LATVIA

Riga

LATVIA

•Cesis

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve 

mission objectives. The fundamental 

information contained within will help 

you understand the cultural dimension 

of your assigned location and gain skills 

necessary for success (Photo: A 

Latvian musician plays a popular folk 

instrument - the dūdas (bagpipe), photo 

courtesy of Culture Grams, ProQuest).

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General” provides the 

foundational knowledge you need to operate effectively in any 

global environment with a focus on the Baltic States.

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Latvian society. It applies culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge of your deployment location. This 

section is designed to complement other pre-deployment 

training (Photo: A US 

jumpmaster inspects a 

Latvian paratrooper during 

International Jump Week 

hosted by Special 

Operations Command 

Europe).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/ or

contact the AFCLC Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Latvia
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture,

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs and 

values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings to 

the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the story 

of George Washington admitting to having chopped down a 

cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the premium

Americans place on 

personal honesty and 

leadership integrity

(Photo: US and Latvian 

military personnel take a 

break during 

reconstruction of an 

orphanage in Latvia).

Force Multiplier

The military services 

have learned through experience the importance of 

understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar 

world order that dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, 

today the US military is operating in what we classify as 

asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the notion of crosscultural interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement 

strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive feature 

in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on influencing 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
constructive change through peaceful means where possible. 

We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local nationals to 

focus on developing stable political, social, and economic 

institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively influence 

their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to 

our culture and 

encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture 

into the future.

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories – what 

the Air Force refers to 

as “cultural domains” –

in order to better understand the primary values and 

characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally competent military 

member can use these domains – which include kinship, 

language and communication, social and political systems,

among others (see chart on next page) – as tools for 

understanding adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a 

US military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture (Photo: Trakai Castle in 

Lithuania).

Social Behaviors across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
although agrarian societies generally produce their own food for 

limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider your 

worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good 

and bad, defines right and 

wrong behavior, and 

assigns a value of 

meaningful or 

meaningless. Our beliefs 

form the fundamental 

values we hold to be true,

regardless of whether 

there is evidence to 

support these ideas. 

Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared 

views about world order and how the universe was physically 

and socially constructed (Photo: Winter in Estonia). 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, 

right or wrong depends on 

our deeply-held beliefs we 

started developing early 

in life that have helped

shape our characters. 

Likewise, these values 

are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape 

our behavior patterns and 

our self-identities. Because cultural beliefs are intensely held, 

they are difficult, though not impossible, to change (Photo: US 

and Estonian soldiers).

GENERAL

CULTURE
Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence certain behaviors and also 

serve to rationalize those behaviors. Therefore, knowledge of 

individual or group beliefs can be useful in comprehending or 

making sense of their activities. We will use the iceberg model 

for classifying culture to illustrate two

levels of meaning, as depicted. 

Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the 

submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and 

symbols (top level). It is important to 

recognize, though, that the parts of 

culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above the 

waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews 

may present behaviors that are contrary to our own beliefs, 

particularly in many regions where US forces deploy. Your ability 

to suspend judgment in order to understand another perspective

is essential to establishing 

relationships with your hostnation counterparts. The

ability to withhold your 

opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a 

member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often 

involves taking an alternate perspective when interpreting 

others’ behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success (Photo: US and Lithuanian paratroopers prepare to 

parachute from a Black Hawk helicopter during a multinational 

exercise near Rukla, Lithuania).

As you travel through the Baltic States, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the region. 

What follows is a general description of 12 cultural domains 

which are used to frame those commonalities. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of the 

past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can act 

as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain community origins or 

important events that 

are not verifiable or 

which occurred prior 

to written language

(Photo: A relief 

depicting Lithuanians 

battling Teutonic 

Knights). 

The Baltic States 

comprise 3 countries 

bordering the Baltic 

Sea on the northern edge of Europe: Estonia, Latvia, and 

Lithuania. While archaeological finds suggest people inhabited 

the region as early as 9000 BC, scientists believe that FinnoUgric tribes from the east settled in the region beginning around 

3000 BC. In present-day Lithuania, these tribes were later joined 

by Indo-Europeans around 2000 BC. As their populations 

increased, all groups erected permanent, loosely-allied 

settlements sustained by agricultural production. By the 1st 

century AD, inhabitants began participating in trade networks 

that extended as far as the Roman Empire. 

Beginning in the 9th century, Vikings from Scandinavia began 

raiding the Baltic coast, and by the 11th century, Russian armies 

made several fruitless invasions of the region. In the 12th 

century, German knights tasked by the Pope with Christianizing

the inhabitants of the Baltic region began to conquer parts of 

Estonia and Latvia, consolidating their rule over both by end of 

the 13th century. While they did not always retain political control 

in subsequent centuries, the Germans dominated commerce in

the region and significantly impacted Estonian and Latvian 

government, religion, and education as well as the social and 

justice systems.

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
By contrast, Lithuania successfully repelled the German 

invaders, forming a powerful independent state and later uniting 

with neighboring Poland to control large parts of the region 

through the 18th century. Unable to stave off persistent attacks 

from Russia, all 3 Baltic States fell to Russian rule by the late 

18th century. Over the next nearly 120 years, Russia quelled 

nationalist movements and imposed a series of measures 

intended to promote Russification, including suppressing the 

Estonian, Latvian, and

Lithuanian languages and 

increasing Russian 

immigration to the region. 

All 3 Baltic States 

experienced substantial 

conflict during World War 

I (WWI). Estonia and 

Latvia then engaged in 

wars of independence leading to several decades of peace. By 

contrast, as a diminished independent state Lithuania remained 

embroiled in territorial disputes through the onset of World War 

II (WWII). For that war’s duration, all 3 States became a 

battleground. During its wartime occupation of the region, Nazi 

Germany murdered, deported, or confined most of the region’s 

sizeable Jewish population and other “undesirables.” The brunt 

of the regime’s atrocities occurred in Latvia and Lithuania

(Photo: German troops in Riga in 1916). 

At war’s end, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) 

absorbed all 3 nations, imposing its communist system, 

nationalizing private companies, and seizing private property. 

During their almost 50 years of occupation, the Soviets deported 

thousands of ethnic Baltic residents to prison camps in Russia. 

Furthermore, it murdered those deemed a threat to the new 

system, and repressed national languages, religions, and 

cultures while rapidly expanding industrial development. 

Upon independence from the USSR in 1991, the 3 Baltic States 

transformed their governments into democracies. They adopted 

market capitalism and pivoted away from Russian influence to 

aggressively pursue political, military, and economic integration 

with the West. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

All 3 Baltic States are parliamentary republics led by an elected 

Prime Minister, President, and 1-chamber legislature. Executive 

power is vested in the Prime Minister, who leads the government 

together with the support of a Cabinet of Ministers. Presidential 

powers are largely ceremonial.

Within all 3 states, political parties typically form coalitions in 

order to attain and maintain power. The States have successfully 

created stable, well-run democracies, although they face several 

challenges to maintaining the democratic process. Weakened by 

overly broad and at times differing ideological profiles, some 

ruling political coalitions dissolve shortly after consolidation, in 

some cases resulting in frequent changes of government. In 

addition, corruption is particularly pervasive in Latvia and 

Lithuania, permeating all levels of government. 

Following their independence from the USSR, the Baltic States 

formed strong regional and international alliances, such as 

joining the European Union (EU) and NATO. Today, the Baltic 

States are representative

examples of democracy and 

post-Soviet economic 

growth, serving as 

advocates of a democratic 

and pro-Western agenda in 

the region (Photo: Former 

US Defense Secretary 

Robert Gates meets with the 

3 Baltic State defense ministers in NATO headquarters in 

Brussels, Belgium). 

The Baltic States rely heavily on NATO, the EU, the US, and 

other international allies to augment their military capabilities 

and to defend against external, state-level threats. Recently, 

rising tensions with neighboring Russia dominate the Baltic 

States’ security environment. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
In 2015, the US supported the Baltic States with $100 million in 

aid to build defense capacity and improve border security as part 

of a $3.4 billion “European Reassurance Initiative” fund intended 

to bolster NATO readiness in Europe. Meanwhile, NATO agreed 

to increase the number of troops permanently stationed in the 

region, despite fears that the increase in military presence might

escalate tensions with 

Russia (Photo: City 

square in Riga, Latvia). 

The 3 states exhibit 

differing levels of ethnic 

diversity. In Lithuania, 

84% of the population are 

ethnic Lithuanians, while 

Poles are the largest 

minority group at just 7%. 

By contrast, the native populations of Estonia and Latvia are 

significantly lower, 69% and 61% respectively. In both countries, 

ethnic Russians comprise about 25% of the population. 

Relations between ethnic groups are somewhat strained in 

Estonia and Latvia where citizenship laws, language policies, 

and social divisions create some friction. Amid recently rising 

tensions with Russia, there is some concern that the Russian 

government may attempt to capitalize on the existing tension by 

provoking social unrest among those countries’ sizeable 

Russian-speaking populations. 

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They also 

create social unity by defining shared identity, offer individuals 

peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in a society.

Residents of the Baltic region were among Europe’s last to adopt 

Christianity. By the late 13th century, German knights had 

consolidated their rule over Estonia and Latvia and converted 

most residents to Christianity. By contrast, an independent 

Lithuanian state repelled the German crusaders, maintaining its 

pagan belief system as the state religion through the early 15th 

GENERAL

CULTURE
century, when it finally adopted Christianity. Of note, many 

residents of all 3 Baltic States were slow to embrace the new 

religion, continuing their pagan practices or incorporating them 

into Christian worship for centuries (Photo: A church in Vilnius, 

Lithuania). 

As the Protestant 

Reformation swept 

across Europe in the 

early 16th century, 

both Estonia and 

Latvia saw the 

Catholic Church 

supplanted by 

Lutheranism. By 

contrast, a Catholic 

counter movement in Lithuania prevented Protestantism from 

taking root. Throughout the centuries, Russian Orthodoxy and 

Judaism also enjoyed some growth in the region. The Lithuanian 

Jewish community grew significantly, eventually becoming a 

regional center of learning that lasted until the annihilation of the 

community during WWII. 

During their years of occupation, the Soviets repressed all 

religious institutions and activities in the States. Further, the 

Soviets deported clergy while destroying or converting churches 

and synagogues for other uses. Over the years, membership in 

religious organizations decreased significantly.

Today, some 60% of Estonians and 44% of Latvians remain 

religiously unaffiliated. Among Estonians who do claim an 

affiliation, about 14% are Orthodox Christian and about 8% are 

Lutheran. Observant Latvians are about evenly split among 

Lutherans, Roman Catholics, and Orthodox Christians. By 

contrast, the majority of Lithuanians claim some religious 

affiliation, with about 77% identifying as Roman Catholics. 

While Estonia and Latvia are home to small Muslim communities 

predominantly comprised of recent migrants, Lithuania’s Muslim 

population traces back to the early 14th century. In all 3 Baltic 

States, small Jewish communities are experiencing some 

growth.

GENERAL

CULTURE
4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong emotional 

bonds that influence them to treat each other like family 

members (often called “fictive kin”). 

Family life and relationships are fundamental elements of the 

Baltic States’ societies. Baltic residents maintain strong 

connections with both immediate and extended family members, 

supporting them emotionally and financially while providing 

physical care for elderly or ailing kin if needed. Most households 

comprise 2 parents and their children, with many families 

choosing to have just 1 or 2 children. 

The urbanization of the Baltic States’ society has changed family 

life in recent years, as urban inhabitants marry later or cohabit 

(live in long-term, unmarried partnerships) and have fewer 

children. Consequently, while the traditional family structure 

remains common in rural areas, urban households are usually 

smaller and family 

structures more diverse

(Photo: US Air National 

Guard member shows 

her camera to a Latvian 

boy).

While historically 

marriage was an 

arranged union, today 

both genders choose 

their own partners. Generally, couples spend several years 

dating, with some living together and having children before 

choosing to marry. Divorce carries little social stigma and is 

increasingly prevalent among younger generations. In fact, in all 

3 Baltic States, divorce rates are among the highest in Europe 

and comparable to the US.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept that 

refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
The Baltic States’ historically patriarchal culture privileged men

as leaders and providers. While some of the region’s inhabitants 

continue to adhere to traditional values – men as breadwinners 

and heads of household and women as mothers and wives –

gender roles and responsibilities began to transform during the 

Soviet era and are changing more rapidly in some families, 

particularly among younger generations in the post-Soviet 

period (Photo: US 

Army soldier talks with 

Estonian counterparts

during a multinational 

military exercise). 

Although women hold

equal rights under the 

law, they continue to 

face barriers to their 

full participation in 

political, social, and 

economic spheres. 

For example, women often face discrimination in the hiring and 

promotion process, routinely receive lower wages than their 

male counterparts, and suffer from sexual harassment in the 

workplace. 

Notably, Baltic women 

suffer from one of 

Europe’s highest rates 

of gender based 

violence (GBV), both 

domestic abuse and 

rape. Considered 

private matters, many 

incidences of GBV go 

unreported. If cases 

are reported, the 

prosecution of perpetrators is rare. (Photo: US Marines perform 

for trainees at the Baltic Guard Youth Camp).

Despite these social and cultural barriers, the number of women 

serving in elected, diplomatic, and judicial positions across the 

region has increased over the past few decades. Baltic women 

GENERAL

CULTURE
hold a significant proportion of national and sub-national 

government positions, maintaining similar participation rates in 

their national legislatures as women in the US. Additionally, in 

all 3 states women have held prominent leadership positions, 

including Prime Minister, President, and Speaker of Parliament.

Although homosexuality is legal in all 3 Baltic States, many

residents consider homosexuality, bisexuality, and transgender 

activity inappropriate.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and non-verbally.

Following years of linguistic repression under Soviet rule, all 3 

Baltic States named their native languages as official languages 

following their 1991 independence. Notably, while Estonian is 

derived from the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic language 

family, Latvian and Lithuanian belong to the Baltic branch of the 

Indo-European language 

family (Photo: Estonian 

street signs). 

In Estonia and Latvia, 

about 1/3 of the 

population speak 

Russian as their first 

language. Russian is also prominent in Lithuania, where over 

1/2 of residents speak it as a 2nd language. Russian was the 

predominant language in education, in media, and government 

proceedings during the Soviet era but no longer the region’s 

main language. The Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian 

languages have supplanted Russian in each Baltic State, though 

many residents continue to use it in business and everyday life.

All 3 Baltic States are also home to native speakers of other

languages including Polish, Ukrainian, Finnish, Belarusian, 

German, and other regional languages. English has become 

increasingly popular over the last several decades and is spoken 

widely in business and by young and urban Baltic communities.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Generally, Baltic residents demonstrate respect, privacy, and 

candor in their communication practices. They typically do not 

display strong emotions in public, tend to be reserved in all 

communications, feel comfortable in silence, and prefer direct 

speech. Residents usually share personal information only with 

family or close friends and rarely engage in small talk with 

strangers. 

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and health 

requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, behaviors, 

and symbols that have meaning to the community). This 

knowledge transfer may occur through structured, formalized 

systems such as schools or through informal learning by 

watching adults or peers. 

Prior to the 16th century, most formal education in the Baltic 

States occurred in religious institutions, where clergymen taught 

religion and basic literacy. By the 17th century, all 3 states saw 

the founding of universities and other centers of academic 

learning. By the late 1800s, Estonia and Latvia had developed 

extensive public school 

networks and reported

some of the world’s 

highest literacy rates. 

The governments of all 3 

states established free 

and compulsory public 

education systems in the 

early 20th century. The 

subsequent Soviet occupation brought significant changes to 

schools and curricula. During that period, the education system 

promoted Soviet ideology and communist tenets and

emphasized Russian culture and language. It also prioritized 

vocational instruction, while simultaneously suppressing Baltic 

languages and culture (Photo: Lithuanian students).

Today, the Baltic States invest heavily in education, often at 

rates higher than in the US. School enrollment rates are high 

GENERAL

CULTURE
and nearly 100% of Baltic residents are literate. Challenges to 

the education system include low teacher salaries, rural school 

closures, and disputes over the languages of instruction in 

Russian and other minority language schools. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that are 

not directly linked to physical survival. In most western cultures, 

people tend to be preoccupied with strict time management, 

devoting less effort to relationship-building. Inhabitants of the 

Baltic States generally adhere to these habits, valuing 

punctuality, a sense of responsibility, and efficient and candid 

professional interactions. Within their personal lives, most Baltic 

residents invest significant time in establishing and maintaining 

relationships.

In Estonia and Latvia business tends to move at about the same 

pace as in the US, although more slowly in Lithuania. Like 

Americans, Estonians and Latvians prefer to build some trust 

before doing business but may engage in business activities 

without cultivating deep professional relationships. By contrast, 

Lithuanians typically invest time in building relations before 

conducting business. In all 3 Baltic States, residents rarely 

discuss their personal lives in business settings. 

Concepts of personal 

space are similar to those 

in the US. For example, 

while conversing, Baltic 

residents stand at about 

the same distance as 

Americans, but may 

touch less often and 

display less affection 

when in public.

The Baltic States enjoy a number of public holidays. Besides the 

major Christian holidays of Christmas and Easter, residents 

typically celebrate their nation’s Independence Day. Further, all 

3 states mark mid-summer with a public holiday and various 

festivities (Photo: US Marines enjoy a cookout with members of 

the Baltic Guard Youth Camp in Latvia).

GENERAL

CULTURE
9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of the Baltic States’ forms of artistic expression,

including their art, architecture, dance, music, and theater,

reflect the region’s rural peasant past, history of foreign 

occupations, and modern global trends.

Traditional music and dance in the Baltic States typically explore 

topics like nature, the seasons, rural life, and love. Folk songs 

usually include multiple melodic verses, while dances are slow 

and intricate. Under Russian and Soviet influence, classical 

ballet became a common form of dance across the region. The 

Baltic States’ commitment to and enjoyment of song and dance 

are expressed every 4-5 years in national choir and dance 

festivals – a tradition that dates to the late 19th century. Rock, 

jazz, and classical music are popular contemporary genres

(Photo: Latvian song 

and dance festival). 

Rural landscapes and 

geometric designs are 

common themes in 

visual arts. Baltic

residents also practice 

a variety of traditional 

handicrafts and folk art which reflect the region’s rich peasant 

history, while incorporating Christian or ancient pagan motifs. 

Soccer and basketball are the most widely followed sports in the 

region. During the winter, residents also enjoy ice hockey, crosscountry skiing, ice skating, bobsledding, and luge. 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Baltic dishes tend to be simple, hearty, and mildly seasoned. 

Most meals are based on a staple – often potatoes, buckwheat, 

oats, or barley. Dark bread is particularly popular across the 

region and accompanies almost every meal. Although beer is 

GENERAL

CULTURE
the most popular alcoholic beverage, Baltic residents also enjoy 

unique herbal liquors and vodka. 

Health in the Baltic States has improved significantly in recent 

decades, as evidenced by decreased infant and maternal 

mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most residents have 

access to free, state-funded healthcare. 

The region’s healthcare systems face several challenges such 

as rapidly growing 

healthcare expenditures 

associated with a shrinking 

yet aging population. 

Further, although residents 

generally have access to 

modern healthcare, the 

quality of care varies 

between urban and rural 

areas. Rural clinics are often 

burdened with heavy 

workloads, equipped with outdated medical equipment, and 

understaffed (Photo: Latvian rye bread). 

