HUMAN 

TRAFFICKING

Information on Cases 

in Indian Country or 

that Involved Native 

Americans

Report to Congressional Requesters

July 2017

GAO-17-624

United States Government Accountability Office
United States Government Accountability Office

Highlights of GAO-17-624, a report to 

congressional requesters

July 2017

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Information on Cases in Indian Country or that 

Involved Native Americans

What GAO Found

In a survey GAO conducted, 27 of the 132 responding tribal law enforcement 

agencies (LEAs) reported initiating investigations that they considered to have 

involved human trafficking from 2014 to 2016.

Number of Tribal Law Enforcement Agencies that Reported Initiating Investigations Involving 

Human Trafficking from 2014 - 2016a

a

Surveys were deployed in September 2016. Investigations initiated between survey completion and December 31, 2016 would not be 

captured.

Of the 61 major city LEAs that responded to the survey, 6 reported initiating 

human trafficking investigations that involved at least one Native American victim 

during the same period.

Number of Major City Law Enforcement Agencies that Reported Initiating Investigations 

Involving Human Trafficking of Native Americans or Others from 2014 - 2016a

a

Surveys were deployed in September 2016. Investigations initiated between survey completion and December 31, 2016 would not be 

captured.

Tribal and major city LEA respondents indicated that unreported incidents and 

victims’ reluctance to participate in investigations are barriers to identifying and 

investigating human trafficking in Indian country or of Native Americans. Nearly 

half of tribal LEA respondents believe that more human trafficking is occurring in 

their jurisdictions than is reported. Federal agencies offer training resources to 

assist with identifying and addressing human trafficking, some of which are 

specific to tribal LEAs and Native American victims.

Tribal and major city LEAs and victim service providers reported services that 

are available to Native American victims of human trafficking, including shelter, 

substance abuse treatment, and medical and mental health services. However, 

they also reported that victims’ feelings of shame and lack of service provider 

resources can make it difficult for victims to obtain those services. Federal 

agencies offer at least 50 grant programs for which addressing human trafficking 

or assisting Native American crime victims is an allowable use of the funding. View GAO-17-624. To view the supplemental 

material online, click on GAO-17-626SP. For 

more information, contact Gretta L. Goodwin 

at (202) 512-8777 or goodwing@gao.gov.

Why GAO Did This Study

Human trafficking—the exploitation of 

a person typically through force, fraud, 

or coercion for such purposes as 

forced labor, involuntary servitude or 

commercial sex—is occurring in the 

United States and involves vulnerable 

populations. Native Americans are 

considered a vulnerable population 

because of high rates of poverty and 

abuse, and other factors. GAO was 

asked to research human trafficking

taking place in Indian country and 

trafficking of Native American persons

regardless of where they are located in 

the United States.

This report addresses (1) the extent to 

which tribal and major city LEAs have 

encountered human trafficking in 

Indian country or of Native Americans, 

(2) factors affecting the ability of LEAs 

to identify and investigate this specific 

human trafficking, and (3) availability of 

services to Native American victims of 

human trafficking. GAO conducted 

surveys of all known tribal LEAs (203) 

as identified by the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs; 86 major city LEAs; and 315 

victim service provider organizations 

that received fiscal year 2015 

Department of Justice or Department 

of Health and Human Services grants 

that could be used to assist human 

trafficking victims. Survey response 

rates for tribal LEAs, major city LEAs, 

and victim service providers were 65

percent, 71 percent, and 51 percent,

respectively. The web-based surveys 

were deployed in September 2016 and 

asked about human trafficking

investigations initiated or services 

provided from 2014 to 2016. 

GAO is not making recommendations 

in this report.
Page i GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Letter 1

Background 7

Some Law Enforcement Agencies Reported Encountering Human 

Trafficking in Indian Country or of Native Americans, and Some 

Believe It Is Occurring More Often than Reported 10

Law Enforcement Agencies Cited Victim Reluctance to Participate 

in Investigations and Other Factors as Barriers to Investigating 

and Prosecuting Human Trafficking 15

Respondents Reported an Array of Services Available to Native 

American Human Trafficking Victims, but Cited Victims’ 

Feelings of Shame and Lack of Resources as Barriers to 

Obtaining Them 19

Agency Comments 25

Appendix I GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments 26

Related GAO Products 27

Table

Table 1: Services Cited by Survey Respondents as Available to 

Human Trafficking Victims in Indian Country or Who Are 

Native American 20

Figures

Figure 1: Map of Native American Population in the United States, 

according to the 2010 Census 8

Figure 2: Number of Tribal Law Enforcement Agencies that 

Reported Initiating Investigations Involving Human 

Trafficking from 2014 – 2016 11

Figure 3: Number of Major City Law Enforcement Agencies that 

Reported Initiating Investigations Involving Human 

Trafficking of Native Americans or Others from 2014 –

2016 13

Contents
Page ii GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

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United States. The published product may be reproduced and distributed in its entirety 

without further permission from GAO. However, because this work may contain 

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Page 1 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

441 G St. N.W.

Washington, DC 20548

July 24, 2017

The Honorable John Hoeven

Chairman

The Honorable Tom Udall

Vice Chairman

Committee on Indian Affairs

United States Senate

The Honorable John Barrasso

United States Senate

The Honorable Jon Tester

United States Senate

Human trafficking—the exploitation of a person typically through force, 

fraud, or coercion for such purposes as forced labor, involuntary 

servitude, or commercial sex—is occurring in the United States.1

According to the Attorney General’s fiscal year 2015 annual report to 

Congress on human trafficking, traffickers seek out persons perceived to 

be vulnerable.2 Vulnerability comes in many forms, including age 

(minors), poverty, homelessness, chemical dependency, prior 

experiences of abuse, involvement in foster care programs, and lack of 

resources or support systems. Native Americans are a vulnerable 

 1

Federal law generally recognizes two forms of human trafficking—sex trafficking and 

labor trafficking. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA), as amended, 

defines human trafficking under the term “severe forms of trafficking in persons,” which 

means: (1) sex trafficking involving the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, 

obtaining, patronizing, or soliciting of a person for a commercial sex act through force, 

fraud, or coercion, or where the victim has not attained 18 years of age; or (2) labor 

trafficking involving the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a 

person for labor or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of 

subjection to involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery. See Pub. L. No. 

106-386, div. A, § 103, 114 Stat. 1464, 1469-70 (classified, as amended, at 22 U.S.C. § 

7102(4), (9), (10)).

2

Attorney General’s Annual Report to Congress and Assessment of U.S. Government 

Activities to Combat Trafficking in Persons, Fiscal Year 2015. 

