National Institute of Standards and Technology

Technology Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce

NISTIR 6870

Office of Applied Economics

Building and Fire Research Laboratory

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

Baseline Measures for Improving Housing

Durability

Robert E. Chapman and Christine A. Izzo
Baseline Measures for Improving Housing 

Durability 

Robert E. Chapman and Christine A. Izzo 

Sponsored by: 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

and 

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 

Office of Policy Development and Research 

Washington, DC 20410 

September 2002

 

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

Donald L. Evans, Secretary 

TECHNOLOGY ADMINISTRATION 

Philip J. Bond, Under Secretary for Technology 

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY

Arden L. Bement, Jr., Director 

U.S. Department of Commerce 

Technology Administration 

National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Office of Applied Economics 

Building and Fire Research Laboratory 

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 

NISTIR 6870
ii
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Abstract 

The Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH), a program of the U.S. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development, is a public/private partnership in which 

leaders of the home building, product manufacturing, and insurance and financial 

industries join forces with representatives of federal agencies concerned with housing. 

PATH is concerned with the following three goals: (1) developing new housing 

technologies; (2) disseminating information about new and existing housing 

technologies; and (3) studying and establishing mechanisms for sustained housing 

technology development. The objectives of PATH are to improve the quality, 

affordability, durability, and energy efficiency of today’s new and existing homes; to 

strengthen the technology infrastructure of the United States; and to help create the next 

generation of American housing. To accomplish these objectives, PATH has established 

a vision for improving housing affordability, energy efficiency and environmental 

protection, durability, and disaster resistance and safety. It is essential to have baseline 

data for the PATH vision to determine the success of actions taken to improve the 

competitiveness of the residential sector of the U.S. construction industry. This report 

provides a detailed set of baseline measures for improving housing durability. 

Specifically, it examines the key sources of construction industry data and extracts from 

them a single, consistent set of baseline measures that can be used to monitor progress 

towards improving housing durability. 

Keywords 

building economics; construction; costs; durability; economic analysis; housing; 

maintenance and repair; residential improvements; service life 
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Preface 

This study was conducted by the Office of Applied Economics in the Building and Fire 

Research Laboratory (BFRL) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST). The study was sponsored by the Partnership for Advancing Technology in 

Housing (PATH) program at the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 

(HUD). The BFRL project, of which this study is a part, seeks to develop service life 

prediction tools, evaluation methods, decision support software, and other innovative 

tools and technologies to help PATH achieve its vision of improving durability and 

reducing maintenance costs by 50 % by 2010. The intended audience for this document 

is the public and private sector members of PATH, construction industry representatives, 

and other interested parties. 

Use of Non-SI Units in a NIST Publication 

The policy of NIST is to use the International System of Units (metric units) in all of its 

publications. However, in North America in the construction and building materials 

industry, certain non-SI units are so widely used instead of SI units that it is more 

practical and less confusing to include measurement values for both customary units and 

metric units. Throughout this document, measurement values stated in customary units 

are listed first followed by the corresponding values in metric units within parentheses.
vi
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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank all those who contributed so many excellent ideas and 

suggestions, which they have attempted to incorporate into this report. The authors wish 

to thank Mr. David Engel, Ms. Andrea Vrankar, Dr. Carlos Martin, and Mr. William 

Freeborne of the Office of Policy Development and Research at the U.S. Department of 

Housing and Urban Development (HUD) for their guidance, suggestions, and support. 

HUD’s Office of Policy Development and Research, in collaboration with the private 

sector, provides leadership and administrative support to the Partnership for Advancing 

Technology in Housing (PATH) program. Thanks are also due to Dr. Christopher C. 

White of the Building Materials Division at NIST’s Building and Fire Research 

Laboratory (BFRL) for his efforts to coordinate the PATH Durability program within 

BFRL. Special appreciation is extended to Drs. Harold E. Marshall and Sieglinde K. 

Fuller of BFRL’s Office of Applied Economics for the thoroughness of their reviews and 

for their many insights and to Mrs. J’aime Maynard for her assistance in preparing the 

manuscript for review and publication. Thanks are due to Dr. Stephen F. Weber of the 

Office of Applied Economics for his assistance in formulating this research effort. The 

report has also benefited from the review and technical comments provided by Mr. 

Stephen A. Cauffman of BFRL’s Structures Division. 
viii
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Table of Contents 

Abstract..........................................................................................................................iii

Preface............................................................................................................................. v

Acknowledgements....................................................................................................... vii

List of Figures................................................................................................................ xi

List of Tables ...............................................................................................................xiii

List of Acronyms ......................................................................................................... xvi

Executive Summary.................................................................................................... xvii 

1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................1 

1.1 Background.............................................................................................................. 1 

1.2 Purpose..................................................................................................................... 2 

1.3 Scope and Approach ................................................................................................ 3 

2. The Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing ................................................7 

2.1 Description of the PATH Vision.............................................................................. 7 

2.2 Baseline Measures ................................................................................................... 8 

2.3 How the Baseline Measures Support the PATH Vision .......................................... 8 

3. Overview of Construction Industry Data......................................................................11 

3.1 Value of Construction Put in Place........................................................................ 12 

3.2 Overview of the Residential Sector ....................................................................... 17 

3.3 Characteristics of Housing..................................................................................... 21 

4. Service Life Measures...................................................................................................37 

4.1 Data Considerations: Sources, Availability, and Constraints ................................ 37 

4.2 Baseline Measures of Service Life for Key Building Elements ............................ 40 

4.3 Summary of Baseline Measures of Service Life.................................................... 49 

5. Durability-Related Cost Measures................................................................................53 

5.1 Data Considerations for Durability-Related Cost Measures.................................. 53 

5.2 Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs: Major Replacements, 

Maintenance and Repair, Alterations, and Energy ............................................... 55 

5.2.1 Major Replacements ....................................................................................... 56

5.2.2 Maintenance and Repair ................................................................................. 71 

5.2.3 Alterations....................................................................................................... 75 

5.2.4 Energy Expenditures Per Unit of Floor Area.................................................. 89 

5.3 Summary of Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs ............................... 93 
x

6. Summary and Suggestions for Further Research..........................................................97 

6.1 Summary................................................................................................................ 97 

6.2 Suggestions for Further Research .......................................................................... 97 

References.. .....................................................................................................................101 
xi

List of Figures 

Figure 3-1. 1997 Breakdown of $656.6 Billion Construction Market..............................18 

Figure 3-2. 1997 Breakdown of $294.2 Billion Residential Sector..................................20 

Figure 5-1. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (All Owner Occupied 

Units – Contractor Did the Work) ................................................................57 

Figure 5-2. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (Owner Occupied 

Single-Family Detached - Contractor Did the Work)...................................58 

Figure 5-3. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (All Owner Occupied 

Units – Household Did the Work) ................................................................59 

Figure 5-4. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (Owner Occupied 

Single-Family Detached - Household Did the Work)...................................61 

Figure 5-5. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Contractor Did the Work) .............................................................................62 

Figure 5-6. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (Owner Occupied SingleFamily Detached – Contractor Did the Work)..............................................63 

Figure 5-7. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Household Did the Work).............................................................................64 

Figure 5-8. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (Owner Occupied SingleFamily Detached – Household Did the Work) .............................................66 

Figure 5-9. Major Replacement of All Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Contractor Did the Work) .............................................................................67 

Figure 5-10. Major Replacement of All Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – 

 Household Did the Work)............................................................................68 

Figure 5-11. Major Replacement of Furnace, Heat Pump, or Boiler and Maintenance 

 and Repair of Furnace/Heating Equipment Parts (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) ...............................................................69 

Figure 5-12. Major Replacement of Central Air Conditioning (All Owner 

 Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) ...............................................70 
xii

Figure 5-13. Maintenance and Repairs to Finished Flooring (All Owner 

 Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) ...............................................73 

Figure 5-14. Maintenance and Repairs to Finished Flooring (All Owner 

 OccupiedUnits – Household Did the Work)................................................74 

Figure 5-15. Maintenance and Repairs to Interior Water Pipes (All Owner

 Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) ...............................................76 

Figure 5-16. Maintenance and Repairs to Interior Water Pipes (All Owner

 Occupied Units – Household Did the Work)...............................................77 

Figure 5-17. Maintenance and Repairs to Siding (All Owner Occupied Units –

 Contractor Did the Work) ............................................................................78 

Figure 5-18. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Cabinets (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) ...................................80 

Figure 5-19. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Cabinets (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Household Did the Work)...................................81 

Figure 5-20. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Flooring (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) ...................................82 

Figure 5-21. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Counter Tops

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)............................84 

Figure 5-22. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Cabinets

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)............................85 

Figure 5-23. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Cabinets

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Household Did the Work)............................86 

Figure 5-24. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Flooring

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)............................87 

Figure 5-25. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Counter

 Tops (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)...................88 

Figure 5-26. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Tub/Shower

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)............................90 
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List of Tables 

Table ES-1. Summary of Baseline Measures of Service Life ......................................... xix 

Table ES-2. Summary of Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs ..................... xxi 

Table 3-1. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of Constant 1997 Dollars ......14 

Table 3-2. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of Current Dollars .................15 

Table 3-3. Value of Construction Put in Place: Sector Totals and Sum Total in

Millions of Constant 1997 Dollars...................................................................16

Table 3-4. Value of Construction Put in Place: Sector Totals and Sum Total in

Millions of Current Dollars..............................................................................17 

Table 3-5. Expenditures in Millions of Dollars for Establishments with Payroll by Type 

of Construction: 1997 ......................................................................................21 

Table 3-6. Characteristics of Housing Units: 1997............................................................23 

Table 3-7. Expenditures for Improvements and Maintenance and Repair Activities by 

Tenure Class and Type of Housing Unit: 1997 ...............................................27 

Table 3-8. Expenditures in Millions of Dollars by Tenure Class and Type of Job: 

1997..................................................................................................................28

Table 3-9. Expenditures for Owner-Occupied One-Unit Properties by Type of Payment: 

1997..................................................................................................................29 

Table 3-10. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and Tenure Class: 1997 ......31 

Table 3-11. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and End Use: 1997..............34 

Table 3-12. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and Type of Fuel: 1997.......34 

Table 3-13. Summary of Key Statistics by Type of Expenditure.....................................35 

Table 4-1. Examples of Minimum Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: ASTM Standard Guide E 2136.......................................................41
xiv

Table 4-2. Examples of Average Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: Housing Economics ........................................................................45

Table 4-3. Examples of Average Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: Whitestone ......................................................................................48 

Table 4-4. Summary of Baseline Measures of Service Life ..............................................50 

Table 5-1. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (All Owner Occupied 

Units – Contractor Did the Work) ...................................................................57

Table 5-2. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (Owner Occupied SingleFamily Detached - Contractor Did the Work) .................................................58 

Table 5-3. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (All Owner Occupied 

Units – Household Did the Work) ...................................................................59 

Table 5-4. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (Owner Occupied SingleFamily Detached - Household Did the Work) .................................................61 

Table 5-5. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Contractor Did the Work) ................................................................................62 

Table 5-6. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (Owner Occupied Single-Family 

Detached – Contractor Did the Work).............................................................63 

Table 5-7. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Household Did the Work)................................................................................64 

Table 5-8. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (Owner Occupied Single-Family 

Detached – Household Did the Work).............................................................66 

Table 5-9. Major Replacement of All Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor 

Did the Work) ..................................................................................................67 

Table 5-10. Major Replacement of All Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – Household 

 Did the Work) ................................................................................................68 

Table 5-11. Major Replacement of Furnace, Heat Pump, or Boiler and

 Maintenance and Repair of Furnace/Heating Equipment Parts (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) .....................................69
xv

Table 5-12. Major Replacement of Central Air Conditioning (All Owner Occupied

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) .................................................................70

Table 5-13. Selected Major Replacement of Building Elements by Designation and

 the Cost per Household..................................................................................72

Table 5-14. Maintenance and Repairs to Finished Flooring (All Owner Occupied

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) .................................................................73

Table 5-15. Maintenance and Repairs to Finished Flooring (All Owner Occupied

 Units – Household Did the Work) .................................................................74

Table 5-16. Maintenance and Repairs to Interior Water Pipes (All Owner Occupied

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) .................................................................76

Table 5-17. Maintenance and Repairs to Interior Water Pipes (All Owner Occupied

 Units – Household Did the Work) .................................................................77

Table 5-18. Maintenance and Repairs to Siding (All Owner Occupied Units –

 Contractor Did the Work) ..............................................................................78

Table 5-19. Selected Maintenance and Repair of Building Elements by Designation

 and the Cost per Household ...........................................................................79

Table 5-20. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Cabinets (All

 Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) .................................................80

Table 5-21. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Cabinets (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Household Did the Work).....................................81

Table 5-22. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Flooring (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) .....................................82

Table 5-23. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Counter Tops

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)...............................84

Table 5-24. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Cabinets (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) .....................................85

Table 5-25. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Cabinets (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Household Did the Work).....................................86
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Table 5-26. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Flooring (All

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) .....................................87

Table 5-27. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Counter Tops

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)..............................88

Table 5-28. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Tub/Shower

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)..............................90

Table 5-29. Selected Alterations Within the Residential Structure of Building

 Elements by Designation and the Cost per Household..................................91

Table 5-30. Energy Expenditures per Unit of Floor Area by Type of Housing Unit

 and Tenure Class: 1997..................................................................................91

Table 5-31. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and End Use: 1997..............92 

Table 5-32. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and Type of Fuel: 1997.......92 

Table 5-33. Summary of Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs........................94 

List of Acronyms 

Acronym Definition

AHS American Housing Survey

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BFRL Building and Fire Research Laboratory

DOE Department of Energy

HUD Department of Housing and Urban Development

HVAC Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning

LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas

NAHB National Association of Home Builders

NFO National Family Opinion

NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology

PATH Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing

R&D Research and Development

RECS Residential Energy Consumption Survey
xvii

Executive Summary 

The Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH), a program of the U.S. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development, is a public/private partnership in which 

leaders of the home building, product manufacturing, and insurance and financial 

industries join forces with representatives of federal agencies concerned with housing. 

PATH is concerned with the following three goals: (1) developing new housing 

technologies; (2) disseminating information about new and existing housing 

technologies; and (3) studying and establishing mechanisms for sustained housing 

technology development. The objectives of PATH are to improve the quality, 

affordability, durability, and energy efficiency of today’s new and existing homes; to 

strengthen the technology infrastructure of the United States; and to help create the next 

generation of American housing. To accomplish these objectives, PATH has established 

a vision for improving housing affordability, energy efficiency and environmental 

protection, durability, and disaster resistance and safety. It is essential to have baseline 

data for the PATH vision to determine the success of actions taken to improve the 

competitiveness of the residential sector of the U.S. construction industry. 

This report provides a detailed set of baseline measures for improving housing durability. 

The averages of current practice—defined in this report as industry performance in 

1997—are used to develop the baseline measures for improving housing durability. This 

report examines the key sources of construction industry data and extracts from them a 

single, consistent set of baseline measures that can be used to monitor progress towards 

improving housing durability. Specifically, the report describes the key construction 

industry data sources and their associated data elements, demonstrates how each data 

source provides perspective on one or more dimensions of the construction industry, and 

synthesizes key data elements into a common format for specifying the baseline measures 

for improving housing durability. 

This document has six chapters. Chapter 1 explains the purpose, scope, and general 

approach. Chapter 2 introduces the PATH vision and describes how a well-defined set of 

metrics is used to develop the baseline measures. Chapter 3 provides an overview of 

construction industry data. The overview provides the context within which the baseline 

measures for improving housing durability are developed. Chapter 4 presents the 

baseline measures of service life for selected building elements. Chapter 5 presents the 

baseline measures of durability-related costs. Specific cost categories covered include 

major replacements, maintenance and repair, and alterations. Information on energy 

expenditures is also presented. Chapter 6 concludes the document with a summary and 

suggestions for further research. 

Chapter 2 provides perspective on the PATH vision. First, each component of the PATH 

vision is introduced and described. Next, the process for developing the baseline 

measures for improving housing durability is described. This process involves: (1) 

specifying data relationships; (2) collecting and compiling the key data and supporting 

information for the base year, 1997; (3) defining metrics; and (4) producing the metrics in 
xviii

a tabular summary form and, where appropriate, producing charts and graphs to depict 

the metrics. Criteria are then presented which ensure that the data selected for analysis 

are well defined, consistent, and replicable. The chapter also outlines a strategy for using 

the baseline measures to drive performance improvement. 

Chapter 3 provides a data-oriented snapshot of the U.S. construction industry. It provides 

the context within which the baseline measures for improving housing durability are 

developed. 

Information is first presented on the value of construction put in place to show the size of 

the construction industry and each of its four sectors. The four sectors, which taken 

together define the construction industry, are residential, commercial/institutional, 

industrial, and public works. Data from 1994 through 2000 are used to highlight the 

magnitude of construction-related investments in each sector. Data from 1997 are then 

used to establish the relative shares of construction-related investments for each sector. 

These data demonstrate that the residential sector accounts for approximately 45 % of the 

total value of all construction put in place. 

Section 3.2 uses information on the residential sector both to focus on its importance 

within the overall construction industry and to define its key components. Information on 

investment activity is used to highlight the key components of residential construction. 

The nature of construction activity is then presented to differentiate expenditures that are 

investment-related (e.g., new construction, additions and alterations, and major 

replacements) versus those that are associated with day-to-day operations (e.g., 

maintenance and repair and energy). 

Section 3.3 places special emphasis on identifying and detailing the key characteristics of 

housing. Information on the number of housing units by type of housing unit is used to 

classify units into key categories, some of which are used throughout the report (e.g., 

single-family detached). Information on durability-related expenditures is then 

presented. A series of tables is used to illustrate how expenditures vary across property 

types (i.e., owner-occupied or rental) and type of job (e.g., roof replacements). Next, a 

brief analysis of household expenditures for energy is presented. Expenditures by 

property type, fuel type (e.g., electricity), and end use (e.g., space heating) are used to 

highlight different aspects of household expenditures for energy. Section 3.3 concludes 

with a summary table in which selected cost data are presented. 

Chapter 4 traces the development of the baseline measures of service life. The service 

life of a building component or material is defined as the period of time—measured in 

years—after installation during which all properties meet or exceed the minimum 

acceptable values when routinely maintained. Three data sources are described and 

matched to the key types of building elements (e.g., roofs, siding, and furnaces). The 

three data sources are: (1) American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard 

Guide E 2136; (2) an article from Housing Economics published by the National 

Association of Home Builders (NAHB); and (3) the 1997 edition of the Whitestone 
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Building Maintenance and Repair Cost Reference. The baseline measures of service life 

are then derived from the source data. 

Table ES-1 summarizes the various baseline measures of service life presented in Chapter 

4. The table is organized to serve as a quick reference; it includes a brief description of 

each measure, the value of the measure, and the source of the service life data. 

Table ES-1. Summary of Baseline Measures of Service Life 

Building Element Service Life 

in Years Source

Plumbing

 Fixtures 15 - 25 ASTM E 2136

 Enamel steel sinks 5 - 10 Housing Economics

 Enamel cast iron sinks 25 - 30 Housing Economics

 China sinks 25 - 30 Housing Economics

 Stainless steel sinks 40 Whitestone

 Low quality faucets 13 - 15 Housing Economics

 High quality faucets 15 - 20 Housing Economics

 Hot water heater 5 - 15 ASTM E 2136

 Gas water heater 11 - 13 Housing Economics

 Electric water heater 14 Housing Economics

 Hot water storage tank 50 Whitestone

HVAC

 Evaporative coolers 8 - 15 ASTM E 2136

 Central air conditioning unit 15 Housing Economics

 Window air conditioning unit 10 Housing Economics

 Air conditioner, indoor DX packaged, air cooled 20 Whitestone

 Furnaces 15 - 20 ASTM E 2136

 Gas or oil fired furnaces 18 Housing Economics

 Gas house furnaces 15 Whitestone

 Heat pumps 15 Housing Economics

Siding

 Wall finish - easily renewable 4 - 10 ASTM E 2136

 Wall finish - difficult to renew 20 - 60 ASTM E 2136

 Siding - wood 10 - 100 Housing Economics

 Siding - metal (steel) 50 - Lifetime Housing Economics

 Siding - aluminum 20 - 50 Housing Economics

 Siding - vinyl 50 Housing Economics

 Aluminum siding, 1st floor 80 Whitestone
xx

Table ES-1. Summary of Baseline Measures of Service Life (continued) 

Chapter 5 traces the development of baseline measures of durability-related costs. Two 

data sources are described and matched to the key types of durability-related costs (e.g., 

replacements of roofs and siding, maintenance and repair expenditures, and expenditures 

for energy). The two data sources are the American Housing Survey (AHS) and the 

Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS). Both the AHS and RECS data sources 

are available in electronic format as “public-access” files. The baseline measures of 

durability-related costs are then derived from the source data. 

Table ES-2 provides a summary of the various baseline measures of durability-related 

costs. The table is organized to serve as a quick reference; it consists of two parts. Part 

A reports costs by building element on a per household basis. Building elements are 

grouped under three cost categories—major replacements, maintenance and repair, and 

alterations. The remaining column headings under Part A of Table ES-2 are a descriptive 

heading and dollar values associated with a series of statistical measures. The descriptive 

heading designates the type of unit (i.e., all units (A) or single-family detached units (S)) 

and who did the work (i.e., contractor (C) or household (H)). The statistical measures are 

recorded in one of four subheadings under the “Cost per Household” heading. The four 

subheadings correspond to the following statistical measures: the 25th percentile, the 

median (50th percentile), the 75th percentile, and the mean. 

Building Element Service Life 

in Years Source

Roofing

 Roof covering 12 - 25 ASTM E 2136

 Roof covering - asphalt and wood shingles and shakes 15 - 30 Housing Economics

 Roof covering - tile 50 Housing Economics

 Roof covering - slate 50 - 100 Housing Economics

 Roof covering - sheet metal 20 - 50+ Housing Economics

 Replace new over existing asphalt shingle roof 20 Whitestone

 Removal and replacement of asphalt shingle roof 40 Whitestone

Windows

 Windows 20 - 25 ASTM E 2136

 Windows - wood casement 20 - 50 Housing Economics

 Windows - aluminum casement 10 - 20 Housing Economics

Doors

 Doors 20 - 25 ASTM E 2136

 Exterior doors (protected overhang) 80 - 100 Housing Economics

 Exterior doors (unprotected and exposed) 25 - 30 Housing Economics

 Solid core (painted) exterior doors 40 Whitestone
xxi

Table ES-2. Summary of Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs 

Part A: By Cost Element per Household 

25th 

Percentile Median 75th 

Percentile Mean

Major Replacements

Roof AC 1 800 2 700 4 500 3 667

Roof SC 1 800 2 800 4 500 3 743

Roof AH 700 1 300 2 500 1 829

Roof SH 800 1 400 2 500 1 873

Doors or windows AC 300 951 2 550 2 012

Doors or windows SC 350 1 000 2 900 2 108

Doors or windows AH 120 250 600 590

Doors or windows SH 120 300 600 628

All siding AC 3 000 5 419 8 900 6 433

All siding AH 1 000 2 000 3 000 2 935

Furnace, heat pump, or 

boiler and maintenance and 

repair of furnace/heating 

equipment parts AC 1 000 1 800 2 700 2 058

Central air conditioning AC 1 500 2 400 3 500 2 624

Maintenance and Repair

Finished flooring AC 400 1 000 2 000 1 626

Finished flooring AH 100 250 600 643

Interior water pipes AC 80 220 500 640

Interior water pipes AH 20 50 100 113

Siding AC 400 1 200 2 300 1 832

Alterations 

Kitchen cabinets AC 2 000 4 000 8 000 5 914

Kitchen cabinets AH 500 1 500 4 000 2 399

Kitchen flooring AC 500 1 000 2 000 1 467

Kitchen counter tops AC 250 700 1 200 1 046

Bathroom cabinets AC 500 2 000 5 000 3 440

Bathroom cabinets AH 200 500 1 000 1 056

Bathroom flooring AC 250 500 1 500 1 283

Bathroom counter tops AC 100 300 1 000 920

Bathroom tub/shower AC 250 520 1 500 1 142

Cost per Household

Building Element Designation
xxii

Table ES-2. Summary of Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs (continued) 

Part B: Key Energy Expenditures per Unit of Floor Area 

Part B reports energy expenditures per unit of floor area. Energy expenditures per unit of 

floor area are estimates because the RECS does not collect data on the actual floor area of 

the housing units surveyed. The RECS does ask respondents to indicate which of seven 

size categories their housing unit falls into. Since the AHS public-access files contain 

values for each surveyed housing unit’s floor area, they were used to “estimate” the 

median size for each RECS size category. The median values for each size category were 

used to estimate energy expenditures per unit of floor area. Energy expenditures in both 

$/ft2

 and $/m2 are reported in Part B. Both aggregated (e.g., all fuels) and disaggregated 

(e.g., electricity) values are reported. 