Non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases account for the majority 

of all deaths in the region. In all 3 Baltic States, cardiovascular 

diseases are overwhelmingly the leading causes of death, 

followed by cancers and respiratory diseases. In addition, Baltic 

residents suffer from high rates of suicide and alcohol poisoning. 

Notably, Baltic men experience significantly higher mortality 

rates than Baltic women primarily because they are more likely 

to smoke, abuse alcohol, and follow unhealthy diets.

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services.

Prior to the 19th century, the states maintained largely agrarian 

economies, with many residents engaged in subsistence 

agriculture or laboring as serfs on German-owned holdings.

During the 1800s, Russian occupiers began to industrialize the 

region. These efforts intensified during the Soviet era, when the 

government implemented a centrally-controlled economic 

GENERAL

CULTURE
system, established large collective farms, and developed 

various heavy industries.

Following their independence from the USSR in 1991, all 3 Baltic 

States immediately sought to de-centralize their economies and

adopt liberal, free market systems. The transition initially caused 

their economies to contract, but by the mid-2000s, all 3 nations 

experienced significant growth. While the Baltic States’ 2004 

accession to the EU spurred further economic expansion, the 

2008 global financial crisis slowed investment in the region and 

reduced demand for exports. As a result, the Baltic economies 

experienced severe contraction.

Reacting quickly, all 3 Baltic States enacted strict internal 

reforms, allowing their economies to recover within just a few 

years. Today, the Baltic States maintain stable, diversified 

economies, characterized by large, successful service industries 

and modernized industrial sectors. In fact, experts predict that 

each state will maintain 

current economic 

growth rates, which 

exceed the EU 

average, through 2020. 

Despite these positive 

trends, the Baltic 

States’ economies face

some challenges, 

including increasing 

income inequality, 

relatively low wages and productivity, corruption, outward 

migration of skilled workers, and ongoing unemployment (Photo: 

Skyline of Tallinn, Estonia).

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. While all 3 Baltic States have invested heavily into 

extensive road networks and efficient public transportation 

systems, Lithuania maintains the best roads. While only about 

1/5 of roads are paved in Estonia and Latvia, over 4/5 of 

Lithuanian roads are paved. Railways connect major cities 

throughout the region, and a planned high-speed train will soon 

GENERAL

CULTURE
connect the Baltic States with Europe. Because Latvia and 

Lithuania geographically separate Russia from Western Europe, 

both nations serve as important regional transit and trade hubs. 

Modern information technology is widely available throughout 

the Baltic States. Cell phones are extremely popular while about

80% of residents regularly use the Internet. Estonia enjoys the 

region’s highest rates of Internet connectivity and usage, 

especially among the younger generations.

Estonia is a net energy exporter, producing most of its energy 

from its large shale oil industry. By contrast, both Latvia and 

Lithuania heavily rely on oil and natural gas imports from Russia 

to meet domestic demand. Looking to decrease their 

dependence on Russia, both nations are actively diversifying 

their energy sources 

with the goal of 

reducing Russian 

imports in coming 

years. 

Renewable energy is 

an important resource 

in Latvia and 

Lithuania, where it 

comprises about 39% 

and 20% of energy consumption respectively. Although Estonia 

is currently generating the least amount of renewable energy in 

the region, it plans to increase renewable consumption by 2020 

(Photo: US Army and Lithuanian Land Forces personnel 

participate in airborne exercises near Rukla, Lithuania).

The EU is by far the region’s largest trading partner. As EU 

members, the Baltic States enjoy a stable currency, a secure 

business environment, and free movement of goods and 

services. In addition, the Baltic States maintain important trade 

relationships with Russia. Regional trade among the Baltic 

States is also strong.

Now that we have introduced general concepts that characterize 

the Baltic States’ society at large, we will focus on specific 

features of society in Latvia.

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

Dominated by foreign powers for centuries, Latvia has had an 

eventful and often tragic history, with its population suffering 

famine, plague, war, invasion, and occupation. Latvia gained 

independence twice in its history, first between the 2 World 

Wars and again in 1991. Since then, Latvia has transformed its 

government into a democracy, adopted market capitalism, and 

joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the 

European Union (EU).

Early History

Archaeological finds indicate people inhabited Latvia as early 

as 9000 BC. Scientists believe Finno-Ugric tribes, ancestors of 

Estonians and Latvia’s Liv ethnic group, moved into the area 

from the east between 3000 and 2000 BC. Beginning around

2000 BC, members of Baltic tribes, including Latgals, Zemgals, 

and Cours, among others, began arriving from the south. 

Gradually, the Baltic 

peoples, ancestors of 

most modern-day 

Latvians, constructed a 

network of loosely-allied 

communities defended by 

wooden forts.

From early times, the 

Baltic tribes participated 

in extensive trade 

networks extending from Scandinavia through Latvia as far as 

modern-day Istanbul (Turkey). The region’s main export was 

amber, a fossilized tree resin often made into jewelry (see p. 1

of Aesthetics and Recreation). In the 1st century AD, Roman 

historian Tacitus described the Latvian Baltic tribes as farmers 

living by the “amber sea,” a reference to the abundance of 

amber that washed up on Latvia’s Baltic Sea shores (pictured).

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

This participation in trade networks also brought conflict. 

Beginning in the 11th century, Russian armies made several 

unsuccessful invasions of the region. While the Russians could 

not gain permanent control of any territory, their Orthodox 

Christian religion did penetrate parts of eastern Latvia (see p. 2

of Religion and Spirituality). 

German Conquest

In the mid-12th century, merchants from the Holy Roman 

Empire entered the Baltic region. Intent on Christianizing Baltic 

inhabitants, a German Catholic monk convinced the Pope, the 

leader of the Roman Catholic Church in Rome, to name him 

bishop of Latvia in 1188. Although unsuccessful in converting 

the region’s inhabitants to Catholicism, the Germans inspired 

the Pope’s religious crusade against all northern European 

non-Christians starting in 1193 

(see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality).

In response, the German bishop in 

Latvia, Albert of Buxhoevden, 

established the Order of the 

Brothers of the Sword, an 

organization of German knights 

with the mission of Christianizing 

the inhabitants of the Baltic region, 

by sword if necessary. In 1201, 

Albert led a fleet of ships from the 

Baltic Sea up the Daugava River 

to the site of a small fishing village 

inhabited by members of the Liv ethnic group. There, Albert 

founded Riga, modern-day Latvia’s capital, and named the 

region “Livland” or in Latin “Livonia” (present-day southern 

Estonia and Latvia) (Photo: Statue of Albert on the façade of 

the Riga Dome Cathedral).

While the mission of the Order was ostensibly religious, the 

knights’ own motivation was primarily economic. From Riga, 

the knights advanced across the countryside, conquering local

communities, confiscating residents’ land, and dividing up the 

spoils among themselves. By 1207, the knights had conquered 

the Livs and by 1214 most of the Latgals. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The knights encountered stiff resistance as they moved south. 

Following a 1236 defeat against a combined ZemgalianLithuanian army, the knights 

merged with the German

Teutonic Order and 

reorganized locally as the 

Livonian Order. The knights 

continued their subjugation 

efforts, defeating the Cours in 

the 1260s. After defeating the 

Zemgals – the sole remaining 

Latvian resistance – in 1290, 

the Livonian Order 

consolidated its rule over 

Latvia and neighboring 

Estonia. The resulting 

Livonian Confederation,

centered at the Latvian town of Cēsis, was the dominant 

political force for the next 300 years (Illustration: An 1870 

depiction of Livonian Order knights).

Many Germans proceeded to acquire vast agricultural estates, 

where they forced Latvians to labor. To prevent local 

resistance, some Germans built castles across the region. 

Other Germans settled in newly-established towns as 

merchants and craftsmen. Several Latvian towns, including 

Riga, Cēsis, and Ventspils, profited as members of the 

Hanseatic League, a powerful trading confederation of northern 

European towns and cities. 

Although they did not always have political control, the 

Germans became entrenched in Latvia and would dominate 

commerce and have a hand in government, religion, education, 

and the justice system for the next 500 years. This domination 

would include the widespread use of the German language 

until 19th-century Russification efforts (see “The Latvian 

National Awakening” below).

By the early 16th century, most of the Latvian ethnic groups 

had merged into a single group, the Letts or Latvians, while a 

few pockets of Latgals and Livs with their distinct languages 

(see p. 2 of Language and Communication) remained in the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

west. Further, most Latvians were serfs, semi-free peasants

legally bound to the land they worked for German estateholders.

Concurrently, the Livonian Confederation was beginning to 

weaken. As major landowners, the Livonian Order and the 

Catholic Church were competitors, while the city of Riga with its 

own privileges and power was hostile to both. When the 

Protestant (Lutheran) Reformation reached Latvia from its 

origins in Germany in the 1520s (see p. 3 of Religion and 

Spirituality), Riga’s inhabitants embraced the new faith, seeing 

it as a way to avoid the financial obligations demanded by the 

Catholic Church. In 1554, the leader of the Livonian Order 

declared Protestantism the state religion.

The Livonian War

Split by religious dissent, the Livonian Confederation was 

unable to defend itself against its neighbors. Beginning with an 

invasion by Russian Tsar (ruler) Ivan IV (“the Terrible”) in 1558, 

the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Russia 

began a 25 year-long struggle for control that resulted in the 

desertion of farms, 

famine, and significant 

bloodshed in the region. 

In 1562, the Livonian 

Order was dissolved. To 

avoid Russian rule, the 

German residents in 

Latvia’s West sought 

protection from PolandLithuania. The resulting 

Duchy of Courland remained an autonomous region of PolandLithuania for over 200 years. Poland-Lithuania also acquired 

Riga in 1581 (Illustration: A woodcut of Riga from 1547).

Then in 1592, Sweden intensified its territorial struggles with 

Poland-Lithuania, with most fighting occurring on Latvian soil. 

In 1621, Sweden invaded Livonia and captured Riga, then 

captured most of Livonia in 1625. Sweden’s claims to Livonia 

were formalized with a 1629 treaty that allowed PolandLithuania to retain Latgale in southeastern Latvia as well as 

Courland in the west.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Partition between Sweden and Poland-Lithuania

The Swedes ruled Riga and northern Latvia for much of the 

17th century, a period of relative progress and enlightenment. 

Although the Germans retained their holdings while the local 

Latvian peasants 

continued to toil 

as serfs, the 

Swedish rulers 

began to 

implement certain 

reforms to 

improve the serfs’ 

lot. Besides 

making significant 

improvements in 

education (see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge), the Swedes 

banned torture and even abolished serfdom in limited areas 

(Illustration: Riga in 1650).

Meanwhile, in western Latvia, the Duchy of Courland flourished 

as a part of Poland-Lithuania, developing a shipbuilding 

industry and its own navy. Further, the Duchy acquired its own 

colonies on the Caribbean island of Tobago and in Gambia, 

West Africa.

The Great Northern War

Rebuffed by Sweden and Poland-Lithuania in the 16th century, 

Russia renewed its efforts to acquire Baltic territory in the 18th

century. Along with allies Poland-Lithuania and Denmark, 

Russia, under the leadership of Tsar Peter I (“the Great”),

attacked the Swedes simultaneously from the east and west in 

1700. Although the Swedes were able to repel these initial

attacks and occupy Courland for a short while, a reformed 

Russian army re-invaded and proceeded to devastate large

areas of Livonia. 

In 1710, the Swedes surrendered Riga to the Russians, then 

formally ceded all of their Baltic provinces to Russia, including 

holdings in northern Latvia in 1721. Following a series of late 

18th-century partitions of Poland-Lithuania, Russia acquired 

additional holdings in Latvia, including Latgale and Courland. 

By 1795, Russia controlled the entire Latvian territory.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Russian Rule

Like the Swedes before them, the Russians allowed the 

Germans to retain their estates, even engaging them to keep 

order among the Latvian peasantry and collect taxes. Further,

some Germans acquired prominent positions in Russia’s 

military and government administration. Consequently, power 

and capital remained firmly within German and Russian hands.

Beginning in the 1810s, the Russians began to introduce 

measures to restrict serfdom in Latvia and by 1819 had 

abolished the practice outright. Because these changes did not 

grant Latvians property-owning rights, there was ongoing 

unrest among the peasantry. Eventually, the peasants received 

the right to purchase land, and in 1861 serfs were emancipated

across the entire Russian Empire. 

The Latvian National Awakening

During this period, the absence of war and famine spurred 

population growth. Many Latvians became independent 

farmers as rights to property were extended to them. As 

Latvians acquired access to better education, many moved to 

towns, prospering due to 

industrialization. By the mid-19th

century, a small Latvian middle 

class was developing in Riga and 

other towns.

Against this backdrop of national 

prosperity and new opportunities 

for Latvians, a sense of Latvian 

national consciousness arose. Led 

initially by Latvians who had 

moved to towns seeking work, the 

National Awakening Movement was formed in 1856 with the 

aim of promoting a Latvian national identity by supporting the 

study of Latvian history and culture and the use of the Latvian 

language (Photo: Krišjānis Valdemārs, considered the father of 

the Awakening Movement).

Some Latvians began organizing political movements that were 

hostile to both the Russian regime and German control of 

business and agriculture. For example, the leader of the “New 

Latvians” group founded the first Latvian newspaper in 1862. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Further, scholars began to collect and publish Latvian folk 

songs, stories, and poems to provide Latvians a sense of their 

own cultural history (see “Myth” below). 

Meanwhile, the 1871 founding of the German Empire caused 

considerable worry among the Russians, especially given the 

strong German presence in Latvia. Consequently, the end of 

the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries marked a period 

of rigid Russification in Latvia. For example, the Russians took 

control of the Latvian school system and attempted to replace 

German with Russian as the national language.

The 1905 Russian Revolution

The 1905 Russian Revolution with its mass political and social 

unrest spread quickly to Latvia. For the first time, activists 

openly discussed the idea of an independent Latvian state. 

Other Latvians took more extreme actions, participating in 

strikes, uprisings, and disturbances which killed scores of

Russians and Germans. 

With the support of German residents, the Russian army 

moved in to restore order, executing 1,000-2,000 Latvian 

rebels and deporting another 2,000 to Siberia. With this 

merciless crackdown, a whole generation of nationalist activists 

was silenced. To discourage further unrest, the Russian 

government resettled 20,000 Germans from other parts of the 

Russian Empire and 

increased Russian 

immigration to Latvia.

World War I (WWI) and 

the Russian Revolution 

of 1917

With the start of WWI in 

1914, Latvia quickly 

became a battleground 

between Germany and 

Russia. Following the Germans’ invasion of western Latvia in 

spring 1915, the Russians gave the Latvians permission to 

form their own military units led by Latvian officers. These 

troops, called the Latvian Riflemen (pictured), engaged the 

Germans in fall 1915, forcing them to retreat for a few months. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

When the Germans attacked Riga in April 1916, combined 

Russian and Latvian forces compelled the Germans to retreat 

again. Encouraged, the Latvian and Russian troops tried to 

force the Germans out of 

western Latvia in the 

famous Christmas

Battles, which began on 

December 23, 1916 and 

lasted 25 days. Suffering 

heavy losses, the 

Latvians and Russians 

were ultimately unable to 

resist the Germans, who captured Riga in September 1917

(Photo: German officers in Riga during WWI).

Meanwhile revolutionary forces had continued to simmer in 

Russia since 1905. In February 1917, Russian revolutionaries 

forced Russian Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate. When the 

provisional Russian government replaced Latvia’s imperial 

governor with a Latvian commissioner, Latvian nationalists 

seized the opportunity to assemble their own provisional 

councils. Then, the provisional Russian government was 

toppled in the so-called October Revolution of 1917, which 

brought the socialist Bolsheviks to power under the leadership 

of Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, to power in Russia. The 

Bolsheviks quickly assumed control of parts of Latvia where 

some Latvians joined their cause, including some Riflemen.

Bolshevik control was short-lived. In March 1918, Russia which 

would become the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) 

and Germany signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which 

transferred sovereignty over Latvia from Russia to Germany. 

Like the Bolsheviks’, German control lasted just a few months. 

On November 11, 1918, the Germans surrendered to the US 

and the Allies to end WWI. Just a week later, on November 18

(celebrated as Independence Day today), a coalition of Latvian 

political parties known as the Democratic Block under the 

leadership of Kārlis Ulmanis, head of the Latvian Farmers’ 

Union, formally declared Latvia’s independence. Unfortunately 

for Latvia, neither the Latvian Bolsheviks nor the Germans who 

remained in Latvia accepted the declaration.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The War of Independence

Over the next year, the Bolsheviks (both Soviet and Latvian), 

Germans, and Latvian nationalists struggled for control of 

Latvia. As most German troops retreated, the Soviets, with 

some assistance from Latvian 

Riflemen, set up a provisional 

Bolshevik government and captured 

Riga in January 1919 (Photo: Riga 

Castle in 1919 after heavy shelling). 

Meanwhile, the Latvian government 

under Ulmanis fled Riga for Liepāja, a 

city in Latvia’s far west. There, 

German forces initially welcomed the 

Latvians, then turned on Ulmanis and 

his followers in April, forcing the 

Latvian leadership to flee to a nearby 

British warship. Due to pressure from 

Great Britain and other Western 

powers, the Germans withdrew from Liepāja and headed back 

north toward Riga. Upon their arrival in May, the Germans 

forced the Bolsheviks to withdraw. A combined force of 

Latvians and Estonians, supported by British and French 

warships, then compelled the Germans to abandon Riga. In 

July, the British facilitated Ulmanis’s return to Riga. 

Sensing a last chance to seize Latvian territory, the Germans

mounted a surprise attack on Riga in October. This time 

Latvian and Estonian forces, again supported by a 

British/French naval squadron, soundly defeated the Germans, 

forcing them to withdraw completely from Latvia. In late 1919, 

the Latvians turned their attention to Latgale in southeastern 

Latvia, the only territory still under foreign domination. With 

support from Polish forces, the Latvians drove the Bolsheviks 

from Latgale over the winter 1919-1920.

Independence

For the first time in its history, all of Latvia was united under 

Latvian leadership. Despite this reality, recognition was slow to 

come. In August 1920, the USSR signed the Riga Treaty, 

renouncing its right of sovereignty over Latvia. In January 1921 

the other European powers officially recognized independent 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Latvia. In February 1922 Latvia adopted a constitution that 

provided for a republic led by a President and single-chamber 

Parliament of 100 members.

Latvia entered independence with several burdens. WWI and 

the War of Independence had reduced the population by 1/4. 

The problem of a diminished workforce was compounded by 

the fact that many Latvian children had received no schooling 

during the war years. Further, Latvia’s infrastructure was in 

ruins and industrial output had fallen by 83%. 

Despite these challenges, Latvia’s 22 years of independence 

were generally a time of peace and prosperity. With trade redirected toward the West, the country flourished economically. 

Land reform broke up the large German estates and redistributed holdings among Latvian farmers, leading to 

enhanced agriculture output. The government introduced 

compulsory education (see p. 2 of Learning and Knowledge), 

while the Latvian language enjoyed a resurgence. By the 

1930s, visitors noted that living conditions there were better 

than in many parts of Western Europe.