Letter
Page 2 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

population.3 For example, according to U.S. Census Bureau statistics, in 

2010, 28 percent of Native Americans were living in poverty, compared to 

15 percent of the general population. Also, according to the 2010 National 

Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, conducted by the Centers 

for Disease Control and Prevention, an estimated 27 percent of Native 

American women had been raped in their lifetime compared to 18 percent 

of American women, overall.4 In addition, Indian children enter foster care 

at twice the rate of all American children.

5

You asked us to research human trafficking in Indian country and of 

Native Americans, including the extent to which law enforcement 

agencies have encountered it and the services that are available to 

victims.6 This report focuses on the perspectives of law enforcement 

agencies and victim service providers that have encountered human 

trafficking in Indian country or of Native Americans regardless of location. 

We issued a companion report in March 2017 that focused on federal 

 3

Throughout this report, we generally use the term “Native American” in reference to an 

American Indian or Alaska Native, including persons who have identified themselves as 

Native American or individuals whom federal agencies have identified as Native American 

based on relevant legal authorities and agency procedures. The terms “Indian” and 

“Alaska Native” are defined under federal law for various purposes. See, e.g., 16 U.S.C. § 

3102(16); 20 U.S.C. § 1059c(b)(1); 25 U.S.C. §§ 1301(4), 1903(3), 2201(2), 4103(10), 

5129; 42 U.S.C. § 13925(a)(13); 43 U.S.C. § 1602(b). The U.S. Census Bureau has noted 

that “American Indian or Alaska Native” refers to a person having origins in any of the 

original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who 

maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment. The Census Bureau collects race data 

according to U.S. Office of Management and Budget guidelines, and these data are based 

on self-identification. People may choose to report more than one race group. People of 

any race may be of any ethnic origin.

4

Black, M.C., Basile, K.C., Breiding, M.J., Smith, S.G., Walters, M.L., Merrick, M.T., Chen, 

J., and Stevens, M.R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey 

(NISVS): 2010 Summary Report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and 

Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

5

GAO, Foster Care: HHS Needs to Improve the Consistency and Timeliness of Assistance 

to Tribes, GAO-15-273 (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 25, 2015).

6

Federal law defines the term “Indian country” as all land within the limits of any Indian 

reservation under the jurisdiction of the U.S. government, all dependent Indian 

communities within U.S. borders, and all existing Indian allotments, including any rights-ofway running through an allotment. See 18 U.S.C. § 1151.
Page 3 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

efforts to address human trafficking in the same population.7 This report 

addresses the following questions:

(1) To what extent have tribal and major city law enforcement 

agencies encountered human trafficking in Indian country or of 

Native Americans?

(2) What factors affect the ability of tribal and major city law 

enforcement agencies to identify and investigate human trafficking 

in Indian country or of Native Americans?

(3) What are the perspectives of tribal and major city law enforcement 

agencies and selected victim service providers regarding the 

availability and accessibility of services for Native American 

human trafficking victims?

For the purposes of this review, our discussion of human trafficking 

relates to: (a) human trafficking that occurs in Indian country (regardless 

of whether the victim is Native American); and (b) human trafficking of 

individuals who are Native American (regardless of whether they were 

trafficked in Indian country or elsewhere).

To address each objective, we conducted surveys of three groups:

• All known tribal law enforcement agencies (LEA) – consisting of 203 

agencies, based on information provided by the Bureau of Indian 

Affairs (BIA) within the Department of the Interior (DOI). The survey 

response rate was 65 percent (132 of 203);

• Major city LEAs – consisting of the 68 U.S. police departments that 

are members of the Major City Chiefs Association (MCCA) and 18 

police departments that are not members of the MCCA, but are from 

the most populous cities in their states.8 The survey response rate 

was 71 percent (61 of 86); and

 7

GAO, Human Trafficking: Action Needed to Identify the Number of Native American 

Victims Receiving Federally-funded Services, GAO-17-325 (Washington, D.C.: Mar. 30, 

2017).

8

MCCA membership is comprised of police departments from: (a) the largest 50 cities in 

the United States based on population as determined by the latest annual census update; 

(b) the largest 7 cities in Canada based on population as determined by the latest annual

census update; and (c) “major metropolitan areas,” meaning those metropolitan areas with 

a residential population of at least 1.5 million, and whose largest law enforcement agency 

is comprised of at least 1,000 sworn law enforcement officers. We did not include police 

departments from Canadian cities in our survey.
Page 4 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

• Victim service providers – consisting of 315 organizations that 

received one or more fiscal year 2015 Department of Justice (DOJ) or 

Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) grants that could 

be used to address human trafficking.9 The survey response rate was 

51 percent (162 of 315).

We selected these three groups to survey because academic literature 

suggested that trafficking of Native Americans tends to occur in Indian 

country or major cities. In our surveys, we asked about the extent to 

which respondents had encountered human trafficking in Indian country 

or of Native Americans, the factors that affect their ability to identify and 

investigate human trafficking crimes, and the services available to Native 

American human trafficking victims, among other things. The surveys and 

a comprehensive tabulation of the results can be viewed in the 

supplemental material for this report, GAO-17-626SP.

10

After the respondents completed the surveys, we identified two tribes 

where both the tribal LEA reported initiating human trafficking 

investigations and a tribally-affiliated service provider reported providing 

services to Native American victims of human trafficking. We held inperson meetings with law enforcement representatives and victim service 

providers from those tribes to gather additional information on their 

experiences in those cases. We also spoke with three county LEAs near 

the tribes we visited that were not part of our major city survey population 

to discuss their interactions with the nearby Native American population. 

Further, we spoke with officials from an additional tribal LEA that reported 

initiating human trafficking investigations. Finally, we met with officials 

from the major city LEA (Minneapolis) that reported conducting the 

majority of the investigations of human trafficking cases involving Native 

American victims. We shared aggregate survey results with officials from 

the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), DOJ, HHS, and DOI to 

obtain their perspectives on issues where survey respondents reported 

an interest in receiving additional assistance from the federal government.

 9

The service provider population included the three organizations that received Project 

Beacon grants in fiscal year 2016 awarded by DOJ’s Office for Victims of Crime. Fiscal 

year 2016 was the first year in which the grants were awarded. Since these grants are 

specifically intended to increase the quantity and quality of services available to Native 

American victims of sex trafficking who live in urban areas, we included them in our scope. 