Chapter 6 discusses additional areas of research that might be of value to government 

agencies and private sector organizations that are concerned about improving durability 

and reducing maintenance costs. These areas of research are concerned with: (1) the 

dissemination of detailed information on service life data and durability-related costs for 

selected building elements; (2) the use of life-cycle cost analysis as a means of combining 

service life data and durability-related costs into a coherent format for choosing among 

alternative building materials, components, and systems; (3) the treatment of 

interdependencies between building components and systems; and (4) the measurement 

and evaluation of progress toward achievement of the PATH vision. 

$/ft2 $/m2

Total 0.93 10.04

End Use

Space heating 0.29 3.12

Air-conditioning 0.10 1.03

Water heating 0.14 1.46

Refrigerators 0.08 0.90

Other appliances and lighting 0.36 3.84

All end uses 0.93 10.04

Types of Fuel

Electricity 0.61 6.59

Natural gas 0.39 4.23

Fuel oil 0.50 5.39

Kerosene 0.10 1.12

LPG 0.34 3.62

All fuels 0.93 10.04

Energy Expenditure Type of Expenditure
1

1. Introduction 

1.1 Background 

The competitiveness of the residential sector of the construction industry is a key 

contributing factor to the growth of the Nation’s economy. The U.S. Department of 

Housing and Urban Development (HUD) has actively sought to promote competitiveness 

within the residential sector through focused research, demonstration projects, and 

public-private partnerships. Two public-private partnerships in which HUD has played 

an especially active role are the Subcommittee on Construction and Building of the 

National Science and Technology Council and the Partnership for Advancing Technology 

in Housing (PATH). 

The National Science and Technology Council, a cabinet-level group chaired by the 

president, is charged with setting federal technology policy and coordinating R&D 

strategies across a broad cross-section of public and private interests. It has established 

nine research and development committees, including the Committee on Technology, to 

collaborate with the private sector in developing a comprehensive national technology 

policy. The purpose of the Committee on Technology is to enhance the international 

competitiveness of U.S. industry through federal technology policies and programs. The 

Subcommittee on Construction and Building of the Committee on Technology 

coordinates and defines priorities for federal research, development, and deployment 

related to the industries that produce, operate, and maintain constructed facilities, 

including buildings and infrastructure.1

The mission of the Subcommittee on Construction and Building—in cooperation with 

U.S. industry, labor, and academia—is to enhance the competitiveness of U.S. industry 

and promote public safety and environmental quality through research and development, 

and to improve the life-cycle performance of constructed facilities. To accomplish its 

mission, the Subcommittee on Construction and Building has established seven National 

Construction Goals in collaboration with a broad cross section of the construction 

industry.2

 The goals are focused on the four major sectors of the construction industry—

residential, commercial/institutional, industrial, and public works. To make the goals 

operative, data describing current practices of the U.S. construction industry are needed 

to establish baselines against which industry can measure its progress towards achieving 

the seven National Construction Goals.3

 

 

1

 Wright, Richard N. 1995. “Government and Industry Working Together.” Construction Business Review

(January/February): pp. 44-49. 

2

 Wright, Richard N., Arthur H. Rosenfeld, and Andrew J. Fowell. 1995. Construction and Building: 

Federal Research and Development in Support of the U.S. Construction Industry. Washington, DC: 

National Science and Technology Council. 

3

 The seven National Construction Goals are concerned with: (1) reductions in the delivery time of 

constructed facilities; (2) reductions in operations, maintenance, and energy costs; (3) increases in occupant 

productivity and comfort; (4) reductions in occupant-related illnesses and injuries; (5) reductions in waste 

and pollution; (6) increases in the durability and flexibility of constructed facilities; and (7) reductions in 

construction worker illnesses and injuries. 
2

HUD’s active participation in the Subcommittee on Construction and Building, from its 

inception in 1994, led to a sharpened focus on the needs of the residential sector. 

Between 1994 and 1997, HUD worked with the residential sector of the construction 

industry—represented by home builders, code officials, product manufacturers, and other 

interested parties—to develop a research plan for implementing the National 

Construction Goals in the residential sector. Discussions within the Subcommittee on 

Construction and Building and close collaboration with the private sector led to the 

creation of PATH under HUD’s leadership. Early on, HUD recognized the value of 

using goals as a performance improvement tool and for marshaling support for PATH. 

The PATH goals were first promulgated in 1997; PATH was officially launched on May 

4, 1998. 

PATH is concerned with the following three goals: (1) developing new housing 

technologies; (2) disseminating information about new and existing housing 

technologies; and (3) studying and establishing mechanisms for sustained housing 

technology development. The objectives of PATH are to improve the quality, 

affordability, durability, and energy efficiency of today’s new and existing homes; to 

strengthen the technology infrastructure of the United States; and to help create the next 

generation of American housing. To accomplish these objectives, PATH has established 

a vision for improving housing affordability, energy efficiency and environmental 

protection, durability, and disaster resistance and safety. 

It is essential to have baseline data for the PATH vision to determine the success of 

actions taken to improve the competitiveness of the residential sector of the U.S. 

construction industry. In addition, baseline measures will make it possible to 

demonstrate the benefits of advanced technologies and practices and to guide decision 

makers in prioritizing potential programs. 

Consequently, PATH is developing baseline measures that characterize current industry 

performance with respect to the PATH vision.4, 5 The averages of current practice—

defined in this document as industry performance in 1997—will become the baseline 

measures for improving housing durability. 

1.2 Purpose 

The purpose of this document is to provide a detailed set of baseline measures for 

improving housing durability. As such, it describes data sources, data classifications, and 

the metrics used to develop the baseline measures. Extensive use of charts and tables is 

made throughout this document to illustrate the process by which the baseline measures 

were developed. 

 

4

 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 2000. Partnership for Advancing Technology in 

Housing (PATH): Strategy and Operating Plan. Washington, DC: Office of Policy Development and 

Research. 

5

 National Association of Home Builders Research Center. 1998. Baseline Data and Information Resource 

Guide. Upper Marlboro, MD: National Association of Home Builders Research Center, Inc. 
3

The intended audience for this document is the public6 and private7 sector members of 

PATH, construction industry representatives, and other interested parties. In addition, 

because this document includes both detailed information on the baseline measures for 

improving housing durability and a compilation of statistics on the four sectors and the 

construction industry as a whole, it is anticipated that this document will serve as a 

resource reference for readers with a wide variety of interests in the construction industry. 

1.3 Scope and Approach 

This report examines the key sources of construction industry data and extracts from 

them a single, consistent set of baseline measures that can be used to monitor progress 

towards achieving the PATH vision of improving housing durability and reducing 

maintenance costs by 50 % by 2010. Specifically, the report describes the key 

construction industry data sources and their associated data elements, demonstrates how 

each data source provides perspective on one or more dimensions of the construction 

industry, and synthesizes key data elements into a common format for specifying the 

baseline measures for improving housing durability. 

This document has five chapters in addition to the Introduction. Chapter 2 introduces the 

PATH vision and describes how a well-defined set of metrics is used to develop the 

baseline measures. Chapter 3 provides an overview of construction industry data. The 

overview provides the context within which the baseline measures for improving housing 

durability are developed. Chapter 4 presents the baseline measures of service life for 

selected building elements. Key baseline measures of service life are summarized in 

Table 4-4, which appears at the end of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents the baseline 

measures of durability-related costs. Specific cost categories covered include major 

replacements, maintenance and repair, and alterations. Information on energy 

expenditures is also presented. Key baseline measures of durability-related costs are 

summarized in Table 5-33, which appears at the end of Chapter 5. Chapter 6 concludes 

the document with a summary and suggestions for further research. 

Since Section 3.3, Chapter 4, and Chapter 5 include statistics on a wide variety of 

durability-related issues, it is useful to first introduce three key concepts that should help 

readers interpret the meaning of these statistics. The three key concepts are: (1) the 

distinction between average household expenditures for improvements and for 

maintenance and repair in general and average household expenditures for specific 

building components and systems; (2) the assumed independence between the 

performance of individual building components and systems; and (3) the treatment of 

energy-related expenditures. 

 

6

 The following Federal Agencies are members of PATH: Department of Agriculture, Department of 

Commerce, Department of Energy, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Environmental 

Protection Agency, Federal Emergency Management Agency, National Science Foundation, Federal 

Housing Finance Board, and the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. The Department 

of Housing and Urban Development is the PATH secretariat. 

7

 Private sector members of PATH include representatives of builders, remodelers, and developers; housing 

manufacturers; product manufacturers; financial and insurance organizations; distributors and retailers; and 

university and research laboratories. 
4

Durability-related expenditures fall under the categories of improvements and 

maintenance and repair activities. Improvements include: (1) additions (e.g., adding a 

new bedroom); alterations (e.g., kitchen remodeling); and major replacements (e.g., 

removing and replacing a hot water heater). Section 3.3 presents statistics for all types of 

improvements across all households. In 1997, these improvements totaled $92.4 billion 

or, on average, $888 per household. In any given year, many households do not 

undertake any improvements. Thus, the average cost for those households who do 

undertake improvements would be considerably more than $888. The same is true for 

maintenance and repair expenditures. In 1997, maintenance and repair expenditures 

averaged $395 per household. The statistics presented in Chapter 5 are based on cost 

information conditional on a specific type of improvement (e.g., kitchen remodeling) or 

maintenance and repair activity being undertaken. Thus, the statistics presented in 

Section 3.3 are estimates of average annual expenditures per household for improvements 

and maintenance and repair activities. For example, these figures could be used by a 

household to build a cash reserve for a future home improvement project. The statistics 

presented in Chapter 5 provide an indication of how much a specific home improvement 

activity or maintenance and repair activity would cost. Thus, the statistics presented in 

Chapter 5 correspond to averages of actual, one-time expenditures rather than average 

annual expenditures. 

The service life data presented in Chapter 4 assume that the performance of individual 

building components and systems are independent. In light of the data sources currently 

available, treating building components and systems as independent is a reasonable 

assumption. However, there are instances where poor performance of one component 

can affect the performance of another. For example, moisture penetrating the building 

envelope can cause condensation in the attic or wall cavity, reducing the service life of 

interior and exterior finishes and the performance of attic or wall insulation. Thus, 

improper or no maintenance for selected building components could reduce the durability 

and/or performance of another building component or system. Therefore, the service life 

data presented in Chapter 4 are, whenever possible, expressed as ranges of values. The 

treatment of interdependencies between building components and systems is addressed in 

Section 6.2 as an area for additional research. 

In 1997, the average household spent $1,338 on energy. Thus, energy-related 

expenditures represent a significant outlay for the typical household. Energy-related 

expenditures are affected by both generic housing characteristics (e.g., the size, age, and 

type of housing unit) and durability-related issues. For example, because of rising energy 

costs, households may decide to undertake improvement activities (e.g., replacing old or 

leaky single-glazed windows with double-glazed windows) or maintenance and repair 

activities (e.g., service contracts for the furnace and central air-conditioning system). In 

addition, the replacement of energy-related equipment (e.g., a furnace or central airconditioning system) is a significant expense for the typical household. The decision to 

replace energy-related equipment has its roots both in its expected service life—a 

durability-related issue—expected replacement cost, and energy-related expenditures. 

Consequently, this report includes both information on the service life and expenditures 
5

for energy-related equipment (see Section 4.2 and Subsections 5.2.1 and 5.2.2) and 

energy-related expenditures (see Section 3.3 and Subsection 5.2.4). 
6
7

2. The Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing 

The Partnership for Advancing Technology in Housing (PATH) is a public/private 

initiative which seeks to speed the creation and widespread use of advanced technologies 

in order to improve the quality, durability, energy efficiency, environmental performance, 

and affordability of the Nation’s housing. PATH is a voluntary partnership in which 

leaders of the home building, product manufacturing, and insurance and financial 

industries join forces with representatives of federal agencies concerned with housing. 

PATH is concerned with the following three goals: (1) developing new housing 

technologies; (2) disseminating information about new and existing housing 

technologies; and (3) studying and establishing mechanisms for sustained housing 

technology development. Through these goals, PATH seeks to spur housing industry 

design and construction change by providing the latest information on innovative 

building materials, processes and systems; showcasing innovative housing projects that 

can serve as models for builders and homeowners across the country; promoting focused, 

cooperative housing research among industry, government, and university partners; and 

tackling institutional barriers to innovation—from risk and liability concerns to the lack 

of effective product evaluation systems. 

2.1 Description of the PATH Vision 

During the next decade, PATH will encourage the development of innovative housing 

components, design and production methods and seek to reduce by 50 % the time needed 

to move quality technologies to market. These technologies will make it possible to 

produce housing that is affordable and attractive. By 2010, the adoption and use of these 

technologies is expected to achieve the PATH vision of improving housing: 

(1) Affordability: reduce the monthly cost of new housing by 20 % or more; 

(2) Energy-Efficiency and Environmental Protection: cut the environmental impact 

and energy use of new housing by 50 % or more and reduce energy use in at least 

15 million existing homes by 30 % or more; 

(3) Durability: improve durability and reduce maintenance costs by 50 %; and 

(4) Disaster Resistance and Safety: reduce by at least 10 % the risk of loss of life, 

injury, and property destruction from natural hazards and decrease residential 

construction worker illnesses and injuries by at least 20 %. 

To make the PATH vision operative, each component is based on the values of a welldefined set of baseline measures. The values of the baseline measures are averages of 

industry performance in 1997. The year 1997 was established as the basis for computing 

the values of the baseline measures because it was the year when the PATH goals were 

first formulated. 
8

Expected results from PATH are increased housing affordability; increased durability; 

lower construction costs; improved energy efficiency; fewer construction injuries; less 

disaster losses; and accelerated development and increased market acceptance of new 

housing technologies. Finally, the PATH technology development and utilization process 

will help insure that the residential sector of the construction industry will remain a 

dynamic economic force far into the 21st Century. 

2.2 Baseline Measures 

As noted earlier, the baseline measures are averages of industry performance in 1997. 

Thus, with regard to the baseline measures, 1997 is the “base year.” Consequently, data 

from 1997 drive this project’s data collection effort, culminating with the development of 

the baseline measures for improving housing durability. 

The process for developing baseline measures for improving housing durability used in 

this project involves: (1) specifying data relationships; (2) collecting and compiling the 

key data and supporting information for the base year, 1997; (3) defining metrics; and (4) 

producing the metrics in a tabular summary form and, where appropriate, producing 

charts and graphs to depict the metrics. This process is employed because the metrics 

represent not only a statement of current construction industry performance, but are 

useful in measuring an individual organization’s performance as well. By providing a 

small set of well-defined metrics, individual organizations can use these definitions to 

construct their own performance baselines. For example, individual organizations can 

see how a collection of their projects performs vis-à-vis the “national” data. To 

summarize, the basic philosophy behind the baseline measures is that they are not a static 

concept whose sole purpose is quantifying the value of the PATH vision, but a means for 

driving performance improvement within individual organizations. 

Criteria are needed to ensure that the data selected for analysis are well-defined, 

consistent, and replicable. Because data are so important to the baseline measures, BFRL 

reviewed many potential sources (e.g., journals, technical publications, and electronic 

media) of baseline-related data/information. This review suggested three criteria which 

must be met by any data in order to be accepted for analysis. These criteria are: 

(1) Published by a reliable, nationally-recognized organization and available to the 

public; 

(2) Updated on a regular basis; and 

(3) Able to be normalized to account for changes in the building stock and the level 

of construction activity. 

2.3 How the Baseline Measures Support the PATH Vision 

As indicated earlier, the baseline measures are needed to monitor our success in 

achieving the PATH vision. Without baseline measures it is not possible to measure 
9

progress towards improving housing durability. Stated another way: Are we bridging the 

gap between the current state of performance and the desired level of performance? 

However, the baseline measures go beyond making the PATH vision operative. They 

result in a significant “spillover benefit” to the objectives of PATH. Since they are a 

valuable source of information on the current levels of industry performance, they can be 

used to guide interested parties on what might be expected values for service life of 

selected building materials or the costs of maintenance and repair activities, as well as the 

costs of major replacements (e.g., a complete roof replacement). Furthermore, since the 

baseline measures can be placed both within the context of a point estimate or a 

distribution of values, they can be incorporated as default values into decision support 

software to help potential users evaluate the life-cycle cost consequences of alternative 

investment decisions. Whenever distributional information on a particular metric is 

available, an even more powerful analytical tool for decision support software becomes 

possible. For example, if a distribution of replacement cost data for selected building 

elements is available, a potential software user could determine where their estimated 

replacement cost falls within the overall distribution for that building element. 

On a deeper level, this document provides step-by-step descriptions of how to construct a 

well-defined set of baseline measures, their components, and associated metrics for 

improving durability and reducing maintenance costs in the Nation’s stock of housing. 

Information on data classification, data sources, and data collection and analysis provide 

the underpinnings for the results presented in this document. It is anticipated that once 

users of this document have understood the vital role of baseline measures as a process 

improvement tool, they will see how the PATH vision will benefit both their organization 

and the U.S. construction industry. 
10
11

3. Overview of Construction Industry Data 

The construction industry is a key component of the U.S. economy and is vital to its 

continued growth. Investment in plants and facilities, in the form of construction activity, 

provides the basis for the production of products and the delivery of services. Investment 

in infrastructure promotes the smooth flow of goods and services and the movement of 

individuals. Investment in housing accommodates new households and allows existing 

households to expand or improve their housing. Clearly, construction activities affect 

nearly every aspect of the U.S. economy.8

This chapter provides a data-oriented snapshot of the U.S. construction industry. The 

chapter contains three sections. Each section deals with a particular topic. The topics 

progress from a general overview of construction expenditures for the construction 

industry as a whole to very specific statistics focusing on durability-related issues. This 

progression serves to define the context within which the baseline measures for 

improving housing durability are developed. 

Section 3.1 presents information on the value of construction put in place to show the size 

of the construction industry and each of its four sectors. The four sectors, which taken 

together define the construction industry, are residential, commercial/institutional, 

industrial, and public works. Data from 1994 through 2000 are used to highlight the 

magnitude of construction-related investments in each sector. Data from 1997 are then 

used to establish the relative shares of construction-related investments for each sector. 

These data demonstrate that the residential sector accounts for approximately 45 % of the 

total value of all construction put in place. 

Section 3.2 uses information on the residential sector both to focus on its importance 

within the overall construction industry and to define its key components. Information on 

investment activity is used to highlight the key components of residential construction. 

The nature of construction activity is then presented to differentiate expenditures that are 

investment-related (e.g., new construction, additions and alterations, and major 

replacements) versus those that are associated with day-to-day operations (e.g., 

maintenance and repair and energy). 

Section 3.3 places special emphasis on identifying and detailing the key characteristics of 

housing. Information on the number of housing units by type of housing unit is used to 

classify units into key categories, some of which are used throughout the report (e.g., 

single-family detached). Information on durability-related expenditures is then 

presented. A series of tables is used to illustrate how expenditures vary across property 

types (i.e., owner-occupied or rental) and type of job (e.g., roof replacements). Next, a 

brief analysis of household expenditures for energy is presented. Expenditures by 

property type, fuel type (e.g., electricity), and end use (e.g., space heating) are used to 

 

8

 Readers interested in learning more about construction statistics, their sources and interpretation, are 

referred to the document by Rogers (Rogers, R. Mark. 1994. Handbook of Key Economic Indicators. Burr 

Ridge, IL: Irwin Professional Publishing). 
12

highlight different aspects of household expenditures for energy. The section concludes 

with a summary table in which selected cost data are presented. 

3.1 Value of Construction Put in Place 

This section provides information on a key indicator of construction activity—the value 

of construction put in place. Data published by the U.S. Bureau of the Census are used to 

establish the composition of construction expenditures by type of construction/function 

(e.g., residential/improvements). These expenditures are then assigned to the four key 

construction industry sectors. The reference document used throughout this section is the 

Current Construction Reports series C30 publication Value of Construction Put in Place.9

 

A brief description of the “C30 report” follows. Special attention is given to the 

organization of the data in the C30 report and how these data map into the four key 

construction industry sectors. The section concludes with tabular and graphical 

summaries of the value of construction put in place. 

Construction expenditures data are published monthly in the Current Construction 

Reports series C30 publication Value of Construction Put in Place. Construction 

expenditures refer to actual construction rather than planned or just initiated activity. It is 

noteworthy that the C30 report covers both private residential and non-residential 

construction activities and public sector construction activities. 

The value of construction put in place is a measure of the value of construction installed 

or erected at a site during a given period. For an individual project, this includes: (1) cost 

of materials installed or erected; (2) cost of labor and a proportionate share of 

construction equipment rental; (3) contractor’s profit; (4) cost of architectural and 

engineering work; (5) miscellaneous overhead and office costs chargeable to the project 

on the owner’s books; and (6) interest and taxes paid during construction. Expenses do 

not include the cost of land nor do they include maintenance and repairs to existing 

structures or service facilities. 

The C30 data are compiled via survey and through indirect estimation. In the context of 

the C30 survey, construction includes the following: (1) new buildings and structures; (2) 

additions, alterations, conversions, expansions, reconstruction, renovations, 

rehabilitations, and major replacements (e.g., the complete replacement of a roof or a 

heating system); (3) mechanical and electrical installations (e.g., plumbing, heating, 

electrical work, and other similar building services); (4) site preparation and outside 

construction of fixed structures or facilities (e.g., sidewalks, highways and streets, water 

supply lines, sewers, and similar facilities which are built into or fixed to the land); (5) 

installation of boilers, overhead hoists and cranes, and blast furnaces; (6) fixed, largely 

site-fabricated equipment not housed in a building (e.g., petroleum refineries and 

chemical plants); and (7) cost and installation of construction materials placed inside a 

building and used to support production machinery (e.g., concrete platforms, overhead 

steel girders, and pipes). 

 

9

 U.S. Department of Commerce. 2001. Current Construction Reports: Value of Construction Put in 

Place. C30. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census. 
13

The data presented in the C30 report are summarized in Tables 3-1 and 3-2. To facilitate 

comparisons between this report and the C30 report, Tables 3-1 and 3-2 use the same row 

and column headings as are used in the C30 report. 

Tables 3-1 and 3-2 record annual values for the years 1994 through 2000. Table 3-1 

records annual values in millions of constant 1997 dollars. Table 3-2 records annual 

values in millions of current dollars.10 Reference to Table 3-1 reveals that total 

construction expenditures in real terms have increased modestly over the seven-year 

period (i.e., from $571.3 billion to $734.3 billion). When the effects of inflation are 

included, the rate of increase is more pronounced. Table 3-2 shows total construction 

expenditures in current dollars. 