In contrast to Latvia’s economic and social successes, its 

political situation was unstable. Between 1922 and 1934, 

Latvia’s government consisted of a succession of short-lived 

coalition governments, although the continued presence of 

Farmers’ Union leader Ulmanis 

(pictured) provided some 

continuity. The worldwide Great 

Depression of the early 1930s led 

to widespread disillusionment with 

Latvia’s political process. Further,

several anti-democratic political 

groups emerged that fell under 

the influence of fascist tendencies 

sweeping the continent at the 

time.

As Prime Minister (PM) in 1934, 

Ulmanis declared a state of 

emergency, dissolved the 

Parliament and all political parties, and established 

authoritarian rule. In 1936, Ulmanis appointed himself 
HISTORY &

MYTH

President and proceeded to dismantle Latvia’s democratic 

institutions, aiming to create a state along the model of 

Mussolini’s fascist Italy. Before long, the events of World War II 

interrupted his plans and ended Latvia’s independence.

World War II (WWII)

In August 1939, Nazi Germany and the USSR signed the

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a secret nonaggression pact which 

essentially divided Eastern Europe into Soviet and German 

spheres of influence, with Latvia falling into the Soviet sphere.

World War II began a month later, with Hitler’s invasion of 

Poland. In October, the Soviet government imposed a treaty of 

mutual assistance on Latvia that allowed the Soviets to occupy 

Latvian military bases. Latvia’s remaining Germans were 

recalled to Germany, although most had not lived there for 

generations.

The Soviet Occupation: By mid-1940, Soviet forces occupied 

the entire country. While Ulmanis initially urged his countrymen 

to remain calm, the Soviets moved quickly to remove political 

office-holders, deporting Ulmanis and other leaders to Soviet 

prison camps, mainly in Siberia. A puppet government installed 

by the Soviets 

approved a resolution 

in July to join the 

USSR. Some 2 weeks 

later, the USSR 

formally incorporated 

Latvia as one of its 

constituent republics.

The Soviets moved 

quickly to impose their 

communist social and 

economic system, nationalizing private companies and seizing

private property. The Soviets replaced the Latvian currency 

with their own, forbade religious education at school, and made 

Christmas a normal working day. Further, over the next year, 

the Soviets executed or deported around 35,000 Latvians, 

primarily intellectuals and leaders (Photo: Demonstration in 

support of the Soviets in December 1940).
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Nazi Occupation: In June 1941, Germany turned on its 

former ally and attacked the USSR. By July, German forces 

occupied Latvia. While many Latvians greeted the Germans as 

their liberators from Soviet rule, the realities of occupation soon 

dashed their hopes for a return to independence.

For the next 3 years, Germany occupied Latvia, making it part 

of its Ostland province along with Estonia, Lithuania, and 

Belarus. The Germans conscripted many Latvians into the

Latvian Legion, a unit of the infamous Waffen-SS troops. Some 

Latvians volunteered to serve in the Legion or in other German 

units primarily because they feared a return to Soviet rule 

should the Germans lose. Meanwhile, the pro-independence 

Latvian Central Council pursued military and diplomatic 

activities to resist the Nazis and avoid a return of the Soviets, 

although their efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.

With its sizeable Jewish population (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality), Latvia became a target of and location for some of 

the Nazi regime’s most horrific activities. Shortly following the 

German invasion, special units arrived, confining Jews to a 

barbed wire-surrounded ghettos. Some Jews were sent to 

nearby concentration 

camps, including the 

Salaspils and 

Kaiserwald camps near 

Riga (Photo: The Riga 

Ghetto Museum depicts 

life within the Jewish 

ghetto during WWII). 

Other Latvian Jews 

were murdered outright: 

in late 1941, around

25,000 Jews from Riga’s ghetto – primarily women, children 

and the elderly – were shot in the Rumbula Forest near Riga. 

Between 1941 and 1944, the Nazis murdered around 45,000 

Jews and other “undesirables” in the Biķernieki Forest in 

southern Latvia, burying them in mass graves. In total, experts 

estimate that around 200,000 Latvians, both Jews and nonJews, were killed in action, deported to Soviet labor camps, or 

exterminated by the Nazis during WWII.
HISTORY &

MYTH

In 1944, the Soviet army began another invasion of Latvia. 

With the Latvian Legion leading the defense, the Germans 

were able to hold out in western Latvia but unable to stop the 

Soviets’ advance through the rest of the country. When the 

Soviets took Riga and eastern Latvia in October, they 

immediately conscripted thousands of Latvians and sent them 

to fight against the Latvian Legion in the northwest. As the war 

neared its end in 1945, more than 150,000 Latvians fled to 

Germany or Sweden, many continuing on to Great Britain, 

Canada, and Australia 

(Photo: Latvian residents 

welcome the Soviet army 

as liberators from the 

Nazi occupation in 1944).

The Soviet Era

Following Germany’s 

surrender in May 1945, 

the USSR immediately 

reincorporated Latvia, a move never recognized by Western 

nations. To eradicate Latvian national consciousness and 

restructure Latvia in the Soviet Socialist model, the state 

implemented repressive Russification measures. Between 

1946 and 1949, the Soviets deported around 150,000 Latvians 

in several waves to prison camps in northern Russia and 

Siberia. A particularly large wave of deportation occurred in 

1949, consisting primarily of farmers unwilling to join the 

Soviets’ new agriculture collectives.

The Forest Brothers: In the years following the end of WWII, 

as many as 20,000 Latvians joined an anti-Soviet partisan 

movement known as the Forest Brothers. Until disbanded by 

the Soviet security forces in 1957, the Forest Brothers 

conducted various acts of armed opposition.

Besides agricultural collectivization programs, the Soviets 

chose Latvia as an investment center for industry, including 

steel manufacturing and shipbuilding. To provide the workforce 

required by these and other projects, the Soviets encouraged 

ethnic Russians and residents of other parts of the USSR, such 

as Ukraine and Belarus, to move to Latvia. Further, over the 

course of the Soviet occupation some 200,000 Soviet military 
HISTORY &

MYTH

personnel also lived in Latvia, many choosing to remain there 

upon retirement. Because of these policies, the proportion of 

Latvians in the population decreased significantly over the 

years: by 1990 almost half the population was Russianspeaking. Today, some Latvian communities are still majority 

Russian-speaking while Russian/Latvian identity and language 

disputes continue to simmer (see p. 13-14 of Political and 

Social Relations and p. 2 of Language and Communication).

Over the next 3 decades, due largely to Latvia’s successful 

industrialization, Latvians generally enjoyed a higher standard 

of living than most other Soviet republics. Denied political 

expression, many Latvians turned to cultural outlets, including 

folklore groups and choral societies 

(see p. 2-5 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation). Other Latvians 

maintained a spirit of resistance 

through theater or literature (see p. 

6-7 of Aesthetics and Recreation) 

or through their religious activities 

(Pictured: A 1973 Soviet stamp 

depicts participants in Latvia’s song 

festival).

An Opening

Beginning in 1985, Soviet leader 

Mikhail Gorbachev introduced a 

series of reforms that would 

eventually result in the dissolution of the USSR. These reforms 

– most notably perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost

(openness) – introduced market forces into the struggling 

Soviet economy and increased individuals’ freedom of 

expression. Although the attempted reforms were largely 

unsuccessful, deteriorating economic conditions sparked a 

wave of democratic movements in the Soviet republics, 

including Latvia. 

While some early demonstrations focused on ecological issues, 

the first anti-communist demonstration occurred in June 1987, 

when a large crowd gathered at Riga’s Freedom Monument to 

protest the 1941 deportations to Siberia. A year later, antiSoviet feelings were further fueled when the Latvian Writers’ 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Union revealed the details of the once-secret 1939 USSRGermany nonaggression pact, demonstrating that the Soviet 

Union’s claim that Latvia had “voluntarily” joined the USSR was 

untrue. By late 1988 the Latvian flag, outlawed by the USSR, 

became a common sight at 

rallies and in November 

was raised over Riga 

Castle (pictured).

During this period new 

political organizations 

emerged, including the 

Popular Front of Latvia 

(PFL), which in 1989 called 

for full independence. In 

August 1989, some 2 million Latvians, Estonians, and 

Lithuanians joined hands to form a human chain stretching 

from Tallinn (Estonia) through Latvia to Vilnius (Lithuania) to 

mark the 50th anniversary of the USSR-Germany pact. 

With demands for independence intensifying, Latvia held 

elections in March 1990 that produced a pro-independence 

majority. Soon, the Latvian Supreme Council declared its intent 

to pursue full independence and announced the restoration of 

the 1922 constitution. In response, a pro-Moscow faction 

launched its own political organization and attempted to gain 

the support of ethnic Russians who feared the implications of 

Latvian independence. For the next 9 months, Latvia was 

neither independent nor fully under Soviet rule.

In January 1991, Gorbachev sent a signal to all potential breakaway Soviet republics by ordering troops to seize key 

installations in the Lithuanian capital, Vilnius. Fearing a similar 

move in Riga, some 700,000 Latvians mounted a proindependence demonstration on January 13. To protect key 

sites, the demonstrators erected and manned barriers. On 

January 20, Soviet troops attacked the Latvian Interior Ministry, 

killing several Latvians and injuring many others. Following 

severe international criticism, Gorbachev abandoned plans for 

a further crackdown.

Latvia again entered an uneasy state of limbo until August 

1991 when Soviet troops again threatened the Latvian 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Parliament during a coup attempt against Gorbachev in 

Moscow. When it became apparent that the coup attempt had 

failed, the Soviet troops retreated. Immediately, the Latvian 

government declared independence again, which the 

international community recognized within a few days and 

which the USSR recognized within a few weeks.

Independence Restored

In 1993, independent Latvia introduced its own currency and 

held its first post-Soviet elections, bringing Guntis Ulmanis 

(grand-nephew of Kārlis Ulmanis) to power as President. The 

new government sought to transform Latvia into a free market 

economy, though at a slower pace than neighboring Estonia.

An immediate issue before the new republic was the rights of 

non-ethnic Latvian residents who had immigrated to Latvia 

after the 1940 Soviet annexation. For the 1993 election, the 

government granted only pre-1940 citizens and their 

descendants the right to vote. It then announced that 

citizenship would be granted only to those post-1940

immigrants who demonstrated a basic proficiency in Latvian. 

This decision attracted international criticism and strained 

relations between Latvia and Russia (see p. 13 of Political and 

Social Relations). 

Another pressing 

issue was the more 

than 50,000 Soviet 

troops stationed in 

Latvia – it was 1998 

before the last of 

these troops left

(Photo: Daugava 

River in Riga).

Transition from a 

Soviet state to 

independence had its challenges. The uncertainties of the 

market economy, including inflation, high unemployment, and 

business bankruptcies caused substantial economic suffering. 

Further, some Latvians regretted the loss of the social safety 

net the Soviet system had provided. For the majority, though, 

the transition was welcome.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Since independence, no political party has been able to secure 

consistent support. Instead, a succession of right-of-center 

coalitions have formed 

alliances to control 

Parliament and the office 

of Prime Minister (PM) 

(see p. 4 of Political and 

Social Relations). Despite 

this political instability, 

Latvia has successfully 

reoriented itself toward 

the West, joining the 

Council of Europe in 1995 

and becoming a full member of both NATO and the EU in 2004

(Photo: Old Riga).

Modern Latvia

While Latvia experienced an economic boom following its 

accession to the EU, the 2008-09 European financial crisis 

profoundly affected the country, requiring strict austerity 

measures. These included tax increases, deep cuts in public 

spending, and stringent financial controls. These actions were 

met with fierce opposition that caused the collapse of the ruling 

coalition in 2009. A shaky coalition headed by PM Valdis 

Dombrovskis took control, then retained power following a 

2011 election that saw the pro-Russia Harmony Party gain 

significant support (see p. 5-6 of Political and Social Relations). 

In 2011-12, the Harmony Party and the right-wing National 

Alliance clashed over language: when the Alliance introduced a 

petition to establish Latvian as the sole language for education, 

the Harmony Party countered with a petition to make Russian 

an official language. Neither effort succeeded.

Following the 2013 collapse of a supermarket roof killing more 

than 50 people, PM Dombrovskis resigned, though he 

remained in office to oversee Latvia’s adoption of the EU’s euro 

as its currency in January 2014. As the next PM, Laimdota 

Straujuma focused on strengthening national defense in the 

wake of Russia’s regional belligerence (see p. 11 of Political 

and Social Relations). Following disputes within her political 

coalition, Straujuma resigned in late 2015. The Parliament 

approved Maris Kucinskis as her successor in early 2016.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity.

For Latvians, myths and folklore played an important role in 

maintaining their identity through years of conflict and 

occupation by foreign forces. During Latvia’s 19th century

“National Awakening,” scholars collected myths and stories to 

help promote Latvian culture. For example, Andrejs Pumpurs

collected folk stories about a half-human, half-bear creature 

called Lāpčlēšis, compiling and publishing them as Latvia’s 

national epic poem in 1888. 

As in many Latvian folktales, Lāpčlēšis contains references to

supernatural forces such as demons and witches and 

describes a struggle between good and evil. The son of a 

female bear, Lāpčlēšis is the epic’s central character. With the 

extraordinary powers he inherited from his mother, many of 

which emanate from his bear ears, Lāpčlēšis performs heroic 

deeds. These include ridding the shores of the Daugava River 

of monsters and

defeating an Estonian 

giant.

At the epic’s end, 

Lāpčlēšis unites the 

Latvian people in 

order to repel foreign 

invaders. Betrayed by 

a former ally, 

Lāpčlēšis loses his 

powers when the 

Black Knight, a German giant, cuts off his ears. Lāpčlēšis and 

his opponent fall into the Daugava where they continue to fight. 

The epic ends with the prediction that Lāpčlēšis will one day 

defeat his rival, bringing freedom to the Latvian people. Of 

note, Latvia honors its war heroes every year on November 11,

Lāpčlēšis Day (Photo: A 1932 stamp depicts Lāpčlēšis as 

Riga’s protector). 
Official Name

Republic of Latvia

Latvijas Republika

Political Borders

Estonia: 207 mi

Russia: 206 mi

Belarus: 100 mi

Lithuania: 338 mi

Coastline: 309 mi

Capital

Riga

Demographics

Latvia’s population is

about 2 million, making it the 2nd most populous Baltic State 

after Lithuania, yet one of least populated nations in all of 

Europe. Significantly, Latvia’s population is shrinking at an 

annual rate of -1.1%, in part due to Latvia’s low birthrate (see 

p. 4 of Sex and Gender) and high emigration stemming from 

Latvians’ search for employment abroad. Latvia is primarily 

urban: 68% of the population lives in metropolitan areas, 

predominantly in the capital 

city of Riga.

Flag

The Latvian flag consists of 

3 horizontal, alternating 

bands of maroon and white. 

According to a Latvian 

myth, the white band – at

half the width of the maroon bands – symbolizes a white sheet 

used to cover a wounded warrior, while the top and bottom 

maroon stripes represent his spilled blood. While records 

indicate the flag was used by Latvian tribes as early as 1280, it 

was officially adopted by independent Latvia in 1918, 

suppressed during Soviet rule (see p. 13-14 of History and 

Myth), and finally re-adopted in 1990. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Situated in the Baltic region on the northern edge of Europe, 

Latvia shares a border with Estonia to the north, Russia to the 

east, Belarus to the southeast, and Lithuania to the south. 

Latvia’s long coastline faces the Gulf of Riga and the Baltic 

Sea. Latvia’s total land area is about 39,000 sq mi, making it 

slightly larger than West Virginia and about twice the size of 

Belgium. 

Latvia’s West is characterized by a relatively flat landscape 

with low-lying, fertile plains. By contrast, Latvia’s East features 

rolling hills interspersed with river valleys, bogs, and marshes. 

With an elevation of about 1,024 ft, Gaiziņkalns Hill is Latvia’s 

highest point. Coniferous and deciduous forests cover almost 

45% of the country’s territory. Latvia is home to about 5,000 

mostly small and shallow lakes, the largest of which is the 50 

sq mi Lake Lubāns. The Daugava (pictured in Riga) is Latvia’s 

longest river which 

divides the country in 

half. It originates in 

Russia and stretches 

approximately 624 mi 

to empty into the Gulf 

of Riga.

Climate

Latvia experiences a 

temperate, maritime 

climate with high 

levels of precipitation and 4 distinct seasons, including mild 

summers and harsh winters. Temperatures in the winter month 

of January average around 24°F, but may drop as low as -4°F. 

By contrast, in the summer month of July, temperatures 

average 65°F and rarely climb above 80°F. Generally, coastal 

areas enjoy a milder climate, moderated somewhat by the 

warm Gulf Stream, while inland areas experience colder 

temperatures. Of note, the number of daylight hours varies 

dramatically through the year. For example, in June days last 

about 18 hours, while daylight in December lasts no more than 

6 hours. Rainfall is heaviest June-September, while snowfall 

generally occurs between January-March. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Latvia suffers from relatively few natural hazards. During the 

winter, Latvians may be vulnerable to heavy snowfall, although 

roadways typically remain cleared and safe to drive. Latvia’s 

most significant hazard is occasional springtime flooding 

resulting from melting snow and the breakup of river ice. 

Environmental Issues

Similar to other former Soviet states, Latvia’s environmental 

issues stem from decades of rapid industrialization and the 

Soviets’ concurrent environmental mismanagement during their 

occupation (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth). Detrimental 

activities, which caused rampant water and air pollution, 

included dumping 

untreated sewage into 

drinking water reservoirs 

and improperly 

disposing of hazardous 

industrial waste (Photo: 

A port in Riga). 

Following

independence, Latvia’s 

government immediately 

began to address the 

environmental degradation. For example, it implemented largescale wastewater treatment programs and enacted strict 

legislation to regulate agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and 

the release of air pollutants from power plants. Despite these 

efforts, some coastal and inland waters remain heavily 

polluted, while industrial centers like Riga, Daugavpils, and 

Liepāja suffer from air pollution caused by toxic manufacturing 

and automobile emissions. 

Government

Latvia is a constitutional democracy with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 26 districts (rajons), 

which further subdivide into 110 counties (pagasts) 

administered by local governments. Initially adopted in 1922 

and formally reinstated in 1991 (see p. 16 of History and Myth), 

Latvia’s constitution outlines the structure of government and 

the rights of Latvian citizens, including of ethnic minorities.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Executive Branch

Latvia’s President, who is head-of-state and commander-inchief of Latvia’s National Armed Forces, is elected by the 

Parliament and may serve up to 2 consecutive 4-year terms. 

Although presidential powers are largely ceremonial, the 

President has the authority to initiate 

legislation and also serves as 

Latvia’s spokesperson abroad. 

Latvia’s current President, Raimonds 

Vējonis, took office in 2015 and is 

currently serving his 1st term. 

By contrast, executive power is 

vested in the Prime Minister (PM, 

known as the Minister President in 

Latvian), who is head-of-government. 

The PM is nominated by the 

President and approved by the 

Parliament. Once confirmed, the PM forms and leads a Cabinet 

of Ministers. Together, they implement foreign and domestic 

policies and submit draft legislation to the Parliament. Latvia’s 

current PM, Maris Kucinskis, took office in early 2016 following 

the resignation of Laimdota Straujuma in December 2015 (see 

p. 17 of History and 

Myth) (Photo: Riga’s 

Freedom Monument 

honors Latvian 

independence). 