10GAO, SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL FOR GAO-17-624: Survey Results for Selected 

Tribal and Major City Law Enforcement Agencies and Victim Service Providers on Human 

Trafficking, GAO-17-626SP (Washington, D.C.: July 24, 2017).
Page 5 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

To develop our surveys, we designed draft questionnaires in close 

collaboration with a GAO social science survey specialist and conducted 

pretests with at least three potential respondents from each survey group 

to help further refine our questions, develop new questions, clarify any 

ambiguous portions of the survey, and identify any potentially biased 

questions. We launched our web-based surveys between September 6, 

2016 and September 28, 2016 and received all responses by January 31, 

2017. The survey results reflect information that the respondents had at 

the time they completed the survey. In particular, results for 2016 

reflected the respondents’ experiences to date, and may not include all of 

2016. Login information for each web-based survey was e-mailed to all 

participants, and we sent two follow-up e-mail messages to all 

nonrespondents and subsequently attempted to contact the remaining 

nonrespondents by telephone or e-mail at least twice. Not all survey 

respondents provided answers to all survey questions.

With any survey, error can be introduced with respect to both data entry 

and analysis and we took steps to minimize these errors. For example, 

we used a web-based survey, which enabled respondents to enter their 

answers directly into the electronic questionnaire, eliminating the need to 

key data into a database and minimizing the potential for error. We also 

examined the survey results and performed computer analyses to identify 

inconsistencies and other indications of error. A second independent 

analyst checked the accuracy of all computer analyses.

Variability in the survey results can be introduced by differences among 

the respondents that completed the survey, as well as whether particular 

segments of the population responded to the survey at all. Variability 

could also occur if respondents differed in their interpretation of a 

particular question or in the sources of information available to them to 

answer the question. We included steps in both the data collection and 

data analysis stages to minimize such variability. For example, we 

conducted pretests with law enforcement agencies and victim service 

providers that were part of the survey population to help ensure the 

survey questions were clearly defined. We also followed-up with 

nonrespondents to encourage them to complete the survey, and we 

contacted some respondents to obtain clarity on their answers. In 

addition, we conducted a nonresponse bias analysis to determine 

whether certain segments of the population might have been more or less 

likely to respond to the surveys. In the tribal LEA survey, for example, we 

found that the BIA agencies that provide law enforcement services for 

tribes were less likely to respond than LEAs operated by tribal 

governments. In addition, we looked at the BIA region in which each tribal 
Page 6 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

LEA was located and found that the LEAs in the Eastern Oklahoma and

Midwest regions, for example, were more likely to respond to the survey 

than those located within the Great Plains and Southwest regions.11 For 

the major city LEA survey, respondents whose jurisdictions had larger 

Native American populations were more likely to respond to the survey 

than those with smaller Native American populations. Among victim 

service providers, organizations that received grants for which serving 

human trafficking victims was an allowable use were more likely to 

respond than those that received grants to serve Native American victims 

of any type of crime. Despite the possible limitations of the three surveys, 

the responses still provide insights into the perspectives of the tribal 

LEAs, major city LEAs, and victim service providers that did respond. Our 

results represent only respondents that participated in these surveys. Our 

survey results are not generalizable to the overall population of tribal 

LEAs, major city LEAs, or victim service providers.

Each survey included open-ended questions for respondents to share 

additional information not captured by the answer options that were 

included in the survey. We selected a subset of the open-ended 

questions for a content analysis, a process in which we determined 

categories that reflected the themes present in the open-ended 

responses and tabulated the number of responses that expressed each 

theme. After an analyst completed the initial categorizations for each 

open-ended response, a second independent analyst reviewed those 

categorizations. The reviewing analyst then either confirmed the 

appropriateness of each categorization or discussed the assignment with 

the first analyst and reached an agreement about the appropriate 

categorization.

We conducted this performance audit from June 2016 to July 2017 in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. 

Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain 

sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our 

findings based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence 

obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings based on our audit 

objectives.

 11The BIA regions are: Alaska, Eastern, Eastern Oklahoma, Great Plains, Midwest, 

Navajo, Northwest, Pacific, Rocky Mountain, Southern Plains, Southwest, and Western. 
Page 7 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

As of January 2017, there were 567 federally recognized American Indian 

and Alaska Native tribes and villages. According to BIA, there are 

approximately 326 Indian land areas in the United States that are 

administered as federal Indian reservations or other tribal lands (e.g., 

reservations, pueblos, rancherias, missions, villages, or communities). 

These land areas can generally be referred to as Indian country, which 

spans more than 56 million acres and 36 states, and varies in size, 

demographics, and location.12 Indian country is often in remote, rural 

locations, but may also be located near urban areas. Indian country may 

have a mixture of Native American and non-Native American residents.

According to the 2010 Census, 5.2 million people in the United States 

self-identified as Native American, either alone or in combination with one 

or more other races. Out of this total, 2.9 million people—0.9 percent of 

the U.S. population at the time—identified as Native American alone. At 

the time of the 2010 Census, more than 1.1 million Native Americans 

resided on tribal lands.13 Figure 1 shows where Native Americans resided 

in the United States at the time of the 2010 Census.

 

12Federal law defines the term “Indian country” as all land within the limits of any Indian 

reservation under the jurisdiction of the U.S. government, all dependent Indian 

communities within U.S. borders, and all existing Indian allotments, including any rights-ofway running through an allotment. See 18 U.S.C. § 1151. With certain exceptions, there is 

generally not Indian country in Alaska. In a 1998 decision, the Supreme Court stated that 

the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (Pub. L. No. 92-203, 85 Stat. 688 (1971) 

(classified, as amended, at 43 U.S.C. §§ 1601-1629h)) “revoked ‘the various reserves set 

aside...for Native use’ by legislative or executive action, except for the Annette Island 

Reserve inhabited by the Metlakatla Indians, and completely extinguished all aboriginal 

claims to Alaska land.” Alaska v. Native Village of Venetie Tribal Gov’t, 522 U.S. 520, 523-

24 (1998) (citing 43 U.S.C. §§ 1603, 1618(a)). The court held that the “approximately 1.8 

million acres of land in northern Alaska, owned in fee simple by the Native Village of 

Venetie Tribal Government pursuant to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 43 

U.S.C. § 1601 et seq., is [not] ‘Indian country.’” Id. at 523. In December 2014, the 

Department of the Interior amended its land-into-trust regulations to allow applications for 

land to be taken into trust in Alaska outside of the Metlakatla Indian Community of the 

Annette Island Reserve. Land Acquisitions in the State of Alaska, 79 Fed. Reg. 76,888 

(Dec. 23, 2014) (to be codified at 25 C.F.R. pt. 151). Department of the Interior treats land 

held in trust by the United States on behalf of a federally recognized Indian tribe as Indian 

country. 79 Fed. Reg. at 76,893.