Tables 3-1 and 3-2 are organized to allow for in-depth analyses of the components/ 

subcomponents of total construction expenditures. To facilitate such analyses, the data 

presented in Tables 3-1 and 3-2 are initially divided into two parts: (1) private 

construction; and (2) public construction. 

Private construction contains two major components—residential buildings and nonresidential buildings—plus a number of subcomponents. Both the two major components 

and the various subcomponents are shown as headings in the first column of Tables 3-1 

and 3-2. 

The residential buildings component includes new private housing and improvements. 

New private housing includes new houses, apartments, condominiums, and town houses. 

New private housing units are classified as “1 unit” or “2 or more units.” The value of 

improvements put in place are a direct measure of the value of residential additions and 

alterations activities and major replacements. The residential buildings component 

excludes residential units in buildings which are primarily non-residential. It also 

excludes mobile homes and houseboats. 

The non-residential buildings component includes industrial, office buildings, hotels and 

motels, and “other commercial” (e.g., shopping centers, banks, service stations, 

warehouses, and other categories). Also falling under the non-residential buildings 

component are religious, educational, hospital and institutional, and “miscellaneous” nonresidential buildings. 

 

10 Inflation reduces the purchasing power of the dollar over time; deflation increases it. When amounts are 

stated in actual prices as of the year in which they occur, they are said to be in current dollars. Current 

dollars are dollars of any one year’s purchasing power, inclusive of inflation/deflation. That is, they reflect 

changes in purchasing power of the dollar from year to year. In contrast, constant dollars are dollars of 

uniform purchasing power, exclusive of inflation/deflation. Constant dollars indicate what the same good 

or service would cost at different times if there were no change in the general price level to change the 

purchasing power of the dollar. For additional information on conducting economic analyses using either 

constant dollars or current dollars, see Fuller, Sieglinde K., and Stephen R. Petersen. 1996. Life-Cycle 

Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program. NIST Handbook 135. Gaithersburg, MD: 

National Institute of Standards and Technology. 
14

Table 3-1. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of Constant 1997 Dollars 

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

571 271 586 538 633 670 656 630 692 876 715 203 734 273

439 110 449 367 489 838 501 749 537 585 553 609 576 813

262 659 261 129 290 341 289 014 306 260 326 447 337 030

184 639 180 951 197 385 198 063 218 041 233 527 238 508

169 156 162 066 176 395 175 179 194 119 208 020 213 225

15 483 18 885 20 991 22 883 23 922 25 507 25 282

78 020 80 177 92 956 90 951 88 220 92 920 98 523

132 262 144 146 158 963 172 990 185 651 183 216 189 229

31 829 35 919 37 409 36 739 39 410 32 655 28 881

24 386 27 040 28 801 34 305 41 106 43 582 50 145

5 111 7 508 11 270 12 898 14 423 14 916 14 764

41 290 45 030 49 769 51 809 52 176 53 477 55 338

4 254 4 567 4 683 5 777 6 419 7 016 7 265

5 302 5 799 6 963 8 693 9 441 9 156 10 226

13 490 11 875 12 167 13 546 13 427 12 750 13 125

6 600 6 409 7 901 9 223 9 249 9 664 9 485

3 547 3 182 3 778 3 815 4 170 4 165 4 645

37 464 37 856 34 244 33 638 38 966 37 066 43 299

11 129 11 711 12 198 12 416 12 974 14 246 16 203

26 335 26 145 22 047 21 222 25 992 22 820 27 095

3 673 3 704 4 542 4 922 5 584 4 602 3 805

16 403 14 832 11 579 11 325 12 053 13 155 19 010

5 161 6 629 4 877 4 006 7 124 3 669 3 377

1 097 981 1 048 969 1 231 1 393 903

3 178 3 054 2 511 2 292 2 537 2 715 2 611

132 161 137 170 143 833 154 882 155 291 161 595 157 460

54 370 60 971 65 554 71 867 71 333 72 706 74 088

4 217 4 960 5 214 5 230 4 988 5 258 4 708

1 611 1 592 1 435 999 983 866 1 044

22 388 27 219 29 528 34 385 35 273 37 176 39 225

4 344 4 472 4 769 5 152 3 802 3 713 3 608

21 809 22 727 24 608 26 100 26 288 25 693 25 503

41 145 39 711 40 759 44 105 47 228 50 098 46 905

2 549 3 179 2 676 2 556 2 462 1 976 2 104

6 997 6 659 6 205 5 739 5 302 5 618 5 416

9 566 8 889 10 120 10 392 9 898 10 464 9 263

5 110 4 971 5 802 6 419 6 649 7 114 6 239

12 426 12 791 12 717 13 803 12 417 13 621 13 444

 Water supply facilities

 Miscellaneous public

 Highways and streets

 Military facilities

 Conservation and development

 Sewer systems

 Educational

 Hospital

 Other

 Buildings

 Housing and redevelopment

 Industrial

 All other private

Public Construction

 Railroads

 Electric light and power

 Gas

 Petroleum pipelines

 Public Utilities

 Telecommunications

 Other public utilities

 Hospital and institutional

 Miscellaneous

 Farm nonresidential

 Hotel, motels

 Other commercial

 Religious

 Educational

 Nonresidential buildings

 Industrial

 Office

 New Housing Units

 1 Unit

 2 Units or more

 Improvements

Private Construction

Residential Buildings

Type of Construction Millions of Constant (1997) Dollars

Total Construction
15

Table 3-2. Value of Construction Put in Place in Millions of Current Dollars

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

519 539 555 591 613 535 656 630 711 759 764 233 815 414

399 346 425 658 474 273 501 749 552 236 591 561 640 554

238 874 247 351 281 115 289 014 314 607 348 826 374 274

167 919 171 404 191 113 198 063 223 983 249 536 264 864

153 838 153 515 170 790 175 179 199 409 222 280 236 788

14 081 17 889 20 324 22 883 24 574 27 256 28 076

70 955 75 947 90 002 90 951 90 624 99 290 109 410

120 285 136 541 153 912 172 990 190 711 195 776 210 140

28 947 34 024 36 220 36 739 40 484 34 894 32 073

22 178 25 613 27 886 34 305 42 226 46 570 55 686

4 648 7 112 10 912 12 898 14 816 15 939 16 396

37 551 42 654 48 188 51 809 53 598 57 143 61 453

3 869 4 326 4 534 5 777 6 594 7 497 8 068

4 822 5 493 6 742 8 693 9 698 9 784 11 356

12 268 11 248 11 780 13 546 13 793 13 624 14 575

6 002 6 071 7 650 9 223 9 501 10 327 10 533

3 226 3 014 3 658 3 815 4 284 4 451 5 158

34 071 35 859 33 156 33 638 40 028 39 607 48 084

10 121 11 093 11 810 12 416 13 328 15 223 17 994

23 950 24 766 21 346 21 222 26 700 24 384 30 089

3 340 3 509 4 398 4 922 5 736 4 918 4 226

14 918 14 049 11 211 11 325 12 381 14 057 21 111

4 694 6 279 4 722 4 006 7 318 3 920 3 750

 998 929 1 015 969 1 265 1 489 1 003

2 890 2 893 2 431 2 292 2 606 2 901 2 899

120 193 129 933 139 263 154 882 159 523 172 673 174 860

49 446 57 754 63 471 71 867 73 277 77 690 82 275

3 835 4 698 5 048 5 230 5 124 5 618 5 228

1 465 1 508 1 389 999 1 010 925 1 159

20 361 25 783 28 590 34 385 36 234 39 725 43 560

3 951 4 236 4 617 5 152 3 906 3 968 4 007

19 834 21 528 23 826 26 100 27 004 27 454 28 321

37 419 37 616 39 464 44 105 48 515 53 532 52 088

2 318 3 011 2 591 2 556 2 529 2 111 2 337

6 363 6 308 6 008 5 739 5 447 6 003 6 014

8 700 8 420 9 798 10 392 10 168 11 181 10 287

4 647 4 709 5 618 6 419 6 830 7 602 6 928

11 301 12 116 12 313 13 803 12 755 14 555 14 930

Type of Construction

Millions of Current Dollars

Total Construction

Private Construction

Residential Buildings

 New Housing Units

 1 Unit

 2 Units or more

 Improvements

 Nonresidential buildings

 Industrial

 Office

 Hotel, motels

 Other commercial

 Religious

 Educational

 Hospital and institutional

 Miscellaneous

 Farm nonresidential

 Public Utilities

 Telecommunications

 Other public utilities

 Railroads

 Electric light and power

 Gas

 Petroleum pipelines

 All other private

Public Construction

 Buildings

 Housing and redevelopment

 Industrial

 Educational

 Hospital

 Other

 Water supply facilities

 Miscellaneous public

 Highways and streets

 Military facilities

 Conservation and development

 Sewer systems
16

Rounding out the private construction component are farm non-residential, public 

utilities, and “all other private.” These are generally of a non-residential nature, but are 

not part of non-residential buildings. Farm non-residential construction includes 

structures such as barns, storage houses, and fences. Land improvements such as 

leveling, terracing, ponds, and roads are also a part of this subcomponent. Privately 

owned public utilities construction is categorized by industry rather than function of the 

building or structure. This subcomponent includes expenditures made by utilities for 

telecommunications, railroads, petroleum pipelines, electric light and power, and natural 

gas. “All other private” includes privately owned streets and bridges, sewer and water 

facilities, airfields, and similar construction. 

For public construction, there is one major component—building—and six components 

that are classified collectively as “non-building.” The building major component 

contains subcomponents similar to those for private construction, with educational 

buildings being the largest subcomponent. Expenditures for the “non-building” 

components overwhelmingly consist of outlays for highways and streets, with sewer 

systems being a distant second component. 

To get the sector totals, each subcomponent was assigned to a sector and summed. The 

sector assignments are identical to those used in Chapman and Rennison.11 The sector 

totals and the overall total are recorded in Tables 3-3 and 3-4. Reference to the tables 

reveals that sector totals vary considerably, with residential being the largest and 

industrial the smallest. 

Table 3-3. Value of Construction Put in Place: Sector Totals and Sum Total in 

 Millions of Constant 1997 Dollars12

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Residential 266 876 266 089 295 555 294 244 311 248 331 705 341 738

Commercial/ 

Institutional 152 521 165 828 184 237 205 703 215 774 221 308 233 329

Industrial 33 440 37 511 38 844 37 738 40 393 33 521 29 925

Public Works 118 434 117 111 115 034 118 944 125 459 128 671 129 280

Total - All 

Sectors 571 271 586 539 633 670 656 629 692 874 715 205 734 272

Sector

Value of Construction Put in Place ($ Millions)

 

11 Chapman, Robert E., and Roderick Rennison. 1998. An Approach for Measuring Reductions in 

Operations, Maintenance, and Energy Costs: Baseline Measures of Construction Industry Practices for the 

National Construction Goals. NISTIR 6185. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and 

Technology. 

12 Note that due to rounding the values entered in the “Total – All Sectors” row in Table 3-3, differ slightly 

from the values entered in the “Total Construction” row in Table 3-1. 
17

Table 3-4. Value of Construction Put in Place: Sector Totals and Sum Total in 

 Millions of Current Dollars13

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Residential 242 709 252 049 286 163 294 244 319 731 354 444 379 502

Commercial/ 

Institutional 138 710 157 078 178 383 205 703 221 654 236 482 259 113

Industrial 30 412 35 532 37 609 37 738 41 494 35 819 33 232

Public Works 107 709 110 932 111 379 118 944 128 878 137 492 143 567

Total - All 

Sectors 519 540 555 591 613 534 656 629 711 757 764 237 815 414

Sector

Value of Construction Put in Place ($ Millions)

Table 3-3 reveals that the residential and commercial/institutional sectors have grown 

fairly consistently in real terms over the entire seven-year period. In real terms, 

expenditures in the residential sector grew from $266.9 billion in 1994 to $341.7 billion 

in 2000, an increase of almost 30 %. Real expenditures for two of the four sectors, 

industrial and public works, were essentially constant over the same seven-year period. 

The data contained in Tables 3-3 and 3-4 provide the basis for calculating each sector’s 

relative share of total construction expenditures. Each sector’s relative share of total 

construction expenditures is shown graphically in pie chart form in Figure 3-1. It was 

constructed using 1997 data from Table 3-4 (i.e., current dollar expenditures). Figure 3-1 

reveals that in 1997 the residential sector accounted for 45 percent of total construction 

expenditures (i.e., 45 % of $656.6 billion). 

3.2 Overview of the Residential Sector 

The residential sector, defined in economic terms, consists of residential buildings. A 

residential building is a structure used primarily as a dwelling for one or more 

households. Residential buildings include single-family detached and single-family 

attached dwellings, apartments, and condominiums. 

Expenditures by or for households in the residential sector include construction 

expenditures (e.g., new construction, additions and alterations, and major replacements) 

as well as expenditures for building operations, for maintenance and repair activities, and 

for energy. Consequently, it is instructive to first define what is included in each type of 

expenditure and then examine the characteristics of residential buildings that affect these 

expenditures. 

 

13 Note that due to rounding the values entered in the “Total-All Sectors” row in Table 3-4 differ slightly 

from the values entered in the “Total Construction” row of Table 3-2. 
18

Figure 3-1. 1997 Breakdown of $656.6 Billion Construction Market 

Residential construction expenditures include both new construction activities and 

improvements, where improvements include both additions and alterations and major 

replacements. 

New construction activities include the complete original residential 

building and essential service facilities and the initial installation of 

integral equipment (e.g., plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning supplies 

and equipment). 

Improvements—additions and alterations and major replacements—

include construction work that adds to the value or useful life of an 

existing residential building or structure, or which adapts a building or 

structure to residential use. Included are major replacements of building 

systems (e.g., installation of a new roof or heating system). 

Building operations for the residential sector include all activities required to operate a 

building (e.g., water consumption and trash removal), with the exception of maintenance 

and repair activities and energy. Fixed residential building operations components are 

also included (e.g., principal and interest payments, real estate and other taxes, and 

insurance) under this expenditure category.14

 

14 Although building operations for the residential sector are defined for purposes of completeness, they are 

considered to be beyond the purview of this report and, consequently, will not be covered in the baseline 

measures presented in the following two chapters. 

Residential

45%

Industrial

6%

Public Works

18%

Commercial/

Institutional

31%
19

Maintenance and repair activities include incidental construction work that keeps a 

residential building or structure in ordinary working condition. 

Energy is defined to encompass all energy consumption required to support occupant 

activities in a residential building. Energy consumption can be categorized by energy 

source (e.g., electricity, natural gas, and fuel oil) and by end-use (e.g., space heating, airconditioning, appliances, and lighting). 

Expenditure data for the residential sector are available from a variety of sources. The 

C30 report is designed to capture construction expenditure data for the industry as a 

whole as well as the residential sector. The residential sector receives special attention in 

the C30 report because it separates private residential construction expenditure data into 

new construction and improvements. The Census also publishes several other reports 

based on survey data. These include the Census of the Construction Industry, conducted 

every five years in years ending in 2 and 7, and the quarterly C50 report—Expenditures 

for Residential Improvements and Repairs. In addition, the Census conducts the 

American Housing Survey (AHS) to obtain up-to-date housing statistics for the U.S. 

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Finally, the U.S. Department of 

Energy (DOE) conducts the Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) which 

provides information on the use of energy in residential housing units in the United 

States. 

Because the focus of this section is providing an overview of the residential sector, only 

1997 data from the C30 report and the Census of the Construction Industry will be 

presented. The following section—Characteristics of Housing—will include 1997 data 

from the AHS, the C50 report, and the RECS. 

Based on data published in the C30 report—Value of Construction Put in Place—

construction expenditures in 1997 for the residential sector were $294.2 billion in current 

dollars (see Table 3-4). Total expenditures include expenditures from subcomponents 

listed under both the “private construction” and “public construction” headings in Tables 

3-1 and 3-2. The three subcomponents included under the private construction heading 

are: (1) New Housing Units—1 Unit; (2) New Housing Units—2 Units or More; and (3) 

Improvements. The subcomponent included under the public sector heading is Public 

Housing and Redevelopment. The relative share of the overall residential sector’s 

construction expenditures for each of the four key subcomponents is shown graphically in 

pie chart form in Figure 3-2. It was constructed using 1997 data from Table 3-2 (i.e., 

current dollar expenditures). Reference to Figure 3-2 reveals that in 1997 the New 

Housing Units—1 Unit subcomponent accounted for 59 % of the residential sector’s 

construction expenditures and the Improvements subcategory accounted for 31 %. 

The 1997 Census of the Construction Industry focuses both on the industry as a whole, as 

well as the key subsectors. For purposes of this study, the 1997 Census of the 

Construction Industry includes both an industry summary15 and separate reports on 

 

15 U.S. Department of Commerce. 2000. Industry Summary: 1997 Economic Census, Construction Subject 

Series. EC97C23S-IS. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. 
20

single-family16 and multi-family housing.17 The Census of the Construction Industry 

enumerates construction establishments with paid employees. At the time of the 1997 

census, there were about 1.5 million construction establishments, of which 656 448 had 

paid employees. Establishments without payroll, typically one-person operations or 

partnerships, are not surveyed in the Census of the Construction Industry. 

Construction work covered by the 1997 census includes new construction, additions, 

alterations, and repairs. Establishments identified as construction management firms are 

also included. The Census of the Construction Industry divides construction into three 

sectors: (1) building, developing, and general contracting; (2) heavy construction; and (3) 

special trade contractors. 

Figure 3-2. 1997 Breakdown of $294.2 Billion Residential Sector 

New Housing Units - 1 

Unit

59%

New Housing Units - 2 

Units or More

8%

Improvements

31%

Public Housing

2%

The value of residential construction work for establishments with employees as 

tabulated in the 1997 Census of the Construction Industry is reported in Table 3-5. The 

table summarizes expenditure information for three types of residential construction: (1) 

single-family homes; (2) apartment buildings; and (3) all other residential buildings. 

Four types of expenditure information are reported for each type of construction: (1) new 

construction; (2) additions, alterations, and reconstruction; (3) maintenance and repair; 

and (4) total. The second type of construction expenditure—additions, alterations, and 

reconstruction—corresponds to improvements as published in the C30 report. 

Comparisons between Tables 3-2 and 3-5 reveal good agreement on the total values of 

expenditures for new construction and for the individual components single-family 

 

16 U.S. Department of Commerce. 1999. Single-Family Housing Construction: 1997 Economic Census, 

Construction Industry Series. EC97C-2332A(RV). 17 U.S. Department of Commerce. 1999. Multi-Family Housing Construction: 1997 Economic Census, 

Construction Industry Series. EC97C-2332B(RV). 
21

housing and apartment buildings. Comparisons between Tables 3-2 and 3-5, however, 

reveal significant differences between expenditures for residential improvements as 

published in the C30 report—$91.0 billion—and the comparable type of expenditure 

published in the 1997 Census of the Construction Industry—$46.4 billion. The likely 

cause of this discrepancy is that the Census of the Construction Industry only enumerates 

construction establishments with paid employees. Because such a large proportion of 

construction establishments are without paid employees, many of the smaller 

construction jobs are not covered in the 1997 census.18 It is likely that a great deal of this 

work falls into the expenditure categories of improvements and maintenance and repair. 

Thus, to get a more accurate view of the total scope of construction expenditures for 

improvements and for maintenance and repair, other sources of information must be 

considered. These sources are the focus of section 3.3. 

Table 3-5. Expenditures in Millions of Dollars for Establishments with Payroll by 

Type of Construction: 1997 

3.3 Characteristics of Housing 

This section uses published information from three key surveys covering the residential 

sector—the AHS, the C50 report, and the RECS—to arrive at a summary of the 

characteristics of housing and to present information on expenditures for improvements, 

maintenance and repair activities, and energy. Background information on each data 

source is first presented followed by a description and analysis of selected data elements. 

The section concludes with a summary table where key types of expenditures are 

reported. Data sources for the key types of expenditures are also reported. 

AHS — American Housing Survey 

The AHS is conducted by field representatives who obtain information from occupants of 

homes. They get information on vacant homes from informed people such as landlords, 

rental agents, or knowledgeable neighbors. The 1997 national survey was conducted 

from August 1997 through November 1997. This national sample of about 53,000 

 

18 This issue was discussed at the Construction Statistics Data Users’ Conference held in 1997. The goal of 

the conference was to generate suggestions for improving Census’ statistics on the construction industry. 

For additional information on the conference and the recommendations it produced, see U.S. Department of 

Commerce. 1999. Construction Statistics Data Users’ Conference. Washington, DC: Bureau of the Census. 

New 

Construction

Additions, 

Alterations, 

Reconstruction

Maintenance & 

Repair Total

179 326 38 743 20 233 238 302

23 549 7 294 5 069 35 912

880 410 161 1,451

203 755 46 447 25 463 275 665

Type of Expenditure

Total

Type of Construction

Single-Family Houses

Apartment Buildings

All other Residential Buildings
22

interviews is conducted every other year. From 1973, when it started, to 1981, the AHS 

collected national data every year, instead of every other year, and was called the Annual 

Housing Survey. 

The AHS is issued jointly by HUD’s Office of Policy Development and Research and the 

U.S. Census Bureau. The published report of the 1997 AHS19 presents data on 

apartments, single-family homes, mobile homes, and vacant housing units. The AHS 

also tabulates information according to housing costs, equipment and fuels, size of the 

housing units, and year of construction. The 1997 AHS also tabulates information on 

mortgages, household income, and age, gender, and race of householders. 

The 1997 AHS data are also available as a set of public-access files. These files permit 

the data tabulated in the published report to be “sliced and diced” in a variety of ways. 

These additional “data classifications” are presented and discussed in Chapter 5, where 

they provide the basis for most of the baseline measures for durability-related costs. 

The material from the 1997 AHS presented in this section focuses on laying out the key 

characteristics of the Nation’s stock of housing units. This material is presented in Table 

3-6. The table records the number of housing units for each type of tenure class (i.e., 

whether the unit is occupied or unoccupied, and, if occupied, whether it is occupied by 

the owner or a renter). Reference to Table 3-6 reveals that in 1997 there were 112.4 

million housing units in the United States. Of these, 99.5 million were occupied and 12.9 

million were unoccupied. At first blush, 12.9 million unoccupied housing units seems 

excessive. However, nearly 25 % of all unoccupied units are intended for seasonal use 

by the owner (i.e., to be occupied during only certain seasons of the year). Seasonal units 

are not anyone’s usual residence. Of the 9.7 million vacant units, 29 % are held for 

weekend or occasional use throughout the year. Another 29 % of the units listed as 

vacant are for rent, 11 % are for sale, and 8 % have been rented or sold but not yet 

occupied. Finally, 23 % of the vacant units are held for settlement of an estate, held for 

occupancy by a caretaker, or held for personal reasons of the owner. 

The 99.5 million occupied units are subdivided into two tenure classes: owner and renter. 

Approximately two-thirds of all occupied housing units—65.5 million—are occupied by 

owners and one-third—34.0 million—are occupied by renters. Reference to Table 3-6 

reveals that more than 80 % of all units occupied by the owner are single-family detached 

dwellings. Approximately 25 % of all units occupied by a renter are single-family 

detached dwellings. Table 3-6 also records information on the 8.3 million mobile homes 

in the United States. 6.5 million mobile homes are occupied and 1.8 million are 

unoccupied. Approximately 80 % of all occupied mobile homes are occupied by the 

owner. Multi-family units are occupied primarily by a renter. For example, slightly 

more than 20 % of all units occupied by a renter are multi-family, 2 to 4 unit, residential 

buildings.20 

 

19 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 1999. American Housing Survey for the United 

States: Current Housing Reports. H150/97. Washington, DC: Office of Policy Development and Research. 20 The 1997 AHS also tabulates information on the 7.7 million cooperatives and condominiums in the 

United States. Cooperative and condominium ownership may apply to various types of structures including 
23

Table 3-6 Characteristics of Housing Units: 1997 

C50 Report — Expenditures for Residential Improvements and Repairs 

The C50 report provides estimates of expenditures by property owners for construction 

improvements (additions, alterations, and major replacements) and maintenance and 

repairs to residential properties. The data presented in the C50 report are compiled from 

two sources: (1) a household survey of a sample of consumer units; and (2) a mail survey 

of owners of a sample of rental or vacant properties. 