Legislative Branch

Latvia’s legislature is 

a single chamber 

Parliament (Saeima), 

composed of 100 

members elected to serve 4-year terms by proportional 

representation. While the President, PM, and Cabinet of 

Ministers may draft and propose legislation, the Parliament 

ultimately controls all legislative powers. These include

amending the constitution, passing laws and international 

treaties, approving declarations of war, and passing the 

national budget (Photo: US Secretary of State Kerry with 

Latvian Foreign Minister Rinkēvičs).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a Supreme Court, Constitutional Court, 

district courts, and a system of regional courts which oversee

minor cases. As the highest court, the Supreme Court is the 

final court of appeal for both civil and criminal cases. The chief 

justice nominates Supreme Court judges, who must be 

approved by the Parliament and serve until age 70, though 

they may extend their term by 2 years. Judges for all other 

courts serve 10-year 

terms.

Political Climate

Latvia’s political 

landscape includes a 

multi-party system in 

which political parties or 

coalitions of parties 

compete for power. Since 

independence, numerous parties have vied for Parliamentary 

seats, often forming broad coalitions of varied stability. While 

some ruling coalitions have lasted several years, others have 

dissolved just months after consolidation, resulting in frequent 

changes of government (Photo: Former US Secretary of State 

Hillary Clinton and former Latvian Foreign Minister Kristovskis).

In fact, of the 18 governments that have governed Latvia since 

independence, just 1 has served a full parliamentary term. 

Experts suggest that the parties’ historic instability derives from 

unclear ideological profiles 

that often represent the 

narrow interests of their 

financial backers rather 

than the Latvian public 

(Photo: Riga’s Town Hall).

Holding 24 seats in the 

Parliament, the Harmony 

Party is presently Latvia’s 

largest political party.

Having a left-wing platform that supports the rights of Latvia’s 

Russian-speakers, the Harmony Party has a historically strong 

representation in the Parliament. The Harmony Party’s strength 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
combined with its association with Russia and Russianspeakers has often compelled Latvia’s smaller political parties 

to form hasty and unstable coalitions with each other in an 

attempt to prevent the Harmony Party from claiming power. 

Latvia’s coalition government is currently led by Maris 

Kucinskis of the centrist Union of Greens and Farmers Party 

(ZZS), which presently holds 21 seats in the Parliament and is 

the 3rd largest party. Joining the ZZS as a coalition member, 

the center-right Unity Party is presently the 2nd largest party 

with 23 seats in the Parliament. The far-right National Alliance 

(NA), the 4th largest party with 17 seats in the Parliament, is 

the final coalition member. Other currently active parties 

include the Alliance of Regions (LRA) with 8 seats in the 

Parliament and the For Latvia from the Heart (NSL) party with 7 

seats. 

Corruption permeates all levels of government despite efforts 

to curb its existence. Consequently, some Latvians continue to 

distrust certain political parties, public officials, and members of 

the judiciary. Nevertheless, Latvia has achieved some of its

political and economic goals since independence, including 

successfully integrating into international organizations (see 

“Defense” and “Foreign Relations” below) and establishing a 

free market economy (see p. 1-2 of Economics and 

Resources).

Defense

The Latvian 

National Armed 

Forces (NAF –

pictured) are a 

unified military 

force consisting 

of primarily 

ground forces, 

with smaller

maritime and air branches. The NAF are charged with 

defending against foreign and domestic threats, supporting 

disaster relief, and participating in international peacekeeping 

efforts. Military service is not compulsory; men and women 

may voluntarily join the NAF at age 18. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
With a joint strength of just 5,310 active duty troops and 7,850 

reserve personnel, Latvia has the smallest force of the Baltic 

States and relies heavily 

on military support from 

its international allies to 

defend against external, 

state-level threats. Latvia

receives the majority of 

its defense support from 

the North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO), a 

political and military 

alliance among 28 nations (including the US) that promotes the 

safety of its members through collective defense (Photo: US 

troops cross the border between Estonia and Latvia in 2015).

Joint: Comprised of 2,600 active-duty personnel, the joint 

forces divide into 1 Special Forces unit and 1 combat support 

battalion. 

Army: The Latvian Army is a well-trained force of 1,250 activeduty troops, including 600 National Guard members. The Army

consists of 12 light maneuver brigade and battalions, 4 combat 

support battalions, and 3 

combat service support 

battalions (Photo: Latvian 

troops demonstrate

military equipment to 

children).

Navy: Consisting of 550 

active-duty personnel, the 

Latvian Navy is a small 

force that includes the Coast Guard and is equipped with 5 

patrol and coastal combatants, 6 mine warfare and 

countermeasure vessels, and 2 logistics and support vessels.

Air Force: The smallest of the military branches, the Latvian 

Air Force consists of 310 active-duty personnel tasked with 

airspace control and defense, maritime and land search and 

rescue, and air transportation. The Air Force consists of 1 

transport squadron, 1 air defense battalion, and 1 air defense 

squadron. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Foreign Relations

Immediately after gaining independence from Soviet control,

Latvia sought to diverge from Russian influence, pursuing

economic, political, and military integration with its Western 

European, Baltic, and Nordic neighbors. Latvia’s efforts 

culminated in its accession into the Organization for Security 

and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and UN in 1991 and into 

NATO and the EU in 

2004. Today, Latvia 

contributes to multiple 

NATO and EU missions 

and regularly participates

in multilateral military 

exercises with NATO 

partners. Latvia also 

advocates a democratic 

and pro-Western agenda among Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, 

Georgia and other former Soviet states and has campaigned 

for the inclusion of Ukraine and Georgia into NATO (Photo: 

Latvian and Afghan soldiers talk during an exercise).

Regional Cooperation: Latvia joined with Estonia and 

Lithuania in 1991 to form the trilateral Baltic Assembly to 

address common economic, political, and cultural issues. 

Latvia is also a member of the Nordic-Baltic Cooperation (NB8) 

along with Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Denmark, 

Estonia, and Lithuania. Formed in 1992, the NB8 stimulates 

political dialogue and promotes coordination among Nordic and 

Baltic nations on economic policy, foreign and national security, 

energy and transportation infrastructure, and civil protection. 

With leadership of the NB8 rotating annually among the 8 

member nations, Latvia acts as the NB8’s 2016 coordinator 

and host.

Relations with the EU: The EU is a political and economic 

partnership among 28 nations located in Europe. Latvia relies 

on the EU as a political, military, and economic buffer against 

neighboring Russia. Of note, Latvia’s adoption of the EU’s euro 

as its own currency in 2014 was a divisive political issue and 

initially received little public support, primarily because many 

Latvians viewed their own currency as a symbol of sovereignty 

and national identity.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with the US: Latvia and the US enjoy strong

political, military, and economic relations that were first 

established in 1922 during Latvia’s first period of 

independence. Never 

having formally 

recognized the Soviet 

annexation of Latvia in 

1940 (see p. 11 of History 

and Myth), the US fully 

supported the restoration 

of Latvian independence 

in 1991. Today, the US

views the current Latvian 

government as the legal continuation of the independent 

republic that existed between the 2 World Wars (Photo: Latvian 

troops train during a US-sponsored exercise). 

In the years following independence, the US advocated for 

Latvia’s membership in NATO and the EU despite some 

resistance from other member nations who feared Latvia’s 

involvement might create tension with Russia. Today, the US 

provides Latvia with financial military assistance, including $67 

million in aid in 2014. In addition to financial assistance, the US 

provides military training and equipment to bolster Latvian 

military operations. In 

return, Latvia has 

participated in US-led 

military missions in Iraq

and Afghanistan.

Latvia and the US also 

enjoy close economic 

cooperation, having 

signed multiple bilateral 

investment and trade 

agreements in areas such as transportation, logistics, 

renewable energy, and telecommunications. Latvia is also one 

of 38 nations participating in the US “Visa Waiver” program, 

which grants Latvians the ability to travel to the US for up to 90 

days without obtaining a visa (Photo: A member of the Latvian 

Armed Forces signals a C-130 with smoke during a 

multinational military exercise).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues

Latvia’s security environment is dominated by its historically 

volatile relationship with neighboring Russia (see p. 6-14 of 

History and Myth). Latvia relies on its memberships in NATO, 

the UN, and the EU to help insulate it against external statelevel threats, including cyberattacks and terrorism. 

Latvia and Russia: Although relations with Russia have 

improved since the end of the Soviet occupation, political and 

social tensions persist. Following Russia’s 2014 annexation of 

Crimea and the resulting unrest in eastern Ukraine, Latvia 

requested enhanced support from NATO. With the goal of 

deterring further aggression in the region, NATO agreed in 

early 2016 to increase the number of troops permanently 

stationed in Latvia. NATO also established a rapid response 

command center capable of reacting quickly to external threats.

Tensions further increased as a result of these actions because 

Russia claims the 

troops’ presence

violates a formal 

1997 agreement 

between NATO 

and Russia that 

restricts the 

stationing of large 

numbers of troops 

along their borders. 

NATO claims that 

its actions do not explicitly violate the agreement (Photo: 

Members of the Latvian Armed Forces work with US troops 

during a NATO training exercise).

Other friction stems from Russia’s claims that Latvia violates 

the rights of its substantial ethnic Russian minority, who remain 

somewhat segregated in Latvian society. In the wake of the 

recent civil unrest in eastern Ukraine, there are also concerns

that the Russian government will attempt to inflame social 

tensions among Latvia’s significant Russian population (see 

“Social Relations” below). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Historically a relatively diverse country, Latvia’s ethnic and 

linguistic diversity increased under Soviet occupation as a 

result of the USSR encouraging workers from Russia and other 

Soviet republics to 

resettle in Latvia (see p. 

13-14 of History and 

Myth). By 1989, about 1.2 

million workers, mostly 

from Russia, Belarus, and 

Ukraine had immigrated 

to Latvia, settling primarily 

in industrial centers like 

Riga, Daugavpils, 

Ventspils, and Liepāja. 

Consequently, the Latvian proportion of the population declined 

dramatically, from 77% in 1935 to 54% in 1989. By 2013, the 

ethnic Latvian population had increased to about 61% (Photo: 

Latvian children visit the US Embassy in Riga).

Today, ethnic Russians make up the largest minority group, 

about 26% of the population. Other non-ethnic Latvian 

residents include Belarusians (3%), Ukrainians (2%), Poles 

(2%), and Lithuanians (1%). Most of these minorities primarily 

reside in urban areas.

While historically Latvians subdivided into several different 

ethnic groups, they eventually merged into a single group (see 

p. 1-3 of History and Myth). Today, a few distinctive groupings 

remain (see p. 1-2 of Language and Communication). For 

example, a few Latvians identify as members of Latvia’s only 

remaining non-Baltic ethnic group, the Livs, though their unique

Livonian language is all but extinct. Some 165,000 Latvians 

speak Latgalian, a minority language spoken in eastern Latvia 

(see p. 2 of Language and Communication).

About 8,000 residents identify as Roma or “Gypsy” who mainly

live in small urban communities and large towns like Riga, 

Jelgava, and Ventspils. Although the Roma are better 

integrated into Latvian society than similar populations across 

Europe, the Roma continue to face negative social stereotypes 

and discrimination in employment.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Newly-independent Latvia’s decision to restrict citizenship to 

ethnic Latvians and pre-1940 residents regardless of ethnicity

rendered about 30% of Latvia’s population, namely post-World 

War II residents and their descendants, immediately stateless.

To become eligible for citizenship, these residents were 

required to pass extensive exams in Latvian history and 

language. 

After Russia and the EU criticized this requirement, Latvia 

temporarily eased the naturalization process then reinforced 

the language requirements in 2006, causing tension between 

ethnic Latvians and Russian-speaking minorities. Today, many 

ethnic Russians have fulfilled the requirements to receive

Latvian citizenship, while others reside in Latvia as Russian 

citizens. Comprising about 12% of Latvia’s population, noncitizens retain the right to live in Latvia and may travel freely 

within the EU. Nevertheless, they may not vote, hold positions 

in government, or work in civil service jobs.

While Russian-speakers make up about 34% of Latvia’s total 

population, their numbers are not equally distributed across the 

country. In fact, Russian-speakers comprise the majority in 

some areas, including the southeastern Latgale region 

bordering Russia and Belarus. There, 51% of the population of 

the city of Daugavpils is Russian-speaking. Of note, Riga’s 

population is also diverse, 

with about 50/50 Latvian

and Russian speakers

(Photo: Daugavpils tram).

Generally, Latvians and 

ethnic Russians tend to 

coexist harmoniously

though they may not 

always mix. Proud of their 

heritage, Russians tend to 

socialize with other Russians and remain somewhat 

segregated in Latvian society, though younger generations are 

more likely to interact. In the capital of Riga, attitudes between 

the 2 groups tend to be more positive than in other parts of the 

country. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Several ethnic Russians with Latvian citizenship currently serve 

in elected positions, such as mayor of Riga (pictured), and as 

members of Parliament representing the Harmony Party (see 

“Political Climate” above). 

In recent years, most discord 

between Latvians and ethnic 

Russians has centered on 

language (see p. 17 of History and 

Myth and p. 2 of Language and 

Communication). Despite some

tension, most of Latvia’s minorities

express satisfaction with their 

lifestyles. Few support Russian 

nationalist ideas or secession from 

Latvia. Instead, they appreciate 

Latvia’s higher standard of living 

and the travel, work, and study opportunities that accompany 

Latvia’s membership in the EU.

As noted earlier, the Latvian government worries that Russia 

will try to inflame societal tensions or foment anti-Latvian 

feelings. For the last 2 decades, Russia has claimed Russianspeakers in Latvia have faced discrimination, encouraging 

them to accept automatic Russian citizenship instead of 

applying for Latvian citizenship. In January 2015, activists in

Russia used the Internet to declare independence on behalf of 

the Latgale region’s Russian-speakers, a move that was 

immediately labeled a criminal act by Latvia’s government. 

Many of Latvia’s Russian-speakers get most of their news and 

information from Russian government-owned television 

channels. Critics charge that Russia uses the media as well as 

other state-funded organizations to promote Russian culture 

but also to stoke discontent with the aim of destabilizing Latvia. 

An example was Russian organizations’ open support for the 

failed 2011-12 referendum to name Russian the country’s 2nd

official language (see p. 17 of History and Myth). To counteract 

Russia’s influence, the Latvian government is considering 

several different ways of better integrating the country’s 

Russian speakers, including launching its own Russianlanguage media outlets.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

With almost 44% of Latvia’s residents claiming no religious 

affiliation, scholars ranked Latvia as the world’s 8th least 

religious country in a 2015 study. The Latvians who do identify 

with a religious tradition, almost 56% of the population, are 

overwhelmingly Christian: on average, 20% are Lutheran, 19% 

Roman Catholic, and 17% 

Orthodox. Other Christians

(Baptists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, 

Methodists, and Pentecostals)

plus adherents of other traditions

(Judaism, Islam, Hare Krishna, 

and Buddhism) together 

comprise less than 1% of the 

population (Photo: The oldest 

parts of Riga’s St. Peter’s Church 

date to 1209).

Latvia’s constitution protects the 

freedom of religion, specifies the 

separation of church and state, 

and recognizes no state religion. 

By law, 8 religious groups –

Lutherans, Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Old Believer 

Christians, Baptists, Methodists, Seventh-Day Adventists, and 

Jews – retain some rights and privileges not granted other 

religious groups. These include the right to teach religion in 

public schools and the right to officiate at marriages.

Latvia’s Early Spiritual Landscape

Scholars’ understanding of Latvians’ beliefs and practices 

before the arrival of Christianity is largely based on surviving 

traditions and folk songs. Although there was likely significant 

regional variation, early residents practiced animism, the belief 

that the spirit of life or consciousness resides in natural objects

such as trees, rocks, hills, fields, and animals. Trees, in 

particular, held great significance, as did certain places, such 

as forests, fields, and springs. 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Having no organized priesthood, spiritual leaders 

communicated with gods and spirits who were believed to

guide or obstruct human behavior. The most important deities 

included Dievs (the Supreme Being and God of the Sky), Māra

(the Earth Mother), and Laima (the Goddess of Fate). 

The Arrival of Christianity

Compared to most other parts of Europe, Christianity arrived 

relatively late in Latvia, though some residents of eastern 

Latvia adopted the Orthodox Christian religion of 11th-century 

invading Russian armies. In the mid-12th century, a Catholic 

monk built the region’s first Christian church on the Daugava 

River in central Latvia. Despite these inroads, the religion 

initially failed to take root.

At the end of the 12th century, the Pope, as head of the Roman 

Catholic Church in Rome, attempted to change the situation by 

announcing a religious crusade against all northern European 

“heathens” or non-Christians (see p. 2 of History and Myth). 

After founding Riga in 1201, German knights advanced across 

the region in ensuing decades, consolidating their rule over

Latvia and neighboring Estonia by 1290. 

Although forced to convert to 

Catholicism, few Latvians

completely embraced the new 

religion, primarily because they 

were suspicious of services 

conducted in Latin, a language they 

could not understand. Instead, 

many continued for several 

centuries to practice their old 

nature-based rituals alongside

Catholicism (Photo: The dome of 

Riga’s Dome Cathedral towers over 

Riga’s old town).

Over the next decades, Germans established a permanent 

presence, acquiring vast agricultural estates and settling into 

towns (see p. 3 of History and Myth). Riga’s Catholic bishop 

oversaw the construction of cathedrals, while Catholic religious 

orders founded monasteries offering religious education to 

Germans (see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Protestant Reformation and Rise of Lutheranism

The Protestant Reformation began in the early 16th century to 

answer a call for change in the Roman Catholic Church from all 

across Europe. A key event in the movement occurred when 

Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to a church door in Germany 

in 1517. Critical of several Catholic Church teachings and the

authority of the pope, Luther’s ideas spread quickly among 

German-speaking populations, especially through the use of 

the newly-invented printing press.

At this time, most Latvians were serfs, semi-free peasants who 

worked the land for German estate holders (see p. 4 of History 

and Myth). Although some German landowners initially resisted 

the change, they eventually welcomed Lutheran teachings as a 

way to resist the influence of the Pope, requiring their Latvian 

serfs to adopt the new faith as well. In 1554, the ruling Livonian 

Confederation declared Protestantism the state religion. In 

1563 the Catholic bishopric in Riga ceased to exist.

A Lutheran-Catholic Divide

Upon taking control of northern Latvia in the 17th century (see 

p. 5 of History and Myth), the Swedes made the Lutheran 

Church the state church. Swedish and German Lutheran clergy 

strived to make church teachings more accessible to Latvians, 

establishing schools (see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge), 

translating the Bible into Latvian in 1689, and delivering 

sermons in Latvian.

Gradually, Lutheran 

churches supplanted 

Catholic churches in most 

of Latvia. An exception 

was the southeastern 

region of Latgale. As a 

part of Catholic PolandLithuania, Latgale 

remained predominantly 

Catholic. There, Catholic clergy successfully constructed bonds 

between the Church and its flock that would endure through 

centuries of Russification and repression (Photo: Basilica in 

Aglona, the region’s most important site of Catholic pilgrimage, 

dates to 1699).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Russian Rule

Over the course of the 18th century, Russia acquired control of 

Latvia (see p. 6-7 of History and Myth). During the next 200 

years of Russian domination, the Russian Orthodox Church 

enjoyed moderate growth through state support, repression of 

the Lutheran and Catholic churches, and an influx of Russians. 

Further, some Latvians converted to Orthodoxy in the 1840s 

under the mistaken belief they would be awarded land.