13United States Census Bureau, www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf. 

Background

Indian Country and the 

Native American 

Population
Page 8 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Figure 1: Map of Native American Population in the United States, according to the 2010 Census

Federal law generally recognizes two forms of human trafficking—sex 

trafficking and labor trafficking.14 The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 

2000 (TVPA), as amended, defines human trafficking under the term 

“severe forms of trafficking in persons.”15 Pursuant to the TVPA, as 

 14See GAO, Human Trafficking: Action Needed to Identify the Number of Native American 

Victims Receiving Federally-funded Services, GAO-17-325 (Washington, D.C.: March 

2017); GAO, Human Trafficking: Agencies Have Taken Steps to Assess Prevalence, 

Address Victim Issues, and Avoid Grant Duplication, GAO-16-555 (Washington, D.C.: 

June 2016).

15Pub. L. No. 106-386, div. A, § 103, 114 Stat. at 1470 (classified, as amended, at 22 

U.S.C. § 7102(9)).

Federal, State, and Tribal 

Law on Human Trafficking
Page 9 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

amended, sex trafficking is the recruitment, harboring, transportation, 

provision, obtaining, patronizing, or soliciting of a person for the purpose 

of a commercial sex act.16 Sex trafficking is a “severe” form of trafficking 

when it involves force, fraud, or coercion, or where the victim has not 

attained 18 years of age, in which case force, fraud or coercion are not 

necessary elements.17 The TVPA, as amended, defines labor related 

trafficking generally as the recruitment, harboring, transportation, 

provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through the use 

of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to involuntary 

servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery.18

In addition to federal law, state and tribal-level statutes on human 

trafficking also exist. All 50 states plus the District of Columbia have 

criminal statutes targeting human trafficking.19 State laws differ and may 

include various features that criminalize sex or labor trafficking, or both, or 

lower the burden of proof for sex trafficking of minors by not requiring 

force, fraud, or coercion as elements of the offense, among other things. 

Some tribal governments have also enacted tribal laws that can be used 

to address human trafficking or related criminal acts that could form the 

basis of a human trafficking offense. For example, the criminal code of 

the Snoqualmie Indian Tribe states that “[a] person is guilty of sex 

trafficking when they are knowingly involved in the recruitment, harboring, 

transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for the purposes of a 

commercial sex act, in which the commercial sex act is induced by force, 

 1622 U.S.C. § 7102(10). Under section 7102(4), the term “commercial sex act” means any 

sex act on account of which anything of value is given to or received by any person.

17See id. § 7102(9)(A). The TVPA, as amended, criminalizes the knowing or reckless use 

of force, fraud, or coercion to recruit, entice, harbor, transport, provide, obtain, advertise, 

maintain, patronize, or solicit any person to engage in a commercial sex act. See 18 

U.S.C. § 1591(a). It is also illegal to take such actions, causing a person less than 18 

years of age to engage in a commercial sex act, with or without the use of force, fraud, or 

coercion. Id.

1822 U.S.C. § 7102(9)(B). The TVPA makes it a crime to knowingly provide or obtain 

persons for any labor or services through various means, including force, threats of force, 

physical restraint, or serious harm or threats of such harm. 18 U.S.C. § 1589(a). Further, it 

is a criminal act to knowingly recruit, harbor, transport, provide, or obtain by any means, 

any person for labor or services in violation of chapter 77 of title 18, U.S. Code. Id. at §

1590(a).

19For more detail on states’ efforts to establish a legal framework for combating human 

trafficking, see Polaris Project, A Look Back: Building a Human Trafficking Legal 

Framework, accessed Mar. 27, 2017, https://polarisproject.org/sites/default/files/2014-

Look-Back.pdf . 
Page 10 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such an act 

has not attained 18 years of age.”20 Other tribes that do not have a statute 

specific to human trafficking could seek to address such offenses under 

other statutory provisions covering crimes that may be associated with 

human trafficking such as prostitution, child sex abuse, or sexual 

assault.21

 20Snoqualmie Tribal Criminal Code § 7.21(a) (2012), available at

http://www.snoqualmietribe.us/sites/default/files/criminal_code_7.1_compresses.pdf.

21In our survey, tribal LEA respondents were asked about crimes that they consider to be 

human trafficking, whether or not their tribe has a statute that specifically addresses 

human trafficking. 

Some Law 

Enforcement 

Agencies Reported 

Encountering Human 

Trafficking in Indian 

Country or of Native 

Americans, and 

Some Believe It Is 

Occurring More Often 

than Reported
Page 11 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Of the 132 tribal LEAs that responded to our survey, 27 reported that they 

initiated investigations they considered to have involved human trafficking 

from 2014 to 2016, as shown in figure 2.22

Figure 2: Number of Tribal Law Enforcement Agencies that Reported Initiating 

Investigations Involving Human Trafficking from 2014 – 2016

Note: Surveys were deployed in September 2016. Investigations initiated between survey completion 

and December 31, 2016 would not be captured.

Of the 27 tribal LEAs that reported initiating investigations involving 

human trafficking from 2014 to 2016, 24 provided the number of 

investigations that they conducted during that period. Those 24 reported a 

total of 70 human trafficking investigations from 2014 to 2016, ranging 

 22We did not ask tribal and major city LEAs to use a specific definition of human trafficking 

when responding to our survey; rather, we asked that they respond based on what they 

considered to be human trafficking. We found variation in how LEAs define “human 

trafficking.” Because of that variation, a crime reported as human trafficking by one 

respondent, may not have been reported as such by another. For example, 13 of the 27 

tribal LEA respondents that reported initiating investigations they consider to have 

involved human trafficking included prostitution as a criminal activity they consider to be 

human trafficking while other respondents did not report including prostitution. In addition, 

4 of the 27 tribal LEA respondents included kidnapping as a criminal activity they consider 

to be human trafficking.

Tribal and Major City Law 

Enforcement Agencies 

Reported Encountering 

Human Trafficking in 

Indian Country or of Native 

Americans
Page 12 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

from 0 to 8 investigations for each tribal LEA in each year. Additionally, 22 

of the 24 tribal LEAs reported a total of 58 victims from 2014 to 2016.

23

The number of victims encountered by each LEA ranged from 0 to 7 

victims in each investigation. 24

Whereas we asked tribal LEAs about the number of human trafficking 

investigations they conducted in Indian country, regardless of whether the 

victims were Native American, we asked major city LEAs specifically 

about human trafficking investigations that involved Native American 

victims. Few major city LEAs reported they encountered human trafficking 

from 2014 to 2016 that involved Native American victims. Specifically, 6 

of the 61 major city LEAs that responded to the survey reported initiating 

human trafficking investigations that involved at least one Native 

American victim during that period, as shown in figure 3.