The household survey is based on personal interviews obtained from household members 

as part of the consumer expenditure surveys that the Census performs for the Bureau of 

Labor Statistics. The consumer expenditure surveys are designed to collect data on major 

items of consumer expense, household characteristics, and income. The expenditures 

covered by the survey are those that respondents can be expected to recall fairly 

accurately for three months or longer, including expenditures for maintenance and repairs 

and improvements of properties. Each sample household is interviewed once per quarter 

for five consecutive quarters. The number of interviews per quarter is targeted at 5 000. 

The mail survey covers non-resident owners of rental or vacant properties containing one 

to four housing units and owners of rental or vacant properties containing five housing 

units or more. Non-resident owners are mailed a questionnaire to report detailed 

maintenance and repair and improvement expenditures for their properties. 

Approximately 3 000 non-resident owners are queried each quarter. 

The C50 data cover single and multi-unit structures, publicly and privately owned 

structures, non-farm and farm properties, and residential properties that are occupied by 

 single-family detached dwellings, single-family-attached dwellings, as well as apartments. Separate figures 

for cooperatives and condominiums are not recorded in Table 3-6 so as to avoid double counting. Of the 

5.9 million cooperatives and condominiums that are occupied, 60 % are occupied by the owner and 40 % 

are occupied by a renter. 

Total Owner Renter Vacant Seasonal

68 109 62 111 53 756 8 355 4 167 1 831

6 778 5 840 3 030 2 810 781 157

10 363 8 973 1 756 7 216 1 261 129

5 657 4 852 491 4 361 727 78

5 025 4 264 319 3 945 702 59

3 877 3 292 355 2 936 509 75

4 247 3 611 524 3 087 528 108

8 301 6 544 5 255 1 289 1 028 729

Total 112 357 99 487 65 487 34 000 9 704 3 166

Occupied

Single-Family Detached

Multi-Family, 50 or more units

Multi-Family, 20 to 49 units

Single-Family Attached

Multi-Family, 2 to 4 units

Mobile Home or Trailer

Unoccupied Type of Housing Unit

Tenure Class

Multi-Family, 5 to 9 units

Multi-Family, 10 to 19 units

Total 

Housing 

Units
24

owners or renters or are vacant. Excluded are: (1) properties classified as primarily nonresidential; (2) residential structures on the grounds of institutions, schools, armed forces 

installations, etc.; (3) hotels, motels, tourist cabins, and boarding houses; and (4) 

manufactured homes and unusual living quarters (e.g., house boats). 

The expenditures covered in the C50 report are those connected with construction activity 

intended to maintain or improve the property. As a general principle, expenses connected 

with items not permanently attached or firmly affixed to some part of the housing unit or 

property are not included. Thus, expenses connected with the repair or replacement of 

household appliances (e.g., stoves and refrigerators) are excluded as are costs connected 

with household furnishings (e.g., furniture, rugs, and draperies). While the cost of 

appliances is excluded, the construction cost of building-in such appliances (e.g., the cost 

of building-in a wall oven) is included within the scope of the C50 report. Everyday 

household and housekeeping expenses (e.g., cleaning floors, walls, and windows) are 

excluded. Expenditures for grading, draining, fencing, and paving are included but the 

costs of landscaping (e.g., planting trees, shrubs, and flowers) are not included in the C50 

report. A brief description of the types of expenditures covered in the C50 report under 

the categories of improvements and maintenance and repair activities is used to set the 

stage for the tables which follow. 

Expenditures for residential improvements are capital expenditures that add to the value 

or useful life of the property. Since the classification of residential improvements used in 

the C50 report—and in the C30 report—is based on the concept of additions, alterations, 

and major replacements rather than dollar value, some very small expenditures that may 

not be considered capital investments are included under the residential improvements 

category (e.g., installation of a new electrical socket or garbage disposal). Residential 

improvements cover additions to residential structures (e.g., adding a room), alterations 

within residential structures (e.g., from complete remodeling to the installation of an 

electrical service outlet), additions and alterations on properties outside residential 

structures (e.g., detached garages, sheds, patios, and fences), and major replacements 

(e.g., replacement of the entire roof). In general, the distinction between major 

replacements and additions and alterations is that major replacements are substitutions. 

Installation of a bathtub, where there had not been one before, is an alteration, but the 

substitution of a new bathtub for an old one is a major replacement. 

Maintenance and repair expenditures represent current costs for incidental maintenance 

and repair activities that keep a property in ordinary working condition, rather than an 

additional investment in the property. Maintenance includes such expenses as painting, 

papering, floor sanding, and furnace cleaning or adjustment. Repairs include many kinds 

of expenditures for plumbing, heating, electrical work, and other kinds of activity 

involved in the upkeep of residential properties. Repairs also include replacements of 

parts and of whole units, except for a select list specified below that are classified as 

major replacements.21 For example, roof repairs—including replacement of shingles and 

 

21 The following is a list of items that, when replaced, are considered to be major replacements as opposed 

to repairs: complete furnace or boiler, entire roof, central air-conditioner, all siding, water heater, entire 
25

gutters—are classified under the maintenance and repair expenditure category, but a 

complete reroofing is classified as a major replacement. Plumbing repairs may include 

extensive replacement of water pipes, but if the entire piping system is removed and a 

new one put in, the expenditures for the work are classified as major replacements. 

Maintenance and repairs do not include expenses for trash and snow removal, lawn 

maintenance and landscaping, or cleaning and janitorial services. 

Table 3-7 records expenditures for improvements and for maintenance and repair 

activities by tenure class and type of housing unit. Table 3-7 is divided into two parts. 

Part A records expenditures in millions of 1997 dollars. The information recorded in Part 

A is taken directly from the C50 report. Part B records information on estimated average 

expenditures per housing unit in 1997 dollars. Part B uses the information recorded in 

Part A and information from Table 3-6 on the number of housing units by tenure class to 

empirically estimate the “national” average expenditure per housing unit. 

Part A of Table 3-7 records for each tenure class—owner-occupied and rental—total 

expenditures and expenditures for selected types of housing units in millions of 1997 

dollars. The table also records the combined total across both tenure classes under the 

heading All Residential Properties. Information for improvements, maintenance and 

repair, and combined total expenditures are recorded on separate rows of the table. 

Reference to Part A of Table 3-7 reveals that expenditures for improvements totaled 

$92.4 billion and expenditures for maintenance and repair activities totaled $41.1 billion. 

The combined total for both improvements and maintenance and repairs was $133.6 

billion.22 Approximately two-thirds of all expenditures—$94.0 billion—are for owneroccupied units and one-third—$39.6 billion—are for rental units. Reference to Part A of 

the table reveals that more than 95 % of total expenditures for owner-occupied units 

occur in single-family dwellings. The distribution of expenditures in rental units differs 

from those in owner-occupied units. Reference to the table reveals that expenditures in 

single-family rental units amount to approximately 55 % of the total and expenditures in 

multi-family dwellings with 5 units or more amount to approximately 35 % of the total. 

Part B of Table 3-7 combines information from the AHS (see Table 3-6) with total 

expenditure information (see Part A) to construct a “national” estimate of expenditures 

per housing unit measured in 1997 dollars. This calculation is facilitated by recognizing 

that the C50 report combines information on unoccupied housing units (i.e., vacant and 

seasonal) into the rental tenure class. Similarly, since the types of housing units are 

aggregates of the entries in Table 3-6, they can be mapped into the property types 

recorded in Table 3-7 to create a denominator for each cell in Part A of Table 3-7 that can 

be used to produce an estimated average value of expenditures per housing unit. Note 

that mobile homes have been removed from the calculations performed in Part B because 

they are not covered in the C50 report. Expenditures per housing unit range from a high 

of $1,597 for single-family, owner-occupied dwellings to a low of $478 for multi-family 

rental dwellings with 2 to 4 units. The values reported in Part B are “unconditional” 

 electrical wiring, doors, plumbing fixtures, all water pipes, windows, septic tank or cesspool, sink or 

laundry tub, complete walks or drive ways, and garbage disposal unit. 

22 Due to rounding, the totals in both Parts A and B may not be equal to the sum of the constituent parts. 
26

since they include housing units that made no expenditures for either improvements or 

for maintenance and repair activities. “Conditional” estimates are covered in Chapter 5, 

where estimates are derived based on AHS data reported from units that performed 

specific improvement or maintenance and repair activities. 

Table 3-8 reports expenditures in millions of 1997 dollars by tenure class and type of job. 

The table shows both total expenditures and expenditures for improvements and for 

maintenance and repair activities. Improvements are subdivided into additions, 

alterations, outside additions and alterations, and major replacements. Each of these 

subdivisions is further subdivided into their constituent parts (i.e., specific job types). 

Maintenance and repair activities are similarly subdivided into their constituent parts. In 

all, 28 specific job types are reported for the improvements category and 10 specific job 

types are reported for maintenance and repair activities. 

Table 3-8 provides a fairly detailed picture of how expenditures vary across tenure class 

and job type. For example, the largest components of improvements are alterations and 

major replacements. Among owner-occupied units, kitchen remodeling, other alterations, 

and bathroom remodeling are the largest specific job types of the alterations component, 

resulting in expenditures of $5.1 billion, $4.7 billion, and $3.3 billion, respectively. The 

three largest specific job types of major replacements component for owner-occupied 

units are roofing, HVAC, and the combination of windows and doors, resulting in 

expenditures of $5.5 billion, $4.6 billion, and $4.0 billion, respectively. Among rental 

units, the two largest alterations components are other alterations—$2.3 billion—and 

kitchen and bath remodeling—$1.6 billion. For maintenance and repair activities, 

expenditure patterns between owner-occupied units and rental units are similar in their 

top rankings, with expenditures for painting and papering first, followed by other 

maintenance and repair activities, roofing, and plumbing. 

Table 3-9 records expenditures for improvements and for maintenance and repair 

activities by tenure class and type of payment for owner-occupied one-unit properties. 

Table 3-9 is divided into two parts. Part A records expenditures in millions of 1997 

dollars. The information recorded in Part A is taken directly from the C50 report. Part B 

records information on estimated average expenditures per housing unit in 1997 dollars. 

Part B uses the information recorded in Part A and information from Table 3-6 on the 

number of housing units by tenure class to empirically estimate the “national” average 

expenditure per housing unit. 

Part A records total expenditures for improvements, maintenance and repair activities, 

and their combined total for each of three types of expenditures; it also includes two sets 

of totals, one for building materials purchased by the owner and one for all payments. 

Although Table 3-9 only covers expenditures for owner-occupied, one-unit properties, 

these properties represent two-thirds of all expenditures (i.e., $90.7 billion out of $133.6 

billion). Reference to Part A reveals that more than 20 % of total expenditures are for 

building materials purchased by the owner occupant. Almost 80 % of building materials 

purchased by the owner occupant are for jobs done by the owner. 
27

Table 3-7 Expenditures for Improvements and Maintenance and Repair Activities by Tenure Class and T

Unit: 1997 

Part A: Total Expenditures in Millions of 1997 Dollars Part B: Estimated Average Annual Expenditures Per Housing Unit in 1997 Dollars 

Total 1 Unit 2 units or 

more

Total 1 Unit 2 to 4 Units 5 

92 432 66 635 64 467 2 168 25 797 16 231 2 200 41 145 27 328 26 210 1 118 13 817 5 530 1 913 

Total 133 577 93 962 90 677 3 285 39 615 21 761 4 113 

Maintenance & Repair

Type of Expenditure

Improvements

Tenure Class and Type of Housing Unit

All Owner - Occupied Rental

Residential 

Properties

Total 1 Unit 2 units or 

more

Total 1 Unit 2 to 4 Units 5 

 888 1 106 1 135 629 589 897 256  395 454 462 325 315 306 222 

Total 1 284 1 560 1 597 954 904 1 202 478 

Maintenance & Repair

Type of Expenditure

Improvements

Tenure Class and Type of Housing Unit

All Owner - Occupied Rental

Residential 

Properties
28

Table 3-8. Expenditures in Millions of Dollars by Tenure Class and Type of Job: 

1997 

$

1 925

Outside Additions & Alterations

2 701

 776

 584

 287

1 676

 593

 463

13 817

4 090

1 301

 374

1 640

 722

1 489

$

2 635

$

 310

2 705

9 004

1 563

3 718

 703

$

$

1 429

$

 797

2 282

#

1 625

1 355

1 146

 705

1 219

2 796

5 943

39 615

25 797

2 518

1 374

 173

 972

10 560

#

 725

2 735

1 681

 875

7 958

2 687

1 411

 516

2 959

1 008

 975

27 328

4 603

1 105

5 450

 551

1 564

2 409

18 206

1 555

9 805

3 235

1 357

1 240

3 639

1 164

 620

4 741

5 064

3 281

 171

1 216

1 587

1 952

 556

2 573

other maintenance & repair

Major Replacements

93 962

66 635

12 057

2 911

 472

8 674

flooring

26 566

plumbing

windows & doors

materials to have on hand

HVAC

electrical

siding

roofing

windows

doors

other major replacements

painting & papering

detached buildings

patios & terraces

driveways & walkways

fences

siding

roofing

driveways & walkways

other outside additions & alterations

plumbing

HVAC

electrical

flooring

kitchen remodeling

other alterations

bathroom remodeling

kitchen & bath remodeling

finishing space

interior restructuring

siding

windows & doors

rooms

Alterations

plumbing

HVAC

Total Expenditures

decks & porches

Type of Job

attached garages

Additions

OwnerOccupied Rental Total

Tenure Class

3 098

1 261

3 792

133 577

5 064

3 281

1 796

1 216

5 068

1 164

1 417

7 023

13 523

3 938

1 357

1 240

8 085

 551

1 874

5 114

27 210

3 118

5 436

2 457

1 459

12 048

4 363

2 133

1 109

3 083

7 868

92 432

14 575

4 285

 645

9 646

37 126

2 942

1 188

Maintenance & Repair

Improvements

4 260

1 382

2 615

41 145

6 092

1 105

# Expenditures included in the “Kitchen and Bathroom Remodeling” category. 

$ Expenditures included in the “Other” category. 
29

Table 3-9. Expenditures for Owner-Occupied One-Unit Properties by Type of Payment: 1997 Part A: Total Expenditures in Millions of 1997 Dollars Part B: Estimated Average Annual Expenditures Per Housing Unit in 1997 Dollars 

Total For Jobs done by Owner For Jobs done under Contract

64 467 50 987 13 480 9 963 3 51726 210 19 453 6 757 5 926 83190 677 70 440 20 236 15 888 4 348

Building Materials Purchased by Owner Type of Expenditure All Payments Payments to Contractors & 

Hired Labor

ImprovementsMaintenance & Repair

Total

Type of Payment

Total For Jobs done by Owner For Jobs done under Contract

1 135 898 237 175 62

 462 343 119 104 15

1 597 1 240 356 280 77

ImprovementsMaintenance & Repair

Total

Type of Payment

Building Materials Purchased by Owner Type of Expenditure All Payments Payments to Contractors & 

Hired Labor
30

Part B of Table 3-9 combines information from the AHS with total expenditure 

information to construct a “national” estimate of expenditures per housing unit measured 

in 1997 dollars. Note that the total of $1,597 maps back to the corresponding entry in 

Part B of Table 3-7. Reference to the table demonstrate that approximately three-quarters 

of all payments are to contractors and hired labor (i.e., $1 240 out of $1 597). 

RECS — Residential Energy Consumption Survey 

The 1997 RECS provides information on the use of energy in residential housing units in 

the United States. This information includes the physical characteristics of the housing 

units, the appliances utilized including space heating and cooling equipment, 

demographic characteristics of the household, the types of fuels used, and other 

information that relates to energy use. The 1997 RECS also provides energy 

consumption and expenditures data for natural gas, electricity, fuel oil, liquefied 

petroleum gas (LPG), and kerosene. 

The RECS is a national statistical survey that collects energy-related data for occupied 

primary housing units. RECS was first conducted in 1978; the tenth survey was 

conducted in 1997. In the 1997 RECS, data were collected from a sample of 5 900 

housing units statistically selected to represent the overall population of housing units in 

the United States. 

Data for the 1997 RECS were obtained from three different sources: (1) on-site 30-

minute personal interviews conducted in the housing unit; (2) telephone interviews with 

the rental agents of those rented housing units that have any of their energy use included 

in their rent; and (3) mail questionnaires mailed to the housing unit’s energy suppliers 

asking them to provide the units’ actual energy consumption amounts and expenditures. 

Data from the 1997 RECS are available to the public in both printed23 and electronic 

format. The electronic data are part of a set of public-use files available on DOE’s RECS 

web-site.24 The public-use files are used to produce the detailed classifications given in 

this report. However, each of the tables presented in this section is constructed so that 

readers can cross reference the column and row totals to values reported in the DOE 

document A Look at Residential Energy Consumption in 1997. 

Three sets of data from the 1997 RECS are presented in Tables 3-10, 3-11, and 3-12. 

These tables record expenditures on a per housing unit basis. They help to visualize how 

the Nation’s $135.8 billion expenditure for energy was distributed by tenure class, end 

use, and type of fuel. The three tables use the same type of housing units: single-family 

detached; single-family attached; multi-family, 2 to 4 units; multi-family, 5 or more units; 

and mobile home. This format was chosen to facilitate cross-referencing between 

individual entries in each of the three tables and between the three tables and the DOE 

document A Look at Residential Energy Consumption in 1997. 

 

23 U.S. Department of Energy. 1999. A Look at Residential Energy Consumption in 1997. DOE/EIA0632(97). Washington, DC: Energy Information Administration. 

24 http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/recs/ 
31

Table 3-10 records annual expenditures per housing unit for each type of housing unit 

and tenure class—owner-occupied, renter, and all units. It is important to recognize that 

the expenditures appearing under the “Owner-Occupied” and “Renter” headings in Table 

3-10 are conditional on both the tenure class and the type of housing unit. Thus, the sums 

across each row or down each column do not add to the “total.” This distinction may be 

better understood by recognizing that Table 3-10 also includes information on the percent 

of each type of housing unit that is occupied by owners and by renters. Reference to the 

“% of Type” heading reveals that multi-family dwellings are occupied primarily by 

renters. For example, owners account for 16.5 % of multi-family dwellings with 2 to 4 

units and only 7.3 % of multi-family dwellings with 5 or more units. By and large, owner 

occupancies are highest in single-family dwellings and mobile homes. 

Reference to the table reveals that the widest range of energy expenditures occurs in 

owner-occupied multi-family dwellings. Energy expenditures are highest in owneroccupied multi-family dwellings with 2 to 4 units—$1,650—and lowest in owneroccupied multi-family dwellings with 5 or more units—$736. Owner-occupied singlefamily detached and attached dwellings average $1,558 and $1,358, respectively. 

Expenditures for owner-occupied mobile homes averaged $1,219. With the exception of 

multi-family dwellings with 5 or more units, energy expenditures in renter-occupied 

dwellings were lower than comparable owner-occupied dwellings. For example, energy 

expenditures in renter-occupied single-family dwellings averaged about $225 less per 

housing unit. Energy expenditures for renter-occupied multi-family dwellings with 2 to 4 

units were $650 less than comparable owner-occupied dwellings. When all housing units 

are considered (i.e., both owner-occupied and renter), the average annual expenditure for 

energy amounts to $1,338. It is important to recognize that the average across all units is 

an unconditional estimate. 

Table 3-10. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and Tenure Class: 1997 

Note that the energy expenditure values recorded in the last column of Table 3-10 vary 

considerably as a function of the type of housing unit, with single-family detached 

dwellings the highest—$1,529—and multi-family dwellings with 5 or more units the 

lowest—$755. The same dollar values that appear under the “All Units” heading also 

appear under the “All End Uses” or “All Fuels” headings in Tables 3-11 and 3-12, 

respectively. These values are conditional only on the type of housing unit, whereas the 

values recorded in Table 3-10 under the “Owner-Occupied” or “Rental” headings are 

% of Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit

Single-Family Detached 87.2 1 558 12.8 1 331 100.0 1 529

Single-Family Attached 55.0 1 358 45.0 1 131 100.0 1 256

Multi-Family, 2 to 4 units 16.5 1 650 83.5 1 001 100.0 1 108

Multi-Family, 5 or more units 7.3 736 92.7 757 100.0 755

Mobile Home 83.1 1 219 16.9 1 143 100.0 1 206

All Units 67.5 1 503 32.5 996 100.0 1 338

Type of Housing Unit Owner-Occupied Rental All Units

Tenure Class
32

conditional on the type of occupant. The distinction between conditional and 

unconditional values becomes more important as expenditures by end use and fuel type 

are examined. These values are recorded in Tables 3-11 and 3-12. 

Table 3-11 records annual expenditures per housing unit for each type of housing unit 

and end use of energy. Five specific end uses of energy are recorded in the table. They 

appear under the headings of Space Heating, Air-Conditioning, Water Heating, 

Refrigerators, and Other Appliances (e.g., clothes dryers and cooking appliances) and 

Lighting. Note that with the exception of air-conditioning, almost all housing units 

employ each of the four remaining end uses of energy (i.e., the entries under the % of 

Type heading all exceed 96.5 %). Reference to the table reveals that other appliances and 

lighting are the single largest energy expenditure, accounting for more than one-third of 

all energy expenditures, followed by space heating, accounting for slightly less than onethird. The remaining one-third is associated with water heating, air-conditioning, and 

refrigerators. End use expenditures per housing unit across the various types of housing 

units show the greatest range for space heating—$336 (e.g., the difference between 

single-family detached dwellings and multi-family dwellings with 5 or more units)—and 

the least for water heating and refrigerators—a range of $40 and $42, respectively. The 

range of values for space heating reflects the fact that data on all climate zones are 

aggregated together. Thus, to the extent that certain types of housing units may be 

dominant in certain regions of the Nation, climatic variations will exert an influence on 

energy expenditures for space heating across housing types. The 1997 RECS public-use 

files permit this subject to be evaluated in detail.25

Table 3-12 records annual expenditures per housing unit for each type of housing unit 

and type of fuel. Five specific types of fuel are recorded in the table. They appear under 

the headings of Electricity, Natural Gas, Fuel Oil, Kerosene, and LPG. Note that 

electricity is the only fuel type used in all types of housing units. Expenditures for 

electricity account for approximately two-thirds of a housing unit’s energy expenditures. 

Expenditures for the four remaining types of fuel are conditional, since many housing 

units do not use that fuel type. Of the four remaining types of fuel, natural gas is the 

most widely used; it is used in approximately 60 % of all housing units. Note that natural 

gas is not widely used in mobile homes (i.e., only 36.7 % of mobile homes use natural 

gas). Expenditures for natural gas range from $639 for single-family detached dwellings 

to $281 for multi-family dwellings with 5 or more units. The remaining fuel types—fuel 

oil, kerosene, and LPG—are used in less than 10 % of the Nation’s housing units. 

However, the rates of use vary according to the type of housing unit. Note that LPG is 

used most extensively in mobile homes, where 27.0 % of all mobile homes use it. 

Because the expenditures for each fuel type tend to be conditional on the type of housing 

unit and the type of fuel, they can not be added to get the totals that appear under the 

headings of “All Units” and “All Fuels.” However, the values recorded under the “% of 

Type” heading can be used as weights applied to the value under the “$/Unit” heading to 

“estimate” the values appearing in the “All Fuels” column for each type of housing unit. 