Threatened by the 1871 founding of the German Empire, 

Russia’s distrust of the Lutheran Church and its German roots 

deepened. Further, the regime sought to counteract the rise of 

a Latvian consciousness that accompanied the “National 

Awakening” (see p. 6 of History and Myth). Consequently, the 

late 19th century marked a period of rigid Russification that 

included the state’s overt promotion of Russian Orthodoxy and

the construction of Orthodox cathedrals across the country. 

First Period of Independence

Following years of bloody conflict (see p. 7-9 of History and 

Myth), Latvia entered its first period of independence with a

1922 constitution that proclaimed the separation of church and 

state and upheld freedom of religion. The Lutheran Church in 

particular made efforts to “Latvianize” itself during this period, 

composing new hymns in Latvian and translating the New 

Testament into modern Latvian. In 1935, about 55% of the 

population were Lutheran, 25% were Catholic, 9% Orthodox, 

and 5% Jewish. The 

remaining population were 

largely members of other 

Protestant denominations

(Photo: Interior of a Lutheran 

church in Sabile).

World War II (WWII)

The Lutheran and Catholic 

churches experienced 

significant losses during WWII, as many clergy fled as refugees 

or were deported to Soviet labor camps (see p. 11 of History 

and Myth). While significant, these losses paled in comparison 

to the trauma experienced by Latvia’s Jewish community under 

the Nazi regime (see p. 12 of History and Myth). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Jews had begun to settle in Latvia in the 15th century. 

Following the lifting of laws restricting Jewish residency in 

1840, they began moving to Riga in large numbers. By the 

1930s, Latvia’s Jewish community was estimated at 95,000. 

Immediately following the 

Nazis’ arrival in Latvia, 

special units began to 

forcibly confine Latvia’s 

Jewish community in

ghettos in Riga, Liepāja, 

and Daugavpils. Some 

Jews were deported to 

labor and concentration 

camps, while others were murdered outright (see p. 12 of 

History and Myth). By war’s end in 1945, only about 1,000 

Latvian Jews had survived (Photo: Riga’s Great Choral 

Synagogue in the early 20th century, where the Nazis burned 

alive some 300 Latvian Jews in 1941).

Religion during the Soviet Period

The Soviet Union’s 1940 invasion and annexation of Latvia

(see p. 11 of History and Myth) brought permanent changes to 

Latvia’s religious landscape. Besides attempting to eradicate 

Latvian national consciousness and restructure Latvia to fit

their socialist order (see p. 11 of History and Myth), the Soviets 

imposed their atheist worldview, rejecting all religions and 

belief in deities.

The Soviets’ brutal repression of the Latvian population in 

general (see p. 11 of History and Myth) also included the 

execution, deportation, or banning of the clergy. The Soviets 

also revoked the independence of the Latvian Orthodox 

Church, subordinating it to the Moscow Patriarchate.

All religious organizations saw their activities drastically cut. 

Lutheran ministers could preach only censored sermons in a 

reduced number of churches, while Orthodox priests could only 

celebrate the liturgy. Congregations could undertake no other 

activities or charitable work. The state also excluded religion 

from educational policy and curriculum. While Orthodox priestly 

candidates could attend a seminary in Russia, training for 

Lutheran and Jewish clergy was virtually nonexistent.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
While also subject to these constraints, the Catholic Church 

was able to remain somewhat influential, even helping to 

maintain Catholicism across the USSR by sending Latvian 

priests to other Soviet republics.

In addition, the Latvian Catholic 

Church also eventually received 

its own seminary.

During the Soviet era, the state 

destroyed many churches and 

synagogues and confiscated 

others, converting them for 

alternative uses (Photo: The 

Russian Orthodox Cathedral of 

the Nativity of Christ in Riga was 

used as a planetarium and restaurant during the Soviet 

occupation).

To further supplant religion’s place in society, the Soviet state 

substituted new secular rituals for important life events such as 

baptism, confirmation, weddings, and funerals. Over the years, 

membership in religious organizations shrank drastically: for 

example, while the Lutheran Church estimated active 

membership at 600,000 in 1956, that number had decreased to 

25,000 by 1987.

With Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev’s social and economic 

reforms in the 1980s (see p. 14 of History and Myth) came the 

lifting of religious repression. Both the Lutheran and Catholic 

churches enjoyed a surge of interest and allied themselves with 

the growing independence movement.

Religion After the Second Independence

Following Latvia’s 1991 declaration of another independence, 

there was a significant but short-lived revival of religious 

activity. While many Latvians remained religiously unaffiliated, 

religious organizations made significant gains. For example,

the Latvian Orthodox Church regained its independence from 

Moscow, Lutheran religious education and training became

available at the University of Latvia, and the Catholic Church 

acquired a new seminary. Further, the new government’s

support for religious freedom allowed many other religious 

groups access to the country for the first time in 50 years. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religion Today

Today, ethnic Latvians tend to affiliate with the Lutheran and 

Catholic churches, while ethnic Russians mostly align with 

Orthodox churches. While still concentrated in the southeastern

region of Latgale, Latvia’s Catholics today live in all parts of the 

country.

Judaism: Following WWII, some Jews from other Soviet 

republics moved to Latvia. In 1959, Latvia was home to about 

37,000 Jews. Beginning in the 1970s, the population began to 

decline significantly as many Jewish citizens emigrated to 

Israel. While the Latvian government estimates 5,400 Jews live 

in the country today, a Latvian Jewish organization estimates 

the population between 6,200 – 11,000. 

Islam: Latvia is home to about 10,000 Muslims of various 

ethnic backgrounds, primarily from other former Soviet 

republics. Latvia’s only mosque opened in Riga in 2005.

Dievturība: Some Latvians follow Dievturība, a religion first 

established in 1926 during Latvia’s first period of 

independence. Practitioners, called Dievturi, seek to restablish 

Latvia’s pre-Christian spirituality, relying primarily on 

descriptions of Dievs (the pre-Christian Supreme Being) in 

Latvian folklore and dainas (folk songs – see p. 4 of Aesthetics 

and Recreation) as the basis of their theology. Rooted in the 

cycles of nature, Dievturība focuses on achieving virtue by 

living in harmony with nature and other members of society. Of 

note, many Latvians disapprove of the movement because of 

its association with fascist ideology in the 1930s.

The Old Believers

Latvia’s southeastern Latgale region is home to the Old 

Believers, members of an offshoot of the Russian 

Orthodox Church. Today’s Old Believers are 

descendants of Russians who objected to mid-17th 

century reforms in the Russian Orthodox Church. To 

avoid persecution in their home communities, they fled 

to Latvia where they formed communities dedicated to 

maintaining their unique social and religious traditions. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Latvians strongly identify with their birthplace, rarely moving 

away from the region where they were born. Even if younger 

Latvians seek employment and education in urban areas, they 

typically return home for holidays, during vacations, and on 

weekends. Latvians maintain close relationships with both 

immediate and extended family members. 

Residence

Urban residences tend to be small, having only a few rooms. 

By contrast, rural homes are typically larger and may comprise 

multiple structures. About 33% of Latvia’s population lives in 

rural regions. 

Rural: Traditionally, Latvians lived on small, family-owned 

farms comprised of multiple structures, including a building for 

sleeping and eating, a 

barn for storing grain

and housing animals, 

a small smoke house 

for smoking and 

curing meats, and a 

sauna (pictured). 

During their rule, the 

Soviets replaced 

many of these 

farmsteads with large 

collective farms, forcing rural residents to live in centrallylocated collective housing units. While many families have 

returned to living on single-family farms, some rural residents 

continue to reside in Soviet-era apartment blocks.

Latvians historically built homes of thick wooden logs to repel

the cold. Today, home builders increasingly use modern 

materials such as bricks and cement. Of note, some homes 

lack indoor plumbing and electricity, requiring residents to rely 

on wood burning stoves for heat. Latvians have a particular 

fondness for gardens and enjoy growing flowers, fruits, and 

vegetables. 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Urban: City living conditions are usually cramped. During the 

Soviet occupation (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth), the 

government erected practical, poorly-constructed high-rise 

apartment buildings on the edges of cities. These complexes 

were designed to accommodate the influx of workers from 

Russia and other Soviet republics seeking work in Soviet 

industries (see p. 13 of History and Myth). Today’s independent

Latvian government has renovated many of these tenement 

blocks and is constructing new, modern units. Nevertheless,

many families continue to live in outdated and small 

apartments. 

Apartments typically contain 2-3 rooms, a small kitchen, and 

bathroom. During the Soviet era, many urban dwellers

maintained small gardens, growing staples like potatoes, 

onions, and cabbage (see p. 1-2 of Sustenance and Health) to 

supplement food supplies provided by the state. Today, many 

urban residents continue to maintain small flower gardens on 

balconies and along window sills. Of note, many urban 

residents own modest summer cottages (dachas) in the 

countryside where they retreat for rest and recreation during 

the summer. 

Family Structure

Most Latvian households comprise nuclear families (2 parents 

and their children) living together with grandparents and even 

great-grandparents. Extended family members are important in 

Latvian Saunas

Offering relief from Latvia’s cold winters, a sauna 

(sauna or pirts) is a fundamental aspect of Latvian life 

and a popular Latvian pastime. Usually constructed 

outside the home, a basic pirts consists of a single 

insulated room heated by an electric or wood burning 

stove surrounded by hot stones or bricks. Bathers toss 

water on the bricks to produce clouds of steam while 

brushing their skin with birch twigs to stimulate 

circulation and open pores. 

KINS

FAMILY &

HIP
daily life, supporting one another financially and gathering 

frequently for meals, birthdays, and other special occasions. 

While some mothers work outside the home, Latvians typically 

view the father as the primary breadwinner and head of the 

household. Even if she holds outside employment, the mother 

typically retains responsibility for household chores and childrearing (see p. 1 of Sex and Gender).

Latvians revere their elderly family members for their wisdom 

and experience, often providing physical and financial care for 

aging parents. In fact, nursing homes generally house only 

elderly who have critical health conditions or lack close kin. 

Children

Most Latvian families choose to have just 1-2 children who 

typically remain at home with their parents until they marry.

Grandparents often care for children while both parents work. 

Children’s chores tend to vary by gender: girls may help their 

mothers cook, clean, and tend to the garden, while boys 

typically help their fathers 

with home repairs and, in 

rural areas, farming 

(Photo: A Latvian family). 

Birth: Latvians strongly 

value motherhood. 

Traditionally, to protect 

their unborn children from 

an “evil eye” (a harmful 

glance from a stranger), pregnant women refrained from 

discussing their pregnancies in public and did not venture 

outside the home during the last months of pregnancy. 

Although these practices are relatively uncommon today, 

Latvians continue to be highly protective of their young 

children. For example, mothers generally do not take their 

babies out in public or receive guests before their children are

at least a month old. 

Soon after birth, family members may burn oak leaves (if the 

child is a boy) or lime leaves (if the child is a girl), a practice 

intended to give the baby strength. Many parents also appoint 

godparents, who promise to care for the child if the parents are 

unable to. Approximately 1 week after birth, some Latvians

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
hold the Krustaba, a name-giving ceremony during which the 

godparents formally accept their roles. Christian Latvians may

baptize their children within a month of birth. 

Dating and Marriage

Traditionally, a vedējpāris (matchmaker) arranged the meeting 

of potential mates. Today, Latvians choose their own spouses

based on mutual attraction. Boys and girls often begin dating 

around age 15, though they typically interact from a younger

age. Popular socializing activities include attending sports 

events, dining at restaurants and cafes, and convening at clubs 

and parties. 

Latvians tend to marry in their early or mid-20s. Many 

newlyweds choose to reside with 1 set of parents for a period

in order to save money. In contrast to Estonians, who rarely 

marry outside their ethnicity, about 1 in 5 Latvian marriages are 

between partners of different ethnic backgrounds (see p. 12 of 

Political and Social Relations). Of note, parenthood outside of 

marriage is also common. About 40% of Latvian children are 

born to unmarried or cohabitating couples – very close to the 

US rate of 41%.

Weddings: While Latvians no longer enter into arranged 

marriages, the vedējpāris continues to hold an honorary and 

important role in the marriage ceremony. Today, the vedējpāris

is usually a close friend who helps plan the wedding, serves as 

a witness to the union, 

and symbolically aids the 

couple transition from 

single to married life 

(Photo: A newlywed 

Latvian couple).

Although some Latvians 

choose to wed in church 

ceremonies, most couples 

marry in civil ceremonies held at a local government marriage 

bureau. During a civil ceremony, which is typically attended by 

only a few close friends and relatives, the bride and groom

recite vows, exchange rings, and sign a marriage contract. In 

some rural regions, wedding parties may be larger. During the 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
service, the bride may wear a white gown and hold a bouquet 

of flowers, while the groom wears a formal suit. To bring the 

couple good fortune, family and friends cover the road leading 

to the ceremony site in oak leaves. The newlyweds may depart 

the ceremony in a car decorated with flowers. 

Immediately following the ceremony, friends and family gather 

for a reception, during which attendees dance, sing, and enjoy 

an elaborate feast. Festivities may last 2-3 days, comprising a 

series of parties held at a family home, restaurant, or hotel. 

Divorce: Divorce carries little social stigma and is increasingly 

common. At 3.6 per 1,000 people, Latvia’s divorce rate is equal 

to that of the US, but is among Europe’s and the Baltic States’ 

highest rates. Of note, studies reveal that ethnic Latvians are 

less likely to get divorced than ethnic Russians and members 

of other ethnic groups. 

Death

After a death, 

mourners gather for 

a casket viewing. 

Family members 

may place items 

traditionally viewed 

as useful for the 

next life into the 

casket with the 

deceased. Such 

items commonly include combs and mirrors, which Latvians 

traditionally considered to be required for entry to the kingdom 

of the dead. Family and friends then gather at a church or 

cemetery for a funeral service. The casket is then buried in a 

cemetery where meticulously-maintained plots often 

incorporate small flower gardens. Due to shortages in cemetery 

space, urban Latvians are increasingly choosing cremation 

over a casketed burial. Following the funeral service, family 

members and close friends gather for a quiet meal in 

remembrance of the deceased (Photo: Riga’s Brethren 

Cemetery honors soldiers killed in World War I and the Latvian 

War of Independence).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditionally, Latvian society was patriarchal, meaning men 

held most power and authority. While women and men have 

equal rights before the law, traditional attitudes continue to 

present hurdles to women’s full participation in educational, 

economic, and political spheres. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Latvian women traditionally held primary 

responsibility for all household chores, child care and 

education, and the care of elderly parents. During the Soviet 

era (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth), the majority of women 

entered the workforce because the state expected all Latvian 

citizens to contribute to the economy. Some women continue to

work outside the home today but also perform most domestic

tasks (Photo: A

mother takes photos 

of her daughter in 

Liepāja). 

Labor Force: In 2014, 

55% of Latvian women 

worked outside the 

home, compared to 

57% in the US. About 

1/3rd of women work

in what are considered traditional “female” professions, such as

healthcare, education, social work, and retail, though 

increasingly more women hold high-level positions in business 

and government. Generally, women experience some

discrimination in hiring and promotion, receiving lower wages 

than men with comparable education levels and work 

experience. Although Latvian women generally demonstrate 

greater academic achievement than men and attain higher 

levels of education, they earn an average of 14% less than 

their male counterparts. Of note, this salary gap between the 

genders is smaller than the EU average and is substantially 

smaller than neighboring Estonia’s.

SEX &

GENDER

5. SEX AND GENDER
Gender and the Law

Latvia’s 1991 constitution guarantees equal rights to women in 

education, healthcare, and social welfare while affording

special protections to single mothers and pregnant women.

Enacted in 2002, the Labor Law further protects women from 

differential treatment in the workplace based on gender and 

criminalizes sexual harassment by employers. 

Women and men enjoy equal rights in marriage, divorce, and 

their authority over their children. In addition, the constitution

recognizes a female head of household and provides equal 

inheritance rights to wives and daughters. It also guarantees 

equal rights to own and access land and property, as well as 

grants equal access to

credit and bank loans 

(Photo: Members of the 

Liepāja police force). 

Despite this legal 

framework, laws are 

not always enforced. 

For example, women 

face discrimination by 

both public and private employers and suffer from sexual 

harassment in the workplace. While a growing number of civil 

and non-profit organizations promote women’s rights, few 

political parties devote attention to gender equality and 

women’s issues.

Gender and Politics

Since Latvia’s 1991 independence, women’s participation in 

the political process has increased. While no women held seats 

in Latvia’s first 2 governments following independence, women 

began to occupy several important political positions after 

1994. Notably, Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was elected Latvia’s first 

female President in 1999 and re-elected for a 2nd term in 2003, 

making Latvia the first post-communist nation to elect a woman 

as head of state. In 2014 Laimdota Straujuma became Latvia’s 

first female Prime Minister (see p. 17 of History and Myth).

Today, 18 women hold seats in the 100-member Parliament, 

including the role of speaker. This rate is comparable to the 

US, where women comprise 20% of all Congress members. In 

SEX &

GENDER
addition, 26 of 53 Supreme Court judges are women, as well 

as 2 of 6 Constitutional Court justices. Within Latvia’s local

governments, women hold about 31% of positions.

In contrast to neighboring Estonia, which mandates 

representation of both genders in government, there is no such 

law in Latvia. In fact, echoing popular public opinion, former 

President Vīķe-Freiberga noted that establishing gender quotas 

imply women cannot succeed on merit alone and therefore are 

demeaning and unnecessary.

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Some 32% of Latvian women reported domestic abuse in 2014

– one of the EU’s highest rates of domestic violence. Although 

the constitution does not specifically prohibit domestic violence,

a 2014 amendment outlines some safeguards. Protective

measures include giving the police more freedom to intervene 

in domestic violence 

cases and easing 

requirements to 

initiate restraining 

orders, among others 

(Photo: Latvians 

attend a fair in

Liepāja).

Some Latvian women 

and children become 

victims of sex trafficking and are subjected to brokered 

marriages, domestic servitude, or forced prostitution within 

Latvia, Europe, and the US. 

While Latvia implemented a program in 2008 to help prevent 

GBV and provide victims support, most government 

rehabilitation services, such as battered women’s shelters, are 

inadequate. To fill the gap, several non-profits and international 

organizations offer additional assistance. Despite this support,

many women are unaware of their rights to protection or 

reluctant to report infractions and seek help. Further, even if 

GBV cases are reported, indictment and prosecution of 

perpetrators is rare. For example, in 2010 police received 79 

reports of rape but just 19 individuals were convicted.

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation

During the Soviet era (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth), public 

displays of affection and sexuality were generally uncommon.

Although attitudes have liberalized in recent years, Latvians 

typically do not discuss sex 

openly. Of note, some 

younger couples, particularly 

in urban areas, may hold 

hands and express affection

in public (Photo: A US soldier 

talks to a young Latvian girl). 

At 1.4 births per woman, 

Latvia’s birthrate is well 

below the rate required to 

maintain the population and 

is among the world’s lowest 

rates. Alarmed at Latvia’s negative population growth, in 2011 

the government created a “State Family Policy,” a federal 

action plan meant to facilitate family formation and to promote 

fertility. As in all the Baltic States, abortion is legal in Latvia, 

though less common 

than in some other 

EU countries. In 

2013, abortion 

outpaced Latvian 

birth rates, with 14

abortions to 10 births 

per 1,000 women 

(Photo: A Latvian 

family).