 23Three of these 22 reported 0 victims. The remaining 5 of the total 27 tribal LEAs did not 

report the number of victims from 2014 to 2016.

24Tribal LEAs may have reported an investigation with zero victims if, for example, they 

conducted a sting operation where law enforcement officials posed as traffickers to 

persons seeking to engage in a commercial sex act, but where victims did not actually 

exist.
Page 13 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Figure 3: Number of Major City Law Enforcement Agencies that Reported Initiating 

Investigations Involving Human Trafficking of Native Americans or Others from 

2014 – 2016

Note: Surveys were deployed in September 2016. Investigations initiated between survey completion 

and December 31, 2016 would not be captured.

Of the 6 major city LEAs that reported initiating any human trafficking 

investigations involving Native American victims, 5 also identified the 

number of investigations and victims. Those 5 LEAs reported a total of 60 

investigations involving 81 Native American victims from 2014 to 2016. 

For each investigation, the number of Native American victims ranged 

from 0 to 31. Of those 5 LEAs, one respondent—the Minneapolis Police 

Department—reported the majority of investigations and victims. 

Specifically, the Minneapolis Police Department reported 49 of the 60 

total investigations and 70 of the 81 total victims from 2014 to 2016. In 

meetings with officials from the Minneapolis Police Department, they 

stated that they made a concerted effort, starting in 2012, to meet with 

tribal elders and service providers who worked with the Native American 

population to demonstrate their willingness to investigate human 

trafficking crimes. The officials stated that, following those meetings, the 

number of human trafficking crimes involving Native American victims that 

were reported to the department increased.
Page 14 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Nearly half of tribal LEA respondents (60 of 132) reported that they 

believe human trafficking is occurring on tribal land in their jurisdictions 

beyond what had been brought to their attention.25 Officials from two tribal 

LEAs told us during in-person meetings that in their experience some 

victims do not come forward to report their victimization because they are 

embarrassed or feel ashamed. Several survey respondents also indicated 

that they suspect there is more human trafficking than what has been 

reported to them because of the presence of casinos on their land (14 of 

60). For example, officials from one tribal LEA explained that the tribal 

casino hotel may be used as a venue for sex trafficking. Some 

respondents (13 of 60) suspect that sex trafficking may be occurring as 

part of some of the drug crimes that they investigate. Officials from one 

county LEA we visited near a tribal community told us that officers may 

not recognize that human trafficking is taking place, particularly when it 

occurs alongside another crime like drug trafficking.

Most major city LEA respondents (51 of 61) indicated that they did not 

suspect or did not know whether more human trafficking of Native 

Americans is occurring in their jurisdiction, beyond what has been 

reported to them. Of those 51 that responded, 24 explained that this was 

the consequence of having few, if any, Native Americans in their 

jurisdiction. Ten of the 61 major city LEAs reported that they believe more 

human trafficking of Native Americans is occurring and cited possible 

reasons for the lack of reporting. For example, one noted that human 

trafficking is underreported for all kinds of victims, regardless of ethnicity. 

Another major city LEA with a high concentration of Native American 

constituents reported that there is a social stigma associated with 

reporting crimes to the police among Native Americans. A third major city 

respondent cited the poor relationship between the Native American 

community and police department as a reason for the lack of referrals of 

human trafficking crimes.

 25Of the remaining survey respondents, 43 of 132 reported that they did not suspect more 

human trafficking was occurring on tribal land in their jurisdictions and 29 of 132 reported 

that they did not know.

Some Tribal LEA 

Respondents Believe 

More Human Trafficking Is 

Occurring but Is Not Being 

Reported
Page 15 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

We asked survey respondents about barriers to investigating human 

trafficking cases. Of the 27 tribal LEAs that reported initiating 

investigations involving human trafficking, 18 indicated that they believe 

victims are reluctant to participate in the investigation or prosecution of 

their case. These respondents cited the following reasons for victims’

reluctance to participate in investigations or prosecutions as “somewhat 

common” or “very common”:

26

• The victim fears retaliation from the trafficker (17 of 18),

• The victim is traumatized (16 of 18),

• The victim does not see herself or himself as a victim (16 of 18),

• The victim distrusts law enforcement (14 of 18),

• The victim is sentimentally attached to the trafficker (13 of 18),

• The victim is underage and does not want to return home (10 of 18), 

and

• The victim is addicted to drugs (17 of 18). 27

In addition, one of the tribal LEA respondents told us during an interview 

that, in his experience, drugs are always associated with crimes involving 

human trafficking. On our survey, when asked how frequently tribal LEA 

survey respondents identified other crimes when investigating possible 

human trafficking, 21 of 27 tribal LEAs that initiated human trafficking 

investigations also reported encountering drug distribution and drug 

trafficking “sometimes” or “frequently.”28

 26We asked respondents whether seven reasons that we provided were “very common,”

“somewhat common,” “not at all common,” or “don’t know.” We compiled the list of 

reasons that victims may be reluctant to participate in an investigation based on GAO’s 

previous work and interviews with potential survey respondents. (See, GAO, Human 

Trafficking: Agencies Have Taken Steps to Assess Prevalence, Address Victim Issues, 

and Avoid Grant Duplication, GAO-16-555 (Washington, D.C.: June 28, 2016).) We also 

provided an opportunity for survey respondents to add additional reasons.

27For additional responses, see the supplemental material for this report: GAO, 

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL FOR GAO-17-624: Survey Results for Selected Tribal and 

Major City Law Enforcement Agencies and Victim Service Providers on Human 

Trafficking, GAO-17-626SP (Washington, D.C.: July 24, 2017).

28Other types of crimes that tribal LEAs reported identifying at least sometimes when 

investigating human trafficking include rape or sexual assault (13 of 27), domestic 

violence (12 of 27), and gang activity (12 of 27)

Law Enforcement 

Agencies Cited Victim 

Reluctance to 

Participate in 

Investigations and 

Other Factors as 

Barriers to 

Investigating and 

Prosecuting Human 

Trafficking
Page 16 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Of the 6 major city LEAs that reported having human trafficking 

investigations that involved Native American victims, 5 provided reasons 

that Native American human trafficking victims were reluctant to 

participate in an investigation. These included the victim’s fear of 

retaliation from the trafficker, the victim’s traumatization, or that the victim 

may be discouraged by family from cooperating with an investigation or 

prosecution.