 

25 Although detailed analyses of energy expenditures by Census region and climate zone are possible with 

the 1997 RECS public-use files, such analyses are considered beyond the purview of this report. 
33

Summary of Key Statistics by Type of Expenditure 

Since a great deal of information has been presented in this chapter, a summary table has 

been constructed to highlight some of the most significant expenditures data. Table 3-13 

records this information. The table is divided into two parts. Part A records total 

expenditures in billions of 1997 dollars. Part B records annual expenditures per housing 

unit in 1997 dollars. Each part of Table 3-13 contains three columns. The first column 

identifies the statistic of interest. The second column records the dollar value of the 

statistic. The third column records the source of the information. In several cases, the 

values in the second column are estimated empirically. These values are noted with an 

“e” superscript in the first column and record more than one data source in the third 

column. 
34

Table 3-11. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and End Use: 1997 Table 3-12. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and Type of Fuel: 1997 

% of 

Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % 

Ty

Single-Family Detached 98.5 489 74.1 154 99.5 205 99.9 133 100.0 596 1Single-Family Attached 99.4 439 66.2 116 99.9 187 100.0 111 100.0 445 1Multi-Family, 2 to 4 units 99.8 436 60.9 85 99.8 173 100.0 102 100.0 347 1Multi-Family, 5 or more units 96.7 153 68.9 98 98.1 165 99.5 91 100.0 288 1Mobile Home 96.6 357 71.1 175 99.3 213 99.8 93 100.0 432 1All Units 98.3 421 71.6 140 99.3 196 99.8 120 100.0 509 1

End Use

Type of Housing Unit Space Heating Air-Conditioning Water Heating Refrigerators

Other 

Appliances and 

Lighting

Al

% of 

Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % of Type $/Unit % 

Ty

Single-Family Detached 100.0 985 63.2 639 10.6 809 4.0 117 9.5 518 1Single-Family Attached 100.0 753 67.1 634 7.6 860 1.8 106 1.3 808 1Multi-Family, 2 to 4 units 100.0 617 68.2 616 8.5 728 1.6 64 1.7 482 1Multi-Family, 5 or more units 99.9 560 55.5 281 11.6 323 0.5 274 0.4 272 1Mobile Home 100.0 899 36.7 438 1.8 374 9.2 270 27.0 423 1All Units 100.0 871 61.0 579 9.8 714 3.4 144 8.0 500 1

Type of Fuel

Type of Housing Unit Electricity Natural Gas Fuel Oil Kerosene LPG 
35

Table 3-13. Summary of Key Statistics by Type of Expenditure 

Part A: Expenditures in Billions of 1997 Dollars

Type of Expenditure Dollar Value in 

Billions Source

Value of Construction Put in Place: All Sectors 656.6 C30

Value of Construction Put in Place: Residential Sector 294.2 C30

Expenditures for Improvements 92.4 C50

Additions 14.6 C50

Alterations 37.1 C50

Outside Additions and Alterations 13.5 C50

Major Replacements 27.2 C50

Expenditures for Maintenance and Repair 41.1 C50

Expenditures for Energy 135.8 RECS

Part B: Average Annual Expenditures Per Housing Unit in 1997 Dollars

Type of Expenditure Dollar Value Source

Expenditures for Improvementse 888 C50 & AHS

Owner-Occupiede 1 106 C50 & AHS

Single-Family Dwellinge 1 135 C50 & AHS

Multi-Family Dwellinge 629 C50 & AHS

Rentale 589 C50 & AHS

Single-Family Dwellinge 897 C50 & AHS

Multi-Family, 2 to 4 Unitse 256 C50 & AHS

Multi-Family, 5 Units or Moree 430 C50 & AHS

Expenditures for Maintenance and Repaire 395 C50 & AHS

Owner-Occupiede 454 C50 & AHS

Single-Family Dwellinge 462 C50 & AHS

Multi-Family Dwellinge 325 C50 & AHS

Rentale 315 C50 & AHS

Single-Family Dwellinge 306 C50 & AHS

Multi-Family, 2 to 4 Unitse 222 C50 & AHS

Multi-Family, 5 Units or Moree 372 C50 & AHS

Expenditures for Energy: All Units 1 338 RECS

Tenure Class: All Units 1 338 RECS

Owner-Occupied 1 503 RECS

Rental 996 RECS

End Use: All End Uses 1 338 RECS

Space Heating 421 RECS

Air-Conditioning 140 RECS

Water Heating 196 RECS

Refrigerator 120 RECS

Other Appliances and Lighting 509 RECS

Type of Fuel: All Fuels 1 338 RECS

Electricity 871 RECS

Natural Gas 579 RECS

Fuel Oil 714 RECS

Kerosene 144 RECS

LPG 500 RECS e

 Estimated 
36
37

4. Service Life Measures 

This chapter traces the development of the baseline measures of service life.26 Data 

sources are described and matched to the key types of building elements (e.g., roofs, 

siding, and furnaces). The baseline measures of service life are then derived from the 

source data. The chapter concludes with a summary of the various baseline measures of 

service life. 

4.1 Data Considerations: Sources, Availability, and Constraints 

Preliminary data searches for the residential sector indicated that there were several 

sources of service life data. However, the data sources identified differed in terms of 

their focus, frequency of updating, and year of publication. Service life data from three 

sources are reported in this chapter. These data were all published within the last ten 

years; they are reported using a modified UNIFORMAT II27 elemental classification. 

Two early studies on expected service lives for building elements are also included for 

reference purposes. The principal data sources that are used in this document are 

described below. 

Data from the American Society for Testing and Materials 

In 1996, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) formed Subcommittee 

E06.66 on Performance Standards for Dwellings. The goal of Subcommittee E06.66 is to 

produce a suite of standard guides for specifying and evaluating the performance of 

single-family attached and detached dwellings. Durability is one of 16 attributes against 

which performance is measured. The guides provide a framework for specifying and 

evaluating qualities of building products and systems to meet user needs without limiting 

ways and means. The format for the E06.66 suite of guides includes performance 

statements that consist of four components—Objective,28 Criteria,29 Evaluation,30 and 

Commentary31—which together provide a systematic performance-based approach. Prior 

to approval by ASTM, each guide is balloted within Subcommittee E06.66 and 

subsequently by Committee E06 on Performance of Buildings. Comments by members 

of either the subcommittee or the full committee are incorporated into the document or 

set aside according to a rigorous consensus process. 

 

26 The service life of a building component or material is defined as the period of time—measured in 

years—after installation during which all properties meet or exceed the minimum acceptable values when 

routinely maintained. 

27 American Society for Testing and Materials. 2001. Standard Classification for Building Elements and 

Related Sitework—UNIFORMAT II. E 1557. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and 

Materials. 

28 A qualitative statement of the performance to be provided by the built element being addressed in order 

to satisfy a particular user need. 

29 Quantitative statements defining the level or range of performance necessary to meet an objective or, 

where such a level or range can not be established, the units of measurement of performance. 30 The method(s) used to assess conformance of the built element being addressed to the criteria. 31 An informative narrative explaining aspects of the performance statement. 
38

The durability guide32 was the first consensus performance standard to be published by 

Subcommittee E06.66. The durability guide provides examples of performance 

statements for durable in-place materials, products, components, subsystems, and systems 

for single-family attached and detached dwellings, considering the effects of normal 

degradation factors to which they are anticipated to be subjected over their service lives. 

The guide also includes a table with examples of minimum anticipated service lives of 

typical building elements. Because ASTM requires standards to be re-balloted at least 

every five years, the service life data reported in the durability guide can be updated to 

reflect advances in materials science and technology and new information from surveys 

and other empirical studies. 

The hierarchy of building elements used in the suite of guides being produced by 

Subcommittee E06.66 differs slightly from the UNIFORMAT II elemental classification 

in that it includes at the top level of the hierarchy (i.e., level 1) an elemental grouping for 

the whole building system and for spaces (e.g., living spaces and dining spaces). In 

addition, the E06.66 hierarchy places greater emphasis on services (e.g., plumbing and 

HVAC) than does the UNIFORMAT II elemental classification. This is done by 

disaggregating services into their constituent elements and elevating the constituent 

elements to the top level of the hierarchy. This modified format is used in section 4.2, 

where specific values of service lives are reported. Key findings are summarized in 

section 4.3 

Data from the National Association of Home Builders

The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) is a federation of more than 800 

state and local builders associations throughout the United States. Chief among NAHB’s 

goals is providing and expanding opportunities for all consumers to have safe, decent, 

and affordable housing. Although the Nation’s stock of housing continues to grow over 

time, the total housing stock contains a substantial proportion of older units. Therefore, 

durability-related issues have been and remain a major concern for NAHB. 

Over the years, NAHB has published numerous articles and reports on durability-related 

issues. Among these publications is a Housing Economics article on service lives for 

housing components.33 This article was based on a comprehensive survey of building 

materials manufacturers, trade associations, and researchers. The objective of the survey 

was to develop information on the longevity of housing components. Key findings from 

the survey are reported in section 4.2 and summarized in section 4.3. 

More recently, NAHB has sponsored the National Family Opinion (NFO) Survey. As the 

NFO Survey reaches maturity, it will prove an excellent source of service life data, 

because the survey instrument contains a series of questions on housing type, floor space, 

 

32 American Society for Testing and Materials. 2001. Standard Guide for Specifying and Evaluating 

Performance of Single-Family Attached and Detached Dwellings—Durability. E 2136. West 

Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials. 33 Ahluwalia, Gopal, and Angela Shackford. 1993. “Life Expectancy of Housing Components.” Housing 

Economics (August): pp. 5-9. 
39

geographic location, types of exterior enclosure, and types of replacements. These 

questions will enable researchers at NIST and elsewhere to derive empirical estimates of 

service lives for key building elements based on well-defined subsets of the survey data. 

Furthermore, as the NFO Survey database grows, it will become possible to produce 

ranges of values for service lives. The survey instrument also includes questions on 

expenditures for housing improvements (e.g., additions, alterations, and major 

replacements). These data are currently under analysis and are planned for incorporation 

into a software product that NIST is developing for the PATH program. Unfortunately, 

due to data anomalies and questionnaire design issues, no results based on analysis of the 

NFO Survey data are included in this report. 

Data from Whitestone Research 

The Whitestone Building Maintenance and Repair Cost Reference 1997 is the third of a 

series of annual reports produced by Whitestone Research34 which presents estimates of 

50 year maintenance cost profiles for 24 different building models. Example building 

types are elementary schools, fast food restaurants, motels, auto service garages, offices, 

supermarkets, and day care centers. These cover a good portion of the commercial/ 

institutional sector. The profile for each model includes a building description, a list of 

major building components, and forecasts of maintenance and repair costs at various 

levels of aggregation over the service life of the building. These costs can be adjusted for 

selected metropolitan areas, and modified to include different building components. 

Although the Whitestone Reports focus on the types of buildings found in the 

commercial/institutional sector, the hierarchy of building elements contains many 

elements that are common to residential applications (e.g., roofing and siding). Since the 

Whitestone Reports contain information on the minimum anticipated service lives for a 

broad cross section of building elements, it is possible to select from that cross section 

only those building elements that are common to residential applications. The service 

lives of these “common” elements are reported in section 4.2. Key findings are 

summarized in section 4.3. 

Other Data Sources 

• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 

(ASHRAE). ASHRAE has long recognized that equipment service life and 

maintenance cost data were required to perform life-cycle cost analyses. At the time 

of the first energy crisis, it became obvious that these data were not readily available 

and that confusion often existed with respect to their exact definition. Consequently, 

ASHRAE Technical Committee 1.8, Owning and Operating Costs, sponsored 

Research Project 186, Equipment Life and Maintenance Cost Survey. The results of 

this survey were published in the October 1978 issue of the ASHRAE Journal.

35 The 

 

34 Lufkin, Peter S., and Anthony J.Pepitone. 1997. The Whitestone Building Maintenance and Repair Cost 

Reference 1997. Seattle, WA: Whitestone Research. 35 Akalin, Mustafat T. 1978. “Equipment Life and Maintenance Cost Survey.” ASHRAE Journal (October): 

pp. 39-44. 
40

equipment life and maintenance cost survey is noteworthy in that it provided not only 

expected values for equipment service lives but ranges of values that included the 25th

percentile, the median (i.e., 50th percentile), the 75th percentile, and the mode (i.e., the 

most frequently observed value). Ranges of values for maintenance costs per unit of 

floor area were also provided for a variety of maintenance scenarios. The article also 

provided definitions for equipment elements and maintenance policies, which proved 

useful in subsequent studies. 

• The California Energy Commission. Shortly after publication of the ASHRAE 

equipment life and maintenance cost survey, the California Energy Commission 

launched the 1980 Residential Building Standards Development Project. The goal of 

the project was to develop building standards which required new residential 

buildings to achieve the maximum possible energy savings while remaining costeffective when compared with buildings built prior to 1975. Among the products of 

this project was a report establishing average service lives and maintenance costs for 

the major energy conserving and consuming components used in residential 

buildings.36 These components included the building itself, space heating and airconditioning systems, water heating systems, insulation, fans, pumps, and controls. 

The “Useful Lives” report is noteworthy in that it modified ASHRAE’s list to focus 

on residential applications and included the service life of the building itself. This 

approach served to stimulate interest into how degradation of the building envelope 

(e.g., moisture penetration) affected residential energy conservation measures.

4.2 Baseline Measures of Service Life for Key Building Elements 

The three tables presented in this section provide a detailed snapshot of service life data 

for typical building elements. Because service life data reported in the three tables come 

from different sources, there are differences both in data values and the elements 

reported. All three tables use the modified UNIFORMAT II elemental classification. 

Differences in data values stem from differences in focus (i.e., minimum service life 

versus average service life) and maintenance procedures (i.e., preventive versus reactive). 

Differences in building elements for which service life data are reported occur primarily 

at level 3—the most disaggregated and most detailed level of the elemental classification. 

Table 4-1 presents service life data published in ASTM Standard Guide E 2136. These 

service life data are organized within a hierarchy that has ten level 1 elements. The ten 

level 1 elements are: (1) substructure; (2) shell; (3) interiors; (4) plumbing; (5) HVAC; 

(6) fire protection systems; (7) electrical network; (8) communication and security 

networks; (9) fuel networks; (10) fittings, furnishings, and equipment. Level 1 elements 

are disaggregated into level 2 elements. For example, the level 1 element shell is 

disaggregated into three level 2 elements: (1) superstructure; (2) exterior enclosure; and 

(3) roofing. Where appropriate, level 2 elements are disaggregated into level 3 elements. 

For example, the level 2 element roofing is disaggregated into two level 3 elements: (1) 

roof covering and (2) skylights. 

 

36 California Energy Commission. 1980. Useful Lives and Maintenance Costs of Materials and Equipment. 

Sacramento, CA: California Energy Commission. 
41

Table 4-1. Examples of Minimum Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: ASTM Standard Guide E 2136 

Minimum 

Anticipated 

Service Life Years

Substructure Foundation 20 - 60

Superstructure 20 - 60

Grade Enclosure 20 - 40

Walls 20 - 40

Wall finish - easily renewable 4 - 10

Wall finish - difficult to renew 20 - 60

Doors 20 - 25

Windows 20 - 25

Door and window finish - easily renewable 3 - 10

Joint sealants 3 - 10

Roof covering 12 - 25

Skylights 15 - 25

Partitions 20 - 40

Partition surface finishes - easily renewable 3 - 10

Partition surface finishes - difficult to renew 15 - 25

Doors 15 - 35

Doors - easily renewable door paint 3 - 10

Floor surfaces - bath and w.c. 4 - 20

Floor surfaces - other 3 - 20

Ceiling surfaces - private spaces; easily 

renewable 3 - 10

Ceiling surfaces - private spaces; difficult to 

renew 15 - 25

Stairs and Ramps Stair surfaces - private spaces 3 - 15

Accessible 15 - 30

Inaccessible 20 - 40

Fixtures 15 - 25

Fixture Trim 5 - 15

Hot Water Heater 5 - 15

Fuel Pump 10 - 15

Accessible 10 - 20

Inaccessible 20 - 40

Radiators 15 - 40

Pipes

HVAC

Interiors Vertical Space Dividers

Horizontal Space Dividers

Plumbing Piping

Building Element

Shell

Exterior Enclosure

Roofing
42

Table 4-1. Examples of Minimum Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: ASTM Standard Guide E 2136 (continued) 

Minimum 

Anticipated 

Service Life Years

Fan Coil Units 15 - 20

Pumps 10 - 15

Boilers 10 - 20

Mechanical Refrigerator Machines 15 - 20

Evaporative Coolers 8 - 15

Furnaces 15 - 20

Accessible 20 - 40

Inaccessible 20 - 25

Louvers 5 - 40

Thermostats 5 - 15

Exhaust Fans 5 - 15

Fire Protection 

Subsystems 5 - 30

Accessible 20 - 25

Inaccessible 20 - 40

Conduit 20 - 40

Exposed Raceways 15 - 40

Switches 5 - 15

Sockets 5 - 15

Overcurrent Protection Circuit breaker 5 - 20

Panels 20 - 40

Switch Board 20 - 40

Light Fixtures 5 - 15

Communication 

and Security 

Networks Television Antenna 5 - 20

Above ground 10 - 20

Below ground 20 - 30

Accessible 20 - 30

Inaccessible 20 - 40

Built-in furnishings 5 - 20

Built-in furnishings surfaces - easily renewable 5 - 10

Building Element

Duct Work

Electrical Network Conductors

HVAC 

Fuel Networks Fuel Storage

Fuel Supply Piping

Fittings, 

Furnishings and 

Equipment

Furnishings
43

The service life data reported in Table 4-1 differ from the service life data reported in 

Tables 4-2 and 4-3. The reason for the difference is that the service life data reported in 

Table 4-1 are the “minimum” anticipated service lives for the building elements 

identified. The service life data reported in Tables 4-2 and 4-3 are “average” anticipated 

service lives for the building elements identified. Thus, one would expect that the 

minimum anticipated service life for a particular building element would be strictly less 

than the average anticipated service life for that same building element. Both the 

minimum anticipated service life and the average anticipated service life are useful in 

choosing among alternative investments.37 Use of a preventive maintenance program 

could also affect both the minimum anticipated service life and the average anticipated 

service life of a particular building element. Because the focus of the Whitestone Reports 

is primarily on the commercial/institutional sector, there is a stronger emphasis on the use 

of a preventive maintenance program than in most residential applications. Thus, 

although both Tables 4-2 and 4-3 report average anticipated service lives, the values in 

Table 4-3 reflect the use of a formal maintenance program. 

Because ASTM Standard Guide E 2136 was intended for use as a guidance document in 

specifying minimum performance requirements, Table 4-1 reports minimum anticipated 

service lives. Providers (e.g., homebuilders or special trade contractors) in preparing 

their responses are free to propose alternatives that meet or exceed the minimum 

performance requirements. Note that the values in Table 4-1 are ranges and not single 

point estimates. Ranges of values are needed for two reasons. First, if an item (i.e., 

single building element) is drawn (i.e., sampled) from a population of “identical” items 

and observed, then the time until that item/building element is no longer serviceable 

results in a specific value. If many “identical” building elements are sampled and their 

specific values are recorded, what results is a distribution of values with some measure of 

central tendency and two tails—a lower tail resulting in sooner replacement and an upper 

tail resulting in prolonged use. Specifying the minimum anticipated service life, focuses 

on characterizing key parameters associated with the lower tail of this “empirical” 

distribution and developing estimates for them (e.g., the first percentile). Estimating the 

values of these parameters from empirical data involves uncertainty. For example, a 

different sample will probably result in a different estimated value for the first percentile. 

Thus a range of values results. Second, there is often considerable performance variation 

within a given level 3 building element. For example, roof coverings include a wide 

range of products (e.g., shingles, tile, slate, and sheet metal) each of which has a 

minimum anticipated service life. Thus, a range of values is needed to capture 

performance variation within a given building element.38

Reference to Table 4-1 shows that the level 3 elements associated with the superstructure 

and shell have the highest minimum anticipated service lives. This is especially true for 

 

37 ASTM Standard Guide E 2156 provides several examples of how to use service life data to assist in 

choosing among alternative investments, see American Society for Testing and Materials. 2001. Standard 

Guide for Evaluating Economic Performance of Alternative Designs, Systems, and Materials in 

Compliance with Performance Standard Guides for Single-Family Attached and Detached Dwellings. E 

2156. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials. 

38 The same statement holds if we are concerned about average anticipated service life. 
44

such critical elements as the foundation and superstructure both of which have minimum 

anticipated service life ranges of 20 years to 60 years. Exterior enclosure and roofing 

elements have minimum anticipated service lives that tend to correlate with the ease of 

replacement (i.e., low values for easily renewable exterior finishes and joint sealants and 

high values for grade enclosures, walls, and difficult to renew exterior finishes). For 

level 3 elements under interiors, the minimum anticipated service lives tend to correlate 

with their ease of replacement. For example, partitions and partition and ceiling surfaces 

that are difficult to renew have minimum anticipated service life ranges of 20 years to 40 

years, 15 years to 25 years, and 15 years to 25 years, respectively. Easily renewable 

surfaces have ranges of 3 years to 10 years. Services (e.g., plumbing, HVAC, electrical 

networks, and fuel networks) have many critical elements that are difficult to renew. 

These elements tend to have minimum anticipated service life ranges of 20 years to 40 

years. 

Table 4-2 reports service life data extracted from a 1993 article in Housing Economics.

39 

These data are based on the average anticipated service life for a wide variety of building 

elements. For many building elements, a range of values for the average anticipated 

service life is given. Several building elements have very high values for their average 

anticipated service lives. For example, the average anticipated service life for poured 

footings and foundations is 200 years and when brick and stone walls are used as exterior 

enclosures their average anticipated service life exceeds 100 years.40 Many building 

elements have “Lifetime” recorded under the average anticipated service life column 

heading. The term lifetime is used to denote the life expectancy of the housing unit (i.e., 

the average useful life of the unit). Although a specific value for “Lifetime” was not 

reported in the article, other studies have reported values for the “average” life 

expectancy of a housing unit between 45 years and 60 years.41 The three level 3 elements 

of the housing unit’s substructure/foundation all have average anticipated service lives of 

50 years or more. The level 3 elements associated with the housing unit’s shell tend to be 

correlated with the ease of replacement. For example, the basement floor system, 

framing for exterior walls, and chimneys have “Lifetime” recorded under the average 

anticipated service life column heading. Note that Table 4-2 provides service life data on 

several key types of siding and roof coverings. For siding, average anticipated service 

lives for wood, steel, aluminum, and vinyl are reported. For roof coverings, average 

anticipated service lives for asphalt and wood shingles and shakes, tile, slate, and sheet 

metal are reported. Turning to the level 3 elements associated with interiors, we see 

average anticipated service lives of between 5 years and 10 years for finishes (e.g., paint, 

trim, and wallpaper), between 30 years and “Lifetime” for doors,42 and considerable 

variation for floor coverings. For example, the average anticipated service life for carpet 

is 11 years, for vinyl sheet or tile, 20 years to 30 years, and “Lifetime” for oak, pine, 

marble, slate flagstone, and terrazzo. 

 

39 Ahluwalia and Shackford, “Life Expectancy of Housing Components.” 

40 When the average anticipated service life for a specific building element exceeds the stated value, a plus 

sign “+” is used. Thus, 100+ indicates that the average anticipated service life for brick and stone walls 

exceeds 100 years. 