Homosexuality

While Latvia decriminalized homosexual activity in 1992, it 

does not recognize same-sex marriages. A 2006 amendment 

to the Latvian Constitution defines marriage as the union of a

man and woman. International organizations report that Latvian 

legislation falls short of protecting LGBT community members 

from gender-based hate crimes. Homosexuals are often 

reluctant to report harassment and experience stigmatization in 

Latvian society.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

The official language of Latvia is Standard Latvian, which about 

56% of the population speaks as a primary language. Due to 

the large numbers of ethnic Russians who settled in Latvia 

during the Soviet occupation (see p. 13-14 of History and 

Myth), nearly 34% of Latvia’s population speaks Russian as a 

first language. The remaining 10% have another primary 

language.

Latvian

Latvian, sometimes called Lettish, belongs to the Baltic branch 

of the Indo-European language family and is most similar to 

Lithuanian. Due to the presence of German- and Russianspeakers during the country’s 

long history of occupation (see 

History and Myth), Latvian has 

incorporated many German and 

Russian loanwords. Largely in 

reaction to these foreign 

occupations, the Latvian 

language has become a 

significant marker of national 

Latvian identity (Photo: Latvian 

Air Force emblem “All for 

Latvia”).

Modern Standard Latvian uses a 33-letter Latin-origin alphabet 

that utilizes diacritics (marks placed over vowels to indicate 

length and over or under consonants to indicate a changed

pronunciation). For example, the Latvian “s” sound is identical 

to the English “s,” while “š” is pronounced “sh.” Similarly, “ņ” is 

pronounced as “ni” or “ñ,” and “ū” sounds like “oo.”

Spoken Latvian is melodic and sounds more similar to 

Scandinavian than other continental European languages. Due 

to Finnish influence, stress always falls on the first syllable of

words, with the single exception of paldies (thank you). Some

Latvian grammatical constructions do not exist in English.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Latvian divides into 3 main dialect groups: West (Tamian), East 

(High), and Central. The Central dialect served as the basis for 

the development of Standard Latvian. About 165,000 Latvians

speak Latgalian, which many linguists consider a variant of the 

East dialect while others believe it to be a separate language.

In 1999, Latvia passed the State Language Law in an effort to 

maintain, protect, and develop Latvian. According to the law, 

only Latvian, Latgalian, and the nearly-extinct Livonian (the last 

native speaker died in 2013) are considered indigenous to 

Latvia. Every public or private institution that acts in the general 

public interest is required to use Latvian or provide Latvian 

translations for all materials.

While the language law attempts to integrate ethnic minorities 

by granting them the right to use their native languages, many 

minority residents and some international organizations claim

that the law is unjust and discriminatory. Despite these 

tensions and resistance to the policy, about 80% of the 

population can communicate in Latvian today, up from around

65% at independence in 1991.

Russian

Latvia is home to the EU’s largest Russian-speaking 

population. Mostly concentrated in the East, Russian-speakers 

match or outnumber Latvian-speakers in Riga and Daugavpils, 

Latvia’s 2 largest cities

(Pictured: 1912 postcard 

of Riga labeled in Russian 

and Latvian).

While Soviet occupiers 

required Latvians to learn 

and use Russian for all 

public communication,

Latvian schooling was 

primarily conducted in Latvian (see p. 3 of Learning and 

Knowledge). Latvians’ private communications also were 

accomplished in their native Latvian. By contrast, few Russians 

learned Latvian since their schooling was predominantly in

Russian (see p. 3 of Learning and Knowledge). Due to this 

historical trend, language issues occasionally cause tensions 

between Latvian and Russian speakers today.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
While many people still use Russian in business and everyday 

life, it is no longer Latvia’s dominant language. In 2012, Latvian

voters disapproved a proposal to make Russian an official 

second language (see p. 17 of History and Myth). Some 

policies to promote the use of Latvian have caused Russian 

use to decline. For example, public signs no longer include

Russian.

Other Languages

Some Latvians speak

other languages as their 

primary language. These 

include Lithuanian, 

Polish, Ukrainian, 

Belarusian, and Romani

(the language of the 

Roma or “Gypsies” – see p. 12 of Political and Social 

Relations), among others (Photo: US paratroopers speaking 

with Latvian students).

English: Some 30% of Latvians can communicate in English. 

Generally, younger residents of Riga are more likely to speak 

English than older Latvians in rural regions. Because primary 

schools typically offer multilingual instruction, many Latvian 

youth are proficient in Latvian, Russian, and English (see p. 5-6

of Learning and Knowledge).

Communication Overview

Communicating effectively in Latvia requires not only 

knowledge of the various languages but also the ability to 

interact effectively using language. This broad notion of 

competence includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, 

intonation), nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, 

gestures), and interaction management (conversation initiation, 

turn-taking, and termination). When used properly, these forms 

of communication help to ensure that statements are 

interpreted as the speaker intends.

Communication Style

Latvian communication patterns reflect the Latvian values of

privacy, candor, and loyalty. Compared to Americans, Latvians 

may seem reserved, feel comfortable in silence, and rarely 

display strong emotions. Most Latvians prefer direct speech 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
and an even tone of voice. They especially value the privacy of 

their home and typically share personal information only with 

relatives or close friends.

While Latvians are usually polite, they rarely engage in small 

talk or extend many compliments. Latvian humor tends to be

dry and includes cultural references that may be difficult for 

foreign nationals to understand. Likewise, Latvians may not 

understand or appreciate American sarcasm or irony.

Hierarchy is important in Latvian communications. As age and 

position/title oblige respect, Latvians generally introduce elders

and people with senior positions first, often giving them 

decision-making powers at home or in the workplace. Latvians 

tend to avoid public 

conflicts, preferring to deal

with issues in private.

Greetings

Latvian greetings are 

usually simple and direct, 

often consisting of a firm 

handshake, constant eye 

contact, and a verbal

Sveiki (hello), Čau (Hi), or 

Kā tev iet? (How are you doing?). It is customary for women 

and elders to extend their hands first. Sometimes Latvians

exchange light kisses on the cheek as a sign of respect or 

friendship. When approached, Latvians often stand up to 

acknowledge the newcomer’s presence. Some Latvians may 

avoid exchanging greetings in entranceways (Photo: US Navy 

Captain greets Latvian Navy Commander).

Forms of Address

Latvians use different forms of address to demonstrate respect 

and the nature of the relationship. They typically address new 

acquaintances with their last name followed by a title, such as 

Kungs (Mr.), Kundze (Mrs.), appropriate job title, or military 

rank. For example, Mr. Vējonis would be Vējonis Kungs in 

Latvian. Of note, some Latvians may use Jaunkundze (Miss) 

only for female children, not for unmarried women. While close

colleagues, friends, and family typically call each other by their 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
first names, foreign nationals should use the last name and 

appropriate title unless directed otherwise.

Of note, last names have distinctive feminine and masculine 

forms. While male names typically end in –š, female names 

end in –a, or –e. When they marry, some women may take 

their husband’s surname, adapted to the feminine form. To 

express affection when speaking with children, Latvians may 

add a gender-specific diminutive ending to a name (–īts or –iņš

for males; –ina or –īte for females). For example, Valdis might

be called Valdiņš, and Maija might be Maijina.

Conversational Topics

Popular conversation topics include work, family, and the 

weather. Latvians also enjoy discussions about history, culture, 

and sports. While Latvians themselves may criticize various 

aspects of their country, foreign nationals should avoid doing 

so. Other potentially offensive topics may include personal 

finances, Latvia’s foreign occupations, and tensions between 

Latvia’s ethnic and linguistic groups. Foreign nationals should 

avoid profanity and any expressions that could be considered 

vulgar or ill-mannered. Unlike Americans, Latvians typically 

respond to “how are you” questions with a thorough and 

sincere response (Photo: 

US Airmen work 

alongside Latvians on an 

orphanage project).

Gestures

Latvians sometimes use 

gestures to emphasize 

their verbal expressions 

but may find frequent 

gesturing inappropriate or 

annoying. Like Americans, Latvians use the “thumbs up” 

gesture to indicate a positive occurrence. Latvians consider 

pointing with the index finger impolite. Instead, they indicate 

direction with the entire hand.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. 

Click on Menu tab in upper right then Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Latvian

Hello / Hi Sveiki / Čau

Good morning Labrīt

Good afternoon Labdien

Good evening Labvakar

How are you? Kā jums klājas?

Well, thank you. And you? Paldies, labi. Un jums?

My name is ______ Mani sauc ______

Please Lūdzu

Thank you Paldies

You’re welcome Vienmēr laipni

Yes/No Jā/Nē

Goodbye Uz redzēšanos

Goodnight Ar labunakti

Have a nice day! Lai jums laba diena!

Excuse me / Sorry Piedodiet or Atvainojiet

Do you speak English? Vai jūs runājat angliski?

I don’t speak Latvian Es nerunāju latviski

Please speak more slowly Lūdzu, runājiet lēnāk

I don’t understand Es nesaprotu

I don’t know Es nezinu

What? Kas?

When? Kad?

Where? Kur?

Who? Kas? Kurš? (m) Kura? (f)

Why? Kāpēc?

Cheers! / Cheers! (as a toast) Uz veselību! / Priekā!

Help! Palīgā!

I need your help Man vajag jūsu palīdzību

I am lost Esmu apmaldījies (m)

apmaldījusies (f)

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 99.9%

• Male: 99.9%

• Female: 99.9% (2015 estimate)

Early History of Education

Before the introduction of formal education that accompanied 

the 13th-century arrival of Christianity (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality), inhabitants of the region informally transmitted 

values, skills, and historical knowledge to younger generations.

In 1211, German missionaries founded the Riga Dome School 

to train German clergymen in Latin and religious texts. By the 

15th and 16th centuries, the German nobility had established

secular town schools to provide their sons basic levels of

literacy (see p. 2-4 of History and Myth for description of 

German Conquest in 

Latvia).

Latvians acquired access 

to formal education for 

the first time following the 

16th-century Protestant 

Reformation (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality), 

when Swedish clergy set up schools to make Lutheran 

teachings available to the general population. By the late 17th

century, Sweden required every parish to have at least 1 

primary school (see p. 4-5 of History and Myth for Swedish 

influence in Latvia). In 1683, the first Latvian language schools 

opened and in 1685 the Swedish crown subsidized the

translation of the Bible into Latvian (Photo: US Marines and 

Latvian soldiers speak to a class in Lejasciems).

Years of war and disease in the early 18th century (see p. 5-6

of History and Myth) caused educational offerings to reduce in 

number and quality. During 19th-century Russian rule, 

educational opportunities improved under the influence of 

European Enlightenment philosophy (see p. 6 of History and 

Myth). 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
The National Awakening and Early 20th Century Education

A central part of the Latvian National Awakening (see p. 6 of 

History and Myth) was criticism of German and Russian 

cultural and linguistic domination of Latvian society. By the mid19th century, Latvian-language journalism and literature were 

supporting the rise of a Latvian national consciousness.

Scholars collected traditional folk songs and stories (see p. 4 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation and p. 18 of History and Myth) and

publishers printed new Latvian-language newspapers. By the 

late 1890s, Latvians’ literacy rate reached 79% in certain 

regions, compared to only 21% in Russia.

After achieving its first independence in 1920 (see p. 9 of 

History and Myth), Latvia established free compulsory 

education for children aged 8-14. While some Latvians 

continued to attend German- and Russian-language schools, 

many others studied in 

Latvian schools for the 

first time. Over the next 

decade, educational 

opportunities expanded 

to include schools in 

other minority 

languages. By 1933, 

80% of Latvia’s ethnic 

minorities attended school in their native languages. This trend 

was abruptly reversed in 1934, when Latvia’s authoritarian 

government (see p. 9-10 of History and Myth) enacted a law 

requiring all Latvian and most minority children to attend 

Latvian-language schools (Photo: Zasa Secondary School, 

built in 1939).

Education under the Soviet Occupation

The Soviet occupation (see p. 11 and 13-14 of History and 

Myth) resulted in significant changes to the Latvian education 

system. While they made some improvements, including

increasing compulsory education to 8 years by the 1950s, the 

Soviets used the education system to implement their socialist 

agenda (see p. 11 of History and Myth and p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Consequently, the curriculum emphasized Soviet 

patriotism and communist tenets such as collectivism, MarxistLeninist philosophy, and socialist humanism. Due to this

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
imposition of Soviet doctrine and repression of divergent views, 

many Latvian intellectuals fled the country or were executed, 

further facilitating the dominance of Soviet ideas in education.

Further, the Soviet regime supported a divided education 

system. Ethnic Russians and all other minorities attended

Russian-language academic and vocational schools that

followed the Soviet curriculum and offered limited instruction in 

Latvian. Meanwhile, most ethnic Latvians attended separate 

Latvian-language schools that also followed the Soviet 

curriculum, including mandatory Russian language and history 

courses. Students in these schools were forced to attend an 

extra year of classes in order to improve their Russian, a 

requirement not imposed on students in the Russian-language 

schools. Consequently, tensions emerged between Latvian and 

Russian speakers that continue to exist today (see “Modern 

Education System” below).

By the 1970s, the Soviets had implemented universal 

secondary education. Students attended Latvian-language 

schools for 11 years and Russian-language schools for 10. The 

Soviets prioritized vocational schools to give residents the 

requisite skills to work within the Soviet military-industrial 

complex. By the mid1980s, nearly 99% of 

Latvians were literate.

In the late 1980s, 

Latvians began to 

protest education’s 

focus on Russian 

language and culture, 

publicly calling Russian 

schools “symbols of 

occupation.” Along with 

calls for independence, Latvians openly debated options to 

alter Soviet educational policies. Following its 2nd

independence in 1991 (see p. 16 of History and Myth), Latvia 

introduced legislation that laid the foundation for the current

curriculum. This course of study emphasizes Latvian national 

identity, minority education, information technology skills, and 

lifelong learning traditions (Photo: Saldus Art School).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Modern Education System

After 2 decades of reforms, Latvian students score comparably 

to US students on international math, reading, and science

exams. In 2011, the government spent 8.9% of its budget on 

education, significantly lower than that spent in the US.

Nevertheless, education expenditure grew by 7% from 2013-

2014, a higher increase 

than in any other EU 

country except Hungary 

(Photo: US paratrooper 

with Latvian students).

In 2014, about 28% of all 

public school students 

attended schools that 

follow the national 

curriculum but teach some

lessons in a minority

language, primarily Russian. A controversial 2004 regulation 

requires all secondary schools, including minority language

schools, to offer at least 60% of their courses in Latvian. The 

regulation further requires secondary students to pass a 

Latvian proficiency exam to graduate.

Many Russian speakers protest these requirements, citing a 

lack of Latvian-speaking teachers in the Russian schools. In

addition, some ethnic Russians believe that such requirements 

erode Russian language and culture in Latvia. Further, critics of 

the system point to a widening gap in university admissions 

and post-secondary attainment between Latvians and 

minorities, including ethnic Russians. Nevertheless, while the 

education level of Russian speakers was 10% higher than 

Latvian speakers in 1989, achievement was nearly identical by 

2012.

Other educational challenges include school closures due to 

population decline in rural areas; low quality of vocational, 

health, and adult education; and extremely low teacher salaries 

that are just 1/8 the US average. Latvia has addressed these 

and other issues in a comprehensive plan that includes

structural changes in vocational education, curriculum 

modernization, and increased teacher salaries.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Pre-Primary: Public kindergartens provide non-compulsory 

subsidized education for children aged 1-4. In 2015, 89% of 4-

year-olds were enrolled such programs. Children aged 5-6 

attend compulsory pre-primary schools, where they learn basic 

language, math, and social skills. While materials in these 

schools are typically in Latvian, parents may request instruction 

in minority languages.

Basic: Consisting of 9 grades starting at age 7, basic schooling

is compulsory and consists of primary school (grades 1-4) and 

lower secondary school (grades 5-9). In 2013, 96% of children 

of the appropriate age were enrolled in basic schools having a

curriculum consisting of Latvian and/or Russian, math and 

technology, social sciences, history, natural sciences, foreign 

language (including English), art, music, handicrafts, and 

physical education.

To graduate, 

students must 

pass exams in 

math, Latvian (or

a minority

language and

Latvian as a 2nd 

language), history 

of Latvia and the 

world, and a 

foreign language. Basic vocational programs are available for 

students who have not finished their basic academic education 

by age 16 (Photo: Rubene Basic School).

Secondary: While secondary school (grades 10-12) is not 

compulsory, a majority of Latvian students enroll. Secondary 

schools offer 4 standard educational tracks: general 

comprehensive; humanities and social sciences; mathematics, 

natural science, and technical science; and vocational. 

Compulsory subjects for all 4 tracks include Latvian 

language/literature, math, foreign language, history, applied 

information technology, and physical education.

The objectives of academic secondary education are to 

prepare students for university, ensure adequate social 

development, and encourage a critical socially-active attitude

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
with an understanding of Latvian citizenship obligations. To 

qualify for university, students must complete the secondary 

academic or vocational curriculum and pass exams in Latvian,

math, a foreign language, and 1 subject of the student’s choice.

Vocational schools remain an important part of the Latvian 

education system. Almost 40% of secondary students enroll in 

vocational schools to learn skills in business, information 

technology, arts, sports, music, and other subjects. Students 

may enroll in vocational programs lasting 2-3 years or so-called 

secondary vocational programs lasting 4 years. While both 

tracks require students to develop skills and knowledge for the 

labor market, the latter enables students to proceed to 

university or other institutions of higher education.

Post-Secondary: Many Latvians pursue post-secondary 

academic and vocational education at 1 of 60 institutions of 

higher learning, mainly in Riga. Latvia restructured its higher 

education system in the 1990s so that institutions now offer

bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral academic degrees, as well 

as vocational certificates. In 2013, 40% of Latvian 30-34-yearolds held post-secondary qualifications, achieving the EU’s

2020 education 

target ahead of 

schedule.

Each year, the 

Higher Education 

Council allocates 

a certain number 

of grants to

students who 

attain high scores 

on their 

secondary school exams. All other students are entitled to 

government loans to finance their post-secondary education. 

The University of Latvia is the country’s oldest and most 

prestigious university, originally founded by the Russians in 

1862 as Riga Polytechnic. Today, it is the largest university in 

the Baltics, enrolling about 20,000 students in more than 150 

programs (Photo: The University of Latvia around the turn of 

the 20th century).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Latvians value candid, efficient, and professional interactions in 

the workplace, are typically punctual, and consider significant 

tardiness rude. Further, they tend to maintain boundaries 

between their personal and professional lives.

Time and Work

Latvia’s work week runs from Monday-Friday with most 

business hours from 9:00am-6:00pm. While there is some 

variation by store size 

and location, most shops 

are open from 10:00am7:00pm Monday-Friday 

and 10:00am-4:00pm on 

Saturday. Although many 

stores close on Sundays, 

major shopping centers 

are typically open every 

day, often for longer 

hours than small shops (Photo: Riga’s Town Hall Square).

Most banks are open Monday-Friday from 9:00am-6:00pm and 

on Saturday from 10:00am-3:00pm. Post offices typically open 

Monday-Friday from 8:00am-8:00pm and from 8:00am-4:00pm 

on Saturday. Some banks, post offices, and shops stay open 

later in Riga and other urban locations than in rural areas. 

While most businesses close on public holidays, large 

supermarkets and food stores in Riga typically remain open.