We asked tribal LEAs to identify factors other than the victims’ reluctance 

to participate in an investigation or prosecution that make it difficult for 

them to investigate human trafficking. They provided the following 

narrative responses:

• A lack of resources, such as necessary training, equipment, and 

funding for sex crime investigations (8 of 27);

• Inter-agency cooperation is absent or deficient (6 of 27). For example, 

one respondent reported that there is a lack of cooperation between 

tribal law enforcement and state law enforcement;

• A lack of appropriate laws in place (2 of 27).29

One major city LEA cited a general lack of trust of law enforcement, poor 

police response to reported incidents, and the lack of referrals to police as 

factors that have made it difficult to investigate human trafficking.

Over half of the tribal LEAs that responded to our survey (72 of 132) 

identified one or more types of assistance that they would like to receive 

to help identify and address human trafficking in their jurisdiction.30 These 

were:

• Additional training or technical assistance (50 of 72 respondents). For 

example, officials from one tribal LEA we interviewed expressed 

interest in training that focuses on building trust between tribal and 

non-tribal representatives and helps make tribal law enforcement and 

community members aware of existing federal resources. These 

 29Some tribal LEAs reported that they have the authority to use a tribal statute that 

specifically addresses human trafficking. However, when we prompted these tribal LEAs 

to provide the tribal human trafficking statute, several provided state or federal codes.

30Of the remaining 60 survey respondents, 33 did not respond or responded that they did 

not know, and 25 responded that they were not interested in federal assistance or the 

question was not applicable to them.

Federal Agencies Have 

Efforts Underway to Help 

Tribal and Major City Law 

Enforcement Agencies 

Identify and Address 

Human Trafficking in 

Indian Country or of Native 

Americans
Page 17 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

officials also noted that they wanted training materials that included 

examples of cases that involved Native Americans so as to be more 

relatable to tribal community members and to help build awareness in 

the tribal community.

• Additional funding (28 of 72). For example, several tribal LEAs 

reported an interest in receiving additional federal funding to add staff 

support, including officers in some instances, to assist in 

investigations.

In our discussions with investigative, prosecutorial, and grant-making 

officials from DHS, DOJ, HHS, and DOI, they told us there are a number 

of training resources available that may help LEAs and other members of 

the community identify and address human trafficking of Native 

Americans. They did not, however, identify any sources of funding 

dedicated specifically to supporting additional law enforcement personnel 

to handle human trafficking cases involving Native Americans or victims 

in Indian country.31 We previously reported that federal agencies have 

training initiatives underway to help law enforcement agencies combat 

human trafficking. 32 More recently, federal agency officials we 

interviewed told us about online and in-person training resources that are 

available to tribal LEAs and others. These include:

• A web-based human trafficking training course offered by the Federal 

Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC) that teaches law 

enforcement officers how to recognize human trafficking encountered 

during routine duties; how to protect victims; and how to initiate 

human trafficking investigations. 33

• A scenario-based video also available from FLETC that presents 

indicators of human trafficking and focuses on Native American 

 31Officials at the BIA noted that tribes that receive support through self-determination 

contracts or self-governance compacts may elect to designate some of that money 

specifically to combating human trafficking, but the money provided through the contract 

or compact is not limited to that use. For more information on self-determination contracts 

and self-governance compacts, see GAO-17-325, 14.

32GAO, Human Trafficking: Agencies Have Taken Steps to Assess Prevalence, Address 

Victim Issues, and Avoid Grant Duplication, GAO-16-555 (Washington, D.C.: June 28, 

2016), 24-26.

33This web-based human trafficking training course is law enforcement sensitive and 

available on the FLETC Electronic Learning Portal for law enforcement officials, see 

Human Trafficking Training Program, accessed June 8, 2017, 

https://www.fletc.gov/human-trafficking-training-program. 

Online resources
Page 18 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

victims.34 This video is included in the U.S. Indian Police Academy’s 

basic police officer training program.35

• A video produced by Office for Victims of Crime (OVC), Office on 

Violence Against Women, and the Executive Office for United States 

Attorneys and available online that introduces the issue of human 

trafficking of Alaska Natives.36

• An online manual for hospitality industry employees to provide 

information on how to recognize and report suspected incidents of 

human trafficking. 37

• The U.S. Indian Police Academy offers a two-hour advanced training 

on human trafficking as part of its annual in-service training program 

for current law enforcement officers. The training addresses indicators 

of human trafficking, specific Indian country examples of human 

trafficking, and information on victims’ rights. It is announced on the 

Academy’s e-mail distribution list and is intended for BIA or tribal law 

enforcement officers and victim specialists.

• Human Trafficking in Indian Country course for law enforcement, 

prosecutors, and tribal leaders developed by the Upper Midwest 

Community Policing Institute, with input from a panel of subject matter 

experts that included tribal law enforcement officers, and members of 

tribal victim support organizations, with grant funding from DOJ. DOJ 

officials told us that the course focuses on increasing awareness of 

human trafficking among tribal law enforcement personnel.38 The 

 34Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, FLETC Human Trafficking Video – Native 

American, accessed Mar. 27, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wf2L_OgOybg. 

35The U.S. Indian Police Academy designs and delivers training specific to Indian Country 

Justice Services needs for police officers, criminal investigators, correctional officers, and 

tribal court staff. See also, The U.S. Indian Police Academy, accessed June 7, 2017, 

https://bia.gov/WhoWeAre/BIA/OJS/ojs-training/index.htm.

36Office for Victims of Crime Tribal Multimedia Resources, A Healing Journey for Alaska 

Natives, Video 5: Federal Responses to Sex Trafficking in Alaska, accessed June 8, 2017, 

https://www.ovc.gov/library/healing-journey.html. 

37DHS Blue Campaign, Hospitality Toolkit, accessed June 8, 2017, 

https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/blue-campaign/toolkits/hospitality-toolki

t.pdf. 

38Upper Midwest Community Policing Institute (UMCPI), Human Trafficking in Indian 

Country, accessed June 8, 2017, 

http://umcpi.org/services/anti-human-traffic/human-trafficking-in-native-american-communi

ties/. See also, Anti Human Trafficking Courses, accessed June 8, 2017, 

http://umcpi.org/services/anti-human-traffic/. 

In-person training resources
Page 19 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Institute offers both grant-funded and fee-for-service training on 

human trafficking, and LEAs may contact them directly to host a 

course.

• Human Trafficking in Indian Country Seminar offered by DOJ’s 

National Advocacy Center in Columbia, South Carolina. The training

was offered in 2015 and 2017 and, according to DOJ officials, may be 

offered again in the future.39 The training included both law 

enforcement personnel and service providers and addressed 

identifying victims, investigating trafficking cases, and effectively 

working with Native American victims. To advertise the course, DOJ 

officials sent invitations and applications to colleagues with tribal 

contacts.