41 California Energy Commission, Useful Lives and Maintenance Costs of Materials and Equipment. 42 The level 3 element doors-not perfect hollow core has a range for average anticipated service life of less 

than 30 years to “Lifetime.” This range is designated as: < 30 – Lifetime. 
45

Table 4-2. Examples of Average Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: Housing Economics 

Average 

Anticipated 

Service Life Years

Poured footings and foundations 200

Concrete block 100

Cement 50

Superstructure Lifetime

Basement floor system Lifetime

Framing (exterior walls) Lifetime

Exterior paint on wood, brick and aluminum 7 - 10

Gutters and downspouts 30

Siding - wood 10 - 100

Siding - metal (steel) 50 - Lifetime

Siding - aluminum 20 - 50

Siding - vinyl 50

Exterior door (protected overhang) 80 - 100

Exterior door (unprotected and exposed) 25 - 30

Screen door 25 - 50

Garage doors 20 - 50

Window glazing 20

Windows - wood casement 20 - 50

Windows - aluminum casement 10 - 20

Window screen 25 - 50

Chimney Lifetime

Brick and stone walls 100+

Roof covering - asphalt and wood shingles and 

shakes 15 - 30

Roof covering - tile 50

Roof covering - slate 50 - 100

Roof covering - sheet metal 20 - 50+

Built-up roofing - asphalt 12 - 25

Built-up roofing - coal and tar 12 - 30

Asphalt composition shingle 15 - 30

Asphalt overlag 25 - 35

Walls - drywall and plaster 30 - 70

Walls - ceramic tile Lifetime

Building Element

Interiors Vertical Space Dividers

Shell

Exterior Enclosure

Roofing

Substructure Foundation
46

Table 4-2. Examples of Average Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: Housing Economics (continued) 

Average 

Anticipated 

Service Life Years

Framing (interior walls) Lifetime

Doors - not perfect hollow core < 30 - Lifetime

Doors - solid corewood 30 - Lifetime

Folding door 30 - Lifetime

Interior wall paint 5 - 10

Interior trim and door 5 - 10

Wallpaper 7

Floor surfaces - vinyl sheet or vinyl tile 20 - 30

Floor surfaces - oak or pine Lifetime

Floor surfaces - marble Lifetime

Floor surfaces - slate flagstone Lifetime

Floor surfaces - terrazzo Lifetime

Carpeting 11

Ceiling suspension Lifetime

Acoustical ceiling Lifetime

Fireplace and brick veneer Lifetime

Stucco and mantels Lifetime

Stairs 50 - 100

Rails and disappearing stairs 30 - 40

Concrete 50 - 100

Cast iron 75 - 100

Enamel steel sinks 5 - 10

Enamel cast iron sinks 25 - 30

China sinks 25 - 30

Low quality 13 - 15

High quality 15 - 20

Gas 11 - 13

Electric 14

Central unit 15

Window unit 10

Air Conditioning 

Compressor 15

Humidifier 8

HVAC Air Conditioning Unit

Masonry

Stairs and Ramps

Plumbing

Water Heater

Building Element

Waste pipe

Sinks

Faucets

Interiors Vertical Space Dividers

Horizontal Space Dividers
47

Table 4-2. Examples of Average Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: Housing Economics (continued) 

Average 

Anticipated 

Service Life Years

Plastic 15

Galvanized 30

Rooftop Air Conditioners 15

Boilers, Hot Water (Steam) 30

Gas or oil fired 18

Heat pumps 15

Unit Heaters Gas or Electric 13

Electric 10

Hot water or steam 25

Air Terminals Diffusers, grilles, and registers 27

Induction and Fan-Coil 

Units 20

Dampers 20

Centrifugal 25

Axial 20

Ventilating roof-mounted 20

DX, water, or steam 20

Electric 15

Heat Exchangers Shell-and-tube 24

Molded Insulation Molded 20

Pumps, Sump and Well 10

Burners 21

Smoke Detectors 12

Smoke/Fire/Intrusion 

Systems 10

Copper plated 100+

Copper clad aluminum 100+

Bare copper 100+

Armored cable (BX) Lifetime

Conduit Lifetime

Electrical Network Copper Wiring

Insulation

Duct Work

Building Element

Fire Protection 

Subsystems

Furnaces

Radiant Heaters

Fans

Coils

HVAC
48

Table 4-3. Examples of Average Anticipated Service Lives of Typical Building 

Elements: Whitestone 

Average 

Anticipated 

Service Life Years

Solid core (painted) exterior door 40

Refinish solid core (painted) exterior door 4

Aluminum siding, 1st floor 80

Refinish aluminum siding, 1st floor 5

Replace new over existing asphalt shingle roof 20

Removal and replacement of asphalt shingle roof 40

Hollow core (painted) interior door 30

Refinish hollow core (painted) interior door 4

Fabric interior wall finish 10

Vinyl tile flooring 18

Acoustic tile ceiling 70

Stairs and Ramps Refinish masonry interior steps (painted) 6

Sink - stainless steel 40

Valve set, sink, stainless steel 10

Hot water storage tank 50

New gasket, pipe and fittings, cast iron 50

Pipe and fittings, cast iron 75

Pump and motor assembly, sump pump 20

Compressed air dryer 15

Fuel Supply Systems Fuel oil pump 15

Heat Generation Systems Gas house furnace 15

Heat Rejection Systems Chiller, reciprocal air cooled hermetic 20

Heat Distribution Systems Air handler, singlezone 15

Heat Transfer Air conditioner, indoor DX packaged, air cooled 20

Fire Protection 

Subsystems

Fire Protection Sprinkler 

Systems Fire sprinkler head 20

Electrical Service and 

Distribution Transformer, dry, less than 15 000 V 30

Lighting and Branch 

Wiring Fluorescent lighting fixture, 160 W 20

Communication and 

Security Systems Fire alarm control panel 15

Special Electrical System Generator, 1000 kW diesel 25

Vertical Space Dividers

Horizontal Space Dividers

Fixtures

Electrical Network

Building Element

Shell Exterior Enclosure

Roofing

HVAC

Interiors

Plumbing
49

The remaining elements in Table 4-2 are all associated with services (i.e., plumbing, 

HVAC, fire protection subsystems, and the electrical network). Note that ranges of 

values are reported for elements under the plumbing heading, whereas the other services 

report point estimates. For example, enamel cast iron sinks have an average anticipated 

service life range of 25 years to 30 years, whereas a central air conditioning unit has a 

point estimate of 15 years. As was observed earlier, an element’s average anticipated 

service life tends to be correlated with its ease of replacement. For example, replacement 

of the electrical network is a significant undertaking. Reference to Table 4-2 shows that 

all elements under the electrical network heading have average anticipated service lives 

of either “Lifetime” or 100+. 

Table 4-3 presents service life data from Whitestone Research.43 These data are all 

presented as point estimates. It is also important to note that the average anticipated 

service life data from Whitestone assume that a formal maintenance program is in place. 

This is because Whitestone’s focus is primarily on commercial/institutional applications. 

Service life data from Whitestone cover the housing unit’s shell, interiors, and services 

(i.e., plumbing, HVAC, fire protection subsystems, and the electrical network). The 

Whitestone data also include a number of durability-related activities, such as refinishing, 

replacement over an existing element, and removal and replacement. For example, 

refinishing activities occur on a cycle that ranges from 4 years to 6 years. In the case of 

roofing, the replacement of new asphalt shingles over an existing asphalt shingle roof is 

expected to have an average anticipated service life of 20 years. If the old shingles are 

removed and replaced with new asphalt shingles, then the average anticipated service life 

is 40 years. 

4.3 Summary of Baseline Measures of Service Life 

This section summarizes the baseline measures of service life presented in Section 4.2. 

These measures are presented in Table 4-4. 

The table is organized to serve as a quick reference; it includes a brief description of each 

measure, the value of the measure, and the source of the service life data. The entries in 

Table 4-4 are organized according to the national expenditure patterns for major 

replacements presented in Table 3-8 in section 3.3. The key expenditure patterns that are 

drawn from Table 3-8 and presented in Table 4-4 cover building elements associated with 

plumbing, HVAC, siding, roofing, windows, and doors. Elements of the key expenditure 

patterns are organized under a heading (e.g., plumbing). Each heading is denoted 

through the use of a bold font (e.g., Plumbing). Individual building elements under a 

heading are indented and grouped according to their function (e.g., water heaters). This 

grouping facilitates comparisons between the three source documents. For example, 

according to ASTM Standard Guide E 2136, the minimum anticipated service life for hot 

water heaters ranged from 5 years to 15 years. Average anticipated service lives reported 

by Housing Economics and Whitestone were 11 years to 13 years for gas water heaters, 

14 years for electric water heaters, and 50 years for hot water storage tanks, respectively. 

 

43 Lufkin and Pepitone, The Whitestone Building and Maintenance and Repair Cost Reference 1997. 
50

Table 4-4. Summary of Baseline Measures of Service Life 

Building Element Service Life 

in Years Source

Plumbing

 Fixtures 15 - 25 ASTM E 2136

 Enamel steel sinks 5 - 10 Housing Economics

 Enamel cast iron sinks 25 - 30 Housing Economics

 China sinks 25 - 30 Housing Economics

 Stainless steel sinks 40 Whitestone

 Low quality faucets 13 - 15 Housing Economics

 High quality faucets 15 - 20 Housing Economics

 Hot water heater 5 - 15 ASTM E 2136

 Gas water heater 11 - 13 Housing Economics

 Electric water heater 14 Housing Economics

 Hot water storage tank 50 Whitestone

HVAC

 Evaporative coolers 8 - 15 ASTM E 2136

 Central air conditioning unit 15 Housing Economics

 Window air conditioning unit 10 Housing Economics

 Air conditioner, indoor DX packaged, air cooled 20 Whitestone

 Furnaces 15 - 20 ASTM E 2136

 Gas or oil fired furnaces 18 Housing Economics

 Gas house furnaces 15 Whitestone

 Heat pumps 15 Housing Economics

Siding

 Wall finish - easily renewable 4 - 10 ASTM E 2136

 Wall finish - difficult to renew 20 - 60 ASTM E 2136

 Siding - wood 10 - 100 Housing Economics

 Siding - metal (steel) 50 - Lifetime Housing Economics

 Siding - aluminum 20 - 50 Housing Economics

 Siding - vinyl 50 Housing Economics

 Aluminum siding, 1st floor 80 Whitestone
51

Table 4-4. Summary of Baseline Measures of Service Life (continued) 

Groupings under the headings of Siding and Roofing also provide interesting 

comparisons. ASTM Standard Guide E 2136 reports service life data on exterior wall 

finishes. Siding is included primarily under difficult to renew finishes but also, to a 

lesser extent, under easily renewable finishes. The resultant ranges of minimum 

anticipated service lives are 20 years to 60 years and 4 years to 10 years, respectively. 

Low-end average anticipated service life values from Housing Economics range from 10 

years for wood to 50 years for metal (steel). High-end average anticipated service lives 

all exceed 50 years. Whitestone reports a single value of 80 years for aluminum siding. 

In the case of Roofing, ASTM Standard Guide E 2136 reports a range of minimum 

anticipated service life values between 12 years and 25 years. Average anticipated 

service life values from Housing Economics range from 15 years to 30 years for asphalt 

and wood shingles and shakes to 50 years to 100 years for slate. Whitestone reports two 

types of roofing service life data, one for replacement with new shingles over existing 

shingles of 20 years, and one for removal of the old shingles and replacement with new 

shingles of 40 years. Similar comparisons can be made for HVAC, Window, and Door 

elements. 

.

Building Element Service Life 

in Years Source

Roofing

 Roof covering 12 - 25 ASTM E 2136

 Roof covering - asphalt and wood shingles and shakes 15 - 30 Housing Economics

 Roof covering - tile 50 Housing Economics

 Roof covering - slate 50 - 100 Housing Economics

 Roof covering - sheet metal 20 - 50+ Housing Economics

 Replace new over existing asphalt shingle roof 20 Whitestone

 Removal and replacement of asphalt shingle roof 40 Whitestone

Windows

 Windows 20 - 25 ASTM E 2136

 Windows - wood casement 20 - 50 Housing Economics

 Windows - aluminum casement 10 - 20 Housing Economics

Doors

 Doors 20 - 25 ASTM E 2136

 Exterior doors (protected overhang) 80 - 100 Housing Economics

 Exterior doors (unprotected and exposed) 25 - 30 Housing Economics

 Solid core (painted) exterior doors 40 Whitestone
52
53

5. Durability-Related Cost Measures 

This chapter traces the development of baseline measures of durability-related costs. 

Data sources are described and matched to the key types of durability-related costs (e.g., 

replacements of roofs and siding, or maintenance and repair expenditures). The baseline 

measures of durability-related costs are then derived from the source data. The chapter 

concludes with a summary of the various baseline measures of durability-related costs. 

5.1 Data Considerations for Durability-Related Cost Measures 

Data searches for the residential sector indicated that there were two main sources of 

durability-related cost measures. These sources are the American Housing Survey and 

the Residential Energy Consumption Survey. These data sources are described below. 

Data from the American Housing Survey (AHS) 

Since AHS was introduced and described briefly in chapter 3, the focus here is on how 

the AHS data were used to develop selected sets of baseline measures for durabilityrelated costs. The material presented in this chapter is drawn from the 1997 AHS. The 

1997 AHS data are available as a set of public-access files. These files permit the data 

tabulated in the published report44 to be “sliced and diced” in a variety of ways. Data 

dimensions analyzed and presented in this chapter include key building elements (e.g., 

siding) associated with three major durability-related cost categories (i.e., major 

replacements, maintenance and repair, and alterations), the type of housing unit (i.e., all 

units or single-family detached units), who did the work (i.e., contractor or household), 

and the floor area of the unit. These data dimensions, when analyzed and summarized, 

provide a fairly detailed snapshot of a wide variety of durability-related costs. Note that 

the AHS cost data are “conditional,” since they include only those cases where an 

expenditure was made to perform a specific function (e.g., siding replacement). 

Conditional cost data are used to capture the fact that many durability-related 

expenditures do not occur on an annual basis. An approach for “smoothing” out such 

expenditure patterns is outlined in section 6.2. 

Data from the Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) 

Since the RECS was introduced and described briefly in chapter 3, the focus here is on 

how the RECS data were combined with information from the AHS to develop selected 

sets of baseline measures of “estimated” energy expenditures per unit of floor area. Data 

from the 1997 RECS are available to the public in both printed45 and electronic format. 

The electronic data are part of a set of public-use files available on DOE’s RECS website. The public-use files are used to produce the detailed classifications given in section 

 

44 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 1999. American Housing Survey for the United 

States: Current Housing Reports. H150/97. Washington, DC: Office of Policy Development and Research. 45 U.S. Department of Energy. 1999. A Look at Residential Energy Consumption in 1997. DOE/EIA0632(97). Washington, DC: Energy Information Administration. 
54

5.2.4 of this report. The baseline measures of energy expenditures per unit of floor area 

are estimates because the RECS does not collect data on the actual floor area of the 

housing units surveyed. The RECS does ask respondents to indicate which of seven size 

categories their housing unit falls into. The RECS size categories are specified in 

conventional units; they range from less than 600 ft2

 to 3,000 ft2 (55.7 m2 to 278.7 m2) or 

more.46 The seven RECS size categories are less than 600 ft2

 (55.7 m2), 600 ft2 to 999 ft2

(55.7 m2

 to 92.8 m2), 1,000 ft2 to 1,599 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 148.6 m2), 1,600 ft2 to 1,999 ft2

(148.6 m2

 to 185.7 m2), 2 000 ft2 to 2 399 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 222.9 m2), 2,400 ft2 to 2 999 ft2

(223.0 m2

 to 278.6 m2), and 3,000 ft2 (278.7 m2) or more. Since the size of the housing 

units in RECS is given as a range for the unit’s floor area, it was necessary to develop 

estimated values for the floor area of the units within each RECS size category. Since the 

AHS data files contain values for each surveyed unit’s floor area, they were used to 

“estimate” the median size for each RECS size category. The median unit sizes 

corresponding with each of the seven RECS size categories are 400 ft2

 (37.2 m2), 836 ft2

(77.7 m2

), 1,272 ft2 (118.2 m2), 1,800 ft2 (167.2 m2), 2,144 ft2 (199.2 m2), 2,600 ft2 (241.5 

m2

), and 3,600 ft2 (334.5 m2). These median sizes were used to estimate the energy 

expenditures per ft2

 (m2). 

Other Data Sources 

• The National Family Opinion (NFO) Survey is a nationwide survey sponsored by 

the National Association of Home Builders. As the NFO Survey reaches maturity, 

it will prove an excellent source of durability-related cost data, because the survey 

instrument contains a series of questions on housing type, floor space, geographic 

location, types of exterior enclosure, and types of replacements. These questions 

will enable researchers at NIST and elsewhere to derive empirical estimates of 

durability-related costs (e.g., additions, alterations, and major replacements) for key 

building elements based on well-defined subsets of the survey data. Furthermore, 

as the NFO Survey database grows, it will become possible to produce ranges of 

values for durability-related costs. These data are currently under analysis and are 

planned for incorporation into a software product that NIST is developing for the 

PATH program. Unfortunately, due to data anomalies and questionnaire design 

issues, no results based on analysis of the NFO Survey data are included in this 

report. 

• The R. S. Means Company, Inc., produces annual sets of cost information on a wide 

variety of building types for use by owners, developers, architects, engineers, 

contractors, and others to project and control the costs of both new building 

construction and renovation projects. The Means Repair & Remodeling Cost 

Data47 book is intended for use by builders doing small-scale remodeling jobs as 

well as building managers needing costs and time estimates for building 

 

46 Values of floor space expressed in square feet are denoted by ft2

. Values of floor space expressed in 

square meters are denoted by m2

. 47 R. S. Means Company, Inc. 2002. Means Repair & Remodeling Cost Data. 23rd edition. Kingston, MA: 

R. S. Means Company, Inc. 
55

renovations. The Means Repair & Remodeling Cost Data book contains 

information on both commercial and residential renovation projects. 

5.2 Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs: Major Replacements, 

Maintenance and Repair, Alterations, and Energy 

The material presented in this section is organized around paired sets of figures and 

tables. With the exception of Tables 5-13, 5-19, and 5-29, which are of a summary 

nature, and Tables 5-30 through 5-32, which deal with energy expenditures, all tables 

have the same format. This tabular format is designed to complement the graphical 

information displayed on the figure which is paired with that table. For example, Figure 

5-1 and Table 5-1 are paired. 

The vertical axis of each figure (i.e., Figures 5-1 through 5-26) records the cost per 

household for the building element under analysis (e.g., roof replacements). The 

horizontal axis records information on the size of the housing units, as measured by the 

six size categories used in the AHS. The AHS size categories are specified in customary 

units. The six AHS size categories are less than 500 ft2

 (46.5 m2), 500 ft2 to 999 ft2 (46.5 

m2

 to 92.8 m2), 1,000 ft2 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2), 1,500 ft2 to 1,999 ft2 (139.4 

m2

 to 185.7 m2), 2,000 ft2 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2), and 2,500 ft2 (232.3 m2) or 

more. An aggregated total category is also displayed on each figure; this size category is 

labeled “all sizes.” Note that size categories used in the AHS differ from those used in 

the RECS. A range of durability-related cost data is reported on each figure. The values 

are constructed so that they cover the inter-quartile range (i.e., the middle 50 % of the 

overall distribution) of costs reported in the AHS for that building element and housing 

unit size category for the selected data dimensions analyzed (e.g., type of cost, type of 

housing unit, and who did the work). Four statistical measures are plotted on each figure: 

(1) the 75th percentile, represented by a square (■); (2) the mean, represented by a 

diamond (◆); (3) the median, represented by a triangle (▲); and the 25th percentile, 

represented by an x (✕). If insufficient data are available (i.e., less than 20 observations) 

to report the inter-quartile range for a specific size category, then only the mean value is 

reported for that size category. If there are less than five (5) observations in a specific 

size category, then no value is reported for that size category. 

The tables are constructed so that each of the values plotted on the corresponding figure 

is recorded in one of the four subheadings under the “Cost per Household” heading. The 

four subheadings correspond to the four statistical measures (i.e., 25th percentile, median, 

75th percentile, and mean). The leftmost column of each table records the size of the 

housing unit in ft2

 (m2). All tables use the same size categories that are used in the 

figures. 

Each paired figure/table combination is presented on a page by itself. This method of 

display was selected to facilitate comparisons between graphical and tabular results. 
56

5.2.1 Major Replacements 

Major replacements involve the replacement of an entire system (e.g., replacement of the 

entire roof). Major replacements also cover substitutions (e.g., substitution of a new 

bathtub for an old one). Major replacements tend to be high cost items (e.g., 

replacements of roofs and siding). However, there are a number of items that are 

relatively low in cost (e.g., garbage disposals) that when replaced are considered to be 

major replacements. 

Figure 5-1 and Table 5-1 show the cost per household for replacing a roof over the entire 

home for all owner occupied units where a contractor did the work. Since less than 20 

observations are available for the smallest size category, only the mean is reported for 

that size category. Reference to Table 5-1 shows that the mean cost per household 

increases from $1,524 for a unit size of less than 500 ft2

 (46.5 m2) to $4,962 for a unit 

size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. This is an increase of more than three times. The 

75th percentile displays a similar pattern. The cost per household increases from $2,700 

for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) to $5,700 for a unit size of 2,500 

ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The cost per household for all sizes for the 75th percentile is 

$4,500 and the mean cost per household is $3,667. 

Figure 5-2 and Table 5-2 show the cost per household for replacing a roof over the entire 

home for owner occupied single-family detached units where a contractor did the work. 

Since less than five observations are available for the smallest size category, no value is 

reported for that size category. Notice that the costs are not much higher than for 

replacing the roof over the entire home for all owner occupied units where a contractor 

did the work (see Figure 5-1 and Table 5-1), since owner occupied single-family 

detached housing makes up the largest portion of the residential sector. The mean cost 

per household increases from $2,294 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 

m2

) to $4,962 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per 

household for all sizes is $3,743. For all sizes, the 25th percentile shows a cost per 

household of $1,800, the median shows a cost per household of $2,800, and the 75th

percentile shows a cost per household of $4,500. 

Figure 5-3 and Table 5-3 show the cost per household for replacing a roof over the entire 

home for all owner occupied units where the household did the work. Since less than 

five observations are available for the smallest size category, no value is reported for that 

size category. Reference to Table 5-3 shows that the mean cost per household exhibits an 

interesting pattern; it first increases from $1,254 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 

m2

 to 92.8 m2) to $1,901 for a unit size of 1,500 ft2 to 1,999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2). 

The mean cost per household then decreases to $1,790 for a unit size of 2,000 ft2

 to 2,499 

ft2

 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) and then increases to $2,402 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2 (232.3 

m2

) or more. The mean cost per household for all sizes is $1,829. A similar pattern 

results for the median cost per household. The median cost per household for a unit size 

of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) is $1,000 and increases to $1,500 for a unit size 

of 1,500 ft2

 to 1,999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2). The median cost per household then 

decreases to $1,200 for a unit size of 2,000 ft2

 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) and 
57

then increases to $2,000 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2 (232.3 m2) or more. The median cost 

per household for all sizes is $1,300. Note that these costs are significantly lower than 

where a contractor did the roof replacement (compare Figure 5-3 and Table 5-3 with 

Figure 5-1 and Table 5-1). 