Working Hours: Latvian labor law stipulates a standard 40-

hour work week, with up to 8 hours of paid overtime. Many 

Latvians, particularly those who work in the private sector, 

often work longer hours. Although Latvia has labor regulations 

to protect workers, lax enforcement allows employers to have a 

great deal of control over hiring, wages, and working 

conditions. Even so, all Latvian workers are entitled to a weekly 

rest period of at least 42 consecutive hours. They also receive 

28 days of annual paid leave in addition to paid public holidays.

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone: Latvia adheres to Eastern European Time (EET), 

which is 2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 7 

hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Latvia observes 

daylight savings from the end of March-October, which makes 

Latvia 3 hours ahead of GMT during that period.

Date Notation: Like the US, Latvia uses the Western 

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Latvians write either 

the day first, followed by the month and year, or the year first, 

followed by the month and day.

Time and Business

Business in Latvia tends to move at a similar pace as in the 

US. While Latvians typically value punctuality and adherence to 

deadlines, a small degree of tardiness is acceptable if prior 

notification has been given. Custom requires all potential 

business partners to shake hands and exchange business 

cards when meeting for the first time.

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• March/April: Good Friday, Easter Sunday, 

and Easter Monday (dates vary each year)

• May 1: Labor Day and Constitution Day

• May 4: Independence Restoration Day

• June 23: Midsummer’s Eve

• June 24: St. John’s Day / Midsummer’s Day

• November 18: Independence Day

• December 24: Christmas Eve

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Boxing Day

• December 31: New Year’s Eve

Of note, if either Independence Restoration Day or 

Independence Day falls on a weekend, the holiday 

is observed on the following Monday. 

SPACE

TIME &
Latvians prefer to get to know potential business partners 

before discussing business. Generally, Latvians value efficient 

meetings, seldom allowing them to run long. Meetings tend to 

be formal, with candid and direct communication (see p. 3-4 of 

Language and 

Communication), and 

closely following a 

predetermined agenda. 

Latvians consider 

interruptions to be rude 

and inappropriate. After 

a meeting, Latvians often 

follow up via phone or 

email with discussion 

points, deadlines, or decisions. Reaching a deal or agreement 

may take a few days, pending leadership approval (Photo: 

President Vējonis and US personnel observe a tank delivery at 

the Riga docks).

The Latvian workplace is typically hierarchical, with the upper 

management or senior officials running meetings and making 

most decisions. Some Latvians may be reluctant to complain or 

openly question their superiors, though most are relatively 

open with their critique. Managers almost always deliver 

feedback and criticism to employees in private. Although not 

the norm, some businesses follow an informal, consultative, 

and democratic approach to decision-making. While most 

business discussions occur during scheduled meetings in an 

office, informal meetings 

in different locations or 

during a meal are not 

unusual (Photo: US 

Airmen and Latvian 

soldiers work at an 

orphanage).

Personal Space

As in most societies, 

personal space in Latvia depends on the nature of the 

relationship. With strangers, Latvians tend to maintain about an 

arm’s length of distance when conversing, although the space 

between family and friends tends to be closer.

SPACE

TIME &
Touch

Conversational touching in Latvia tends to be less common 

than in the US, and strangers rarely touch after the initial 

handshake (see p. 4 of Language and Communication). Close 

friends and relatives may touch to convey affection, respect, or 

sincerity. Though not the norm, it is increasingly common for 

young friends to touch in social settings or for young couples to 

hold hands in public.

Eye Contact

Direct eye contact is important during any greeting (see p. 4 of 

Language and Communication) or business meeting to convey 

interest and transparency. Many Latvians consider reluctance 

to make periodic eye contact during conversation a sign of 

dishonesty or an attempt to conceal information.

Photographs

Banks, churches, museums, secured areas, and similar places 

may prohibit photography. Foreign nationals should always 

acquire a Latvian’s permission before taking his photo.

Driving

Some Latvians have aggressive driving habits, passing 

vehicles on blind corners or at high speeds. Further, some 

drivers ignore laws 

that require drivers to 

yield to pedestrians in 

marked intersections 

and give the right of 

way to trams. Traffic 

law enforcement 

continues to suffer 

from corruption; 

drivers often pay 

police officers to avoid 

official fines. While Latvia has the EU’s highest rate of trafficrelated deaths, at 10.5 deaths per 100,000 people per year, 

this level is declining and is comparable to the US rate of 10.3. 

Drunk driving is a serious offense, with a minimum punishment

of 10 days of immediate imprisonment. Like Americans, 

Latvians drive on the right side of the road (Photo: US soldiers 

travel in Strykers and support vehicles through Saulkrasti).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Latvian traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect the 

country’s rural peasant past, history of foreign occupations, 

20th-century nationalist movements, and modern global trends.

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Traditional dress 

has become a visible 

expression of Latvian national 

culture. Latvians typically wear 

traditional attire during special

events, festivals, and holidays, 

although some rural Latvians 

wear it more regularly. While 

each region has its own 

variations of colors, patterns, 

and styles, traditional garments are often wool or linen in white, 

gray, black or naturally-dyed red, brown, and green (Illustration: 

A 1521 watercolor of Livonian women).

Women’s wear typically includes a long multi-colored skirt 

secured by a josta (patterned 

sash) topped by a blouse 

embroidered with traditional 

geometric patterns and

fastened with a silver sakta

(brooch). A woolen villaine

(shawl) accents the costume 

and provides warmth. Beads, 

brooches, and other jewelry 

made from silver and dzintars

(amber, pictured) are also 

traditional. Married women typically wear cloth headscarves, 

while single girls wear vainags, a crown made of flowers.

Men’s traditional attire usually includes dark gray breeches and 

knee-length stockings. Over a long-sleeved shirt men often 

wear a sheepskin coat or long dark jacket with a woven or 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
leather and metal belt. Men often complete their traditional look 

with a broad-rimmed felt or straw hat. Both men and women 

wear pastalas, shoes made from a single piece of leather and

tied with laces. Layered pairs of stockings, woolen mittens, 

socks, and jackets or capes are typical cold-weather 

accessories.

Modern: For everyday dress, most Latvians wear clothing that 

reflects the latest European fashion trends, although particular 

styles may depend on age and geographic location. Generally, 

older Latvians dress more conservatively than younger 

generations, and most urban Latvians dress more formally than 

rural dwellers. In the workplace, Latvians often prefer formal 

attire, while “Latvian casual” (similar to business casual) is 

typical for informal occasions. In a current trend, some modern 

styles incorporate traditional Latvian geometric designs.

Recreation and Leisure

Latvians generally prefer to spend their leisure time with close 

friends and family (see p. 1-2 of Family and Kinship). Popular 

activities demonstrate Latvians’ connection to the land and 

traditional life, including relaxing in a pirts (sauna—see p. 1-2 

of Family and Kinship), folk dancing and singing, playing chess, 

hiking, hunting, and fishing. 

During the cold, dark winter 

months, Latvians enjoy visits to 

the theater, cinema, and opera, 

as well as winter sports and 

craft-making. Some Latvians

also vacation in warmer 

destinations during the winter

(Photo: Latvian forest).

During the long, temperate 

summer days, Latvians spend 

extended periods of time in the countryside or by the sea. 

Popular activities in these destinations include berry- and 

mushroom-picking, gardening, bird-watching, and cycling. 

Many Latvians like to search for amber that washes up on the 

Baltic shore (see p. 1 of History and Myth).

Festivals: The Latvian Song and Dance Festival is one of 

country’s most important cultural and historical events. Held 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
every 5 years since 1873, the festival helped advance Latvia’s 

independence movements (see p. 6-7 and 14-15 of History and 

Myth). It is now the world’s largest choral festival, often 

attracting over 100,000 spectators. In addition to the main 

choral performances, thousands of artists exhibit traditional arts 

and crafts, folk dances, and 

theater acts. Typically held 

in July, the 26th Song and 

Dance Festival will occur in 

2018 (Photo: 1994 postage 

stamp of performers at the 

Song and Dance Festival).

Most other popular festivals 

mark the changing seasons 

and traditional pre-Christian

or Christian celebrations. 

Perhaps the most significant annual festival, Jāņi

(Midsummer’s Day) celebrates the summer equinox. As part of 

the festivities, Latvians decorate their homes and make 

traditional food and beer. Other activities include making music, 

singing songs dedicated to the sun called Līgo dziesmas, 

dancing, and jumping over bonfires. Other popular festivals 

include Mārtiņi, which celebrates the start of winter, the 

International Baltic Ballet Festival in Riga, the Rīgas Ritmi

music and jazz festival, the Riga Opera Festival, the Livonian 

Festival in Cēsis, and the Positivus pop and rock festival in 

Mazsalaca.

Sports and Games

Sports: Latvians enjoy 

many winter sports, 

including bobsledding, 

luge, and cross-country 

skiing. Ice hockey and 

football (soccer) are the 

most popular team sports, 

and Latvian teams have 

gained international acclaim in both (Photo: Former Latvian 

NHL star Brimanis coaches a team in Leipāja).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Many Latvians also enjoy basketball, especially watching 

Kristaps Porziņģis, a 2015 draft for the NBA’s New York 

Knicks. Latvians have also been successful at the Olympics, 

winning medals in cycling, gymnastics, luge, and bobsledding, 

among other sports.

Traditional Games: Latvians play many traditional games, 

especially on holidays. During Easter, some rural residents

take turns on swings attached to tall trees. Other popular 

games include chess and Zole, a card game that uses 26 

cards. Of note, riddles are particularly popular in Latvia, where 

scholars have collected over 450,000 examples of these word 

puzzles.

Music

Traditional: Because of the efforts of 

Krišjānis Barons (pictured) and other 

scholars during Latvia’s 19th century

National Awakening, Latvia today is 

home to a large folk poem and folk 

music collection. A common form is

the daina, a melodic prose sung by 

individuals or groups. Usually just 4 

short verses, the daina’s first 2 lines 

typically ask a question, while the 

subsequent 2 provide the answer. 

While they may evoke any emotion 

or theme, dainas typically explore the seasons, stages of life, 

love, work, and the land, while others feature pre-Christian 

themes and stories (see p. 1-2 of Religion and Spirituality).

Most dainas follow a strict rhythmic pattern without end rhyme.

Traditional instruments include flutes, wooden trumpets, simple 

horns, reed instruments, zithers, bells, drums, and 

tambourines. The ancient harp-like kokle is the most notable

folk instrument. Traditionally 5-stringed, modern versions of the 

kokle may have up to 20 strings. It has no standard shape, and 

musicians play it on a table or their knees. The kokle, and the 

dūdas (bagpipe) often accompanied daina performances.

During their 17th-century rule (see p. 5 of History and Myth), 

the Swedes introduced accordions, fiddles, violins, mandolins, 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
and guitars to Latvian music. The organ is another popular 

instrument, with at least 1 present in almost every church.

German and Swedish choral music became popular in the 19th 

century. Today, choirs are integral to Latvian musical traditions 

as evidenced by the country’s song and dance festivals.

Modern: Although it was forbidden by the Soviet occupiers

(see p. 13-14 of History and Myth), rock music gained 

popularity in the 1950s due to the activities of music smugglers 

and the availability of western radio. Today, Liepāja is Latvia’s 

rock capital. Popular local bands include Prāta Vētra, Pērkons, 

Linga, and Līvi. Jazz, classical, opera, and international pop 

music are also widely enjoyed.

Dance

Traditional: Latvian folk dances exhibit a mixture of traditional 

Latvian and regional characteristics. Women typically lead a 

group slowly and methodically in a circle or line formation, 

sometimes without music or singing accompaniment. 

Surprisingly complex for their slow speed, the dances often

depict day-to-day rural life, nature themes, and special life 

events, such as birth, 

death, and marriage (Photo: 

A Latvian dance ensemble).

After the 18th-century 

introduction of the German 

waltz, polka, and square 

dance, folk dances began 

to include male leads and

formalized choreography. Today, some folk dances are 

performed with partners or in formations of 4 or more couples. 

Others double as games. Rotaļa is a common children’s dance 

that includes simple steps performed in a circle formation to

polka music.

Modern: Latvian modern and artistic dance developed in the 

early 20th century. Under Soviet direction (see p. 13-14 of 

History and Myth), Latvia became a center of Russian classical 

ballet, and the Riga Ballet was widely considered the best 

outside of Russia. Latvia is now home to many world-class 

ballet dancers who compete and perform around the world.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Theater and Cinema

In the early 13th century, Germans (see p. 2-3 of History and 

Myth) staged the first theatrical performances in Latvia. While 

the plays had Christian themes for centuries, the first 

permanent German theater in Latvia produced secular plays 

beginning in the late 1700s. A century later, the first Latvian 

theater troupe began performing Latvian-language plays that 

helped to inspire the 19th-century National Awakening (see p. 

6-7 of History and Myth).

Theater and cinema remained popular in 20th-century Latvia,

even during Soviet censorship. Some productions emphasized

Soviet themes on the surface level while also containing hidden 

patriotic messages. In the 1960s, Gunārs Priede, Latvia’s most 

prolific playwright, replaced common Soviet themes with more 

realistic depictions of rural life and social conditions. Today, 

Latvians enjoy a wide array of theatrical productions.

Literature

For most of the country’s history,

Latvia’s folklore was an oral 

tradition. Written Latvian literature 

enjoyed a surge during the 19th

century National Awakening, when 

scholars began to collect and 

document folklore and folk poems. 

Other authors and poets 

composed original Latvianlanguage works which often 

depicted rural life, peasant work, 

and Latvia’s history of foreign occupations (Photo: 1993 

postage stamp of Lāčplēsis, the hero of Latvia’s national epic –

see p. 18 of History and Myth).

The late 19th century Jaunā strāva (New Movement)

supported nationalist ideals and sought to open Latvia to 

Western European socialism. National icons Jānis and Elza 

Pliekšāns, known as Rainis and Aspāzija, produced works that 

helped to foster the first period of Latvian independence (see p. 

9-10 of History and Myth). Throughout this era, Latvian writers 

explored common themes, including the rural peasantry, 

patriotism, and life under foreign rule.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
During the Soviet era (see p. 13-14 of History and Myth), many 

Latvian authors went into exile (see p. 2-3 of Learning and 

Knowledge) while those remaining were subject to censorship. 

During this period, some Latvian authors tried to disguise their 

critical treatment of contemporary themes within historical 

settings. Today, popular works

include both fiction and non-fiction 

treatments of rural Latvia and life 

during the Soviet period.

Visual Arts and Handicrafts

Latvian visual arts often reflect 

common aesthetic themes, 

including rural landscapes and 

geometric designs. During the 

19th century National Awakening, 

Latvian artists Vilhelms Purvītis

and Jānis Rozentāls used new 

European styles, such as Impressionism, to depict Latvian 

subject matter. Of note, famous American painter Mark Rothko 

was born in Daugavpils, Latvia. Today, a museum there 

showcases his work and life (Photo: A 2013 postage stamp of 

Rothko).

Handicrafts and folk art reflect Latvia’s rural peasant history

when Latvians made most of their required everyday objects by

hand. Traditional handicrafts include leatherwork, metalwork, 

wooden objects, ceramics, 

and textiles. Of note, 

Latvian women traditionally 

made knitted or woven

mittens and other warm 

clothing for men to signal 

their romantic interest, a 

tradition that some women

continue today. The Latvian 

government has invested in 

the preservation and 

promotion of traditional handicrafts through extracurricular 

programs and handicraft courses that are part of the national 

public school curriculum (Photo: A 2002 postage stamp 

depicting traditional mittens and costumes from Vidzeme).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Typical Latvian fare consists of mildly seasoned, hearty dishes 

prepared from fresh, local ingredients. Rural residents and 

older urban Latvians 

prefer to entertain guests 

at small, home 

gatherings. By contrast, 

younger generations tend 

to mingle in bars, clubs, 

and restaurants (Photo: A

restaurant in Jelgava).

Dining Customs

Latvians typically 

augment 3 daily meals with snacks throughout the day. While 

the mid-day meal is traditionally the largest, dinner can also be 

substantial. When invited to a Latvian home, guests should

arrive on time and may bring flowers, cake, or an alcoholic 

beverage as gifts for the host. 

Upon entering the home, guests remove their shoes, replacing 

them with their own slippers or with a pair provided by their 

hosts. At the table, hosts typically serve their guests first. After 

guests finish their portions, they usually must decline several 

offers of additional servings if they do not want more food. Of 

note, Latvians consider it impolite to leave food on their plates. 

Special occasion meals may last several hours and include

several courses. 

Diet

Bread accompanies most Latvian meals. Rupjmaize (a 

traditional dark rye bread, baked in a wood-fired oven) and 

saldskābā maize (a sweet and sour rye bread) are 2 of the 

most common varieties. Besides bread, grains such as 

buckwheat, oats, and barley are important staples. Many 

Latvian dishes also incorporate dairy products, including milk, 

cottage cheese, sour cream, cheese, and yogurt. Common 

vegetables include potatoes, beets, cabbage, carrots, radishes, 

cucumbers, mushrooms, peas, and tomatoes. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH
Fish is a popular protein and may be served filleted, smoked, 

salted, stuffed with vegetables or grains, or incorporated into 

soups and salads. Common varieties include salmon, eel, pike, 

and herring. Latvians also enjoy assorted meats including beef, 

veal, pork, lamb, chicken, duck, and goose. Sausage and 

bacon are particularly popular. Meats and fish are typically 

served alongside potatoes or 

grains and seasonal 

vegetables. 

Latvians enjoy a variety of 

native fruits and berries, 

including quince (a sweet, 

yellow fruit similar in shape 

and taste to a pear), black 

and red currants, cranberries, raspberries, gooseberries 

(pictured), and brūklenes (bilberries). In addition to consuming 

fruit raw, Latvians enjoy making fruit jams, juices, and compote 

(a stewed mixture of fruits, sugar, and spices). 

Popular Dishes and Meals

Breakfast typically includes a variety of savory foods, such as 

bread, cheese, eggs, porridge, cold meat, smoked fish, bacon, 

and sausages. Pancakes served with butter, jams, or other 

fillings are also popular. Breakfast typically includes tea, coffee, 

juice, yogurt, milk or rūgušpiens (curdled milk). 

Generally served between 1-3 pm, lunch often consists of a 3-

course meal, beginning with a soup, followed by a main meat 

or fish course served with potatoes, and a dessert. Although 

traditionally a light meal, dinner is increasingly supplanting 

lunch as the day’s largest and main meal. Similar to lunch, 

dinner may consist of multiple courses, including an appetizer

or soup and a main course comprised of a protein, starch, and 

vegetable.

Popular dishes include pīrāgi (small pies or pastries filled with 

meat and vegetables); pelēkie zirņi ar speķi (a stew of boiled 

peas with bacon and onions); svaigo kāpostu zupa (cabbage 

soup); skâbâ putra (a hearty soup of sour cream, cracked 

barley, and buttermilk, served cold with slices of marinated 

herring); and cūkas galerts (diced pork set in gelatin made 

from meat stock, served with vinegar, mustard, or horseradish). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Many Latvian salads are dressed in sour cream or mayonnaise 

and may incorporate hearty ingredients like smoked fish, meat, 

or potatoes mixed with a variety of vegetables. For dessert, 

Latvians enjoy ķīselis, a thickened fruit soup, or tortes, various 

cakes. On special occasions, kliņģeris (a rich, yeast coffee 

bread made with dried fruits and twisted into the form of a 

pretzel) is especially popular. 

Eating Out

Latvians, especially in urban areas, eat out regularly. 