 39DOJ’s National Indian Country Training Initiative together with the FBI held this seminar 

in February and March 2017. 

Respondents 

Reported an Array of 

Services Available to 

Native American 

Human Trafficking 

Victims, but Cited 

Victims’ Feelings of 

Shame and Lack of 

Resources as 

Barriers to Obtaining 

Them
Page 20 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

We asked the 42 service providers that reported providing services to 

Native American victims of human trafficking from 2014 to 2016 about the 

services that they provide to trafficking victims or assist victims in 

obtaining. We also asked all of the tribal and major city LEA survey 

respondents about the types of services available to Native American 

human trafficking victims in their jurisdictions. As shown in table 1, 

services that were frequently cited as available by all three survey groups 

were shelter, substance abuse treatment, and medical and mental health 

services.40

Table 1: Services Cited by Survey Respondents as Available to Human Trafficking Victims in Indian Country or Who Are 

Native American

Service

Number of service 

providers that reported that 

they directly provide or 

assist in obtaining the 

service (out of 42)

Number of tribal law 

enforcement agencies that 

reported the service is 

available to victims in their 

jurisdiction (out of 132)

Number of major city law 

enforcement agencies that 

reported the service is 

available to victims in their 

jurisdiction (out of 61)

Emergency shelter 41 95 57

Medical health services 40 111 55

Transportation 40 97 49

Accompanying victims to appointments 

or hearings 40 93 48

Relocation assistance 40 43 34

Substance abuse treatment services 39 111 52

Legal services 39 86 50

Mental health service 38 108 53

Native American healing methods 37 83 5

Life skills training 37 77 38

Employment assistance 35 78 36

Job training 35 71 34

Long term housing/shelter 35 46 42

Literacy education 33 68 31

Source: GAO analysis of survey data. │ GAO-17-624

 40We compiled the list of potential services for human trafficking victims based on 

interviews with potential survey respondents and our review of related research on human 

trafficking of Native Americans.

Service Providers and 

Tribal and Major City LEAs 

Reported that Shelter, 

Substance Abuse 

Treatment, Health, and 

Other Services Are 

Available to Native 

American Victims of 

Human Trafficking
Page 21 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

According to a Trafficking in Indian country brief released by the National 

Congress for American Indians, many Native American human trafficking 

victims felt they owed their survival to Native cultural practices and they 

wished for Native healing approaches to be integrated with mainstream 

services.41 HHS’s Administration for Native Americans also reported that 

there is a need for culturally relevant and trauma-informed approaches 

when assisting victims.42 We asked the survey respondents about the 

availability of Native American healing methods and 37 of the 42 victim 

service providers reported that they directly provide or assist victims in 

obtaining them.43 Similarly, a majority of responding tribal LEAs (83 of 

132) reported that traditional Native American healing methods are 

available to trafficking victims in their jurisdictions. In addition, 5 of the 61 

major city LEAs that responded to the survey reported that Native 

American healing methods were available in their jurisdiction; 48 of the 61 

did not know whether those healing methods would be available.

When asked about the health impacts that they observe among Native 

American human trafficking victims, the 42 service providers that reported 

providing services to that population most frequently cited:

• substance abuse (35 of 42) and

• mental health issues (35 of 42).

Some of the victim service providers also cited specific examples of 

these, including “drug and alcohol addiction,” “drug use withdrawal,”

“hopelessness,” “depression,” “suicidal tendencies,” and “post-traumatic 

stress disorder (PTSD).” The services that were cited by survey 

respondents as available to trafficking victims do appear to align with 

these health impacts.

 41National Congress of American Indians Policy Research Center, Human Trafficking: 

Trends and Responses across Indian Country, Tribal Insights Brief, Spring 2016. 

42Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Native Americans, 

Recognizing and Responding to Human Trafficking among American Indian, Alaska

Native and Pacific Islander Communities. (Jan. 29, 2015) (Revised Nov. 18, 2015). 

43Some of the Native American healing methods cited by survey respondents included 

talking circles, sweat lodges, drum circles, smudging, spiritual counseling, traditional 

medicine, and mentoring by tribal elders and spiritual leaders.
Page 22 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Shame felt by victims at seeking services was the most frequently cited 

barrier by tribal and major city LEAs and by victim service providers that 

had encountered Native American human trafficking victims. Specifically, 

35 of the 42 victim service providers, 9 of the 27 tribal LEAs, and 4 of the 

6 major city LEAs cited “victims felt ashamed to seek services” as a 

“major barrier.”44 One tribal LEA respondent noted that their tribe “has a 

very private culture.” This respondent also stated that, “[k]eeping things 

quiet is very common and children are often taught to not tell about 

situations such as sexual assault and trafficking.” This sentiment was 

repeated during our interviews with tribal officials, who noted that victims 

frequently feel pressure to not report crimes or seek services in the 

interest of keeping family and personal matters private.

Survey respondents and tribal officials also reported additional barriers for 

victims in obtaining services. These included:

• Victims see their circumstances as an acceptable or inevitable 

lifestyle - 8 of 27 tribal LEA respondents, 3 of 6 major city LEA 

respondents, and 27 of 42 victim service providers indicated that this 

was a “major barrier” to accessing services for Native American 

human trafficking victims.

• Drug addiction – Although our survey did not include drug addiction in 

the list of barriers to obtaining services, tribal and major city law 

enforcement officials and service providers with whom we met told us 

that drug addiction also keeps victims from seeking assistance. One 

major city LEA official also told us that Native American perpetrators 

tend to use drugs as a tool to control Native American victims. 

Representatives of one tribal victim service provider stated that they 

try to provide drug treatment assistance to individuals who seek it but 

ultimately cannot force them to pursue it.

 44Each survey group was presented a set of potential barriers to obtaining services and 

asked to indicate whether each was a “major barrier,” “minor barrier,”, or “not a barrier.”

Service Providers and 

Tribal and Major City LEAs 

Most Frequently Reported 

Shame Felt by Victims as 

a Barrier to Obtaining 

Needed Services
Page 23 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

The barrier to providing services to human trafficking victims that service 

providers identified most frequently was inadequate funding or resources, 

which was reported by 15 of the 42 service providers that reported 

assisting Native American trafficking victims. In addition to insufficient 

funding, tribal service providers cited a lack of personnel, emergency 

shelter, and legal aid resources to meet the needs of the trafficking 

victims that they wished to serve.