Figure 5-1. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (All Owner Occupied 

Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

Table 5-1. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (All Owner Occupied 

Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

25th 

Percentile Median 75th 

Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) - - - 1 524

500 ft2

to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 1 200 1 800 2 700 2 217

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 1 500 2 200 3 500 2 896

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4m2 to 185.7 m2) 1 800 2 600 4 000 3 403

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 1 800 2 600 4 500 3 705

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 2 400 3 800 5 700 4 962

All sizes 1 800 2 700 4 500 3 667

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
58

Figure 5-2. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (Owner Occupied 

Single-Family Detached - Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-2. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (Owner Occupied 

Single-Family Detached - Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 o r 

mo re

(232.3 o r

mo re)

A ll s ize s

Unit S ize in ft2

 (m 2)

Cost per Household

75th P e rc e n tile

M ean

M e d ia n

25th P e rc e n tile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 1 200 1 800 2 500 2 294

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 1 600 2 342 3 500 2 997

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 1 800 2 700 4 000 3 435

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 1 800 2 600 4 500 3 715

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 2 400 3 800 5 700 4 962

All sizes 1 800 2 800 4 500 3 743

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
59

Figure 5-3. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (All Owner Occupied 

Units – Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-3. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (All Owner Occupied 

Units – Household Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 500 1 000 2 000 1 254

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 600 1 200 2 500 1 645

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 900 1 500 2 500 1 901

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 800 1 200 2 000 1 790

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 700 2 000 3 000 2 402

All sizes 700 1 300 2 500 1 829

Unit Size in

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
60

Figure 5-4 and Table 5-4 show the cost per household for replacing a roof over the entire 

home for owner occupied single-family detached units where the household did the work. 

The cost per household for all size units is $800 for the 25th percentile and increases to 

$2,500 for the 75th percentile. The mean cost per household for all sizes is $1,873. The 

mean cost per household for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) is $1,381 

and increases to $2,430 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per 

household is slightly lower (i.e., $1,807 versus $1,867) for a unit size of 2,000 ft2

 to 

2,499 ft2

 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) than for a unit size of 1,500 ft2 to 1,999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 

185.7 m2

). 

Figure 5-5 and Table 5-5 show the cost per household to replace doors or windows for all 

owner occupied units where a contractor did the work. The cost per household for all 

sizes is $300 for the 25th percentile and increases to $2,550 for the 75th percentile. The 

mean cost per household for all sizes is $2,012. The costs per household for the largest 

size category (2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more) are less than the costs per household for the 

2,000 ft2

 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) size category. Note the extreme variability 

in costs for the 2,000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) size category, where the 75th

percentile is $4,000. The median cost per household remains constant at $800 for the 

three size categories of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) through 1,500 ft2 to 1,999 

ft2

 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2). 

Figure 5-6 and Table 5-6 show the cost per household for replacing doors or windows for 

owner occupied single-family detached units where a contractor did the work. The mean 

cost per household follows an interesting pattern. It first decreases from $1,921 for the 

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) size category to $1,589 for the 1,000 ft2 to 1,499 ft2

(92.9 m2

 to 139.3 m2) size category and then increases to $2,810 for a unit size of 2,000 

ft2

 to 2 400 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2). The mean cost of replacing doors and windows 

for the largest size category (2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more) is $2,126, a difference of 

nearly $700 from the 2,000 ft2

 to 2,400 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) size category. The 

mean cost for all sizes is $2,108. The median cost per household is $825 for a unit size 

of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) and increases to $1,435 for a unit size of 

2,000 ft2

 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2). Notice the lowest costs are shown for unit 

sizes of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) and 1,500 ft2 to 1,999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 

185.7 m2

). The median cost per household for all sizes is $1,000. 

The median cost per household for replacing doors or windows for all owner occupied 

units where the household did the work is $200 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 

m2

 to 92.8 m2) and $300 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2 (232.3 m2) or more (i.e., a $100 

increase in the cost as is shown in Figure 5-7 and Table 5-7). The range for the cost per 

household is even less for the 25th percentile. The cost per household starts at $70 for a 

unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and increases to $150 for a unit size of 

2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more for a range of $80. The mean cost per household is $329 for 

a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and increases to $775 for a unit size 

of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per household for all sizes is $590. 
61

Figure 5-4. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (Owner Occupied 

Single-Family Detached - Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-4. Major Replacement of a Roof Over Entire Home (Owner Occupied 

Single-Family Detached - Household Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

A ll s izes

Unit S ize in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percen tile

Mean

M ed ian

25th Percen tile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 600 1 050 2 000 1 381

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 650 1 200 2 500 1 710

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 900 1 500 2 500 1 867

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 800 1 200 2 000 1 807

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 700 2 000 3 000 2 430

All sizes 800 1 400 2 500 1 873

Unit Size in

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
62

Figure 5-5. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-5. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

4 000

4 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 200 800 3 000 1 619

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 200 800 2 000 1 496

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 300 800 2 400 1 789

2 000 ft2

 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 500 1 435 4 000 2 810

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 350 1 000 2 500 2 126

All sizes 300 951 2 550 2 012

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
63

Figure 5-6. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (Owner Occupied SingleFamily Detached – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-6. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (Owner Occupied SingleFamily Detached – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

4 000

4 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 300 1 000 3 000 1 921

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 300 825 2 400 1 589

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 360 850 2 500 1 929

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 500 1 435 4 000 2 810

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 350 1 000 2 500 2 126

All sizes 350 1 000 2 900 2 108

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
64

Figure 5-7. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-7. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Household Did the Work) 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) - ---

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 70 200 400 329

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 100 200 500 542

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 125 300 700 560

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 150 300 600 711

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 150 300 750 775

All sizes 120 250 600 590

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
65

Figure 5-8 and Table 5-8 show the cost per household to replace doors or windows for 

owner occupied single-family detached units where the household did the work. The 

mean cost starts at $376 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and 

increases to $778 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per 

household for all size units is $628. The median cost per household starts at $200 for a 

unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and increases to $300 for a unit size of 

2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. Notice that the median cost per household remains constant 

at $300 for a unit size of 1,500 ft2

 to 1,999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) up to a unit size of 

2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The median cost per household for all sizes is $300. 

The major replacement of all siding for all owner occupied units by a contractor is shown 

in Figure 5-9 and Table 5-9. The mean cost per household starts at $3,970 for a unit size 

of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and increases to $7,284 for a unit size of 2,500 

ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per household for all sizes is $6,433. The cost per 

household for all sizes is $3 000 for the 25th percentile, $5,419 for the median, and 

$8,900 for the 75th percentile. 

Figure 5-10 and Table 5-10 show the cost per household to replace all siding for all 

owner occupied units where the household did the work. The mean cost per household is 

$1,983 for a unit size of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) and increases to 

$4,024 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per household for 

all sizes is $2,935. The cost per household is $1,000 for the 25th percentile, $2,000 for 

the median, and $3,000 for the 75th percentile. 

Figure 5-11 and Table 5-11 show the cost per household to replace the furnace, heat 

pump, or boiler and maintenance and repair of furnace/heating equipment parts for all 

owner occupied units where a contractor did the work. Note that maintenance and repair 

costs are included in the cost data presented in Figure 5-11 and Table 5-11. This is due to 

a data extraction problem in the AHS public-access files.48 The mean cost is $890 for a 

unit size of less than 500 ft2

 (46.5 m2) and increases to $2,346 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

(232.3 m2

) or more. The mean cost for all sizes is $2,058. The cost per household for all 

sizes is $1,000 for the 25th percentile, $1,800 for the median, and $2,700 for the 75th

percentile. 

Figure 5-12 and Table 5-12 show the cost per household for replacing the central air 

conditioning by a contractor for all owner occupied units. The mean cost per household 

is $2,051 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and increases to $3,072 

for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per household for a unit 

size of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) is $2,473. The mean cost per 

household decreases slightly to $2,437 for the 1,500 ft2

 to 1,999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 

m2

) size category. The mean cost per household for all sizes is $2,624. The 75th

percentile shows a cost per household of $3,000 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 

m2

 to 92.8 m2); it increases to $4,000 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2 (232.3 m2) or more. The 

 

48 The Census Bureau has been informed of the unintentional commingling of expenditures for maintenance 

and repair with major replacements for this data element. 
66

cost per household for all sizes for the 75th percentile is $3,500. The median cost per 

household for all sizes is $2,400. 

Figure 5-8. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (Owner Occupied SingleFamily Detached – Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-8. Major Replacement of Doors or Windows (Owner Occupied SingleFamily Detached – Household Did the Work) 

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) --- -

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 100 200 400 376

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 100 200 600 588

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 125 300 700 568

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 150 300 600 718

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 150 300 750 778

All sizes 120 300 600 628

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
67

Figure 5-9. Major Replacement of All Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-9. Major Replacement of All Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

2 000

4 000

6 000

8 000

10 000

12 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) - ---

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) - - - 3 970

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 2 686 5 000 8 900 5 738

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 3 000 5 419 8 000 6 658

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 5 000 7 000 8 800 7 086

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 4 000 5 600 10 000 7 284

All sizes 3 000 5 419 8 900 6 433

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
68

Figure 5-10. Major Replacement of All Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-10. Major Replacement of All Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – 

Household Did the Work) 

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) ----

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) - - - 1 983

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) - - - 2 731

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) - - - 2 867

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) - - - 4 024

All sizes 1 000 2 000 3 000 2 935

Unit Size in 

ft2

(m2)

Cost per Household 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

4 000

4 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile
69

Figure 5-11. Major Replacement of Furnace, Heat Pump, or Boiler and 

 Maintenance and Repair of Furnace/Heating Equipment Parts (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-11. Major Replacement of Furnace, Heat Pump, or Boiler and 

 Maintenance and Repair of Furnace/Heating Equipment Parts (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

4 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) - - - 890

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 1 000 1 500 2 000 1 568

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 800 1 700 2 300 1 841

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 750 1 800 2 500 2 065

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 1 000 2 200 3 000 2 147

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 1 200 2 000 3 400 2 346

All sizes 1 000 1 800 2 700 2 058

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
70

Figure 5-12. Major Replacement of Central Air Conditioning (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-12. Major Replacement of Central Air Conditioning (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

4 000

4 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 1 100 1 750 3 000 2 051

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 1 200 2 400 3 100 2 473

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 1 400 2 200 3 200 2 437

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 1 600 2 300 3 500 2 561

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 1 500 2 800 4 000 3 072

All sizes 1 500 2 400 3 500 2 624

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
71

Table 5-13 shows the designation and selected major replacement costs of building 

elements by statistical measure. The designation column shows a two-letter code. A code 

of AC represents all owner occupied units with a contractor doing the work, AH 

represents all owner occupied units with the household doing the work, SC represents 

owner occupied single-family detached units with a contractor doing the work, and SH 

represents owner occupied single-family detached units with the household doing the 

work. The four statistical measures are recorded under the “Cost per Household” 

heading. Looking at the water heater building element, the lowest mean cost per 

household is $236. This represents the cost for all owner occupied units with the 

household doing the work. The highest mean cost per household is $416 and this is 

represented by owner occupied single-family detached units with a contractor doing the 

work. Note that the costs of homeowner replacements of the water heater in all units are 

about the same as in single-family detached units (e.g., $236 versus $241). A similar 

pattern results if the water heater is replaced by a contractor (i.e., $408 versus $416). 

5.2.2 Maintenance and Repair 

Maintenance and repair expenditures represent current costs for incidental maintenance 

and repair activities that keep a property in ordinary working condition, rather than an 

additional investment in the property. Maintenance includes such expenses as painting, 

papering, floor sanding, and furnace cleaning or adjustment. Repairs include many kinds 

of expenditures for plumbing, heating, electrical work, and other kinds of activity 

involved in the upkeep of residential properties. Repairs also include replacements of 

parts and of whole units, except for a select list specified below that are classified as 

major replacements.49

Figure 5-13 and Table 5-14 show the cost per household for maintenance and repairs to 

finished flooring for all owner occupied units with a contractor doing the work. The 

median cost per household for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) is $376 

and increases to $1,500 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per 

household starts at $610 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and 

increases to $2,290 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The 25th percentile for 

all sizes shows a cost per household of $400. The 75th percentile for all sizes shows a 

cost per household of $2,000. The mean cost per household is $1,626. 

Figure 5-14 and Table 5-15 show the cost per household for maintenance and repairs to 

finished flooring for all owner occupied units with the household doing the work. The 

mean cost per household doubles from $423 for a unit size less than 500 ft2

 (46.5 m2) to 

$852 for a unit size of 2 500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost for all sizes is $643. 

The cost per household for all sizes for the 25th percentile is $100 and increases to $600 

for the 75th percentile. 

 

49 The following is a list of items that, when replaced, are considered to be major replacements as opposed 

to repairs: complete furnace or boiler, entire roof, central air-conditioning, all siding, water heater, entire 

electrical wiring, doors, plumbing fixtures, all water pipes, windows, septic tank or cesspool, sink or 

laundry tub, complete walks or drive ways, and garbage disposal unit. 
72

Table 5-13. Selected Major Replacement of Building Elements by Designation and 

 the Cost per Household 

25th 

Percentile Median 75th 

Percentile Mean

All siding SC 3 000 5 419 8 900 6 454

All siding SH 1 000 2 200 3 000 3 039

Furnace, heat pump, 

or boiler and 

maintenance and 

repair of 

furnace/heating 

equipment parts AH 200 800 1 600 1 115

Central air 

conditioning SC 1 500 2 400 3 500 2 622

Central air 

conditioning AH 800 2 000 3 400 2 252

Central air 

conditioning SH 1 000 2 000 3 500 2 476

Water heater AC 200 325 500 408

Water heater AH 150 200 300 236

Water heater SC 200 325 500 416

Water heater SH 150 200 300 241

Plumbing fixtures AC 110 250 500 694

Plumbing fixtures AH 60 100 210 223

Plumbing fixtures SC 120 250 500 714

Plumbing fixtures SH 60 100 225 230

Interior water pipes AC 175 800 2 000 1 340

Interior water pipes AH 50 275 600 401

Electrical wiring AC 500 800 1 820 1 479

Electrical wiring AH 150 300 500 442

Septic tank AC 1 300 2 000 3 200 2 580

Septic tank AH - - - 1 587

Dishwasher AC 350 410 500 457

Dishwasher AH 300 400 500 389

Garbage disposal AC 100 140 200 151

Garbage disposal AH 57 80 110 94

Cost per Household

Building Element Designation
73

Figure 5-13. Maintenance and Repairs to Finished Flooring (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-14. Maintenance and Repairs to Finished Flooring (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 220 376 800 610

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 300 900 1 800 1 269

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 400 1 000 2 000 1 559

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 500 1 000 2 000 1 587

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 600 1 500 3 000 2 290

All sizes 400 1 000 2 000 1 626

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
74

Figure 5-14. Maintenance and Repairs to Finished Flooring (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-15. Maintenance and Repairs to Finished Flooring (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Household Did the Work) 

 0

 200

 400

 600

 800

1 000

1 200

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) - - - 423

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 75 150 400 440

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 110 200 800 630

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 100 200 500 547

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 100 250 600 749

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 150 400 1 000 852

All sizes 100 250 600 643

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
75

The cost per household for maintenance and repairs to interior water pipes for all owner 

occupied units with a contractor doing the work is shown in Figure 5-15 and Table 5-16. 

The mean cost per household for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) is 

$326 and increases to $1,009 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. This is an 

increase of more than three times. The mean cost per household for all sizes is $640. 

Note that for several size categories the mean exceeds the 75th percentile (see Table 5-

16). Thus, a number of very high cost observations are “pulling” up the value of the 

mean. The cost per household for all sizes is $80 for the 25th percentile, $220 for the 

median, and $500 for the 75th percentile. 

Figure 5-16 and Table 5-17 show the cost per household for maintenance and repairs to 

interior water pipes for all owner occupied units with the household doing the work. The 

cost per household for the 25th percentile is $15 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 

m2

 to 92.8 m2). For all other unit sizes, the 25th percentile cost per household remains 

constant at $20. The median cost per household also remains constant at $50 whenever 

the unit size is 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) or larger. The mean cost per 

household starts at $94 for a unit size less than 500 ft2

 (46.5 m2) and increases to $140 for 

a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per household for all sizes is 

$113. 

The cost per household for maintenance and repairs to siding for all owner occupied units 

with a contractor doing the work is shown in Figure 5-17 and Table 5-18. By looking at 

the figure and table, you can see that the lowest cost per household is $300 for the 25th

percentile for a unit size of 1,500 ft2

 to 1,999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2). The 25th

percentile cost is $1,000 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The 25th

percentile cost for all sizes is $400. The mean cost per household is $1,728 for a unit size 

of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) and increases to $2,074 for a unit size of 

2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per household for all sizes is $1,832. 

Table 5-19 shows selected maintenance and repair costs of building elements by 

designation and statistical measure. The designation code shows that the building 

elements are for all owner occupied units, where either a contractor or the household did 

the work (i.e., codes AC and AH only). The mean cost per household for maintenance 

and repair of insulation with the household doing the work is $202. The mean cost per 

household for a contractor to do the work is $924. The mean cost per household to do 

maintenance and repair of fuse boxes or breaker switches with the household doing the 

work is $144. The mean cost for a contractor to do the work is $639. 

5.2.3 Alterations 

Interior alterations range from complete remodeling to the installation of an electrical 

service outlet. The key distinction between alterations within residential structures and 

major replacements is that major replacements are substitutions. For example, the 

installation of a bathtub, where there had not been one before, is an alteration, whereas 

the substitution of a new bathtub for an old one is a major replacement. 
76

Figure 5-15. Maintenance and Repairs to Interior Water Pipes (All Owner 

 Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-16. Maintenance and Repairs to Interior Water Pipes (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 200

 400

 600

 800

1 000

1 200

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 50 150 350 326

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 30 140 300 308

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 70 200 600 578

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 95 250 500 736

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 165 300 990 1 009

All sizes 80 220 500 640

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
77

Figure 5-16. Maintenance and Repairs to Interior Water Pipes (All Owner 

 Occupied Units – Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-17. Maintenance and Repairs to Interior Water Pipes (All Owner Occupied 

 Units – Household Did the Work) 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) - - - 94

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 15 50 100 93

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 20 50 100 94

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 20 50 150 117

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 20 50 150 141

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 20 50 100 140

All sizes 20 50 100 113

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
78

Figure 5-17. Maintenance and Repairs to Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – 

 Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-18. Maintenance and Repairs to Siding (All Owner Occupied Units – 

 Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) ----

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 400 1 000 3 000 1 728

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 300 1 200 2 700 1 971

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 400 1 200 2 000 1 698

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 1 000 1 500 2 500 2 074

All sizes 400 1 200 2 300 1 832

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
79

Table 5-19. Selected Maintenance and Repair of Building Elements by Designation 

 and the Cost per Household 

Figure 5-18 and Table 5-20 show the cost per household for alterations within the 

residential structure to kitchen cabinets for all owner occupied units with a contractor 

doing the work. The median cost per household is $3,000 for a unit size of 1,000 ft2

 to 

1,499 ft2

 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) and the median cost per household increases to $6,000 for 

a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The median cost for all sizes is $4,000. The 

mean cost per household is $2,900 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 

and increases to $9,318 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per 

household for all sizes is $5,914. 

If the household does the work, the costs for alterations within the residential structure to 

kitchen cabinets are much lower as is shown in Figure 5-19 and Table 5-21. The mean 

cost per household is $1,588 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and 

increases to $2,944 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost per 

household for all sizes is $2,399. 

Figure 5-20 and Table 5-22 show the cost per household for alterations within the 

residential structure to kitchen flooring for all owner occupied units with a contractor 

doing the work. The cost per household for the 25th percentile is $500 for a unit size of 

1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) and remains constant through a unit size of 

2,000 ft2

 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2). The 25th percentile cost increases to $600 

for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The 25th percentile cost per household for 

all sizes is $500. The cost per household for the 75th percentile is $1,500 for a unit size of 

1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) and increases to $2,400 for a unit size of 

2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The cost per household for all sizes is $2,000 for the 75th

percentile while the mean cost per household is $1,467. 

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Siding AH 100 250 600 578

Insulation AC 0 300 1 500 924

Insulation AH 50 100 400 202

Ceiling tiles AC 100 500 1 100 1 051

Ceiling tiles AH 60 200 400 282

Fuse boxes or breaker 

switches AC 75 300 700 639

Fuse boxes or breaker 

switches AH 18 50 175 144

Cost per Household

Building Element Designation
80

Figure 5-18. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Cabinets (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-20. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Cabinets (All 

 Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

2 000

4 000

6 000

8 000

10 000

12 000

14 000

16 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) - - - 2 900

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 1 200 3 000 6 000 4 431

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 1 500 3 200 7 000 4 421

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 3 000 5 000 8 500 5 910

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 3 900 6 000 14 000 9 318

All sizes 2 000 4 000 8 000 5 914

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
81

Figure 5-19. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Cabinets (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-21. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Cabinets (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Household Did the Work) 

 0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 500 1 000 1 800 1 588

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 500 1 200 2 500 2 000

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 500 2 000 4 000 2 482

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 500 3 000 5 000 3 342

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 600 2 000 4 000 2 944

All sizes 500 1 500 4 000 2 399

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
82

Figure 5-20. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Flooring (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-22. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Flooring (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) - - - 955

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 500 1 000 1 500 1 146

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 500 1 000 2 100 1 375

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 500 1 100 2 000 1 351

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 600 1 400 2 400 1 923

All sizes 500 1 000 2 000 1 467

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
83

Figure 5-21 and Table 5-23 show the cost per household for all owner occupied units for 

alterations to kitchen counter tops with a contractor doing the work. The interquartile 

range is not reported for the two smallest size categories. The median cost is $262 for a 

unit size of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) and increases to $1,000 for a unit 

size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The median cost per household for all sizes is $700. 

The mean cost per household is $769 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 

m2

) and increases to $1,391 for the largest size category (i.e., 2,500 ft2 (232.3 m2) or 

more). The mean cost per household is slightly higher for the 2,000 ft2

 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 

m2

 to 232.2 m2) size category than for the largest size category (i.e., $1,468 versus 

$1,391). The mean cost per household is $1,046 for all sizes. 

Figure 5-22 and Table 5-24 show the cost per household for alterations to bathroom 

cabinets for all owner occupied units with a contractor doing the work. The cost per 

household for the 25th percentile is $300 for a unit size of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2

to 139.3 m2

) and increases to $500 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2 (232.3 m2) or more. The 

cost per household for the 75th percentile is $3,000 for a unit size of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2

(92.9 m2

 to 139.3 m2) and increases to $6,000 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2 (232.3 m2) or 

more. The cost per household for the 75th percentile is $5,000 for all sizes. The mean 

cost per household for all sizes is $3,440. 

Figure 5-23 and Table 5-25 show the cost per household for alterations to bathroom 

cabinets for all owner occupied units with the household doing the work. The median 

cost per household is $600 for a unit size of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) and 

decreases to $450 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The 25th percentile 

shows a cost per household of $200 for all of the unit size categories. The mean cost per 

household for all sizes is $1,056. 

Figure 5-24 and Table 5-26 show the cost per household for alterations to bathroom 

flooring for all owner occupied units with a contractor doing the work. The mean cost 

exhibits a pattern seen before; namely, cycles of increasing and decreasing costs as we 

move from the smaller to the larger size categories. The mean cost is $997 for a unit size 

of 500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2). The mean cost per household is $1,936 for a 

unit size of 2,000 ft2

 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2). The mean cost per household 

for the largest size category (2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more) decreases to $1,467. The 

mean cost per household for all sizes is $1,283. The cost per household for all sizes is 

$250 for the 25th percentile, $500 for the median, and $1,500 for the 75th percentile. 

Figure 5-25 and Table 5-27 show the cost per household for alterations to bathroom 

counter tops for all owner occupied units with a contractor doing the work. The mean 

cost per household is $448 for a unit size of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 

and increases to $1,229 for a unit size of 2,000 ft2

 to 2,499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2). 