Restaurants range from upscale establishments to small casual 

eateries (kafejnīca) and bars serving inexpensive, hearty 

meals or light snacks. Restaurants serving international 

cuisines, including Italian, Greek, Indian, and Japanese are 

increasingly popular in larger cities. Of note, while tipping is 

relatively uncommon in rural areas, 

many urban establishments expect a

10% gratuity for good service. Street 

stalls are not particularly popular,

though some vendors gather in 

central squares, markets, or busy 

transportation junctures to sell light

snacks, fresh fruits, and homemade 

jams and preserves (Photo: A 

vendor sells fried potatoes in Riga). 

Beverages

Latvians enjoy tea, sweetened with 

honey, and coffee, usually served 

without milk, throughout the day. During the summer, Latvians 

may enjoy kvass (a non-alcoholic fermented drink made from 

rye bread or fruit, yeast, sugar or honey, and water). Another 

traditional drink is bērzų sula, birch juice combined with rye 

bread crusts, black currant bush twigs, and raisins. Popular 

alcoholic beverages include vodka, Melnais Balzāms (“Black 

Balsam” – a thick, bitter liquor known for its healing properties 

and brewed in Riga since the early 18th century), allažu 

ķimelis (a caraway-flavored liquor), and beer, including local 

brews such as Aldaris, Cesu Gaišais, Bauskas, Rigas, and 

Piebalgas. Some Latvians also enjoy imported whiskey, 

brandy, and wine. Latvians tend to consume beverages, 

including soda and beer, at room temperature. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Overview

Latvians’ overall health has improved dramatically in recent 

decades. Between 1991 and 2015, infant mortality (the 

proportion of infants 

who die before age 

1), decreased from 18 

to 7 deaths per 1,000 

live births. Meanwhile, 

maternal mortality 

dropped from 47 to 18 

deaths per 100,000 

live births. Further, life 

expectancy at birth 

steadily increased 

from approximately 69 to 74 years. Despite this gain, Latvians’ 

life expectancy remains the lowest in the EU, which averages 

80 years. While Latvians generally have access to modern 

healthcare, the quality of care varies greatly among private, 

public, urban, and rural facilities (Photo: Latvian and Lithuanian 

soldiers compete in a basketball tournament).

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Latvian medicine centers on the use 

of herbal remedies, not surgical methods, to identify and treat 

the basic causes of illness. 

Many Latvians supplement conventional therapies with 

traditional remedies. Merchants in both urban and rural 

markets commonly sell medicinal plants and herbal remedies. 

Besides herbal remedies, common treatments include 

acupuncture and homeopathy. 

Acupuncture is an ancient Asian practice in which a practitioner 

inserts very thin needles into various parts of a patient’s skin. 

Developed in 18th-century Germany, homeopathy is a practice 

in in which a patient ingests diluted animal, mineral, plant, and 

synthetic substances with the aim of triggering the body’s 

natural system of healing. In addition, some Latvians drink 

Black Balsam (see “Beverages” above) as a cure for a variety 

of ailments. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

The federally-funded National Health Service (NHS) 

administers Latvia’s national healthcare policies and provides 

free, basic medical coverage to all Latvian residents (including 

non-citizen residents – see p. 13 of Political and Social 

Relations). In 2013, Latvia had 65 public and private hospitals, 

delivering a full range of 

surgical, intensive, and 

emergency care. In 

addition, about 5,000 

small, family-owned 

general medical practices 

provide basic primary 

care and act as their 

patients’ gatekeepers to 

secondary ambulatory 

and hospital services. Also popular is home medical care 

provided to chronically ill patients or patients recovering from 

surgery (Photo: A US Airman trades hats with a Latvian child).

Healthcare System Challenges: Recent health reforms have 

improved services for children and pregnant women, 

strengthened primary care, and enhanced emergency 

assistance. Despite this progress, Latvia’s healthcare system 

suffers from insufficient funding and lags behind most EU 

states in performance and patient satisfaction. Further, high 

out-of-pocket expenses for special procedures and some 

medication force many Latvians to forgo medical treatment 

altogether. In fact, Latvia has the highest proportion of citizens 

with unmet healthcare needs in the EU, with about 14% of 

Latvians reporting such needs in 2011, well above the 1% 

reported in Estonia, Lithuania, and other EU states. 

While Latvia’s cities typically have a variety of medical facilities, 

many public hospitals and clinics remain understaffed and 

poorly maintained. Although private facilities are staffed with 

highly-qualified doctors and offer first-rate care, they are too 

expensive for many Latvians. The quality of care further 

diminishes in rural areas, where residents have access only to 

small, ill-equipped clinics. Moreover, practitioners in some rural 

regions are burdened with heavy workloads, forcing patients to 

wait for long periods before they can receive care. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Similar to its Baltic neighbors of Estonia and Lithuania, Latvia’s 

aging population is expected to burden its healthcare system in 

the coming decades. With 39% of Latvia’s population aged 50 

or older in 2015, experts estimate that proportion will rise to 

45% by 2030. Meanwhile, high emigration (see p. 1 of Political 

and Social Relations) combined with low fertility (see p. 4 of 

Sex and Gender) result in fewer young people. Consequently, 

the proportion of Latvians of working age is dwindling relative 

to the number of retirees – a situation which will continue to 

add significant strain to the healthcare system.

Health Challenges

As in many countries with aging populations, chronic and noncommunicable diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, and 

cancer, account for over 4/5 of all deaths in Latvia. The top 

causes of death include cardiovascular diseases, chronic 

respiratory diseases, 

diabetes, digestive 

diseases and colon, 

lung, and breast 

cancer. About 10% of 

all deaths result from 

car accidents, 

smoking, suicide, and 

other preventable

“external causes.” Of 

note, with 22 deaths 

per 100,000 people, 

Latvia has the 3rd highest suicide rate in the EU, behind 

Hungary (with 24 deaths) and Lithuania (with 30 deaths). About 

26% of Latvian adults are obese, about the same rate as 

neighboring Lithuania but lower than the US rate of 33% 

(Photo: US military members visit a children’s hospital in Riga).

The average life expectancy for Latvian men is 70 years, which 

is considerably lower the average of 79 years for Latvian 

women. In fact, Latvian male life expectancy is the 2nd shortest 

in the EU, behind neighboring Lithuania (69). Experts suggest 

this high rate of male mortality results from Latvian men’s

harmful lifestyle choices, including alcohol abuse, frequent 

tobacco use, and an unhealthy diet.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, Latvians subsisted as peasants in an agrarian 

and trade-based economy dominated by German landowners

(see History and Myth). In the late 1800s, Russian occupiers 

began to transform Latvia into what would become the most 

industrialized Baltic state during the Soviet era (see p. 13-14 of 

History and Myth). In addition to large collective farms, the 

Soviet state developed and supported timber, machinery, 

chemical, and other heavy 

industries until the 

USSR’s collapse and 

Latvian independence in

1991 (Photo: Riga’s Town 

Hall Square).

Using the West as an 

economic model, Latvia’s

transition from a centrallyplanned Soviet economy 

to a liberal free-market system was arduous. To initiate liberal 

economic reform, Latvia adopted its own currency, reduced 

public spending, privatized state-owned companies, curbed

subsidies, and instituted a flat tax system. The economic shock

from these and other reforms caused the economy to shrink by

nearly half. Additionally, inflation peaked at over 950% and 

unemployment hit record highs between 1990-93.

Once reforms took hold by the late 1990s, the economy began 

to recover: inflation fell to 3%, unemployment began to decline, 

and most enterprises were privatized. Despite persistent 

corruption and some other structural issues, Latvia began 

negotiations to apply for membership in the European Union 

(EU) in 1999.

By the early 2000s, the Latvian economy was growing faster 

than those of most other European countries, recording 

average annual growth of 8.5% from 2000-07. With its

modernized industrial sector, expanding services sector, and 

newly-privatized farms, Latvia gained accession to the EU in 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES
2004, further facilitating economic expansion. Its EU 

membership along with relatively low public debt, low flat taxes, 

and high-quality low-cost production made Latvia an attractive 

place for foreign direct investment (FDI). To further entice 

investors, Latvia created tax- and 

tariff-free trade zones in Riga, 

Liepāja, Rēzekne, and Ventspils.

The 2008-09 global financial crisis

hit Latvia’s banking and credit 

services hard. By early 2010, the 

economy had contracted by 

almost 1/4 and unemployment 

spiked to over 20%. Government 

austerity programs, an internal 

currency devaluation, and EU financial support helped growth 

to rebound by mid-2010. Latvia then grew by almost 4% per 

year from 2011-14, one of the EU’s highest rates. Partially due 

to its prudent reaction to the financial crisis, the EU approved 

Latvia’s application to join the Eurozone and to adopt the EU’s 

euro as its currency in 2014. Despite low initial public support, 

Latvians generally consider the euro to be economically 

beneficial (Photo: Euro coin depicting a Latvian maiden).

Latvia’s economic growth has recently outpaced that of its 

Baltic neighbors and most other EU countries. After healthy 

growth in 2015, experts expect the economy’s growth rate to 

average over 3.5% through 2020, lower than its pre-crisis rate

but higher than most other EU members. As of early 2016, 

Latvia has low inflation, an unemployment rate just below 10%, 

and increasing wages. As a part of the Europe 2020 Strategy, 

Latvia will seek to further reduce unemployment, invest more in 

research and development, encourage FDI, and expand its 

renewable energy infrastructure (see p. 2 of Technology and 

Material).

Although Latvia has successfully transitioned to a modern freemarket economy, it has a lower per-capita income than most 

EU countries and both its Baltic neighbors. Other challenges 

include low productivity and wages, rampant corruption, a large 

informal sector, increasing income inequality, high structural 

unemployment, and net emigration.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Services

Accounting for about 74% of GDP and 67% of employment, the

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing segment of 

Latvia’s economy. Key services 

industries include transportation 

and storage, retail and wholesale 

trade, telecommunications, 

banking, real estate, and tourism.

Tourism: While Latvia’s tourism 

market grew steadily until the 

2008-09 financial crisis, its 

recovery since then has been slow.

Major tourist attractions include 

Riga’s historic center, ancient

castles, and national parks. Nearly 

6 million tourists visited Latvia in 

2014, primarily from Russia, 

Germany, Estonia, and Lithuania (Photo: Livonian Order castle 

ruins in Rēzekne).

Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for 23% of GDP and 24% of the labor force. 

The most significant sub-sectors include manufacturing, 

construction, and energy. 

Manufacturing: Food and beverage processing accounts for 

about 25% of the manufacturing sub-sector. Other significant

activities include metalworking, mechanical engineering, as 

well as textile, pharmaceutical, and chemical manufacturing. 

Construction: Construction accounts for nearly 7% of GDP

and 6% of the workforce. This $2 billion industry has been a 

key factor in Latvia’s transition to an open-market economy, 

experiencing high growth since 2010. Latvian construction 

companies compete for projects throughout the region, with the 

largest markets located in Lithuania, Sweden, and Estonia.

Green Energy: Latvia has maintained significant hydroelectric 

and biomass power industries, initially developed in the Soviet 

era, to decrease its dependence on oil and gas imports (see p. 

2 of Technology and Material). Latvia plans to increase

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
employment and investment in green energy as part of the 

Europe 2020 Strategy 

(Photo: The Pļaviņas

hydroelectric plant).

Agriculture

Consisting of farming, 

livestock, fishing, and 

forestry, agriculture is 

the smallest 

component of the Latvian economy. It accounts for just over 

3% of GDP and 9% of the labor force.

Farming and Livestock: About 30% of Latvia’s land area is 

dedicated to cultivation. Grains such as rye, wheat, oats, flax, 

and barley encompass almost 1/3 of agricultural output. Other 

crops include potatoes, onions, carrots, and sugar beets. 

Cows, pigs, and poultry are the most common livestock, while

dairy production is also a significant component of the subsector. Of note, approximately 10% of all agricultural land is 

certified for organic production. Honey, one of Latvia’s principal 

organic products, is also a high value-added export.

Fishing: The relatively large Latvian fishing industry consists of 

about 700 vessels that harvested over 115,000 tons of sprat, 

herring, cod, and other fish in 2014. As one of the largest food 

production sectors, the fish processing industry employs nearly 

6,000 people. While Latvians consume much of the catch,

fresh and processed seafood exports reach over 50 countries, 

primarily Estonia, Lithuania, and Poland.

Forestry: With over 54% of its territory covered in woodlands, 

Latvia has a highly-developed forestry industry. As early as the 

1930s, Latvian timber comprised 10% of the global market. 

Today, raw timber, paper, furniture, and other products are 

notable components of Latvian export inventory. Commercial 

harvests primarily include fir, pine, birch, and aspen trees.

Currency

The euro (€), the EU’s common currency, is issued in 7 

banknote values (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500) and 2 coin 

values (1, 2). A euro subdivides into centi (cents), issued in 6 

coin values (1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50). With the variance in exchange 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
rates, $1 has been worth between 67 and 95 centi in recent 

years. Most businesses accept credit cards, although some 

smaller vendors may only accept cash in small denominations.

Foreign Trade

Totaling $13.4 billion in 2014, Latvia’s exports include

foodstuffs, timber and wood products, machinery and 

equipment, metals, and textiles. Major export partners in 2014 

were Lithuania (18%), Russia (15%), Estonia (11%), Germany 

(7%), Poland (6%), Sweden (5%), and the UK (5%). In the 

same year, Latvia imported $16.7 billion in machinery and 

equipment, consumer goods, chemicals, fuel, and vehicles 

from Lithuania (17%), Germany (12%), Poland (11%), Russia 

(8%), Estonia (8%), 

Finland (6%), and 

Italy (4%) (Photo: A 

freight ship docked in

Riga port).

European Union

Participation in the 

28-member EU (see 

p. 9 of Political and Social Relations) provides Latvia with the 

economic benefits of a large common market for exports, a 

stable currency, a secure business environment, and easier 

access to FDI. During 2014-15, about 76% of Latvian trade 

was with EU countries. Two disadvantages to membership 

include market regulations restricting the flow of some goods 

and services and easier emigration of Latvians to other EU 

countries, thereby reducing Latvia’s labor force.

Foreign Aid

The EU is Latvia’s largest aid supplier, providing about €5.5 

billion for structural assistance and regional development from 

2014-2020. Although Latvia is a net recipient of aid, in 2013 its

government gave about €17 million in official development 

assistance via international agencies and technical projects.

In recent years, the US has given Latvia economic and military 

aid averaging about $7 million per year. In early 2016, the US 

pledged $3.4 billion in military support for Europe as a whole in 

response to recent Russian military aggression (see p. 11 of 

Political and Social Relations).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Latvia’s modern physical infrastructure includes wellmaintained roads and efficient public transportation systems. 

Latvians enjoy a free press, unrestricted Internet access, and a 

well-connected telecommunications network.

Transportation

While the number of Latvian families using a privately-owned 

vehicle (POV) is increasing, many people travel by train, bus, 

taxi, bicycle, or foot. Riga’s mass transit system includes 

efficient and affordable 

bus, tram, trolley, and 

commuter trains that run 

from 5:30am-midnight. 

Residents of Riga and its 

suburbs most commonly 

commute by train, while 

outside the capital,

buses and POVs are 

more efficient forms of 

transport. Bike paths traverse the country, connecting Latvia to

Estonia and Lithuania. Biking is particularly convenient in Riga 

and Jūrmala (Photo: Riga’s Stone Bridge).

Since the country is strategically located between Western 

Europe and Russia, Latvia’s ports, roads, railways, and 

pipelines play significant roles in regional trade and transport.

Current development plans seek to improve all modes of 

Latvia’s transportation system in order to secure Latvia’s 

position as a European transit hub.

Roadways: In 2013, Latvia had over 45,000 mi of roads, 20% 

of which were paved. While most main roads are wellmaintained, many minor roads are in poor condition, 

particularly in the winter or after extreme weather. Due to 

minimal traffic, most roads are single lane in each direction. 

Latvian highways A1, A4, and A7 comprise the Via Baltica (EU

route E67), which runs from Estonia to Poland.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL
Railways: Latvia has just over 1,400 mi of railways connecting 

its cities with Estonia, Lithuania, and Russia. The state-owned 

Latvijas dzelzceļš (Latvian Railways) provides most train

services. Although both the number of passengers served and 

amount of freight transported have declined in recent years, 

commuter rail services in and around Riga remain efficient, 

extensive, and wellused. A planned 

electric high-speed 

Rail Baltica train is 

set to connect Latvia 

to the EU Railroad 

Network by 2025 

(Photo: Riga Station).

Ports and Waterways: Latvia has nearly 200 mi of waterways, 

navigable year-round. The major ports of Liepāja, Ventspils, 

and Riga are also special economic zones (see p. 2 of 

Economics and Resources). Regular ferry services connect 

these ports to cities in Germany and Sweden. 

Airways: Latvia has 42 airports, with 18 having paved 

runways. In 2014, Riga International Airport served nearly 5

million passengers, accounting for 45% of all air traffic in the 

Baltics. AirBaltic, the state-owned national carrier, offers

service to over 50 local and international cities. Several global

carriers also connect to international destinations.

Energy

Renewable energy resources, mainly hydropower and 

biomass, account for 39% of Latvia’s energy consumption, a 

rate of renewable energy use that is Europe’s 2nd highest and 

triple the EU average. While Latvia uses hydroelectric energy 

to generate electricity, it burns woodchips and other organic 

material primarily for heat. To fulfill its remaining energy needs, 

Latvia imports natural gas and oil from Russia, which 

respectively account for about 30% and 27% of total energy 

consumption. To reduce its dependence on Russian imports, 

Latvia has increased pipeline connections with Baltic, Nordic,

and Central Asian countries and plans to liberalize its gas 

market by 2017 to reduce Russia’s stake in its natural gas 

utility.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

The Latvian constitution protects freedom of speech and press,

while the Freedom of Information Law regulates public 

information access. Although there have been some reports of 

governmental interference, state censorship tends to be rare.

Radio and TV: Of the 37 broadcast stations in Latvia, only 2 

are state-owned. While the public Latvijas Radio dominates 

the radio market, other stations broadcast popular content in 

many languages. Most households subscribe to cable, satellite,

or Internet services that 

provide international 

television content (Photo: 

Riga’s Radio and TV 

Tower dominates the 

cityscape).

Print Media: The Latvian 

press includes more than

100 periodicals published 

in Latvian, Russian, 

English, and other 

languages. Diena and Latvijas Avīze are the most popular 

Latvian-language newspapers, while Vesti segodnya, Telegraf,

and Cas cater to Latvia’s Russian-speakers, who constitute the

largest Russian-speaking media market in the Baltics. Based in 

Riga, the English-language Baltic Times provides coverage of

all 3 Baltic States.

Telecommunications

Latvia has an extensive telecommunications network with fiber 

optic connections to Estonia, Finland, and Sweden. In 2014, 

Latvia had about 20 landline and 130 mobile phone 

subscriptions per 100 people. The major mobile phone service 

providers are Tele2, Bite, as well as LMT, which is working to 

make Latvia one of the first countries to provide a 5G network.

Internet: In 2015, about 82% of residents used the Internet, 

connecting to the web with speeds that are faster than those in 

the US and Latvia’s Baltic neighbors. Nevertheless, compared 

to most EU countries, Latvian businesses are less integrated 

with digital technology, and e-government services are of lower 

quality, despite the high rates of speed and connectivity.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL

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October 2016

CULTURE GUIDE