When asked whether the federal government could support their efforts to 

serve Native American human trafficking victims, service providers most 

frequently cited two areas in which the federal government could support 

them. Those areas were:

• Additional funding for service provider programs (19 of 42 

respondents) – respondents cited a need for funding for additional 

staff and funding specifically targeted to tribal programs;

• Additional information to increase public awareness and training for 

service providers and LEAs (12 of 42) – respondents cited the need 

for training focused on identifying victims for both service providers 

and tribal LEAs, how to develop tribal trafficking statutes, and training 

on how to work with Native American populations effectively.

In our companion report, we reported on several federal funding and 

training initiatives intended to support law enforcement and victim service 

provider efforts to combat human trafficking.45 At least 50 DOJ, HHS, and 

DHS grant programs mention addressing human trafficking or assisting 

Native American crime victims as an allowable use of funding. The grant 

programs also identify tribal entities as eligible recipients. These grant 

programs provide funds for activities including collaboration, victim 

services, public awareness, and training or technical assistance. For 

example, in fiscal year 2016, OVC established the Project Beacon grant 

programs that exclusively address human trafficking of Native Americans. 

These grants are intended to increase the quantity and quality of services 

available to Native American victims of sex trafficking who live in urban 

areas. In addition, HHS awarded Domestic Victims of Human Trafficking 

grants to organizations, including those assisting Native American victims 

 45GAO, Human Trafficking: Action Needed to Identify the Number of Native American 

Victims Receiving Federally-funded Services, GAO-17-325 (Washington, D.C.: Mar. 30, 

2017).

Service Providers Cited 

Lack of Resources as a 

Barrier to Providing Victim 

Services; Federal 

Agencies Offer Resources 

and Training to Support 

Services to Trafficking 

Victims
Page 24 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

of human trafficking, to assist them in delivering trauma-informed, 

culturally relevant services.46

Federal agencies have also developed training programs designed to 

help service providers identify and work with trafficking victims. These 

programs include:

• National Indian Nations Conference –This biennial conference 

focuses on developing programs that serve the needs of crime victims 

in Indian country, including human trafficking victims. It is intended for 

victim service providers, judicial and law enforcement personnel, and 

others who work with crime victims. Past conferences have included 

sessions on working with Native American human trafficking victims 

and developing tribal human trafficking laws.47

• Trainings for tribal health care providers related to domestic and 

sexual violence – HHS’s Indian Health Service (IHS) provides these 

trainings through its Tribal Forensic Health Care web site.48 IHS 

officials told us that they are also planning to offer a webinar for victim 

service providers specifically related to working with Native American 

human trafficking victims in the fourth quarter of 2017.49

• Stop. Observe. Ask. Respond. (SOAR) to Health and Wellness 

program – a 3-hour online or in-person training program designed by 

HHS’s Office on Trafficking in Persons and Office on Women’s Health 

for service providers to respond to human trafficking.50 While not 

exclusively tailored to Native American human trafficking victims, HHS 

officials reported that training participants have served Native 

Americans in urban, rural, and reservation communities.

 46For a list of grant programs and the allowable uses of the grant funds, see our 

companion report, GAO-17-325, app. II.

47Department of Justice, 15th National Indian Nations Conference Justice for Victims of 

Crime, accessed June 1, 2017, http://www.ovcinc.org/home. 

48Tribal Forensic Healthcare, Online Courses, accessed June 1, 2017, 

http://www.tribalforensichealthcare.org/page/OnlineCourses.

49IHS officials said that the webinar will be posted to 

http://www.tribalforensichealthcare.org/page/Webinars and will be archived for future 

viewing.

50Department of Health & Human Services, SOAR to Health and Wellness Training, 

accessed June 1, 2017, 

https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/training/soar-to-health-and-wellness-training.
Page 25 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

In addition to these trainings, federal officials noted that grant funds can 

be used to support service providers in organizing training and technical 

assistance for other service providers to address human trafficking in 

Indian country or of Native Americans.

We provided a draft of this report to DHS, DOI, DOJ and HHS for their 

review and comment. DOJ and HHS provided technical comments, which 

we incorporated as appropriate. DHS and DOI did not have additional 

comments.

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact 

me at (202) 512-8777 or goodwing@gao.gov. Contact points for our 

Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on 

the last page of this report. GAO staff who made key contributions to this 

report are listed in appendix I.

Gretta L. Goodwin

Director, Homeland Security and Justice

Agency Comments
Appendix I: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

Page 26 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Gretta L. Goodwin, (202) 512-8777 or goodwing@gao.gov

In addition to the contact named above, Joy Booth, Assistant Director; 

Christoph Hoashi-Erhardt, Analyst-in-Charge; Kristy Love; Marie Suding; 

Steven Rocker; Paulissa Earl; Marycella Mierez; Maria Surilas; Camille 

Henley; Eric Hauswirth; Susan Hsu; Claire Peachey; Sasan J. “Jon” 

Najmi; Michele Fejfar; David Blanding; and Susan Baker made significant 

contributions to this report.

Appendix I: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

GAO Contact

Staff 

Acknowledgments
Related GAO Products

Page 27 GAO-17-624 Native American Human Trafficking

Human Trafficking: Action Needed to Identify the Number of Native 

American Victims Receiving Federally-funded Services. GAO-17-325. 

Washington, D.C.: March 30, 2017.

Human Trafficking: State Has Made Improvements in Its Annual Report 

but Does Not Explicitly Explain Certain Tier Rankings or Changes. 

GAO-17-56. Washington, D.C.: December 5, 2016.

Human Trafficking: Agencies Have Taken Steps to Assess Prevalence, 

Address Victim Issues, and Avoid Grant Duplication. GAO-16-555. 

Washington, D.C.: June 28, 2016.

Human Trafficking: Actions Taken to Implement Related Statutory 

Provisions. GAO-16-528R. Washington, D.C.: May 26, 2016.

Human Trafficking: Implementation of Related Statutory Provisions, Law 

Enforcement Efforts, and Grant Funding. GAO-16-748T. Washington, 

D.C.: June 28, 2016.

Human Trafficking: Oversight of Contractors’ Use of Foreign Workers in 

High-Risk Environments Needs to Be Strengthened. GAO-15-102. 

Washington, D.C.: November 18, 2014.

Human Trafficking: A Strategic Framework Could Help Enhance the 

Interagency Collaboration Needed to Effectively Combat Trafficking 

Crimes. GAO-07-915. Washington, D.C.: July 26, 2007.

Human Trafficking: Monitoring and Evaluation of International Projects 

Are Limited, but Experts Suggest Improvements. GAO-07-1034. 

Washington, D.C.: July 26, 2007.

Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to 

Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad. GAO-06-825. Washington, 

D.C.: July 18, 2006.

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