William J. Sabol is acting director.

This report was written by Sofi Sinozich, BJS intern, and Lynn Langton, Ph.D. Jennifer L. 

Truman verified the report.

Jill Thomas and Lynne McConnell edited the report. Barbara Quinn produced the report.

December 2014, NCJ 248471