The mean cost decreases to $1,035 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The 

mean cost per household for all sizes is $920. For all sizes, the cost per household is 

$100 for the 25th percentile, $300 for the median, and $1,000 for the 75th percentile. 
84

Figure 5-21. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Counter Tops 

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-23. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Kitchen Counter Tops 

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) - - - 769

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 150 262 800 503

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 500 700 1 100 890

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 200 600 2 000 1 468

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 450 1 000 1 500 1 391

All sizes 250 700 1 200 1 046

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
85

Figure 5-22. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Cabinets 

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-24. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Cabinets (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

1 000

2 000

3 000

4 000

5 000

6 000

7 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) - ---

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) - - - 1 411

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 300 1 500 3 000 2 139

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 500 2 000 4 000 3 629

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) - - - 3 748

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 500 2 362 6 000 4 475

All sizes 500 2 000 5 000 3 440

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
86

Figure 5-23. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Cabinets 

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Household Did the Work) 

Table 5-25. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Cabinets (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Household Did the Work) 

 0

 200

 400

 600

 800

1 000

1 200

1 400

1 600

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) 200 600 1 000 994

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 200 500 1 500 984

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 200 450 700 927

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 200 500 1 000 859

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 200 450 1 500 1 463

All sizes 200 500 1 000 1 056

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
87

Figure 5-24. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Flooring 

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-26. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Flooring (All 

 Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) - - - 997

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 100 350 700 711

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 300 600 1 500 1 287

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 250 800 2 400 1 936

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 250 600 1 500 1 467

All sizes 250 500 1 500 1 283

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
88

Figure 5-25. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Counter 

 Tops (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-27. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Counter Tops 

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) ----

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) - - - 448

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 150 300 2 000 1 074

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) - - - 1 229

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 200 500 1 000 1 035

All sizes 100 300 1 000 920

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
89

Figure 5-26 and Table 5-28 show the cost per household for alterations to bathroom 

tubs/showers for all owner occupied units with a contractor doing the work. The mean 

cost per household is $921 for a unit size of 1,000 ft2

 to 1,499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 

and increases to $1,532 for a unit size of 2,500 ft2

 (232.3 m2) or more. The mean cost for 

all sizes is $1,142. The cost per household for all sizes is $250 for the 25th percentile, 

$520 for the median, and $1,500 for the 75th percentile. 

Table 5-29 shows selected alterations of building elements by designation and cost per 

household. The designation is for all owner occupied units with the household doing the 

work (i.e., code AH only). Looking at the table, one can see that the lowest mean cost 

per household is $318 for bathroom counter tops. The highest mean cost per household is 

$905 for kitchen flooring. The highest mean cost per household for doing alterations to 

the bathroom is $517 for bathroom tubs/showers. 

5.2.4 Energy Expenditures Per Unit of Floor Area 

Energy expenditures per unit of floor area as a function of the type of housing unit are 

classified in three ways. The first way (see Table 5-30) groups expenditures by tenure 

class (i.e., owner-occupied, rental, or all units). The second way (see Table 5-31) groups 

expenditures by end use (e.g., space heating or air-conditioning). The third way (see 

Table 5-32) groups expenditures by type of fuel (e.g., electricity, natural gas, or fuel oil). 

The tables presented in this section tabulate expenditures for five types of housing units: 

(1) single-family detached; (2) single-family attached; (3) multi-family, 2 to 4 units; (4) 

multi-family, 5 or more units; and (5) mobile homes. An aggregated total category is 

also displayed on each table; this category is labeled “all units.” 

Table 5-30 shows energy expenditures per unit of floor area by type of housing unit and 

tenure class for 1997. The table shows that the highest expenditures per ft2

 (m2) are for 

rental units, with the exception of multi-family dwellings with 2 to 4 units. The highest 

energy expenditure per unit of floor area is $1.33/ft2

 ($14.29/m2) for owner occupied 

multi-family dwellings with 2 to 4 units. The lowest energy expenditure per unit of floor 

area is $0.69/ft2

 ($7.43/m2) for owner-occupied dwellings with 5 or more units. Energy 

expenditures per unit of floor area for all units, owner occupied and rental combined, are 

$0.93/ft2 ($10.04/m2

). 

Note that the energy expenditure values recorded in the last column of Table 5-30 vary 

considerably as a function of the type of housing unit, with multi-family dwellings with 2 

to 4 units the highest—$1.26/ft2

 ($13.51/m2)—and multi-family dwellings with 5 or more 

units the lowest—$0.88/ft2

 ($9.51/m2). The same dollar values that appear under the “All 

Units” heading also appear under the “All End Uses” or “All Fuels” headings in Tables 

5-31 and 5-32, respectively. These values are conditional only on the type of housing 

unit, whereas the values recorded in Table 5-30 under the “Owner-Occupied” or “Rental” 

headings are conditional on the type of occupant. The distinction between conditional 

and unconditional values becomes more important as expenditures by end use and fuel 

type are examined. These values are recorded in Tables 5-31 and 5-32. 
90

Figure 5-26. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Tub/Shower 

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work) 

Table 5-28. Alterations Within the Residential Structure to Bathroom Tub/Shower 

 (All Owner Occupied Units – Contractor Did the Work)

 0

 500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

<500

 (<46.5)

500 -

 999 

(46.5 -

92.8)

1 000 - 

1 499

(92.9 -

139.3)

1 500 - 

1 999

(139.4 -

185.7)

2 000 -

 2 499

(185.8 -

232.2)

2 500 or 

more

(232.3 or

more)

All sizes

Unit Size in ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household

75th Percentile

Mean

Median

25th Percentile

25th 

Percentile Median 75th Percentile Mean

Less than 500 ft2

 (Less than 46.5 m2) ----

500 ft2

 to 999 ft2 (46.5 m2 to 92.8 m2) ----

1 000 ft2

 to 1 499 ft2 (92.9 m2 to 139.3 m2) 200 500 1 200 921

1 500 ft2

 to 1 999 ft2 (139.4 m2 to 185.7 m2) 400 600 1 200 1 052

2 000 ft2

 to 2 499 ft2 (185.8 m2 to 232.2 m2) 200 400 1 000 1 034

2 500 ft2

 or more (232.3 m2 or more) 400 1 000 2 500 1 532

All sizes 250 520 1 500 1 142

Unit Size in 

ft2

 (m2)

Cost per Household 
91

Table 5-29. Selected Alterations Within the Residential Structure of Building 

 Elements by Designation and the Cost per Household

Table 5-30. Energy Expenditures per Unit of Floor Area by Type of Housing Unit 

 and Tenure Class: 1997 

Table 5-31 shows energy expenditures by type of housing unit and end use for 1997. 

Five “specific” end use categories are covered plus an aggregated “all end uses” category. 

The end use categories are space heating, air-conditioning, water heating, refrigerators, 

other appliances and lighting, and all end uses. With the exception of air-conditioning, 

almost all housing units employ each of the four remaining “specific” end uses of energy 

(see Table 3-11 in section 3.3). Overall (see the “All Units” row under the “Type of 

Housing Unit” heading), refrigerators have the lowest end use cost ($0.08/ft2

 ($0.90/m2)), 

while other appliances and lighting have the highest end use cost ($0.36/ft2

 ($3.84/m2)). 

Multi-family dwellings with 5 or more units have the lowest end use costs for space 

heating ($0.18/ft2

 ($1.92/m2)) and other appliances and lighting ($0.33/ft2 ($3.59/m2)). 

Single-family detached units have the lowest end use costs for air-conditioning, water 

heating, and refrigerators, and the second lowest for space heating and other appliances 

and lighting. Multi-family dwellings with 2 to 4 units have the highest end use cost for 

space heating ($0.49/ft2

 ($5.30/m2)), while mobile homes have the highest end use cost 

for air-conditioning ($0.17/ft2

 ($1.79/m2)) and other appliances and lighting ($0.43/ft2

($4.58/m2

)). 

25th 

Percentile Median 75th 

Percentile Mean

Kitchen flooring AH 200 400 1 000 905

Kitchen counter tops AH 139 300 500 637

Bathroom flooring AH 95 200 500 508

Bathroom counter

tops AH 70 150 300 318

Bathroom tub/shower AH 200 300 500 517

Cost per Household

Building Element Designation

$/ft2 $/m

2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2

Single-Family Detached 0.89 9.53 1.04 11.22 0.90 9.69

Single-Family Attached 0.97 10.49 1.12 12.02 1.03 11.07

Multi-Family, 2 to 4 units 1.33 14.29 1.23 13.27 1.26 13.51

Multi-Family, 5 or more units 0.69 7.43 0.90 9.74 0.88 9.51

Mobile Home 1.16 12.54 1.36 14.60 1.19 12.82

All Units 0.91 9.76 1.03 11.10 0.93 10.04

Type of Housing Unit Owner-Occupied Rental All Units

Tenure Class
92

Table 5-31. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and End Use: 1997 Table 5-32. Energy Expenditures by Type of Housing Unit and Type of Fuel: 1997 

$/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/

Single-Family Detached 0.28 3.06 0.09 0.97 0.12 1.30 0.08 0.84 0.35 3.80 Single-Family Attached 0.36 3.85 0.09 1.00 0.15 1.65 0.09 0.97 0.36 3.92 Multi-Family, 2 to 4 units 0.49 5.30 0.09 0.95 0.20 2.13 0.11 1.23 0.39 4.24 Multi-Family, 5 or more units 0.18 1.92 0.12 1.26 0.19 2.09 0.11 1.14 0.33 3.59 Mobile Home 0.35 3.76 0.17 1.79 0.21 2.28 0.09 0.98 0.43 4.58 All Units 0.29 3.12 0.10 1.03 0.14 1.46 0.08 0.90 0.36 3.84 

End Use

Type of Housing Unit Space Heating Air-Conditioning Water Heating Refrigerators

Other 

Appliances and 

Lighting

A

$/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/ft2 $/m2 $/

Single-Family Detached 0.58 6.29 0.37 3.97 0.49 5.24 0.08 0.88 0.31 3.38 Single-Family Attached 0.62 6.64 0.53 5.69 0.73 7.83 0.10 1.05 0.52 5.58 Multi-Family, 2 to 4 units 0.72 7.74 0.68 7.32 0.86 9.30 0.09 0.94 0.66 7.09 Multi-Family, 5 or more units 0.67 7.17 0.34 3.66 0.37 4.03 0.04 0.46 0.29 3.08 Mobile Home 0.89 9.61 0.46 4.95 0.39 4.17 0.28 3.05 0.43 4.66 All Units 0.61 6.59 0.39 4.23 0.50 5.39 0.10 1.12 0.34 3.62 

Type of Fuel

Type of Housing Unit Electricity Natural Gas Fuel Oil Kerosene LPG 
93

Table 5-32 shows energy expenditures by type of housing unit and type of fuel for 1997. 

Five “specific” type of fuel categories are covered plus an aggregated “all types” 

category. The six type of fuel cost categories are electricity, natural gas, fuel oil, 

kerosene, LPG, and all fuels. Note that electricity is the only fuel type used in all types 

of housing units (see Table 3-12 in section 3.3). Thus, the costs for the four remaining 

“specific” types of fuel are all “conditional.” Consequently, the cost appearing under the 

heading “All Fuels” for each type of housing unit is not the sum of the specific types of 

fuel. When all units are considered (see the “All Units” row under the “Type of Housing 

Unit” heading), electricity is the fuel type with the highest cost, $0.61/ft2

 ($6.59/m2), and 

kerosene at $0.10/ft2

 ($1.12/m2) has the lowest cost. When each type of housing unit is 

examined, the highest cost type of fuel is electricity for single-family detached units 

($0.58/ft2

 ($6.29/m2)), multi-family dwellings with 5 or more units ($0.67/ft2 ($7.17/m2)), 

and mobile homes ($0.89/ft2

 ($9.61/m2)), and fuel oil for single-family attached units 

($0.73/ft2

 ($7.83/m2)), and multi-family dwellings with 2 to 4 units ($0.86/ft2

($9.30/m2

)). 

5.3 Summary of Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs 

This section summarizes the baseline measures of durability-related costs that are 

presented in sections 5.2.1, 5.2.2, 5.2.3, and 5.2.4 of this document. These measures are 

presented in Table 5-33. 

The table is organized to serve as a quick reference; it consists of two parts. Part A 

reports costs by building element on a per household basis. Building elements are 

grouped under three cost categories—major replacements, maintenance and repair, and 

alterations. The remaining column headings under Part A of Table 5-33 are identical to 

those in Tables 5-13, 5-19, and 5-29. Part B reports energy expenditures per unit of floor 

area. Energy expenditures in both $/ft2

 and $/m2 are reported. Both aggregated (e.g., all 

fuels) and disaggregated (electricity) values are reported. 
94

Table 5-33. Summary of Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs 

Part A: By Cost Element per Household 

25th 

Percentile Median 75th 

Percentile Mean

Major Replacements

Roof AC 1 800 2 700 4 500 3 667

Roof SC 1 800 2 800 4 500 3 743

Roof AH 700 1 300 2 500 1 829

Roof SH 800 1 400 2 500 1 873

Doors or windows AC 300 951 2 550 2 012

Doors or windows SC 350 1 000 2 900 2 108

Doors or windows AH 120 250 600 590

Doors or windows SH 120 300 600 628

All siding AC 3 000 5 419 8 900 6 433

All siding AH 1 000 2 000 3 000 2 935

Furnace, heat pump, or 

boiler and maintenance and 

repair of furnace/heating 

equipment parts AC 1 000 1 800 2 700 2 058

Central air conditioning AC 1 500 2 400 3 500 2 624

Maintenance and Repair

Finished flooring AC 400 1 000 2 000 1 626

Finished flooring AH 100 250 600 643

Interior water pipes AC 80 220 500 640

Interior water pipes AH 20 50 100 113

Siding AC 400 1 200 2 300 1 832

Alterations 

Kitchen cabinets AC 2 000 4 000 8 000 5 914

Kitchen cabinets AH 500 1 500 4 000 2 399

Kitchen flooring AC 500 1 000 2 000 1 467

Kitchen counter tops AC 250 700 1 200 1 046

Bathroom cabinets AC 500 2 000 5 000 3 440

Bathroom cabinets AH 200 500 1 000 1 056

Bathroom flooring AC 250 500 1 500 1 283

Bathroom counter tops AC 100 300 1 000 920

Bathroom tub/shower AC 250 520 1 500 1 142

Cost per Household

Building Element Designation
95

Table 5-33. Summary of Baseline Measures of Durability-Related Costs (continued) 

Part B: Key Energy Expenditures per Unit of Floor Area 

$/ft2 $/m2

Total 0.93 10.04

End Use

Space heating 0.29 3.12

Air-conditioning 0.10 1.03

Water heating 0.14 1.46

Refrigerators 0.08 0.90

Other appliances and lighting 0.36 3.84

All end uses 0.93 10.04

Types of Fuel

Electricity 0.61 6.59

Natural gas 0.39 4.23

Fuel oil 0.50 5.39

Kerosene 0.10 1.12

LPG 0.34 3.62

All fuels 0.93 10.04

Energy Expenditure Type of Expenditure
96
97

6. Summary and Suggestions for Further Research 

6.1 Summary 

This report examines the key sources of construction industry data and extracts from 

them a single, consistent set of baseline measures that can be used to monitor progress 

towards achieving the PATH vision of improving housing durability and reducing 

maintenance costs by 50 % by 2010. Specifically, the report describes the key 

construction industry data sources and their associated data elements, demonstrates how 

each data source provides perspective on one or more dimensions of the construction 

industry, and synthesizes key data elements into a common format for specifying the 

baseline measures for improving housing durability. 

This document has six chapters. Chapter 1 explains the purpose, scope, and general 

approach. Chapter 2 introduces the PATH vision and describes how a well-defined set of 

metrics is used to develop the baseline measures. The averages of current practice—

defined in this report as industry performance in 1997—are used to develop the baseline 

measures for improving housing durability. Chapter 3 provides an overview of 

construction industry data. The overview provides the context within which the baseline 

measures for improving housing durability are developed. Chapter 4 presents the 

baseline measures of service life for selected building elements. Key baseline measures 

of service life are summarized in Table 4-4, which appears at the end of Chapter 4. 

Chapter 5 presents the baseline measures of durability-related costs. Specific cost 

categories covered include major replacements, maintenance and repair, and alterations. 

Information on energy expenditures is also presented. Key baseline measures of 

durability-related costs are summarized in Table 5-33, which appears at the end of 

Chapter 5. Chapter 6 concludes the document with a summary and suggestions for 

further research. 

6.2 Suggestions for Further Research 

The work for this document uncovered areas of research that might be of value to 

government agencies and private sector organizations that are concerned about improving 

durability and reducing maintenance costs. These areas are concerned with: (1) the 

dissemination of detailed information on service life data and durability-related costs for 

selected building elements; (2) the use of life-cycle cost analysis as a means of combining 

service life data and durability-related costs into a coherent format for choosing among 

alternative building materials, components, and systems; (3) the treatment of 

interdependencies between building components and systems; and (4) the measurement 

and evaluation of progress toward achievement of the PATH vision. 

The equipment life and maintenance cost survey published in the October 1978 issue of 

the ASHRAE Journal50 provides a benchmark for the type of detailed information on 

 

50 Akalin, Mustafat T. 1978. “Equipment Life and Maintenance Cost Survey.” ASHRAE Journal (October): 

pp. 39-44. 
98

service life data and durability-related costs that is needed for selected building elements. 

This early effort is noteworthy in that it provided not only expected values (i.e., the 

mean) for equipment service lives but ranges of values that included the 25th percentile, 

the median (i.e., 50th percentile), the 75th percentile, and the mode (i.e., the most 

frequently observed value). Ranges of values for maintenance costs per unit of floor area 

were also provided for a variety of maintenance scenarios. The article also provided 

definitions for equipment elements and maintenance policies, which proved useful in 

subsequent studies. The 1978 ASHRAE Journal article provided a framework for factbased facility management programs, including an in-depth analysis of alternative 

replacement strategies for aging plant and facility equipment at NIST, formerly the 

National Bureau of Standards.51 Unfortunately, it would be many years before others in 

the commercial buildings sector emulated the ASHRAE equipment life and maintenance 

cost survey. 

More recent work focusing on the residential sector is the National Family Opinion 

(NFO) Survey, a nationwide survey sponsored by the National Association of Home 

Builders (NAHB). As the NFO Survey reaches maturity, it will prove an excellent source 

of service life data, because the survey instrument contains a series of questions on 

housing type, floor space, geographic location, types of exterior enclosure, and types of 

replacements. These questions will enable researchers at NIST and elsewhere to derive 

empirical estimates of service lives for key building elements based on well-defined 

subsets of the survey data. The survey instrument also includes questions on 

expenditures for housing improvements (e.g., additions, alterations, and major 

replacements). These data are currently under analysis and are planned for incorporation 

into a software product that NIST is developing for the PATH program. Furthermore, as 

the NFO Survey database grows, it will become possible to produce ranges of values for 

service lives and replacement costs. Ultimately, the NFO Survey database will produce 

distributions of service life data and replacement cost data for key building elements. For 

example, if a distribution of replacement cost data for selected building elements is 

available, a potential software user could determine where their estimated replacement 

cost falls within the overall distribution for that building element. 

Chapters 4 and 5 presented information on service lives and durability-related costs for a 

wide variety of building elements. This information indicated that both service lives and 

durability-related costs varied considerably. Because increasing a building element’s 

service life will lead to less frequent replacements, it may prove advantageous for the 

homeowner, or other designated decision maker, to select a longer-lived product for 

installation. What is needed is a comprehensive approach for determining when it is 

economically efficient to invest in the longer-lived product. Life-cycle cost analysis 

provides such a comprehensive approach. Life-cycle cost analysis measures, in present 

value or annual value terms, the sum of all relevant costs associated with owning, 

operating, and disposing of a building, building system, or associated building materials, 

or a combination thereof, over a specified time period, referred to as the study period. 

Thus, life-cycle cost analysis provides a framework for “smoothing” out the irregular 

 

51 Chen, Phillip T., and Robert E. Chapman. 1981. “Budget Estimates for Replacement of Plant and Facility 

Equipment at the National Bureau of Standards.” ASHRAE Transactions (April): pp. 1243-1258. 
99

cash flows associated with durability-related expenditures into “annual value” terms. In 

addition, life-cycle cost analysis is supported by an industry consensus standard 

published by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).52 Finally, lifecycle cost analysis can be used in conjunction with a sensitivity analysis to capture 

information on variations in both costs and service lives. A recently published ASTM 

guide53 demonstrates how to apply life-cycle cost analysis to a durability-related 

investment decision. The ASTM guide employed both a traditional sensitivity analysis 

and Monte Carlo techniques to demonstrate how to evaluate investment alternatives with 

different service lives (i.e., replacement schedules), maintenance costs, and installation 

costs. 

The information contained in this report is in a form that supports a wide variety of lifecycle cost analyses. For example, if a homeowner were planning on replacing an existing 

hot water heater, their decision would be based on a number of factors. These factors 

include, but are not limited to, unit cost, anticipated service life, annual energy costs, and 

the homeowner’s time horizon and their time-value of money. Information on the 

durability-related factors—unit costs, anticipated service life, and energy costs—is 

contained in Chapters 5, 4, and 3, respectively. Information on establishing the 

homeowner’s time horizon and time-value of money (i.e., discount rate) is available 

through reference to the life-cycle cost literature (e.g., ASTM E 917). 

Consider the following case illustration where the homeowner has limited their choices to 

two generic grades of hot water heaters. The homeowner has a 20-year time horizon and 

a 5 % real discount rate. The homeowner’s choice is between two alternatives. The first 

alternative corresponds to a standard-grade hot water heater; it costs $416, the average 

unit cost for hot water heaters (see Table 5-13), is expected to last 12 years (see the 

ranges of values presented in Table 4-4), and will result in an annual energy cost of $196, 

the annual average for hot water heaters (see Table 3-11). The second alternative 

corresponds to a premium-grade hot water heater; it costs $500, the 75th percentile unit 

cost for hot water heaters (see Table 5-13), is expected to last 15 years (see Table 4-4), 

and will result in an annual energy cost of $180, an 8 % reduction from the average cost 

of $196. Because the homeowner’s time horizon is 20 years, both alternatives will 

require replacement before the end of the study period. The estimated replacement cost 

is $416 for the first alternative and $500 for the second alternative. At the end of the 

study period, each alternative will have a residual value indicating that it has not reached 

the end of its service life. Performing the life-cycle cost calculations over the 20-year 

study period using a 5 % discount rate, results in a life-cycle cost of $3,038 for the first 

alternative and $2,858 for the second alternative. Thus, the premium-grade hot water 

heater should be selected because it results in the lowest life-cycle cost for the 

homeowner. 

 

52 American Society for Testing and Materials. 1999. Standard Practice for Measuring Life-Cycle Costs of 

Buildings and Building Systems. E 917. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and 

Materials. 

53 American Society for Testing and Materials. 2001. Standard Guide for Evaluating Economic 

Performance of Alternative Designs, Systems, and Materials in Compliance with Performance Standard 

Guides for Single-Family Attached and Detached Dwellings. E 2156. West Conshohocken, PA: American 

Society for Testing and Materials. 
100

The service life data presented in Chapter 4 assume that the performance of individual 

building components and systems are independent. In light of the data sources currently 

available, treating building components and systems as independent is a reasonable 

assumption. However, as noted in the Introduction, there are instances where poor 

performance of one component can adversely affect the performance of another. 

Additional research on the treatment of interdependencies between building components 

will result in better service life data and should ultimately lead to a systems approach to 

durability-related issues both at the building component level and the housing unit level. 

A potential source of information and a platform for conducting additional research on 

component/system interdependencies is the NFO Survey. The NFO survey already 

includes a number of questions on the reasons for replacing selected building 

components. Expanding these questions to include a small set of well-defined 

interdependencies could result in some significant insights. 

Finally, in order to be able to measure progress toward achievement of the PATH vision, 

periodic reports need to be produced that re-visit the same data sources used to generate 

the baselines, and refine or expand the original baselines as necessary to meet the 

changing needs of residential sector stakeholders. 
101

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